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+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75947 ***
+
+
+
+
+
+AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF MAMMALS
+
+
+
+
+                             AN INTRODUCTION
+                             TO THE STUDY OF
+                                 MAMMALS
+                            LIVING AND EXTINCT
+
+                                    BY
+
+                           WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER
+         C.B., F.R.S., D.C.L., LL.D., P.Z.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c.
+       DIRECTOR OF THE NATURAL HISTORY DEPARTMENTS, BRITISH MUSEUM
+
+                                   AND
+
+                             RICHARD LYDEKKER
+                        B.A., F.G.S., F.Z.S., &c.
+
+                    [Illustration: THE WOOLLY OPOSSUM]
+
+                      LONDON: ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK
+                                 MDCCCXCI
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+One of the greatest difficulties experienced by all who undertake a
+work of this nature, not professing to be an exhaustive treatise on
+the subject with which it deals, is to determine the amount of detail
+desirable to be introduced to meet the requirements of the ordinary
+student, without rendering it too bulky or costly for general use. The
+experience of those who endeavour to profit by the book can alone decide
+how far the authors have succeeded in this respect. It will be observed
+that in many instances certain better-known or more interesting members
+of the class have been described at considerable length, while it has
+been necessary to treat others with much greater brevity.
+
+With regard to the references to the literature of the various groups
+treated of, it has been the endeavour of the authors to make a selection
+of such memoirs and works as are likely to prove most valuable to the
+student for the amount of original information which they contain, and
+more especially of those giving full bibliographical data up to the
+time of their publication, the repetition of which has been considered
+unnecessary.
+
+In a few instances new generic terms have been introduced to replace
+some which were already occupied; these have been proposed by Mr.
+Lydekker, and should be quoted as his.
+
+The work is based largely upon the article “Mammalia,” together with
+forty shorter articles, written by the senior of the two authors for
+the ninth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. The account of the
+orders Rodentia, Insectivora, and Chiroptera contributed to the article
+“Mammalia” by Dr. G. E. Dobson, F.R.S., as well as the articles “Mole,”
+“Shrew,” and “Vampyre,” by the same writer, the articles “Marmot,”
+“Mouse,” “Opossum,” “Phalanger,” “Rat,” “Squirrel,” “Stoat,” “Vole,” and
+others, by Mr. Oldfield Thomas, and likewise the article “Ape,” by Dr.
+St. G. Mivart, F.R.S., have also been made use of to a greater or less
+extent. The best thanks of the authors are due to these three gentlemen
+for freely permitting the incorporation of their own work in the present
+volume.
+
+Mr. Lydekker undertook the task of arranging the various articles in
+their proper sequence, selecting from these such portions as seemed
+suitable, filling up the gaps, and adding new matter where necessary; a
+large amount of this new matter treating of the extinct forms, and also
+of the group Artiodactyla.
+
+The subsequent revision, both before being sent to the printers, and also
+when passing through the press, has been made by both authors, who are
+thus jointly responsible for the whole work.
+
+The illustrations are to a great extent those prepared for the various
+articles in the Encyclopædia, but many have been added—some drawn
+expressly for the work, and some borrowed from other publications. For
+most of the latter the authors take this opportunity of expressing their
+thanks to the Publication Committee of the Zoological Society of London,
+as well as to the individual writers in whose works they first appeared.
+
+The authors have further much pleasure in acknowledging the ready and
+obliging way in which Mr. Oldfield Thomas has, throughout the progress of
+the work, placed his extensive knowledge of the group of animals of which
+it treats at their disposal.
+
+LONDON, _March_ 1891.
+
+
+
+
+CORRIGENDA.
+
+
+Page 280, _for_ Chæropsis _read_ Chœropsis.
+
+Page 292, _for_ Chæropotamidæ and Chæropotamus _read_ Chœropotamidæ and
+Chœropotamus.
+
+Page 590, _for_ Pæcilogale _read_ Pœcilogale.
+
+=Transcriber’s Note:= The corrections have been applied.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                      PAGE
+
+                                CHAPTER I
+
+  INTRODUCTORY REMARKS                                                   1
+
+         Use of term mammals, 1; Characters of mammals, 2;
+         Development of young, 3; Size of mammals, 4; Uses and
+         products of mammals, 4.
+
+                               CHAPTER II
+
+  GENERAL ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS                                          7
+
+      I. Tegumentary Structures                                          7
+
+         Hair, 7; Colour, 8; Scales, etc., 11; Nails, claws, and
+         hoofs, 12; Odour-secreting glands, 12.
+
+     II. Dental System                                                  13
+
+         Teeth, 13; Structure of teeth, 13; Development of teeth, 15;
+         Forms of teeth, 17; Succession of teeth, 19; Arrangement,
+         homologies, and notation of teeth, 21; Dental formulæ,
+         25; Modifications of teeth in relation to function, 28;
+         Taxonomy, 30; Trituberculism, 30.
+
+    III. The Skeleton                                                   33
+
+         Definition, 33; Axial skeleton, 34; Skull, 34; Vertebral
+         column, 39; Cervical vertebræ, 41; Dorsal vertebræ, 42;
+         Lumbar vertebræ, 42; Sacral vertebræ, 43; Caudal vertebræ,
+         43; Sternum, 44; Ribs, 44; Appendicular skeleton, 46;
+         Anterior limb, 46; Shoulder-girdle, 46; Brachium and
+         Antebrachium, 47; Manus, 48; Carpus, 48; Metacarpus and
+         Phalanges, 49; Posterior limb, 50; Pelvic girdle, 50; Thigh
+         and Leg, 51; Pes, 52.
+
+     IV. The Digestive System                                           53
+
+         General considerations, 53; Mouth, 54; Salivary glands, 55;
+         Stomach, 57; Intestinal canal, 59; Liver, 60.
+
+      V. Circulatory, Absorbent, Respiratory, and Urinary Systems       63
+
+         Blood, 63; Heart, 63; Lymphatic vessels, 65; Ductless
+         glands, 65; Nostrils, 66; Trachea, 67; Larynx, 67;
+         Diaphragm, 67; Lungs, 68; Air-sacs, 68; Urinary Organs, 69;
+         Bladder, 69.
+
+     VI. Nervous System and Organs of Sense                             69
+
+         Brain, 69; Nerves, 71; Sense of touch, 72; Taste and smell,
+         72; Sight, 72; Hearing, 73.
+
+    VII. Reproductive Organs                                            74
+
+         Testes, 74; Penis, 74; Ovaries and oviduct, 75; Mammary
+         glands, 75; Secondary sexual characters, 76; Placenta, 76.
+
+                               CHAPTER III
+
+  ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAMMALIA                             82
+
+         Origin, 82; Classification, 84; Table of orders and
+         families, 88.
+
+                               CHAPTER IV
+
+  GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION                              93
+
+      I. Geographical Distribution                                      93
+
+         Zoological regions, 96; Palæarctic region, 97; Ethiopian
+         region, 98; Oriental region, 100; Celebes, 102; Nearctic
+         region, 102; Neotropical region, 103; Aquatic mammals, 104.
+
+     II. Geological Distribution                                       107
+
+         Sequence of strata, 107; Mesozoic mammals, 109;
+         Multituberculata, 109; Polyprotodont types, 113; Tertiary
+         mammals, 115.
+
+                                CHAPTER V
+
+  THE SUBCLASS PROTOTHERIA OR ORNITHODELPHIA                           117
+
+         General characters, 117. _Family_ ORNITHORHYNCHIDÆ, 119;
+         _Ornithorhynchus_, 119. _Family_ ECHIDNIDÆ, 124; _Echidna_,
+         125; _Proechidna_, 126; Fossil species, 127.
+
+                               CHAPTER VI
+
+  THE SUBCLASS METATHERIA OR DIDELPHIA                                 128
+
+         General characters, 128; Distribution, 131; Classification,
+         131.
+
+  _Suborder_ POLYPROTODONTIA                                           133
+
+         _Family_ DIDELPHYIDÆ, 133; _Chironectes_, 134; _Didelphys_,
+         135. _Family_ DASYURIDÆ, 136; _Subfamily_ Dasyurinæ, 136;
+         _Thylacinus_, 136; _Sarcophilus_, 137; _Dasyurus_, 138;
+         _Phascologale_, 139; _Sminthopsis_, 139; _Antechinomys_,
+         139; _Subfamily_ Myrmecobiinæ, 140; _Myrmecobius_, 140.
+         _Family_ PERAMELIDÆ, 141; _Perameles_, 142; _Peragale_, 143;
+         _Chœropus_, 143.
+
+  _Suborder_ DIPROTODONTIA                                             144
+
+         _Family_ PHASCOLOMYIDÆ, 144; _Phascolomys_, 145;
+         _Phascolonus_, 146. _Family_ PHALANGERIDÆ, 147; _Subfamily_
+         Tarsipedinæ, 148; _Tarsipes_, 148; _Subfamily_ Phalangerinæ,
+         149; _Phalanger_, 149; _Trichosurus_, 150; _Pseudochirus_,
+         151; _Petauroides_, 152; _Dactylopsila_, 152; _Petaurus_,
+         153; _Gymnobelideus_, 154; _Dromicia_, 154; _Distœchurus_,
+         155; _Acrobates_, 155; _Subfamily_ Phascolarctinæ,
+         155; _Phascolarctus_, 156. EXTINCT PHALANGEROIDS, 157;
+         _Thylacoleo_, 157. _Family_ MACROPODIDÆ, 158; _Subfamily_
+         Hypsiprymnodontinæ, 162; _Hypsiprymnodon_, 162;
+         _Triclis_, 162; _Subfamily_ Potoroinæ, 162; _Potorous_,
+         163; _Bettongia_, 163; _Caloprymnus_, 164; _Æpyprymnus_,
+         164; _Subfamily_ Macropodinæ, 164; _Lagostrophus_, 165;
+         _Dendrolagus_, 165; _Dorcopsis_, 166; _Lagorchestes_, 166;
+         _Onychogale_, 166; _Petrogale_, 167; _Macropus_, 167;
+         Extinct genera, 170. EXTINCT FAMILIES, 171; _Diprotodon_,
+         171; _Nototherium_, 171.
+
+                               CHAPTER VII
+
+  THE SUBCLASS EUTHERIA AND THE ORDER EDENTATA                         173
+
+         General characters and classification of Eutheria, 173.
+
+  ORDER EDENTATA                                                       176
+
+         _Family_ BRADYPODIDÆ, 179; _Bradypus_, 181; _Cholœpus_, 182;
+         _Nothropus_, 183. _Family_ MEGATHERIIDÆ, 183; _Megatherium_,
+         185; _Scelidotherium_ and _Mylodon_, 188; _Promegatherium_,
+         189. _Family_ MYRMECOPHAGIDÆ, 190; _Myrmecophaga_, 190;
+         _Tamandua_, 192; _Cycloturus_, 193. _Family_ DASYPODIDÆ,
+         194; _Subfamily_ Chlamydophorinæ, 196; _Chlamydophorus_,
+         196; _Subfamily_ Dasypodinæ, 197; _Dasypus_, 197; _Xenurus_,
+         198; _Priodon_, 198; _Tolypeutes_, 199; _Subfamily_
+         Tatusiinæ, 200; _Tatusia_, 200; Extinct genera, 201.
+         _Family_ GLYPTODONTIDÆ, 202. _Family_ MANIDÆ, 204; _Manis_,
+         204; _Palæomanis_, 208. _Family_ ORYCTEROPODIDÆ, 208;
+         _Orycteropus_, 208. Bibliography, 211.
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII
+
+  THE ORDERS SIRENIA AND CETACEA                                       212
+
+  ORDER SIRENIA                                                        212
+
+         _Family_ MANATIDÆ, 215; _Manatus_, 215. _Family_ HALICORIDÆ,
+         220; _Halicore_, 220. _Family_ RHYTINIDÆ, 221; _Rhytina_,
+         221. EXTINCT SIRENIANS, 222; _Halitherium_, 222; Other
+         forms, 223. Bibliography, 224.
+
+  ORDER CETACEA                                                        225
+
+  _Suborder_ MYSTACOCETI                                               234
+
+         _Family_ BALÆNIDÆ, 234; _Balæna_, 236; _Neobalæna_, 241;
+         _Rhachianectes_, 241; _Megaptera_, 241; _Balænoptera_, 242;
+         Extinct genera, 245.
+
+  _Suborder_ ARCHÆOCETI                                                246
+
+         _Family_ ZEUGLODONTIDÆ, 246; _Zeuglodon_, 246.
+
+  _Suborder_ ODONTOCETI                                                247
+
+         _Family_ PHYSETERIDÆ, 247; _Subfamily_ Physeterinæ, 248;
+         _Physeter_, 248; _Cogia_, 250; Extinct physeteroids, 251;
+         _Subfamily_ Ziphiinæ, 251; _Hyperoödon_, 252; _Ziphius_,
+         254; _Mesoplodon_, 254; _Berardius_, 256; _Choneziphius_,
+         257. _Family_ SQUALODONTIDÆ, 257; _Squalodon_, 257.
+         _Family_ PLATANISTIDÆ, 257; _Platanista_, 258; _Inia_, 259;
+         _Pontoporia_, 259; Fossil forms, 259. _Family_ DELPHINIDÆ,
+         260; _Monodon_, 260; _Delphinapterus_, 262; _Phocæna_,
+         263; _Cephalorhynchus_, 266; _Orcella_, 267; Orca, 267;
+         _Pseudorca_, 268; _Globicephalus_, 268; _Grampus_, 270;
+         _Feresia_, 270; _Lagenorhynchus_, 270; _Delphinus_, 271;
+         _Tursiops_, 271; _Prodelphinus_, 271; _Steno_, 271;
+         _Sotalia_, 272. Bibliography, 272.
+
+                               CHAPTER IX
+
+  THE ORDER UNGULATA                                                   273
+
+  UNGULATA VERA                                                        275
+
+  _Suborder_ ARTIODACTYLA                                              275
+
+         SUINA, 278. _Family_ HIPPOPOTAMIDÆ, 278; _Hippopotamus_,
+         278. _Family_ SUIDÆ, 281; _Sus_, 281; _Babirusa_, 287;
+         _Phacochœrus_, 288. _Family_ DICOTYLIDÆ, 289; _Dicotyles_,
+         289; _Hyotherium_, etc., 291. EXTINCT TRANSITIONAL
+         ARTIODACTYLES, 292; Chœropotamidæ, 292; Anthracotheriidæ,
+         292; _Merycopotamus_, 293; Cotylopidæ, 293; Anoplotheriidæ,
+         293; Cænotheriidæ, 294; Dichodontidæ, 294. TYLOPODA, 295.
+         _Family_ CAMELIDÆ, 295; _Camelus_, 296; _Auchenia_, 298;
+         Extinct Cameloids, 303. TRAGULINA, 305. _Family_ TRAGULIDÆ,
+         305; _Tragulus_, 305; _Dorcatherium_, 306; Extinct
+         Traguloids, 306. PECORA, 307; Antlers, 308; Horns, 310;
+         Teeth, 310; Stomach, 312. _Family_ CERVIDÆ, 313; _Subfamily_
+         Moschinæ, 314; _Moschus_, 314; _Subfamily_ Cervinæ, 316;
+         Plesiometacarpalia, 316; _Cervulus_, 316; _Elaphodus_,
+         318; _Cervus_, 319; Telemetacarpalia, 323; _Rangifer_,
+         324; _Alces_, 326; _Cervalces_, 327; _Capreolus_, 327;
+         _Hydropotes_, 328; _Cariacus_, 329; _Pudua_, 330; Extinct
+         genera, 330. _Family_ GIRAFFIDÆ, 330; _Giraffa_, 331;
+         Allied extinct types, 332. _Family_ ANTILOCAPRIDÆ, 333;
+         _Antilocapra_, 333. _Family_ BOVIDÆ, 334; _Alcelaphus_, 334;
+         _Connochætes_, 336; _Cephalophus_, 338; _Tetraceros_, 338;
+         _Neotragus_, 338; _Nanotragus_, 339; _Pelea_, 339; _Cobus_,
+         339; _Cervicapra_, 340; _Antilope_, 340; _Æpyceros_,
+         341; _Saiga_, 341; _Pantholops_, 341; _Gazella_, 341;
+         _Hippotragus_, 343; _Oryx_, 343; _Addax_, 345; _Boselaphus_,
+         345; _Tragelaphus_, 346; _Strepsiceros_, 347; _Oreas_, 348;
+         Extinct types, 348; _Rupicapra_, 349; _Nemorhædus_, 350;
+         _Haploceros_, 351; _Budorcas_, 351; _Capra_, 352; _Ovis_,
+         354; _Ovibos_, 357; _Bos_, 360.
+
+  _Suborder_ PERISSODACTYLA                                            368
+
+         _Family_ TAPIRIDÆ, 370; _Tapirus_, 370; _Palæotapirus_, 373.
+         _Family_ LOPHIODONTIDÆ, 373. _Family_ PALÆOTHERIIDÆ, 375.
+         _Family_ EQUIDÆ, 376; _Protohippus_, 380; _Hipparion_, 380;
+         _Equus_, 381. _Family_ RHINOCEROTIDÆ, 402; _Rhinoceros_,
+         402; Extinct types, 411. _Families_ LAMBDOTHERIIDÆ,
+         CHALICOTHERIIDÆ, and TITANOTHERIIDÆ, 412. _Family_
+         MACRAUCHENIIDÆ, 414. _Family_ PROTEROTHERIIDÆ, 414.
+
+  SUBUNGULATA                                                          414
+
+  _Suborder_ HYRACOIDEA                                                415
+
+         _Family_ HYRACIDÆ, 415; _Hyrax_, 417; _Dendrohyrax_, 418.
+
+  _Suborder_ PROBOSCIDEA                                               418
+
+         _Family_ ELEPHANTIDÆ, 423; _Elephas_, 424; _Mastodon_, 431.
+         _Family_ DINOTHERIIDÆ, 435; _Dinotherium_, 435.
+
+  _Suborder_ AMBLYPODA                                                 436
+
+         _Uintatherium_, 436; _Coryphodon_, 437.
+
+  _Suborder_ CONDYLARTHRA                                              438
+
+  _Suborder_ TOXODONTIA                                                439
+
+         _Nesodon_, 439; _Toxodon_, 439; _Typotherium_, 440.
+
+  _Group_ TILLODONTIA                                                  441
+
+  Bibliography of Ungulates                                            442
+
+                                CHAPTER X
+
+  THE ORDER RODENTIA                                                   443
+
+  _Suborder_ SIMPLICIDENTATA                                           448
+
+         _Section_ SCIUROMORPHA, 448. _Family_ ANOMALURIDÆ, 449;
+         _Anomalurus_, 449. _Family_ SCIURIDÆ, 450; _Sciurus_,
+         450; _Rhithrosciurus_, 452; _Xerus_, 452; _Tamias_,
+         452; _Pteromys_ and _Sciuropterus_, 453; _Eupetaurus_,
+         454; Extinct genera, 454; _Arctomys_, 454; _Cynomys_,
+         455; _Spermophilus_, 456; Extinct genera, 457. _Family_
+         HAPLODONTIDÆ, 457; _Haplodon_, 457. _Family_ CASTORIDÆ,
+         457; _Castor_, 457. _Section_ MYOMORPHA, 459. _Family_
+         MYOXIDÆ, 459; _Myoxus_, 459; _Eliomys_, 459; _Graphiurus_,
+         459; _Claviglis_, 460; _Muscardinus_, 460. _Family_
+         LOPHIOMYIDÆ, 460; _Lophiomys_, 460. _Family_ MURIDÆ, 461;
+         _Hydromys_, 461; _Xeromys_, 461; _Platacanthomys_, 462;
+         _Gerbillus_, 462; _Pachyuromys_, 462; _Mystromys_, 462;
+         _Otomys_ and _Dasymys_, 462; _Malacomys_, 462; _Phlœomys_,
+         462; _Dendromys_, 463; _Cricetus_, 463; _Holochilus_,
+         464; _Sigmodon_, 464; _Rhithrodon_ and _Ochetodon_,
+         464; _Neotoma_, 464; _Hypogeomys_, 465; _Nesomys_, 465;
+         _Brachytarsomys_, 465; _Hallomys_, 465; _Eliurus_, 465;
+         _Phenacomys_, 466; _Arvicola_, 466; _Synaptomys_, 467;
+         _Myodes_, 467; _Cuniculus_, 470; _Fiber_, 470; _Neofiber_,
+         472; _Ellobius_, 472; _Siphneus_, 472; _Deomys_, 473;
+         _Mus_, 473; _Nesocia_, 475; _Golunda_, 476; _Uromys_,
+         476; _Chiruromys_, 476; _Hapalotis_, 476; _Mastacomys_,
+         476; _Acanthomys_, 476; _Echinothrix_, 477; _Typhlomys_,
+         477; _Cricetomys_ and _Saccostomus_, 477; _Pithechirus_,
+         477. _Family_ SPALACIDÆ, 477; _Spalax_, 477; _Rhizomys_,
+         477; _Bathyergus_, 478; _Georychus_ and _Myoscalops_,
+         478; _Heterocephalus_, 478. _Family_ GEOMYIDÆ, 478;
+         _Geomys_, 478; _Thomomys_, 478; _Dipodomys_, 479;
+         _Perognathus_ and _Heteromys_, 479. _Family_ DIPODIDÆ,
+         479; _Sminthus_, 479; _Zapus_, 480; _Dipus_, 480;
+         _Alactaga_, 480; _Platycercomys_, 480; _Pedetes_, 480.
+         _Section_ HYSTRICOMORPHA, 480. _Family_ OCTODONTIDÆ,
+         480. _Ctenodactylus_, 481; _Pectinator_, 481; _Octodon_,
+         481; _Habrocoma_, 482; _Schizodon_, 482; _Ctenomys_,
+         482; _Spalacopus_, 482; _Petromys_, 482; _Myopotamus_,
+         482; _Capromys_, 482; _Aulacodus_, 483; _Plagiodon_,
+         483; _Loncheres_ and _Echinomys_, 483; _Mesomys_, 483;
+         _Dactylomys_, 483; _Cercomys_, 483; _Carterodon_, 484;
+         Fossil forms, 484. _Family_ THERIDOMYIDÆ, 484. _Family_
+         HYSTRICIDÆ, 484; _Erethizon_, 484; _Synetheres_, 485;
+         _Chætomys_, 486; _Hystrix_, 486; _Atherura_, 487; _Trichys_,
+         487. _Family_ CHINCHILLIDÆ, 487; _Chinchilla_, 487;
+         _Lagidium_ and _Lagostomus_, 488; Extinct genera, 488.
+         _Family_ CASTOROIDIDÆ, 488; _Castoroides_, 488. _Family_
+         DASYPROCTIDÆ, 488; _Dasyprocta_, 488; _Cælogenys_, 489.
+         _Family_ DINOMYIDÆ, 489; _Dinomys_, 489. _Family_ CAVIIDÆ,
+         489; _Cavia_, 489; _Dolichotis_, 490; _Hydrochœrus_, 490;
+         Extinct genera, 491.
+
+  _Suborder_ DUPLICIDENTATA                                            491
+
+         _Family_ LAGOMYIDÆ, 491; _Lagomys_, 491. _Family_ LEPORIDÆ,
+         492; _Lepus_, 492.
+
+                               CHAPTER XI
+
+  THE ORDER CARNIVORA                                                  496
+
+  _Suborder_ CARNIVORA VERA                                            497
+
+         _Section_ ÆLUROIDEA, 501. _Family_ FELIDÆ, 502; _Felis_,
+         502; _Cynælurus_, 523; Extinct genera, 523. _Family_
+         VIVERRIDÆ, 525; _Cryptoprocta_, 525; _Viverra_, 526;
+         _Fossa_, 527; _Genetta_, 528; _Prionodon_, 530; _Poiana_,
+         531; _Paradoxurus_, 532; _Arctogale_, 533; _Hemigale_,
+         533; _Arctictis_, 534; _Nandinia_, 534; _Cynogale_, 534;
+         _Herpestes_, 535; _Helogale_, 537; _Bdeogale_, 537;
+         _Cynictis_, 537; _Rhinogale_, 537; _Crossarchus_, 537;
+         _Suricata_, 538; _Galidictis_, _Galidea_, and _Hemigalidea_,
+         538; _Eupleres_, 538; Extinct genera, 539. _Family_
+         PROTELEIDÆ, 539; _Proteles_, 539. _Family_ HYÆNIDÆ, 540;
+         _Hyæna_, 540. _Section_ CYNOIDEA, 544. _Family_ CANIDÆ, 544;
+         _Canis_, 546; _Lycaon_, 553; _Icticyon_, 553; _Otocyon_,
+         554; Extinct genera, 555. _Section_ ARCTOIDEA, 556. _Family_
+         URSIDÆ, 557; _Ursus_, 557; _Melursus_, 560; _Æluropus_, 560;
+         Extinct genera, 561. _Family_ PROCYONIDÆ, 562; _Ælurus_,
+         562; _Procyon_, 564; _Bassaris_, 566; _Bassaricyon_, 566;
+         _Nasua_, 566; _Cercoleptes_, 567. _Family_ MUSTELIDÆ, 567;
+         _Lutra_, 567; Extinct Otters, 570; _Latax_, 570; _Mephitis_,
+         572; _Conepatus_, 574; _Arctonyx_, 574; _Mydaus_, 575;
+         _Meles_, 575; _Taxidea_, 576; _Mellivora_, 576; _Helictis_,
+         578; _Ictonyx_, 579; _Galictis_, 579; _Mustela_, 579;
+         Extinct Mustelines, 590; _Pœcilogale_, 590; _Lyncodon_, 590;
+         _Gulo_, 591.
+
+  _Suborder_ PINNIPEDIA                                                592
+
+         _Family_ OTARIIDÆ, 593; _Otaria_, 593. _Family_ TRICHECHIDÆ,
+         596; _Trichechus_, 597. _Family_ PHOCIDÆ, 600; _Halichœrus_,
+         601; _Phoca_, 601; _Monachus_, 604; _Ogmorhinus_, 605;
+         _Lobodon_, 605; _Pœcilophoca_, 605; _Ommatophoca_, 605;
+         _Cystophora_, 605; _Macrorhinus_, 606; Extinct seals, 606.
+
+  _Suborder_ CREODONTA                                                 606
+
+         _Hyænodontidæ_, 608; _Proviverridæ_, 608; _Arctocyonidæ_ and
+         _Mesonychidæ_, 609.
+
+                               CHAPTER XII
+
+  THE ORDER INSECTIVORA                                                610
+
+  _Suborder_ DERMOPTERA                                                614
+
+         _Family_ GALEOPITHECIDÆ, 614; _Galeopithecus_, 614.
+
+  _Suborder_ INSECTIVORA VERA                                          616
+
+         _Family_ TUPAIIDÆ, 617; _Tupaia_, 617; _Ptilocercus_,
+         618; Extinct genera, 618. _Family_ MACROSCELIDIDÆ, 618;
+         _Macroscelides_, 618; _Rhynchocyon_, 618. _Family_
+         ERINACEIDÆ, 619; _Gymnura_, 619; _Erinaceus_, 620;
+         Extinct genera, 621; _Family_ SORICIDÆ, 621; _Sorex_,
+         622; _Soriculus_, 624; _Notiosorex_, 624; _Blarina_, 624;
+         _Crossopus_, 625; _Myosorex_, 625; _Crocidura_, 626;
+         _Diplomesodon_, 626; _Anurosorex_, 626; _Chimarrogale_, 626;
+         _Nectogale_, 627; Fossil Soricidæ, 627. _Family_ TALPIDÆ,
+         628; _Myogale_, 628; _Urotrichus_, 629; _Uropsilus_,
+         629; _Scalops_, 630; _Scapanus_, 630; _Condylura_, 630;
+         _Scaptonyx_, 630; _Talpa_, 630; Extinct genera, 634.
+         _Family_ ADAPISORICIDÆ, 634. _Family_ POTAMOGALIDÆ, 634;
+         _Potamogale_, 635; _Geogale_, 635. _Family_ SOLENODONTIDÆ,
+         635; _Solenodon_, 636; _Centetes_, 637; _Hemicentetes_,
+         637; _Ericulus_, 638; _Microgale_, 638; _Oryzorictes_, 638;
+         _Chrysochloris_, 639. EXTINCT TYPES, 640. Bibliography, 640.
+
+                              CHAPTER XIII
+
+  THE ORDER CHIROPTERA                                                 641
+
+  _Suborder_ MEGACHIROPTERA                                            650
+
+         _Family_ PTEROPODIDÆ, 650; _Epomophorus_, 650; _Pteropus_,
+         651; _Xantharpyia_, 652; _Boncia_, 653; _Cynopterus_, 653;
+         _Harpyia_, 653; _Cephalotes_, 653; _Pteralopex_, 654;
+         _Notopteris_, 654; _Eonycteris_, 654; _Carponycteris_ and
+         _Melonycteris_, 654; _Nesonycteris_, 655; _Callinycteris_,
+         655; _Trygenycteris_, 655.
+
+  _Suborder_ MICROCHIROPTERA                                           655
+
+         _Section_ VESPERTILIONINA, 655. _Family_ RHINOLOPHIDÆ,
+         656; _Rhinolophus_, 656; _Hipposiderus_, 657; _Anthops_,
+         657; _Rhinonycteris_ and _Triænops_, 658; _Cœlops_, 658;
+         _Megaderma_, 658. _Family_ VESPERTILIONIDÆ, 660; _Plecotus_,
+         660; _Synotus_, 661; _Otonycteris_, 661; _Nyctophilus_, 661;
+         _Antrozous_, 661; _Vesperugo_, 661; _Chalinolobus_, 662;
+         _Scotophilus_, 662; _Nycticejus_, 663; _Atalapha_, 663;
+         _Harpyiocephalus_, 663; _Vespertilio_, 663; _Cerivoula_,
+         664; _Natalus_, 664; _Miniopterus_, 664; _Thyroptera_,
+         665; _Myxopoda_, 665; Fossil Vespertilionidæ, 665.
+         _Section_ EMBALLONURINA, 666. _Family_ EMBALLONURIDÆ, 666;
+         _Furipterus_ and _Antorphochilus_, 666; _Emballonura_, 667;
+         _Coleüra_, 667; _Rhynchonycteris_, 667; _Saccopteryx_,
+         667; _Taphozous_, 667; _Diclidurus_, 668; _Noctilio_,
+         668; _Rhinopoma_, 669; _Chiromeles_, 669; _Molossus_,
+         670; _Nyctinomus_, 670; _Mystacops_, 671. _Family_
+         PHYLLOSTOMATIDÆ, 672; _Chilonycteris_, 672; _Mormops_,
+         672; _Lonchorhina_, _Otopterus_ and _Dolichophyllum_, 673;
+         _Vampyrus_, etc., 673; _Desmodus_, 677; _Diphylla_, 678.
+
+                               CHAPTER XIV
+
+  THE ORDER PRIMATES                                                   680
+
+  _Suborder_ LEMUROIDEA                                                682
+
+         _Family_ LEMURIDÆ, 683; _Indris_, 684; _Propithecus_,
+         684; _Avahis_, 686; _Lemur_, 687; _Hapalemur_, 689;
+         _Lepidolemur_, 689; _Chirogaleus_, 689; _Galago_, 690;
+         _Nycticebus_, 691; _Loris_, 692; _Perodicticus_, 693.
+         _Family_ TARSIIDÆ, 694; _Tarsius_, 694. _Family_ CHIROMYIDÆ,
+         694; _Chiromys_, 695. EXTINCT LEMUROIDS, 696.
+
+  _Suborder_ ANTHROPOIDEA                                              699
+
+         _Family_ HAPALIDÆ, 709; _Hapale_, 710; _Midas_, 710.
+         _Family_ CEBIDÆ, 711; _Mycetes_, 711; _Pithecia_, 712;
+         _Uacaria_, 712; _Callithrix_, 713; _Chrysothrix_, 714;
+         _Nyctipithecus_, 714; _Ateles_, 715; _Eriodes_, 715;
+         _Lagothrix_, 716; _Cebus_, 717. _Family_ CERCOPITHECIDÆ,
+         718; _Cynocephalus_, 719; _Theropithecus_, 722;
+         _Cynopithecus_, 722; _Macacus_, 722; _Cercocebus_, 723;
+         _Cercopithecus_, 724; _Nasalis_, 725; _Semnopithecus_, 726;
+         _Colobus_, 727; Extinct genera, 727. _Family_ SIMIIDÆ,
+         728; _Hylobates_, 728; _Simia_, 731; _Gorilla_, 734;
+         _Anthropopithecus_, 736. _Family_ HOMINIDÆ, 739; _Homo_,
+         740. Classification of the varieties of Man, 743.
+
+
+
+
+AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF MAMMALS LIVING AND EXTINCT
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+_INTRODUCTORY REMARKS_
+
+
+Mammalia (French, _Mammifères_; German, _Säugethiere_) is the name
+invented by Linnæus (from the Latin _mamma_), and now commonly used by
+zoologists, for one of the five great classes of vertebrated animals,
+which, though the best known and undoubtedly the most important group
+of the animal kingdom, has never received any generally accepted
+vernacular designation in our language. The unity of structure of the
+animals composing this class, and their definite demarcation from other
+vertebrates, were not recognised until comparatively modern times,
+and hence no word was thought of to designate what zoologists now
+term a mammal. The nearest equivalents in common use are “beast” and
+“quadruped,” both of which, however, cover a different ground, since they
+are often used to include the larger four-footed reptiles, and to exclude
+certain undoubted mammals, as Man, Bats, and Whales.
+
+The limits of the class as now understood by zoologists are perfectly
+well defined, and, although certain forms still existing on the earth
+(but not those mentioned above as excluded by the popular idea) are
+of exceedingly aberrant structure, and exhibit several well-marked
+characters connecting them with the lower vertebrated groups, common
+consent retains them in the class with which the great proportion of
+their characters ally them, and hitherto no traces of any species showing
+still more divergent or transitional characters have been discovered.
+There is thus an interval, not bridged over by any known forms, between
+mammals and other vertebrates; although recent discoveries have shown
+evidence of a more or less marked affinity between the most generalised
+mammals and a peculiar group of extinct reptiles known as the Anomodontia
+(or Theromora), which are themselves nearly related to the equally
+extinct Labyrinthodont amphibians of the Palæozoic and Mesozoic epochs.
+
+In the gradual order of evolution of living beings, mammals, taken
+altogether, are certainly the highest in organisation, as, with the
+possible exception of birds, they were the last to appear on the
+earth’s surface. But, as in speaking of all other large and greatly
+differentiated groups, this expression must not be understood in too
+limited a sense. The tendency to gradual perfection for their particular
+station in life, which all groups manifest, leads to various lines of
+specialisation, or divergence from the common or general type, which
+may or may not take the direction of elevation. A too complex and
+sensitive condition of organisation may in some circumstances of life be
+disadvantageous, and modification may then take place in a retrograde
+direction. Thus in mammals, as in other classes, there are low as well as
+high forms, but by any tests that can be applied—especially those based
+on the state of development of the central nervous system—it will be seen
+that the average exceeds that of any other class; that the class contains
+many species far excelling those of any other in perfection of structure,
+and especially one form which is unquestionably the culminating point yet
+arrived at amongst organised beings.
+
+With regard to the time of the first appearance of mammals upon
+the earth, the geological record is provokingly imperfect. At the
+commencement of the Tertiary period they were abundant, and already
+modified into most of the leading types at present existing. It was at
+one time thought that they first came into being at this date, but the
+discovery of more or less fragmentary remains of numerous and generally
+small species has revealed the existence of some forms of the class at
+various periods throughout almost the whole of the age of the deposition
+of the Secondary or Mesozoic rocks. This subject will be reverted to
+later on.
+
+It hardly need be said that mammals are vertebrated animals, and possess
+all the characteristics common to the members of that division of the
+animal kingdom. They are separated from the _Ichthyopsida_ (fishes and
+amphibians), and agree with the _Sauropsida_ (reptiles and birds), in
+the possession during their development of an amnion and allantois, and
+in never having external branchiæ or gills. They differ from reptiles
+and resemble birds in being warm-blooded, and having a heart with four
+cavities and a complete double circulation. They differ from both birds
+and reptiles in the red corpuscles of the blood being non-nucleated
+and, with very few exceptions, circular in outline; in the lungs being
+freely suspended in a thoracic cavity, separated from the abdomen by a
+complete muscular partition—the diaphragm—which is the principal agent
+in inflating the lungs in respiration; in having but one aortic arch,
+which curves over the left bronchus; in the skin being more or less
+clothed with hair; in the greater perfection of the commissural system of
+the cerebral hemispheres, which has either a complete corpus callosum,
+or an incomplete one associated with a very large anterior commissure;
+in having no syrinx or inferior vocal organ, but a complete larynx at
+the upper end of the trachea; in having a mandible of which each ramus
+(except in very early developmental conditions) consists of a single bone
+on each side, articulating to the squamosal without the intervention of
+a quadrate bone; in having a pair of laterally placed occipital condyles
+instead of one median one; and in the very obvious character of the
+female being provided with mammary glands, by the secretion of which the
+young (usually produced alive, although in the lowest forms by means of
+externally hatched eggs) are nourished for some time after birth.
+
+In common with all vertebrated animals, mammals never have more than
+two pairs of limbs; as the larger number live ordinarily on the surface
+of the earth, in the great majority of the class both pairs are
+well-developed and functional, and adapted for terrestrial progression.
+Mammals are, however, by no means limited to this situation. Thus some
+species spend the greater part of their lives beneath the surface, their
+fore limbs being specially modified for burrowing; others, again, are
+habitually arboreal, their limbs being fitted for climbing or hanging
+to boughs of trees; some are as aerial as birds, the fore limbs being
+developed into wings of a special character; while in others which are as
+aquatic as fishes, the limbs assume the form of fins or paddles. In many
+of the latter the hinder extremities are either completely suppressed,
+or present only in a rudimentary state. In no known mammal are the fore
+limbs absent.
+
+The hinder extremity of the axis of the body is usually prolonged into
+a tail, which may be a mere pendent appendage, or may be modified to
+perform various functions, as grasping boughs in climbing, or even
+gathering food, in the case of the prehensile-tailed Monkeys and
+Opossums, swimming in the Cetacea, and acting as a flap to drive away
+troublesome insects from the skin in the Ungulata.
+
+The state of development of the young at the time of birth varies greatly
+in the different groups. Thus among the Marsupials where there is no
+connection during intra-uterine life between the circulatory systems
+of the parent and the fœtus, the young are born in an exceedingly
+imperfectly developed condition. For their protection the mother, in
+a large number of cases, has a special pouch enclosing the mammæ, into
+which the young are transferred at birth, and in which they remain till
+they are well developed. Among the higher, or Placental types, however,
+where a connection exists between the maternal and fœtal circulations
+previous to birth, the young are always born in a much more highly
+developed state than among the Marsupials, although we meet with great
+variations in this respect. In those forms which habitually live in
+holes, like many Rodents, the young are always very helpless at birth;
+and the same is also true of many of the Carnivora, which are well able
+to defend their young from attack. In the great order of Ungulate,
+or Hoofed Mammals, where in the majority of cases defence from foes
+depends upon fleetness of foot, or upon huge corporeal bulk, the young
+are born in a very highly developed condition, and are able almost at
+once to run by the side of the parent. This state of relative maturity
+at birth reaches its highest development in the Cetacea, where it is
+evidently associated with the peculiar conditions under which these
+animals pass their existence. In the Primates, however, we again find
+the young produced in a more or less helpless condition, and requiring
+a long period before they attain their full development, this being
+more especially the case with those higher forms which approximate in
+structure to man.
+
+In point of size mammals vary to a greater extent than the existing
+members of any one class of animals, and include the largest living
+inhabitants of the earth. The extremes of size are marked on the one
+hand by the whale known as Sibbald’s Rorqual, which attains a length of
+eighty feet and a weight of nearly as many tons, and on the other by the
+Pigmy-Shrew and the minute Harvest-mouse, which can climb a stem of wheat.
+
+Of all the living creatures inhabiting our globe, mammals are by far
+the most important in their economic uses, since, in addition to being
+the only animals capable of labour for human benefit, they furnish the
+greater portion of the animal food of many races of man, and likewise a
+large amount of their clothing. In these respects the Ungulates hold the
+first place.
+
+As regards employment for labour, with the exception of the Dogs used
+for sleighing by the Esquimaux, and those which among some European
+nations draw light carts, all the mammals in general use are Ungulates.
+Of the first importance are the Horses and Asses, which are employed
+as beasts of draught or burden over nearly the whole globe. Among many
+nations, however, cattle, as represented by the true Oxen, the Buffalos,
+and the Yaks of Tibet, occupy a still more important position, while in
+the highlands of Tibet, Sheep are largely used for carrying burdens. In
+other regions, again, the place of the Horse and the Ass is taken by the
+Camels, which are peculiarly fitted for traversing parched and arid
+deserts, while in the Andes we find the Llamas serving the same office.
+In Lapland and other parts of the northern regions the Reindeer is the
+main agent employed in draught. Lastly, we must not omit to mention the
+Indian Elephant, which, from its vast strength, is so useful in transport
+through the wilder parts of its native country.
+
+As regards food, we again find the Ungulates, and more especially the
+Artiodactyle division, taking the foremost place; and in this connection
+we have only to mention, among animals kept in a domestic condition,
+Swine, Cattle, Sheep, and Goats—the three latter affording not only their
+flesh, but also milk and its resulting cheese and butter. To many races,
+however, Mares and Camels are the chief milk producers, while the Laps
+make use of the milk of the Reindeer. The Rodents, as represented by
+Hares and Rabbits, occupy a minor position as furnishers of food.
+
+In relation to clothing, the Ungulates are likewise of paramount
+importance, as exemplified by the wool of the Sheep, which is so valuable
+on account of its peculiar property of felting. Furs, however, are
+mostly yielded by mammals of other orders, among which the Fur-seals are
+perhaps the most important at the present day. Many other Carnivores
+yield valuable furs, among which may be mentioned Bears, Foxes, Raccoons,
+Skunks, Minks, Otters, and Ermines. Of less importance are certain
+Rodents, such as the Squirrels, Rabbits, Hares, etc., while the hair of
+the Beaver was formerly much sought after for the manufacture of hats.
+Returning to the Ungulates, we may notice the importance of horse-hair,
+the employment of camel’s hair for brushes, and the many uses of the
+bristles of the pig. Some of the Monkeys yield fur which has been
+extensively used. Leather, again, is almost exclusively supplied by
+mammals, and mainly by the Ungulates.
+
+Three other important products, namely horn, buck’s-horn, and ivory, are
+likewise obtained solely from the same great order. Horn, as we shall
+notice in the sequel, is the sheath covering the bony horn-cores of the
+Oxen, while buck’s-horn is the commercial term applied to the antlers of
+the Deer, which are largely used for knife-handles and other purposes.
+True ivory is the product of the two species of Elephant; but other kinds
+of ivory are obtained from the teeth of the Sperm Whale and the tusks
+of the Walrus and Hippopotamus, the latter kind having been extensively
+employed some years ago for artificial teeth. For many purposes the place
+of ivory is taken by bone, this being mostly obtained from Ungulates.
+The bones of Camels are of an especially firm texture and good colour,
+and are largely employed in India for inlaying. Other important uses of
+bones are in the form of bone-dust as manure, and also as a source of
+phosphoric acid. The horns of the African Rhinoceros and the hide of the
+Hippopotamus are occasionally manufactured into small canes or whips.
+Horns and hoofs are also largely employed in the manufacture of glue.
+
+Formerly the so-called whalebone, or more properly baleen, was much
+used, especially to form the ribs of umbrellas and in stiffening ladies’
+apparel, but the gradual destruction of the Right Whales, its only source
+of supply, has largely restricted its use of late years.
+
+The Cetacea are also of great economical importance from the abundance
+of oil yielded by the thick layer of blubber underlying the skin.
+Large quantities of valuable oil are also furnished by the Walrus and
+the Seals. Spermaceti, which was at one time extensively used in the
+manufacture of candles, is obtained from a large cavity in the head
+of the Sperm Whale or Cachalot, and also from the _Hyperoödon_ or
+Bottle-nosed Whale.
+
+The nature of ambergris, a peculiar substance found floating on the
+surface of the sea and employed in perfumery, was long a matter of
+controversy; but it appears to be an intestinal concretion of the Sperm
+Whale. Other substances of more importance to the perfumer are musk, the
+product of the Musk-Deer of the Himalaya, and civet, which is obtained
+from the so-called Civet Cat and other allied Carnivores. A secretion of
+the Beaver has also been used in perfumery and in medicine.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+GENERAL ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS
+
+
+I. TEGUMENTARY STRUCTURES
+
+_Hair._—The external surface of the greater number of members of the
+class is thickly clothed with a peculiarly modified form of epidermis,
+commonly called hair. This consists of hard, elongated, slender,
+cylindrical or tapering, filiform, unbranched masses of epidermic
+material, growing from a short papilla sunk at the bottom of a follicle
+in the derm or true skin. Such hairs upon different parts of the same
+animal, or upon different animals, assume various forms, and are of
+various sizes and degrees of rigidity,—as seen in the delicate soft
+velvety fur of the Mole, the stiff bristles of the Pig, and the spines
+of the Hedgehog and Porcupine, all modifications of the same structures.
+Each hair is composed usually of a cellular pithy internal portion,
+containing much air, and a denser or more horny cortical part. In some
+animals, as Deer, the substance of the hair is almost entirely composed
+of the medullary or cellular substance, and it is consequently very
+easily broken; in others the horny part prevails almost exclusively, as
+in the bristles of the Wild Boar. In the Three-toed Sloth (_Bradypus_)
+the hairs have a central horny axis and a pithy exterior. Though
+generally nearly smooth, or but slightly scaly, the surface of some hairs
+is strongly imbricated, notably so in some Bats; while in the Two-toed
+Sloth (_Cholœpus_) the hairs are longitudinally grooved or fluted.
+Though usually more or less cylindrical or circular in section, hairs
+are often elliptical or flattened, as in the curly-haired races of men,
+the terminal portion of the hair of Moles and Shrews, and conspicuously
+in the spines of the Rodents _Xerus_ and _Platacanthomys_. Hair having
+a property of mutual cohesion or “felting,” which depends upon a
+roughened scaly surface and a tendency to curl, as in domestic Sheep (in
+which animal this property has been especially cultivated by selective
+breeding), is called “wool.”
+
+In a large number of mammals hairs of one kind only are scattered pretty
+evenly over the surface; but in many there are two kinds, one longer,
+stiffer, and alone appearing on the surface, and the other shorter,
+finer, and softer, constituting the under fur, analogous to the down
+of birds. This under fur, or _pashm_ as it is called by the natives
+of Kashmir, is especially abundant in the mammals inhabiting the cold
+plateau of Tibet and the adjacent regions. In many cases hairs of a
+different character from those of the general surface grow in special
+regions, forming ridges or tufts on the median dorsal or ventral surface
+or elsewhere. The tail is very often completed in this way by variously
+disposed elongated hairs. The margins of the eyelids are almost always
+furnished with a special row of stiffish hairs, called _cilia_ or
+eyelashes; and in most mammals specially modified hairs, constituting
+the _vibrissæ_ or whiskers, and endowed, through the abundant nerve
+supply of their basal papillæ, with special tactile powers, grow from
+the lips and cheeks. In some mammals the hairy covering is partial and
+limited to particular regions; in others, as the Hippopotamus and the
+Sirenia, though scattered over the whole surface, it is extremely short
+and scanty; but in none is it reduced to so great an extent as in the
+Cetacea, in which it is limited to a few small bristles confined to the
+neighbourhood of the lips and nostrils, and often only present in the
+young or even fœtal condition.
+
+Some kinds of hairs, as those of the mane and tail of the Horse, appear
+to persist throughout the lifetime of the animal; but more generally,
+as in the case of the body hair of the same animal, they are shed and
+renewed periodically, generally annually. Many mammals have a longer
+hairy coat in winter, which is shed as summer comes on; and some few,
+which inhabit countries covered in winter with snow, as the Arctic Fox,
+Variable Hare, and Ermine, undergo a complete change of colour in the
+two seasons, being white in winter, and gray or brown in summer. The
+several species of Cape Mole (_Chrysochloris_), the Desmans or Water
+Moles (_Myogale_), and _Potamogale velox_, are remarkable as being the
+only mammals whose hair reflects those iridescent tints so common in the
+feathers of tropical birds.
+
+The principal and most obvious purpose of the hairy covering is to
+protect the skin against external influences, especially cold and damp.
+Its function in the hairless Cetacea is supplied by the specially
+modified and thickened layer of adipose tissue beneath the skin, called
+“blubber.”
+
+_Colour._—From the consideration of hair we are easily led to that of
+colour. As a general rule, bright and primary colours are absent in
+the class; but among the Baboons we find brilliant patches of scarlet
+or blue on some of the bare portions of the body, and one of the South
+American Monkeys (_Brachyurus_) has its whole face of a bright crimson.
+The most general colours are various shades of gray, brown, and tawny,
+with a frequent tendency to whiteness of the ventral surface of the
+body; but among the Squirrels, and more especially those provided with
+a parachute for flying, we find brilliant russets, passing into orange
+and red. Dark brown or black is also not very uncommon, as in the Bears
+and the Sable Antelope of South Africa. Entirely white mammals are rare,
+and mostly characteristic of the polar regions, or of countries having
+a long and snowy winter. An entirely white Bat (_Diclidurus albus_)
+occurs, however, in South America. In the large majority of mammals that
+exhibit a varied coloration, the upper and most exposed parts of the
+surface present the richest and darkest colours, the under parts being
+pale or often quite white. The Ratels, Gluttons, _Ælurus_, Hamsters,
+and some others are exceptions to this rule. A large number of mammals
+having a ground colour of gray, tawny, or dun are marked by stripes or
+spots, which are generally of a darker hue than the ground colour, as in
+many Carnivora, but more rarely are lighter, as in the Fallow and Axis
+Deer and several species of Antelope. These stripes very generally run
+transversely to the axis of the body, as in the Tasmanian Thylacine, the
+Tiger, and the Zebra; but they may be longitudinal, as in several of
+the Civet family. There has been considerable discussion as to whether
+the striped or the spotted is the more primitive type of coloration;
+but no very conclusive arguments have been brought forward in favour of
+either view. It is, however, manifest that in several groups of mammals
+there is a tendency to lose the spots, and more rarely the stripes, and
+to assume a uniform colour. Thus the young of nearly all the species of
+Deer are spotted, whereas the adults of only the Fallow and Axis Deer
+are so marked. The same is true of most of the Pigs; and the young of
+the Malayan and American Tapirs are marked by light-coloured stripes and
+spots on a dark ground. In like manner the young of the Lion and the
+Puma exhibit distinct spots which disappear with advancing age. In most
+of our domestic horses of various shades of bay and brown we may detect
+“dappling” on the under hair when the outer coat has been removed, which
+is not apparent on the surface of the latter. Many varieties of the Ass
+and the Horse also exhibit a tendency to the presence of stripes on the
+legs, which would seem to indicate a descent from a striped Zebra-like
+type.
+
+A peculiar feature, which is, however, common to many other groups of
+animals, is the tendency to what is known as melanism, or the production
+of black or dark individuals or races of particular species, due to an
+excess of pigment in the skin and hair. Thus we may have black Leopards
+and Jaguars, black Wolves, and black Rabbits.
+
+The opposite to melanism, and of more frequent occurrence, is albinism—a
+condition in which the pigment or colouring matter usually present in
+the tissues constituting the external coverings of the body, and which
+gives them their characteristic hue, is absent. When it occurs the hair
+is of an opaque white, the claws, hoofs, etc., of a pale horn-colour,
+and the skin and eyes pink, in consequence of the colour of the blood
+which circulates through them being no longer concealed by the stronger
+hues of the pigments. An animal in this condition is called an _albino_.
+In complete albinism there is a total absence of pigment throughout the
+system. This condition occurs occasionally as an individual peculiarity
+among wild animals of many kinds; but it has never been perpetuated among
+them in distinct races or species. The disadvantage of absence of pigment
+in the eye, causing a certain amount of intolerance of light, is probably
+sufficient to account for this. Several races of true albinos, as White
+Ferrets, Rabbits, Rats, and Mice, have, however, been established under
+the protection of man, and in them this abnormal condition is propagated
+from generation to generation.
+
+Partial albinism—a condition in which the absence of pigment is limited
+to portions of the surface, or, at all events, does not extend to the
+eyes—is much more common as an individual variation both in domestic and
+in wild animals. It is possible that the artificial conditions incident
+to domestication increase the tendency to its occurrence; but, whether
+this be so or not, it certainly becomes perpetuated more frequently among
+domesticated than among wild animals. This may be accounted for partly
+by its proving of no disadvantage to them, and partly by the frequent
+selection by man of animals of such colour in preference to others. The
+result is that there is no completely domestic animal of which white
+races do not exist. On the other hand, to most wild animals even partial
+albinism seems to be a disadvantage in the struggle for existence, since,
+except in the case of species inhabiting lands continually covered with
+snow, it renders them more conspicuous objects both to their enemies and
+their prey, and hence it is rarely perpetuated. In northern regions,
+however, a large proportion of species are regularly and normally of a
+white colour, either, as the Polar Bear, all the year through, or, as the
+Ermine or Stoat, Arctic Fox, and Alpine Hare, during the winter season.
+The coloration in these cases is obviously protective, as it is also to a
+great extent in many other instances throughout the class.
+
+Among conspicuously coloured mammals, it has been observed that the
+vertical black and tawny stripes of the Tiger harmonise so well with the
+brown and green grasses of its native jungle as to render the animal
+almost invisible when lying among them; while the dappled hide of the
+Giraffe is said to agree equally well with the chequered splashes of
+light and shade in the clumps of tall mimosas among which it feeds. The
+uniformly tawny hue of the Lion accords well with the prevailing tint
+of its native desert; and any one who has seen an Elephant or Buffalo in
+the deep shades of an Indian forest will realise how perfectly adapted is
+their dull, slaty colour to concealment in such a spot. The dun colour
+of the Wild Ass of India is equally well suited to the sandy deserts
+of Kutch; it is also stated that the brilliant stripes of the Zebras
+of Africa are arranged in such proportion as exactly to match the pale
+tint which arid ground possesses when seen by moonlight.[1] The most
+remarkable instance of protective coloration is, however, to be found in
+the Sloths of South America, in which the coarse gray hairs so closely
+resemble a mass of lichenous growth that it is almost impossible to
+distinguish these animals when at rest from the gnarled and lichen-clad
+boughs from which they suspend themselves. This resemblance is increased
+by the fact that the hairs actually develop a growth of lichens upon
+themselves. That the sombre coloration of these animals has been produced
+to harmonise with their present surroundings seems to be evident by the
+circumstance that when the long hair is plucked off the under fur is seen
+to present a bold alternation of black and yellow stripes, which may
+probably be regarded as the original primitive coloration of this group.
+
+_Scales, etc._—True scales, or flat imbricated plates of horny material,
+covering the greater part of the body, so frequently occurring in
+reptiles, are found only in one family of mammals, the _Manidæ_ or
+Pangolins; but these are also associated with hairs growing from the
+intervals between the scales, or on the parts of the skin not covered
+by them. Similarly, imbricated epidermic productions form the covering
+of the under surface of the tail of the flying Rodents of the genus
+_Anomalurus_; and flat scutes, with the edges in apposition, and not
+overlaid, clothe both surfaces of the tail of the Beaver, Rats, and
+others of the same order, and also of some Insectivores and Marsupials.
+The Armadillos alone have an ossified exoskeleton, composed of plates
+of true bony tissue, developed in the derm or corium, and covered with
+scutes of horny epidermis. Other epidermic appendages are the horns of
+Ruminants and Rhinoceroses,—the former being elongated, tapering, hollow
+caps of hardened epidermis of fibrillated structure, fitting on and
+growing from conical projections of the frontal bone, and always arranged
+in pairs, while the latter are of similar structure, but solid and
+without any internal bony support, and (in all existing species) situated
+in the median line. Callosities, or bare patches covered with hardened
+and thickened epidermis, are found covering the pads under the soles of
+the feet and undersurfaces of the toes of nearly all mammals, upon the
+ischial tuberosities of many Apes, the sternum of Camels, on the inner
+side of the limbs of the _Equidæ_, the grasping under surface of the
+tail of the prehensile-tailed Monkeys, etc. The greater part of the skin
+of both species of one-horned Asiatic Rhinoceros is immensely thickened
+and stiffened by increase of the tissue both of the derm and epiderm,
+constituting the well-known jointed “armour-plated” hide of those animals.
+
+_Nails, Claws, and Hoofs._—With very few exceptions, the terminal
+extremities of the digits of both limbs are more or less protected or
+armed by epidermic plates or sheaths, constituting the various forms
+of nails, claws, or hoofs. These are wanting in the Cetacea alone. A
+perforated spur, with a special secreting gland in connection with it,
+is found attached to the hind leg of the males of the three genera of
+Monotremata, _Ornithorhynchus_, _Proechidna_, and _Echidna_.
+
+_Odour-secreting Glands._—Besides the universally distributed sebaceous
+glands connected with the pilose system, most mammals have special glands
+situated in modified portions of the integument, often involuted to form
+a shallow recess or a deep sac with a narrow opening, situated in various
+parts of the surface of the body, and secreting odorous substances,
+by the aid of which individuals appear to recognise one another, and
+probably affording the principal means by which wild animals are able
+to become aware of the presence of other members of the species, even
+at great distances. Although the commencement of the modifications of
+portions of the external covering for the formation of special secretions
+may be at present difficult to understand, the principle of natural
+selection will readily explain how such organs become fixed and gradually
+increase in development in any species, especially as there would
+probably be a corresponding modification and increased sensibility of the
+olfactory organs. Such individuals as by the intensity and peculiarity
+of their scent had greater power of attracting the opposite sex would
+certainly be those most likely to leave descendants to inherit and in
+their turn propagate the modification.
+
+To this group of structures belong the suborbital gland or “crumen” of
+Antelopes and Deer, the frontal gland of the Muntjac and of Bats of
+the genus _Hipposiderus_, the submental gland of the Chevrotains and
+of _Taphozous_ and some other Bats, the post-auditory follicle of the
+Chamois, the temporal gland of the Elephant, the lateral glands of the
+Musk-Shrew, the dorsal gland of the Peccary, the inguinal glands of
+Antelopes, the preputial glands of the Musk-Deer and Beaver (already
+alluded to in connection with the use made of their powerfully odorous
+secretion in medicine and perfumery) and also of the Swine and Hare,
+the anal glands of Carnivora, the perineal gland of the Civet (also of
+commercial value), the caudal glands of the Fox and Goat, the gland on
+the humeral membrane of Bats of the genus _Saccopteryx_, the post-digital
+gland of the Rhinoceros, the interdigital glands of the Sheep and many
+Ruminants, and numerous others. In some of these cases the glands are
+peculiar to, or more largely developed in, the male; in others they are
+found equally developed in both sexes.
+
+
+II. DENTAL SYSTEM
+
+The dental system of mammals may be considered rather more in detail
+than space permits for some other portions of their structure, not only
+on account of the important part it plays in the economy of the animals
+of this class, but also for its interest to zoologists as an aid in the
+classification and identification of species. Owing to the imperishable
+nature of their tissues, teeth are preserved for an indefinite time, and
+in the case of extinct species frequently offer the only indications
+available from which to derive an idea of the characters, affinities,
+and habits of the animals to which they once belonged. Hence even
+their smallest modifications have received great attention from
+comparative anatomists, and they have formed the subject of many special
+monographs.[2]
+
+Teeth are present in nearly all mammals, and are applied to various
+purposes. They are, however, mainly subservient to the function of
+alimentation, being used either in procuring food, by seizing and
+killing living prey or gathering and biting off portions of vegetable
+material, and more indirectly in tearing or cutting through the hard
+protective coverings of food substances, as the husks and shells of nuts,
+or in pounding, crushing, or otherwise mechanically dividing the solid
+materials before swallowing, so as to prepare them for digestion in the
+stomach. Certain teeth are also in many animals most efficient weapons of
+offence and defence, and for this purpose alone, quite irrespective of
+subserviency to the digestive process, are they developed in the male sex
+of many herbivorous animals, in the females of which they are absent or
+rudimentary.
+
+Teeth belong essentially to the tegumentary or dermal system of organs,
+and, as is well seen in the lower vertebrates, pass by almost insensible
+gradations into the hardened spines and scutes formed upon the integument
+covering the outer surface of the body; but in mammals they are more
+specialised in structure and limited in locality. In this class they
+are developed only in the gums or fibro-mucous membrane covering the
+alveolar borders of the upper and lower jaws, or, in other words, the
+premaxillary and maxillary bones and the mandible. In the process of
+development, for the purpose of giving them that support which is needful
+for the performance of their functions, they almost always become
+implanted in the bone,—the osseous tissue growing up and moulding itself
+around the lengthening root of the tooth, so that ultimately they become
+apparently parts of the skeleton. In no mammal, however, does ankylosis
+or bony union between the tooth and jaw normally take place, as in
+many fishes and reptiles,—a vascular layer of connective tissue, the
+alveolo-dental membrane, always intervening.[3] The presence of two or
+more roots, frequently met with in the cheek-teeth of mammals, implanted
+in corresponding distinct sockets of the jaw, is now peculiar to animals
+of this class.[4]
+
+_Structure._—The greater number of mammalian teeth when fully formed are
+not simple and homogeneous in structure, but are composed of several
+distinct tissues, which are enumerated below.
+
+The _pulp_, a soft substance, consisting of a very delicate gelatinous
+connective tissue, in which numerous cells are imbedded, and abundantly
+supplied with blood-vessels and nerves, constitutes the central axis
+of all the basal part of the tooth, and affords the means by which the
+vitality of the whole is preserved. The nerves which pass into the pulp
+and endow the tooth with sensibility are branches of the fifth pair of
+cranial nerves. The pulp occupies a larger relative space, and performs
+a more important purpose, in the young growing tooth than afterwards, as
+by the calcification and conversion of its outer layers the principal
+hard constituent of the tooth, the dentine, is formed. In teeth which
+have ceased to grow the pulp occupies a comparatively small space, which
+in the dried tooth is called the pulp-cavity. This communicates with the
+external surface of the tooth by a small aperture at the apex of the
+root, through which the branches of the blood-vessels and nerves, by
+which the tooth receives its nutrition and sensitiveness, pass in to be
+distributed in the pulp. In growing teeth the pulp-cavity is widely open,
+while in advanced age it often becomes obliterated, and the pulp itself
+entirely converted into bone-like material.
+
+The _dentine_ or _ivory_ forms the principal constituent of the greater
+number of teeth. When developed in its most characteristic form, it is
+a very hard but elastic substance, white, with a yellowish tinge, and
+slightly translucent. It consists of an organic matrix, something like,
+but not identical with, that of bone, richly impregnated with calcareous
+salts (chiefly calcium phosphate), these constituting in a fresh human
+tooth 72 per cent of its weight. When subjected to microscopical
+examination it is seen to be everywhere permeated by nearly parallel
+branching tubes which run, in a slightly curving or wavy manner, in a
+general direction from the centre towards the free surface of the tooth.
+These tubes communicate by open mouths with the pulp-cavity, and usually
+terminate near the periphery of the dentine by closed ends or loops,
+though in Marsupials and certain other mammals they penetrate into the
+enamel. They are occupied in the living tooth by soft gelatinous fibrils
+connected with the cells of the pulp. A variety of dentine, permeated
+by canals containing blood-vessels, met with commonly in fishes and
+in some few mammals, as the _Megatherium_, is called vaso-dentine.
+Other modifications of this tissue occasionally met with are called
+osteodentine and secondary dentine,—the latter being a dentine of
+irregular structure which often fills up the pulp-cavity of old animals.
+
+The _enamel_ constitutes a thin investing layer, complete or partial, of
+the outer or exposed and working surface of the dentine of the crown of
+the teeth of most mammals. This is the hardest tissue met with in the
+animal body, containing from 95 to 97 per cent of mineral substances
+(chiefly calcium phosphate and some carbonate, with traces of fluoride).
+Its ultimate structure consists of prismatic fibres, placed generally
+with their long axes at right angles to the free surface of the tooth.
+Enamel is easily distinguished from dentine with the naked eye by its
+clear, bluish-white, translucent appearance.
+
+The _cement_ or _crusta petrosa_ is always the most externally placed
+of the hard tissues of which teeth are composed, as will be understood
+when the mode of development of these organs is considered. It is often
+only found as a thin layer upon the surface of the root; but sometimes,
+as in the complex-crowned molar teeth of the Horse and Elephant, it is a
+structure which plays a very important part, covering and filling in the
+interstices between the folds of the enamel. In appearance, histological
+structure, and chemical composition it is closely allied to osseous
+tissue, containing lacunæ and canaliculi, though only when it is of
+considerable thickness are Haversian canals present in it.
+
+_Development._—The two principal constituents of the teeth, the dentine
+and the enamel, are developed from the two layers of the mucous membrane
+of the jaw—the dentine from the deeper or vascular, the enamel from the
+superficial or epithelial layer. The latter dips down into the substance
+of the gum, and forms the enamel-organ or germ, the first rudiment of the
+future tooth, which is constantly present even in those animals in which
+the enamel is not found as a constituent of the perfectly-formed tooth.
+Below the mass of epithelial cells thus embedded in the substance of the
+gum, and remaining connected by a narrow neck of similar structure with
+the epithelium of the surface, a portion of the vascular areolar tissue
+becomes gradually separated and defined from that which surrounds it,
+and assumes a distinct form, which is that of the crown of the future
+tooth,—a single cone in the case of simple teeth, or with two or more
+eminences in the complex forms. This is called the dental papilla or
+dentine germ, and by the gradual conversion of its tissue into dentine
+the bulk of the future tooth is formed, the uncalcified central portion
+remaining as the pulp. The conversion of the papilla into hard tissue
+commences at the outer surface of the apex, and gradually proceeds
+downwards and inwards, so that the form of the papilla exactly determines
+the form of the future dentine, and no alteration either in shape or
+size of this portion of the tooth, when once calcified, can take place
+by addition to its outer surface. In the meanwhile, calcification of a
+portion of the cells of the enamel-organ, which adapts itself like a cap
+round the top of the dentinal papilla, and has assumed a somewhat complex
+structure, results in the formation of the enamel-coating of the crown of
+the tooth. While these changes are taking place the tissues immediately
+surrounding the tooth-germ become condensed and differentiated into a
+capsule, which appears to grow up from the base of the dental papilla,
+and encloses both this and the enamel-germ, constituting the follicle
+or tooth-sac. By the ossification of the inner layer of this follicle
+the cement is formed. This substance, therefore, unlike the dentine,
+increases from within outwards, and its growth may accordingly be the
+cause of considerable modification of form and enlargement, especially
+of the roots, of certain teeth, as those of Seals and some Cetacea. The
+delicate homogeneous layer coating the enamel surface of newly-formed
+teeth, in which cement is not found in the adult state, and known as
+Nasmyth’s membrane, is considered by Tomes as probably a film of this
+substance, too thin to exhibit its characteristic structure, though
+by others it is believed to be derived from the external layer of the
+enamel-organ. The homology of the teeth with the dermal appendages,
+hairs, scales, and claws, has already been alluded to, and it will now
+be seen that in both cases two of the primary embryonic layers are
+concerned in their development—the mesoblast and epiblast—although in
+very different proportions respectively. Thus in the hair or nail the
+part derived from the epiblast forms the principal bulk of the organ, the
+mesoblast only constituting the papilla or matrix. But in the tooth the
+epiblastic portion is limited to the enamel, and is always of relatively
+small bulk and often absent, while the dentine (the principal constituent
+of the tooth) and the cement are formed from the mesoblast.
+
+When more than one set of teeth occur in mammals, those of the second
+set are developed in a precisely similar manner to the first, but the
+enamel-germ, instead of being derived directly from an independent
+part of the oral epithelium, is formed from a budding out of the neck
+of the germ of the tooth succeeded. In the case of the true molars,
+which have no predecessors, the germ of the first has an independent
+origin, but that of the others is derived from the neck of the germ of
+the tooth preceding it in the series. The foundations of the permanent
+teeth are thus laid as it were almost simultaneously with those of their
+predecessors, although they remain in many cases for years before they
+are developed into functional activity.
+
+Although the commencement of their formation takes place at an early
+period of embryonic life, teeth are in nearly all mammals still concealed
+beneath the gum at the time of birth. The period of eruption, or
+“cutting” of the teeth as it is called, that is, their piercing through
+and rising above the surface of the mucous membrane, varies much in
+different species. In some, as Seals, the whole series of teeth appears
+almost simultaneously; but more often there are considerable intervals
+between the appearance of the individual teeth, the front ones usually
+coming into place first, and those at the back of the mouth at a later
+period.
+
+_Forms of Teeth._—The simplest form of tooth may be exemplified on a
+large scale by the tusk of the Elephant (Fig. 1, I.) It is a hard mass
+almost entirely composed of dentine, of a conical shape at first, but
+during growth becoming more and more cylindrical or uniform in width.
+The enamel-covering, present on the apex in its earliest condition, soon
+disappears, but a thin layer of cement covers the circumference of the
+tooth throughout life. In section it will be seen that the basal portion
+is hollow, and contains a large conical pulp, as broad at the base as the
+tooth itself, and deeply imbedded in the bottom of a recess, or socket,
+in the maxillary bone. This pulp continues to grow during the lifetime
+of the animal, and at the same time is converted at its surface into
+dentine. The tooth therefore continually elongates, but the use to which
+the animal subjects it in its natural state causes the apex to wear away,
+at a rate generally proportionate to the growth at the base, otherwise it
+would become of inconvenient length and weight. Such teeth of indefinite
+growth are said to be “rootless,” or to have “persistent pulps.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.—Diagrammatic Sections of various forms of Teeth.
+I. Incisor or tusk of Elephant, with pulp-cavity persistently open
+at base. II. Human incisor during development, with root imperfectly
+formed, and pulp-cavity widely open at base. III. Completely formed human
+incisor, with pulp-cavity contracted to a small aperture at the end of
+the root. IV. Human molar, with broad crown and two roots. V. Molar
+of the Ox, with the enamel covering the crown deeply folded, and the
+depressions filled up with cement. The surface is worn by use; otherwise
+the enamel coating would be continuous at the top of the ridges. In all
+the figures the enamel is black, the pulp white, the dentine represented
+by horizontal lines, and the cement by dots.]
+
+One of the corresponding front teeth of man (Fig. 2, II. and III.) may
+be taken as an example of a very different condition. After its crown is
+fully formed by calcification of the germ, the pulp, though continuing to
+elongate, begins to contract in diameter; a neck or slight constriction
+is formed; and the remainder of the pulp is converted into the root
+(often, but incorrectly, called “fang”), a tapering conical process
+imbedded in the alveolar cavity of the bone, and having at its extremity
+a minute perforation, through which the vessels and nerves required to
+maintain the vitality of the tooth enter the pulp-cavity, which is very
+different from the widely open cavity at the base of the growing tooth.
+When the crown of the tooth is broad and complex in character, instead of
+having a single root, it may be supported by two or more roots, each of
+which is implanted in a distinct alveolar recess or socket, and to the
+apex of which a branch of the common pulp-cavity is continued (Fig. 1,
+IV.) Such teeth are called “rooted teeth.” When they have once attained
+their position in the jaw, with the neck a little way above the level
+of the free margin of the alveolus, and embraced by the gum or tough
+fibrovascular membrane covering the alveolar border, and having the root
+fully formed, they can never increase in length or alter their position;
+if they appear to do so in old age, it being only in consequence of
+absorption and retrocession of the surrounding alveolar margins. If,
+as often happens, their surface wears away in mastication, it is never
+renewed. The open cavity at the base of the imperfectly developed tooth
+(Fig. 1, II.) causes it to resemble the persistent condition of the
+rootless tooth. The latter is therefore a more primitive condition,
+the formation of the root being a completion of the process of tooth
+development. Functionally it is, however, difficult to say that the one
+is a higher form than the other, since they both serve important and
+different purposes in the animal economy.
+
+As is almost always the case in nature, intermediate conditions between
+these two forms of teeth are met with. Thus some teeth, as the molars of
+the Horse, and of many Rodents, are for a time rootless, and have growing
+pulps producing very long crowns with parallel sides, the summits of
+which may be in use and beginning to wear away while the bases are still
+growing; but ultimately the pulp contracts, forms a neck and distinct
+roots, and ceases to grow. The canine tusks of the Musk Deer and of the
+Walrus have persistent pulps, and are open at their base until the animal
+is of advanced age, when they close, and the pulp ceases to be renewed.
+The same sometimes happens in the tusks of very old Boars.
+
+The simplest form of the crown of a tooth is that of a cone; but this may
+be variously modified. Thus it may be flattened, with its edges sharp
+and cutting, and pointed at the apex, as in the laterally compressed
+premolars of most Carnivora; or it may be chisel- or awl-shaped, with a
+straight truncated edge, as in the human incisors; or it may be broad,
+with a flat or rounded upper surface. Very often there is a more or less
+prominent ridge encircling the whole or part of the base of the crown
+just above the neck, called the cingulum, which serves as a protection to
+the edge of the gum in masticating, and is most developed in flesh-eating
+and insectivorous animals, in which the gums are liable to be injured by
+splinters of bone or other hard fragments of their food. The form of the
+crown is frequently rendered complex by the development upon its surface
+of elevations or tubercules called cusps or cones, or by ridges usually
+transverse, but sometimes variously curved or folded. When the crown
+is broad and the ridges are greatly developed, as in the molars of the
+Elephant, Horse, and Ox (Fig. 1, V.), the interspaces between them are
+filled with cement, which supports them and makes a solid compact mass of
+the whole tooth. When such a tooth wears away at the surface by friction
+against the opposed tooth of the other jaw, the different density of
+the layers of the substances of which it is composed—enamel, dentine,
+and cement—arranged in characteristic patterns, causes them to wear
+unequally, the hard enamel ridges projecting beyond the others, and thus
+giving rise to a grinding surface of great mechanical advantage.
+
+_Succession._—The dentition of all mammals consists of a definite set
+of teeth, almost always of constant and determinate number, form,
+and situation, and, with few exceptions, persisting in a functional
+condition throughout the natural term of the animal’s life. In many
+species these are the only teeth which the animal ever possesses,—the
+set which is first formed being permanent, or, if accidentally lost,
+or decaying in extreme old age, not being replaced by others. These
+animals are called Monophyodont. But in the larger number of mammals,
+certain of the teeth are preceded by others, which may be only of a
+very transient, rudimentary, and functionless character (being in the
+Seals, for example, shed either before or within a few days after
+birth), or may be considerably developed, and functionally occupy the
+place of the permanent teeth for a somewhat lengthened period, during
+the growth and development of the latter and of the jaws. In all cases
+these teeth disappear (by the absorption of their roots and shedding
+of the crowns) before the frame of the animal has acquired complete
+maturity, as evidenced by the coalescence of the epiphyses of the
+osseous system. As these teeth are, as a general rule, present during
+the period in which the animal is nourished by the milk of the mother,
+the name of “milk-teeth” (French _dents de lait_, German _milchzähne_)
+has been commonly accorded to them, although it must be understood that
+the epoch of their presence is by no means necessarily synchronous with
+that of lactation. Animals possessing such teeth are called Diphyodont.
+No mammal is known to have more than two sets of teeth; and the definite
+and orderly replacement of certain members of the series is a process
+of quite a different nature from the indefinite succession which takes
+place in all the teeth continuously throughout the lifetime of the lower
+vertebrates.
+
+When the milk-teeth are well developed, and continue in place during the
+greater part of the animal’s growth, as is especially the case with the
+Ungulata, and, though to a less degree, with the Primates and Carnivora,
+their use is obvious, since taken all together they form structurally
+a complete epitome on a small scale of the more numerous and larger
+permanent set (see Fig. 3), and, consequently, are able to perform the
+same functions, while time is allowed for the gradual maturation of
+the latter, and especially while the jaws of the growing animal are
+acquiring the size and strength sufficient to support the permanent
+teeth. Those animals, therefore, that have a well-developed and tolerably
+persistent set of milk-teeth may be considered to be in a higher state
+of development, as regards their dentition, than those that have the
+milk-teeth absent or rudimentary.
+
+It is a very general rule that individual teeth of the milk and permanent
+set have a close relationship to one another, being originally formed, as
+mentioned above, in exceedingly near proximity, and with, at all events
+so far as the enamel-germ is concerned, a direct connection. Moreover,
+since the latter ultimately come to occupy the position in the alveolar
+border temporarily held by the former, they are spoken of respectively as
+the predecessors or successors of each other. But it must be understood
+that milk-teeth may be present which have no successors in the permanent
+series, and, what is far more general, permanent teeth may have no
+predecessors in the milk series.
+
+The complete series of permanent teeth of most mammals forms a complex
+machine, with its several parts adapted for different functions,—the
+most obvious structural modification for this purpose being an increased
+complexity of the individual components of the series from the anterior
+towards the posterior extremity of such series. Since, as has just been
+said, the complete series of the milk teeth often presents structurally
+and functionally a similar machine, but composed of fewer individual
+members, and the anterior of which are as simple, and the posterior as
+complex as those occupying corresponding positions in the permanent
+series,—and since the milk-teeth are only developed in relation to
+the anterior or lateral, never to the most posterior of the permanent
+series,—it follows that the hinder milk-teeth are usually more complex
+than the teeth of which they are the predecessors in the permanent
+series, and represent functionally, not their immediate successors, but
+those more posterior permanent teeth which have no direct predecessors.
+This character is clearly seen in those animals in which the various
+members of the molar series are well differentiated from each other in
+form, as the Carnivora, and also in Man.
+
+In animals which have two sets of teeth the number of those of the
+permanent series which are preceded by milk-teeth varies greatly, being
+sometimes, as in Marsupials and some Rodents, as few as one on each side
+of each jaw, and sometimes including the larger portion of the series.
+
+Although there are difficulties in some cases in arriving at a
+satisfactory solution of the question, it is, on the whole, safest to
+assume that when only one set of teeth is present, this corresponds to
+the permanent teeth of the Diphyodonts. When this one set is completely
+developed, and remains in use throughout the animal’s life, there can
+be no question on this subject. When, on the other hand, the teeth are
+rudimentary and transient, as in the Whalebone Whales, it is possible
+to consider them as representing the milk series; but there are weighty
+reasons in favour of the opposite conclusion.[5]
+
+_Arrangement, Homologies, and Notation of Teeth._—The teeth of the two
+sides of the jaws are always alike in number and character, except in
+cases of accidental or abnormal variation, and in the one remarkable
+instance of constant deviation from bilateral symmetry among mammals,
+the tusks of the Narwhal (_Monodon_), in which the left is of immense
+size, and the right rudimentary. In certain mammals, such as the Dolphins
+and some Armadillos, which have a very large series of similar teeth,
+not always constant in number in different individuals, there may be
+differences in the two sides; but, apart from these, in describing the
+dentition of any mammal, it is quite sufficient to give the number and
+characters of the teeth of one side only. Since the teeth of the upper
+and the lower jaws work against each other in masticating, there is a
+general correspondence or harmony between them, the projections of one
+series, when the mouth is closed, fitting into corresponding depressions
+of the other. There is also a general resemblance in the number,
+characters, and mode of succession of both series, so that, although
+individual teeth of the upper and lower jaws may not be in any strict
+sense of the term homologous parts, there is a great convenience in
+applying the same descriptive terms to the one as are used for the other.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.—Upper and Lower Teeth of one side of the Mouth
+of a Dolphin (_Lagenorhynchus_) as an example of the homodont type of
+dentition. The bone covering the outer side of the roots of the teeth has
+been removed to show their simple character.]
+
+The simplest dentition as a whole is that of many species of Dolphin
+(Fig. 2), in which the crowns are single-pointed, slightly curved cones,
+and the roots also single and tapering, and all alike in form from the
+anterior to the posterior end of the series, though it may be with
+some slight difference in size, those at the two extremities of the
+series being rather smaller than the others. Such a dentition is called
+Homodont, and in the case cited, as the teeth are never changed, it is
+also Monophyodont. Such teeth are adapted only for catching slippery
+living prey, as fish.
+
+In a very large number of mammals the teeth of different parts of the
+series are more or less differentiated in character, and have different
+functions to perform. The front teeth are simple and one-rooted, and
+are adapted for cutting and seizing. They are called “incisors.” The
+back- or cheek-teeth have broader and more complex crowns, tuberculated
+or ridged, and are supported on two or more roots. They crush or grind
+the food, and are hence called “molars.” Many animals have, between
+these two sets, a tooth at each corner of the mouth, longer and more
+pointed than the others, adapted for tearing or stabbing, or for fixing
+struggling prey. From the conspicuous development of such teeth in the
+Carnivora, especially the Dogs, they have received the name of “canines.”
+A dentition with its component parts so differently formed that these
+distinctive terms are applicable to them is called Heterodont. In most
+cases, though by no means invariably, animals with Heterodont dentition
+are also Diphyodont.
+
+This general arrangement is extremely obvious in a considerable number of
+mammals; and closer examination shows that, under very great modification
+in detail, there is a remarkable uniformity of essential characters in
+the dentition of a large number of members of the class belonging to
+different orders and not otherwise closely allied; so much so indeed that
+it has been possible (chiefly through the researches of Sir Richard Owen)
+to formulate a common plan of dentition from which the others have been
+derived by the alteration of some and suppression of other members of the
+series, and occasionally, but very rarely, by addition. The records of
+palæontology fully confirm this view, as by tracing back many groups now
+widely separated in dental characters we find a gradual approximation to
+a common type. In this generalised form of mammalian dentition (which is
+best exemplified in the genera _Anoplotherium_ and _Homalodontotherium_)
+the entire number of teeth present is 44, or 11 above and 11 below on
+each side. Those of each jaw are placed in continuous series without
+intervals between them; and, although the anterior teeth are simple and
+single-rooted, and the posterior teeth complex and with several roots,
+the transition between the two kinds is gradual.
+
+In dividing and grouping such teeth for the purpose of description and
+comparison, more definite characters are required than those derived
+merely from form or function. The first step towards a classification
+has been made by the observation that the upper jaw is composed of two
+bones, the premaxilla and the maxilla, and that the suture between these
+bones separates the three anterior teeth from the others. These three
+teeth, then, which are implanted by their roots in the premaxilla,
+form a distinct group, to which the name of “incisor” is applied. This
+distinction is, however, not so important as it appears at first sight,
+for, as mentioned when speaking of the development of the teeth, their
+connection with the bone is only of a secondary nature, and, although it
+happens conveniently for our purpose that in the great majority of cases
+the segmentation of the bone coincides with the interspace between the
+third and fourth tooth of the series, still, when it does not happen to
+do so, as in the case of the Mole, we must not give too much weight to
+this fact, if it contravenes other reasons for determining the homologies
+of the teeth. The eight remaining teeth of the upper jaw offer a natural
+division, inasmuch as the posterior three never have milk-predecessors;
+and, although some of the anterior teeth may be in the same case, the
+particular one preceding these three always has such a predecessor. These
+three then are grouped apart as the “molars,” or, since some of the teeth
+in front of them often have a molariform character, “true molars.” Of the
+five teeth between the incisors and molars the most anterior, or that
+which is usually situated close behind the premaxillary suture, almost
+always, as soon as any departure takes place from the simplest and most
+homogeneous type, assumes a lengthened and pointed form, and is the tooth
+so developed as to constitute the “canine” or “laniary” tooth of the
+Carnivora, the tusk of the Boar, etc. It is customary therefore to call
+this tooth, whatever its size or form, the “canine.” The remaining four
+are the “premolars” or “false molars.” This system of nomenclature has
+been objected to as being artificial, and in many cases not descriptive,
+the distinction between premolars and canine especially being sometimes
+not obvious; but the terms are now in such general use, and are so
+practically convenient—especially if, as it is best to do in all such
+cases, we forget their original signification and treat them as arbitrary
+signs—that it is not likely they will be superseded by any that have been
+proposed as substitutes for them.
+
+With regard to the lower teeth the difficulties are greater, owing to the
+absence of any suture corresponding to that which defines the incisors
+above; but since the number of the teeth is the same, the corresponding
+teeth are preceded by milk-teeth, and in the large majority of cases it
+is the fourth tooth of the series which is modified in the same way as
+the canine (or fourth tooth) of the upper jaw, it is quite reasonable
+to adopt the same divisions as with the upper series, and to call the
+first three, which are implanted in the part of the mandible opposite
+to the premaxilla, the incisors, the next the canine, the next four the
+premolars, and the last three the molars. It may be observed that when
+the mouth is closed, especially when the opposed surfaces of the teeth
+present an irregular outline, the corresponding upper and lower teeth
+are not exactly opposite, otherwise the two series could not fit into
+one another; but as a rule the points of the lower teeth shut into the
+interspaces in front of the corresponding teeth of the upper jaw. This
+is seen very distinctly in the canine teeth of the Carnivora, and is a
+useful guide in determining the homologies of the teeth of the two jaws.
+Objections have certainly been made to this view, because, in certain
+rare cases, the tooth which, according to it, would be called the lower
+canine has the form and function of an incisor (as in Ruminants and
+Lemurs), and on the other hand (as in _Cotylops_, an extinct Ungulate
+from North America) the tooth that would thus be determined as the
+first premolar has the form of a canine; but it should not be forgotten
+that, as in all such cases, definitions derived from form and function
+alone are quite as open to objection as those derived from position and
+relation to surrounding parts, or still more so.
+
+_Dental formulæ._—For the sake of brevity the complete dentition,
+arranged according to these principles, is often described by the
+following formula, the numbers above the line representing the teeth of
+the upper, those below the line those of the lower jaw:—incisors ³⁻³⁄₃₋₃,
+canines ¹⁻¹⁄₁₋₁, premolars ⁴⁻⁴⁄₄₋₄, molars ³⁻³⁄₃₋₃ = ¹¹⁻¹¹⁄₁₁₋₁₁; total
+44. Since, however, initial letters may be substituted for the names of
+each group, and it is quite unnecessary to give more than the numbers
+of the teeth on one side of the mouth, the formula may be conveniently
+abbreviated into—
+
+  _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃ = ¹¹⁄₁₁; total 44.
+
+The individual teeth of each group are always enumerated from before
+backwards, and by such a formula as the following—
+
+  _i_ 1, _i_ 2, _i_ 3, _c_, _p_ 1, _p_ 2, _p_ 3, _p_ 4, _m_ 1, _m_ 2, _m_ 3
+  -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  _i_ 1, _i_ 2, _i_ 3, _c_, _p_ 1, _p_ 2, _p_ 3, _p_ 4, _m_ 1, _m_ 2, _m_ 3
+
+or more briefly—
+
+      1,2,3      1      1,2,3,4      1,2,3
+  _i_ ------ _c_ -- _p_ -------- _m_ -----.
+      1,2,3,     1,     1,2,3,4,     1,2,3
+
+A special numerical designation is thus given by which each one can be
+indicated. In mentioning any single tooth, such a sign as _m¹_⁄ will mean
+the first upper molar, ⁄_m₁_ the first lower molar, and so on. The use of
+such signs saves much time and space in description.[6]
+
+It was part of the view of the founder of this system of dental notation
+that, at least throughout the group of mammals whose dentition is
+derived from this general type, each tooth has its strict homologue in
+all species, and that in those cases in which fewer than the typical
+number are present (as in all existing mammals except the genera _Sus_,
+_Gymnura_, _Talpa_, and _Myogale_), the teeth that are missing can be
+accurately defined. According to this view, when the number of incisors
+falls short of three it is assumed that the absent ones are missing
+from the outer and posterior end of the series. Thus, when there is
+but one incisor present, it is _i_ 1; when two, they are _i_ 1 and
+_i_ 2. Furthermore, when the premolars and the molars are below their
+typical number, the absent teeth are missing from the fore part of the
+premolar series, and from the back part of the molar series. If this were
+invariably so, the labours of those who describe teeth would be greatly
+simplified; but there are so many exceptions that a close scrutiny into
+the situation, relations, and development of a tooth is required before
+its nature can be determined, and in some cases the evidence at our
+disposal is scarcely sufficient for the purpose. In other instances,
+however, as among the Polyprotodont Marsupials, we have decisive evidence
+to show that the missing premolar teeth are not those at the extremity of
+the series.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.—Milk and Permanent Dentition of Upper (I.) and
+Lower (II.) Jaw of the Dog (_Canis familiaris_), with the symbols by
+which the different teeth are commonly designated. The third upper molar
+(_m._3) is the only tooth wanting in this animal to complete the typical
+heterodont mammalian dentition.]
+
+The milk-dentition is expressed by a similar formula, _d_ for deciduous
+or _m_ for milk being commonly prefixed to the letter expressive of
+the nature of the tooth. Since the three molars, and almost invariably
+the first premolar of the permanent series, have no predecessors, the
+typical milk-dentition would be expressed as follows—_di_ ³⁄₃, _dc_
+¹⁄₁, _dm_ ³⁄₃, = ⁷⁄₇, total 28. In a few Ungulates, however, such as
+the Hyrax and Tapir, and in some instances the Rhinoceros and the
+extinct _Palæotherium_, the whole of the four premolars are preceded
+by milk-teeth; when we have the fullest development of cheek-teeth in
+the whole of the Eutheria. The teeth which precede the premolars of the
+permanent series are all called molars in the milk-dentition, although
+as a general rule, in form and function they represent in a condensed
+form the whole premolar and molar series of the adult. When there is
+a marked difference between the premolars and molars of the permanent
+dentition, the first milk-molar resembles a premolar, while the last has
+the characters of the posterior true molar.
+
+The dentition of all the members of the orders Primates, Carnivora,
+Insectivora, Chiroptera, and Ungulata can clearly be derived from the
+above-described generalised type. The same may be said of the Rodents,
+and even the Proboscidea, though at least in the existing members of the
+order with greater modification. It is also apparent in certain extinct
+Cetacea, as _Zeuglodon_ and _Squalodon_, but it is difficult to find
+any traces of it in existing Cetacea, Sirenia, or any of the so-called
+Edentata. All the Marsupials, different as they are in their general
+structure and mode of life, and variously modified as is their dentition,
+present in this system of organs some deep-lying common characters
+which show their unity of origin. The generalised type to which their
+dentition can be reduced presents considerable resemblance to that of the
+placental mammals, yet differing in details. It is markedly heterodont,
+and susceptible of division into incisors, canines, premolars, and molars
+upon the same principles. The whole number is, however, not limited to
+forty-four. The incisors may be as numerous as five on each side above,
+and they are almost always different in number in the upper and the lower
+jaw. The premolars and molars are commonly seven, as in the placental
+mammals, but their arrangement is reversed, as there are four true molars
+and three premolars.
+
+The larger number of incisive and molar teeth among the Marsupials
+suggests that their additional teeth have disappeared in the Eutheria,[7]
+and Mr. O. Thomas has endeavoured to construct a generalised dental
+formula from which both the Marsupial and Eutherian modifications
+may have been derived by the suppression of particular teeth. Thus
+the hypothetical formula _i_ ¹,²,³,⁴,⁵⁄₁,₂,₃,₄,₅, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_
+¹,²,³,⁴⁄₁,₂,₃,₄, _m_ ¹,²,³,⁴,⁵⁄₁,₂,₃,₄,₅, by the loss of the fifth
+lower incisor, and of the second premolars (which we know to be those
+which disappear in the Marsupials) and the fifth molars, will give _i_
+¹,²,³,⁴,⁵⁄₁,₂,₃,₄,₀, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ¹,⁰,³,⁴⁄₁,₀,₃,₄, _m_ ¹,²,³,⁴⁄₁,₂,₃,₄;
+or the formula of the Opossum (_Didelphys_), usually written _i_ ⁵⁄₄, _c_
+¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ⁴⁄₄. Again, in the same formula the loss of the fourth
+and fifth incisors in both jaws, and also of the fourth molars, gives us
+_i_ ¹,²,³,⁰,⁰⁄₁,₂,₃,₀,₀, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ¹,²,³,⁴⁄₁,₂,₃,₄, _m_ ¹,²,³⁄₁,₂,₃,
+or the formula of a typical Eutherian, like the Pig, which we generally
+write as _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃. Such a generalised formula
+will admit of modification into that of all existing, and a large number
+of fossil Marsupials, but it is possible that some of the Mesozoic types
+may have had more than four premolars, although there is no absolutely
+decisive evidence that such was the case. The presence of seven or eight
+true molars in some Mesozoic forms merely entails the addition of two or
+three additional figures to the ideal generalised formula.
+
+The milk-dentition of all known Marsupials, existing or extinct, is (if
+not entirely absent) limited to a single tooth on either side of each
+jaw, this being the predecessor of the last permanent premolar. And if
+the view that the milk-dentition is an additional series grafted upon the
+original permanent series be correct, it is evident that we have in this
+single replacement the first stage of this additional development.
+
+In very few mammals are teeth entirely absent. Even in the Whalebone
+Whales their germs are formed in the same manner and at the same period
+of life as in other mammals, and even become partially calcified, but
+they never rise above the gums, and completely disappear before the birth
+of the animal. In some species of the order Edentata, the true Anteaters
+and the Pangolins, no traces of teeth have been found at any age. The
+adult Monotremata are likewise devoid of teeth of the same structure
+as those of ordinary mammals; but well-developed molars occur in the
+young _Ornithorhynchus_, although no traces of teeth have hitherto been
+detected in _Echidna_.
+
+_Modifications of the Teeth in Relation to their Functions._—The
+principal functional modifications noticed in the dentition of mammalia
+may be roughly grouped as piscivorous, carnivorous, insectivorous,
+omnivorous, and herbivorous, each having, of course, numerous variations
+and transitional conditions.
+
+The essential characters of a piscivorous dentition are best exemplified
+in the Dolphins, and also (as modifications of the carnivorous type) in
+the Seals. This type consists of an elongated, rather narrow mouth, wide
+gape, with numerous subequal, conical, sharp-pointed, recurved teeth,
+adapted simply to rapidly seize, but not to divide or masticate, active,
+slippery, but not powerful prey. All animals which feed on fish as a
+rule swallow and digest them entire, a process which the structure of
+prey of this nature, especially the intimate interblending of delicate,
+sharp-pointed bones with the muscles, renders very advantageous, and for
+which the above-described type of dentition is best adapted.
+
+The carnivorous type of dentition is shown in its most specialised
+development among existing mammals in the _Felidæ_. The function being
+here to seize and kill struggling animals, often of large size and great
+muscular power, the canines are immensely developed, trenchant, and
+piercing, and are situated wide apart, so as to give the firmest hold
+when fixed in the victim’s body. The jaws are as short as is consistent
+with the free action of the canines, so that no power may be lost. The
+incisors are very small, so as not to interfere with the penetrating
+action of the canines, and the crowns of the molar series are reduced
+to scissor-like blades, with which to pare off the soft tissues from
+the large bones, or to divide into small pieces the less dense portions
+of the bones for the sake of nutriment afforded by the blood and marrow
+they contain. The gradual modification between this and the two following
+types will be noticed in their appropriate places.
+
+In the most typical insectivorous animals, as the Hedgehogs and Shrews,
+the central incisors are elongated, pointed, and project forwards, those
+of the upper and lower jaw meeting like the blades of a pair of forceps,
+so as readily to secure small active prey, quick to elude capture, but
+powerless to resist when once seized. The crowns of the molars are
+covered with numerous sharp edges and points, which, working against each
+other, rapidly cut up the hard-cased insects into little pieces fit for
+swallowing and digestion.
+
+The omnivorous type, especially that adapted for the consumption of soft
+vegetable substances, such as fruits of various kinds, may be exemplified
+in the dentition of Man, of most Monkeys, and of the less modified Pigs.
+The incisors are moderate, subequal, and cutting. If the canines are
+enlarged, it is usually for other purposes than those connected with
+food, and only in the male sex. The molars have their crowns broad,
+flattened, and elevated into rounded tubercles. The name _Bunodont_, or
+hillock-toothed, has been proposed for molars of this type, and will
+frequently be found convenient.
+
+In the most typically herbivorous forms of dentition, as seen in the
+Horse and Kangaroo, the incisors are well developed, trenchant, and
+adapted for cutting off the herbage on which the animals feed; the
+canines are rudimentary or suppressed; the molars are large, with broad
+crowns, which in the simplest forms have strong transverse ridges, but
+may become variously complicated in the higher degrees of modification
+which this type of tooth assumes.
+
+Various forms of teeth of this type will be noticed among the Ungulates
+and Rodents.
+
+The natural groups of mammals, or those which in our present state of
+knowledge we have reason to believe are truly related to each other, may
+each contain examples of more than one of these modifications. Thus the
+Primates have both omnivorous and insectivorous forms. The Carnivora show
+piscivorous, carnivorous, insectivorous, and omnivorous modifications of
+their common type of dentition. The Ungulata and the Rodentia have among
+them the omnivorous and various modifications, both simple and complex,
+of the herbivorous type. The Marsupialia exhibit examples of all forms,
+except the purely piscivorous. Other orders, more restricted in number or
+in habits, as the Proboscidea and Cetacea, naturally do not show so great
+a variety in the dental structure of their members.
+
+_Taxonomy._—In considering the taxonomic value to be assigned to the
+modifications of teeth of mammals, two principles, often opposed to each
+other, which have been at work in producing these modifications, must
+be held in view:—(1) the type, or ancestral form, as we generally now
+call it, characteristic of each group, which in most mammals is itself
+derived from the still more generalised type described above; and (2)
+variations which have taken place from this type, generally in accordance
+with special functions which the teeth are called upon to fulfil in
+particular cases. These variations are sometimes so great as completely
+to mask the primitive type, and in this way the dentition of many animals
+of widely different origin has come to present a remarkable superficial
+resemblance, as in the case of the Wombat (a Marsupial), the Aye-Aye (a
+Lemur), and the Rodents, or as in the case of the Thylacine and the Dog.
+In all these examples indications may generally be found of the true
+nature of the case by examining the earlier conditions of dentition;
+for the characters of the milk-teeth or the presence of rudimentary
+or deciduous members of the permanent set will generally indicate the
+route by which the specialised dentition of the adult has been derived.
+It is perhaps owing to the importance of the dental armature to the
+well-being of the animal in procuring its sustenance, and preserving
+its life from the attacks of enemies, that great changes appear to have
+taken place so readily, and with such comparative rapidity, in the forms
+of these organs—changes often accompanied with but little modification
+in the general structure of the animal. Of this proposition the Aye-Aye
+(_Chiromys_) among Lemurs, the Walrus among Seals, and the Narwhal
+among Dolphins form striking examples; since in all these forms the
+superficial characters of their dentition would entirely separate them
+from the animals with which all other evidence (even including the mode
+of development of their teeth) proves their close affinity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.—Molar teeth of Mesozoic Mammals (enlarged).
+Triconodont type—1, _Dromatherium_; 2, _Microconodon_; 3,
+_Amphilestes_; 4, _Phascolotherium_; 5, _Triconodon_. Tritubercular
+type—6, 7, _Spalacotherium_; 10, _Asthenodon_. Tubercular sectorial
+type—8, _Amphitherium_; 9, _Peramus_; 11-13, _Amblotherium_; 14 (?)
+_Amblotherium_. _pr_, Protocone; _hy_, hypocone; _pa_, paracone; _me_,
+metacone, in the upper teeth; and protoconid, hypoconid, paraconid, and
+metaconid in the lower. 6 and 15 are upper molars, and the rest lower
+molars. (After Osborn.)]
+
+_Trituberculism._—Recent researches, and more especially those of
+Professors Cope and Osborn, tend to show that almost all of the extremely
+different forms of tooth-structure found among Mammals may be traced to
+one common type, in which the crown of each tooth carried three cusps,
+and hence termed the _tritubercular_ type; these three cusps being
+arranged in a triangle, with the apex directed inwardly in the upper
+teeth (Fig. 4, ₆), and outwardly in the lower ones (Fig. 4, ₇). It is
+further probable that this tritubercular type was itself derived from
+a type of dentition in which the teeth were in the form of almost a
+quite simple cone; such a presumably primitive type of dentition—being
+apparently retained among some existing Edentates, like the Armadillos,
+while it is possible that we should regard the dentition of the existing
+Cetacea (Fig. 2) as a reversion to the same primitive type. None of
+the Mesozoic mammals at present known exhibit this simple conical type
+of teeth, although we have an approximation to it in the extremely
+generalised genus _Dromatherium_. Starting then from this presumed simple
+cone it appears that the teeth of _Dromatherium_ (Fig. 4, ₁) present the
+first stage towards trituberculism, the crown of each tooth having one
+main cone, with minute lateral cusps, and the root being grooved. In
+the next or true Triconodont stage (Fig. 4, ₃₋₅) the crown has become
+elongated antero-posteriorly, and consists of one central and two lateral
+cones or cusps, while the root is divided. From this the transition is
+easy to the tritubercular type, in which the three cusps, instead of
+being placed in a line, are arranged in a triangle; the upper teeth
+(Fig. 4, ₆) having one inner and two outer cusps, while the reverse
+condition obtains in those of the lower jaw (Fig. 4, ₇). These three
+cusps of the simple tritubercular tooth are collectively designated as
+the primitive triangle; in the upper tooth the inner cusp is termed the
+protocone, the antero-external one the paracone, and the postero-external
+the metacone; the corresponding cusps of the lower tooth being named
+protoconid, paraconid, and metaconid—the protoconid being here on the
+outer side of the crown.
+
+It is thus apparent that in the first, or haplodont type, as well as in
+the triconodont type, the upper and lower molars are alike; while in
+the simple tritubercular type they have a similar pattern, but with the
+arrangement of the cusps reversed. This simple tritubercular type occurs
+in the Mesozoic genus _Spalacotherium_ (Fig. 4, ₆ and ₇), and apparently
+in the existing _Chrysochloris_; but in the majority of tritubercular
+forms, while this primitive triangle forms the main portion of the
+crown, other secondary cusps are added, the homologies of which in the
+upper and lower teeth are somewhat doubtful. At the same time that we
+have the addition of these secondary cusps we also find trituberculism
+differentiating into a secodont and a bunodont series, according as to
+whether the dentition becomes of a cutting or a crushing type.
+
+Thus in the lower molars (Fig. 4, ₈ and ₉) we very frequently find the
+three cusps of the primitive triangle elevated and connected by cross
+crests, while there is an additional low posterior heel or talon, which
+may be termed the hypoconid. This tubercular-sectorial sub-type, as it
+is termed, is found in the lower molars of many Polyprotodont Marsupials
+and Insectivores, and it also occurs in the lower carnassial teeth of the
+true Carnivora. The presence of two cusps (inner and outer) to the talon
+converts this modification into a quinquetubercular form; while, by the
+suppression of one of the three primitive cusps, it develops into the
+quadritubercular type of the bunodont series.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.—Diagram of two upper and two lower left
+quadritubercular molars in mutual apposition. The cusps and ridges
+of the upper molars in double lines, and those of the lower in black
+lines. The lower molars are looked at from below, as if transparent.
+_pr_, Protocone; _hy_, hypocone; _pa_, paracone; _me_, metacone; _ml_,
+protoconule; _pl_, metaconule; _prd_, protoconid; _hyd_, hypoconid;
+_pad_, paraconid; _med_, metaconid; _end_, entoconid. (After Osborn.)]
+
+In the upper molars the primitive triangle in the secodont series may
+remain purely tricuspid; but the addition of intermediate cusps, both in
+the secodont and bunodont series, may give rise to a quinquetubercular
+type; these intermediate cusps being respectively designated as the
+protoconule and metaconule (Fig. 5, _ml_, _pl_). Finally, in the
+bunodont series, the addition of a postero-internal cusp (Fig. 5, _hy_),
+termed the hypocone, forms the sextubercular molar.
+
+The following table exhibits, in a collective form, the names and
+relations of all the above-mentioned cusps, and the letters by which they
+are indicated in the figures:—
+
+    UPPER MOLARS.
+
+    Antero-internal cusp                 = protocone   = _pr_.
+    Postero    ”    or 6th cusp          = hypocone    = _hy_.
+    Antero-external cusp                 = paracone    = _pa_.
+    Postero    ”     ”                   = metacone    = _me_.
+    Anterior intermediate cusp           = protoconule = _ml_.
+    Posterior   ”          ”             = metaconule  = _pl_.
+
+    LOWER MOLARS.
+
+    Antero-external cusp                 = protoconid  = _prd_.
+    Postero   ”      ”                   = hypoconid   = _hyd_.
+    Antero-internal or 5th cusp          = paraconid   = _pad_.
+    Intermediate (or in quadritubercular
+      molars antero-internal) cusp       = metaconid   = _med_.
+    Postero-internal cusp                = entaconid   = _end_.
+
+The common occurrence of trituberculism in the mammals of the earlier
+geological epochs is, as remarked by Osborn, very significant of the
+uniformity of molar origin. Thus, among the Mesozoic mammals (with the
+exception of the group known as Multituberculata, in which the molars
+are constructed on a different type), trituberculism occurs in the
+great majority of the genera; while out of 82 species, belonging to
+five different suborders from the Lowest or Puerco Eocene of the United
+States, all but four exhibit this feature; and the same holds good for
+the mammals of the corresponding European horizon. At the present day
+trituberculism persists in the Lemuroidea, Insectivora, Carnivora, and
+Marsupialia. In the Carnivora there is a tendency to lose the metaconid,
+while in the bunodont molars of the Ungulata it is the paraconid that
+disappears.
+
+
+III. THE SKELETON.
+
+_Definition._—The skeleton is a system of hard parts, forming a
+framework which supports and protects the softer organs and tissues
+of the body. It consists of dense fibrous and cartilaginous tissues,
+portions of which remain through life in this state, but the greater
+part is transformed during the growth of the animal into bone or osseous
+tissue. This is characterised by a peculiar histological structure and
+chemical composition, being formed mainly of a gelatinous basis, strongly
+impregnated with salts of calcium, chiefly phosphate, and disposed in a
+definite manner, containing numerous minute nucleated spaces or cavities
+called lacunæ, connected together by delicate channels or canaliculi,
+which radiate in all directions from the sides of the lacunæ. Parts
+composed of bone are, next to the teeth, the most imperishable of all
+the organs of the body, often retaining their exact form and internal
+structure for ages after every trace of all other portions of the
+organisation has completely disappeared, and thus, in the case of extinct
+animals, affording the only means of attaining a knowledge of their
+characters and affinities.[8]
+
+In the Armadillos and their extinct allies alone is there an ossified
+exoskeleton, or bony covering developed in the skin. In all other mammals
+the skeleton is completely internal. It may be described as consisting
+of an axial portion belonging to the head and trunk, and an appendicular
+portion belonging to the limbs. There are also certain bones called
+splanchnic, being developed within the substance of some of the viscera.
+Such are the _os cordis_ and _os penis_ found in some mammals.
+
+It is characteristic of all the larger bones of the mammalia that their
+ossification takes its origin from several distinct centres. One near
+the middle of the bone, and spreading throughout its greater portion,
+constitutes the _diaphysis_, or “shaft,” in the case of the long
+bones. Others near the extremities, or in projecting parts, form the
+_epiphyses_, which remain distinct during growth, but ultimately coalesce
+with the rest of the bone.
+
+_Axial skeleton._—The axial skeleton consists of the skull, the vertebral
+column (prolonged at the posterior extremity into the tail), the sternum,
+and the ribs.
+
+_Skull._—In the _skull_ of adult mammals, all the bones, except the
+lower jaw, the auditory ossicles, and the bones of the hyoid arch, are
+immovably articulated together, their edges being in close contact,
+and often interlocking by means of fine denticulations projecting from
+one bone and fitting into corresponding depressions of the other;
+they are also held together by the investing periosteum, or fibrous
+membrane, which passes directly from one to the other, and permits
+no motion, beyond perhaps a slight yielding to external pressure.
+In old animals there is a great tendency for the different bones to
+become actually united by the extension of ossification from one to
+the other, with consequent obliteration of the sutures. The cranium,
+thus formed of numerous originally independent ossifications, which may
+retain throughout life more or less of their individuality, or be all
+fused together, according to the species, the age, or even individual
+peculiarity, consists of a brain-case, or bony capsule for enclosing and
+protecting the brain, and a face for the support of the organs of sight,
+smell, and taste, and of those concerned in seizing and masticating the
+food. The brain-case articulates directly with the anterior cervical
+vertebra, by means of a pair of oval eminences, called condyles, placed
+on each side of the large median foramen which transmits the spinal cord.
+It consists of a basal axis, continuous serially with the axes or centra
+of the vertebræ, and of an arch above, roofing over and enclosing the
+cavity which contains the cephalic portion of the central nervous system
+(see Fig. 6). The base with its arch is composed of three segments placed
+one before the other, each of which is comparable to a vertebra with a
+greatly expanded neural arch. The hinder or occipital segment consists
+of the basioccipital, exoccipital, and supraoccipital bones; the middle
+segment of the basisphenoid, alisphenoid, and parietal bones; and the
+anterior segment of the presphenoid, orbitosphenoid, and frontal bones.
+The axis is continued forwards into the mesethmoid, or septum of the
+nose, around which the bones of the face are arranged in a manner so
+extremely modified for their special purposes that anatomists who have
+attempted to trace their serial homologies with the more simple portions
+of the axial skeleton have arrived at very diverse interpretations.
+The characteristic form and structure of the face of mammals is mainly
+dependent upon the size and shape of (1) the orbits, a pair of cup-shaped
+cavities for containing the eyeball and its muscles, which may be
+directed forwards or laterally, placed near together or wide apart, and
+may be completely or only partially encircled by bone; (2) the nasal
+fossæ, or cavities on each side of the median nasal septum, forming the
+passage for the air to pass between the external and the internal nares,
+and containing in their upper part the organ of smell; (3) the zygomatic
+arch, a bridge of bone for the purpose of muscular attachment, which
+extends from the side of the face to the skull, overarching the temporal
+fossa; (4) the roof of the mouth, with its alveolar margin for the
+implantation of the upper teeth. The face is completed by the mandible,
+or lower jaw, consisting of two lateral rami, articulated by a hinge
+joint with the squamosal (a cranial bone interposed between the posterior
+and penultimate segment of the brain-case, where also the bony capsule of
+the organ of hearing is placed), each being composed of a single solid
+piece of bone, and the two united together in the middle line in front,
+at the symphysis,—which union may be permanently ligamentous or become
+completely ossified. Into the upper border of the mandibular rami the
+lower teeth are implanted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.—Longitudinal and vertical section of the skull of
+a Dog (_Canis familiaris_), with mandible and hyoid arch. _an_, Anterior
+narial aperture; _MT_, maxillo-turbinal bone; _ET_, ethmo-turbinal;
+_Na_, nasal; _ME_, ossified portion of the mesethmoid; _CE_, cribriform
+plate of the ethmo-turbinal; _Fr_, frontal; _Pa_, parietal; _IP_,
+interparietal; _SO_, supraoccipital; _ExO_, exoccipital; _BO_,
+basioccipital; _Per_, periotic; _BS_, basisphenoid; _Pt_, pterygoid;
+_AS_, alisphenoid; _OS_, orbitosphenoid; _PS_, presphenoid; _PI_,
+palatine; _VO_, vomer; _Mx_, maxilla; _PMx_, premaxilla; _sh_, stylohyal;
+_eh_, epihyal; _ch_, ceratohyal; _bh_, basihyal; _th_, thyrohyal; _s_,
+symphysis of mandible; _cp_, coronoid process; _cd_, condyle; _a_, angle;
+_id_, inferior dental canal. The mandible is displaced downwards, to show
+its entire form; the * indicates the part of the cranium to which the
+condyle is articulated.[9]]
+
+In addition to the bones already mentioned as entering into the formation
+of the cranium, there are many others, the most important of which may
+be briefly noticed. The anterior extremity of the skull is formed by the
+premaxillæ (Figs. 6, 7, _PMx_), which carry the incisors; behind them
+are the maxillæ, in which all the remaining upper teeth are implanted.
+Both the premaxillæ and maxillæ meet in a median suture on the palate,
+where they form a floor to the nasal passage; this floor being continued
+backwards by the plate-like palatines, at the hinder extremity of which
+the posterior nares are usually situated. In a few instances, however,
+as in certain Edentates and Cetaceans, the small pair of bones forming
+the posterior continuation of the lateral borders of the palatines, and
+known as the pterygoids (Fig. 6, _Pt_), likewise meet in the middle line
+below the nasal passage, and thus cause the aperture of the posterior
+nares to be situated near the occiput. On the upper, or frontal aspect of
+the cranium the paired nasals roof over the nasal passage and fill the
+interval left between the premaxilla and maxilla of either side. Behind
+the nasals and maxillæ, the anterior part of the brain-case is formed
+by the large paired frontals (Figs. 6, 7, _Fr_), behind which are the
+parietals, which may be of still larger size, and form the greater part
+of the brain-case. A median interparietal ossification (Fig. 6, _IP_)
+may divide the parietals posteriorly, and is itself articulated with the
+supraoccipital, to the lateral borders of which the parietals are also
+joined. The squamosal (Fig. 7, _Sq_) forms the lateral wall of the hinder
+part of the brain-case, and articulates superiorly with the parietal,
+and posteriorly with the exoccipital. The glenoid cavity (Fig. 8), for
+the reception of the articular condyle of the mandible, is formed by the
+inferior portion of the squamosal, at the point where it gives off the
+zygomatic process to form the hinder portion of the zygomatic arch. The
+middle portion of that arch is formed by the jugal, or malar bone (Fig.
+7, _Ma_), which articulates posteriorly with the zygomatic process of
+the squamosal, and anteriorly with the maxilla. The jugal (as in Fig. 7)
+may also articulate with a small bone situated on the anterior border
+of the orbit known as the lachrymal. It is important to observe that
+the zygomatic or temporal arch is a squamoso-maxillary one, and that an
+arcade thus composed is found elsewhere only among the extinct Anomodont
+reptiles, which have already been mentioned as showing signs of mammalian
+affinity. The relative position occupied by the orbito- and alisphenoid
+is sufficiently indicated in Fig. 7.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.—Side view of skull of Cape Jumping Hare (_Pedetes
+caffer_). × ⅗ _PMx_, Premaxilla; _Mx_, maxilla, _Ma_, jugal or malar;
+_Fr_, frontal; _L_, lachrymal; _Pa_, parietal; _Na_, nasal; _Sq_,
+squamosal; _Ty_, tympanic; _ExO_, exoccipital; _AS_, alisphenoid; _OS_,
+orbitosphenoid; _Per_, mastoid bulla.]
+
+Wedged in between the squamosal and the bones of the occipital and
+basisphenoidal region are the bones connected with the organ of hearing,
+known as the periotic and tympanic. The position of the periotic, which
+encloses the labyrinth or essential organ of hearing, is shown in Fig. 6.
+The periotic is divided into a very dense antero-internal moiety known as
+the petrosal, and a postero-external or mastoid portion (Fig. 8), which
+appears on the outer wall of the brain-case. The tympanic is produced
+horizontally outwards to form the external auditory meatus or tube of
+the ear, while the inner and under surface is frequently dilated into a
+shell-like auditory bulla (Fig. 8). The small bones of the internal ear
+known as the malleus, incus, and stapes are contained in the membranous
+_tympanic cavity_, which is situated in a space left among this group of
+bones. Further mention of these bones is made below under the head of the
+sense organs.
+
+In the Carnivora and some other groups the foramina on the base of the
+skull for the passage of blood-vessels and nerves are of considerable
+taxonomic importance. The position of the more important of these
+foramina is indicated in Fig. 8; but for details the reader may refer to
+the work on the _Osteology of the Mammalia_ already mentioned. Attention
+may, however, be particularly directed to the so-called alisphenoid
+canal, the position of which is shown in Fig. 8, since this is a feature
+of some importance in the classification of the Carnivora. This canal
+is a short channel running horizontally forward from near the foramen
+ovale through the alisphenoid, and opening anteriorly with the foramen
+rotundum; it is traversed by the external carotid artery.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.—The right half of the hinder part of the base
+of the cranium of the Wolf (_Canis lupus_). _c_, Condyloid foramen;
+_l_, foramen lacerum posticum; _car_, carotid canal; _e_, eustachian
+canal; _o_, foramen ovale; _a_, posterior, and _a′_, anterior aperture
+of alisphenoid canal; _P_, paroccipital process of exoccipital; _m_,
+mastoid process of periotic; _am_, external auditory meatus; _g_, glenoid
+foramen, below which is the glenoid cavity for the condyle of the
+mandible. (Flower, _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1869, p. 25.)]
+
+Only in those species, as Man and the smaller kinds of the Primates and
+some other orders, in which the brain holds a large relative proportion
+to the rest of the body, does the external form of the skull receive
+much impress from the real shape of the cavity containing the brain.
+The size and form of the mouth, and the modifications of the jaws for
+the support of teeth of various shape and number, the ridges and crests
+on the cranium for the attachment of the muscles necessary to put this
+apparatus in motion, and outgrowths of bone for the enlargement of the
+external surface required for the support of sense organs or of weapons,
+such as horns or antlers (which outgrowths, to prevent undue increase
+of weight, are filled with cells containing air), cause the principal
+variations in the general configuration of the skull. These variations
+are, however, only characteristically developed in perfectly adult
+animals, and are in many cases more strongly marked in the male than the
+female sex. Throughout all the later stages of growth up to maturity
+the size and form of the brain-case remain comparatively stationary,
+while the accessory parts of the skull rapidly increase and assume their
+distinctive development characteristic of the species.
+
+The hyoidean apparatus in mammals (Fig. 6) supports the tongue and
+larynx, and consists of an inferior median portion termed the basihyal,
+from which two pairs of half arches, or cornua, extend upwards and
+outwards. The anterior is the more important, being connected with the
+periotic bone of the cranium. It may be almost entirely ligamentous, but
+more often has several ossifications, the largest of which is usually the
+stylohyal. The posterior cornu (thyrohyal) is united at its extremity
+with the thyroid cartilage of the larynx, which it suspends in position.
+The median portion, or basihyal, is sometimes, as in the Howling Monkeys,
+enormously enlarged and hollowed, admitting into its cavity an air-sac
+connected with the organ of voice.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.—Anterior surface of Human thoracic vertebra
+(fourth). _c_, Body or centrum; _nc_, neural canal; _p_, pedicle,
+and _l_, lamina of the arch; _t_, transverse process; _az_, anterior
+zygapophysis.]
+
+_Vertebral Column._—The _vertebral column_ consists of a series of
+distinct bones called vertebræ, arranged in close connection with each
+other along the dorsal side of the neck and trunk, and in the median
+line.[10] It is generally prolonged posteriorly beyond the trunk, to
+form the axial support of the appendage called the tail. Anteriorly it
+is articulated with the occipital region of the skull. The number of
+distinct bones composing the vertebral column varies greatly among the
+Mammalia, the main variation being due to the degree of elongation of
+the tail. Apart from this, in most mammals the number is not far from
+thirty, though it may fall as low as twenty-six (as in some Bats), or
+rise as high as forty (_Hyrax_ and _Cholœpus_). The different vertebræ,
+with some exceptions, remain through life quite distinct from each other,
+though closely connected by means of fibrous structures which allow of
+a certain, but limited, amount of motion between them. The exceptions
+are the following:—(1) near the posterior part of the trunk, in nearly
+all mammals which possess completely developed hinder limbs, two or more
+vertebræ become ankylosed together to form the “sacrum,” or portion of
+the vertebral column to which the pelvic girdle is attached; (2) in some
+species of Whales and Armadillos there are constant ossific unions of
+certain vertebræ of the cervical region.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.—Side view of the first lumbar vertebra of a Dog
+(_Canis familiaris_). _s_, Spinous process; _az_, anterior zygapophysis;
+_pz_, posterior zygapophysis; _m_, metapophysis; _a_, anapophysis; _t_,
+transverse process.]
+
+Although the vertebræ of different regions of the column of the same
+animal or of different animals present great diversities of form, yet
+there is a certain general resemblance among them, or a common plan on
+which they are constructed, which is more or less modified by alteration
+of form or proportions, or by the addition or suppression of parts to
+fit them to fulfil their special purpose in the economy. An ordinary or
+typical vertebra consists, in the first place, of a solid piece of bone,
+termed the body or centrum (Fig. 9, _c_), of the form of a disk or short
+cylinder. The bodies of contiguous vertebræ are connected together by
+a very dense, tough, and elastic material called the “intervertebral
+substance,” of peculiar and complex arrangement. This substance forms
+the main, and in some cases the only, union between the vertebræ. Its
+elasticity provides for the vertebræ always returning to their normal
+relation to each other and to the column generally, when they have been
+disturbed therefrom by muscular action. A process (_p_) arises on each
+side from the dorsal surface of the body. These processes, meeting
+in the middle line above, form an arch, surmounting a space or short
+canal (_nc_). Since it contains the posterior prolongation of the great
+cerebro-spinal nervous axis, or spinal cord, this space is called the
+neural canal, and the arch the neural arch, in contradistinction to
+another arch on the ventral surface of the body of the vertebræ, called
+the hæmal arch. The latter is, however, never formed in mammals by
+any part of the vertebra itself, but by certain distinct bones placed
+more or less in apposition to it, namely the ribs in the thoracic, and
+the “chevron bones” in the caudal region. In most cases the arch of
+one vertebra is articulated with that of the next by distinct surfaces
+with synovial joints, placed one on each side, called “zygapophyses”
+(_az_, _pz_), but these are often entirely wanting when flexibility is
+more needed than strength, as in the greater part of the caudal region
+of long-tailed animals. In addition to the body and the arch, there
+are certain projecting parts called processes, chiefly serving for the
+attachment of the numerous muscles which move the vertebral column. Of
+these two are single and median, viz. the spinous process, neural spine,
+or neurapophysis (_s_), arising from the middle of the upper part of
+the arch, and the hypapophysis from the under surface of the body. The
+latter, however, is as frequently absent as the former is constant. The
+other processes are paired and lateral. They are the transverse processes
+(_t_), of which there may be two, an upper and a lower, in which case the
+former is called, in the language of Owen (to whom we are indebted for
+the terminology of the parts of vertebræ in common use), “diapophysis,”
+and the latter “parapophysis.” Other processes less constantly present
+are called respectively “metapophyses” (_m_) and “anapophyses” (_a_).
+
+The vertebral column is divided for convenience of description into five
+regions—the cervical, thoracic or dorsal, lumbar, sacral, and caudal.
+This division is useful, especially as it is not entirely arbitrary,
+and in most cases is capable of ready definition; but at the contiguous
+extremities of the regions the characters of the vertebræ of one are
+apt to blend into those of the next region, either normally or as
+peculiarities of individual skeletons.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.—Anterior surface of sixth cervical vertebra
+of Dog. _s_, Spinous process; _az_, anterior zygapophysis; _v_,
+vertebrarterial canal; _t_, transverse process; _t′_, its inferior
+lamella.]
+
+_Cervical Vertebræ._—The _cervical_ region constitutes the most anterior
+portion of the column, or that which joins the cranium. The vertebræ
+which belong to it are either entirely destitute of movable ribs, or
+if they have any these are small, and do not join the sternum. As a
+general rule they have a considerable perforation through the base
+of the transverse process (the vertebrarterial canal, Fig. 11, _v_);
+or, as it is sometimes described, they have two transverse processes,
+superior and inferior, which meet at their extremities to enclose a
+canal. This, however, rarely applies to the last vertebra of the region,
+in which only the upper transverse process is usually developed. The
+transverse process, moreover, very often sends down near its extremity
+a more or less compressed plate (inferior lamella), which, being
+considered serially homologous with the ribs of the thoracic vertebræ
+(though not developed autogenously), is often called the “costal” or
+“pleurapophysial” plate. This is usually largest on the sixth, and
+altogether wanting on the seventh vertebra. The first and second cervical
+vertebræ, called respectively “atlas” and “axis,” are specially modified
+for the function of supporting and permitting the free movements of the
+head. They are not united together by the intervertebral substance, but
+connected only by ordinary ligaments and synovial joints.
+
+The cervical region in mammals presents the remarkable peculiarity that,
+whatever the length or flexibility of the neck, the number of vertebræ
+is the same, viz. seven, with the exception of the Manatee and Hoffman’s
+Two-toed Sloth (_Cholœpus hoffmanni_), which both have but six, and
+the Three-toed Sloth (_Bradypus tridactylus_), which has nine, though
+in this case the last two usually support movable ribs, which are not
+sufficiently developed to reach the sternum.
+
+According to Parker there may occasionally be eight cervicals in the
+Pangolins (_Manis_).
+
+_Dorsal Vertebræ._—The _dorsal_ (or, as it would be more correctly
+termed, _thoracic_) region consists of the vertebræ succeeding those of
+the neck, which have ribs movably articulated to them. These ribs arch
+round the thorax—the anterior one, and usually the greater number of
+those that follow, being attached below to the sternum.
+
+_Lumbar Vertebræ._—The _lumbar_ region consists of those vertebræ of
+the trunk in front of the sacrum which bear no movable ribs. It may
+happen that, as the ribs decrease in size posteriorly (the last being
+sometimes more or less rudimentary), the step from the thoracic to
+the lumbar region may be gradual and rather undetermined in a given
+species; but most commonly this is not the case, and the distinction is
+as well defined here as in any other region. As a general rule there
+is a certain relation between the number of the thoracic and lumbar
+vertebræ, the whole number being tolerably constant in a given group
+of animals, and any increase of the one being at the expense of the
+other. Thus in all known Artiodactyle Ungulata there are 19 dorso-lumbar
+vertebræ; but these may consist of 12 dorsal and 7 lumbar vertebræ, or
+13 dorsal and 6 lumbar, or 14 dorsal and 5 lumbar. The smallest number
+of dorso-lumbar vertebræ in mammals occurs in some Armadillos, which
+have but 14. The number found in Man, the higher Apes, and most Bats,
+viz. 17, is exceptionally low; 19 prevails in the Artiodactyla, nearly
+all Marsupials, and very many Rodents; 20 or 21 in Carnivora and most
+Insectivora; and 23 in Perissodactyla. The highest and quite exceptional
+numbers are in the Two-toed Sloth (_Cholœpus_) 27, and the Hyrax 30. The
+prevailing number of rib-bearing vertebræ is 12 or 13, any variation
+being generally in excess of these numbers.
+
+_Sacral Vertebræ._—The _sacral_ region offers more difficulties of
+definition. Taking the human “os sacrum” as a guide for comparison,
+it is generally defined as consisting of those vertebræ between the
+lumbar and caudal regions which are ankylosed together to form a single
+bone. It happens, however, that the number of such vertebræ varies in
+different individuals of the same or nearly allied species, especially
+as age advances, when a certain number of the tail vertebræ generally
+become incorporated with the true sacrum. Other suggested tests—as those
+vertebræ which have a distinct additional (pleurapophysial) centre of
+ossification between the body and the ilium, those to which the ilium
+is directly articulated, or those in front of the insertion of the
+ischiosacral ligaments—being equally unsatisfactory or unpractical, the
+old one of ankylosis, as it is found to prevail in the average condition
+of adults in each species, is used in the enumeration of the vertebræ in
+the following pages. The Cetacea, having no iliac bones, have no part of
+the vertebral column modified into a sacrum.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.—Anterior surface of fourth caudal vertebræ of
+Porpoise (_Phocæna communis_). _s_, Spinous process; _m_, metapophysis;
+_t_, transverse process; _h_, chevron bone.]
+
+_Caudal Vertebræ._—The _caudal_ vertebræ are those placed behind the
+sacrum, and terminating the vertebral column. They vary in number
+greatly—being reduced to 5, 4, or even 3, in a most rudimentary
+condition, in Man and in some Apes and Bats, and being numerous and
+powerfully developed, with strong and complex processes, in many mammals,
+especially among the Edentata, Cetacea, and Marsupialia. The highest
+known number, 46, is possessed by the African Long-tailed Pangolin.
+Connected with the under surface of the caudal vertebræ of many mammals
+which have the tail well developed are certain bones formed more or less
+like an inverted arch, called chevron bones, or by the French _os en V_.
+These are always situated nearly opposite to an intervertebral space, and
+are generally articulated both to the vertebra in front and the vertebra
+behind, but sometimes chiefly or entirely either to one or the other.
+
+In some of the Anomodont Reptiles and Labyrinthodont Amphibians these
+chevrons are attached to the intercentra—or imperfect disks alternating
+with the true centra—which suggests that they are primarily intercentral
+elements which have been transferred to the edges of the centra by the
+disappearance of the intercentra.
+
+_Sternum._—The _sternum_ of mammals is a bone, or generally a series
+of bones, placed longitudinally in the mesial line, on the inferior
+or ventral aspect of the thorax, and connected on each side with the
+vertebral column by a series of more or less ossified bars called “ribs.”
+It is present in all mammals, but varies much in character in the
+different groups. It usually consists of a series of distinct segments
+placed one before the other, the anterior being called the presternum or
+“manubrium sterni” of human anatomy, and the posterior the xiphisternum,
+or xiphoid or ensiform process, while the intermediate segments, whatever
+their number, constitute the mesosternum or “body.” In the Whalebone
+Whales the presternum alone is developed, and but a single pair of ribs
+is attached to it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.—Human sternum and sternal ribs. _ps_, Presternum;
+_ms_, mesosternum; _xs_, xiphisternum; _c_, point of attachment of
+clavicle; 1 to 10, the cartilaginous sternal ribs.]
+
+_Ribs._—The _ribs_ form a series of long, narrow, and more or less
+flattened bones, extending laterally from the sides of the vertebral
+column, curving downwards towards the median line of the body below, and
+mostly joining the sides of the sternum. The posterior ribs, however,
+do not directly articulate with that bone, but are either attached by
+their extremities to the edges of each rib in front of them, and thus
+only indirectly join the sternum, or else they are quite free below,
+meeting no part of the skeleton. These differences have given rise to the
+division into “true” and “false” ribs (by no means good expressions),
+signifying those that join the sternum directly and those that do not;
+and of the latter, those that are free below, are called “floating” ribs.
+The portion of each rib nearest the vertebral column and that nearest
+the sternum differ in their characters, the latter being usually but
+imperfectly ossified, or remaining permanently cartilaginous. These are
+called “costal cartilages,” or when ossified “sternal ribs.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.—Sternum and strongly ossified sternal ribs of
+Great Armadillo (_Priodon gigas_). _ps_, Presternum; _xs_, xiphisternum.]
+
+In the anterior part of the thorax the vertebral extremity of each rib is
+divided into two parts, “head” or “capitulum,” and “tubercle”; the former
+is attached to the side of the body of the vertebra, the latter to its
+transverse process; the former attachment corresponds to the interspace
+between the vertebræ, the head of the rib commonly articulating partly
+with the hinder edge of the body of the vertebra antecedent to that which
+bears its tubercle. Hence the body of the last cervical vertebra usually
+supports part of the head of the first rib. In the posterior part of the
+series the capitular and tubercular attachments commonly coalesce, and
+the rib is attached solely to its corresponding vertebra. The number of
+pairs of ribs is of course the same as that of the thoracic vertebræ.
+
+The circumstance that in some of the Anomodont reptiles and
+Labyrinthodonts the capitula of the ribs articulate with the intercentral
+elements of the vertebral column has suggested, as in the instance of
+the chevron bones, that the intercentral capitular articulation of the
+ribs of mammals is a feature directly inherited from those extinct types
+by the gradual disappearance of the intercentra.
+
+_Appendicular Skeleton._—The appendicular portion of the framework
+consists, when completely developed, of two pairs of limbs, anterior and
+posterior (Fig. 15).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.—Skeleton of Lion (_Felis leo_). _cd_, Caudal
+vertebræ; _cp_, carpus; _cr_, coracoid process of scapula, _cv_, cervical
+vertebræ; _d_, dorsal vertebræ; _fb_, fibula; _fm_, femur; _h_, humerus;
+_il_, ilium; _isch_, ischium; _l_, lumbar vertebræ; _m_, metatarsus;
+_mc_, metacarpus; _p_, patella; _pb_, pubis; _ph_, phalanges; _pv_,
+pelvis; _r_, radius; _s_, sacral vertebræ; _sc_, scapula; _sk_, skull;
+_tb_, tibia; _ts_, tarsus; _u_, ulna; _zy_, zygomatic arch.]
+
+_Anterior Limb._—The anterior limb is present and fully developed in all
+mammals, being composed of a shoulder girdle and three segments belonging
+to the limb proper; viz. the upper arm or brachium, the forearm or
+antebrachium, and the hand or manus.
+
+_Shoulder-girdle._—The _shoulder_ or _pectoral girdle_ in the large
+majority of mammals is in a rudimentary or rather modified condition,
+compared with that in which it exists in other vertebrates. In the
+Monotremata (_Ornithorhynchus_ and _Echidna_) alone is the ventral
+portion, or coracoid, complete and articulated with the sternum below,
+as in the Sauropsida; and in this group alone do we find an anterior
+ventral element, apparently corresponding with the pre-coracoid of the
+Anomodont reptiles, although generally known as the epi-coracoid. In
+all other mammals the coracoid, though ossified from a distinct centre,
+forms only a process, sometimes a scarcely distinct tubercle, projecting
+from the anterior border of the glenoid cavity of the scapula. The
+last-named cavity, which in the Monotremes is formed jointly by the
+scapula and coracoid, receives the head of the humerus, or arm-bone. The
+scapula is always well developed, and generally broad and flat (whence
+its vernacular name “blade bone”), with a ridge called the “spine” on
+its outer surface, which usually ends in a free curved process, the
+“acromion.” As the scapula affords attachment to many of the muscles
+which act upon the anterior limb, its form and the development of its
+processes are greatly modified according to the uses to which the
+member is put. Thus it is most reduced and simple in character in those
+animals whose limbs are mere organs of support, as the Ungulates; and
+most complex when the limbs are also used for grasping, climbing, or
+digging. The development or absence of the clavicle or “collar-bone,”
+an accessory bar which connects the sternum with the scapula and
+steadies the shoulder-joint, has a somewhat similar relation, though
+its complete absence in the Bears shows that this is not an invariable
+rule. A complete clavicle is found in Man and all the Primates, in
+Chiroptera, all Insectivora (except _Potamogale_), in many Rodents, in
+most Edentates, and in all Marsupials, except _Perameles_. More or less
+rudimentary clavicles (generally suspended freely in the muscles) are
+found in the Cat, Dog, and most Carnivora, _Myrmecophaga_, and some
+Rodents. Clavicles are altogether absent in most of the _Ursidæ_, all the
+Pinnipedia, _Manis_ among Edentates, the Cetacea, Sirenia, Ungulates, and
+some Rodents.
+
+The Monotremes are peculiar in possessing a T-shaped interclavicle
+like that of many reptiles, lying upon the sternum, and articulating
+superiorly with the clavicles.
+
+_Brachium and Antebrachium._—The proximal segment of the anterior or
+pectoral limb proper contains a single bone, the humerus, and the second
+segment two bones, the radius and the ulna, placed side by side, and
+articulating with the humerus at their proximal, and with the carpus
+at their distal extremity (Fig. 15). In their primitive and unmodified
+condition these bones may be considered as placed one on each border of
+the limb, the radius being preaxial or anterior, and the ulna postaxial
+or posterior, when the distal or free end of the limb is directed
+outwards, or away from the trunk. This is their position in the earliest
+embryonic condition, and is best illustrated among adult mammals in the
+Cetacea, where the two bones are fixed side by side and parallel to each
+other. In the greater number of mammals the bones assume a very modified
+and adaptive position, usually crossing each other in the forearm, the
+radius in front of the ulna, so that the preaxial bone (radius), though
+external (in the ordinary position of the limb) at the upper end, is
+internal at the lower end; and the hand, being mainly fixed to the
+radius, also has its preaxial border internal. In the large majority of
+mammals the bones are fixed in this position, but in some few, as in Man,
+a free movement of crossing and uncrossing—or pronation and supination,
+as it is termed—is allowed between them, so that they can be placed in
+their primitive parallel condition, when the hand (which moves with the
+radius) is said to be supine, or they may be crossed, when the hand is
+said to be prone.
+
+The humerus frequently has a foramen piercing the inner border of the
+distal extremity, known as the entepicondylar foramen, which corresponds
+with a similar one found in the Anomodont reptiles. The hollow in the
+head of the ulna for the reception of the head of the humerus is known as
+the greater sigmoid cavity, and that for the head of the radius as the
+lesser sigmoid cavity (Fig. 16). The term olecranon is applied to that
+process of the ulna which forms the prominence of the elbow.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.—Outer aspect of the proximal extremity of the
+right ulna of a Bear (_Ursus_). _a_, Anterior tubercle; _ol_, olecranon;
+_b_, greater sigmoid cavity; _c_, lesser do.]
+
+In most mammals walking on four limbs, in which the hand is permanently
+prone, the ulna is much reduced in size, and the radius increased,
+especially at the upper end; so that the articular surface of the latter,
+instead of being confined to the external side of the trochlea of the
+humerus, extends all across its anterior surface, and the two bones,
+instead of being external and internal, are anterior and posterior. In
+many hoofed or Ungulate mammals, and in Bats, the ulna is reduced to
+little more than its upper articular extremity, and firmly ankylosed to
+the radius—stability of these parts being more essential than mobility.
+
+_Manus._—The terminal segment of the anterior limb is the hand or
+manus. Its skeleton consists of three divisions: (1) the “carpus,” a
+group of small, more or less rounded or angular bones with flattened
+surfaces applied to one another, and, though articulating by synovial
+joints, having scarcely any motion between them; (2) the “metacarpus,”
+a series of elongated bones placed side by side, with their proximal
+ends articulating by almost immovable joints with the carpus; (3) the
+“phalanges” or bones of the digits, usually three in number to each,
+articulating to one another by freely movable hinge-joints, the first
+being connected in like manner to the distal end of the metacarpal bone
+to which it corresponds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.—Dorsal surface of the right manus of a Water
+Tortoise (_Chelydra serpentina_). After Gegenbaur. U, Ulna; R, radius;
+_u_, ulnare; _i_, intermedium; _r_, radiale; _c_, centrale; 1-5, the five
+bones of the distal row of the carpus; _m¹_-_m⁵_, the five metacarpals.]
+
+_Carpus._—To understand thoroughly the arrangement of the bones of the
+carpus in mammals, it is necessary to study their condition in some of
+the lower vertebrates. Fig. 17 represents the manus in one of its fullest
+and at the same time most generalised forms, as seen in one of the Water
+Tortoises (_Chelydra serpentina_). The carpus consists of two principal
+rows of bones. The upper or proximal row contains three bones, to which
+Gegenbaur has applied the terms _radiale_ (_r_), _intermedium_ (_i_), and
+_ulnare_ (_u_), the first being on the radial or preaxial side of the
+limb.[11] The lower or distal row contains five bones, called _carpale_
+1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 respectively, commencing on the radial side. Between
+these two rows, in the middle of the carpus, is a single bone, the
+_centrale_ (_c_). In this very symmetrical carpus it will be observed
+that the _radiale_ supports on its distal side two bones, _carpale_ 1
+and 2; the _intermedium_ is in a line with the _centrale_ and _carpale_
+3, which together form a median axis of the hand, while the _ulnare_ has
+also two bones articulating with its distal end, viz. _carpale_ 4 and 5.
+Each of the carpals of the distal row supports a metacarpal.
+
+In the carpus of the Mammalia there are usually two additional bones
+developed in the tendons of the flexor muscles, one on each side of the
+carpus, which may be called the radial and ulnar sesamoid bones; the
+latter, which is the more constant and generally larger, is commonly
+known as the pisiform bone. The fourth and fifth carpals of the distal
+row are always united into a single bone, and the centrale is very often
+absent. As a general rule all the other bones are present and distinct,
+though it not unfrequently happens that two may have coalesced to form a
+single bone, or one or more may be altogether suppressed.
+
+The following table shows the principal names in use for the various
+carpal bones,—those in the second column being the terms generally
+employed by English anatomists:—
+
+    _Radiale_      = Scaphoid   = _Naviculare_.
+    _Intermedium_  = Lunar      = _Semilunare_, _Lunatum_.
+    _Ulnare_       = Cuneiform  = _Triquetrum_, _Pyramidale_.
+    _Centrale_     = Central    = _Intermedium_ (Cuvier).
+    _Carpale_ 1    = Trapezium  = _Multangulum majus_.
+    _Carpale_ 2    = Trapezoid  = _Multangulum minus_.
+    _Carpale_ 3    = Magnum     = _Capitatum_.
+    _Carpale_ 4 }  = Uneiform   = _Hamatum_, _Uncinatum_.
+    _Carpale_ 5 }
+
+The radial and ulnar sesamoids are regarded by Bardeleben[12] as the
+rudiments of a prepollex and a postminimus digit; the primitive number
+of digits being thus supposed to have been seven. These bones have
+been observed in all orders of mammals having five complete digits.
+Occasionally, as in _Pedetes caffer_, the so-called prepollex consists
+of two bones, of which the distal one bears a distinct nail-like horny
+covering. In _Bathyergus maritimus_ the pisiform, or postminimus, is
+likewise double; the two elements being regarded by their describer as
+representing the carpal and metacarpal of the presumed seventh digit.
+
+Similarly in the posterior limb the tibial sesamoid, and a fibular
+ossification corresponding to the pisiform, are regarded as representing
+a prehallux and a postminimus.
+
+_Metacarpus and Phalanges._—The metacarpal bones, with the digits which
+they support, are never more than five in number, and are described
+numerically—first, second, etc., counting from the radial towards the
+ulnar side. The digits are also sometimes named (1) the pollex, (2)
+index, (3) medius, (4) annularis, (5) minimus. One or more may be in
+a rudimentary condition, or altogether suppressed. If one is absent,
+it is most commonly the first. Excepting the Cetacea, no mammals have
+more than three phalanges to each digit, but they may occasionally have
+fewer by suppression or ankylosis. The first or radial digit is an
+exception to the usual rule, one of its parts being constantly absent,
+since, while each of the other digits has commonly a metacarpal and
+three phalanges, it has only three bones altogether; whether the missing
+one is a metacarpal or one of the phalanges is a subject which has
+occasioned much discussion, and has not yet been satisfactorily decided.
+The terminal phalanges of the digits are usually specially modified to
+support the nail, claw, or hoof, and are called “ungual phalanges.” In
+walking, some mammals (as the Bears) apply the whole of the lower surface
+of the carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges to the ground; to these the
+term “plantigrade” is applied. Many others (as nearly all the existing
+Ungulata) only rest on the last one or two phalanges of the toes, the
+first phalanx and the metacarpals being vertical and in a line with the
+forearm. These are called “digitigrade.” Intermediate conditions exist
+between these two forms, to which the terms “phalangigrade” (as the
+Camel) and “subplantigrade” (as in most Carnivora), are applied. When the
+weight is borne entirely on the distal surface of the ungual phalanx,
+and the horny structures growing around it, as in the Horse, the mode of
+progression is called “unguligrade.”
+
+In the Chiroptera the digits are enormously elongated, and support a
+cutaneous expansion constituting the organ of flight. In the Cetacea the
+manus is formed into a paddle, being covered by continuous integument,
+which conceals all trace of division into separate digits, and shows no
+sign of nails or claws. In the Sloths the manus is long and very narrow,
+habitually curved, and terminating in two or three pointed curved claws
+in close apposition with each other, and incapable, in fact, of being
+divaricated; so that it is reduced to the condition of a hook, by which
+the animal suspends itself to the boughs of the trees among which it
+lives. These are only examples of the endless modifications to which the
+distal extremity of the limb is subjected in adaptation to the various
+purposes to which it is applied.
+
+_Posterior Limb._—The posterior limb is constructed upon a plan very
+similar to that of the anterior extremity. It consists of a pelvic girdle
+and three segments belonging to the limb proper, viz. the thigh, the leg,
+and the foot or pes (Fig. 15).
+
+_Pelvic Girdle._—The pelvic girdle is present in some form in all
+mammals, though in the Cetacea and the Sirenia it is in an exceedingly
+rudimentary condition. In all mammals except those belonging to the
+two orders just named, each lateral half of the pelvic girdle consists
+essentially, like the corresponding part of the anterior limb, of a
+flattened rod of bone crossing the long axis of the trunk, having an
+upper or dorsal and a lower or ventral end. The upper end diverges from
+that of the opposite side, but the lower end approaches, and, in most
+cases, meets it, forming a symphysis, without the intervention of any
+bone corresponding to the sternum. The pelvic girdle differs from the
+shoulder girdle in being firmly articulated to the vertebral column, thus
+giving greater power to the hinder limb in its function of supporting
+and propelling the body. Like the shoulder girdle, it bears on its outer
+side, near the middle, a cup-shaped articular cavity (“acetabulum”),
+into which the proximal end of the first bone of the limb proper is
+received. Each lateral half of the girdle is called the “os innominatum,”
+or innominate bone, and consists originally of three bones which unite
+at the acetabulum. The “ilium” or upper bone is that which articulates
+with the sacral vertebræ. Of the two lower bones the anterior or “pubis”
+unites with its fellow of the other side at the symphysis; the posterior
+is the “ischium.” These lower elements form two bars of bone, united
+above and below, but leaving a space between them in the middle, filled
+only by membrane, and called the “thyroid” or “obturator” foramen. The
+whole circle of bone formed by the two innominate bones and the sacrum
+is called the pelvis. In the Monotremata and Marsupialia, a pair of
+thin, flat, elongated ossifications called epipubic or marsupial bones
+are attached to the fore part of the pubis, and project forward into the
+muscular wall of the abdomen.
+
+_Thigh and Leg._—The first segment of the limb proper has one bone, the
+femur, corresponding with the humerus of the anterior limb. The second
+segment has two bones, the tibia and fibula, corresponding with the
+radius and ulna. These bones always lie in their primitive unmodified
+position, parallel to each other, the tibia on the preaxial and the
+fibula on the postaxial side, and are never either permanently crossed or
+capable of any considerable amount of rotation, as in the corresponding
+bones of the fore limb. In the ordinary walking position the tibia is
+internal, and the fibula external. In many mammals the fibula is in a
+more or less rudimentary condition, and it often ankyloses with the tibia
+at one or both extremities. The patella or “knee-cap,” which is found
+in an ossified condition in all mammals, with the exception of some of
+the Marsupialia, is a large sesamoid bone developed in the tendon of the
+extensor muscles of the thigh, where the tendon passes over the front of
+the knee-joint, to which it serves as a protection. There are frequently
+smaller ossicles, one or two in number, situated behind the femoral
+condyles, called “fabellæ.” The processes for the attachment of muscles
+near the upper end of the femur are termed trochanters; and the third
+trochanter, found on the hinder aspect of the shaft of this bone in many
+forms is of considerable taxonomic importance.
+
+_Pes._—The terminal segment of the hind limb is the foot or pes. Its
+skeleton presents in many particulars a close resemblance to that of
+the manus, being divisible into three parts: (1) a group of short, more
+or less rounded or square bones, constituting the tarsus; (2) a series
+of long bones placed side by side, forming the metatarsus; and (3) the
+phalanges of the digits or toes.
+
+The bones of the tarsus of many of the lower Vertebrata closely resemble
+both in number and arrangement those of the carpus, as shown in Fig. 17.
+They have been described in their most generalised condition by Gegenbaur
+under the names expressed in the first column of the following table. The
+names in the second column are those by which they are generally known to
+English anatomists, while in the third column some synonyms occasionally
+employed are added.
+
+    _Tibiale (?)_ }  = Astragalus[13]       = _Talus_.
+    _Intermedium_ }
+    _Fibulare_       = Calcaneum           = _Os calcis_.
+    _Centrale_       = Navicular           = _Scaphoideum_.
+    _Tarsale_ 1      = Internal cuneiform  = _Entocuneiforme_.
+    _Tarsale_ 2      = Middle cuneiform    = _Mesacuneiforme_.
+    _Tarsale_ 3      = External cuneiform  = _Ectocuneiforme_.
+    _Tarsale_ 4   }  = Cuboid.
+    _Tarsale_ 5   }
+
+The bones of the tarsus of mammals present fewer diversities of number
+and arrangement than those of the carpus. The proximal row (see Fig.
+18) always consists of two bones, namely the astragalus (_a_), which
+probably represents the coalesced scaphoid and lunar of the hand, and the
+calcaneum (_c_). The former is placed more to the dorsal side of the foot
+than the latter, and almost exclusively furnishes the tarsal part of the
+tibio-tarsal or ankle-joint. The calcaneum, placed more to the ventral
+or “plantar” side of the foot, is elongated backwards to form a more or
+less prominent tuberosity, the “tuber calcis,” to which the tendon of
+the great extensor muscles of the foot is attached. The navicular bone
+(_n_) is interposed between the proximal and distal row on the inner
+or tibial side of the foot, but on the outer side the bones of the two
+rows come into contact. The distal row, when complete, consists of four
+bones, which, beginning on the inner side, are the three cuneiform bones,
+internal (_c¹_), middle (_c²_), and external (_c³_), articulated to the
+distal surface of the navicular, and the cuboid (_cb_), articulated with
+the calcaneum. Of these the middle cuneiform is usually the smallest in
+animals in which all five digits are developed; but when the hallux is
+wanting the internal cuneiform may be rudimentary or altogether absent.
+The three cuneiform bones support respectively the first, second, and
+third metatarsals, and the cuboid supports the fourth and fifth; they
+thus exactly correspond with the four bones of the distal row of the
+carpus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.—Bones of the right Human foot. _T_, Tarsus; _M_,
+metatarsus; _Ph_, phalanges, _c_, calcaneum; _a_, astragalus; _cb_,
+cuboid; _n_, navicular; _c¹_, internal cuneiform; _c²_, middle cuneiform;
+_c³_, external cuneiform. The digits are indicated by Roman numerals,
+counting from the tibial to the fibular side.]
+
+In addition to these constant tarsal bones, there may be supplemental
+or sesamoid bones: one situated near the middle of the tibial side of
+the tarsus, largely developed in many Carnivora and Rodentia; another,
+less frequent, on the fibular side; and a third, often developed in the
+tendons of the plantar surface of the tarsus, is especially large in
+Armadillos. There is also usually a pair of sesamoid bones on the plantar
+aspect of each metatarso-phalangeal articulation. In the young of the
+carnivorous genus _Crytoprocta_ there may be a second centrale, which
+usually coalesces with the ectocuneiform.
+
+The metatarsal bones never exceed five in number, and the phalanges
+follow the same numerical rule as in the manus, never exceeding three in
+each digit. Moreover, the first digit, counting from the tibial side, or
+hallux, resembles the pollex of the hand in always having one segment
+less than the other digits. As the function of the hind foot is more
+restricted than that of the hand the modifications of its structure are
+less striking. In the Cetacea and the Sirenia it is entirely wanting,
+though in some existing members of the first-named order rudiments of
+the bones of both the first and second segments of the limb have been
+detected, and a femur is present in the Miocene Sirenian _Halitherium_.
+
+
+IV. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.
+
+_General Considerations._—The search after the purpose which every
+modification of structure subserves in the economy is always full of
+interest, and, if conducted with due caution and sufficient knowledge of
+all the attendant circumstances, may lead to important generalisations.
+It must always be borne in mind, however, that adaptation to its special
+function is not the only cause of the particular form or structure of an
+organ, but that this form, having in all probability been arrived at by
+the successive and gradual modification of some other different form from
+which it is now to a greater or less degree removed, has other factors
+besides use to be taken into account. In no case is this principle so
+well seen as in that of the organs of digestion. These may be considered
+as machines which have to operate upon alimentary substances in very
+different conditions of mechanical and chemical combination, and to
+reduce them in every case to the same or precisely similar materials;
+and we might well imagine that the apparatus required to produce flesh
+and blood out of coarse fibrous vegetable substances would be different
+from that which had to produce exactly the same results out of ready-made
+flesh or blood; and in a very broad sense we find that this is so. Thus,
+if we take a large number of carnivorous animals, belonging to different
+fundamental types, and a large number of herbivorous animals, and strike
+a kind of average of each, we shall find that there is, pervading the
+first group, a general style, if we may use the expression, of the
+alimentary organs, different from that of the others. That is to say,
+there is a specially carnivorous and a specially herbivorous modification
+of these parts. But, if function were the only element which has guided
+such modification, it might be inferred that, as one form must be
+supposed to be best adapted in its relation to a particular kind of diet,
+that form would be found in all the animals consuming such diet. But this
+is far from being the case. Thus the Horse and the Ox, for instance—two
+animals whose food in the natural state is precisely similar—are most
+different as regards the structure of their alimentary canal, and the
+processes involved in the preparation of that food. Again, the Seal and
+the Porpoise, both purely fish-eaters, which seize, swallow, and digest
+precisely the same kind of prey, in precisely the same manner, have a
+totally different arrangement of the alimentary canal. If the Seal’s
+stomach is adapted in the best conceivable manner for the purpose it has
+to fulfil, why is not the Porpoise’s stomach an exact facsimile of it,
+and _vice versâ_? We can only answer that the Seal and Porpoise belong to
+different natural groups of animals, formed either on different primitive
+types, or descended from differently constructed ancestors. On this
+principle only can we account for the fact that, whereas, owing to the
+comparatively small variety of the different alimentary substances met
+with in nature, few modifications would appear necessary in the organs of
+digestion, there is really endless variety in the parts devoted to this
+purpose.
+
+_Mouth._—The digestive apparatus of mammals, as in other vertebrates,
+consists mainly of a tube with an aperture placed at or near either
+extremity of the body,—the oral and the anal orifice,—and furnished with
+muscular walls, the fibres of which are so arranged as by their regular
+alternate contraction and relaxation to drive onwards the contents of
+the tube from the first to the second of these apertures. The anterior
+or commencing portion of this tube and the parts around it are greatly
+and variously modified in relation to the functions assigned to them of
+selecting and seizing the food, and preparing it by various mechanical
+and chemical processes for the true digestion which it has afterwards
+to undergo before it can be assimilated into the system. For this end
+the tube is dilated into a chamber or cavity called the mouth, bordered
+externally by the lips, which are usually muscular and prehensile, and
+supported by a movable framework carrying the teeth; the structure and
+modifications of which have been already described. The roof of the mouth
+is formed by the palate, terminating behind by a muscular, contractile
+arch, having in Man and some few other species a median projection
+called the uvula, beneath which the mouth communicates with the pharynx.
+The anterior part of the palate is composed of mucous membrane tightly
+stretched over the flat or slightly concave bony lamina separating the
+mouth from the nasal passages, and is generally raised into a series
+of transverse ridges, which sometimes, as in Ruminants, attain a
+considerable development. In the floor of the mouth, between the rami of
+the mandible, and supported behind by the hyoidean apparatus, lies the
+tongue; an organ the free surface of which, especially in its posterior
+part, is devoted to the sense of taste, but which also, by its great
+mobility (being composed almost entirely of muscular fibres), performs
+important mechanical functions connected with masticating and procuring
+food. Its modifications of form in different mammals are very numerous.
+Between the long, extensile, vermiform tongue of the Anteaters, which
+is essential to the peculiar mode of feeding of those animals, and the
+short, sessile, and almost functionless tongue of the Porpoise, every
+intermediate condition is found. Whatever the form, the upper surface
+is always covered with numerous fine papillæ, in which the terminal
+filaments of the gustatory nerve are distributed.
+
+_Salivary Glands._—The fluid known as the saliva is secreted by an
+extensive and complex system of glands discharging into the cavity of the
+mouth (buccal cavity), the position and relation of some of which are
+exhibited in the woodcut on the next page (Fig. 19).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.—Salivary Glands of the Genet. _A_, Right side
+of the head dissected; _p_, parotid gland; _d_, Steno’s duct; _sm_,
+submaxillary gland, traversed by the jugular veins (_jv_); _o_, aperture
+of Steno’s duct. _B_, Part of the head with the lip drawn up to show
+(_st.d_) aperture of Steno’s duct; _z.gl_, zygomatic gland; _o_, aperture
+of do.; _z_, zygomatic arch (Mivart, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 504.)]
+
+This apparatus consists of small glands embedded in the mucous membrane
+or submucous tissue lining the cavity of the mouth, which are of two
+kinds (the follicular and the racemose), and of others in which the
+secreting structure is aggregated in distinct masses removed some
+distance from the cavity; other tissues besides the lining membrane being
+usually interposed, and pouring their secretion into the cavity by a
+distinct tube or duct, which traverses the mucous membrane. To the latter
+alone the name of “salivary glands” is ordinarily appropriated, although
+the distinction between them and the smaller racemose glands is only one
+of convenience for descriptive purposes, their structure being more or
+less nearly identical; and, since the fluids secreted by all become mixed
+in the month, their functions are, at all events in great part, common.
+Under the name of salivary glands are commonly included—(1) the “parotid”
+(_p_), situated very superficially on the side of the head, below or
+around the cartilaginous external auditory meatus, and the secretion of
+which enters the mouth by a duct (often called Steno’s or Stenson’s)
+which crosses the masseter muscle and opens into the upper and back part
+of the cheek (Fig. 19); and (2) the “submaxillary” (_sm_), situated in
+the neck, near or below the angle of the mandible, and sending a long
+duct (Wharton’s) forwards to open on the forepart of the floor of the
+cavity of the mouth, below the apex of the tongue. These are the most
+largely developed and constant of the salivary glands, being met with
+in various degrees of development in almost all animals of the class.
+Next in constancy are (3) “the sublingual,” closely associated with the
+last-named, at all events in the locality in which the secretion is
+poured out; and (4) the “zygomatic” (_z.gl_), found only in some animals
+in the cheek, just under cover of the anterior part of the zygomatic
+arch, its duct entering the buccal cavity near that of the parotid.
+
+The most obvious function common to the secretion of these various
+glands, and to that of the smaller ones placed in the mucous membrane
+of the lips, the cheeks, the tongue, the palate, and fauces, is the
+mechanical one of moistening and softening the food, to enable it the
+more readily to be tasted, masticated, and swallowed, though each kind of
+gland may contribute in different manner and different degree to perform
+this function. The saliva is, moreover, of the greatest importance in the
+first stage or introduction to the digestive process, as it dissolves
+or makes a watery extract of all soluble substances in the food, and
+so prepares them to be further acted on by the more potent digestive
+fluids met with subsequently in their progress through the alimentary
+canal. In addition to these functions it seems now well established by
+experiment that saliva serves in Man and many animals to aid directly
+in the digestive process, particularly by its power of inducing the
+saccharine transformation of amylaceous substances. As a general rule,
+in mammals the parotid saliva is more watery in its composition, while
+that of the submaxillaries, and still more the sublingual, contains
+more solid elements and is more viscid;—so much so that some anatomists
+consider the latter, together with the small racemose glands of the
+cheeks, lips, and tongue, as mucous glands, retaining the name of
+salivary only for the parotid. These peculiar properties are sometimes
+illustrated in a remarkable degree, as, for example, the great secretion
+of excessively viscid saliva which lubricates the tongue of the Anteaters
+and Armadillos, associated with enormously developed submaxillary glands;
+while, on the other hand, the parotids are of great size in those animals
+which habitually masticate dry and fibrous food.
+
+_Stomach._—After the preparation which the aliment has undergone in the
+mouth,—the extent of which varies immensely in different forms, being
+reduced almost to nothing in such animals as the Seals and Cetaceans,
+which, to use the familiar expression, “bolt” their food entire, and
+most fully carried out in the Ruminants, which “chew the cud,”—it is
+swallowed, and carried along the œsophagus by the action of its muscular
+coats into the stomach. In the greater number of mammals this organ is a
+simple saccular dilatation of the alimentary canal, as in Figs. 20, 21,
+but in others it undergoes remarkable modifications and complexities.
+The lining of the stomach is thickly beset with tubular glands, which
+are generally considered to belong to two different forms, recognisable
+by their structure, and different in their function—the most numerous
+and important secreting the gastric juice (the active agent in stomachic
+digestion), and hence called “peptic” glands, while the others are
+concerned only in the elaboration of mucus. The relative distribution
+of these glands in different regions of the walls of the stomach varies
+greatly in different animals, and in many species there are large tracts
+of the mucous membrane which do not secrete a fluid having the properties
+of gastric juice, but often constitute more or less distinct cavities
+devoted to storing and perhaps softening or otherwise preparing the
+food for digestion. Sometimes there is a great aggregation of glands
+forming distinct thickened patches of the stomach wall, as in the Beaver
+and Koala, or even collected in pyriform pouches with a common narrow
+opening into the cavity, as in the Manatee and the curious African Rodent
+_Lophiomys_. The action of the gastric fluid is mainly exerted upon the
+nitrogenous elements of the food, which it dissolves and modifies so as
+to render them capable of undergoing absorption, effected partly by the
+blood-vessels of the stomach, although the greater part, passes through
+the pylorus, an aperture surrounded by a circular muscular valve, into
+the intestinal canal. Here it comes in contact with the secretion of a
+vast number of small glands called the crypts of Lieberkuhn, somewhat
+similar to those of the stomach; and also of several special glands of a
+different character, namely, the small racemose, duodenal, or Brunner’s
+glands, the pancreas, and the liver; the position of the ducts of the two
+latter organs being indicated in Fig. 20.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.—Stomach and pancreas of the Genet. Posterior or
+dorsal surface, _œ_, Œsophagus; _s_, pancreas; _pd_, pancreatic duct;
+_bd_, biliary duct from the liver. (From Mivart, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882,
+p. 305.)]
+
+_Intestinal Canal._—The intestinal canal varies greatly in relative
+length and capacity in different animals, and it also offers manifold
+peculiarities of form, being sometimes a simple cylindrical tube of
+nearly uniform calibre throughout, but more often subject to alterations
+of form and capacity in different portions of its course,—the most
+characteristic and constant being the division into an upper and
+narrower, and lower and wider portion, called respectively the small
+and the large intestine, the former being divided quite arbitrarily and
+artificially into duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, and the latter into
+colon and rectum. One of the most striking peculiarities of this part
+of the alimentary canal is the frequent presence of a diverticulum or
+blind pouch, the _caput cæcum coli_, as it was first called, a name
+generally abbreviated into “cæcum,” situated at the junction of the large
+and the small intestine, a structure presenting an immense variety of
+development, from the smallest bulging of a portion of the side wall of
+the tube to a huge and complex sac, greatly exceeding in capacity the
+whole of the remainder of the alimentary canal. It is only in herbivorous
+animals that the cæcum is developed to this great extent, and among
+these there is a curious complementary relationship between the size
+and complexity of this organ and that of the stomach. Where the latter
+is simple the cæcum is generally the largest, and _vice versâ_. Both
+the cæcum and colon are often sacculated, a disposition caused by the
+arrangement of the longitudinal bands of muscular tissue in their walls;
+but the small intestine is always smooth and simple-walled externally,
+though its lining membrane often exhibits various contrivances for
+increasing the absorbing surface without adding to the general bulk of
+the organ, such as the numerous small villi by which it is everywhere
+beset, and the more obvious transverse, longitudinal, or reticulating
+folds projecting into the interior, met with in many animals, of which
+the “valvulæ conniventes” of Man form well-known examples.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.—Diagrammatic plan of the general arrangement of
+the alimentary canal in a typical Mammal. _o_, Œsophagus; _st_, stomach;
+_p_, pylorus; _s_, _s_, small intestine; (abbreviated); _c_, cæcum; _l_,
+_l_, large intestine or colon, ending in _r_, the rectum.]
+
+Besides the crypts of Lieberkuhn found throughout the intestinal canal,
+and the glands of Brunner confined to the duodenum, there are other
+structures in the mucous membrane, about the nature of which there is
+still much uncertainty, called “solitary” and “agminated” glands; the
+latter being more commonly known by the name of “Peyer’s patches.” These
+were formerly supposed to be secretory organs, which discharged some
+kind of fluid into the intestine, but are now more generally considered
+to belong to that group of structures of somewhat mysterious function
+of which the lymphatic and lacteal glands are members. The solitary
+glands are found scattered irregularly throughout the whole intestinal
+tract; the agminated, on the other hand, are always confined to the small
+intestine, and are most abundant in its lower part. They are subject to
+great variation in number and in size, and even in different individuals
+of the same species, and also differ in character at different periods of
+life, becoming atrophied in old age.
+
+_Liver._—The distinct glands situated outside the walls of the intestinal
+canal, but which pour their secretion into it, are the pancreas and the
+liver. The latter is the more important on account of its size, if not on
+account of the direct action of its secretion in the digestive process.
+This large gland, so complex in structure and function, is well developed
+in all mammals, and its secreting tube, the bile-duct, always opens into
+the duodenum, or that portion of the canal which immediately succeeds
+the stomach. It is situated on the right side of the abdomen in contact
+with the diaphragm and the stomach, but varies greatly in relative size,
+and also in form, in different groups of mammals. In most mammals a
+gall-bladder, consisting of a pyriform diverticulum from the bile-duct,
+is present, but in many this appendage is wanting, and it is difficult to
+find the rationale of its presence or absence in relation to use or any
+other circumstance in the animal economy.
+
+The descriptions of the livers of various animals to be met with in
+treatises or memoirs on comparative anatomy are very difficult to
+understand for want of a uniform system of nomenclature. The difficulty
+usually met with arises from the circumstance that this organ is divided
+sometimes, as in Man, Ruminants, and the Cetacea, into two main lobes,
+which have been always called respectively right and left, and in other
+cases, as in the lower Monkeys, Carnivora, Insectivora, and several other
+orders, into a larger number of lobes. Among the latter the primary
+division usually appears at first sight tripartite, the whole organ
+consisting of a middle, called “cystic” or “suspensory” lobe, and two
+lateral lobes, called respectively right and left lobes. This introduces
+confusion in describing livers by the same terms throughout the whole
+series of mammals, since the right and left lobes of the Monkey or Dog,
+for instance, do not correspond with parts designated by the same names
+in Man and the Sheep. There are, moreover, conditions where neither the
+bipartite nor the tripartite system of nomenclature will answer, so that
+we should have considerable difficulty in describing them without some
+more general system. In order to arrive at such a system it appears
+desirable to consider the liver in all cases as primarily divided by the
+umbilical vein (see Fig. 22, _u_) into two segments, right and left. This
+corresponds with its development and with the condition characteristic
+of the organ in the inferior classes of vertebrates. The situation of
+this division can almost always be recognised in adult animals by the
+persistence of some traces of the umbilical vein in the form of the round
+ligament, and by the position of the suspensory ligament.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.—Diagrammatic plan of the inferior surface of
+a multilobed liver of a Mammal. The posterior or attached border is
+uppermost. _u_, Umbilical vein of the fœtus, represented by the round
+ligament in the adult, lying in the umbilical fissure; _dv_, the ductus
+venosus; _vc_, the inferior vena cava; _p_, the vena portæ entering the
+transverse fissure; _llf_, the left lateral fissure; _rlf_, the right
+lateral fissure; _cf_, the cystic fissure; _ll_, the left lateral lobe;
+_lc_, the left central lobe; _rc_, the right central lobe; _rl_, the
+right lateral lobe; _s_, the Spigelian lobe; _c_, the caudate lobe; _g_,
+the gall-bladder.]
+
+When the two main parts into which the liver is thus divided are entire,
+as in Man, the Ruminants, and Cetacea, they may be spoken of as the
+right and left lobes; when fissured, as the right and left segments
+of the liver, reserving the term lobe for the subdivisions. This will
+involve no ambiguity, for the terms right and left lobe will no longer
+be used for divisions of the more complex form of liver. In the large
+majority of mammals each segment is further divided by a fissure, more
+or less deep, extending from the free towards the attached border, which
+are called right and left lateral fissures (Fig. 22, _rlf_ and _llf_).
+When these are more deeply cut than the umbilical fissure (_u_), the
+organ has that tripartite or trefoil-like form just spoken of, but it
+is easily seen that it is really divided into four regions or lobes,
+those included between the lateral fissures being the right and left
+central (_rc_ and _lc_) separated by the umbilical fissure, and those
+beyond the lateral fissures on each side being the right and left lateral
+lobes (_rl_ and _ll_). The essentially bipartite character of the organ
+and its uniformity of construction throughout the class are thus not
+lost sight of, even in the most complex forms. The left segment of the
+liver is rarely complicated to any further extent, except in some cases
+by minor or secondary fissures marking off small lobules, generally
+inconstant and irregular, and never worthy of any special designation.
+On the other hand, the right segment is usually more complex. The
+gall-bladder, when present, is always attached to the under surface of
+the right central lobe, sometimes merely applied to it, in other cases
+deeply embedded in its substance. In many instances the fossa in which
+it is sunk is continued to the free margin of the liver as an indent, or
+even a tolerably deep fissure (_cf_). The portal fissure (_p_), through
+which the portal vein and hepatic artery enter and the bile-duct emerges
+from the liver, crosses the right central lobe transversely, near the
+attached border of the liver. The right lateral lobe always has the
+great vena cava (_vc_) either grooving its surface or tunnelling through
+its substance near the inner or left end of its attached border; and a
+prolongation of this lobe to the left, between the vein and the portal
+fissure, sometimes forming a mere flat track of hepatic substance, but
+more often a prominent tongue-shaped process, is the so-called “Spigelian
+lobe” (_s_). From the under surface, of the right lateral lobe a portion
+is generally partially detached by a fissure, and called the “caudate
+lobe” (_c_). In Man this lobe is almost obsolete, but in most mammals it
+is of considerable magnitude, and has very constant and characteristic
+relations. It is connected by an isthmus at the left (narrowest or
+attached) end to the Spigelian lobe, behind which isthmus the vena cava
+is always in relation to it, channelling through or grooving its surface.
+It generally has a pointed apex, and is deeply hollowed to receive the
+right kidney, to the upper and inner side of which it is applied.
+
+Considerations derived from the comparatively small and simple condition
+of the liver of the Ungulata, compared with its large size and complex
+form in the Carnivora, have led to the perhaps too hasty generalisation
+that the first type is related to a herbivorous and the latter to a
+carnivorous diet. The exceptions to such a proposition are very numerous.
+The fact of the great difference between the liver of the Cetacea and
+that of the Seals cannot be accounted for by difference of habits of
+life, though it perhaps may be by difference of origin.[14]
+
+
+V. CIRCULATORY, ABSORBENT, RESPIRATORY, AND URINARY SYSTEMS.
+
+_Blood._—The blood of mammals is always red, and during the life of the
+animal hot, having a nearly uniform temperature, varying within a few
+degrees on each side of 100° Fahr. The corpuscles are, as usual in the
+vertebrates, of two kinds: (1) colourless, spheroidal, nucleated, and
+exhibiting amœboid movements; while (2) the more numerous, on which
+depends the characteristic hue of the fluid in which they are suspended,
+are coloured, non-nucleated, flattened, slightly biconcave discs, with
+circular outline in all known species except the Camels and Llamas,
+where they have the elliptical form characteristic of the red corpuscles
+of nearly all the other vertebrates, though adhering to the mammalian
+type in the absence of nucleus and relatively small size. As a rule they
+are smaller as well as more numerous than in other classes, but vary
+considerably in size in different species, and not always in relation
+to the magnitude of the animal; a Mouse, for instance, having as large
+corpuscles as a Horse. Within the limits of any natural group there is,
+however, very often some such relation, the largest corpuscles being
+found among the large species and the smallest corpuscles among the small
+species of the group, but even to this generalisation there are many
+exceptions. The transverse diameter of the red corpuscles in Man averages
+¹⁄₃₂₀₀ of an inch, which is exceptionally large, and only exceeded by
+the Elephant (¹⁄₂₇₄₅), and by some Cetacea and Edentata. They are also
+generally large in Apes, Rodents, and the Monotremata, and small in the
+Artiodactyles, least of all in the Chevrotains (_Tragulus_), being in _T.
+javanicus_ and _meminna_ not more than ¹⁄₁₂₃₂₅.[15]
+
+_Heart._—The heart of mammals consists of four distinct cavities,
+two auricles and two ventricles. Usually the ventricular portion is
+externally of conical form, with a simple apex, but in the Sirenia it is
+broad and flattened, and a deep notch separates the apical portion of
+each ventricle. A tendency to this form is seen in the Cetacea and the
+Seals. It is characteristic of mammals alone among vertebrates that the
+right auriculo-ventricular valve is tendinous like the left, consisting
+of flaps held in their place by fibrous ends (_chordæ tendiniæ_) and
+arising from projections of the muscular walls of the ventricular cavity
+(_musculi papillares_). In the Monotremata a transition between this
+condition and the simple muscular flap of the Sauropsida is observed. In
+most of the larger Ungulates a distinct but rather irregular ossification
+(_os cordis_) is developed in the central tendinous portion of the base
+of the heart.
+
+_Blood-vessels._—The orifices of the aorta and pulmonary artery are each
+guarded by three semilunar valves. The aorta is single, and arches over
+the left bronchial tube. After supplying the tissues of the heart itself
+with blood by means of the coronary arteries, it gives off large vessels
+(“carotid”) to the head and (“brachial”) to the anterior extremities. The
+mode in which these vessels arise from the aorta varies much in different
+mammals, and the study of their disposition affords some guide to
+classification. In nearly all cases the right brachial and carotid have a
+common origin (called the “innominate artery” in anthropotomy). The other
+two vessels may come off from this, as is the rule in Ungulates, the
+common trunk constituting the “anterior aorta” of veterinary anatomy; or
+they may be detached in various degrees, both arising separately from the
+aorta, as in Man, or the left carotid from the innominate and the left
+brachial from the aorta, a very common arrangement; or the last two from
+a common second or left innominate, as in some Bats and Insectivores.
+The aorta, after giving off the intercostal arteries, passes through the
+diaphragm into the abdomen, and, after supplying the viscera of that
+cavity by means of the gastric, hepatic, splenic, mesenteric, renal,
+and spermatic vessels, gives off in the lumbar region a large branch
+(iliac) to each of the hinder extremities, which also supplies the
+pelvic viscera, and is continued onwards in the middle line, greatly
+diminished in size, along the under surface of the tail as the caudal
+artery. In certain mammals, arterial plexuses, called _retia mirabilia_,
+formed by the breaking up of the vessel into an immense number of small
+trunks, which may run in a straight course parallel to one another
+(as in the limbs of Sloths and Slow Lemurs), or form a closely packed
+network, as in the intracranial plexuses of Ruminants, or a sponge-like
+mass of convoluted vessels, as in the intercostals of Cetaceans, are
+peculiarities of the vascular system the meaning of which is not in all
+cases clearly understood. In the Cetacea they are obviously receptacles
+for containing a large quantity of oxygenated blood available during the
+prolonged immersion, with consequent absence of respiration, to which
+these animals are subject.
+
+The vessels returning the blood to the heart from the head and upper
+extremities usually unite, as in Man, to form the single _vena cava
+superior_ or precaval vein, but in some Insectivores, Chiroptera, and
+Rodents, in the Elephant, and all Marsupials and Monotremes, the two
+superior caval veins enter the right auricle without uniting, as in
+birds. In Seals and some other diving mammals there is a large venous
+sinus or dilatation of the inferior vena cava immediately below the
+diaphragm. In the Cetacea the purpose of this is supplied by the immense
+abdominal venous plexuses. As a rule the veins of mammals are furnished
+with valves, but these are said to be altogether wanting in the Cetacea,
+and in the superior and inferior cava, subclavian and iliac veins, the
+veins of the liver (both portal and hepatic), heart, lungs, kidneys,
+brain, and spinal cord of other mammals. Many of the veins within the
+cranium are included in spaces formed by the separation of the laminæ of
+the dura mater, and do not admit of being dilated beyond a certain size;
+these are termed sinuses. The portal circulation in mammals is limited
+to the liver, the portal vein being formed by the superior and inferior
+mesenteric, the splenic, the gastro-epiploic, and the pancreatic veins.
+The kidney is supplied solely by arterial blood, and its veins empty
+their contents only into the inferior cava.
+
+_Lymphatic Vessels._—The _absorbent_ or _lymphatic_ system of vessels is
+very fully developed in the Mammalia. Its ramifications extend through
+all the soft tissues of the body, and convey a colourless fluid called
+lymph, containing nucleated corpuscles, and also, during the process of
+digestion, the chyle, a milky fluid taken up by the lymphatics (here
+called lacteals) of the small intestine, and pour them into the general
+vascular system, where they mix with the venous blood. The lymphatic
+vessels of the hinder extremities, as well as those from the intestinal
+canal, unite in the abdomen to form the “thoracic duct,” the hinder
+end or commencement of which has a dilatation called the _receptaculum
+chyli_. This duct, which is of irregular size and sometimes double, often
+dividing and uniting again in its course, or even becoming plexiform,
+passes forwards close to the bodies of the thoracic vertebræ, and
+empties itself, by an orifice guarded by a valve, into the great left
+brachio-cephalic vein, having previously received the lymphatics from
+the thorax and the left side of the head and left anterior extremity.
+The lymphatics from the right side of the head and right anterior limb
+usually enter by a small distinct trunk into the corresponding part
+of the right brachio-cephalic vein. The duct, and also the principal
+lymphatic vessels, are provided with valves.
+
+Lymphatic glands, rarely met with in the Sauropsida, are usually
+present in mammals, both in the general and in the lacteal system; the
+latter being called “mesenteric glands.” They are round or oval masses,
+situated upon the course of the vessels, which break up in them and
+assume a plexiform arrangement, and then reunite as they emerge. No
+structures corresponding to the pulsating “lymphatic hearts” of the lower
+vertebrates have been met with in mammals.
+
+_Ductless Glands._—Associated with the vascular and lymphatic systems
+are certain bodies (the functions of which are not properly understood),
+usually, on account of their general appearance, grouped together under
+the name of “ductless glands.” The largest of these is the “spleen,”
+which is single, and always placed in mammals in relation to the
+fundus or left end of the stomach, to which it is attached by a fold
+of peritoneum. It is dark-coloured and spongy in substance, and has a
+depression or “hilus” on one side, into which the splenic artery, a
+branch of the cœliac axis of the abdominal aorta, enters, and from which
+the vein joining the portal system emerges. The spleen varies much in
+size and form in different mammals, being relatively very small in the
+Cetacea. It is sometimes almost spherical, but more often flattened,
+oval, triangular, or elongated, and occasionally, as in Monotremes and
+most Marsupials, triradiate. The “suprarenal bodies” or “adrenals” are
+two in number, each situated either in contact with, or at a short
+distance in front of the anterior extremity of the kidney. They are
+abundantly supplied with nerves, and are much larger relatively in
+early than in adult life. The “thyroid bodies,” of which there are
+generally two, though in Man and some other species they are connected
+by an isthmus passing across the middle line, are constant in mammals,
+though only met with in a rudimentary condition, if at all, in other
+vertebrates. They are situated in the neck, in contact with the sides of
+the anterior extremity of the trachea. The “thymus” lies in the anterior
+part of the thorax, between the sternum and the great vessels at the
+base of the heart, and differs from the thyroid in being median and
+single, and having a central cavity. It attains its greatest development
+during the period in which the animal is nourished by its mother’s milk,
+and then it diminishes, and generally disappears before full growth is
+attained.
+
+_Nostrils._—Mammals breathe occasionally through the mouth, but usually,
+and in many cases exclusively, through the nostrils or _nares_. Those are
+apertures, always paired (except in the toothed Cetacea, where they unite
+to form a single external opening), and situated at the fore part of the
+face, generally at or beneath the end of the muzzle, a median prominence
+above the mouth. This is sometimes elongated to form a proboscis, to
+the extremity of which the nostrils are carried, and which attains its
+maximum of development in the Elephant. In the Cetacea the nostrils
+are situated at a considerable distance behind the anterior end of the
+face, upon the highest part of the head, and are called “blowholes,”
+from the peculiar mode of respiration of those animals. The nostrils
+are kept open by means of cartilages surrounding their aperture, which
+many animals have the power of moving so as to cause partial dilatation
+or contraction. In diving animals, as Seals and Cetacea, they can be
+completely closed at will so as to prevent the entrance of water when
+beneath the surface. The passage to which the nostrils lead is in most
+mammals filled by a more or less complex sieve-like apparatus, formed
+of the convoluted turbinal bones and cartilages, over which a moist,
+vascular, ciliated mucous membrane is spread, which intercepts particles
+of dust, and also aids in warming the inspired air before it reaches the
+lungs. In the Proboscidea, in which these functions are performed by the
+walls of the long tubular proboscis, this apparatus is entirely wanting.
+
+_Trachea._—The narial passages have the organ of smell situated in
+their upper part, and communicate posteriorly with the pharynx, and
+through the glottis with the “trachea” or windpipe, a tube by which
+the air is conveyed to and from the lungs. The permanent patency of
+the trachea during the varied movements of the neck is provided for by
+its walls being stiffened by a series of cartilaginous rings or hoops,
+which in most mammals are incomplete behind. Having entered the thorax,
+the trachea bifurcates into the two bronchi, one of which enters, and,
+dividing dichotomously, ramifies through each lung. In some of the
+Cetacea and Artiodactyla a third bronchus is given off from the lower
+part of the trachea, above its bifurcation and enters the right lung.
+
+_Larynx._—The upper end of the trachea is modified into the organ of
+voice or “larynx,” the air passing through which to and from the lungs
+is made use of to set the edges of the “vocal cords,” or fibrous bands
+stretched one on each side of the tube, into vibration. The larynx is
+composed of several cartilages, such as the “thyroid,” the “cricoid,”
+and the “arytenoid” which are moved upon one another by muscles, and
+suspended from the hyoidean arch. By alteration of the relative position
+of these cartilages the cords can be tightened or relaxed, approximated
+or divaricated, as required to modulate the tone and volume of the voice.
+A median tongue-shaped fibro-cartilage at the top of the larynx, the
+“epiglottis,” protects the “glottis,” or aperture by which the larynx
+communicates with the pharynx, from the entry of particles of food during
+deglutition. The form of the larynx and development of the vocal cords
+present many variations in different members of the class, the greatest
+modification from the ordinary type being met with in the Cetacea,
+where the arytenoid cartilages and epiglottis are united in a tubular
+manner, so as to project into the nasal passage, and, being grasped by
+the muscular posterior margin of the palate, provide a direct channel
+of communication from the lungs to the external surface. An approach to
+this condition is met with in the Hippopotamus and some other Ungulates;
+it is indeed so general as an abnormality, that Howes suggests that
+an internarial epiglottis may have been a primitive feature common
+throughout the class. Nearly all mammals have a voice, although sometimes
+it is only exercised at seasons of sexual excitement. Some Marsupials
+and Edentates appear to be quite mute. In no mammal is there an inferior
+larynx, or “syrinx,” as in birds.
+
+_Diaphragm._—The thoracic cavity of mammals differs from that of the
+Sauropsida in being completely separated from the abdomen by a muscular
+partition, the “diaphragm,” attached to the vertebral column, the ribs,
+and the sternum. This is much arched, with the convexity towards the
+thorax, so that when its fibres contract and it is flattened the cavity
+of the thorax is increased, and when they are relaxed the cavity is
+diminished.
+
+_Lungs._—The lungs are suspended freely in the thorax, one on each side
+of the heart, being attached only by the root, which consists of the
+bronchus or air-tube and pulmonary arteries and veins by which the blood
+is passed backwards and forwards between the heart and the lungs. The
+remaining part of the surface of each lung is covered by serous membrane,
+the “pleura”; and whatever the state of distension or contraction of the
+chest-wall, is accurately in contact with it. Inspiration is effected
+by the contraction of the diaphragm and by the intercostal and other
+muscles elevating or bringing forward the ribs, and thus throwing the
+sternum farther away from the vertebral column. As the surface of the
+lung must follow the chest-wall, the organ itself is expanded, and air
+rushes in through the trachea to fill all the minute cells in which the
+ultimate ramifications of the bronchi terminate. In ordinary expiration
+very little muscular power is expended, the elasticity of the lungs and
+surrounding parts being sufficient to cause a state of contraction and
+thus drive out at least a portion of the air contained in the cells,
+when the muscular stimulus is withdrawn. The lungs are sometimes simple
+externally, as in the Sirenia (where they are greatly elongated) and the
+Cetacea, but are more often divided by deep fissures into one or more
+lobes. The right lung is usually larger and more subdivided than the
+left. It often has a small distinct lobe behind, wanting on the left
+side, and hence called _lobulus azygos_.
+
+_Air-sacs._—Most mammals have in connection with the air passages certain
+diverticuli or pouches containing air, the use of which is not always
+easy to divine. The numerous air sinuses situated between the outer and
+inner tables of the bones of the head, represented in Man by the antrum
+of Highmore and the frontal and sphenoidal sinuses, and attaining their
+maximum of development in the Indian Elephant, are obviously for the
+mechanical purpose of allowing expansion of the osseous surface without
+increase of weight. They are connected with the nasal passages. The
+Eustachian tubes pass from the back of the pharynx to the cavity of
+the tympanum, into which and the mastoid cells they allow air to pass.
+In the _Equidæ_ there are large post-pharyngeal air-sacs in connection
+with them. The Dolphins have an exceedingly complicated system of
+air-sacs in connection with the nasal passages just within the nostrils,
+and the Tapirs, Rhinoceroses, and Horses have blind sacs in the same
+situation. In the males of some Seals (_Cystophora_ and _Macrorhinus_)
+large pouches, which the animal can inflate with air, and which are not
+developed in the young animal or the female, arise from the upper part
+of the nasal passages, and lie immediately under the skin of the face.
+These appear analogous, although not in the same situation, to the gular
+pouch of the male Bustard. The larynx frequently has membranous pouches
+in connection with it, into which air passes. These may be lateral and
+opening just above the vocal cords, when they constitute the _sacculi
+laryngis_, found in a rudimentary state in Man, and attaining an enormous
+development, so as to reach to the shoulders and axillæ, in some of the
+Anthropoid Apes; or they may be median, opening in front either above or
+below the thyroid and cricoid cartilages, as in the Howling and other
+Monkeys, and also in the Whalebone Whales and Great Anteater.
+
+_Urinary Organs._—The kidneys of mammals are more compact and definite
+in form than in other vertebrates, being usually more or less oval,
+with an indent on the side turned towards the middle line, from and
+into which the vessels and ducts pass. They are distinctly divided into
+a cortical secretory portion, composed mainly of convoluted tubes, and
+containing the so-called Malpighian bodies; and a medullary excreting
+portion, formed of straight tubes converging towards a papilla, embraced
+by the commencement of the ureter or duct of the organ. The kidneys of
+some mammals, as most Monkeys, Carnivores, Rodents, etc., are simple,
+with a single papilla into which all the renal tubuli enter. In others,
+as Man, there are many pyramids of the medullary portion, each with its
+papilla, opening into a division (calyx) of the upper end of the ureter.
+Such kidneys, either in the embryonic condition only, or throughout
+life, are lobulated on the surface. In some cases, as in Bears, Seals,
+and especially the Cetacea, the lobulation is carried further, the whole
+organ being composed of a mass of renules, loosely united by connective
+tissue, and with separate ducts, which soon join to form the common
+ureter.
+
+_Bladder._—In all mammals except the Monotremes the ureters terminate
+by slit-like valvular openings in the urinary bladder. This receptacle
+when filled discharges its contents through the single median urethra,
+which in the male is almost invariably included in the penis, and in
+the females of some species of Rodents, Insectivores, and Lemurs has a
+similar relation to the clitoris. In the Monotremes, though the bladder
+is present, the ureters do not enter into it, but join the urino-genital
+canal some distance below it, with the orifice of the genital duct
+intervening.
+
+
+VI. NERVOUS SYSTEM AND ORGANS OF SENSE.
+
+_Brain._—The brain of mammals shows a higher condition of organisation
+than that of other vertebrates. The cerebral hemispheres have a greater
+preponderance compared with other parts, especially to the so-called
+optic lobes, or corpora quadrigemina, which are completely concealed by
+them. The commissural system of the hemispheres is much more complex,
+both fornix and corpus callosum being present in some form; and when the
+latter is rudimentary, as in Marsupials and Monotremes, its deficiency
+is made up for by the great size of the anterior commissure. The lateral
+lobes of the cerebellum, wanting in lower vertebrates, are well developed
+and connected by a transverse commissure, the pons Varolii. The whole
+brain, owing especially to the size of the cerebral hemispheres, is
+considerably larger relatively to the bulk of the animal than in other
+classes, but it must be recollected that the size of its brain depends
+upon many circumstances besides the degree of intelligence which an
+animal possesses, although this is certainly one. Man’s brain is many
+times larger than that of all other known mammals of equal bulk, and
+even three times as large as that of the most nearly allied Ape. Equal
+bulk of body is here mentioned, because, in drawing any conclusions
+from the size of the brain compared with that of the entire animal, it
+is always necessary to take into consideration the fact that in every
+natural group of closely allied animals the larger species have much
+smaller brains relatively to their general size than the smaller species,
+so that, in making any effective comparison among animals belonging to
+different groups, species of the same size must be selected. It may be
+true that the brain of a Mouse is, as compared with the size of its
+body, larger than that of a Man, but, if it were possible to reduce an
+animal having the general organisation of a Man to the size of a Mouse,
+its brain would doubtless be very many times larger; and conversely, as
+shown by the rapid diminution of the relative size of the brain in all
+the large members of the Rodent order, a Mouse magnified to the size of
+a Man would, if the general rule were observed, have a brain exceedingly
+inferior in volume. Although the brain of the large species of Whales is,
+as commonly stated, the smallest in proportion to the bulk of the animal
+of any mammal, this does not invalidate the general proposition that
+the Cetacea have very large brains compared with terrestrial mammals,
+like the Ungulata, or even the aquatic Sirenia, as may be proved by
+placing the brain of a Dolphin by the side of that of a Sheep, a Pig, or
+a Manatee of equal general weight. It is only because the universally
+observed difference between the slower ratio of increase of the brain
+compared with that of the body becomes so enormous in these immense
+creatures that they are accredited with small brains.
+
+The presence or absence of “sulci” or fissures on the surface of
+the hemisphere, dividing it into “convolutions” or “gyri,” and thus
+increasing the superficies of the cortical gray matter, as well as
+allowing the pia mater with its nutrient blood-vessels to penetrate
+into the cerebral substance, follow somewhat similar rules. The sulci
+are related partly to the high or low condition of organisation of
+the species, but also in a great degree to the size of the cerebral
+hemispheres. In very small species of all groups, even the Primates, they
+are absent, and in the largest species of groups so low in the scale as
+the Marsupials and Edentates they are found. They reach their maximum of
+development in the Cetacea.
+
+The accompanying woodcut (Fig. 23) shows the principal parts of a
+mammalian brain, as seen from the superior, lateral, and inner surfaces.
+The sylvian fissure (_sf_) is one of the most constant of the sulci found
+in the hemispheres.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.—Brain of the Genet (_Genetta tigrina_). A, From
+above; B, from the right side; C, inner surface of right hemisphere;
+_cc_, corpus callosum; _c.m.s_, calloso-marginal sulcus; _c_, notch
+representing central sulcus of other forms; _d_, depression on superior
+lateral gyrus of hemisphere; _hg_, hippocampal gyrus; _i_, inferior
+lateral gyrus of hemisphere; _m_, middle lateral gyrus of do.; _s_,
+superior lateral gyrus of do.; _os_, supraorbital sulcus of do.; _sf_,
+sylvian fissure of do.; _ol_, olfactory lobes. The deeply convoluted part
+behind the cerebral hemisphere is the cerebellum, below which lies the
+medulla oblongata, or commencement of the spinal cord. (Mivart, _Proc.
+Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 516.)]
+
+The researches of Palæontologists, founded upon studies of casts of the
+interior of the cranial cavity of extinct forms, have shown that, in
+many natural groups of mammals, if not in all, the brain has increased
+in size, and also in complexity of surface foldings, with the advance
+of time,—indicating in this, as in so many other respects, a gradual
+progress from a lower to a higher type of development.
+
+_Nerves._—The twelve pairs of cranial nerves generally recognised in
+vertebrates are usually all found in mammals, though the olfactory nerves
+are excessively rudimentary, if not altogether absent, in the Toothed
+Whales. The spinal cord, or continuation of the central nervous axis,
+lies in the canal formed by the neural arches of the vertebræ, and gives
+off the compound double-rooted nerves of the trunk and the extremities,
+corresponding in number to the vertebræ, through the interspaces between
+which they pass out to their destination. The cord is somewhat enlarged
+at the two points where it gives off the great nerves to the anterior and
+the posterior extremities, which, from their interlacements soon after
+their origin, are called respectively the brachial and lumbar plexuses.
+The ganglionic or sympathetic portion of the nervous system is well
+developed, and presents few modifications.
+
+_Sense of Touch._—The sense of touch is situated in the skin generally,
+but is most acute in certain regions more or less specialised for the
+purpose by the presence of tactile papillæ, such as portions of the face,
+especially the lips and end of the snout, and the extremities of the
+limbs when these are used for other purposes than mere progression, and
+the under surface of the end of the tail in some Monkeys. The “vibrissæ”
+or long stiff bristles situated on the face of many mammals are rendered
+extremely sensitive to touch by the abundant supply of branches from
+the fifth nerve to their basal papillæ. In Bats the extended wing
+membranes, and probably also the large ears and the folds and prominences
+of skin about the face of some species, are so sensitive as to receive
+impressions even from the different degrees of resistance of the air, and
+so enable the animals to avoid coming in contact with obstacles to their
+nocturnal flight.
+
+_Taste and Smell._—The organs of the other special senses are confined
+to the head. Taste is situated in the papillæ scattered on the dorsal
+surface of the tongue. The organ of smell is present in all mammals
+except the Toothed Whales. It consists of a ramification of the olfactory
+nerves over a plicated, moist, mucous membrane, supported by folded
+plates of bone, placed on each side of the septum nasi in the roof, or
+often in a partially distinct upper chamber, of the nasal passage, so
+arranged that, of the air passing into the lungs in inspiration, some
+comes in contact with it, causing the perception of any odorous particles
+with which it may be charged. Many mammals possess intense powers of
+smelling certain odours which others are quite unable to appreciate, and
+the influence which this sense exercises over the well-being of many
+species is very great, especially in indicating the proximity of others
+of the same kind, and giving warning of the approach of enemies. The
+development and modification of the sense of smell is probably associated
+with that of the odorous secretion of the cutaneous glands.
+
+_Sight._—The organ of sight is quite rudimentary, and even concealed
+beneath the integument, in some burrowing Rodents and Insectivores,
+and is most imperfectly developed in the _Platanista_, or Freshwater
+Dolphin of the rivers of India. In all other mammals the eyeball has
+the structure characteristic of the organ in the higher Vertebrata,
+consisting of parts through which the rays of light are admitted,
+regulated, and concentrated upon the sensitive expansion of the
+optic nerve lining the posterior part of the ball. A portion of the
+fibrovascular and highly pigmented layer, the choroid, which is
+interposed between the retina and the outer sclerotic coat, is in many
+mammals modified into a brilliantly-coloured light-reflecting surface,
+the _tapetum lucidum_. There is never a pecten or marsupium like that
+of the Sauropsida, nor is the sclerotic ever supported by a ring of
+flattened ossicles, as is so frequently the case in the lower vertebrated
+classes. The eyeball is moved in various directions by a series of
+muscles—the four straight, two oblique, and, except in the higher
+Primates, a posterior retractor muscle called choanoid. The superior
+oblique muscle passes through a tendinous pulley fastened to the roof
+of the orbit, which is a feature not found beyond the limits of the
+mammalian class. The eye is protected by the lids, generally distinctly
+separated into an upper and a lower movable flap, which, when closed,
+meet over the front of the eye in a more or less nearly horizontal line:
+but sometimes, as in the Sirenia, the lids are not distinct, and the
+aperture is circular, closing to a point. In almost all mammals below the
+Primates, except the Cetacea, a “nictitating membrane” or third eyelid is
+placed at the inner corner of the eyeball, and works horizontally across
+the front of the ball within the true lids. Its action is instantaneous,
+being apparently for the purpose of cleaning the front of the transparent
+cornea;—a function unnecessary in animals whose eyes are habitually
+bathed in water, and which in Man and his nearest allies is performed
+by winking the true eyelids. Except in Cetacea the surface of the eye
+is kept moist by the secretion of the lachrymal gland, placed under the
+upper lid at its outer side, and the lids are lubricated by the Harderian
+and Meibornian glands, the former being situated at the inner side of the
+orbit, and especially related to the nictitating membrane, the latter in
+the lining membrane of the lids.
+
+_Hearing._—The organ of hearing is inclosed in a bony capsule (periotic)
+situated in the side of the head, intercalated between the posterior
+(occipital) and the penultimate (parietal) segment of the skull. It
+has, in common with other vertebrates, three semicircular canals and
+a vestibule, but the cochlea is more fully developed than in the
+Sauropsida, and, except in the Monotremes, spirally convoluted. The
+tympanic cavity is often dilated below, forming a smooth rounded
+prominence on the base of the skull, the auditory bulla (Fig. 8). The
+three principal ossicles, the “malleus,” “incus,” and “stapes,” are
+always present, but variable in characters. In the Sirenia, Cetacea, and
+Seals they are massive in form, being in the first-named order of larger
+size than in any other mammals. In the Cetacea the malleus is ankylosed
+to the tympanic; but in other mammals it is connected only with the
+membrana tympani. The stapes in the lower orders—Edentates, Marsupials,
+and Monotremes—has a great tendency to assume the columnar form of the
+corresponding bone in Sauropsida, its two rami entirely or partially
+coalescing.[16] The tympanic membrane (drum of the ear) forms the outer
+wall of the cavity. In the fœtal state it is level with the external
+surface of the skull, and remains so permanently in a few mammals as the
+American Monkeys; but commonly, by the growth of the squamosal bone, it
+becomes deeply buried at the bottom of a bony tube (_meatus auditorus
+externus_), which is continued to the surface of the skin in a fibrous
+or fibro-cartilaginous form. In Whales, owing to the thickness of the
+subcutaneous adipose tissue, this meatus is of great length, and is also
+extremely narrow. In most aquatic and burrowing animals it opens upon
+the surface by a simple aperture, but in the large majority of the class
+there is a projecting fold of skin, strengthened by fibro-cartilages,
+called the pinna, auricle, or “external ear,” of very variable size and
+shape, generally movably articulated on the skull, and provided with
+muscles to vary its position; this pinna helping to collect and direct
+the vibrations of sound into the meatus.
+
+
+VII. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS.
+
+_Testes._—In the male the testes retain nearly their primitive or
+internal position throughout life in the Monotremata, Sirenia, Cetacea,
+most Edentata, Hyracoidea, Proboscidea, and Seals, but, in other groups
+they either periodically (as in Rodentia, Insectivora, and Chiroptera)
+or permanently pass out of the abdominal cavity through the inguinal
+canal, forming a projection beneath the skin of the perineum, or becoming
+suspended in a distinct pouch of integument called the scrotum. All the
+Marsupials have a pedunculated scrotum, the position of which differs
+from that of other mammals, being in front of, instead of behind, the
+preputial orifice. As regards the presence, absence, or comparative size
+and number of the accessory generative glands—prostate, vesicular, and
+Cowper’s glands, as they are called—there is much variation in different
+groups of mammals.
+
+_Penis._—The penis is almost always completely developed, consisting of
+two corpora cavernosa attached to the ischial bones, and of a median
+corpus spongiosum enclosing the urethra, and forming the glans at
+the distal portion of the organ. In Marsupials, Monotremes, and the
+Sloths and Anteaters, the corpora cavernosa are not attached directly
+to the ischia, and in the last-named the penis is otherwise of a very
+rudimentary character, the corpus spongiosum not being present. In many
+Marsupials the glans penis is bifurcated. In most Primates, Carnivora,
+Rodentia, Insectivora, and Chiroptera, but in no other orders, an _os
+penis_ is present.
+
+_Ovaries and Oviduct._—In the female, the ovaries permanently retain
+their original abdominal position, or only descend a short distance
+into the pelvis. They are of comparatively smaller size than in other
+vertebrates, have a definite flattened oval form, and are enclosed in a
+more or less firm “tunica albiginea.” The oviduct has a trumpet-like, and
+usually fimbriated abdominal aperture, and is more or less differentiated
+into three portions:—(1) a contracted upper part, called in Man and
+the higher mammals the “Fallopian tube”; (2) an expanded part with
+muscular walls, in which the ovum undergoes the changes by which it is
+developed into the fœtus, called the “uterus”; (3) a canal, the “vagina,”
+separated from the last by a valvular aperture, and terminating in the
+urino-genital canal, or common urinal and genital passage, which in
+higher mammals is so short as scarcely to be distinct from the vagina.
+The complete distinction of the oviducts of the two sides throughout
+their whole length, found in all lower vertebrates, only occurs in this
+class in Monotremes; a prevailing mammalian characteristic being their
+more or less perfect coalescence in the middle line to form a single
+median canal. In the Marsupials this union only includes the lower part
+of the vagina; but in most Placentals it extends to the whole vagina
+and a certain portion of the uterus, which cavity is then described as
+“bicornuate.” In the higher mammals, as in Man, and also in some of
+the Edentates, the whole of the uterus is single, the contracted upper
+portion of the oviducts or Fallopian tubes, as they are then called,
+entering its upper lateral angles by small apertures. In certain lower
+forms the urino-genital canal opens with the termination of the rectum
+into a common cloaca, as in other vertebrates; but it is characteristic
+of the majority of the class that the two orifices are more or less
+distinct externally.
+
+_Mammary Glands._—Mammary glands secreting the milk by which the young
+are nourished during the first portion of their existence after birth,
+are present in both sexes in all mammals, though usually only functional
+in the female. In the Monotremes alone their orifices are mere scattered
+pores in the skin, but in all other forms they are situated upon the
+end of conical elevations, called mammillæ, or teats, which, taken into
+the mouth of the young animal, facilitate the process of sucking. These
+are always placed in pairs upon some part of the ventral surface of the
+body, but vary greatly in number and position in different groups. In the
+Cetacea, where the prolonged action of sucking would be incompatible with
+their subaqueous life, the ducts of the glands are dilated into large
+reservoirs from which the contents are injected into the mouth of the
+young animal by the action of a compressor muscle.
+
+_Secondary Sexual Characters._—Secondary sexual characters, or
+modifications of structure peculiar to one sex, but not directly related
+to the reproductive function, are very general in mammals. They almost
+always consist of the acquisition or perfection of some character by
+the male as it attains maturity, which is not found in the female or
+the young in either sex. In a large number of cases these clearly
+relate to the combats in which the males of many species engage for
+the possession of the females during the breeding season; others are
+apparently ornamental, and of many it is still difficult to apprehend
+the meaning. Many suggestions on this subject will, however, be found in
+the chapters devoted to it in Darwin’s work on _The Descent of Man and
+Selection in Relation to Sex_, where most of the best-known instances are
+collected. Superiority of size and strength in the male of many species
+is a well-marked secondary sexual character related to the purpose
+indicated above, being probably perpetuated by the survivors or victors
+in combats transmitting to their descendants those qualities which gave
+them advantages over others of their kind. To the same category belong
+the great development of the canine teeth of the males of many species
+which do not use these organs in procuring their food, as the Apes,
+Swine, Musk and some other Deer, the tusk of the male Narwhal, the
+antlers of Deer, which are present in most cases only in the males, and
+the usual superiority in size and strength of the horns of the _Bovidæ_.
+Other secondary sexual characters, the use of which is not so obvious, or
+which may only relate to ornament, are the presence of masses or tufts
+of long hair on different parts of the body, as the mane of the male
+Lion and Bison, the beards of some Ruminants and Bats (as _Taphozous
+melanopogon_), Monkeys, and of Man, and all the variations of coloration
+in the sexes, in which, as a general rule, the adult male is darker and
+more vividly coloured than the female. Here may also be mentioned the
+presence or the greater development of odoriferous glands in the male,
+as in the Musk Deer, and the remarkable perforated spur with its glands
+and duct, so like the poison-tooth of the venomous serpents, found in the
+males of both _Ornithorhynchus_ and _Echidna_, the use of which is at
+present unknown.
+
+_Placenta._—The development of the mammalian ovum, and the changes which
+the various tissues and organs of the body undergo in the process of
+growth, are too intricate subjects to be explained without entering into
+details incompatible with the limits of this work, especially as they
+scarcely differ, excepting in their later stages, from those of other
+vertebrates, upon which, owing to the greater facilities these present
+for examination and study, the subject has been more fully worked out.
+There are, however, some points which require notice, as peculiar to the
+mammalian class, and as affording at least some hints upon the difficult
+subject of the affinities and classification of the members of the group.
+
+The nourishment of the fœtus during intra-uterine life takes place
+through the medium of certain structures, partly belonging to the fœtus
+itself and partly belonging to the inner parietes of the uterus of the
+parent. These in their complete form constitute the complex organ called
+the “placenta,” serving as the medium of communication between the mother
+and fœtus, and in which the physiological processes that are concerned
+in the nutrition of the latter take place; but as we shall see, though
+a placenta, in the usual acceptation of the term, is peculiar to the
+mammalian class, it is not in all of its members that one is developed.
+The structures to which we shall have especially to refer are the outer
+tunic of the ovum, to which, however formed, the term “chorion” is
+commonly applied, and two sac-like organs connected with the body-cavity
+of the embryo, both formed from the splanchnic mesoblast, lined by a
+layer of the hypoblast. These are the “umbilical vesicle” or “yolk-sac”
+and the “allantois.”
+
+The umbilical vesicle is a thin membrane enclosing the yolk, which by
+the doubling in of the ventral walls of the embryo becomes gradually
+formed into a distinct sac external to the body, with a pedicle (the
+omphalo-enteric duct) by which for a time a communication is maintained
+between its cavity and the intestinal canal. In the walls of this sac
+blood-vessels (omphalo-meseraic or vitelline) are developed in connection
+with the vascular system of the embryo, through which, either by their
+contact with the outer surface of the walls of the ovum, or by the
+absorption through them of the contents of the yolk-sac, the nutrition
+of the embryo in the lower vertebrates chiefly takes place. In mammals
+the umbilical vesicle plays a comparatively subordinate part in the
+nourishment of the fœtus, its function being generally superseded by the
+allantois.
+
+The last-named sac commences at a very early period as a diverticulum
+from the hinder end of the alimentary tract of the embryo. Its proximal
+portion afterwards becomes the urinary bladder, the contracted part
+between this and the cavity of the allantois proper constituting the
+urachus, which passes out of the body of the fœtus at the umbilicus
+together with the vitelline duct. The mesoblastic tissue of the walls of
+the allantois soon becomes vascular; its arteries are supplied with fœtal
+blood by the two hypogastric branches of the iliacs, or main divisions of
+the abdominal aorta, and the blood is returned by venous trunks uniting
+to form the single umbilical vein which runs to the under surface of the
+liver, where, part of it joining the portal vein and part entering the
+vena cava directly, it is brought to the heart. These are the vessels
+which, with their surrounding membranes, constitute the umbilical
+cord—the medium of communication between the fœtus and the placenta, when
+that organ is fully developed.
+
+The egg membranes of the Monotremes present many points of agreement
+with those of the ovum of the Marsupials,[17] and differ from those of
+the Placental types. Thus Monotremes and Marsupials agree in having
+a vitelline membrane, which appears between the young ovum and the
+follicular epithelium, persisting in the one case until the time of
+hatching, and in the other till a late uterine stage. There are also
+several other common features fully described in Mr. Caldwell’s memoir,
+but which cannot be detailed in this work.
+
+In the Marsupialia the observations made many years ago by Sir R. Owen
+upon the development of the Kangaroo have been confirmed by those of Dr.
+H. C. Chapman,[18] while Dr. Selenka,[19] and Professor H. F. Osborn[20]
+have contributed important evidence as to the structure and relations
+of the fœtal membranes of the Opossums and others. It thus appears that
+up to the period of the very premature birth of these animals the outer
+covering of the ovum, or false chorion, is free from persistent villi,
+and not adherent to the epithelium of the uterine walls; for, although
+fitting into the folds of the latter, it is perfectly and readily
+separable in its entire extent from them. The umbilical vesicle or
+yolk-sac is large, vascular, and adherent to a considerable portion of
+the false chorion or subzonal membrane, while the allantois is relatively
+small, and although the usual blood-vessels can be traced into it, it
+does not appear to contract any connection with the false chorion, and,
+therefore, much less with the walls of the uterus, of such a nature as
+to constitute a placenta. In some forms, however, such as the Opossums,
+the umbilical vesicle or yolk-sac develops temporary villi, which unite
+with the subzonal membrane, or false chorion, to form a disc-like area
+closely attached to the cells covering the utricular glands of the
+uterine epithelium, and thus forming a so-called _yolk-sac placenta_.
+The function of this organ is considered to be the transmission of
+the secretions of the utricular glands to the embryo by means of the
+umbilical vesicle; the function of the allantois being either respiratory
+or the absorption of the fluid secreted in the uterine cavity by the
+utricular glands.
+
+While in the uterus the nourishment of the fœtus seems, therefore, to be
+derived from the umbilical vesicle, as in reptiles and birds, rather
+than from the uterine walls by means of the allantoic vessels, as in
+the higher mammals. The latter vessels, in fact, play even a much less
+important part in the development of these animals, not only than in
+the placental mammals, but even than in the Sauropsida, for they can
+scarcely have the respiratory function assigned to them in that group:
+pulmonary respiration and the lacteal secretion of the mother very early
+superseding all other methods of providing the due supply, both of oxygen
+and of food required for the development and growth of the young animal.
+In this sense the Marsupials may be looked upon as the most typically
+“mammalian” of the whole class. In no other group do the milk-secreting
+glands play such an important part in providing for the continuity of the
+race.
+
+In the third primary division of the Mammalia, the so-called Placentalia,
+the umbilical vesicle generally does not quite unite with the chorion,
+and disappears as development proceeds, so that no trace of it can be
+seen in the membranes of an advanced embryo; but it may persist until the
+end of the intra-uterine life as a distinct sac in the umbilical cord, or
+lying between the allantois and amnion. The disappearance or persistence
+of the umbilical vesicle does not, according to our present knowledge,
+appear to be correlated with a higher or lower general grade of
+development, as might be presupposed. It is stated to have been found in
+Man even up to the end of intra-uterine life, and also in the Carnivora,
+while in the Ungulata and Cetacea it disappears at an earlier age. In
+many, if not all, of the Rodentia, Insectivora, and Chiroptera, it plays
+a more important part, becoming adherent to a considerable part of the
+inner surface of the chorion, to which it conveys blood-vessels, although
+villi do not appear to be developed from the surface of this part, as
+they are on the portion of the chorion supplied by the allantoic vessels.
+These orders thus present to a certain extent a transitional condition
+from the Marsupials, although essentially different, in possessing the
+structures next to be described.
+
+The special characteristic of the whole of the placental mammals
+constituting the majority of the class, is that the allantois and its
+vessels become intimately blended with a smaller or greater part of the
+parietes of the ovum, forming a structure on the outer surface of which
+villi are developed, and which, penetrating into corresponding cavities
+of the “decidua,” or soft, vascular, hypertrophied lining membrane of
+the uterus, constitutes the placenta. This organ may be regarded, as Sir
+William Turner says, both in its function and in the relative arrangement
+of its constituent textures, as a specially modified secreting gland, the
+ducts of which are represented by the extremities of the blood-vessels
+of the fœtal system. The passage of material from the maternal to the
+fœtal-system of vessels is not a simple percolation or diffusion through
+their walls, but is occasioned by the action of a layer of cells derived
+from the maternal or uterine structures, and interposed between the
+blood-vessels of the maternal part of the placenta and those of the villi
+covering the chorion, in which the embryonic vessels ramify.
+
+The numerous modifications in the details of the structure of this
+organ relate to augmenting the absorbing capacity of the vessels of the
+chorion, and are brought about either by increasing the complexity of the
+fœtal villi and maternal crypts over a limited area, or by increasing the
+area of the part of the chorion covered by the placental villi, or by
+various combinations of the two methods.
+
+The first class of variations has given rise to a distinction into
+two principal kinds of placenta: (1) simple or non-deciduate, and
+(2) deciduate. In the former the fœtal villi are received into
+corresponding depressions of the maternal surface, from which at the
+period of parturition they are simply withdrawn. In the second, or more
+complex form, the relation is more intimate, a layer of greater or
+less thickness of the lining membrane of the uterus, called “decidua,”
+becoming so intimately blended with the chorion as to form part of the
+placenta proper, or that structure which is cast off as a solid body
+at parturition. In other words, in the one case the line of separation
+between the placenta and uterus at birth takes place at the junction of
+the fœtal and maternal structures, in the other through the latter, so
+that a portion of them, often of considerable thickness, and containing
+highly organised structures, is cast off with the former. It was once
+thought that the distinction between these two forms of placentation is
+so important as to constitute a sufficiently valid basis for a primary
+division of the placental mammals into two groups. It has, however, been
+shown that the distinction is one rather of degree than of kind, as
+intermediate conditions may exist, and it is probable that in different
+primary groups the simpler, non-deciduate form may have become developed
+independently into one or other of the more complex kinds.
+
+Apart from its intimate structure, the placenta may be met with of very
+varied general form. It may consist of villi scattered more or less
+regularly over the greater part of the surface of the chorion, the two
+extremities or poles being usually more or less bare. This form is called
+the “diffused placenta.” It is probably a primitive condition, from which
+most of the others are derived, although its existence must presuppose
+the absence of the umbilical vesicle as a constituent of the chorionic
+wall. It is found at present in the Manis among Edentates, the Cetacea,
+the Perissodactyle Ungulates, and the Camels, Pigs, and Chevrotains
+among the Artiodactyles. Such placentæ are always non-deciduate. Recent
+observations by Sir W. Turner on the placentation of the Dugong show that
+the Sirenia present the peculiarity of having a zonary placenta, which
+is either entirely or in great part non-deciduate, and is, therefore,
+transitional between the diffused and the true zonary type.
+
+In the true Ruminants or Pecora, among the Artiodactyle Ungulates,
+the villi are aggregated in masses called cotyledons, with bare
+spaces between. Such a placentation is called “polycotyledonary.” In
+another modification the villi are collected in a more or less broad
+band encircling the chorion, leaving a very large portion of the two
+poles bare, constituting the “zonary placenta,” characteristic of the
+Carnivora, and also occurring in the Elephant, Hyrax, and Orycteropus.
+The fact of the form of the placenta of these three last-named animals
+agreeing together, and with that of the Carnivora, does not, however,
+necessitate the ascription of zoological affinities, as the same ultimate
+form may have been attained by different processes of development.
+
+In another form one pole only of the chorion is non-vascular, the
+placenta assuming a dome or bell shape, as in the Lemurs and the
+Sloths. The transition from this, by the gradual restriction of the
+vascular area, is easy to the oval or discoidal form of placenta of
+the Anteaters, Armadillos, and higher Primates. The discoidal placenta
+of the Rodents, Insectivores, and Chiroptera, though showing so much
+superficial resemblance to that of the last-named order as to have led
+to the inclusion of all these forms in one primary group, is now known
+to be developed in another manner, not by the concentration of villi
+from a diffused to a limited area, but by retaining the area to which
+it was originally restricted in consequence of the large surface of the
+chorion occupied, as before mentioned, by the umbilical vesicle. To
+compensate for the smallness of area, the complex or deciduate structure
+has been developed. Among some Rodents there is evidence to show that the
+discoidal placenta has been derived from a zonary one, of which distinct
+vestiges have been detected in the Mouse. We may conclude that, although
+the characters and arrangement of the fœtal structures may not have that
+extreme importance which has been attributed to them by some zoologists,
+they will form, especially when more completely understood, valuable aids
+in the study of the natural affinities and evolution of the Mammalia.[21]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAMMALIA
+
+
+_Origin._—Although, as stated in the first chapter, the mammalian
+class, as at present known either by existing or extinct forms, is
+completely isolated from all other groups of the animal kingdom, yet it
+is impossible to refrain from speculating as to its origin and nearest
+affinities. In arranging the classes of vertebrates in a linear series
+it is customary to place them in the following order—Pisces, Amphibia,
+Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia,—an order which probably indicates the relative
+degree of elevation to which the most highly developed members of each
+class has attained. Such an arrangement appears to express the true
+relationship of the first four classes to one another, but it is quite
+clear that the Mammalia have no sort of affinity with the Aves. Writing
+in 1879, Professor Huxley[22] came to the conclusion that, in looking
+among vertebrates for the progenitors of the Mammalia, we must pass
+over all known forms of birds and reptiles, and go straight down to the
+Amphibia. In addition to the characters derived from the conformation of
+the pelvis upon which the argument was primarily based, the following
+reasons were given for this conclusion: “The Amphibia are the only
+air-breathing Vertebrata which, like mammals, have a dicondylian skull.
+It is only in them that the articular element of the mandibular arch
+remains cartilaginous, while the quadrate ossification is small, and the
+squamosal extends down over it to the osseous elements of the mandible,
+thus affording an easy transition to the mammalian condition of those
+parts. The pectoral arch [girdle] of the Monotremes is as much amphibian
+as it is sauropsidian; the carpus and the tarsus of all Sauropsida,
+except the Chelonia, are modified away from the Urodele type, while those
+of the mammal are directly reducible to it. Finally, the fact that in
+all Sauropsida it is a right aortic arch which is the main conduit of
+arterial blood leaving the heart, while in mammals it is a left aortic
+arch which performs this office, is a great stumbling-block in the way
+of the derivation of the Mammalia from any of the Sauropsida. But, if
+we suppose the earliest forms of both the Mammalia and the Sauropsida
+to have had a common Amphibian origin, there is no difficulty in the
+supposition that, from the first, it was a left aortic arch in the one
+series, and the corresponding right aortic arch in the other, which
+became the predominant feeder of the arterial system.” Subsequently
+Professor E. D. Cope[23] in a suggestive paper called attention to the
+remarkable resemblances to the Monotremes presented by the skeleton of
+that group of early secondary reptiles which he then designated the
+Theromorpha, but which may be included in the Anomodontia of Sir R. Owen,
+and came to the conclusion that in that group we have the true ancestors
+of the Mammalia. This conclusion was, however, disputed by Dr. Baur,[24]
+who considered that the Anomodontia were too specialised to have been
+the actual progenitors of the Mammalia, and that they should rather be
+regarded as a divergent branch of the stem which had given origin to the
+Mammalia. Since that date observations made on the structure of the South
+African Anomodonts have shown such an intimate connection between that
+group and the Labyrinthodont Amphibians, that there can be no hesitation
+in regarding the one as the direct descendant of the other; and we may
+probably regard the Mammalia as having originated from the same ancestral
+stock at the time the Amphibian type was passing into the Reptilian. From
+this point of view, some of the mammalian features found in the more
+specialised Anomodonts may probably be regarded as having been acquired
+during a parallel line of development.
+
+Both the Anomodontia and the Mammalia differ from the Amphibians in the
+loss of the splint-like parasphenoid which underlies the basisphenoid
+axis of the skull, and by the ossification of that axis; but while the
+former have become monocondylic by the participation of the basioccipital
+in the support of the cranium, the latter retain the Amphibian dicondylic
+plan. The skull of the Anomodonts presents mammalian resemblances not
+found in any other Reptiles, this being especially noticeable in the
+region of the squamosal; and it is only in this group and mammals that
+the temporal or zygomatic arch is a squamoso-maxillary one (see p.
+37). The resemblance between the pectoral and pelvic girdles of the
+Anomodonts and those of the Monotreme Mammals is noticed under the head
+of the latter, where reference is also made to the similarity in the
+structure of the humerus in the two groups. The pes of the Amphibia and
+Anomodontia agree in having a distinct intermedium, tibiale, fibulare,
+and centrale, whereas in other Reptiles these bones are not generally
+distinct; in Mammals the intermedium, fibulare, and centrale are
+distinct, and according to Cope’s interpretation there may be a distinct
+tibiale.
+
+_Classification._—In the present condition of the world, mammals
+have become so broken up into distinct groups by the extinction of
+intermediate forms, that a systematic classification is perfectly
+practicable. Most of the associations of species, which we call “orders,”
+and even the “suborders” and “families,” are natural groups. In
+isolating, defining, and naming them, we are really dealing with facts
+of nature of a totally different order from the artificial and fanciful
+divisions formed in the infancy of zoological science.
+
+When, however, we pass to the extinct world, all is changed. In many
+cases the boundaries of our groups become enlarged until they touch those
+of others. New forms are discovered which cannot be placed within any of
+the existing divisions. As the horizon of our vision is thus expanded,
+the principles upon which a scheme of classification is constructed must
+be altogether changed. Our present divisions and terminology are no
+longer sufficient for the purpose; and some other method will have to be
+invented to show the complex relationships existing between different
+animal forms when viewed as a whole. The present time, pre-eminently
+distinguished by the rapidly changing and advancing knowledge of extinct
+forms, is scarcely one in which this can be done with any satisfactory
+result; so that all attempts to form a classification embracing even the
+already known extinct species must be only of a provisional and temporary
+nature.
+
+In systematic descriptions in books, in lists, and catalogues, and in
+arranging collections, the objects dealt with must be placed in a single
+linear series. But by no means whatever can such a series be made to
+coincide with natural affinities. The artificial character of such an
+arrangement, the constant violation of all true relationships, are the
+more painfully evident the greater the knowledge of the real structure
+and affinities. But the necessity is obvious; and all that can be done is
+to make such an arrangement as little as possible discordant with facts.
+
+The following table contains a list of the orders, suborders, and
+families of existing mammals as recognised by the authors, and placed
+in the order in which they will be treated of in this work. The more
+important of the groups containing only extinct forms are added in a
+different type, being interpolated, as near as may be, among those that
+appear to be their existing relatives.
+
+A few explanatory remarks upon the mutual relations of some of the
+principal groups mentioned in the table may be useful here, but the
+subject will be more fully developed in treating separately of each
+division.
+
+One of the most certain and fundamental points in the classification
+of the Mammalia is, that all the animals now composing the class can
+be grouped primarily into three natural divisions, which, presenting
+very marked differential characters, and having no existing, or yet
+certainly demonstrated extinct, intermediate, or transitional forms,
+may be considered as subclasses of equal value, taxonomically speaking,
+though very different in the numbers and importance of the animals at
+present composing them. These three groups are often called by the names
+originally proposed for them by Blainville—(1) _Ornithodelphia_, (2)
+_Didelphia_, (3) _Monodelphia_—the first being equivalent to the order
+_Monotremata_, the second to the _Marsupialia_, and the third including
+all the remaining members of the class. Although actual palæontological
+proof is wanting, there is much reason to believe that each of these, as
+now existing, are survivors of distinct branches to which the earliest
+forms of mammals have successively given rise, and for which hypothetical
+branches Professor Huxley has proposed the names of _Prototheria_,
+_Metatheria_, and _Eutheria_, names which, being far less open to
+objection than those of Blainville, are here used as equivalents of the
+latter.
+
+The only known existing PROTOTHERIA, although agreeing in many important
+characters, evidently represent two very divergent stocks, perhaps as
+far removed as are the members of some of the accepted orders of the
+Eutheria. It would, however, be merely encumbering zoological science
+with new names to give them any other than the ordinarily known family
+designations of _Ornithorhynchidæ_ and _Echidnidæ_.
+
+Similarly with regard to the METATHERIA, although the great diversity
+in external form, in anatomical characters, and in mode of life of the
+various animals of this section might lead to their division into groups
+equivalent to the orders of the Eutheria, we do not think it advisable to
+depart from the usual custom of treating them all as forming one order,
+called Marsupialia, the limits of which are equivalent to those of the
+subclass. The characters of the six families which compose the group are
+extremely well marked and easily defined; and since they form a regular
+gradation between two extreme types, they can be satisfactorily arranged
+in a serial order. A marked distinction in the dentition enables us to
+divide them into primary groups or suborders.
+
+The remaining mammals are included in the EUTHERIA, PLACENTALIA, or
+MONODELPHIA. Their affinities with one another are so complex that
+it is impossible to arrange them serially with any regard to natural
+affinities. Indeed each order is now so isolated that it is almost
+impossible to say what its affinities are; and none of the hitherto
+proposed associations of the orders into larger groups stand the test
+of critical investigation. All serial arrangements of the orders are
+therefore perfectly arbitrary; and although it would be of very great
+convenience for reference in books and museums if some general sequence,
+such as that here proposed, were generally adopted, such a result can
+scarcely be expected, since equally good reasons might be given for
+almost any other combination of the various elements of which the series
+is composed. In fact, we have already seen reason to depart in some
+respects from that used in the “Encyclopædia.”
+
+The Edentata, Sirenia, and Cetacea stand apart from all the rest in the
+fact that their dentition does not conform to the general heterodont,
+diphyodont type to which that of all other Eutheria can be reduced, and
+which is such a close bond of union between them. In all three orders,
+however, some indications may be traced of relationship, however distant,
+with the general type.
+
+With regard to the Edentata, reasons will be given for believing
+that both the Sloths and Anteaters are nearly related, and that the
+Armadillos, though much modified, belong to the same stock, but that the
+Pangolins and the Aard-varks represent very isolated forms.
+
+There is no difficulty about the limits of the order Sirenia, comprising
+aquatic, vegetable-eating animals, with complete absence of hind limbs,
+and low cerebral organisation, represented in our present state of
+knowledge only by two existing genera, _Halicore_ and _Manatus_, and a
+few extinct forms, which, though approaching a more generalised mammalian
+type, show no special characters allying them to any of the other orders.
+The few facts as yet collected relating to the former history of the
+Sirenia leave us as much in the dark as to the origin and affinities of
+this peculiar group of animals as we were when we only knew the living
+members. They lend no countenance to their association with the Cetacea;
+and, on the other hand, their supposed affinity with the Ungulata
+receives no very material support from them.
+
+Another equally well-marked and equally isolated, though far more
+numerously represented and diversified order, is that of the Cetacea,
+placed simply for convenience next to the Sirenia; with which, except in
+their fish-like adaptation to aquatic life, they have little in common.
+The old association of these orders in one group can only be maintained
+either in ignorance of their structure or in an avowedly artificial
+system. Among the existing members of the order, there are two very
+distinct types, the toothed Whales or Odontoceti, and the Baleen Whales
+or Mystacoceti, which present as many marked distinguishing structural
+characters as are found between many other divisions of the Mammalia
+usually reckoned as orders. Since the extinct Zeuglodonts, so far as
+their characters are known, do not fall into either of these groups, but
+are in some respects annectant forms, we have placed them provisionally,
+at least, in a third group by themselves, named Archæoceti. There is
+nothing known at present to connect the Cetacea with any other order of
+Mammals; but it is quite as likely that they are offsets of a primitive
+Ungulate as of a Carnivorous type, or perhaps of a still more generalised
+mammalian stock.
+
+The remaining Eutherian mammals are clearly united by the characters
+of their teeth, being all heterodont and diphyodont, with their dental
+system reducible to a common formula.
+
+Although older views of the relationship of Ungulate mammals expressed
+by the terms _Pachydermata_, _Ruminantia_, and so forth, still
+linger in some corners of zoological literature, no single point in
+zoological classification can be considered so firmly established as
+the distinction between the Perissodactyle and Artiodactyle Ungulates;
+both being in the existing fauna of the world perfectly natural and
+distinctly circumscribed groups. The breaking-up of the latter into
+four equivalent sections, the Pecora, Tylopoda, Tragulina, and Suina,
+is equally in accordance with all known facts. Less certain, however,
+is the association of the Proboscidea and the Hyracoidea with the true
+Ungulates. By many zoologists they are each, although containing so very
+few existing species, made into distinct orders; and much is to be said
+in favour of this view. The discovery, however, of a vast number of
+extinct species of Ungulates which cannot be brought under the definition
+of either Perissodactyla or Artiodactyla, and yet are evidently allied
+to both, and to a certain extent bridge over the interval between them
+and the isolated groups just mentioned, make it necessary either to
+introduce a number of new and ill-defined ordinal divisions, or so to
+widen the scope of the original order as to embrace them all, considering
+the Elephants and the Hyraces as representing suborders equivalent to
+the great Perissodactyle and Artiodactyle groups. It is the latter
+alternative that we have adopted.
+
+The Rodentia, although generally presenting a low grade of development,
+are a very specialised and distinct group. The position here assigned to
+them would accord with apparent relationships with the Ungulates, through
+the Elephant on the one hand and the extinct _Typotherium_ on the other.
+
+In the present state of the fauna of the earth, the Carnivora form a
+very distinct order, though naturally subdivided into two groups, the
+members of the one being more typical, while those of the other (the
+_Pinnipedia_) are aberrant, having the whole of their organisation
+specially modified for living habitually in the water.
+
+The Insectivora comprise various lowly organised and generalised forms,
+exhibiting considerable divergence of character, and apparently connected
+through transitional extinct species with the Carnivora. As no other
+order can claim the family _Galeopithecidæ_, it is placed here, but
+rather for convenience than for any other consideration, since it has but
+little if any relationship with any of the other members. Its isolated
+position is indicated by assigning it a distinct subordinal rank.
+
+The Chiroptera have always been placed near the Insectivora; but they
+are really a highly specialised group, as much isolated from all other
+mammals by the modification of their anterior limbs in adaptation to
+aerial locomotion, as the Cetacea and the Sirenia, by the absence of hind
+limbs, are specially adapted for an aquatic life.
+
+Lastly, the Primates, which in any natural system must be placed at the
+head of the series, are divisible into two very distinct groups—one
+containing the various forms of Lemurs (Lemuroidea), and the other the
+Monkeys and Man (Anthropoidea). Whether the Lemuroidea should form part
+of the Primates (according to the traditional view), or a distinct order
+altogether removed from it, is as yet an undetermined question, for both
+sides of which there is much to be said. There can, however, be no doubt
+that the Anthropoidea form a perfectly natural group, presenting a series
+of tolerably regular gradations from the Marmosets (_Hapale_) to Man.
+Certain breaks in the series, however, enable us to divide it into five
+distinct families:—_Hapalidæ_ or Marmosets: _Cebidæ_ or American Monkeys,
+with three premolar teeth on each side of each jaw; _Cercopithecidæ_,
+containing the majority of Old-world Monkeys; _Simiidæ_, consisting of
+the genera _Hylobates_, _Simia_, _Gorilla_, and _Anthropopithecus_, the
+true Man-like Apes; and, lastly, _Hominidæ_, containing the genus _Homo_
+alone.
+
+    Subclass I. PROTOTHERIA.
+
+      Order i. MONOTREMATA—Monotremes.
+
+          Fam.  1. _Ornithorhynchidæ_—Duck-bill.
+                2. _Echidnidæ_—Spiny Anteater.
+
+    Group. =MULTITUBERCULATA.=[25]
+
+          Fam.  1. =Plagiaulacidæ=—Plagiaulax.
+                2. =Polymastodontidæ=—Polymastodon.
+                3. =Tritylodontidæ=—Tritylodon.
+
+    Subclass II. METATHERIA.
+
+      Order ii. MARSUPIALIA—Marsupials.
+
+        Suborder 1. POLYPROTODONTIA—Polyprotodonts.
+
+          Fam.  1. =Dromatheriidæ=—Dromatherium.
+                2. =Amphitheriidæ=—Amphitherium, etc.
+                3. =Spalacotheriidæ=—Spalacotherium.
+                4. =Tritylodontidæ=—Tritylodon.
+                5. _Didelphyidæ_—Opossums.
+                6. _Dasyuridæ_—Thylacine and Dasyures.
+                7. _Peramelidæ_—Bandicoots.
+
+        Suborder 2. DIPROTODONTIA—Diprotodonts.
+
+          Fam.  8. _Phascolomyidæ_—Wombats.
+                9. _Phalangeridæ_—Phalangers.
+               10. =Diprotodontidæ=—Diprotodon.
+               11. =Nototheriidæ=—Notothere.
+               12. _Macropodidæ_—Kangaroos.
+
+    Subclass III. EUTHERIA.
+
+      Order iii. EDENTATA—Edentates.
+
+          Fam.  1. _Bradypodidæ_—Sloths.
+                2. =Megatheriidæ=—Ground Sloths.
+                3. _Myrmecophagidæ_—Anteaters.
+                4. _Dasypodidæ_—Armadillos.
+                5. =Glyptodontidæ=—Glyptodonts.
+                6. _Manidæ_—Pangolins.
+                7. _Orycteropodidæ_—Aard-varks.
+
+      Order iv. SIRENIA—Sirenians.
+
+          Fam.  1. _Manatidæ_—Manatees.
+                2. =Rhytinidæ=—Rhytina.
+                3. _Halicoridæ_—Dugongs.
+                4. =Halitheriidæ=—Halithere.
+
+      Order v. CETACEA—Cetaceans.
+
+        Suborder 1. MYSTACOCETI—Baleen Whales.
+
+          Fam.  1. _Balænidæ_—Greenland Whale, etc.
+
+        Suborder 2. =ARCHÆOCETI.=
+
+          Fam.  2. =Zeuglodontidæ=—Zeuglodonts.
+
+        Suborder 3. ODONTOCETI—Toothed Whales.
+
+          Fam.  3. _Physeteridæ_—Sperm Whale.
+                4. _Platanistidæ_—Freshwater Dolphins.
+                5. _Delphinidæ_—Dolphins, Porpoises, etc.
+
+      Order vi. UNGULATA—Hoofed Mammals.
+
+        Suborder 1. ARTIODACTYLA—Artiodactyles.
+
+          Section A. SUINA—Pig-like Artiodactyles.
+
+            Fam 1. _Hippopotamidæ_—Hippopotamus.
+                2. _Suidæ_—Pigs and Peccaries.
+
+          Annectant types.
+
+              { 3. =Chœropotamidæ=—Chœropotamus.
+              { 4. =Anthracotheriidæ=—Anthracothere.
+              { 5. =Merycopotamidæ=—Merycopotamus.
+              { 6. =Cotylopidæ=—Oreodonts.
+              { 7. =Anoplotheriidæ=—Anoplothere.
+              { 8. =Dichodontidæ=—Dichodon.
+
+        Section B. TRAGULINA—Chevrotains.
+
+                9. _Tragulidæ_—Chevrotains.
+
+        Section C. TYLOPODA—Camels.
+
+               10. _Camelidæ_—Camels and Llamas.
+               11. =Poebrotheriidæ=—Poëbrotherium.
+
+        Section D. PECORA—True Ruminants.
+
+               12. _Cervidæ_—Deer.
+               13. _Giraffidæ_—Giraffe.
+               14. _Antilocapridæ_—Prong-buck.
+               15. _Bovidæ_—Sheep, Cattle, etc.
+
+        Suborder 2. PERISSODACTYLA—Perissodactyles.
+
+          Fam. 16. _Tapiridæ_—Tapirs.
+               17. =Lophiodontidæ=—Lophiodonts.
+               18. =Palæotheriidæ=—Palæotheres.
+               19. _Equidæ_—Horses.
+               20. _Rhinocerotidæ_—Rhinoceroses.
+               21. =Lambdotheriidæ=—Palæosyops.
+               22. =Chalicotheriidæ=—Chalicothere.
+               23. =Titanotheriidæ=—Titanothere.
+               24. =Macraucheniidæ=—Macrauchenia.
+
+        Suborder 3. =TOXODONTIA=—Toxodonts.
+
+          Fam. 25. =Toxodontidæ=—Toxodon.
+               26. =Typotheriidæ=—Typothere.
+
+        Suborder 4. =CONDYLARTHRA.=
+
+          Fam. 27. =Periptychidæ=—Periptychus.
+               28. =Phenacodontidæ=—Phenacodus.
+               29. =Meniscotheriidæ=—Meniscothere.
+
+        Suborder 5. HYRACOIDEA—Hyraces.
+
+          Fam. 30. _Hyracidæ_—Hyrax.
+
+        Suborder 6. =AMBLYPODA.=
+
+          Fam. 31. =Pantolambdidæ=—Pantolambda.
+               32. =Coryphodontidæ=—Coryphodon.
+               33. =Uintatheriidæ=—Uintathere.
+
+        Suborder 7. PROBOSCIDEA—Proboscideans.
+
+          Fam. 34. =Dinotheriidæ=—Dinothere.
+               35. _Elephantidæ_—Elephants.
+
+    Group. =TILLODONTIA=—Tillodonts.
+
+          Fam. =Anchippodontidæ=—Anchippodus.
+               =Calamodontidæ=—Calamodon.
+
+      Order vii. RODENTIA—Rodents.
+
+        Suborder 1. SIMPLICIDENTATA.
+
+          Fam.  1. _Anomaluridæ_—Anomalurus.
+                2. _Sciuridæ_—Squirrels and Marmots.
+                3. _Haplodontidæ_—Haplodon.
+                4. =Ischyromyidæ=—Ischyromys.
+                5. _Castoridæ_—Beavers.
+                6. _Myoxidæ_—Dormice.
+                7. _Lophiomyidæ_—Lophiomys.
+                8. _Muridæ_—Rats, Mice, and Voles.
+                9. _Spalacidæ_—Mole-rats.
+               10. _Geomyidæ_—Pouched Rats.
+               11. _Dipodidæ_—Jerboas.
+               12. =Theridomyidæ=—Theridomys.
+               13. _Octodontidæ_—Spiny Mice.
+               14. =Castoroididæ=—Castoroides.
+               15. _Hystricidæ_—Porcupines.
+               16. _Chinchillidæ_—Chinchillas.
+               17. _Dinomyidæ_—Dinomys.
+               18. _Caviidæ_—Cavies.
+               19. _Dasyproctidæ_—Agouties.
+
+        Suborder 2. DUPLICIDENTATA.
+
+          Fam. 20. _Lagomyidæ_—Picas.
+               21. _Leporidæ_—Hares and Rabbits.
+
+      Order viii. CARNIVORA—Carnivores.
+
+        Suborder 1. CARNIVORA VERA—Fissipedes.
+
+          Fam.  1. _Felidæ_—Cats.
+                2. _Hyænidæ_—Hyænas.
+                3. _Proteleidæ_—Earth-wolf.
+                4. _Viverridæ_—Civets and Ichneumons.
+                5. _Canidæ_—Wolves and Foxes.
+                6. _Ursidæ_—Bears.
+                7. _Mustelidæ_—Weasels and Otters.
+                8. _Procyonidæ_—Raccoons and Cat-bear.
+
+        Suborder 2. PINNIPEDIA—Pinnipedes.
+
+          Fam.  9. _Otariidæ_—Eared Seals.
+               10. _Trichechidæ_—Walrus.
+               11. _Phocidæ_—Seals.
+
+        Suborder 3. =CREODONTA=—Creodonts.
+
+          Fam. 12. =Hyænodontidæ=—Hyænodon.
+               13. =Proviverridæ=—Proviverra.
+               14. =Arctocyonidæ=—Arctocyon.
+               15. =Mesonychidæ=—Mesonyx.
+
+      Order ix. INSECTIVORA—Insectivores.
+
+        Suborder 1. INSECTIVORA VERA.
+
+          Fam.  1. _Tupaiidæ_—Tupaias.
+                2. _Macroscelididæ_—Elephant-Shrews.
+                3. _Erinaceidæ_—Hedgehogs.
+                4. _Soricidæ_—Shrews.
+                5. _Talpidæ_—Moles.
+                6. _Potamogalidæ_—Potamogale.
+                7. _Solenodontidæ_—Solenodon.
+                8. _Centetidæ_—Centetes.
+                9. _Chrysochloridæ_—Golden Moles.
+
+        Suborder 2. DERMOPTERA.
+
+          Fam. 10. _Galeopithecidæ_—Galeopithecus.
+
+      Order x. CHIROPTERA—Bats.
+
+        Suborder 1. MEGACHIROPTERA—Frugivorous Bats.
+
+          Fam.  1. _Pteropodidæ_—Flying Foxes.
+
+        Suborder 2. MICROCHIROPTERA—Insectivorous Bats.
+
+          Fam.  2. _Vespertilionidæ_—Common Bats.
+                3. _Nycteridæ_—Nycteris.
+                4. _Rhinolophidæ_—Leaf-nosed Bats.
+                5. _Emballonuridæ_—Emballonura.
+                6. _Phyllostomatidæ_—Vampyres.
+
+      Order xi. PRIMATES.
+
+        Suborder 1. LEMUROIDEA—Lemuroids.
+
+          Fam.  1. =Hyopsodontidæ=—Hyopsodus.
+                2. _Chiromyidæ_—Aye-Aye.
+                3. _Tarsiidæ_—Tarsier.
+                4. _Lemuridæ_—Lemurs.
+
+        Suborder 2. ANTHROPOIDEA—Anthropoids.
+
+          Fam.  5. _Hapalidæ_—Marmosets.
+                6. _Cebidæ_—American Monkeys.
+                7. _Cercopithecidæ_—Old World Monkeys.
+                8. _Simiidæ_—Gibbons and Man-like Apes.
+                9. _Hominidæ_—Man.
+
+The distinctive character of these subclasses and orders, with an account
+of their subdivisions and the principal forms contained in each, will be
+given in subsequent chapters.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
+
+
+I. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.[26]
+
+In considering the present distribution of mammals over the globe, we
+may, in the first place, direct our attention to terrestrial or land
+types, reserving the consideration of aerial types, like the Bats, and
+aquatic forms, as exemplified by the Cetaceans, Sirenians, and Seals, to
+separate sections.
+
+Among terrestrial forms each species has a certain definite area of
+distribution in space, which may be of very wide extent, or may be
+confined to a restricted region. This distributional area is, however,
+always connected, or continuous; that is to say, that although we may
+have a single species inhabiting two continents, like the Lion in Asia
+and Africa, or dwelling both on a continent and adjacent continental
+islands, like the Javan Rhinoceros of India, Java, and Borneo, yet we
+shall always find that such areas, if not still connected, show evident
+signs of having been so connected in comparatively late geological
+epochs; and we never find instances of the same species inhabiting
+totally disconnected areas, such as India and South America. As examples
+of mammals with a wide distribution we may mention the Lion and the
+Leopard, which are now found throughout Africa, and also occur in India,
+as well as in the intervening areas of Arabia and Persia. In the case of
+the former species, palæontology further teaches us that its distribution
+in the last geological epoch was even more extensive, since we have good
+evidence to show that it formerly ranged over the greater part of Europe,
+including the British Isles. The Jackal affords another well-known
+instance of a species common to India and Africa. The American Puma,
+again, may be cited as an example of a mammal having a very wide range
+in latitude, since it is found from Patagonia in the south to Canada in
+the north. As instances of wide range in the opposite direction we have
+only to mention the Reindeer and the Elk or Moose, found in the northern
+regions of both the Old and New Worlds, which are only separated from one
+another by the narrow channel of Behring Strait.
+
+Of mammals with extremely restricted distributional areas, we may mention
+many of the Insectivora, such as the Desman of the Pyrenees, and some of
+the Madagascar types of this order, the Lemurs from the same island, some
+of the species of Marmots, the remarkable bear-like _Æluropus_ of Eastern
+Tibet, one species of Zebra, and other Ungulates from Africa.
+
+The distribution of a genus (except of course when the genus is
+represented only by a single form) is very generally more extensive
+than that of a species; and this may be markedly the case when there
+are only some two or three species in a genus. In genera, moreover, we
+meet with what is known as discontinuous distribution, that is, where
+the distributional area of one or more species is totally separated from
+that of others. The best instance of this occurs in the case of the
+Tapirs, where we find one species inhabiting the Malayan Peninsula, and
+no others anywhere in the world, with the exception of South America.
+The explanation of such an apparently anomalous feature in distribution
+is to be found in the past history of the globe, which shows us that
+Tapirs once existed in China, Europe, and North America, and, therefore,
+indicates that the existing isolated species are the sole survivors of a
+group once spread over a large portion of the earth’s surface. In regard
+to generic distribution it must, however, be mentioned that this depends
+to a great extent on the limits which we are disposed to assign to genera
+themselves.
+
+As the distributional area of a genus generally exceeds that of a
+species, so that of a family, or group of genera, is larger than that of
+a single genus; and similarly the distribution of an order, or assemblage
+of families, usually occupies a larger area than that of a single family.
+Thus, for instance, the genus _Thylacinus_, represented only by the
+so-called Tasmanian Wolf or Thylacine, is now entirely restricted to
+Tasmania; but the family _Dasyuridæ_, to which that genus belongs, ranges
+all over Australia, while the order Marsupialia, which includes the
+_Dasyuridæ_, is found both in Australia and America, and in past epochs
+was probably spread over the entire globe.
+
+A remarkable feature in connection with the distribution of the
+terrestrial Mammalia is the circumstance that, with the exception of
+certain species introduced by human agency, and small forms which can
+easily have been transported on floating timber or other similar means,
+they are totally absent from what are known as oceanic islands—that is
+islands arising from great depths in the ocean, mainly composed of coral
+or volcanic rocks, and showing no signs of having ever been connected
+with the existing continents, or the larger and so-called continental
+islands. The obvious explanation of this feature is, that from their
+total isolation these islands have never been able to receive a mammalian
+fauna from the great continental areas on which mammalian life was
+probably first developed.
+
+As an intermediate step between these islands which are practically void
+of mammalian life and the continents which teem with such a variety of
+forms, are certain larger islands and portions of continents containing
+a mammalian fauna more or less markedly distinct from that of the
+whole of the other regions of the globe. The best instance of this is
+Australia, which, with the exception of one dog—the Dingo—and certain
+_Muridæ_ and Bats, has no mammals except Monotremes and Marsupials. The
+latter are, moreover, perfectly distinct from those of America, which,
+if we exclude the islands in the neighbourhood of Australia, is the
+only other region which now possesses any Marsupials at all. Here also
+we have a ready and full explanation which accords with all the facts;
+since it is evident that Australia has been isolated from the Asiatic
+continent from some very remote geological epoch, at which period it is
+probable that Monotremes and Marsupials were the dominant if not the sole
+representatives of the Mammalia then existing. Consequently Australia has
+never been able to receive an influx of the Eutherian orders, which have
+probably swept away all the Marsupials except the small American Opossums
+from the rest of the globe. Again, the large island of Madagascar, which
+has a fauna of an African type, but still very markedly different from
+that of the mainland, may be considered to have been connected with the
+latter at a time when the Eutheria had become the dominant forms, but has
+been separated for a sufficiently long period to have enabled a large
+number of its species and genera to have become distinct from those of
+the adjacent continent. Similarly, there is evidence to show that South
+America was probably cut off for a considerable period from the northern
+half of the American continent, in consequence of which its lowly
+organised fauna of Edentates were enabled to attain such a remarkable
+development in the later geological periods.
+
+In contrast to the mammalian fauna of islands of the preceding type is,
+or rather was, that of the British Islands, which in the early historic
+and prehistoric periods was identical with that of the Continent. This
+leads to the inference that at a comparatively late epoch there was a
+direct land communication between Britain and the Continent, which is
+shown by geological evidence to have actually been the case.
+
+The above instances are sufficient to show what an important influence
+the date of separation of islands from the adjacent continents has
+had upon their existing mammalian fauna, and how largely the present
+distribution of mammalian life is bound up with the past history of our
+globe. We must, however, not omit to mention another very important
+agency of past times which has likewise had great influence on the
+present distribution of the various faunas of the northern hemisphere.
+This is the so-called glacial epoch, which took place immediately before
+the establishment of the present condition of things, and appears to have
+been the cause of the extinction of many of the larger mammalian types
+which formerly inhabited Europe, and whose retreat to the warmer regions
+of the south was apparently cut off by the Mediterranean.
+
+_Zoological Regions._—Zoologists are now generally agreed in dividing
+the land surfaces of the globe into a number of zoological regions or
+provinces, characterised by a more or less distinctly marked general
+_facies_ of their fauna as a whole. Some of these regions are much more
+distinctly defined than the others; and in the majority of cases there is
+a kind of neutral ground or No-man’s-land at the junction between any two
+of these regions. It must also be remembered that in the Old World proper
+as we go back in time we find a gradual assimilation in the mammalian
+faunas of the different regions, indicating that originally there was one
+large fauna of a generally similar type occupying the greater portion of
+this area. Thus we find that Hippopotami, Giraffes, Kudus, Elands, and
+other types of Antelopes now restricted to Africa, formerly extended to
+Europe and India, while there is also evidence to show that the group
+of large anthropoid Apes, now found only in Africa and the Bornean
+region, were likewise spread over a large part of the south-western half
+of the Old World. Moreover, while at the present day there is a marked
+connection between the mammals of the northern regions of both the Old
+and New Worlds, in the Tertiary period it appears that the fauna of the
+whole of North America was much more nearly allied to that of the central
+regions of the Old World than is now the case. Thus in the Tertiary rocks
+of America we meet with remains of what we are accustomed to regard as
+such essentially Old World genera as Horses and Rhinoceroses. On the
+other hand there are no traces in America of the existence at any period
+of Apes, Giraffes, Hippopotami, or Hyænas, while that continent has
+yielded evidence of groups of Ungulates totally unrepresented in the
+eastern hemisphere.
+
+The chief zoological regions of the globe, proposed by Mr. Sclater in
+1857, and now recognised by the majority of authorities, are six in
+number, and are named as follows. Firstly, the Palæarctic region,
+embracing the whole of Europe, Persia, Northern Arabia, and all of Asia
+northward of the line of the Himalaya proper, Japan, that part of Africa
+lying northward of the Sahara Desert, and the oceanic islands of the
+North Atlantic. Secondly, the Ethiopian region, which comprises all
+Africa lying to the south of the Sahara, the southern part of Arabia,
+Madagascar, and the Mascarene Islands. Thirdly, the Oriental or Indian
+region, which is taken to include India south of the Himalaya, and to the
+north-west as far as Beluchistan, the Malay peninsula, southern China,
+Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Philippines. Fourthly, the Australasian
+region, which is usually defined as being bounded to the north-west by
+the deep sea channel lying between Borneo and Celebes known as Wallace’s
+line, and is taken to include Celebes, Lumbok, New Guinea, Australia,
+Tasmania, New Zealand, and the host of oceanic islands in the South
+Pacific. Several writers, however, prefer to regard Celebes and some
+of the adjacent islands as representing a transitional Austro-Malayan
+region. Fifthly, the Nearctic region, comprising Greenland and North
+America as far south as the north of Mexico. And sixthly, the Neotropical
+region, which embraces the remaining portion of the American continent
+and the West Indies.
+
+Various minor modifications of this scheme have been proposed. Thus some
+writers are disposed to raise India to the rank of a distinct primary
+region, while others propose the same for New Zealand. The Palæarctic and
+Nearctic regions have a large number of common types, more especially
+among the mammals, and Dr. A. Heilprin[27] has expressed his opinion that
+they should be regarded as a single primary region under the name of the
+Holarctic. The same writer would also separate the South Pacific Islands
+as constituting a Polynesian region.
+
+Minor divisions or sub-regions have also been marked out, but it will
+be unnecessary to indicate their limits in the present work. We may,
+however, mention the Mediterranean sub-region of the Palæarctic, which
+includes the peninsular portion of southern Europe, North Africa, Asia
+Minor, Persia, Afghanistan, Beluchistan, and Northern Arabia, as a good
+instance of the transition from one region to another, since its fauna
+has a mingling of Palæarctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental types, the former
+being, however, the predominant ones.
+
+Of the chief mammalian types characteristic of these various regions only
+a brief sketch can be given in this work.
+
+_Palæarctic Region._—The Palæarctic region is of enormous extent,
+and includes countries varying greatly in their flora, climate, and
+elevation. Thus it embraces the Arctic plains of Siberia, the warm
+regions of Italy, Southern France, and Northern Africa, the forest-clad
+slopes of the outer Himalaya, and the lofty arid plains of Turkestan
+and Tibet, scorched by a burning sun in summer and chilled by a still
+more terrible cold in winter. Its extreme limits in the west are marked
+by the Canaries and Azores, and in the east by distant Japan; and yet
+throughout this vast expanse we find a great uniformity of life, as
+exemplified by the large number of British genera which occur also in
+Japan. The mammals which are on the whole the most characteristic of this
+region are the Sheep and Goats, forming a section of the great family
+of _Bovidæ_; nearly all the species of which are Palæarctic, although
+we meet with one Goat (_Capra_) in the Nilgherries of Southern India,
+and a Sheep (_Ovis_) in the Nearctic region. The Musk Ox (_Ovibos_)
+is characteristic of the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions. At least
+one species of Camel is characteristic of this region, and it is not
+improbable that the second may also have originated in it. There are
+a few characteristic types of Antelopes, such as the Alpine Chamois
+(_Rupicapra_), the Saiga of Tartary, and the Chiru (_Pantholops_) of
+Tibet, each of which is represented by only a single species: and we
+miss the host of Antelopes so characteristic of the Ethiopian region.
+Deer (_Cervus_) are abundant, although by no means confined to this
+region; and the Musk Deer (_Moschus_), the sole representative of the
+subfamily _Moschinæ_, is exclusively Palæarctic. Monkeys, as a rule,
+are absent, although we meet with one species of _Macacus_ in Northern
+Africa and at Gibraltar, and some other types on the southern border of
+Tibet. The Moles (_Talpa_) are mainly Palæarctic, although one species
+enters Northern India, while the Desmans (_Myogale_) of the Pyrenees
+and Southern Russia are unknown beyond the limits of this region. The
+Water-shrew (_Nectogale_) is likewise a peculiar eastern Palæarctic
+type. Among the Rodents, the Picas or Tailless Hares (_Lagomys_) and
+the Dormice (_Myoxus_) are essentially Palæarctic forms, only one
+species of each being found beyond the limits of the region, and the one
+extra-Palæarctic species of _Lagomys_ occurring in the cognate Nearctic
+region. The Mice and Rats are represented by the typical genus _Mus_ and
+other types, and Hares (_Lepus_) and one species of Squirrel (_Sciurus_)
+are common. The Carnivora include two species of Bears (_Ursus_), Wolves
+and Foxes (_Canis_), a Lynx and a few species of Cats (_Felis_), as well
+as numerous weasels (_Mustela_), and some other types.
+
+_Ethiopian Region._—The Ethiopian region is of great interest to the
+student of mammals, since it is inhabited by a number of forms remarkable
+for their large size. A considerable portion of the area consists of
+desert, especially in the north; but there is also a wide extent of
+grassy plains (veltd), as well as vast tracts of equatorial forests of
+great density. Perhaps the most striking feature in the Ethiopian fauna
+is the number of Ungulates, both of the Artiodactyle and Perissodactyle
+sections. In the former section we have the Giraffes (_Giraffa_)
+represented by one species, which is the type of a family, and is
+unknown elsewhere. Equally characteristic are the Hippopotami, which
+likewise form the type of a family, while the Pigs are represented by
+the Wart-hogs (_Phacochœrus_) and the River-hogs, forming an aberrant
+group of the genus _Sus_. The Oxen (_Bos_) are represented by Buffaloes,
+but there are no species of true Oxen or Bison. The Antelopes attain
+an extraordinary development, the number of species being estimated at
+from eighty to ninety, which are referred to a large number of genera,
+although several of these are more or less ill-defined. Most of these
+genera are peculiar to this region, but the Gazelles (_Gazella_) are also
+found in the desert regions of other parts of the Old World, and _Oryx_
+ranges into Arabia and Persia. In contrast to this abundance of Antelopes
+is the total absence of the Deer family, or _Cervidæ_, which are so
+characteristic of the Palæarctic and Oriental regions. The Chevrotains
+or _Tragulidæ_ are, however, represented by _Dorcatherium_.[28] In the
+Perissodactyle section we may notice the presence of two species of
+_Rhinoceros_, both furnished with two horns, and distinguished from
+those of the Oriental region by the absence of incisor and canine teeth.
+The Horse family (_Equidæ_) is also represented by several species, and
+includes the peculiar group of Zebras, characterised by their beautifully
+striped skins. Of other Ungulates the Elephants, which, like the
+Rhinoceroses, are now peculiar to the Ethiopian and Oriental regions,
+have one species, which is widely different from its Indian congener.
+The Hyraces are mainly characteristic of this region, although one
+species occurs in Syria and Palestine. The Carnivora include some forms
+like the Lion, Leopard, and Jackal, common to the Oriental region, but
+likewise include certain peculiar types like the Earth-wolf (_Proteles_),
+which may be regarded as the type of a distinct family, and two species
+Hyænas, which are referred by some authorities to a distinct genus
+(_Crocuta_). There is also the Hunting dog (_Lycaon_), and the peculiar
+group of Foxes known as the Fennecs, together with _Otocyon_. Bears,
+Wolves, and true Foxes are absent; but Civets, etc., are abundant,
+although not characteristic of the region. The Primates yield several
+very characteristic types, such as the Gorilla and the Chimpanzee
+(_Anthropopithecus_) among the _Simiidæ_, which, with the exception of
+the Orangs of Borneo, are the only existing large man-like Apes, and the
+group of Dog-faced Baboons (_Cynocephalus_) in the _Cercopithecidæ_.
+The genus _Colobus_ is also a group of the latter family, absolutely
+characteristic of the region. Lemurs, again, occur on the continent of
+Africa, but the great development of this group is in the adjacent island
+of Madagascar, where several peculiar genera occur, and where the larger
+Carnivora and Ungulata are absent. These peculiarities of the fauna of
+Madagascar apparently point, as previously mentioned, to its separation
+from the mainland before the latter was overrun by the larger types, and
+at a time when its chief mammals were Lemurs and Insectivores. There
+are two genera of Edentates, the Pangolins (_Manis_), and the Aard-vark
+(_Orycteropus_), the latter being peculiar.
+
+Although the foregoing groups of mammals are now so characteristic of
+the Ethiopian region, it cannot be too strongly insisted that their
+restriction to this region is, so to speak, merely a feature of the
+present day, and that at a late geological epoch nearly all the peculiar
+genera were represented in India, and many of them also in Europe.
+
+_Oriental Region._—The third or Oriental region is likewise of very
+considerable extent, and is the only one, in addition to the Ethiopian,
+which is the home of huge Ungulates, like Elephants and Rhinoceroses,
+and the large man-like Apes. A large proportion of this extensive area
+is occupied by tropical and subtropical forests and swamps; these being
+especially abundant in Burma, Southern China, Siam, and the southern
+ridges of the Himalaya, collectively constituting the Indo-Chinese
+sub-region, and also in the Indo-Malayan sub-region of the Malay
+peninsula and adjacent islands. In the third or Indian sub-region,
+comprising peninsular India, with the exception of the Carnatic, there
+are large tracts of open country, including some of the hottest regions
+in the world, parts of which form plains more or less covered with
+vegetation during the cooler and rainy seasons, while others are barren
+rocky table-lands, as in the Deccan, or arid deserts like those of parts
+of the Punjab and Sind. Finally, in the fourth or Cingalese sub-region,
+represented by the Carnatic and the island of Ceylon, we find vast areas
+of luxuriant forest and jungle. In the north-western desert area of
+the Indian sub-region the fauna includes a mixture of Palæarctic and
+Ethiopian forms, with those characteristic of the Oriental region.
+
+Among the chief features of the mammalian fauna of this region we may
+notice the absence of Hippopotami and Giraffes, the greatly diminished
+number of Antelopes, as compared with those of Africa, and the abundance
+of Deer and true Pigs. The Antelopes comprise the two peculiar genera
+_Boselaphus_ (Nilghai) and the typical _Antilope_ (Black-buck), each
+of which is represented by only a single species, while the Deer
+belong to the so-called Rusine group, which is markedly different
+from that to which the Palæarctic Red Deer belongs. True Chevrotains
+(_Tragulus_) are peculiar to this region. The Oxen include the true
+Buffalo, differing in many respects from the African species of the
+same group, and also certain species of true Oxen, such as the Gaour
+and Banting, belonging to the Bibovine group, which is confined to this
+region. In the Perissodactyla Horses (_Equus_) are represented only
+by a single species in the desert area of the Indian sub-region, while
+the two species of _Rhinoceros_ differ from those of Africa in being
+furnished with canines and incisors. The Malayan Tapir is the only Old
+World species of its genus. The Indian Elephant differs, moreover, so
+markedly from its African ally that some writers regard the two as types
+of distinct genera. The Carnivora include the Lion, Leopard, Jackal,
+and Hunting-Leopard, which are common to Africa; but the Tiger is very
+characteristic of this region, although extending northwards into the
+Palæarctic. Civets are abundant, comprising some peculiar genera, of
+which it will suffice to mention the well known _Paradoxurus_. Wolves
+closely allied to the Palæarctic species occur in Northern India, and
+there are also Foxes related to the typical species. The Dog-like animals
+which hunt in packs, and are separated by some writers from _Canis_ under
+the name of _Cyon_, occur in the present and the Palæarctic region.
+The striped Hyæna is the Indian representative of its genus. Ratels
+are common to this and the Ethiopian region, and constitute the genus
+_Mellivora_. The most striking feature in the Carnivorous fauna of this
+region, as distinguished from the Ethiopian, is, however, the presence
+of Bears, some of which belong to the typical genus _Ursus_, while one
+species is usually generically separated under the name of _Melursus_.
+Among the Rodents we may especially notice the abundance of the _Muridæ_
+and _Sciuridæ_. In the former family we have numbers of true Mice
+(_Mus_), and also the peculiar genus _Nesocia_ (Bandicoot-Rat), while in
+the latter both the true Squirrels (_Sciurus_) and the Flying-Squirrels
+(_Pteromys_) attain great development. The genus (_Pteromys_) is, indeed,
+mainly characteristic of this region, although in Kashmir and Japan it
+enters the Palæarctic. The Bats are very numerous, being represented
+by all the families, with the exception of the _Phyllostomatidæ_, or
+Vampyres, of South America. Among the Insectivora the genera _Tupaia_ and
+_Galeopithecus_ (Flying Lemur) are peculiar to this region, although not
+found in India. Finally, in the Primates we have the genera _Macacus_
+and _Semnopithecus_ very abundantly represented, although both also
+enter the Palæarctic region; but the Anthropoid types are confined to
+the south-eastern half of the region, and include the Orangs (_Simia_)
+of Borneo, and the smaller long-armed Gibbons (_Hylobates_), which are
+abundant in the Malay peninsula, both genera not being found beyond this
+region. The Lemurs are much less abundant than in the Ethiopian region,
+but they include the peculiar Tarsier of Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes
+(Austro-Malayan region), which differs so markedly in dentition and
+structure of the feet from all other forms that it has been made the type
+of a separate family. The Edentates, so poorly represented in the Old
+World, include only Pangolins (_Manis_), which, as we have already seen,
+also occur in the Ethiopian region.
+
+_Australasian Region._—With the fourth or Australasian region we come
+to a mammalian fauna so peculiar that we have no difficulty whatever
+in defining it from all the other regions of the globe, although it
+should be observed that in the Austro-Malayan islands we have a partial
+mingling of the Australasian and Malayan faunas. If we exclude Celebes
+from this region we find that, with the exception of a Pig in New Guinea,
+of the Dingo in Australia, of numerous Mice and Rats (_Muridæ_), and
+Bats, there are no Eutherian mammals throughout the area. The mammals
+of this region are restricted to the Australian mainland, the island of
+Tasmania, New Guinea, and the Aru islands, the whole area of New Zealand
+having been totally devoid of mammalian life until introduced by man.
+The whole of the Monotremata, constituting the subclass Prototheria, and
+all the Marsupials, exclusive of the few outlying forms ranging into the
+transitional Austro-Malayan area, and with the exception of the American
+family of the Opossums (_Didelphyidæ_), are absolutely confined to this
+region.
+
+_Celebes._—The mammals of Celebes—the typical representative of the
+Austro-Malayan transitional region or sub-region—include the peculiar Ape
+known as _Cynopithecus_, _Tarsius_ (also Oriental), the Anoa, and the
+single species of _Babirusa_. Several other types of placental mammals
+are found in this transitional area, while the Marsupials are represented
+by _Phalanger_ and _Petaurus_.
+
+_Nearctic Region._—The two remaining regions we have to consider are
+comprised in the New World. The first of these is the Nearctic, which,
+as already mentioned, has a fauna showing such a strongly marked
+relationship to that of the Palæarctic region, that it has been proposed
+to unite the two regions. Among types common to these two regions we may
+mention closely allied species of true Deer (_Cervus_) as exemplified
+by the Red Deer and the Wapiti; the allied Bisons of the two regions;
+the Reindeer and Elk common to both; as well as nearly related, and in
+some cases identical, species of Cats, Lynxes, Bears, Wolves, Foxes,
+Beavers, Squirrels, Marmots, and Hares. The Glutton or Wolverene, and
+the Musk Ox is also common to the Arctic portions of the two regions.
+The Ungulates are very poorly represented, but we have, in addition to
+the forms already mentioned, one species of the Palæarctic genus _Ovis_,
+namely the Bighorn, and the Prong-buck (_Antilocapra_), which is quite
+peculiar. There are, however, no Perissodactyla. The Raccoons and Coatis
+(_Procyonidæ_) constitute a family represented out of the New World
+only by the aberrant Cat-Bear (_Ælurus_) of Nipal. The characteristic
+American feline known as the Puma extends over this region; but there
+are no Edentates, and the Marsupials are represented only by a single
+species of Opossum. Rodents are extremely numerous, and comprise several
+characteristic types, which alone would tell us what part of the globe we
+were visiting. The most distinctive are the Pouched Rats (_Geomyidæ_),
+and the Beaver-like rodents known as the _Haplodontidæ_. True Rats
+and Mice (_Mus_), which are represented throughout the Old World, are
+totally wanting in the New, where they are replaced by the Vesper-mice,
+which may be included in the European genus _Cricetus_, although often
+separated as _Hesperomys_. This feature alone would seem to justify the
+distinction of the Nearctic from the Palæarctic region. The Musquash
+(_Fiber_) is a genus of Nearctic rodents unknown in the Old World. Among
+other characteristic genera we may mention, in the Carnivora, the Skunk
+(_Mephitis_) and the American Badger (_Taxidea_). Primates are absent
+from the entire region.
+
+_Neotropical Region._—The last of the six main regions is the
+Neotropical, including Mexico, South America, and the West Indies.
+A very large extent of this area is occupied by forests, which are
+described as being denser and more luxuriant than those of any other
+part of the globe. Alternating with these forest areas are the vast
+grassy plains known in different regions as llanos, savannas, and
+pampas. The back-bone of the region is formed by the great chain of
+the Andes. Next to the Australasian, this region is perhaps better
+characterised by its mammalian fauna than any of the others. Commencing
+with the Ungulates, we find a total absence of Antelopes, Sheep, and
+Oxen, and also of all Perissodactyles except Tapirs. Deer are, however,
+represented, although by peculiar forms (_Cariacus_) unknown beyond
+the New World. The Peccaries (_Dicotyles_), which are often made the
+type of a distinct family, take the place of the Old World Pigs,
+while the Llamas and Alpacas (_Auchenia_) are the substitutes for the
+Palæarctic Camels. The Carnivora include several Cats (_Felis_), among
+which the Puma and the Jaguar are the most noticeable; and there are
+also Raccoons, Coatis, Foxes, and one species of Bear. Insectivora are
+totally wanting; but the Bats are characterised by the presence of
+the Vampyres (_Phyllostomatidæ_), which are almost restricted to this
+region. The Rodents likewise include three families unknown elsewhere,
+namely the Chinchillas and Viscacha (_Chinchillidæ_), the Agouties
+(_Dasyproctidæ_), and the Cavies (_Caviidæ_); while a large number of the
+_Octodontidæ_ are Neotropical, all the other forms being Ethiopian. In
+the Primates, again, we have all the forms quite peculiar to this region,
+and constituting two families, viz. the _Cebidæ_ or Prehensile-tailed
+Monkeys, and the _Hapalidæ_, or Marmosets, both of which differ decidedly
+in their dentition, as well as in other features, from the Old World
+Monkeys. Lemuroids are unknown. Perhaps, however, the mammals which may
+be considered as most characteristic of the Nearctic region are the
+numerous Edentates, which form three families, mostly confined to it.
+These comprise the _Bradypodidæ_ or Sloths, which solely inhabit the
+forest region; the _Myrmecophagidæ_ or Anteaters; and the _Dasypodidæ_
+or Armadillos, of which one species has crept northward as far as Texas.
+Almost equally characteristic are the numerous Opossums, the majority of
+which belong to the genus _Didelphys_. Finally, it should be observed
+that the West Indies are distinguished from the rest of the region by the
+absence of Primates, Carnivora, and Edentates.
+
+_Aquatic Mammals._—Many mammals grouped for the present purpose as
+terrestrial pass a great portion of their lives in brooks, lakes, or
+rivers, and, being dependent upon such waters for obtaining their
+subsistence, are necessarily confined to their vicinity; but the truly
+aquatic mammals, or those living constantly in the water, and unable to
+move their quarters from place to place by land, are the orders Cetacea
+and Sirenia, with which may also be grouped the Seals, forming the
+Pinniped division of the order Carnivora.
+
+For the marine Cetacea, animals mostly of large size and endowed with
+powers of rapid locomotion, there are obviously no barriers to universal
+distribution over the surface of the earth covered by sea, except such as
+are interposed by uncongenial temperature or absence of suitable food.
+Nevertheless it was thought some years ago that the fact of a Whale or
+a Dolphin occurring in a sea distant from that in which it had usually
+been found was sufficient justification for considering it as a distinct
+species and imposing a new name upon it. There are now, however, so many
+cases known in which Cetaceans from the northern and southern seas, from
+the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, present absolutely no distinguishing
+external or anatomical characters upon which specific determination
+can be based that the opposite view is gaining ground; and, since some
+species are undoubtedly very widely distributed, being in fact almost
+cosmopolitan, there seems little reason why many others should not be
+included in the same category. The evidence is satisfactory enough in
+those instances in which the intermediate regions are inhabited by the
+same forms;—the cases of “continuous areas” of distribution. In those in
+which the areas of distribution are apparently discontinuous, there may
+be more room for doubt; but it must not be forgotten that the negative
+evidence is here of much less value than in the case of land animals,
+since the existence of Cetaceans in any particular part of the ocean may
+be easily overlooked. The great Sperm Whale (_Physeter macrocephalus_)
+is known to be almost cosmopolitan, inhabiting or passing through all
+the tropical and temperate seas, although not found near either pole.
+At least three of the well-known species of Rorqual (_Balænoptera_) of
+the British coasts are represented in the North Pacific, on the South
+American shores, and near New Zealand, by species so closely allied that
+it is difficult to point out any valid distinctive characters, though
+it may perhaps be desirable to wait for a more exhaustive examination
+of a large series of individuals before absolutely pronouncing them to
+be specifically identical. There is nothing yet known by which we can
+separate the “Humpback Whales” (_Megaptera_) of Greenland, the Cape of
+Good Hope, and Japan. The same may be said of the common Dolphin of
+the European seas (_Delphinus delphis_) and the so-called _D. bairdi_
+of the North Pacific and _D. forsteri_ of the Australian seas. The
+Pilot Whale (_Globicephalus melas_) and the _Pseudorca_ of the North
+Atlantic and of New Zealand are also, so far as present knowledge
+enables us to judge, respectively alike. Many other similar cases might
+be given. Captain Maury collected much valuable evidence about the
+distribution of the larger Cetacea, and, finding Right Whales (_Balæna_)
+common in both northern and southern temperate seas, and absent in the
+intermediate region, laid down the axiom that “the torrid zone is to
+the Right Whale as a sea of fire, through which he cannot pass.” Hence
+all cetologists have assumed that the Right Whale of the North Atlantic
+(_B. biscayensis_), that of the South Seas (_B. australis_), and that
+of the North Pacific (_B. japonica_), are necessarily distinct species.
+The anatomical structure and external appearance of all are, however, so
+far as yet known, marvellously alike, and, unless some distinguishing
+characters can be pointed out, it seems scarcely justifiable to separate
+them from geographical position alone; as, though the tropical seas
+may be usually avoided by them, it does not seem impossible, or even
+improbable, that some individuals of animals of such size and rapid
+powers of swimming may have at some time traversed so small a space of
+ocean as that which divides the present habitual localities of these
+supposed distinct species. If identity or diversity of structural
+characters is not to be allowed as a test of species in these cases, as
+it is usually admitted to be in others, the study of their geographical
+distribution becomes an impossibility.
+
+Although many species are thus apparently of such wide distribution,
+others are certainly restricted; thus the Arctic Right Whale (_Balæna
+mysticetus_) has been conclusively shown to be limited in its range to
+the region of the northern circumpolar ice, and no corresponding species
+has been met with in the southern hemisphere. In this case, not only
+temperature, but also the peculiarity of its mode of feeding, may be
+the cause. The Narwhal and the Beluga have a very similar distribution,
+though the latter occasionally ranges farther south. The common
+Hyperoödon is restricted to the North Atlantic, never entering, so far as
+is yet known, the tropical seas. Other species are exclusively tropical
+or austral in their range. One of the true Whalebone Whales (_Neobalæna
+marginata_) has only been met with hitherto in the seas round Australia
+and New Zealand; and a large Ziphioid (_Berardius arnouxi_) only near the
+last-named islands.
+
+The Cetacea are not limited to the ocean, or even to salt water, some
+entering large rivers for considerable distances, and others being
+exclusively fluviatile. One species of _Platanista_ is extensively
+distributed throughout nearly the whole of the river systems of the
+Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Indus, ascending as high as there is water
+enough to swim in, but apparently never passing out to sea. The
+individuals inhabiting the Indus and the Ganges must therefore have been
+for long ages isolated without developing any definite distinguishing
+anatomical characters; for those by which the supposed _P. indi_ was
+formerly separated from _P. gangetica_ have been shown by Anderson to be
+of no constant value. _Orcella fluminalis_ appears to be limited to the
+Irawaddy river, and at least two distinct species of Dolphin belonging
+to different genera are found in the waters of the upper Amazon. A
+_Neomeris_ has been found in the great Chinese river, the Yang-tsi-Kiang,
+nearly a thousand miles from the sea. It is remarkable, however, that
+none of the great lakes or inland seas of the world are, according to our
+present knowledge, inhabited by Cetaceans. A regular seasonal migration
+has been observed in many of the oceanic Cetacea, especially those
+inhabiting the North Atlantic, but further observations upon this subject
+are still much needed.
+
+The great difference in the manner of life of the Sirenia, as compared
+with that of the Cetacea, causes a corresponding difference in their
+geographical distribution. Slow in their movements, and feeding
+exclusively upon vegetable substances, water-grasses, or fuci, the
+Sirenia are confined to rivers, estuaries, or coasts where these grow,
+and are not denizens of the open sea, although of course there is a
+possibility of accidental transport by the assistance of oceanic currents
+across considerable distances. Of the three genera existing within
+historic times, one (_Manatus_) is exclusively confined to the shores
+of the tropical Atlantic and the rivers entering into it, individuals
+scarcely specifically distinguishable being found both on the American
+and the African side of the ocean. The Dugong (_Halicore_) is distributed
+in different colonies, at present isolated, throughout the Indian Ocean
+from Arabia to North Australia. The _Rhytina_ or Northern Sea-Cow was,
+for some time before its extinction, limited to a single island in the
+extreme north of the Pacific Ocean.
+
+The Pinnipeds, although capable of traversing long reaches of ocean, are
+less truly aquatic than the last two groups, always resorting to the land
+or to extensive ice-floes for the purpose of breeding. The geographical
+range of the various species is generally more or less restricted,
+usually according to climate, as they are mostly inhabitants either of
+the Arctic or Antarctic seas and adjacent temperate regions, very few
+being found within the tropics. For this reason the northern and the
+southern species are for the most part quite distinct. In fact, the only
+known exception is the case of a colony of the Sea-Elephant (_Macrorhinus
+leoninus_), the general range of which is in the southern hemisphere,
+inhabiting the coast of California. Even in this case a different
+specific name has been given to the northern form; but the characters
+by which it is distinguished are not of great importance, and probably,
+except for the abnormal geographical distribution, would never have been
+noticed. The most remarkable circumstance connected with the distribution
+of the Pinnipeds is the presence of members of the suborder in the three
+isolated great lakes or inland seas of Central Asia—the Caspian, Aral,
+and Baikal; these forms, notwithstanding their long isolation, having
+varied but slightly from species now inhabiting the Polar Seas.
+
+
+II. GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION.
+
+_Geological Sequence._—In order to understand the geological
+distribution, or in other words the distribution in time of mammals, it
+is necessary to be acquainted with the chief divisions, or time-periods,
+of the strata constituting the crust of the globe. These are shown in the
+following table, which commences with the uppermost or most recent beds
+and ends with the lowest and oldest.
+
+    I. CAINOZOIC OR TERTIARY—
+      1. Pleistocene—River alluvia, etc.
+      2. Pliocene—Suffolk Crag.
+      3. Miocene—Hempstead Beds of Hampshire.
+      4. Eocene—Paris Gypsum and London Clay.
+
+    II. MESOZOIC OR SECONDARY—
+      1. Cretaceous—Chalk, Greensands, etc.
+      2. Jurassic—Oolites and Lias.
+      3. Triassic—Red Marls, Dolomites, etc.
+
+    III. PALÆOZOIC OR PRIMARY—
+      1. Permian—Beds overlying the Coal.
+      2. Carboniferous—Coal-measures, etc.
+      3. Devonian—Old Red Sandstone.
+      4. Silurian—Wenlock Limestone, etc.
+      5. Cambrian—Llanberis Slate, etc.
+      6. Archæan—Gneiss and other schists.
+
+The names in the first column indicate the primary divisions or
+life-periods, while those in the second column are the great systems,
+each of which is again divided into minor groups, the popular names of
+a few of these minor groups being given in the third column. There are
+at present no means of arriving at any satisfactory conclusion as to the
+absolute length of time indicated by either the primary or secondary
+divisions; but there is little doubt that the whole of the Tertiary
+period is only equal to a fraction of the Mesozoic as regards its
+duration, while it is probable that the duration of the Mesozoic epoch
+was largely exceeded by that of the Palæozoic.
+
+_Mesozoic Mammals._—The earliest date at which mammals are at present
+known is in the upper part of the Triassic period, which forms the base
+of the great Mesozoic epoch; and from this date they are represented more
+or less abundantly in various horizons of the Jurassic and Cretaceous.
+
+The very rapid advances in our knowledge of these forms which have been
+made in the last few years, especially in consequence of the explorations
+of rich fossiliferous beds in North America, have not only completely
+changed the present aspect of the science, but give such promise for
+the future, that any sketch which we may now attempt of this branch of
+the subject can only be regarded as representing a transient phase of
+knowledge. It will be well, however, to gather together in this place the
+leading facts now ascertained with regard to the most ancient forms, as,
+owing to the uncertainty of their relationship with any of the existing
+orders, they will be most conveniently treated of separately, while the
+ascertained facts relating to the geological history of the forms more
+nearly allied to those now living will be more appropriately described
+under the account of the different groups into which the class may now be
+divided.
+
+The remains of mammals which existed anterior to the Tertiary period
+hitherto discovered nearly all belong to creatures of very small size,
+many of the largest scarcely exceeding the common Polecat or Squirrel.
+Some are known only by a few isolated teeth, others by nearly complete
+sets of these organs, and the majority by more or less nearly perfect
+specimens of the rami of the lower jaw. It is a very curious circumstance
+that this part of the skeleton alone has been preserved in such a large
+number of instances. Only very rarely has a nearly complete cranium been
+found; and there is no satisfactory evidence of the structure of the
+vertebral column of any single individual, and only one known case of a
+complete limb.[29] The species already described from European strata
+are numerous, although the number of genera and species has lately
+been reduced. Of these by far the greater number have been found at a
+single spot near Swanage in Dorsetshire, in a bed of calcareous mud only
+forty feet long, ten feet wide, and averaging five inches in depth. The
+marvellous results obtained by the exploration by Mr. S. H. Beckles of
+this small fragment of the earth’s surface show by what accidents, as
+it were, our knowledge of the past history of life has been gained,
+and what may still remain in store where little thought of at present.
+A bed, apparently equally rich, has been discovered in the Jurassic of
+Wyoming, North America, the contents of which have been made known by
+Professor Marsh, while another fertile source of these remains occurs in
+the Laramie beds of the Upper Cretaceous of the United States.[30]
+
+The whole of the Mesozoic mammals at present known may be divided into
+two great groups, the one characterised by a type of dentition more or
+less clearly resembling that found among the existing Polyprotodont
+Marsupials, while the other presents an altogether peculiar modification,
+recalling in some respects that of the Diprotodont Marsupials, although
+differing so decidedly as to show that the owners of this form of
+dentition cannot be included in that group.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.—Frontal and oral aspects of the cranium of
+_Tritylodon longævus_; from the Karoo system of Basuto-land, South
+Africa. ⅔ natural size. (After Owen.)]
+
+_Multituberculata._—The name Multituberculata has been proposed for
+the group exhibiting the type of dentition last mentioned, and is
+generally adopted, although the term Allotheria has been also suggested.
+The essential characteristic of the dentition of this group is the
+presence of a single scalpriform incisor on each side of the lower
+jaw (Fig. 25) and of one larger incisor, and in some instances of one
+or two smaller ones in each premaxilla (Fig. 24). These incisors are
+separated by an interval or diastema from the first of the premolars.
+The true molars, and in some instances the premolars (Fig. 24), are
+characterised by having longitudinal rows of tubercles separated by
+one or more grooves; there being either two or three of these rows in
+the upper molars of those forms in which these teeth are known, while
+there are, at least usually, only two in those of the lower jaw. In
+other cases the premolars are of a secant type, with a highly convex
+cutting-edge, and usually either serrated or obliquely grooved (Figs.
+25, 26). From a certain resemblance between these secant premolars and
+those of some of the smaller _Macropodidæ_ it was at one time considered
+that we had in these mammals representatives of Diprotodont Marsupials.
+The great difference in the structure of the molar teeth of these forms,
+coupled with the circumstance that when the number of upper incisors is
+reduced below three it is the second in place of the first which becomes
+enlarged and opposed to the incisor of the lower jaw, seems to prevent
+the acceptation of this view. Moreover, in their peculiar structure
+the molars seem, on the whole, to make a nearer approximation to the
+teeth of _Ornithorhynchus_ than to any other known mammal; and it has
+accordingly been suggested that the Multituberculata may really represent
+an order of Prototheria. Some support is afforded to this suggestion by
+certain fragmentary bones from the Cretaceous of the United States, which
+are regarded by Marsh as parts of a coracoid and interclavicle. The
+peculiar character of the whole dentition of these forms indicates that
+if they are really Prototherians they cannot be regarded as primitive and
+ancestral types.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.—The right ramus of the mandible of _Plagiaulax
+beklesi_; from the Purbeck of Swanage. Twice natural size. _i_, Incisor;
+_m_, molar; _b_, coronoid process; _c_, condyle. (After Owen.)]
+
+It would be beyond the scope of the present work to describe in detail,
+or even to mention the names of all the members of this group, and it
+will therefore suffice to refer to a few of the principal types. Of the
+forms with tubercular premolars the best known is the genus _Tritylodon_
+(Fig. 24), which occurs typically in beds of Lower Mesozoic in South
+Africa, but is also known from the Trias of Stuttgart. In the Stonesfield
+Slate, near Oxford, which belongs to the lower part of the Jurassic
+system, and is separated from the Trias by the intervening Lias, a
+fragmentary jaw with three teeth (Fig. 27) appears to indicate an allied
+type, the teeth having three longitudinal ridges separated by grooves.
+In the Purbeck beds of Dorsetshire, forming the top of the Jurassic
+system, we find another member of this group, which has been described as
+_Bolodon_, closely allied to which is _Allodon_ of the Upper Jurassic of
+the United States.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.—The imperfect right ramus of the mandible
+of _Plagiaulax minor_; from Swanage. Four times natural size. _p_,
+Premolars; _m_, molars. (After Lyall.)]
+
+The first discovery of the remains of Mesozoic mammals was made in the
+Keuper or Upper Trias of the Rhætian Alps in Bavaria. In 1847 Professor
+Pleininger of Stuttgart, while sifting some sand from the Keuper of
+Diegerloch and Steinenbronn, found, among an immense mass of teeth,
+scales, and unrecognisable fragments of skeletons of fish and saurians,
+two minute teeth, each with well-defined, enamelled, tuberculated crowns
+and distinct roots, plainly showing their mammalian character. These were
+considered by their discoverer to indicate a predaceous and carnivorous
+animal of very small size, to which he gave the name of _Microlestes
+antiquus_. Subsequently Mr. C. Moore discovered in a bone bed of Rhætic
+(topmost Trias) age, filling a fissure in the Mountain Limestone at
+Holwell, near Frome in Somersetshire, various isolated teeth with their
+crowns much worn, but apparently including both upper and lower molars
+and a canine, which are assigned by Sir R. Owen to Pleininger’s genus
+_Microlestes_, and described specifically as _M. moorei_. Under the name
+of _Hypsiprymnopsis rhæticus_, Professor Boyd Dawkins described a single
+tooth with two roots discovered in the Rhætic Marlstone at Watchet in
+Somersetshire. Sir R. Owen referred the latter tooth to _Microlestes_,
+and if its describer is right in regarding it as a much worn premolar of
+the type of those of _Plagiaulax_ (Fig. 25) there would be evidence that
+_Microlestes_ was closely allied to the latter, from the molars of which
+those of _Microlestes_ are scarcely distinguishable.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.—_Stereognathus oölithicus_. Fragment of jaw with
+three teeth (_a_, _b_, _c_), in matrix; from the Stonesfield Slate.
+Natural size. (After Owen.)]
+
+_Plagiaulax_, of the Dorsetshire Purbeck (Figs. 24, 25), is at once
+distinguished from _Tritylodon_ by its secant premolars, which, as
+already mentioned, recall those of some of the _Macropodidæ_, although
+readily distinguished by the convexity of the cutting edge and their
+oblique grooving. This remarkable and highly specialised type has
+been the occasion of one of the most interesting discussions on the
+inferences which may be drawn as to the affinities and habits of an
+otherwise unknown animal from the structure of a small portion of
+its organisation which occurs in the annals of natural history—a
+discussion carried on with great ability, ingenuity, and wealth of
+illustration on both sides. Dr. Falconer maintained that it was more
+nearly allied to the Rat-Kangaroo (_Potorous_ or _Hypsiprymnus_) than
+to any other existing form, and that, as it is known that these animals
+feed upon grass and roots, “it may be inferred of _Plagiaulax_ that
+the species were herbivorous or frugivorous. I can see nothing in the
+character of their teeth,” he adds, “to indicate that they were either
+insectivorous or omnivorous.” Sir R. Owen, on the other hand, from the
+same materials came to the conclusion that “the physiological deductions
+from the above-described characteristics of the lower jaw and teeth of
+_Plagiaulax_ are that it was a carnivorous Marsupial. It probably found
+its prey in the contemporary small insectivorous mammals and Lizards,
+supposing no herbivorous form like _Stereognathus_ to have co-existed
+during the Upper Oolitic period.”
+
+It is impossible here to give at any length the arguments by which these
+opposing views are respectively supported, but it may be indicated that
+the first-mentioned is strongly countenanced by the consideration of the
+following facts: (1) all existing Marsupials may be divided, so far as
+their dentition is concerned, into two groups—(_a_) those which have a
+pair of large more or less procumbent incisors close to the symphysis of
+the lower jaw, and rudimentary or no canines (diprotodont dentition), and
+(_b_) those which have numerous small incisors and large pointed canines
+(polyprotodont dentition); (2) the vast majority of the former group are
+purely vegetable feeders, and almost all of the latter are carnivorous or
+insectivorous; and (3) _Plagiaulax_, so far as its structure is known,
+shows an analogy with the former group; and, as we have no sure basis for
+inferences as to the habits of an unknown animal, but the knowledge of
+the habits of such as are known, we have no grounds for supposing that
+its habits differed from those forms having an analogous type of dental
+structure.[31]
+
+Allied types, such as _Ctenacodon_, are also met with in the Upper
+Jurassic of North America; and the _Plagiaulacidæ_ also persisted
+into the lower part of the Eocene division of the Tertiary period;
+_Neoplagiaulax_ being a Tertiary form common to Europe and the United
+States, while _Liotomus_ and _Ptilodus_ are at present known only from
+the latter country.
+
+The present group is also represented in the upper Cretaceous of the
+United States by _Selenacodon_ (_Meniscoëssus_ in part), _Cimoliomys_,
+etc. _Polymastodon_, of the Lowest or Puerco Eocene of New Mexico is the
+largest known form, and is characterised by the presence of only one
+premolar and the elongated molars. The angle of the mandible is inflected
+after the Marsupial fashion.
+
+_Polyprotodont Types._—The second type of mammalian dentition found in
+the Mesozoic period resembles that occurring among recent Polyprotodont
+Marsupials—that is to say there are at least three lower incisors, the
+canines are well developed, and the premolars and molars are cuspidate,
+the number of the latter reaching in some cases to seven or eight. There
+has been much discussion as to the taxonomic position of these forms, and
+while the majority of writers admit the Marsupial affinities of at least
+a moiety, it has been contended that others indicate distinct ordinal
+groups more or less closely allied to the Insectivora. At present,
+however, there is no decisive evidence to support such a view. Important
+proof of the Marsupial affinity of one of these forms is afforded by
+the replacement of the teeth, which appears to be of the same nature as
+in the existing Marsupials, that is to say, the last premolar alone is
+preceded by a milk-tooth.
+
+The most generalised forms appear to be _Dromatherium_ and
+_Microconodon_, from Lower Mesozoic beds in the United States, of which
+enlarged views of the teeth are given in Fig. 4 (1, 2), p. 31. Professor
+Osborn points out the extremely simple character of these teeth, and it
+is quite possible that these forms may prove to be _Prototheria_. There
+are three premolars and seven molars in the lower jaw of _Dromatherium_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.—Reversed view of the left ramus of the mandible
+of _Triconodon mordax_; from the Purbeck of Swanage. Natural size. (After
+Owen.)]
+
+A common form in the Purbeck of Dorsetshire is _Triconodon_
+(_Triacanthodon_), in which the formula of the lower teeth is _i_ 3,
+_c_ 1, _p_ 4, _m_ 3-4. A lower jaw is shown in Fig. 28, and an enlarged
+view of a molar tooth in Fig. 4 (5). The molar teeth consist of three
+flattened cones placed in the same antero-posterior line, those of
+the upper and lower jaw being alike. _Priacodon_, of the Jurassic of
+the United States, is probably inseparable from _Triconodon_. In the
+genus _Phascolotherium_ (Fig. 29) of the Lower Jurassic Stonesfield
+Slate, the lower teeth may be classified as _i_ 4, _c_ 1, _p_ 3, _m_
+4, the premolars and molars being much alike. The molars approximate
+to the type of those of _Triconodon_, but the anterior and posterior
+cones are relatively smaller. Like that of the last-named genus, the
+mandible of _Phascolotherium_ is remarkable for the extremely low
+position of its articular condyle. In _Amphilestes_ (Fig. 30) of the
+Stonesfield Slate the molars appear to be of the same general type as
+those of _Phascolotherium_, but are more numerous, although their exact
+number cannot be determined. A somewhat different type of lower molar
+is displayed by the genus _Amblotherium_, of the Dorsetshire Purbeck,
+to which _Amphitherium_ of the Stonesfield Slate was probably allied.
+This type of tooth is shown in Fig. 4 (8, 9, 12) p. 31, and, as there
+stated, represents that modification of the tritubercular type known
+as the tubercular sectorial. The three primitive tritubercular cusps
+form what is known as the blade of the tooth, behind which there is
+the talon or hypocone. A similar form of molar occurs in the existing
+Opossums and Bandicoots. The number of lower teeth in _Amblotherium_ is
+_i_ 4, _c_ 1, _p_ 4, _m_ 7-8. Numerous allied types, such as _Achyrodon_
+and _Dryolestes_ occur in the Upper Jurassic of Europe or the United
+States, while from only one side of the jaw being exposed in each case
+so-called genera like _Stylodon_ and _Stylacodon_ have been formed upon
+specimens showing the opposite side to that which is exposed in the
+types of _Amblotherium_ and _Amphitherium_. The only parallel among
+existing forms to the excessive number of molar teeth found in these
+Mesozoic genera occurs in the Marsupial genus _Myrmecobius_, of which a
+description is given in a succeeding chapter. Jaws more or less closely
+resembling those described under the names mentioned above are also found
+in the uppermost Cretaceous of the United States. A feature common to
+these Mesozoic mammals and _Myrmecobius_ and some other existing forms
+is the presence of a narrow channel on the inner side of the mandibular
+ramus known as the mylohyoid groove (Fig. 29).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.—Inner view of the right ramus of the mandible
+of _Phascolotherium bucklandi_; from the Stonesfield Slate. The outline
+shows the natural size. _i_, Incisors (one missing); _c_, canine; _p_,
+premolars; _m_, molars. The mylohyoid groove is seen near the lower
+border. (After Owen.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.—Reversed inner view of the left ramus of the
+mandible of _Amphilestes broderipi_; from the Stonesfield Slate. Twice
+natural size. The restoration of the anterior teeth is conjectural, and
+the condyle is placed too high. (After Owen.)]
+
+The last type of molar dentition occurring among the Mesozoic
+Mammalia is that found in the lower jaws (Fig. 31), upon which the
+genus _Spalacotherium_ was established, the upper jaws, described as
+_Peralestes_, being apparently referable to the same animal. Upper
+and lower teeth of this form are represented in Fig. 4 (6, 7), p. 31,
+where they are described as typical examples of the tritubercular type
+of molars, the upper teeth having one inner and two outer cusps, and
+the reverse condition obtaining in the lower ones. This type of molar
+presents a marked resemblance to that found in the existing Insectivorous
+genus _Chrysochloris_; the number of lower teeth in _Spalacotherium_ is,
+however, _i_ 3, _c_ 1, _p_ + _m_ 10, by which it is widely distinguished
+from all the Insectivora. _Menacodon_, of the Upper Jurassic of the
+United States, appears to be allied to _Spalacotherium_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.—Part of the left ramus of the mandible, viewed
+from the outer side, of _Spalacotherium tricuspidens_; from the Purbeck
+of Swanage. Twice natural size. (After Owen.)]
+
+_Tertiary Mammals._—The more important types of Tertiary mammals will,
+as already mentioned, be noticed under the heads of the groups to which
+they are severally allied; but a few general remarks on this subject may
+be advantageously recorded in this chapter. In the first place, it may
+be observed that the comparatively scanty evidence of mammalian life
+hitherto yielded by the Cretaceous, coupled with the number and variety
+of forms approximating to the existing groups found even in the lowest
+Tertiary, indicates a great imperfection of the geological record. At
+present, indeed, we have no decisive evidence of the existence of any
+members of the Eutherian subclass previously to the Tertiary; but it can
+hardly be doubted that in some part of the world they had made their
+appearance before that epoch. The Eutherian mammals of the lowest Eocene,
+both in Europe and the United States, are of an extremely generalised
+type; and although many of them approximate to existing groups, they show
+such a combination of characters, now restricted to individual groups, as
+to indicate that several of the various orders into which the subclass
+is now divided were at that period very intimately connected. A marked
+feature of these early Eutherians is the prevalency of trituberculism
+in the dentition, not less noteworthy being the frequent occurrence of
+pentadactylism in the feet, while many of the individual bones were
+devoid of the grooves and ridges found in those of later types. By the
+time that we reach the upper division of the Eocene period, such as the
+horizon of the well-known gypsum of the Paris basin, nearly all the chief
+groups of mammals had become clearly differentiated from one another,
+although their representatives were usually more generalised than their
+existing allies. From this date to the later geological periods there is
+a gradual approximation to the types of mammalian life existing at the
+present day.
+
+In addition to the features of trituberculism and pentadactylism so
+characteristic of the oldest known Eutherians, we may notice some other
+points in connection with the earlier types. Thus the older Tertiary
+mammals, as we have already stated, had relatively smaller and simpler
+brains than the later types, so that a gradual evolution in this respect
+may be traced from the Eocene to the Pleistocene. Again, there is a
+great tendency among the Eocene forms to a retention of the typical
+Eutherian dental formula noticed on page 25, and also to the absence of
+an interval, or diastema, in the dental series. Concomitantly with this
+feature we may notice the short crowns and simpler structure of the molar
+teeth of the earlier Ungulates as compared with those of to-day, of which
+details will be given in a later chapter. Another instance of the more
+generalised characters of the earlier mammals is afforded by the absence
+or slight development of horns, antlers, and tusks among the Ungulata.
+Thus the earlier Rhinoceroses were hornless, and the Deer either without
+antlers or with antlers of a very simple kind, while the male Swine were
+not furnished with the formidable tusks of the existing Wild Boars.
+Finally, all, or nearly all of the mammals, from the lowest Eocene of
+Rheims present the peculiarity of having a vertical perforation in the
+astragalus.
+
+The intimate connection existing during the Middle Tertiary between many
+families of mammals now widely distinguished from one another may be more
+conveniently noted when we come to the consideration of the families in
+question.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE SUBCLASS PROTOTHERIA OR ORNITHODELPHIA
+
+
+_General Characters._—The characters of the Prototheria can at present
+only be deduced from the two existing families, since hitherto no extinct
+animals which can be referred with certainty to other divisions of this
+remarkable and well-characterised group have been discovered. These two
+isolated forms, in many respects widely dissimilar, yet having numerous
+common characters which unite them together and distinguish them from the
+rest of the Mammalia, are the _Ornithorhynchidæ_ and the _Echidnidæ_,
+both restricted in their geographical range to the Australian region
+of the globe. Taken altogether they represent the lowest type of
+evolution of the mammalian class, and most of the characters in which
+they differ from the other two subclasses tend to connect them with the
+inferior vertebrates, the Sauropsida and Amphibia; for, though the name
+Ornithodelphia owes its origin to the resemblance of the structure of the
+female reproductive organs to those of birds, there is nothing especially
+bird-like about them.
+
+Their principal distinctive characters are these. The brain has a very
+large anterior commissure, and a very small corpus callosum, agreeing
+exactly in this respect with the Marsupials. The cerebral hemispheres,
+in _Echidna_ at least, are well developed and convoluted on the surface.
+The auditory ossicles present a low grade of development, the malleus
+being very large, the incus small, and the stapes columelliform. The
+coracoid bone is complete, and articulates with the sternum, and there
+is a pre-coracoid (epi-coracoid) in advance of the coracoid, while there
+is also a large “interclavicle” or episternum in front of the sternum,
+and connecting it with the clavicles. There are also “epipubic” bones.
+The oviducts (not differentiated into uterine and Fallopian portions) are
+completely distinct, and open, as in oviparous vertebrates, separately
+into a cloacal chamber, and there is no distinct vagina. The testes
+of the male are abdominal in position throughout life, and the vasa
+deferentia open into the cloaca, not into a distinct urethral passage.
+The penis, attached to the ventral wall of the cloaca, is perforated by
+a canal in the greater part of its length, and not merely grooved, as in
+reptiles and those birds which have such an organ. The canal is open at
+the base and brought only temporarily in contact with the termination of
+the vasa deferentia, so as to form a seminal urethra when required; but
+it never transmits the urinary secretion. This condition is a distinct
+advance on that of the Sauropsida in the direction of the more complex
+development of these parts in most of the other Mammalia. The ureters
+do not open into the bladder, but behind it into the dorsal wall of the
+genito-urinary passage. The mammary glands have no distinct nipple,
+but pour out their secretion through numerous apertures situated in a
+cup-shaped depression of the abdominal skin, forming a mammary marsupium,
+especially developed in the females during lactation. It should be
+mentioned that, according to the observations of Professor Gegenbaur, the
+mammary glands of the Monotremes are the simplest found in the entire
+class. The region of the glands is, indeed, distinguished from the rest
+of the abdomen merely by its thicker layers of muscles. The glands
+themselves are closely connected with the hair-follicles, and belong to
+the sudoriparous type, whereas the glands of all other mammals are of
+sebaceous origin.
+
+The young are produced from eggs laid by the female parent, which are
+meroblastic, like those of birds; that is to say only a portion of
+the yolk segments and forms the embryo, the remainder serving for the
+nourishment of the latter.
+
+The above are the principal distinguishing characters of the group, and
+apply not only to the subclass, but of course equally to the one order
+Monotremata, in which the two existing genera are included. In addition
+to these more important characters, the following minor features may also
+be mentioned.
+
+The scapula differs from that of all other mammals in that the ridge
+corresponding to the spine of other forms is situated on the anterior
+border instead of in the middle of the outer or dorsal surface. The
+humerus is much expanded at its two extremities, and has a very prominent
+deltoid crest, and a well-marked entepicondylar foramen.
+
+The dorso-thoracic vertebræ are nineteen in number, and have no terminal
+epiphyses to their bodies. The transverse processes of the cervical
+vertebræ are of autogenous formation, and remain suturally connected with
+the remainder of the vertebra until the animal is full-grown. Though in
+this respect they present an approximation to the Sauropsida (Reptiles
+and Birds), they differ from these classes, inasmuch as there is not a
+gradual transition from these autogenous transverse processes of the neck
+(or cervical ribs, as they may be considered) into the thoracic ribs, for
+in the seventh vertebra the costal element is much smaller than in the
+others, indicative of a very marked separation of neck from thorax, not
+seen in the existing Sauropsida. The upper ends of the ribs are attached
+to the sides of the bodies of the dorsal vertebræ only, and not to the
+transverse processes. The sternal ribs are well ossified, and there are
+distinct partly ossified intermediate ribs. The cerebral cavity, unlike
+that of the lower Marsupials or the Reptiles, is large and hemispherical,
+flattened below and arched above, and about as broad as long. The
+cribriform plate of the ethmoid is nearly horizontal. The cranial walls
+are very thin, and smoothly rounded externally, and the sutures become
+completely obliterated in adult skulls, as in Birds. The broad occipital
+region slopes upwards and forwards, and the face is produced into a long
+and depressed rostrum. The bony palate is prolonged backwards, so that
+the posterior nares are nearly on a level with the glenoid fossæ. The
+mandible is without distinct ascending ramus; the coronoid process and
+angle are rudimentary, and the two halves are loosely connected at the
+symphysis. The fibula has a broad, flattened process, projecting upwards
+from its upper extremity above the articulation, like an olecranon. In
+the male there is an additional, flat, curved ossicle on the hinder and
+tibial side of the plantar aspect of the tarsus, articulating chiefly
+to the tibia, which supports in the adult a sharp-pointed perforated
+horny spur, with which is connected the duct of a gland situated
+beneath the skin of the back of the thigh, the function of which is
+not yet clearly understood. (A rudimentary spur is found in the young
+female _Ornithorhynchus_, but this disappears when the animal becomes
+adult.) The stomach is subglobular and simple; the alimentary canal
+has no ileo-cæcal valve, or marked distinction between large and small
+intestine, but has a small, slender vermiform cæcum with glandular walls.
+The liver is divided into the usual number of lobes characteristic of the
+Mammalia, and is provided with a gall-bladder.
+
+In the presence of three distinct bones developed from cartilage in the
+shoulder-girdle (viz. scapula, coracoid, and pre- or epi-coracoid) the
+Monotremes agree with the Anomodont reptiles (see p. 83), and with no
+other representatives of that class. The pre-coracoid of the Anomodonts
+is, however, distinguished by extending upwards to articulate with the
+acromial process of the scapula. The Monotreme humerus is, moreover,
+strikingly like the corresponding bone of many of the Anomodonts and of
+some of the allied Labyrinthodont Amphibians.
+
+
+_Family_ ORNITHORHYNCHIDÆ.
+
+_Ornithorhynchus._[32]—Cerebral hemispheres smooth. Premaxillæ and
+mandible expanded anteriorly and supporting a horny beak something
+like that of a duck, bordered by a naked and very sensitive membranous
+expansion. The place of teeth in the adult is supplied functionally by
+horny structures, elongated, narrow, and sharp-edged, along the anterior
+part of the sides of the mouth, and broad, flat-topped or molariform
+behind. Functional molar teeth present in the young and adolescent
+condition. Legs short, fitted for swimming; feet webbed, each with five
+well-developed toes armed with large claws, beyond which in the fore feet
+the interdigital membrane is extended. Vertebræ: C 7, D 17, L 2, S 2,
+Ca 21. Acetabulum not perforated. Tongue not extensile. Mucous membrane
+of small intestine covered with delicate, close-set transverse folds or
+ridges. Tail rather short, broad, and depressed. Eyes very small. Fur
+close and soft.
+
+The Duck-billed Platypus (_Platypus anatinus_) was the name assigned to
+one of the most remarkable of known animals by Shaw, who had the good
+fortune to introduce it to the notice of the scientific world in the
+_Naturalist’s Miscellany_ (vol. x., 1799). In the following year it was
+independently described by Blumenbach (_Voigts Magazin_, ii. p. 205)
+under the name of _Ornithorhynchus paradoxus_. Shaw’s generic name,
+although having priority to that of Blumenbach, could not be retained, as
+it had been used at a still earlier time (1793) by Herbst for a genus of
+Coleoptera. _Ornithorhynchus_ is therefore now universally adopted as the
+scientific designation, although Duck-billed Platypus or Duck-bill may be
+conveniently retained as a vernacular appellation. By the colonists it is
+called “Water-Mole,” but it need scarcely be said, its affinities with
+the true moles are of the slightest and most superficial description.
+Until the last few years the early stages of the development of the young
+were not fully known. It had, indeed, been repeatedly affirmed, in some
+cases by persons who have had actual opportunities of observation, that
+the Platypus lays eggs; but these statements were generally received
+with scepticism and even denial. This much-vexed question was, however,
+settled by the researches of Mr. W. H. Caldwell in 1884, who found that
+these animals, although undoubtedly mammals throughout the greater part
+of their structure, are oviparous, laying eggs, which in the manner of
+their development bear a close resemblance to the development of those
+of the Reptilia. Two eggs are produced at a time, each measuring about
+three-fourths of an inch in its long, and half an inch in its short,
+axis, and enclosed in a strong, flexible, white shell.
+
+The Platypus is pretty generally distributed in situations suitable to
+its aquatic habits throughout the island of Tasmania and the southern and
+eastern portions of Australia. Slight variations in the colouring and
+size of different individuals have given rise to the idea that more than
+one species may exist; but all naturalists who have had the opportunity
+of investigating this question by the aid of a good series of specimens
+have come to the conclusion that there is but one, and no traces of any
+extinct allied forms have yet been discovered.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.—Platypus or Duck-bill (_Ornithorhynchus
+anatinus_). From Gould’s _Mammals of Australia_.]
+
+The length of the animal when full grown is from eighteen to twenty
+inches from the extremity of the beak to the end of the tail, the male
+being slightly larger than the female. The fur is short, dense, and
+rather soft to the touch, and composed of an extremely fine and close
+under-fur, and of longer hairs projecting beyond this, each of which is
+very slender at the base, and expanded, flattened, and glossy towards
+the free end. The general colour is deep brown, but paler on the under
+parts. The tail is short, broad, and depressed, and covered with coarse
+hairs, which in old animals generally become worn off from the under
+surface. The eyes are small and brown. There is no projecting pinna or
+ear-conch. The mouth, as is well known, bears a striking resemblance
+to the bill of a Duck. It is covered with a naked skin, a strong fold
+of which projects outwards around its base. The nostrils are situated
+near the extremity of the upper surface. There are no true teeth in the
+adult, but their purposes are served by horny prominences, or cornules,
+two on either side of each jaw—those in the front, narrow, longitudinal,
+sharp-edged ridges, and those behind broad, flattened, and molariform.
+The upper surface of the lateral edges of the mandible has also a
+number of parallel fine transverse ridges, like those on the bill of a
+Duck. Until 1888 it was thought that true teeth were totally wanting
+throughout the life of this animal; but in the spring of that year Mr. E.
+B. Poulton[33] announced the discovery in an embryo of teeth which were
+regarded as quite functionless. In the following year, however, Mr. O.
+Thomas[34] was fortunate enough to find some young skulls with functional
+teeth _in situ_, and was thus enabled to give a detailed account of their
+structure and of their relations to the cornules. From those specimens
+it appears that the teeth are functional for a considerable part of the
+life of the animal, cutting the gum in the usual manner, and, after being
+worn down by friction with food and sand, are shed from the mouth in the
+same manner as are the milk-teeth of other mammals. The cornules are
+developed from the epithelium of the mouth under and around the teeth,
+and the hollows found in the middle of them are the vestiges of the
+alveoli from which the teeth have been shed. One of the skulls showed on
+either side, both above and below, two completely calcified teeth; but in
+another example there were three teeth on either side of the lower jaw.
+According to Mr. Thomas’s account, “the teeth themselves are broad, flat,
+and low-crowned. The upper ones have each two high, conical, internal
+cusps, from which minute ridges run downwards and outwards to the outer
+borders of the crowns, where the edge is peculiarly crenulate rather than
+cuspidate, in the ordinary sense of the word. On the whole, the anterior
+and posterior upper teeth are essentially similar to one another, except
+that the former are narrower, and their outer edges are less markedly
+crenulated. In the lower jaw there is a greater difference between the
+two. The anterior is triangular in outline, its longest side is placed
+antero-externally, and its anterior and postero-external angles have each
+a high pointed cusp, ridged on its internal aspect, while the posterior
+and internal borders are indistinctly crenulated. The posterior tooth is
+broadly quadrangular in outline, with a projecting antero-internal angle.
+As in the corresponding tooth above, there are two cusps on one side, and
+a series of crenulations on the other, but they are of course reversed,
+the cusps being external and the crenulations internal. The cusps are
+high, and connected with transverse ridges running across towards the
+internal border.”
+
+In trying to find any teeth like those of the Duck-bill among other known
+mammals Mr. Thomas considers, as was first suggested by Professor Cope,
+that those of the Mesozoic Multituberculata (p. 109) make the nearest
+approximation. He adds, however, that “it must be insisted that the
+resemblance between the Multituberculate and the Ornithorhynchus teeth
+is of the most general character, and that the two are certainly widely
+separated generically, even if we do admit that they appear to possess
+a relationship nearer to each other than to any other known groups of
+mammals.”
+
+Reverting to the description of the Duck-bill, we find that in the
+cheeks are tolerably capacious pouches, which appear to be used as
+receptacles for food. The limbs are strong and very short, each with
+five well-developed toes provided with strong claws. In the fore feet
+the web not only fills the interspaces between the toes, but extends
+considerably beyond the ends of the long, broad, and somewhat flattened
+nails, giving great expanse to the foot when used for swimming, though
+capable of being folded back on the palm when the animal is burrowing
+or walking on the land. On the hind foot the nails are long, curved,
+and pointed, and the web extends only to their base. On the heel of the
+male is a strong, curved, sharply pointed, movable horny spur, directed
+upwards and backwards, attached by its expanded base to the accessory
+bone of the tarsus. This spur, which attains the length of nearly an
+inch, is traversed by a minute canal, terminating in a fine longitudinal
+slit near the point, and connected at its base with the duct of a large
+gland situated at the back part of the thigh. The whole apparatus is so
+exactly similar in structure to the poison-gland and tooth of a venomous
+snake as to suggest a similar function, but evidence that the Platypus
+ever employs its spur as an offensive weapon has, at all events until
+lately, been wanting. A case is, however, related by Mr. Spicer in the
+_Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania for 1876_ (p. 162), of a
+captured Platypus inflicting a severe wound by a powerful lateral and
+inward movement of the hind legs, which wound was followed by symptoms of
+active local poisoning. It is not improbable that both the inclination
+to use the weapon and the activity of the secretion of the gland may
+be limited to the breeding season, and that their purpose may be, like
+that of the antlers of deer and many similar organs, for combat among
+the males. In the young female the spur is present in a rudimentary
+condition, but it disappears in the adult of that sex.
+
+The Platypus is aquatic in its habits, passing most of its time in the
+water or close to the margin of lakes and streams, swimming and diving
+with the greatest ease, and forming for the purpose of sleeping and
+breeding deep burrows in the banks, which generally have two orifices—one
+just above the water level, concealed among long grasses and leaves,
+and the other below the surface. The passage at first runs obliquely
+upwards in the bank, sometimes to a distance of as much as fifty feet,
+and expands at its termination into a cavity, the floor of which is lined
+with dried grass and leaves, and in which the eggs are laid and the young
+brought up. The food consists of aquatic insects, small crustaceans, and
+worms, which are caught under water, the sand and small stones at the
+bottom being turned over with the bill. The creatures appear at first to
+deposit what they have thus collected in their cheek pouches, and when
+these are filled they rise to the surface and quietly triturate their
+meal with the horny plates before swallowing it. Swimming is effected
+chiefly by the action of the broad forepaws, the hind feet and tail
+taking little share in locomotion in the water. When asleep they roll
+themselves into a ball, as shown in the figure. In their native haunts
+they are extremely timid and wary, and very difficult to approach, being
+rarely seen out of their burrows in the daytime. Mr. A. B. Crowther, who
+has supplemented the often quoted observations of Dr. Bennett upon the
+habits of these animals in confinement, says, “They soon become very
+tame in captivity; in a few days the young ones appeared to recognise a
+call, swimming rapidly to the hand paddling the water; and it is curious
+to see their attempts to procure a worm enclosed in the hand, which they
+greedily take when offered to them. I have noticed that they appear to be
+able to smell whether or not a worm is contained in the closed hand to
+which they swim; for they desisted from their efforts if an empty fist
+was offered.” When irritated they utter a soft low growl, resembling that
+of a puppy.
+
+
+_Family_ ECHIDNIDÆ.
+
+Cerebral hemispheres larger and well convoluted. Facial portion of skull
+produced into a long, tapering, tubular rostrum, at the end of which
+the anterior nares are situated. Rami of mandible slender, styliform.
+Opening of mouth small, and placed below the extremity of the rostrum.
+No teeth or laterally placed horny plates, though the palate and tongue
+are furnished with spines. Tongue very long, vermiform, slender, and
+protractile. Lining membrane of small intestine villous, but without
+transverse folds. Feet not webbed, but with long strong claws fitted
+for scratching and burrowing. The hinder feet with the ends of the toes
+turned outwards and backwards in the ordinary position of the animal when
+on the ground. Tail very short. Acetabulum with a large perforation,
+as in Birds. Calcaneal spur and gland of the male much smaller than in
+_Ornithorhynchus_. Fur intermixed with strong, sharp-pointed spines.
+Terrestrial and fossorial in habits, feeding exclusively on ants, and
+recalling in the structure of the mouth and various other parts, relating
+to their peculiar mode of life the true Anteaters of the order Edentata.
+
+The Echidnas or Spiny Anteaters constitute a family which appears in some
+respects to be less specialised than the _Ornithorhynchidæ_. According
+to Mr. O. Thomas, all the living forms may be included in two species,
+which, with some hesitation, are referred to two genera—_Echidna_ and
+_Proechidna_ (_Acanthoglossus_).
+
+_Echidna._[35]—In _Echidna_ there are five toes, all of which are
+provided with claws, those of the fore foot being broad, slightly curved,
+and directed forwards, while the posterior ones are slender, more curved,
+and inclined outwardly. The beak is about as long as the rest of the
+head, and either nearly straight, or slightly curved upwards, while the
+palate is comparatively wide, and but slightly vaulted. The number of the
+vertebræ is C 7, D 16, L 3, S 3, Ca 12. The one existing representative
+of the genus (_E. aculeata_) occurs in New Guinea, Tasmania, and
+Australia.
+
+So much variation is displayed by this animal, that it has been divided
+into several species, but the latest researches tend to show that these
+variations cannot be regarded as indicating more than races, of which
+there are three well-marked types.
+
+The first race, or variety, has been termed the Port Moresby Echidna,
+and is only known from that Papuan locality. It is distinguished from
+the typical form by its smaller size, by the shorter spines on the back,
+which admit of the fur being seen, and by the more spinous covering
+of the head, belly, and limbs, as well as by the lighter skull and
+relatively larger beak.
+
+The typical variety is confined to the Australian mainland, and is of
+medium size. The spines of the back are very long and stout, often
+reaching a length of two inches, and almost completely concealing the
+hair. The colour of these spines varies from yellow at the roots to black
+at the tips, but some may be altogether yellow. The hair of the back is
+black or dark brown in colour, but it may be occasionally absent, or
+in the region of the loins may exceed the spines in length. The limbs
+and under surface of the body are covered with dark brown hair, thinly
+interspersed with short spines; and the hair of the face is of the same
+general hue as that of the body. The skull has a slender rostrum and a
+flat and narrow brain-case.
+
+In the third or Tasmanian race, which is confined to Tasmania, the
+average size is somewhat larger than in the typical form. The most
+characteristic feature is, however, the shortness of the spines of the
+back, which in the greater part of that region are almost or quite
+concealed by the hairs. The hairs of the back are dark brown, those of
+the under surface and sides of the head being generally rather paler.
+There is often a white spot on the chest. Very frequently there is a
+difference in the proportionate lengths of the hinder claws from those of
+the typical race. In the skull the beak is comparatively short and stout,
+and the brain-case large and wide.
+
+Echidnas are usually found in rocky districts, and more especially
+in the mountains. In a wild state they live mainly on ants. Specimens
+have been brought to this country and kept in the Zoological Society’s
+Gardens; and in captivity they will readily eat eggs, and bread-and-milk.
+They are able, however, to endure long fasts, an individual having been
+known to go without food for upwards of a month.
+
+These animals seem to be mainly of nocturnal habits, and if brought out
+during the daytime appear to be sluggish and stupid, crouching to the
+ground with the head between the legs, and thus presenting a mass of
+spines to an enemy. They burrow rapidly in soft ground, sinking directly
+downwards, and not going head forwards. A specimen placed on a large
+chest of earth containing plants reached the bottom in less than two
+minutes; and it is said that the muzzle assists in the work of burrowing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.—The Three-toed Echidna (_Proechidna bruijnii_).
+From Gervais.]
+
+_Proechidna._[36]—The one known representative of the genus _Proechidna_
+(Fig. 33) attains dimensions about equal to those of the largest race
+of _Echidna aculeata_. The skull is less depressed than in the latter,
+with the anterior portion of the palate very concave, and the deflected
+beak nearly twice the length of the remainder of the skull. As a rule,
+there are only three claws to each foot; but the first and fifth digits
+are represented by several phalanges, and one instance is known where
+there are five complete claws on the anterior and four on the posterior
+feet. There are two more vertebræ in the dorsal and lumbar region than in
+_Echidna_.
+
+The head and body are covered with a thick coat of hair, among which
+there are a number of short spines in the region of the back, which are
+much less numerous than in the typical race of the last species. The
+colour of the fur is generally dark brown or black, but the head may be
+almost white; and the spines are usually entirely white, although in
+certain cases they may be brown at the root.
+
+This species is known only from New Guinea, the recorded specimens being
+from the north-western regions of that country. It inhabits rocky ground,
+and dwells chiefly in the mountains, the specimens which were first
+described having been obtained at an elevation of about 3500 feet above
+the sea level. The Papuans capture it by digging trenches in the ground
+to a depth of about a yard, by which means they generally come upon its
+runs.
+
+_Fossil Species._—Remains of a species of Echidna of very much larger
+size than the existing forms have been obtained from the cave-deposits of
+New South Wales, which appear to be of Pleistocene age. This species was
+named _Echidna oweni_ by the late Mr. Krefft, but was subsequently called
+_E. ramsayi_ by Sir R. Owen. In referring this species to the genus
+_Echidna_, that term must be regarded as including _Proechidna_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE SUBCLASS METATHERIA OR DIDELPHIA
+
+
+_General Characters._—The Metatheria or Didelphia are represented at
+present by numerous species, presenting great diversities of general
+appearance, structure, and habits, although all united by many essential
+anatomical and physiological characters, which, taken altogether, give
+them an intermediate position between the Prototheria and the Eutheria.
+
+Although the striking differences in external form, in many anatomical
+characters, and in mode of life of various animals of this section
+might lead to their division into groups equivalent to the orders of
+the Eutheria, it is more convenient on the whole to adhere to the usual
+custom of treating them all as forming one order called MARSUPIALIA,[37]
+the limits of which are therefore equivalent to that of the subclass. The
+more essentially distinctive characters are as follows.
+
+In the structure of the brain and the presence of epipubic bones they
+agree with the Prototheria, while in the structure of the ear-bones and
+the shoulder-girdle and the presence of teats on the mammary glands they
+resemble the Eutheria, the reproductive organs belonging to neither
+one nor the other type, but having a special character representing an
+intermediate grade of development. The ureters open into the base of
+the bladder. The oviducts are differentiated into uterine and Fallopian
+portions, and open into a long and distinct vagina, quite separate from
+the cystic urethra. The penis is large, but its crura are not directly
+attached to the ischia. The spongy body has a large bifurcated bulb.
+The young are born in an exceedingly rudimentary condition, and are
+never nourished by means of an allantoic placenta, but are transferred
+to the nipple of the mother, to which they remain firmly attached for
+a considerable time, nourished by the milk injected into the mouth by
+compression of the muscle covering the mammary gland. They are therefore
+the most typically mammalian of the whole class. The nipples are nearly
+always concealed in a fold of the abdominal integument or “pouch”
+(marsupium) which serves to support and protect the young in their early
+helpless condition.
+
+Entering more fully into the characters of the subclass, which are
+also those of the order Marsupialia, it may be observed that the brain
+is generally small in proportion to the size of the animal, and the
+surface-folding of the cerebral hemispheres, though well marked in the
+larger species, is never very complex in character, and is absent in the
+medium-sized and smaller species. The arrangement of the folding of the
+inner wall of the cerebrum differs essentially from that of all known
+Eutheria, the hippocampal fissure being continued forward above the
+corpus callosum, which is of very small size. The anterior commissure is,
+on the other hand, greatly developed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.—Teeth of upper jaw of Opossum (_Didelphys
+marsupialis_), all of which are unchanged, except the last premolar, the
+place of which is occupied in the young animal by a molariform tooth,
+represented in the figure below the line of the other teeth.]
+
+The teeth are always divisible, according to their position and form,
+into incisors, canines, premolars, and molars; but they vary much in
+number and character in the different families. Except in the genus
+_Phascolomys_, the number of incisors in the upper and lower jaws is
+never equal. The true molars are very generally four in number on either
+side of each jaw. The chief peculiarity in the dentition lies, however,
+in the mode of succession. Thus there is no vertical displacement and
+succession of the teeth, except in the case of a single tooth on either
+side of each jaw, which is always the hindermost of the premolar series,
+and is preceded by a tooth having more or less of the characters of
+a true molar (see Fig. 34); this deciduous tooth being the only one
+comparable to the “milk-teeth” of the diphyodont Eutheria. In some cases
+(as in _Potorous_) this tooth retains its place and function until the
+animal has nearly, if not quite, attained its full stature, and is not
+shed and replaced by its successor until after all the other teeth of
+the permanent series, including the posterior molars, are fully in place
+and use. In others, as the Thylacine, it is very rudimentary in form
+and size, being shed or absorbed before any of the other teeth have
+cut the gum, and therefore quite functionless. It must further be noted
+that there are some Marsupials, as the Wombat, _Myrmecobius_, and the
+Dasyures, in which no such milk-tooth, even in a rudimentary state, has
+yet been discovered, possibly in some cases from want of materials for
+observation at the right stage of development.
+
+Epipubic or marsupial bones are present in both sexes of nearly all
+species. In one genus alone, _Thylacinus_, they are not ossified. The
+number of dorso-lumbar vertebræ is always nineteen, although there are
+some apparent exceptions caused by the last lumbar being modified into a
+sacral vertebra. The number of pairs of ribs is nearly always thirteen.
+The tympanic bone remains permanently distinct. The carotid canal
+perforates the basisphenoid. The lachrymal foramen is situated upon or
+external to the anterior margin of the orbit, and there are generally
+large vacuities in the bony palate. The angle of the mandible is (except
+in _Tarsipes_) more or less inflected. The hyoid bones have always
+a peculiar form, consisting of a small, more or less lozenge-shaped
+basihyal, broad ceratohyals, with the remainder of the anterior arch
+usually unossified, and stout, somewhat compressed thyrohyals. There
+are two anterior venæ cavæ,[38] into each of which a “vena azygos”
+enters. In the male the testes are always contained in a scrotum, which
+is suspended by a narrow pedicle to the abdomen in front of the penis.
+The vasa deferentia open into a complete and continuous urethra, which
+is also the passage by which the urine escapes from the bladder, and is
+perfectly distinct from the passage for the fæces, although the anus
+and the termination of the urethro-sexual canal are embraced by the
+same sphincter muscle. The glans is often bifurcated anteriorly. In the
+female the oviducts never unite to form a common cavity or uterus, but
+open separately into the vagina, which at least for part of its course
+is double. The mammæ vary much in number, but are always abdominal in
+position, having long teats, and in most of the species are more or
+less enclosed in a fold of the integument forming a pouch or marsupium,
+though in some this is entirely wanting, and the newly-born, blind,
+naked, and helpless young, attached by their mouths to the teat, are
+merely concealed and protected by the hairy covering of the mother’s
+abdomen. In this stage of their existence they are fed by milk injected
+into their stomach by the contraction of the muscles covering the
+mammary gland, the respiratory organs being modified temporarily, much
+as they are permanently in the Cetacea—the elongated upper part of the
+larynx projecting into the posterior nares, and so maintaining a free
+communication between the lungs and the external surface independently
+of the mouth and gullet, thus averting the danger of suffocation while
+the milk is passing down the latter passage.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.—Front view of skull of _Sarcophilus ursinus_,
+showing polyprotodont and carnivorous dentition (_Quart. Journ. Geol.
+Soc._ vol xxiv. p. 313).]
+
+_Distribution._—The existing species of Marsupials are, with the
+exception of one family (the _Didelphyidæ_), limited in geographical
+distribution to the Australasian region,[39] forming the chief mammalian
+fauna of Australia, New Guinea, and some of the adjacent islands. The
+_Didelphyidæ_ are almost purely Neotropical, one or two species ranging
+northwards into the Nearctic region. Fossil remains of members of this
+family have also been found in Europe and America in strata of the Eocene
+and early Miocene periods; and it is probable that at least many of the
+polyprotodont Mesozoic mammals noticed in Chapter IV. are referable to
+the Marsupialia.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.—Front view of skull of Koala (_Phascolarctus
+cinereus_), showing diprotodont and herbivorous dentition (_Quart. Journ.
+Geol. Soc._ vol. xxiv. p. 313).]
+
+_Classification._—In dividing the Marsupials into minor groups, it may
+be observed that one of the most obvious distinctive characters among
+them is derived from the form and arrangement of the teeth. In certain
+species, as the Opossums, Dasyures, and Thylacine, the incisors are
+numerous, small, and subequal in size, and the canines large, as in the
+typical placental Carnivores (Fig. 35). To these the term “polyprotodont”
+is applied, and they are all more or less carnivorous in their habits.
+In others the central incisors are very prominent, and the lateral
+incisors and canines absent or subordinate in function (Fig. 36). These
+are called “diprotodont,” and they are all wholly or in great part
+vegetable feeders. In one group of these, the Wombats, there are but two
+incisors above and the same number below; but all the others, including
+the Kangaroos, Koalas, and Phalangers, have two functional incisors below
+and as many as six above, three on each side, but of these the first or
+central pair is the most fully developed.
+
+Some hesitation has frequently been expressed as to whether the
+Polyprotodont and Diprotodont types are entitled to constitute distinct
+primary groups, owing to the presence of syndactylism among the
+_Peramelidæ_ in the former, as well as in the latter; but if Mr. O.
+Thomas is right in regarding this feature as acquired independently
+in the two groups we may safely adopt such a division. Taking various
+combinations into consideration, the existing Marsupials readily group
+themselves into six very natural families, the leading characters of
+which may be summarised as follows:—
+
+_Order_ MARSUPIALIA.
+
+_A._ POLYPROTODONTIA.—Incisors numerous, small, subequal. Canines larger
+than the incisors. Molars with sharp cusps.
+
+    α. Incisors ⁵⁄₄. Hind feet with the four outer toes subequal,
+    distinct, and a well-developed opposable hallux. _Didelphyidæ._
+
+    β. Incisors ⁴⁄₃. Hind feet with four outer toes distinct.
+    Hallux small or rudimentary, rarely opposable. _Dasyuridæ._
+
+    γ. Incisors ⁴⁻⁵⁄₃. Hind feet long and narrow. Fourth toe
+    larger than the others. Hallux rudimentary or absent. Second
+    and third toes very slender, and united in a common integument
+    (syndactylous). _Peramelidæ._
+
+_B._ DIPROTODONTIA.—Incisors not exceeding ³⁄₃, usually ³⁄₁ but
+occasionally ¹⁄₁. Central (first) upper and lower incisors large and
+cutting. Upper canines generally, and lower invariably, absent or small.
+Molars with bluntly tuberculated or transversely ridged crowns.
+
+    α. Teeth with persistent pulps. Incisors ¹⁄₁, large,
+    scalpriform, with enamel on the outer surface only. No
+    canines. Hind feet with four subequal outer toes, partially
+    syndactylous, and with rudimentary hallux. _Phascolomyidæ._
+
+    β. Teeth rooted. Three upper incisors and a canine. Hind
+    limbs not disproportionately large. Feet syndactylous, broad,
+    with four subequal outer toes, and a large opposable hallux.
+    _Phalangeridæ._
+
+    γ. Teeth rooted. Three upper incisors, and frequently a canine.
+    Hind limbs disproportionately large, with syndactylous feet as
+    in _Peramelidæ_. _Macropodidæ._
+
+
+_Suborder_ POLYPROTODONTIA.
+
+The leading characters of this group are given in the foregoing schedule.
+This group is the only one represented at the present day, and so far
+as we know also in past epochs, beyond the confines of the Australasian
+region and adjacent islands.
+
+
+_Family_ DIDELPHYIDÆ.
+
+Dentition: _i_ ⁵⁄₄, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ⁴⁄₄; total 50. Incisors very
+small and pointed. Canines large. Premolars with compressed pointed
+crowns. Molars with numerous sharp cusps. The last premolar preceded by
+a deciduous multicuspidate milk-molar, which remains in place until the
+animal is nearly adult (Fig. 34). Limbs of moderate development, each
+with five complete and distinct toes, all of which are provided with
+short, compressed, curved, sharp claws of nearly equal size, except the
+first toe of the hind foot or hallux (Fig. 37), which is large, widely
+separable from the others, to which it is opposed in climbing, and
+terminates in a dilated rounded extremity, without a nail. Tail generally
+long, partially naked and prehensile. Stomach simple. Cæcum of small
+or moderate size. Pouch generally absent, sometimes represented by two
+lateral folds of the abdominal integument, partially covering the teats,
+rarely complete. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 2, C 19-35.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.—Skeleton of the right hind foot of the Virginian
+Opossum (_Didelphys marsupialis_).]
+
+The _Didelphyidæ_, or true Opossums, differ from all other existing
+Marsupials in their habitat, being peculiar to the American continent.
+They are mostly carnivorous or insectivorous in their diet, and arboreal
+in habits.
+
+Opossums occur throughout the greater part of the American continent,
+ranging from the United States to Patagonia, the greater number of
+species being found in the warmer regions. In South America the opossums
+take the place of the Eutherian Insectivora, and the sharp cusps on their
+teeth are admirably adapted for crushing the insects on which they mainly
+subsist.
+
+_Chironectes._[40]—The family comprises two genera only, namely
+_Didelphys_, containing all the species, with the exception of
+the curious Yapock, which forms by itself the genus _Chironectes_
+and is distinguished from all other Opossums by its webbed feet,
+non-tuberculated soles, and peculiar coloration. Its ground colour is
+light gray, with four or five sharply-contrasted brown bands passing
+across its head and back, and thus giving it a very peculiar mottled
+appearance. It is almost wholly aquatic in its habits, living on small
+fish, crustaceans, and water insects. Its range extends from Guatemala to
+southern Brazil.
+
+_Didelphys._[41]—The type genus _Didelphys_ is a very large one,
+containing, according to Mr. O. Thomas, twenty-three existing species.
+It may be divided into five groups, or subgenera, all of which have
+received distinct names. The typical group is represented only by the
+common or Virginian Opossum (_D. marsupialis_), of which the numerous
+varieties have received separate specific names. This species is of large
+size, with a long, scaly, prehensile tail, and long bristle-like hairs
+mingled with the fur. The pouch is complete. It ranges over all temperate
+North America, and is also found in central and tropical South America,
+where it is commonly known as the Crab-eating Opossum. This animal is
+extremely common, being even found living in the towns, where it acts as
+a scavenger by night, retiring for shelter by day upon the roofs of the
+houses or into the sewers. The female produces in the spring from six
+to sixteen young ones, which are placed in her pouch immediately after
+birth, and remain there until able to take care of themselves.
+
+The second or _Metachirine_ group includes three species found all over
+the tropical parts of the New World. They are of medium size, with
+short close fur, very long, scaly, and naked tails, and less developed
+ridges on their skulls than in the type species. As a rule there is no
+pouch adapted to carry the young, which commonly ride on their mother’s
+back, holding on by winding their prehensile tails round hers. The
+_Philanderine_ group is closely allied to the preceding, but is readily
+distinguished by the woolly hair, and the brown streak down the middle
+of the face. The Woolly Opossum (_D. lanigera_), which is represented
+in the accompanying woodcut (Fig. 38) carrying its young in the fashion
+mentioned above, is one of the two species of this group. In the fourth
+or _Micoureine_ group the numerous species are all smaller than in the
+preceding groups, and have short and close hair, and no dark streak down
+the face. The best known species is the Murine Opossum (_D. murina_),
+little larger than a House-Mouse, and of a bright red colour, which is
+found as far north as central Mexico, and extends thence right down
+to the south of Brazil. The last or _Peramyne_ group contains several
+extremely shrew-like species, of very small size, with short, hairy,
+and usually non-prehensile tails, not half the length of the trunk, and
+with wholly unridged skulls. The most striking member of the group is
+the Three-striped Opossum (_D. americana_), from Brazil, which is of a
+reddish-gray colour, with three clearly-defined deep-black bands down its
+back, very much as in some of the striped mice of Africa.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.—The Woolly Opossum (_Didelphys lanigera_).]
+
+The numerous fossil species of Opossum found in the Upper Eocene and
+Lower Miocene of Europe are of especial interest from a distributional
+point of view, since they indicate how the Opossums of America may
+have been connected with the Australian Marsupials. These forms were
+originally referred to _Didelphys_, but have been subsequently described
+as _Peratherium_ and _Amphiperatherium_. The characters of the molar
+teeth on which these genera are based do not appear to be sufficiently
+important to justify their separation from _Didelphys_. Allied forms
+occur in the Tertiaries of North America, which were originally described
+under the name of _Herpetotherium_, but have been subsequently referred
+to _Peratherium_. Remains of many of the existing species of Opossum are
+found in a fossil condition in the Pleistocene cave-deposits of Brazil.
+
+
+_Family_ DASYURIDÆ
+
+Dentition: _i_ ⁴⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ and _m_ numerous, variable. Incisors
+small; canines well developed; molars with pointed cusps. Limbs equal.
+Fore feet with five subequal toes terminating in claws. Hind feet with
+the four outer toes well developed, and distinct from each other and
+bearing claws; the first (or hallux) clawless, generally rudimentary,
+sometimes entirely wanting. Stomach simple. No cæcum. Predatory
+carnivorous or insectivorous animals, inhabitants of Australia, Tasmania,
+and the southern parts of New Guinea and some of the adjacent islands.
+The aberrant genus _Myrmecobius_, though clearly a member of this family,
+is so sharply distinguished from all the others as to render a division
+into two subfamilies necessary.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.—The Thylacine (_Thylacinus cynocephalus_).]
+
+Subfamily =Dasyurinæ=.—This comprises the more typical _Dasyuridæ_, in
+which the premolars and molars never exceed the normal number of seven
+on either side of each jaw, and in which the tongue is not specially
+extensile.
+
+_Thylacinus._[42]—Dentition: _i_ ⁴⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ⁴⁄₄ = 46.
+Incisors small, vertical, the outer one in the upper jaw larger than
+the others. Summits of the lower incisors, before they are worn, with a
+deep transverse groove dividing them into an anterior and a posterior
+cusp. Canines long, strong, and conical. Premolars separated from one
+another by intervals, with compressed crowns, increasing in size from
+before backwards. True molars in general characters resembling those of
+_Dasyurus_, but of more simple form, the cusps being not so distinct nor
+sharply pointed. Milk-molar very small, and shed before the animal leaves
+the mother’s pouch. Humerus with an entepicondylar foramen. General form
+very Dog-like. Head elongated. Muzzle pointed. Ears moderate, erect,
+triangular. Fur short and closely applied to the skin. Tail of moderate
+length, thick at the base and tapering towards the apex, clothed with
+short hair. Hallux (including the metacarpal bone) wanting. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 13, L 6, S 2, C 23. Marsupial bones represented only by small
+unossified fibro-cartilages.
+
+The only known existing species of this genus, _T. cynocephalus_ (Fig.
+39), though smaller than a common Wolf, is the largest predaceous
+Marsupial at present living. It is now entirely confined to the island
+of Tasmania, although fragments of bones and teeth found in caves afford
+evidence that a closely allied species once inhabited the Australian
+mainland. The general colour of the Thylacine is grayish brown, but
+it has a series of transverse black bands on the hinder part of the
+back and loins, whence the name of “Tiger” frequently applied to it
+by the colonists. It is also called “Wolf,” and sometimes, though
+less appropriately, “Hyæna.” Owing to the havoc it commits among the
+sheepfolds, it has been nearly exterminated in all the more settled parts
+of Tasmania, but still finds shelter in the almost impenetrable rocky
+glens of the more mountainous regions of the island. The female produces
+four young at a time. The pouch opens backwardly, and there are four
+mammæ. The figure of the skull exhibits the peculiar Dog-like form so
+characteristic of the genus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.—Right lateral aspect of the skull of the
+Thylacine.]
+
+_Sarcophilus._[43]—Dentition: _i_ ⁴⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_ ⁴⁄₄.
+Upper incisors nearly equal, and placed vertically, the first not
+differentiated from the rest. Premolars rounded and closely crowded
+between the canine and molars, with broad crowns; molars broad and heavy,
+the last one without a distinct hind talon. Form thick and powerful;
+head disproportionately large for the body; muzzle short and broad;
+ears broad and rounded; tail of moderate length, and evenly hairy.
+Hallux wanting; soles of feet naked, without defined pads. Humerus with
+entepicondylar foramen.
+
+This genus is now represented only by a single species (_S. ursinus_)
+found in Tasmania, where, from its ferocious and destructive habits, it
+is commonly known under the name of the “Devil.” A front view of the
+skull is shown in Fig. 35.
+
+The prevailing colour of this animal is black, and the size about equal
+to that of an English Badger; its habits are fossorial, and it is very
+destructive to sheep. On account of the similarity in the number of its
+teeth this genus has been generally included in the next one, but in the
+structure of the teeth it is much nearer to _Thylacinus_. An extinct
+species is found in the Pleistocene deposits of the mainland of Australia.
+
+It may be observed that the two premolars missing from the typical
+series of four in this and the next genus are the second and the fourth;
+the fourth milk-molar being likewise absent. In _Thylacinus_ and other
+Polyprotodonts with three premolars it is the second that is missing.
+
+_Dasyurus._[44]—Dentition: _i_ ⁴⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_ ⁴⁄₄; total
+42. Upper incisors nearly equal, and placed vertically; first slightly
+longer, narrower, and separated from the rest. Lower incisors sloping
+forwards and upwards. Canines large and sharply pointed. Premolars with
+compressed and sharp-pointed crowns, and slightly developed anterior and
+posterior accessory basal cusps. True molars with numerous sharp-pointed
+cusps. In the upper jaw the first three with crowns having a triangular
+oral surface, the fourth small, simple, narrow, and placed transversely.
+In the lower jaw the molars more compressed, with longer cusps; the
+fourth not notably smaller than the others. Form viverrine. Ears long and
+narrow, prominent, and obtusely pointed. Hallux rudimentary, or absent;
+its metatarsal bone always present. Tail long and well clothed with hair.
+Humerus without an entepicondylar foramen. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 2,
+C 18-20.
+
+The Dasyures are small Civet-like animals with a gray or brown pellage
+profusely spotted with white; they are mostly inhabitants of the
+Australian continent and Tasmania, where in the economy of nature they
+take the place of the smaller predaceous Carnivora, the Cats, Civets, and
+Weasels of other parts of the world. They hide themselves in the daytime
+in holes among rocks or in hollow trees, but prowl about at night in
+search of the small living mammals and birds which constitute their prey.
+The species are not numerous, and include _D. maculatus_, about the size
+of a common Cat, inhabiting Tasmania and the southern part of Australia;
+_D. viverrinus_, Tasmania and Victoria; _D. geoffroyi_, nearly all
+Australia; _D. hallucatus_, North Australia; _D. albopunctatus_, New
+Guinea.
+
+Remains referred to _D. viverrinus_ occur in the Australian Pleistocene
+deposits.
+
+_Phascologale._[45]—This genus comprises a considerable number of small
+Marsupials, none of them exceeding a common Rat in size, differing from
+the Dasyures in possessing an additional premolar—the dentition being _i_
+⁴⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ⁴⁄₄; total 46,—and having the teeth generally
+developed upon an insectivorous rather than a carnivorous pattern, the
+upper middle incisors being larger and inclined forwards, the canines
+relatively smaller, and the molars with broad crowns, armed with prickly
+tubercles. The muzzle is pointed. Ears moderately rounded and nearly
+naked. Feet broad and short. Fore feet with five subequal toes, having
+compressed, slightly curved, pointed claws. Hind feet with the four outer
+toes subequal, having claws similar to those in the fore feet; the hallux
+always distinct and partially opposable, though small and nailless.
+Tail long, very variable in its covering, being either bushy, crested,
+or nearly naked. Pouch represented merely by a few folds of skin. Mammæ
+varying from four to ten in number. The food of these animals is almost
+entirely insects; some species pursuing their prey among the branches of
+trees, while others are purely terrestrial. They are found throughout
+Australia, and also in New Guinea and the Aru and some of the adjacent
+islands.
+
+_P. cristicaudata_, a species with a thick compressed tail ornamented
+upon its apical half with a crest of black hair, differs from the others
+by the very reduced size of the fourth premolar in the upper, and its
+complete absence in the lower jaw, thus forming an interesting transition
+in dentition towards _Dasyurus_. It constitutes the genus _Chætocercus_
+of Krefft, but is included by Mr. O. Thomas in _Phascologale_, the
+frequent absence of the fourth lower premolar in _P. thorbeckiana_
+indicating that the total absence of this tooth in the known specimens of
+this species cannot be regarded as of generic importance. All the members
+of this and the two following genera can be at once distinguished from
+_Dasyurus_ by the absence of white spots on the fur.
+
+_Sminthopsis._[46]—The genus _Sminthopsis_ includes several small species
+allied to _Phascologale_ but characterised by the narrowness of the hind
+foot, and by the soles of the feet being either granulated or hairy,
+instead of naked.
+
+_Antechinomys._[47]—The last genus of the _Dasyurinæ_ is _Antechinomys_,
+represented only by _A. laniger_ of Queensland and New South Wales. This
+elegant little mouse-like creature, which has large oval ears and a long
+tail with the terminal part bushy, is distinguished from _Sminthopsis_
+by the absence of the hallux and the great elongation of the limbs. The
+tympanic bullæ of the skull are also unusually large, with the mastoid
+portion much swollen. A full account of the habits and anatomy of this
+animal, which appears to be of very rare occurrence, is given in the
+_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1880, p. 454.
+
+Subfamily =Myrmecobiinæ=.—Molars and premolars exceeding the normal
+number of seven on each side. Tongue, long cylindrical, and extensile.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.—_Myrmecobius fasciatus._ From Gould.]
+
+_Myrmecobius._[48]—Dentition: _i_ ⁴⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ⁵⁄₅ or
+⁶⁄₆; total 52 or 56, being the largest number of teeth in any existing
+Marsupial. The distinction between the molars and premolars is founded
+not on a knowledge of the succession of the teeth, but on their form.
+The teeth are all small and (except the four posterior inferior molars)
+separated from each other by an interval. Head elongated, but broad
+behind. Muzzle long and pointed. Ears of moderate size, ovate, and rather
+pointed. Fore feet with five toes, all having strong, pointed, compressed
+claws, the second, third, and fourth nearly equal, the fifth somewhat,
+and the first considerably, shorter. Hind feet with no trace of hallux
+externally, but the metatarsal bone present. Tail long, clothed with
+long hairs. Fur rather harsh and bristly. Female without any pouch, the
+young when attached to the nipples being concealed only by the long hair
+of the abdomen. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 3, C 23. A gland on the under
+surface of the body just in advance of the sternum.
+
+Of this singular genus but one species is known, _M. fasciatus_ (Fig.
+41), found in western and southern Australia. It is about the size of
+an English squirrel, to which animal its long bushy tail gives it some
+resemblance; but it lives entirely on the ground, especially in sterile,
+sandy districts, feeding on ants. Its prevailing colour is chestnut red,
+but the hinder part of the back is elegantly marked with broad, white,
+transverse bands on a dark ground.
+
+The special interest of this form lies in its apparent relationship to
+those Mesozoic mammals which possess a large number of true molars (see
+p. 114); and it is suggested by Thomas that it may eventually be found
+advisable to include some of the latter in the present subfamily.
+
+
+_Family_ PERAMELIDÆ.
+
+Dentition: _i_ ⁴⁻⁵⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ⁴⁄₄; total 46 or 48. Upper
+incisors small, with short broad crowns. Lower incisors moderate, narrow,
+proclivous. Canines well developed. Premolars compressed, pointed. Molars
+with quadrate tuberculated crowns. Fourth premolar preceded by a small
+molariform tooth, which remains in place until the animal is nearly full
+grown. Fore feet with two or three of the middle toes of nearly equal
+size, and provided with strong, sharp, slightly curved claws; the other
+toes rudimentary. Hind feet long and narrow; the hallux rudimentary or
+absent; the second and third toes very slender, and united in a common
+integument; the fourth very large, with a stout elongated conical claw;
+the fifth smaller than the fourth (see Fig. 43). The ungual phalanges of
+the large toes of both feet cleft at their extremities (as in _Manis_
+among the Edentata, but in no other Marsupials). Head elongated. Muzzle
+long, narrow, and pointed. Stomach simple. Cæcum of moderate size.
+Pouch complete, opening backwards. Alone among Marsupials they have no
+clavicles.
+
+The _Peramelidæ_ form a very distinct family, in some respects
+intermediate between the sarcophagous _Dasyuridæ_ and the phytophagous
+_Macropodidæ_. In dentition they resemble the former, but they agree
+with the latter in the peculiar structure of the hind feet. In the
+construction of the fore feet they differ from all other Marsupials.
+
+The Bandicoots, as these Marsupials are popularly termed, are of
+fossorial habits, and subsist either on an insectivorous or omnivorous
+diet. It has been generally considered that their syndactylous feet
+indicate direct affinity with the Diprotodonts, but owing to the
+essentially Polyprotodont character of the organisation—which extends
+even to their carpal and tarsal bones—Thomas dissents from this view, and
+concludes that their syndactylism is an independently acquired character,
+and that they are really a direct offshoot from the _Dasyuridæ_. Some
+individuals are remarkable for the presence of a longitudinal groove in
+the root of the canines, by which feature they approximate to some of the
+Mesozoic Polyprotodont forms. They may be divided into three genera.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.—_Perameles gunni._ From Gould.]
+
+_Perameles._[49]—Anterior and posterior extremities not differing greatly
+in development. Fore feet with the three middle toes well developed,
+the third slightly larger than the second, the fourth somewhat shorter,
+provided with long, strong, slightly curved, pointed claws. First and
+fifth toes very short and without claws. Hind feet with hallux of one or
+two phalanges, forming a distinct tubercle visible externally; the second
+and third toes very slender, of equal length, joined as far as the ungual
+phalanges, but with distinct claws; the fifth intermediate in length
+between these and the largely developed fourth toe. Ears of moderate
+or small size, ovate, pointed. Tail rather short, clothed with short
+adpressed hairs. Fur short and harsh. Vertebræ; C 7, D 13, L 6, S 1, C
+17. Skull long and narrow, with the bulla single, and its mastoid portion
+not inflated.
+
+The animals of this genus are all small, and live entirely on the ground,
+making nests composed of dried leaves, grass, and sticks in hollow
+places. They are rather mixed feeders; but insects, worms, roots, and
+bulbs constitute their ordinary diet. The various species are widely
+distributed over Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and several of the
+adjacent islands, as Aru, Kei, and New Ireland. The best known are—_P.
+gunni_ (Fig. 42), _bougainvillei_, _nasuta_, _obesula_, and _macrura_
+from Australia, and _P. doreyana_, _raffrayana_, and _longicaudata_ from
+New Guinea.
+
+Remains apparently referable to existing species are found in the
+cave-deposits of New South Wales.
+
+_Peragale._[50]—Molar teeth curved, typically with longer crowns and
+shorter roots than in the last. Hinder extremities proportionally longer,
+and hallux without claw. Muzzle much elongated and narrow. Fur soft
+and silky. Ears very large, long, and pointed. Tail long, its apical
+half clothed on the dorsal surface with long hairs which form a crest.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 2, C 23. Skull distinguished from that of
+_Perameles_ by the large size and double structure of the auditory
+bulla, of which the mastoid portion is inflated. There is also an abrupt
+contraction of the muzzle at the third premolar.
+
+The type species of Rabbit-Bandicoot (_P. lagotis_), as these animals
+are called, is found in Western Australia, and also occurs fossil in the
+cave-deposits of New South Wales. It is the largest member of the family,
+being about the size of the common Rabbit, to which animal it bears
+sufficient superficial resemblance to have acquired the name of “Native
+Rabbit” from the colonists. It burrows in the ground, but in other
+respects resembles the true Bandicoots in its habits.
+
+The smaller _P. leucura_ has short-crowned molars, with distinct cusps,
+which are almost obsolete in the type species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.—Skeleton of right hind foot of _Chœropus
+castanotis_. _c_, Calcaneum; _a_, astragalus; _cb_, cuboid; _n_,
+navicular; _c³_, ectocuneiform; II and III, the conjoined second and
+third digits; IV, the large and only functional digit; V, the rudimentary
+fifth digit.]
+
+_Chœropus._[51]—Dentition generally resembling that of _Perameles_, but
+the canines are less developed, and in the upper jaw two-rooted. Limbs
+very slender; posterior nearly twice the length of the anterior. Fore
+feet with the functional toes reduced to two, the second and third, of
+equal length, with closely united metacarpals and short, sharp, slightly
+curved, compressed claws. First toe represented by a minute rudiment of
+a metacarpal bone; the fourth by a metacarpal and two small phalanges
+without a claw, and not reaching the middle of the metacarpal of the
+third; fifth entirely absent. Hind foot (Fig. 43) long and narrow,
+mainly composed of the strongly developed fourth toe, terminating in a
+conical pointed nail, with a strong pad behind it; the hallux absent or
+represented by a rudimentary metatarsal; the remaining toes completely
+developed, and with claws, but exceedingly slender; the united second and
+third reaching a little way beyond the metatarso-phalangeal articulation
+of the fourth; the fifth somewhat shorter. Tail not quite so long as the
+body, and covered with short hairs forming a slight crest. Ears large and
+pointed, and folded down when the animal is at rest. Fur soft and loose.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 1, C 20. Skull short and wide, with a small
+and single bulla, and a contraction of the muzzle at the third premolar.
+
+The only known species of this genus (Fig. 44), chiefly remarkable for
+the singular construction of its limbs, is an animal about the size of a
+small Rat, found in the interior of the Australian continent. Its general
+habits and food appear to resemble those of the other _Peramelidæ_.
+It was first described as _C. ecaudatus_ by Ogilby from a mutilated
+specimen, but the specific name was afterwards changed, as being
+inappropriate, by Gray to _castanotis_.
+
+
+_Suborder_ DIPROTODONTIA.
+
+For the leading characters of this group, see page 132.
+
+
+_Family_ PHASCOLOMYIDÆ.
+
+Dentition: _c_ ¹⁄₁, _i_ ⁰⁄₀, _p_ ¹⁄₁, _m_ ⁴⁄₄ = 24. All the teeth with
+persistent pulps. The incisors large, scalpriform, with enamel only
+on the front surface, as in the Rodentia. The molars strongly curved,
+forming from the base to the summit about a quarter of a circle, the
+concavity being directed outwards in the upper and inwards in the
+lower teeth. The first of the series, or premolar, appears to have no
+milk-predecessor, and is single-lobed; the other four composed of two
+lobes, each subtriangular in section. Limbs equal, stout, and short.
+Fore feet with five distinct toes, each furnished with a long, strong,
+and slightly curved nail, the first and fifth considerably shorter
+than the other three. Hind feet with a very short nailless hallux, the
+second, third, and fourth toes partially united by integument, of nearly
+equal length, the fifth distinct and rather shorter; all four provided
+with long and curved nails. In the skeleton of the foot, the second
+and third toes are distinctly more slender than the fourth, showing a
+slight tendency towards the peculiar character so marked in the next
+two families. Tail rudimentary. Stomach simple, provided with a special
+gland situated near the cardiac orifice. Cæcum very short, wide, and with
+a peculiar vermiform appendage. Pouch present. The auditory bullæ of
+the skull are imperfect, open behind, with their anterior wall formed
+by a descending process of the squamosal, instead of the alisphenoid.
+Masseteric fossa of mandible with a perforation and a deep pit.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.—_Chœropus castanotis._ From Gould.]
+
+_Phascolomys._[52]—The existing Wombats (Fig. 45) comprise three
+species, all of which are included in the one genus _Phascolomys_, and
+all of which date from the Pleistocene.
+
+In the typical group we find the following characters. Fur rough and
+coarse. Ears short and rounded. Muffle naked. Postorbital process of the
+frontal bone obsolete. Ribs fifteen pairs. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 4, S
+4, C 10-12. The Wombat of Tasmania and the islands of Bass’s Straits
+(_P. ursinus_) and the closely similar but larger animal of the southern
+portion of the mainland of Australia (_P. mitchelli_) belong to this
+group.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.—Common Wombat (_Phascolomys ursinus_).]
+
+In the second group the characters are as follows. Fur smooth and silky.
+Ears large and more pointed. Muffle hairy. Frontal region of skull
+broader than in the other group, with well-marked postorbital processes.
+Ribs thirteen. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 15-16. One species, _P.
+latifrons_, the Hairy-nosed Wombat of Southern Australia.
+
+In their general form and actions the Wombats resemble small bears,
+having a somewhat similar shuffling manner of walking, but they are still
+shorter in the legs, and have broader, flatter backs than bears. They
+live entirely on the ground, or in burrows or holes among rocks, never
+climbing trees, and feed entirely on grass, roots, and other vegetable
+substances. They sleep during the day, and wander forth at night in
+search of food, and are shy and gentle in their habits generally, though
+they can bite strongly when provoked. The only noise the common wombat
+makes is a low kind of hissing, but the Hairy-nosed Wombat is said to
+emit a short quick grunt when annoyed. The prevailing colour of the
+last-named species, as well as of _P. ursinus_ of Tasmania, is a brownish
+gray. The large wombat of the mainland is very variable in colour, some
+individuals being found of a pale yellowish brown, others dark gray, and
+some quite black. The length of head and body is about three feet.
+
+It is noteworthy that _P. mitchelli_ was first described from the
+evidence of fossil remains, the living form subsequently described as _P.
+platyrhinus_ being found to be indistinguishable. Other extinct species
+occur in the Pleistocene of Australia.
+
+_Phascolonus._[53]—Remains of a large extinct Wombat, which must have
+nearly equalled the dimensions of a Tapir, occur in the Pleistocene of
+Queensland, and have been described as _Phascolonus_. It is probable that
+the expanded and flattened upper incisors from the same deposits upon
+the evidence of which the presumed genus _Sceparnodon_ was founded, are
+likewise referable to the same form. The characters of both the upper and
+lower incisors distinguish _Phascolonus_ from _Phascolomys_.
+
+
+_Family_ PHALANGERIDÆ.
+
+Dentition extremely variable, owing to the presence of minute rudimental
+teeth not constant in the same species, or even in the two sides of
+the jaws of the same individual; exclusive, however, of _Tarsipes_,
+the formula _i_ ³⁄₁, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ²⁻³⁄₀₋₂, _m_ ³⁻⁴⁄₃₋₄ represents
+fairly the general condition of the functional teeth. First incisors
+long and stout; the lower pair very large and pointed, but without the
+scissor-like action found in the existing _Macropodidæ_; second and
+third lower incisors minute and probably functionless. Fourth premolar
+generally secant; milk-molar generally minute and deciduous at an early
+period. Molars either with sharp cutting-crests or bluntly tuberculate;
+fourth sometimes absent. Mandible without pit, and at most a very minute
+perforation in the masseteric fossa. Limbs subequal. Fore feet with five
+distinct, subequal toes, furnished with claws. Hind feet short and broad,
+with five well developed toes; the hallux large, nailless and opposable;
+the second and third slender, and united by a common integument as far as
+the claws. Tail generally long, and frequently more or less prehensile.
+Stomach simple. Cæcum present (except in _Tarsipes_), and usually large.
+Pouch complete. Animals of small or moderate size and arboreal habits,
+usually feeding on a vegetable or mixed diet, inhabiting Australia and
+the Papuan Islands.
+
+The homologies of the lower functionless teeth between the first
+incisor and fourth premolar are very difficult to determine, but it is
+probable that one represents a canine only when the largest known number
+is present; this tooth, according to Mr. Thomas, being the first to
+disappear.
+
+Phalangers are small woolly-coated animals, with long, powerful, and
+often prehensile tails, large claws, and, as in the American opossums,
+with opposable nailless great toes. Their expression seems in the
+day to be dull and sleepy, but by night they appear to decidedly
+greater advantage. They live mostly upon fruit, leaves, and blossoms,
+although some few feed habitually upon insects, and all relish, when
+in confinement, an occasional bird or other small animal. Several of
+the Phalangers possess flying membranes stretched between their fore
+and hind limbs (Fig. 48), by the help of which they can make long and
+sustained leaps through the air, like the Flying Squirrels, but it is
+interesting to notice that the possession of these flying membranes
+does not seem to be any indication of special affinity, the characters
+of the skull and teeth sharply dividing the flying forms, and uniting
+them with other species of the non-flying groups. Their skulls (Fig. 47)
+are as a rule broad and flattened, with the posterior part swollen out
+laterally, owing to the numerous air-cells situated in the substance of
+the squamosal.
+
+The Phalangers are interesting from an historical point of view, since
+the Gray Cuscus (_Phalanger orientalis_) was the first of the Marsupials
+of the eastern hemisphere brought to the notice of Europeans, having been
+described in a work published at Leyden in 1611, from an account of a
+specimen seen at Amboyna during the third expedition of Admiral Van der
+Hagen.
+
+The present family corresponds to the _Dasyuridæ_ among the
+Polyprotodonts as presenting, on the whole, the most generalised types of
+the suborder. The existing forms may be divided into three subfamilies.
+
+Subfamily =Tarsipedinæ=.—Cheek-teeth almost rudimentary and variable in
+number. Tongue long, slender, pointed, and very extensile. Tail long.
+Cæcum absent.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.—_Tarsipes rostratus._ From Gould.]
+
+_Tarsipes._[54]—So named from some supposed resemblance of its foot to
+that of the Lemurine genus _Tarsius_; but it must be remarked that it
+has none of the peculiar elongation of the calcaneum and navicular so
+characteristic of that genus. Head with elongated and slender muzzle.
+Mouth-opening small. The two lower incisors are long, very slender,
+sharp-pointed, and horizontally placed. All the other teeth are simple,
+conical, minute, and placed at considerable and irregular intervals
+apart in the jaws, the number appearing to vary in different individuals
+and even on different sides of the same individual. The formula, in a
+specimen in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, is _i_ ²⁄₁,
+_c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ and _m_ ³⁄₂ on one side, and ⁴⁄₃ on the other; total 20.
+Rami of the mandible extremely slender, nearly straight, and without
+coronoid process or inflected angle. Fore feet with five well-developed
+toes, furnished with small, flat, scale-like nails, not reaching to the
+extremity of the digits. Hind feet rather long and slender compared
+with those of the _Phalangerinæ_, having a well-developed opposable
+and nailless hallux; second and third digits syndactylous, with sharp
+compressed curved claws; the fourth and fifth free, and with small flat
+nails. Ears of moderate size and rounded. Tail longer than the body and
+head, scantily clothed with short hairs, prehensile. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13,
+L 5, S 3, C 24.
+
+Of this singular genus but one species, _T. rostratus_ (Fig. 46), is
+known, about the size of a common Mouse. It inhabits Western Australia,
+lives in trees and bushes, uses its tail in climbing, and feeds on honey,
+which it procures by inserting its long tongue into the blossoms of
+_Melaleucæ_, etc. One kept in confinement by Mr. Gould was also observed
+to eat flies.
+
+Subfamily =Phalangerinæ=.—Teeth normal. One or more rudimentary teeth
+between the upper canine and fourth premolar, and between the first
+lower incisor and fourth premolar. Tongue of ordinary structure. No
+cheek-pouches. Stomach and ascending colon simple. Cæcum long, simple.
+Tail well-developed, generally prehensile.
+
+A numerous group of animals, varying from the size of a mouse to that
+of a large cat, arboreal in their habits, and abundantly distributed
+throughout the Australian region. The members of this group are the
+typical representatives of the family, and are commonly known to the
+colonists as Opossums.
+
+_Phalanger._[55]—The typical genus _Phalanger_ (_Cuscus_) presents the
+following characters. No flying membrane; size large or medium, and
+build stout and clumsy; fur thick and woolly. Ears short or medium,
+hairy externally, and in some cases also internally. Toes of fore feet
+subequal, their relative lengths in the order 4, 3, 5, 2, 1. Claws
+long, stout, and curved. Soles of feet naked and striated, with large
+ill-defined pads. Tail stout and markedly prehensile, with the proximal
+half furred like the body, and the terminal portion entirely naked. Four
+mammæ. Skull (Fig. 47) stout and strong, with large vacuities in the
+hinder half of the palate, and the auditory bullæ thick and inflated.
+Dentition usually _i_ ³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ⁴⁄₄. First upper incisor
+with nearly circular section, or only slightly flattened in front; canine
+more or less closely approximated to third incisor (which is very small),
+and situated partly in front of the suture between the premaxilla and
+maxilla. Fourth premolar large, secant, and placed obliquely to line
+of molars. Molars four-cusped, with the inner cusps of the upper ones
+crescentoid, and imperfect transverse ridges connecting each pair of
+cusps.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.—Left lateral view of skull of Gray Cuscus
+(_Phalanger orientalis_). After Peters.]
+
+The Cuscuses are curious sleepy-looking animals, inhabiting the various
+islands of the East Indian Archipelago as far west as Celebes, and
+being the only Marsupials found west of New Guinea. As already noted,
+it was a member of this genus, the Gray Cuscus (_P. orientalis_), a
+native of Amboyna, Timor, and the neighbouring islands, which was the
+first Australasian Marsupial known to European naturalists. There are
+altogether five species known, all of about the size of a large cat;
+their habits resemble those of other Phalangers, except that they are
+said to be somewhat more carnivorous.
+
+_Trichosurus._[56]—The members of the genus _Trichosurus_ are of
+relatively large size, and are distinguished from _Phalanger_ by the
+following characters. Ears more or less hairy behind. Relative lengths of
+toes of fore feet in the order 4, 3, 2, 5, 1. Hair on the soles of the
+hind feet beneath the heel, but not elsewhere. Tail thick, not tapering,
+covered with bushy hair up to the extreme tip, which is naked, but with a
+naked strip on the inferior surface in the distal third or half. A gland
+on the chest. Dentition usually _i_ ³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_ ⁴⁄₄. Upper
+incisors of nearly uniform length, the first much flattened in front.
+Canine situated some distance behind the third upper incisor, which it
+scarcely exceeds in size. Last premolar and molars very similar to those
+of _Phalanger_.
+
+The true Phalangers comprise two species, of which the best known is the
+Vulpine Phalanger (_T. vulpecula_), so common in zoological gardens,
+where, however, it is seldom seen, owing to its nocturnal habits. It is
+of about the size and general build of a small fox, whence its name. In
+the typical variety the colour is gray, with a yellowish white belly,
+white ears, and a black tail. This variety is a native of the greater
+part of the continent of Australia, but is replaced in Tasmania by the
+closely allied Brown Phalanger (_var. fuliginosa_). Its habits are very
+similar to those of the Yellow-bellied Flying-Phalanger (_Petaurus
+australis_) described below, except that it is unable to take the flying
+leaps of that animal. Like all the other phalangers, its flesh is freely
+eaten both by the natives and the lower class of settlers.
+
+_Pseudochirus._[57]—The genus _Pseudochirus_ agrees with the preceding
+in the absence of a flying membrane, and presents the following leading
+characters. Size large or medium. Fur comparatively short and woolly.
+Ears medium or short, hairy behind, although seldom closely furred
+over all this aspect. Claws medium. Fore toes subequal, the first two
+distinctly opposable to the other three. Soles of feet naked, with large,
+striated, round pads, and hair beneath the heels. Tail tapering, markedly
+prehensile, with its distal third and the whole of the under surface
+short-haired; tip naked underneath for a short distance. Four mammæ. No
+gland on chest. Skull with larger nasals than in the preceding genera;
+the posterior part of the palate in most cases fully ossified, and the
+auditory bullæ generally somewhat inflated. Dentition (at most) _i_
+²⁻³⁄₂, _c_ ⁰⁻¹⁄₀, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ⁴⁄₄. Upper teeth nearly uniform in length,
+but the first incisor distinctly longer than second. Upper premolars
+variable. Molars with both inner and outer cusps distinctly crescentoid,
+and recalling those of the Selenodont Artiodactyle Ungulates.
+
+_Range._—Tasmania, Australia, and New Guinea.
+
+There are about ten species of this genus known, of which the commonest
+is Cook’s Ring-tailed Phalanger (_Pseudochirus peregrinus_), an animal
+discovered by Captain Cook during his first voyage, at Endeavour river,
+North Queensland.
+
+The complex and sub-selenodont character of the molars of this and
+the following genus readily distinguish them from the more typical
+Phalangers, and show an approximation to the type of dentition prevailing
+in _Phascolarctus_; according, however, to Mr. O. Thomas, a tendency
+towards the same structure is observable in unworn molars of young
+Cuscuses. The genus may be divided into three groups, of which the first,
+as typified by the common _P. peregrinus_, is restricted to Australia
+and Tasmania, while the third, as represented by _P. canescens_, is only
+found in New Guinea. _P. albertisi_ may be taken as the type of the
+second group, which is represented by that species in New Guinea, and by
+_P. archeri_ in Queensland. With the exception of _P. peregrinus_, the
+species have a more or less restricted range. Remains of _Pseudochirus_,
+probably referable to existing species, are found in the cave-deposits of
+New South Wales.
+
+_Petauroides._[58]—With the genus _Petauroides_, containing only
+the single species _P. volans_, we come to the first of the
+Flying-Phalangers, characterised by the possession of a living membrane
+along the flanks. The characters of this genus are as follows. Size
+large. Fur very long and silky. Ears large and oval, thickly furred on
+the back, but naked internally. Flying-membrane reaching from wrist to
+ankle, but very narrow along the sides of the forearm and lower leg.
+Fore toes subequal, their relative lengths in the order 4, 3, 5, 2, 1.
+Claws long, curved, and sharp. Tail long, cylindrical, and bushy, except
+near its tip, where it is naked and prehensile. Skull short and broad,
+with the nasals short, and not extending nearly as far forwards as the
+premaxillæ. Large vacuities in hinder part of palate. Auditory bullæ
+inflated and smooth. Dentition usually _i_ ³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_
+⁴⁄₄. General characters of teeth very similar to those of _Pseudochirus_,
+but the first upper incisor scarcely longer than the second.
+
+The single species is found in Australia, from Queensland to Victoria,
+and is commonly known as the Taguan Flying-Phalanger. The structure
+of the skull and teeth indicates close affinity with _Pseudochirus_,
+although the external form is widely different in the two genera.
+This Phalanger seems, indeed, to be, so to speak, a very specialised
+_Pseudochirus_, in which the teeth have become somewhat further
+diminished and the flying membrane has been developed.
+
+_Dactylopsila._[59]—The genus _Dactylopsila_ is one of the forms without
+any trace of a flying membrane, its characters being as follows. Size
+medium. Body striped black and white. Ears oval, nearly naked at the
+ends. Fore toes of very unequal length, the fourth being enormously
+elongated; fourth and fifth toes of pes also markedly elongated. Claws
+long, moderately curved. Tail long, cylindrical, and evenly bushy, with
+the extremity more or less naked below. Skull narrow, but with the
+zygomatic arches greatly expanded; palate fully ossified. Dentition: _i_
+³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ³⁄₂, _m_ ⁴⁄₄. Upper incisors very large, the third
+being directed horizontally forwards; canine small and approximated to
+the third incisor, which it resembles. The fourth premolar of moderate
+size, with its longer axis placed obliquely. First lower incisor longer
+than in any other genus. Molars oblong, with four cusps.
+
+The typical _D. trivirgata_, or Striped Phalanger, inhabits the Papuan
+and North Australian sub-region; a second species (_D. palpator_),
+characterised by the still greater elongation of the fourth finger,
+occurring in South New Guinea. These animals are said to be of
+insectivorous habits, the elongated fourth finger, as in the analogous
+instance of the Lemuroid genus _Chiromys_, being apparently specially
+adapted for extracting insects and larvæ from their hiding places.
+
+_Petaurus._[60]—Size medium or small. Fur very soft and silky. A broad
+flying membrane extending from the outer side of the fifth digit of the
+manus to the ankle. Fore toes usually increasing regularly in length from
+the first to the fifth, but in some of the smaller species the fourth
+is the longest. Claws strong, sharp, and much curved. Tail long, evenly
+bushy to the extremity. Glands on the chest and between the ears. Skull
+short and wide, with the nasals expanded posteriorly, and usually two
+small palatal vacuities near the second molars. Auditory bullæ inflated,
+and variable in size. Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ⁴⁄₄.
+First upper incisors very large, and taller than canine. Molars with
+square crowns rounded at the angles, and four cusps, except in the last,
+which is triangular.
+
+This genus, which ranges from New Ireland to South Australia, but is
+not found in Tasmania, contains three species, the largest of which is
+the Yellow-bellied Flying-Phalanger (_P. australis_), whose habits are
+recorded by Mr. Gould as follows. “This animal is common in all the
+brushes of New South Wales, particularly those which stretch along the
+coast from Port Philip to Moreton Bay. In these vast forests trees of one
+kind or another are perpetually flowering, and thus offer a never-failing
+supply of the blossoms upon which it feeds; the flowers of the various
+kinds of gums, some of which are of great magnitude, are the principal
+favourites. Like the rest of the genus, it is nocturnal in its habits,
+dwelling in holes and in the spouts of the larger branches during the
+day, and displaying the greatest activity at night while running over
+the small leafy branches, frequently even to their very extremities,
+in search of insects and the honey of the newly-opened blossoms. Its
+structure being ill adapted for terrestrial habits, it seldom descends
+to the ground except for the purpose of passing to a tree too distant
+to be reached by flight. When chased, or forced to flight it ascends to
+the highest branch and performs the most enormous leaps, sweeping from
+tree to tree with wonderful address; a slight elevation gives its body an
+impetus which, with the expansion of its membrane, enables it to pass to
+a considerable distance, always ascending a little at the extremity of
+the leap; by this ascent the animal is prevented from receiving the shock
+which it would otherwise sustain.”
+
+A second species, _P. sciureus_, in some ways one of the most beautiful
+of all mammals, has been chosen for the accompanying woodcut.
+
+_Gymnobelideus._[61]—Like _Petaurus_ in every respect, but without
+any trace of a flying membrane, and with the fifth digit of the manus
+slightly shorter than the third. This genus is represented only by _G.
+leadbeateri_ of Victoria, and according to Mr. Thomas, may be regarded
+as the primitive form from which the specialised _Petaurus_ has been
+developed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.—Squirrel Flying-Phalanger (_Petaurus sciureus_).]
+
+_Dromicia._[62]—Size small, and general appearance dormouse-like. Ears
+large and thin, almost naked, and without internal or basal tufts. No
+flying membrane. Digits of normal proportions, the relative lengths of
+those of the manus in the order 3, 4, 2, 5, 1; fore claws rudimentary,
+hind ones long and sharp. Tail mouse-like, cylindrical, furry at base,
+the remainder scaly, with fine hairs, except at the tip, which is naked
+and prehensile. Skull short and broad, with the hinder part of the
+palate incomplete, and the auditory bullæ large, much inflated, and
+transparent. Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁻⁴⁄₃₋₄. First
+upper incisor spatulate, and much longer than either of the others.
+Canine large, placed at some distance behind the third incisor. Molars
+(except the last) with evenly rounded crowns, carrying four small smooth
+cusps.
+
+This genus, which occurs in New Guinea, Western Australia, and Tasmania,
+is represented by four species. It seems to be intermediate between
+_Petaurus_ and _Acrobates_, and it has apparently had to yield place to
+those more highly organised types in regions where they have come in
+contact with one another.
+
+_Distœchurus._[63]—Size small. Ears rather short, thinly covered with
+hair, but with small tufts at the base. No flying membrane. Digits of
+normal proportions, without expanded terminal pads. Claws curved and
+sharp. Tail, skull, and dentition as in _Acrobates_, with the exception
+that the fourth premolar is small in the upper, and absent in the lower
+jaw.
+
+The one species of Feather-tailed Phalanger (_D. pennatus_) is found in
+New Guinea.
+
+_Acrobates._[64]—Size very small. Ears moderate, thinly covered
+with hair, but with small tufts round the base and on the internal
+prominences. A narrow flying membrane, fringed with long hairs, running
+from the elbow to the flank, and from the latter to the knee. Four
+mammæ. Digits furnished with expanded and striated terminal pads, the
+relative length of those of the manus being in the order 4, 3, 5, 2,
+1. Claws sharp, although somewhat concealed by the terminal pads. Tail
+short-haired above and below, with a broad fringe on either side. Skull
+short, wide, and depressed. Posterior portion of palate very imperfectly
+ossified; anterior palatal vacuities almost confined to the maxillæ.
+Auditory bullæ low, rounded, and but slightly prominent. Dentition: _i_
+³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃. Teeth sharp, and of an insectivorous
+type. Upper canine long, and approximated to third incisor. The three
+upper premolars large, functional, and taller than the molars. Molars
+small and rounded, with smooth unridged cusps.
+
+There is only one species in this genus, the beautiful little Pigmy
+Flying-Phalanger (_A. pygmæus_), not so big as a Mouse, which is found
+in Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria, and feeds on the honey
+it abstracts from flowers, and on insects. Its agility and powers of
+leaping are exceedingly great, and it is said by Mr. Gould to make a most
+charming little pet.
+
+Subfamily =Phascolarctinæ=.—Teeth large, normal; no rudimentary premolars
+before the last upper premolar, or any teeth between the first lower
+incisor and fourth premolar. Tongue of ordinary structure. Distinct
+cheek-pouches. Stomach with a special gland near the cardiac orifice.
+Cæcum very long, and (with the upper portion of the colon) dilated and
+provided with numerous longitudinal folds of mucous membrane. In many
+anatomical characters, especially the possession of a special gastric
+gland, this group resembles the _Phascolomyidæ_.[65]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.—Skeleton of right hind foot of Koala
+(_Phascolarctus cinereus_), showing the stout opposable hallux, followed
+by two slender toes, which in the living animal are enclosed as far as
+the nails in a common integument.]
+
+_Phascolarctus._[66]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₁, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ¹⁄₁, _m_ ⁴⁄₄; total
+30. Upper incisors crowded together, cylindroidal, the first much larger
+than the others, with a bevelled cutting edge (Fig. 36). Canine very
+small; a considerable interval between it and the premolar, which is as
+long from before backwards but not so broad as the true molars, and has
+a cutting edge, with a smaller parallel inner ridge. The molars slightly
+diminishing in size from the first to the fourth, with square crowns,
+each bearing four pyramidal cusps, with curved ridges radiating from
+them, and having a structure very similar to these of _Pseudochirus_. The
+lower incisors are semiproclivous, compressed and tapering, bevelled at
+the ends. Premolars and molars in continuous series, as in the upper jaw.
+Milk-tooth very minute, and almost functionless. Fore feet with the two
+inner toes slightly separated from and opposable to the remaining three,
+all with strong, curved, and much compressed claws. Hind foot (Fig. 49)
+with the hallux placed very far back, large and broad, the second and
+third (united) toes considerably smaller than the other two; the fourth
+the largest. No external tail. Fur dense and woolly. Ears of moderate
+size, thickly clothed with long hairs. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11, L 8, S 2, C
+8. Ribs eleven pairs, a rare exception to the usual number (13) in the
+Marsupialia.
+
+There is but one species, the Koala or Native Bear of the Australian
+colonists (_P. cinereus_), an animal of comparatively large size and
+heavy build (Fig. 50), found in the south-eastern parts of the Australian
+continent. It is about two feet in length, and of an ash-gray colour, an
+excellent climber, and residing generally in lofty _Eucalyptus_ trees,
+on the buds and tender shoots of which it feeds, though occasionally
+descending to the ground in the night.
+
+
+EXTINCT PHALANGEROIDS.
+
+Numerous imperfect remains recently described by De Vis are regarded as
+indicating large extinct types of _Phalangeridæ_, but further evidence
+is required before all these determinations can be definitely accepted.
+Thus part of an upper jaw is provisionally referred to a large species
+of _Pseudochirus_, while part of a scapula is made the type of a genus
+_Archizonurus_ which appears to be allied to the former. Another
+fragmentary scapula is considered to indicate a large _Phalanger_.
+Finally, part of a fibula, described under the name of _Koalemus_ is
+regarded as affording evidence of the former existence of a large
+ancestral form allied to the Koala, and it is suggested that an upper jaw
+with teeth may belong to the same or an allied type.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.—The Koala (_Phascolarctus cinereus_). From
+Sclater, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1880, p. 355.]
+
+_Thylacoleo._[67]—Dentition of adult: _i_ ³⁄₁, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₂;
+total 28. First upper incisor much larger than the others; canine and
+first two premolars rudimentary. In the lower jaw the two small anterior
+premolars are functionless, and often deciduous; posterior premolars of
+both jaws formed on the same type as those of _Potorous_, but relatively
+much larger; true molars rudimentary, tubercular. One species, _T.
+carnifex_. This animal presents a most anomalous condition of dentition,
+the functional teeth being reduced to one pair of large cutting incisors
+situated close to the median line, and one great, trenchant, compressed
+premolar, on each side above and below. It was first described as a
+carnivorous Marsupial, and named, in accordance with its presumed habits,
+“as one of the fellest and most destructive of predatory beasts”; but, as
+its affinities are certainly with the _Phalangeridæ_ and _Macropodidæ_,
+and its dentition completely unlike that of any known predaceous animal,
+this view has been called in question.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.—Front view of skull of _Thylacoleo carnifex_,
+restored. ¹⁄₃ natural size. From _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ vol. xxiv. p.
+312.]
+
+The dentition is nearer to that of the existing _Phalangeridæ_ than to
+that of the _Macropodidæ_, and the genus may be provisionally regarded as
+the type of a distinct subfamily of the former.
+
+
+_Family_ MACROPODIDÆ.
+
+Dentition _i_ ³⁄₁, _c_ ⁰⁻¹⁄₀, _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_ ⁴⁄₄. Incisors sharp and
+cutting, those of the lower jaw frequently having a scissor-like action
+against one another; upper canine, if present, small. Penultimate
+premolar shed with the fourth milk-molar, which is molariform and long
+persistent. Molars wide, and either transversely ridged or bluntly
+tuberculate. Premolars and molars moving forwards in the skull as the age
+of the animal increases, this being most marked in the larger species.
+Masseteric fossa of mandible hollowed out below into a deep cavity walled
+in externally by a plate of bone, and communicating with the inferior
+dental canal by a large foramen. Hind limbs usually larger than the
+anterior ones, and progression generally saltatorial. Fore feet with five
+digits; hind feet syndactylous, the fourth digit being very large and
+strongly clawed; hallux usually absent. Tail generally long and hairy,
+occasionally prehensile; stomach sacculated. Pouch large and opening
+forwards.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.—Skeleton of right hind foot of Kangaroo.]
+
+The _Macropodidæ_ or Kangaroos, taken as a whole, form a very well-marked
+family, easily distinguished from the other members of the suborder by
+their general conformation, and by peculiarities in the structure of
+their limbs, teeth, and other organs. They vary in size from that of a
+sheep down to a small rabbit. The head, especially in the larger species,
+is small, compared with the rest of the body, and tapers forward to the
+muzzle. The shoulders and fore limbs are feebly developed, and the hind
+limbs usually of disproportionate strength and magnitude, which gives
+them a peculiarly awkward appearance when moving about on all fours,
+as they occasionally do when feeding. Rapid progression is, however,
+performed only by the powerful hind limbs, the animal covering the ground
+by a series of immense bounds, during which the fore part of the body is
+inclined forwards, and balanced by the long, strong, and tapering tail,
+which is carried horizontally backwards. When not moving they often
+assume a perfectly upright position, the tail aiding the two hind legs
+to form a sort of supporting tripod, and the front limbs dangling by
+the side of the chest. This position gives full scope for the senses of
+sight, hearing, and smell to warn of the approach of enemies, from which
+these animals save themselves by their bounding flight. The fore paws
+have live distinct digits, each armed with a strong curved claw.
+
+The hind foot (Fig. 52), as being a typical example of the syndactylous
+modification, may be noticed in some detail. It is extremely long and
+narrow, and (with only one exception) without any hallux or great toe.
+It consists mainly of one very large and strong toe, corresponding to
+the fourth of the human or other typically developed foot, ending in a
+strong, curved, and pointed claw. Close to the outer side of this lies
+a smaller fifth digit, and to the inner side two excessively slender
+toes (the second and third), bound together almost to the extremity in
+a common integument. The two little claws of these toes, projecting
+together from the skin, may be of use in scratching and cleaning the fur
+of the animal, but the toes themselves must have quite lost all connexion
+with the functions of support or progression.
+
+The dentition of the Kangaroos, functionally considered, consists of
+sharp-edged incisors, most fully developed near the median line of the
+mouth, for the purpose of cropping the various kinds of herbage on which
+they feed, and ridged and tuberculated molars for crushing it, there
+being no tusks or canines for offensive or defensive purposes.
+
+The number of vertebræ is—in the cervical region 7, dorsal 13, lumbar
+6, sacral 2, caudal varying according to the length of the tail, but
+generally from 21 to 25. In the fore limb the clavicle and the radius and
+ulna are well developed, allowing of considerable freedom of motion of
+the hand. The pelvis has large epipubic or “marsupial” bones. The femur
+is short, and the tibia and fibula are of great length, as is the foot,
+the whole of which is applied to the ground when the animal is at rest in
+the upright position.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.—The Great Gray Kangaroo (_Macropus giganteus_).]
+
+The stomach is of large size, and very complex, its walls being puckered
+up by longitudinal muscular bands into a great number of sacculi, like
+those of the human colon. The alimentary canal is long, and the cæcum
+well developed. All the species have a marsupium or pouch formed by a
+fold of the skin of the abdomen, covering the mammary glands with their
+four nipples. In this pouch the young are placed as soon as they are
+born; there their growth and development proceeds; and to it they resort
+temporarily for the purpose of shelter, concealment, or transport, for
+some time after they are able to run and jump about the ground and feed
+upon the same herbage which forms the nourishment of the parent. During
+the early period of their sojourn in the pouch, the blind, naked,
+helpless young creatures (which in the Great Kangaroo [Fig. 53] scarcely
+exceed an inch in length) are attached by their mouths to the nipples
+of the mother, and are fed by milk injected into their stomach by the
+contraction of the muscle covering the mammary gland.
+
+The Kangaroos are all vegetable feeders, browsing on grass and various
+kinds of herbage, the smaller species also eating roots. They are
+naturally timid, inoffensive creatures; but the larger ones when hard
+pressed will turn and defend themselves, sometimes killing a dog by
+grasping it in their fore paws, and inflicting terrible wounds with the
+sharp claws of their powerful hind legs, sustaining themselves meanwhile
+upon the tail. A few aberrant forms are arboreal. The great majority are
+inhabitants of Australia and Tasmania, forming one of the most prominent
+and characteristic features of the fauna of these lands, and in the
+scenery of the country, as well as the economy of nature, performing the
+part of the deer and antelopes of other parts of the world, which are
+entirely wanting in Australia. Kangaroos were very important sources of
+food-supply to the natives, and are hunted by the colonists, both for
+sport and with a view to their destruction, on account of the damage they
+naturally do in consuming the grass, now required for feeding cattle and
+sheep. Notwithstanding this, they have in some districts increased in
+numbers, owing to the suppression of their former enemies, the aborigines
+and the Dingo or native dog. A few species are found in New Guinea and
+the adjacent islands, which belong, in the zoological sense, to the
+Australian region.
+
+Before noticing the various generic types of the _Macropodidæ_, a few
+words are necessary in respect of the tooth-change, and we may here quote
+the observations of Mr. O. Thomas on this subject. “The full dentition
+of the members of this family consists, in the upper jaw, first of three
+incisors, then of a small canine (often, however, suppressed, as in Fig.
+55), and then of six cheek-teeth, of which the second in the series is
+the only one which has a milk or deciduous predecessor, and is therefore
+the one to be regarded as the last premolar of the typical mammalian
+dentition. The special characteristics that render the development and
+succession of the teeth in the _Macropodidæ_, and especially in the genus
+_Macropus_, so puzzling to systematic zoologists, are: firstly, a general
+progression forwards in the jaw of the whole tooth-row, comparable to
+that found elsewhere only in the Elephants and some Sirenians; and,
+secondly, the fact that before the tooth-change the first tooth of the
+series (_p_ 3) and the single milk-tooth (_dm_ 4) placed next to it,
+both of which fall out at the change, are respectively so very similar
+in shape and size to the first and second teeth of the permanent series,
+viz. the permanent premolar (_p_ 4) and the first molar (_m_ 1), as
+to be most naturally mistaken for, or compared with, them in specific
+descriptions.... The necessary knowledge as to the stage of dentition in
+which any skull may be, can often be gained only by cutting open the bone
+either above and behind the first tooth of the series to see if the true
+permanent _p_ 4 be still buried there (in which case, of course, that
+first tooth is only _p_ 3), or behind the last visible molar to see if
+there be yet another tooth behind it, showing it to be _m_ 3 and not _m_
+4. The first plan is, as a rule, the better, since _p_ 4 is generally by
+far the most important tooth for diagnostic purposes, and its characters
+have, therefore, in any case to be taken into account.”
+
+The _Macropodidæ_ are divided into three well-marked sections: (1)
+the true Kangaroos (_Macropodinæ_); (2) a group consisting of smaller
+animals, commonly called Rat Kangaroos, or (improperly) “Kangaroo Rats,”
+or sometimes Potoroos; and (3) the _Hypsiprymnodontinæ_, now represented
+only by a single species.
+
+Subfamily =Hypsiprymnodontinæ=.—Size very small. Claws small, feeble,
+and subequal. Hind feet with an opposable hallux. Tail naked and scaly.
+The fourth premolar twisted obliquely outwards, as in _Phalanger_. Other
+teeth as in the _Potoroinæ_.
+
+This subfamily is now represented only by the genus _Hypsiprymnodon_,[68]
+which is a form of great interest, as showing a structure of foot
+connecting that of the Kangaroos with that of the Phalangers. The
+single known species, _H. moschatus_, was described by Ramsay from
+specimens discovered in north-east Australia. It was described almost
+simultaneously by Owen under the name of _Pleopus nudicaudatus_. From
+the resemblance in the structure of the foot and the obliquity of the
+premolars to the Phalangers Mr. Thomas has some hesitation as to which
+family should receive this genus, but the macropine characters of the
+mandible preponderate in favour of the _Macropodidæ_.
+
+_Triclis._[69]—A lower jaw of a much larger form from the Pleistocene
+deposits of Australia apparently indicates another member of this
+subfamily, having the outwardly directed and grooved premolar
+characteristic of _Hypsiprymnodon_. It differs, however, from that genus,
+and also from all other known _Macropodidæ_, in having a small tooth
+between the incisor and fourth premolar, which apparently represents a
+canine, or perhaps an anterior premolar. This form indicates, therefore,
+a closer connexion between the _Phalangeridæ_ and _Macropodidæ_ than any
+other.
+
+Subfamily =Potoroinæ=.—The second section or subfamily, the _Potoroinæ_,
+have the first upper incisor narrow, curved, and much exceeding the
+others in length (Fig. 54). Upper canines always persistent, flattened,
+blunt, and slightly curved. Premolars of both jaws always having large,
+simple, compressed crowns, with a nearly straight or slightly concave
+free cutting edge, both outer and inner surfaces usually marked by a
+series of parallel, vertical grooves and ridges, these teeth being either
+set in the same line with the molars, or slightly bent outwards. Molars
+with quadrate crowns, having a blunt, conical cusp at each corner,
+the fourth notably smaller than the third, sometimes rudimentary, and
+appearing early. Fore feet narrow; three middle toes considerably
+exceeding the first and fifth in length; their claws long, compressed,
+and but slightly curved. Hind feet as in _Macropus_. Tail long and hairy,
+sometimes partially prehensile, being used for carrying bundles of grass
+with which these animals build their nests.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.—Skull and teeth of Rat Kangaroo (_Bettongia
+lesueuiri_). _c_, Upper canine. The other letters as in Fig. 51.]
+
+The Potoroos or Rat Kangaroos are all small animals, none of them
+exceeding a common rabbit in size. They inhabit Australia and Tasmania,
+are nocturnal, and feed on the leaves of various kinds of grasses and
+other plants, as well as roots and bulbs, which they dig up with their
+fore paws. Nine species are known, presenting a considerable range of
+diversity in minor characters, and admitting of being grouped in four
+principal sections, which may be allowed the rank of genera. These are:
+
+_Potorous._[70]—Head long and slender. Auditory bullæ somewhat inflated.
+Ridges on premolars few and perpendicular. Large palatine foramina.
+Tarsus short. Muffle naked. Three species, viz. _P. tridactylus_, _P.
+gilberti_, and _P. platyops_; the last two being confined to West
+Australia.
+
+_Bettongia._[71]—Head comparatively short and broad. Ears short and
+rounded. Auditory bullæ generally much inflated. Large palatine foramina.
+Tarsus long. Ridges on premolars numerous and oblique. Tail more or less
+prehensile, thickly haired, and the hairs on the upper surface longer
+than those on the lower, and forming a crest. Muffle naked. Four species,
+viz. _B. penicillata_, _B. cuniculus_, _B. gaimardi_, _B. lesueuiri_.
+
+_Caloprymnus._[72]—Muffle naked, as in _Bettongia_, but the edge of
+the hairy part less emarginate backwards in the middle line. Ears
+short, rounded, and hairy. Auditory bullæ much inflated, and of large
+size. Nasals larger and wider behind than in the other genera. Very
+long anterior palatine foramina. Limbs as in _Bettongia_. Tail thin,
+cylindrical, evenly coated with short hair, without trace of a crest.
+Skull broad and flat, with a remarkably short and conical muzzle. The
+sole representative of this genus is _C. campestris_ of South Australia,
+originally referred to _Bettongia_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.—Skull and Teeth of the Red-necked Wallaby
+(_Macropus ruficollis_). _i¹_, _i²_, _i³_, First, second, and third upper
+incisors; _pm_, fourth or posterior premolar (the penultimate or third
+having been already shed); _m¹_, _m²_, _m³_, _m⁴_, the four true molars.
+The last, not fully developed, is nearly concealed by the ascending ramus
+of the jaw.]
+
+_Æpyprymnus._[73]—Head short and broad. Auditory bullæ not inflated.
+No palatine foramina. Tarsus long. Muffle partially hairy. Tail
+evenly hairy, not crested above. Molars oblong, less distinctly
+quadritubercular, and not decreasing so much in size posteriorly as in
+the other genera. Represented only by _Æ. rufescens_.
+
+Remains of _Æ. rufescens_ occur in the Pleistocene cave-deposits of New
+South Wales.
+
+Subfamily =Macropodinæ=.—This subfamily includes the largest forms.
+The cutting edges of the upper incisors are nearly level, or the first
+pair but slightly longer than the others (Fig. 55). The canines are
+rudimentary and often wanting. The premolars are usually not longer
+(from before backwards) than the true molars and less compressed than
+in the last subfamily; they are placed in precisely the same line with
+the molars. The crowns of the molars always have two prominent transverse
+ridges; and these teeth increase in size from before backwards, the
+fourth molar appearing very late. The fore limbs are small, with subequal
+toes armed with strong, moderately long, curved claws. Hind limbs very
+long and strongly made. Head small, with more or less elongated muzzle.
+Ears generally rather long and ovate.
+
+Upwards of forty-four existing species of this group have been described,
+and many attempts have been made to subdivide them into smaller groups or
+genera for the convenience of arrangement and description, but these have
+generally been based upon such trivial characters that it is preferable
+to speak of many of them as sections of the genus _Macropus_, reserving
+generic rank only to forms somewhat aberrant in structure. According to
+this arrangement the genera will be as follows:
+
+_Lagostrophus._[74]—Represented only by the Banded Wallaby (_L.
+fasciatus_) of Western Australia, which presents the following
+distinctive features. Size small. Muffle naked. Hind feet covered with
+long bristly hairs, concealing the claws. Lower part of back marked
+by dark cross-bands. Skull with a narrow pointed muzzle and inflated
+auditory bullæ; symphysis of mandible firmly united. No canine. Upper
+incisive series meeting at a sharp angle, and diverging but slightly
+behind. First incisor smaller in section than either of the others and
+scarcely longer, bluntly pointed; second with a flattened oral surface;
+third smaller, similarly flattened, but with a groove on oral surface
+forming a notch at its postero-external angle. Fourth premolar short,
+with a distinct inner ledge. Molars as in _Macropus_.
+
+_Dendrolagus._[75]—General proportions of limbs and body normal and
+unlike those of other members of the family. Muffle broad and only partly
+naked. Fur on nape, and sometimes on back, directed forwards. Fore limbs
+nearly as large as the hind; hind feet with the syndactylous second and
+third digits relatively large; claws of fourth and fifth hind digits
+curved like those of the manus. Tail very long, and thickly furred. Skull
+stout, with a short and wide muzzle; the posterior part of the palate
+fully ossified, and the auditory bullæ not inflated. A small canine.
+Fourth premolar large, but much shorter antero-posteriorly than in the
+next genus; molars as in the latter.
+
+This genus includes four species of Tree-Kangaroos, three of which occur
+in New Guinea, while _D. lumholtzi_ is found in North Queensland. They
+differ greatly from all the other forms in being chiefly arboreal in
+their habits, climbing with facility among the branches of large trees,
+and feeding on the bark, leaves, and fruit. They are confined to the
+tropical forests of the regions mentioned; and it would appear that we
+must regard their resemblance in the proportions of the limbs and habits
+to the Phalangers as having been independently acquired.
+
+_Dorcopsis._[76]—Hind limbs relatively less large than in _Macropus_.
+Muffle large, broad, and naked. Ears small. Fur on nape directed wholly
+or partially forwards. Hind claws not concealed by hair. Tail with a
+nearly naked tip. Skull long and narrow, with the auditory bullæ not
+inflated. A well-developed canine. First upper incisor somewhat short;
+second and third nearly equal, notched externally. Fourth premolar
+greatly elongated antero-posteriorly, its length generally exceeding the
+united lengths of the first and second molars; a distinct inner ledge,
+and vertical grooves on both sides. Molars low and rounded, with the
+median longitudinal bridge between the ridges almost or quite aborted,
+and the talon in front of the first transverse ridge very narrow, and not
+extending to the inner side. The two series of cheek-teeth parallel, or
+nearly so, instead of converging at the extremities.
+
+Three species of this genus are known, all of which are from New Guinea;
+the type being _D. muelleri_. In the characters of the dentition, the
+forward inclination of the fur on the nape, and other points, this genus
+is allied to _Dendrolagus_; but _Dorcopsis macleayi_ connects the other
+species with _Macropus_.
+
+_Lagorchestes._[77]—Muffle entirely or partially covered with hair.
+Fourth hind digit with a long claw, not concealed by hair. Tail rather
+short, evenly furred, without a spur. Skull with short muzzle and
+diastema, and inflated auditory bulla. Canine present, sometimes very
+small. Fourth premolar large, not constricted in the middle, with a
+continuous inner ledge.
+
+This genus includes the Hare-Kangaroos, a group of small hare-like
+animals, great leapers and swift runners, which mostly affect the open
+grassy ridges, particularly those of a stony character, sleeping in forms
+or seats like the common hare. Their limbs are comparatively small, their
+claws sharp and slender, and their muffle is clothed with velvet-like
+hairs. Three species—_M. leporoides_, _M. hirsutus_, _M. conspicillatus_.
+
+The range extends over the whole of Australia, but does not embrace
+Tasmania.
+
+_Onychogale._[78]—Muffle hairy. Fourth hind claw long, narrow,
+compressed, and sharp. Tail long and tapering, covered with short
+hair, and furnished at the tip with a horny spur. Skull nearly as in
+_Macropus_, with the auditory bullæ more or less inflated. Canine small
+or wanting. Upper incisors small, decreasing in size from first to third.
+Fourth premolar small, hour-glass shaped, and without inner ledge. Molars
+as in _Macropus_.
+
+This genus contains three species, having the same distribution as
+_Lagorchestes_. Mr. O. Thomas observes: “The spur-tailed Wallabies form
+a natural little group, distinguished both by the shape of the incisors
+and the peculiar horny excrescence at the tip of the tail. The latter
+character is altogether unique among Marsupials, and is only found among
+other mammals in the Lion, which occasionally has a somewhat similar
+horny spur at the end of its tail. In the case of the Wallabies it is
+difficult to conceive what can be the use of this spur; and observations
+on the living animal are much needed with regard to this interesting
+point.”
+
+_Petrogale._[79]—Muffle naked. Fur of nape directed backwards. Claw of
+fourth hind digit very short. Tail long, cylindrical, thinner than in
+_Macropus_, and thickly haired and pencilled at the extremity. Skull
+as in the smaller species of _Macropus_, with large posterior palatal
+vacuities, and the bullæ sometimes inflated. No canine. Upper incisors
+small, the third resembling that of _Macropus_. Fourth premolar large
+and stout, as in some of the Wallabies, with a continuous inner ledge,
+and two or three indistinct vertical ridges externally. Molars as in the
+Wallabies.
+
+This genus is represented by six species, of which _P. penicillata_
+is a well-known example, ranging over the whole of the mainland of
+Australia. The Rock-Wallabies, as its members may be called, are very
+closely allied to some of the true Wallabies; and some hesitation may be
+expressed as to the advisability of accepting their generic separation
+from _Macropus_. They inhabit rocky regions, making their retreats
+in caverns and crevices, leaping with surprising agility from one
+narrow ledge to another, and browsing upon the scanty herbage that the
+neighbourhood of such situations affords. The species are _P. xanthopus_,
+_P. penicillata_, _P. lateralis_, _P. concinna_, _P. brachyotis_, _P.
+inornata_.
+
+Remains of _P. penicillata_ are found in a fossil state in the
+Pleistocene cave-deposits of New South Wales.
+
+_Macropus._[80]—Muffle generally completely naked. Ears large. Fur on
+nape (with an occasional exception in two species) directed backwards.
+Claw of fourth hind digit very long. Tail thick, tapering, and evenly
+furred. Four mammæ. Skull (Fig. 55) long, smooth, and rounded; the nasals
+expanded behind; generally large palatal vacuities; and the auditory
+bullæ not inflated. Canine minute, and shed at an early period. Incisor
+series forming an open curve; the first the tallest, and the third nearly
+always the longest antero-posteriorly, and generally with an infolding
+of enamel near its postero-external angle. Fourth upper premolar with a
+secant edge, and an inner basal ledge or tubercle; corresponding lower
+tooth secant; both maybe longer or shorter than first molar. Molars
+(except very occasionally) with a distinct longitudinal bridge connecting
+transverse ridges. Lower incisors long and scalpriform, with inner secant
+edges opposable, owing to the loose articulation of the mandibular
+symphysis.
+
+This genus includes the true Kangaroos and Wallabies, the size of the
+individual existing species varying from that of a Rabbit to that of a
+Man. There are no less than twenty-three existing species, which may be
+divided into three groups, as well as many extinct ones. The genus is
+found in Australia and New Guinea, as well as in the eastern half of the
+Austro-Malayan transitional region.
+
+The first group, or true Kangaroos, comprises the largest existing forms,
+which are generally of a uniform and sombre colour.
+
+The skull is of a large and massive type, with the palate more or less
+well ossified posteriorly, while the molars frequently have a median
+longitudinal bridge connecting the first transverse ridge with the
+anterior talon, and no antero-external bridge between the same ridge and
+talon. The history of the discovery of the typical representative of this
+group, as being of considerable interest, may be given at some length.
+When Captain Cook, during his first memorable voyage of discovery, was
+detained for the purpose of refitting his ship at Endeavour river on
+the north-east coast of Australia, a strange-looking animal, entirely
+unknown to them, was frequently seen by the ship’s company; and it is
+recorded in the annals of the voyage that, on the 14th of July 1770,
+“Mr. Gore, who went out this day with his gun, had the good fortune
+to kill one of the animals which had been so much the subject of our
+speculation, ... and which is called by the natives kanguroo,” a name
+which, though it does not appear to be now known to any of the aboriginal
+tribes of the country, has been adopted for this animal in all European
+languages, with only slight modifications of spelling. With the exception
+of a passing glimpse in the beginning of the same century by the Dutch
+traveller Bruyn of some living examples of an allied species, this was
+the first introduction to the civilised world of any member of a group
+of animals now so familiar. The affinities of the species, skins of
+which were brought home by Captain Cook and subsequent voyagers, were
+recognised by Schreber as nearer to the American opossums (then the
+only known Marsupials) than to any other mammals with which zoologists
+were acquainted, and consequently it was placed by him, in his great
+work on the Mammalia, then in the course of publication, in the genus
+_Didelphys_, with _gigantea_ for a specific designation,—the latter
+having been bestowed upon it by Zimmermann under the impression that
+it was a huge species of jerboa. Soon afterwards (1791) Dr. Shaw very
+properly formed a new genus for its reception, which he named _Macropus_,
+in allusion to the peculiar length of its hind foot. By the name thus
+formed, _Macropus giganteus_, this kind of Kangaroo has ever since been
+known in zoological literature. It is the common Gray Kangaroo, called
+“boomer,” “forrester,” or “old man” by the colonists, and frequents the
+open grassy plains of the greater part of eastern Australia and Tasmania;
+a figure being given in the woodcut on p. 160. The muffle is partly
+covered with hair, and the fourth premolar very short. Several varieties
+are known.
+
+A sub-group, distinguished from the above by the naked muffle, includes
+some very large and handsome species, which principally dwell in rocky
+mountain ranges, as _M. rufus_, the great Red Kangaroo, _M. antilopinus_,
+and _M. robustus_. The fourth premolar is of large or medium size in
+these forms. Remains of _M. giganteus_ occur fossil in the Pleistocene
+of Australia, where we also find the allied extinct _M. titan_, which
+attains somewhat larger dimensions. _M. robustus_ also dates from the
+same geological epoch, where it was accompanied by two allied types known
+as _M. altus_ and _M. cooperi_.
+
+The second group includes the larger Wallabies, which are smaller than
+the true Kangaroos, with a brighter and more variegated coloration. The
+palate is generally more incomplete than in the typical group; and in the
+molars the anterior talon is connected with the first transverse ridge
+by an external instead of a median longitudinal bridge. The members of
+this group are frequenters of forests and dense impenetrable brushes and
+scrubs, and hence are often called Brush Kangaroos, though a native name,
+“Wallaby,” is now generally applied to them. There are several species,
+of which _M. ruficollis_, _M. ualabatus_, _M. parryi_, and _M. agilis_
+are the best known.
+
+_M. ualabatus_ and _M. parryi_ are found fossil in the Pleistocene
+deposits of Australia. In those beds we also meet with remains of several
+very large extinct species, which appear to be allied to those Wallabies
+in which the fourth premolar is large and elongated, all of them agreeing
+with the Wallabies in the absence of the median bridge between the first
+ridge and talon of the molars. These fossil forms comprise _M. brehus_,
+in which the skull was probably about one foot in length, and _M.
+rœchus_, and _M. anak_, which were of somewhat inferior dimensions. In
+the last-named species the length of the fourth upper premolar is equal
+to that of the first and half of the second molar.[81]
+
+The third and last group of the genus includes the small Wallabies,
+which are small and lightly-built animals, in some instances not larger
+than a Rabbit. Their muffles are always naked, and in the skull the
+anterior palatine foramina are small and the posterior vacuities very
+large, while the posterior expansion of the nasals is very marked. The
+third upper incisor is smaller than in the last group. This group extends
+farther into the tropics than either of the others, being found in the
+New Britain and Aru islands, as well as in New Guinea. _M. brachyurus_
+is remarkable for its comparatively short and slender tail and small
+ears. The earliest known species of Kangaroo, referred to before, _M.
+bruni_, belongs to this section. Several examples were seen by Bruyn in
+1711 living in captivity in the garden of the Dutch governor of Batavia,
+and described and figured in the account of his travels (_Reizen over
+Moskovie_, etc.) under the name of “Filander.” It was quite lost sight
+of, and its name even transferred by S. Müller to another species
+(_Dorcopsis muelleri_), until rediscovered in 1865 by Rosenberg, who
+sent a series of specimens to the Leyden Museum from the islands of Aru
+and Great Key, thus determining its true habitat. _M. thetidis_ is a
+well-known Australian representative of this group.
+
+_Extinct genera._—In addition to the fossil forms already mentioned which
+can be referred to existing genera, there are others from the Australian
+Pleistocene indicating extinct generic types of _Macropodidæ_, to which
+brief reference may now be made. The first of these is _Sthenurus_,[82]
+represented by a single large species (_S. atlas_), and characterised by
+the presence of a complete inner lobe to the fourth upper premolar, and
+of an outer one in the opposing lower tooth, so that these teeth present
+a flat and oval grinding surface when worn. The median longitudinal
+bridge connecting the transverse ridges of the molars is very imperfect;
+and in the upper molars there is no bridge between the first ridge and
+talon. In _Procoptodon_[83] the premolars resemble those of _Sthenurus_,
+but the molars are elongated, and usually have their enamel thrown into
+numerous vertical foldings. The most distinctive feature is, however, the
+complete ankylosis of the mandibular symphysis; the mandibular rami being
+deep, and the diastema in the dental series short. The lower incisors are
+nearly cylindrical, and the palate has large vacuities. Three species are
+known. The largest representation of the whole family is the type of the
+genus _Palorchestes_[84] (_P. azael_), in which the length of the skull
+is estimated at sixteen inches. It is distinguished from _Procoptodon_
+by the longer mandibular symphysis and diastema, and the spatulate lower
+incisors. The true molars have no distinct anterior talon, and are not
+grooved, while the palate was fully ossified.
+
+
+EXTINCT FAMILIES.
+
+Here may be noticed two genera of extinct Marsupials, the remains of
+which have been found in the Pleistocene deposits of Australia, which
+agree with the _Macropodidæ_ and the _Phalangeridæ_ in having ³⁄₁
+incisors, those of the lower jaw being very large and proclivous. As the
+whole of their structure, especially that of the hind feet, is not yet
+known, their precise affinities cannot be determined.
+
+_Diprotodon._[85]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₁, _c_ ⁰⁄₀, _p_ ¹⁄₁, _m_ ⁴⁄₄; total
+28. The first upper incisor very large and scalpriform (Fig. 56). True
+molars with prominent transverse ridges, as in _Macropus_, but wanting
+the longitudinal connecting bridge. Anterior and posterior limbs less
+disproportionate than in the Kangaroos. Humerus elongated, and differing
+from that of nearly all Marsupials in the absence of an entepicondylar
+foramen. The palate is fully ossified, and there is no pit or perforation
+in the masseteric fossa of the mandible. _D. australis_ is the largest
+known Marsupial, being fully equal in bulk to a Rhinoceros. It may be
+regarded as the type of a family—_Diprotodontidæ_—having affinity on the
+one hand with the Phalangers and on the other with the Kangaroos.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.—Left lateral aspect of the skull of _Diprotodon
+australis_; from the Pleistocene of Australia. ⅒ natural size. _i_,
+Incisors; _p_, premolar; _m_, molars. (After Owen.)]
+
+_Nototherium._[86]—Represented by a species of somewhat smaller size
+than the type of _Diprotodon_, with a shorter skull, in which the
+zygomatic arches are very wide and the nasals curiously expanded at
+their extremities. The mandibular symphysis is ankylosed; and, as in
+_Diprotodon_, there appears to have been no tooth-change. The humerus
+probably referable to _Nototherium_ is of a short and widely expanded
+type, with a large entepicondylar foramen, and coming nearer to that of
+the Wombat than to that of any other existing form. The _Nototheriidæ_
+may apparently be regarded as a distinct family connecting the
+_Diprotodontidæ_ with the _Phascolomyidæ_ and _Phalangeridæ_.
+
+    _Bibliography of Marsupialia._—G. R. Waterhouse, _Nat. Hist. of
+    the Mammalia_, vol. i. “Marsupiata,” 1846; J. Gould, _Mammals
+    of Australia_, 1863; R. Owen, article “Marsupialia,” in
+    _Cyclop. of Anatomy and Physiology_, and various memoirs “On
+    Extinct Mammals of Australia” in _Philosophical Transactions_;
+    W. H. Flower, “On the Development and Succession of the Teeth
+    in the Marsupialia,” _Phil. Trans._ 1867; O. Thomas, “On the
+    Homologies and Succession of the Teeth in the Dasyuridæ,”
+    _Phil. Trans._ 1887; and “Catalogue of Marsupialia and
+    Monotremata in the British Museum,” 1888.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE SUBCLASS EUTHERIA AND THE ORDER EDENTATA
+
+
+The whole of the remaining groups of mammals are included in a single
+subclass, known by the names Eutheria, Monodelphia, or Placentalia.[87]
+The one distinctive feature they have in common (from which the
+last-mentioned name is derived) is the presence of an allantoic placenta
+by means of which the fœtus is nourished within the uterus of the mother.
+Throughout the entire subclass, as a general rule, the urino-genital
+organs open quite independently of the rectum; the corpus callosum of the
+brain is well developed; the mandible does not show a marked inflection
+of its angle; and distinct epipubic bones are not attached to the
+anterior margin of the pubic symphysis. In those cases where there is a
+heterodont and diphyodont dentition the dental formula can be reduced to
+some modification of the one given on p. 25, there being only one known
+genus where four true molars occur, and even that not invariably. As
+in the Metatheria, the coracoid is reduced to a mere appendage of the
+scapula, and the acetabular cavity of the pelvis is imperforate. While
+the survivors of the other subclasses have probably been for a long time
+in a stationary condition, these have, as there is already good evidence
+to show throughout all the Tertiary geological age, and by inference
+for some time before, been multiplying in numbers and variations of
+form, and attaining higher stages of development and specialisation in
+various directions. They consequently exhibit far greater diversity of
+external or adaptive modification than is met with in either of the other
+subclasses,—some being fitted to live as exclusively in the water as
+fishes, and others to emulate the aerial flight of birds.
+
+To facilitate the study of the different component members of this large
+group, it is usual to separate them into certain divisions which are
+called “orders.” In the main zoologists are now of accord as to the
+general number and limits of these divisions among the existing forms,
+but the affinities and relationships of the orders to one another are
+far from being understood, and there are very many extinct forms already
+discovered which do not fit at all satisfactorily into any of the orders
+as commonly defined.
+
+Commencing with the most easily distinguished, we may first separate
+a group called Edentata, composed of several very distinct forms, the
+Sloths, Anteaters, and Armadillos, which under great modifications of
+characters of limbs and digestive organs, as well as habits of life,
+have just enough in common to make it probable that they are the very
+specialised survivors of an ancient group, most of the members of
+which are extinct, although the researches of palæontology have not
+yet revealed them to us. The characters of their cerebral, dental, and
+in many cases of their reproductive organs show an inferior grade of
+organisation to that of the generality of the subclass. The next order,
+about the limits of which there is no difficulty, is the Sirenia,—aquatic
+vegetable-eating animals, with complete absence of hind limbs, and low
+cerebral organisation,—represented in our present state of knowledge by
+but two existing genera, the Dugongs and Manatees, and by a few extinct
+forms, which, though approaching a more generalised mammalian type, show
+no special characters allying them to any of the other orders. Another
+equally well-marked and equally isolated, though far more numerously
+represented and diversified order, is that of the Cetacea, composed of
+the various forms of Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises. In aquatic habits,
+external fish-like form, and absence of hind limbs, they resemble the
+last, though in all other characters they are as widely removed as are
+any two orders among the Eutheria.
+
+All the remaining orders are more nearly allied together, the steps by
+which they have become modified from one general type being in most cases
+not difficult to realise. Their dentition especially, however diversified
+in detail, always responds to the formula already alluded to, and,
+although the existing forms are broken up into groups in most cases easy
+of definition, the discoveries already made in palæontology have in great
+measure filled up the gaps between them.
+
+Very isolated among existing Eutheria are the two species of Elephant
+constituting the group called Proboscidea. These, however, are now known
+to be the survivors of a large series of similar animals, Mammoths,
+Mastodons, and Dinotheres, which as we pass backwards in time gradually
+assume a more ordinary or generalised type; and the interval which was
+lately supposed to exist between even these and the rest of the class
+is partially bridged over by the discovery in American Eocene and early
+Miocene formations of the gigantic Dinocerata, evidently offshoots of
+the great group of hoofed animals, or Ungulata, represented in the
+actual fauna by the Horses, Rhinoceroses, Tapirs, Swine, and Ruminants.
+Almost as isolated as the Proboscidea among existing mammals are the
+few small species constituting the family _Hyracidæ_, and in their case
+palæontology affords no help at present, and therefore, pending further
+discoveries, it has been thought advisable in most recent systems to
+give them the honour of an order to themselves, under the name of
+Hyracoidea. But the number of extinct forms already known allied to
+the Ungulata, though not coming under the definition of either of the
+two groups (Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla) under which all existing
+species range themselves, is so great that either many new orders must
+be made for their reception or the definition of the old order Ungulata
+so far extended as to receive them all, in which case both Proboscidea
+and Hyracoidea may be included within it. Again, the Rodentia or gnawing
+animals—Rabbits, Rats, Squirrels, Porcupines, Beavers, etc.—are, if
+we look only at the present state of the class, most isolated. No one
+can doubt what is meant by a Rodent animal, or have any difficulty
+about defining it clearly, at least by its dental characters; yet our
+definitions break down before the extinct South American _Typotherium_,
+half Rodent and half Ungulate, which leads by an easy transition to
+the still more truly Ungulate _Toxodon_, for the reception of which a
+distinct order (Toxodontia) has been proposed. It has also been suggested
+that the Rodents are connected by some of the extinct Tillodontia (or
+Tæniodontia) with the Edentates. The Insectivora and the Carnivora
+again are at present quite distinct orders, but they merge into one
+another through fossil forms, and are especially connected by the large
+group of primitive Carnivora, so abundantly represented in the Eocene
+deposits both of America and Europe, to which Cope has given the name
+of Creodonta. The Carnivora also appear to have been closely connected
+with the primitive Ungulates as represented by the extinct group called
+Condylarthra. In another direction the step from the Insectivores to
+the Lemurs is not great, and in past times the transition was probably
+complete. The Bats or Chiroptera are allied to the Insectivora in all
+characters except the extraordinary modification of their anterior
+extremities into wings; but this, like the want of the hind limbs in the
+Cetacea and Sirenia, makes such a clear distinction between them and all
+other mammals that, in the absence of any knowledge of any completely
+intermediate or transitional forms, they can be perfectly separated,
+and constitute as well-defined an order as any in the class. We have,
+however, an inkling of the mode in which the Insectivora were modified
+into Chiroptera shown us by the so-called Flying Lemur (_Galeopithecus_).
+Finally, we have the important and well-characterised group called
+Primates, including all the Monkeys and Man; and the question is not yet
+solved as to how and through what forms this is linked on to the other
+groups. It is commonly assumed that the Lemurs are nothing more than
+inferior Primates, but the interval between them in the actual fauna of
+the world is very great, and our knowledge of numerous extinct types
+recently discovered in America, said to be intermediate in characters,
+is not yet sufficient to enable us to form a definite opinion upon the
+subject.
+
+The Edentata may be taken first as standing in some respects apart from
+all the others; and the Primates must be placed at the head of the
+series. The position of the others is quite arbitrary, as none of the
+hitherto proposed associations of the orders into larger groups stand
+the test of critical investigation, and palæontological researches have
+already gone far to show that they are all modifications of a common
+heterodont, diphyodont, pentadactylate form.
+
+
+_Order_ EDENTATA.
+
+The name assigned to this group (which some zoologists think ought
+rather to be ranked as a subclass[88] than an order) by Cuvier is often
+objected to as inappropriate—for although some of the members are
+edentulous, others have very numerous teeth—and the Linnæan name Bruta
+is occasionally substituted. But that term is quite as objectionable,
+especially since the group to which Linnæus applied it is by no
+means equivalent to the order as now understood, as the names of the
+genera contained in it, viz. _Elephas_, _Trichechus_, _Bradypus_,
+_Myrmecophaga_, _Manis_ and _Dasypus_, indicate. It contained, in fact,
+all the animals then known which are comprised in the modern groups
+of Proboscidea, Sirenia and Edentata together with the Walrus, one
+of the Carnivora. If retained at all, it should rather belong to the
+Proboscidea, as _Elephas_ stands first in the list of genera in the
+_Systema Naturæ_. Cuvier’s order included the _Ornithorhynchus_ and
+_Echidna_, the structure of which was then imperfectly known, and which
+are now by common consent removed to an altogether different section
+of the class; but otherwise its limits are those now adopted. The name
+Edentata is so generally used, and its meaning so well understood, that
+it would be undesirable to change it now; in fact similar reasons might
+be assigned for ceasing to use nearly all the other current ordinal
+designations, for it might be equally well objected that all Carnivora
+are not flesheaters, many of the Marsupialia have not pouches, and so
+forth.
+
+If the teeth are not always absent, they invariably exhibit certain
+imperfections, which are indeed almost the only common characters
+binding together the various extinct and existing members of the order.
+These are—that they are homodont and, with the remarkable exceptions
+of _Tatusia_ and _Orycteropus_, monophyodont; they are never rooted,
+but have persistent pulps; except in some fossil forms, they are always
+deficient in one of the constituents which enter into the formation of
+the complete mammalian tooth, the enamel; and, at least among living
+forms, are never present either in the upper or lower jaw in the fore
+part of the mouth, the situation occupied by the incisors of other
+mammals.[89]
+
+The peculiar nature of the dentition in the aberrant _Orycteropus_ will
+be noticed under the heading of that genus. As a rule, the coracoid
+process of the scapula of the Edentates is more developed than in other
+Eutheria.
+
+The degree of development of the brain varies considerably in the
+different families, the hemispheres being in some cases almost or quite
+smooth (Fig. 57), with a small corpus callosum, and large anterior
+commissure; while in other instances the hemispheres are convoluted, and
+the corpus callosum is larger.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.—Upper surface of the brain of the Broad-banded
+Armadillo (_Xenurus unicinctus_). The large olfactory lobes are seen at
+the anterior extremity (left of figure); the hemispheres have only three
+sulci. (From Garrod, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1878, p. 230).]
+
+There is so great a difference in structure and habits between some of
+the existing animals assigned to this order that, beyond the negative
+characters just mentioned, there seems little to connect them. The Sloths
+and Anteaters, for instance, in mode of life, general conformation of
+limbs, structure of digestive organs, etc., appear at first sight almost
+as widely separated as any mammals. Palæontology has, however, thrown
+great light upon their relations, and proved their real affinities.
+Perfectly intermediate forms have been discovered in the great Ground
+Sloths of America, which have the dentition and general form of the
+head of the Sloths, combined with the limbs and trunk of the Anteaters.
+It is, indeed, highly probable that the existing members of this order
+are very much differentiated representatives of a large group, the
+greater number of which are now extinct, and have become so without ever
+attaining a high grade of organisation. The great diversity of structure
+in the existing families, the high degree of specialisation to which many
+have attained, the paucity of species and even of individuals, their
+limited area of distribution, and their small size compared with known
+ancestral forms, all show that this is an ancient and a waning group, the
+members of which seem still to hold their own either by the remoteness
+and seclusion of their dwelling-places, by their remarkable adaptation
+of structure to special conditions of life, or by aid of the peculiar
+defensive armature with which they are invested. Their former history
+can, however, only be thus surmised, rather than read, at present; for,
+though we have ample evidence of the abundance and superior magnitude of
+certain forms in the most recent or Pleistocene geological age, yet we
+have at present no definite evidence as to their origin, or relationship
+to other orders of mammals.
+
+The existing members of the order readily group themselves into five
+distinct families, the limits of which are perfectly clear. These are
+(1) _Bradypodidæ_, or Sloths; (2) _Myrmecophagidæ_, or Anteaters;
+(3) _Dasypodidæ_, or Armadillos; (4) _Manidæ_, Pangolins or Scaly
+Anteaters; and (5) _Orycteropodidæ_, Aard-varks or African Anteaters.
+The geographical distribution of these families coincides with their
+structural distinction, the first three being inhabitants of the New
+and the last two of the Old World. It has been usual to arrange these
+families into two large groups or suborders: (1) the Phyllophaga,
+leaf-eaters, also called Tardigrada, containing the _Bradypodidæ_ alone;
+and (2) the Entomophaga, insect-eaters, or Vermilingua, containing
+all the other families, from which sometimes the _Orycteropodidæ_
+are separated as a third suborder under the name of Effodientia, or
+Tubulidentata. Such an arrangement is, however, an artificial one,
+founded on superficial resemblance. The bonds which unite the _Manidæ_
+to the _Myrmecophagidæ_ are mainly to be found in the structure of the
+mouth, especially the extensile character of the tongue, the great
+development of the submaxillary glands, and the absence of teeth.
+These characters are exactly analogous to those found in the Echidna
+among Monotremes, the Woodpeckers among Birds, and the Chameleon among
+Reptiles,—the fact probably being that in countries where Termites and
+similar insects flourish various distinct forms of vertebrates have
+become modified in special relation to this abundance of nutritious
+food, which could only be made available by a peculiar structure of the
+alimentary organs. A close study of the more essential portions of the
+anatomy of these animals[90] leads to the belief that all the American
+Edentates at present known, however diversified in form and habits,
+belong to a common stock. Thus the _Bradypodidæ_, _Megatheriidæ_, and
+_Myrmecophagidæ_ are certainly allied, the modifications seen in the
+existing families relating only to food and manner of life. The ancestral
+forms may have been omnivorous, and gradually separated into the purely
+vegetable and purely animal feeders; from the former are developed
+the modern Sloths, from the latter the Anteaters. The Armadillos
+(_Dasypodidæ_) are another modification of the same type, retaining some
+generalised characters, as those of the alimentary organs, but in other
+respects, as in their defensive armature, remarkably specialised. The
+two Old World families _Manidæ_ and _Orycteropodidæ_ are so essentially
+distinct, both from the American families and from each other, that it
+may even be considered doubtful whether they are derived from the same
+primary branch of mammals, or whether they may not be offsets of some
+other branch, the remaining members of which have been lost to knowledge.
+Further remarks on this point are recorded under the description of the
+_Orycteropodidæ_.[91]
+
+
+_Family_ BRADYPODIDÆ.
+
+Externally clothed with long, coarse, crisp hair. Head short and rounded.
+External ears inconspicuous. Teeth ⁵⁄₄ in each jaw, subcylindrical, of
+persistent growth, consisting of a central axis of vaso-dentine, with a
+thin investment of hard dentine, and a thick outer coating of cement;
+without (so far as is yet known) any succession. Clavicles present. Fore
+limbs greatly longer than the hind limbs. All the extremities terminating
+in narrow, curved feet; the digits never exceeding three in number,
+encased for nearly their whole length in a common integument, and armed
+with long strong claws. Tail rudimentary. Stomach complex. No cæcum.
+Uterus simple and globular. Placenta deciduate, dome-like, composed of an
+aggregation of numerous discoidal lobes. Strictly arboreal in habits,
+vegetable feeders, and limited geographically to the forest regions of
+South and Central America.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.—Two-toed Sloth (_Cholœpus hoffmanni_).]
+
+The Sloths, as the animals of this family are called on account of the
+habitual sluggishness of their movements, are the most strictly arboreal
+of all mammals, living entirely among the branches of trees, usually
+hanging under them, with their backs downwards (Fig. 58), and clinging
+to them with the simple hook-like organs to which the terminations of
+all their limbs are reduced. When they are obliged from any cause to
+descend to the ground, which they rarely, if ever, do voluntarily, their
+limbs, owing to their unequal length and the peculiar conformation of the
+feet—which allows the animals to rest only on the outer edge—are most
+inefficient for terrestrial progression, and they crawl along a level
+surface with considerable difficulty. Though generally slow and inactive,
+even when in their natural haunts, Sloths can on occasions travel with
+considerable rapidity along the branches; and, as they do not leap, like
+most other arboreal creatures, they avail themselves of the swaying of
+the boughs by the wind to pass from tree to tree. They feed entirely on
+leaves and young shoots and fruits, which they gather in their mouth, the
+fore limbs aiding in dragging boughs within reach, but not being used
+like hands, as they are by monkeys, squirrels, etc. When sleeping they
+roll themselves up in a ball, and, owing to the dry shaggy character of
+their hair, are very inconspicuous among the mosses and lichens with
+which the trees of their native forests abound; the concealment thus
+afforded being heightened in some species by the peculiar greenish tint
+of the outer covering—very uncommon in mammals. This is not due to the
+colour of the hair itself, but to the presence upon its surface of an
+alga, the lodgment of which is facilitated by the fluted or rough surface
+of the exterior of the hair, and the growth of which is promoted by the
+dampness of the atmosphere in the gloomy tropical forests, as it soon
+disappears from the hair of animals kept in captivity in England. Sloths
+are nocturnal, silent, inoffensive, and solitary animals, and usually
+produce but one young at birth. They appear to show an almost reptilian
+tenacity of life, surviving the most severe injuries and large doses of
+poisons, and exhibiting longer persistence of irritability of muscular
+tissue after death than other mammals.
+
+In the _Bradypodidæ_, as well as in the _Myrmecophagidæ_, the testes
+are placed close to each other, lying on the rectum between it and the
+bladder; the penis is quite rudimentary, consisting of a pair of small
+corpora cavernosa, not directly attached by their crura to the rami
+of the ischia, and having a glans scarcely larger than that of the
+clitoris of most mammals, and, as in birds and reptiles, without any
+true corpus spongiosum. In the females of both families the uterus is
+simple and globular; and the vagina, at least in the virgin state, is
+divided into two channels by a strong median partition. The deciduate
+placenta of _Cholœpus_ is composed of a number of lobes aggregated into a
+dome-like mass; and it does not appear that the placenta of the Anteaters
+departs in any important characters from this type. According to the
+late Professor W. K. Parker, the embryos of the Sloths, Anteaters, and
+Pangolins have the stapes of the middle ear in the form of a rod, thus
+showing affinities with a very primitive type of mammalian organisation.
+
+The Sloths were all included in the Linnæan genus _Bradypus_, but Illiger
+very properly separated the species with but two claws on the fore feet,
+under the name of _Cholœpus_, leaving _Bradypus_ for those with three.
+
+_Bradypus._[92]—Three-toed Sloths. Teeth usually ⁵⁄₄ on each side; no
+tooth projecting greatly beyond the others; the first in the upper jaw
+much smaller than any of the rest; the first in the lower jaw broad and
+compressed; the grinding surfaces of all much cupped. Vertebræ: C 9, D
+and L 20 (of which 15 to 17 bear ribs), S 6, C 11. All the known species
+present the remarkable peculiarity of possessing nine cervical vertebræ,
+_i.e._ nine vertebræ in front of the one which bears the first thoracic
+rib (or first rib connected with the sternum, and corresponding in its
+general relations with the first rib of other mammals); but the ninth,
+and sometimes the eighth, bears a pair of short movable ribs. The arms
+or fore limbs are considerably longer than the hind legs. The bones of
+the fore arm are complete, free, and capable of pronation and supination.
+The hand is long, very narrow, habitually curved, and terminates in three
+pointed curved claws, in close apposition with each other. The claws are,
+in fact, incapable of being divaricated, so that the hand is reduced to
+the condition of a triple hook, fit only for the function of suspension
+from the boughs of trees. The foot closely resembles the hand in its
+general structure and mode of use; the sole being habitually turned
+inwards, so that it cannot be applied to the ground in walking. The
+tongue is short and soft, and the stomach large and complex, bearing some
+resemblance to that of the ruminating Ungulates. The windpipe or trachea
+has the remarkable peculiarity among mammals—not unfrequent among birds
+and reptiles—of being folded on itself before it reaches the lungs. The
+mammæ are two, and pectoral in position.
+
+“Ai” is the common name given in books to the Three-toed Sloths. They
+were all comprised by Linnæus under the species _Bradypus tridactylus_.
+More recently Dr. Gray described as many as eleven species, ranged in two
+genera, _Bradypus_ and _Arctopithecus_; but the distinctions which he
+assigned both to species and genera do not bear close examination. Some
+are covered uniformly with a gray or grayish-brown coat; others have a
+dark collar of elongated hairs around the shoulders (_B. torquatus_);
+some have the hair of the face very much shorter than that of the rest
+of the head and neck; and others have a remarkable-looking patch of soft
+short hair on the back between the shoulders, consisting, when best
+marked, of a median stripe of glossy black, bordered on each side by
+bright orange, yellow, or white. There are also structural differences in
+the skulls, as in the amount of inflation of the pterygoid bones, which
+indicate real differences of species; but the materials in our museums
+are not yet sufficient to correlate these with external characters and
+geographical distribution. The habits of all are apparently alike. They
+are natives of Guiana, Brazil, and Peru, and one if not two species (_B.
+infuscatus_ and _B. castaneiceps_) extend north of the Isthmus of Panama
+as far as Nicaragua. Of the former of these Dr. Seeman says that, though
+generally silent, a specimen in captivity uttered a shrill sound like a
+monkey when forcibly pulled away from the tree to which it was holding.
+
+_Cholœpus._[93]—Teeth ⁵⁄₄; the most anterior in both jaws separated by
+an interval from the others, very large, caniniform, wearing to a sharp,
+bevelled edge against the opposing tooth, the upper shutting in front of
+the lower when the mouth is closed (Fig. 59), unlike the true canines
+of heterodont mammals. Vertebræ: C 6 or 7, D 23-24, L 3, S 7-8, C 4-6.
+One species (_C. didactylus_) has the ordinary number of vertebræ in
+the neck; but an otherwise closely allied form (_C. hoffmanni_) has but
+six. The tail is very rudimentary. The hand generally resembles that of
+_Bradypus_; but there are only two functional digits with claws—those
+answering to the second and third of the typical pentadactylate manus.
+The structure of the hind limb generally resembles that of _Bradypus_,
+the appellation “two-toed” referring only to the anterior limb, for
+in the foot the three middle toes are functionally developed and of
+nearly equal size. _C. didactylus_, which has been longest known, is
+commonly called by the native name of _Unau_. It inhabits the forests
+of Brazil. _C. hoffmanni_ (Fig. 58) has a more northern geographical
+range, extending from Ecuador through Panama to Costa Rica. Its voice,
+which is seldom heard, is like the bleat of a sheep, and if the animal is
+seized it snorts violently. Both species are very variable in external
+coloration.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.—Skull of Two-toed Sloth (_Cholœpus didactylus_).
+From _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1871, p. 432.]
+
+_Nothropus._[94]—The only fossil form which has been referred to this
+family is indicated by a lower jaw, described by Dr. Burmeister, from the
+Pleistocene of Argentina, which appears to have belonged to an animal
+of about double the dimensions of _Cholœpus didactylus_. Professor Cope
+states, however, that this jaw really belongs to a Glyptodont; while it
+is referred by Dr. Ameghino to the next family.
+
+
+_Family_ MEGATHERIIDÆ.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.—Section of upper molar teeth of _Megatherium
+americanum_. × ⅓. _p_, pulp-cavity; the other letters explained in the
+text. (After Owen.)]
+
+The members of this family are all extinct. Their characters, so far as
+is known from the well-preserved remains of many species found abundantly
+in deposits of Pleistocene age in both North and South America, were
+intermediate between those of the existing _Bradypodidæ_ and the
+_Myrmecophagidæ_, combining the head and dentition of the former with
+the structure of the vertebral column, limbs, and tail of the latter.
+Almost all the known species are of comparatively gigantic size, the
+smallest, _Nothrotherium escrivanense_, exceeding the largest existing
+Anteater, and the Megatherium being larger than a Rhinoceros. The femur
+has no third trochanter, and the odontoid process of the axis vertebra
+has a peculiar facet on the ventral surface. The dentition is usually
+⁵⁄₄ on each side, as in the Sloths, but ⁴⁄₃ in _Nothrotherium_.[95]
+This genus, and in a still more marked degree _Megatherium_, differ
+from all the others in the details of the structure of the teeth. They
+are very deeply implanted, of prismatic form (quadrate in transverse
+section), and the component tissues—hard dentine (Fig. 60, _d_), softer
+vaso-dentine (_v_), and cement (_c_)—are so arranged that, as the tooth
+wears, the surface always presents a pair of transverse ridges, thus
+producing a triturating apparatus comparable to the “bilophodont” molar
+of _Dinotherium_, _Tapirus_, _Manatus_, _Macropus_, and others, though
+produced in a different manner. In all the other genera the teeth are
+more or less cylindrical, though sometimes laterally compressed or even
+longitudinally grooved on the sides, and on the grinding surface the
+prominent ridge of hard dentine follows the external contour, and is
+surrounded only by a thin layer of cement, as in the existing Sloths.
+The Ground Sloths, as the members of this family may be conveniently
+designated, agree with the Sloths and Anteaters, and thereby differ from
+all other mammals, in that the coracoid process of the scapula and the
+coracoidal border of the same unite over the coraco-scapular notch, which
+is thus converted into a foramen. Large clavicles are present.
+
+_Megatherium._[96]—The typical genus _Megatherium_, as being the longest
+known representative of the family, may be noticed in some detail. A
+nearly complete skeleton, found on the banks of the River Luxan, near
+Buenos Ayres, and sent in 1789 to the Royal Museum at Madrid, long
+remained the principal if not the only source of information with regard
+to the species to which it belonged, and furnished the materials for
+many descriptions, notably that of Cuvier, who determined its affinities
+with the Sloths.[97] In 1832 an important collection of bones of the
+Megatherium was discovered near the Rio Salado, and secured for the
+Museum of the College of Surgeons of England; and these, with another
+collection found at Luxan in 1837, and now in the British Museum,
+supplied the materials for the complete description of the skeleton
+published by Sir R. Owen in 1861. Other skeletons have subsequently been
+received by several of the Continental museums, as Milan and Paris, and
+also by those in South America; and consequently our knowledge of the
+organisation of the Megatherium, so far as it can be deduced from the
+bones and teeth, is as complete as that of any other animal, recent or
+extinct.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.—Oral surface of mandible of _Megatherium
+americanum_. _a_, Condyle; _b_, masseteric process; _c_, angle; _d_,
+symphysis. (After Owen.)]
+
+The remains hitherto spoken of are all referred to one species,
+_Megatherium americanum_ of Blumenbach (_M. cuvieri_ of Desmarest), and
+are all from the newest or Pleistocene geological formations of the
+Argentine Republic and Paraguay, or the lands forming the basin of the
+Rio de la Plata. Dr. Leidy has described, from similar formations in
+Georgia and South Carolina, bones of a closely allied species, about
+one-fourth smaller, which he has named _M. mirabile_. Three other South
+American species have been described; but _M. laurillardi_, of Lund,
+founded upon remains found in Brazil, has been made the type of the genus
+_Ocnopus_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.—Skeleton of _Megatherium_, from the specimen in
+the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. × ¹⁄₂₅.]
+
+The following description will apply especially to the best-known
+South American form, _Megatherium americanum_. In size it exceeded any
+existing land animal except the elephant, to which it was inferior only
+in consequence of the comparative shortness of its limbs; for in length
+and bulk of body it was its equal, if not superior. The full length of
+a mounted skeleton (Fig. 62), from the fore part of the head to the end
+of the tail, is 18 feet, of which the tail occupies 5 feet. The head,
+which is small for the size of the animal, presents a general resemblance
+to that of the Sloth; the anterior part of the mouth is, however, more
+elongated, and the jugal bone, though branched posteriorly in the same
+way as that of the Sloth, meets the zygomatic process of the squamosal,
+thus completing the arch. The lower jaw has the middle part of its
+horizontal ramus curiously deepened, so as to admit of implantation of
+the very long-rooted teeth, the peculiar structure of which has been
+already described. A skull recently discovered shows that, instead of the
+wide gap between the extremity of the nasals and the premaxillæ exhibited
+in Fig. 62, there was a prenasal bone, towards which a process extended
+upwards and backwards from the extremity of the upper surface of the
+premaxillæ.
+
+The vertebral column consists of seven cervical, sixteen dorsal, three
+lumbar, five sacral, and eighteen caudal vertebræ. The spinous processes
+are much better developed than in the Sloths, and are all directed
+backwards, there being no reversing of the inclination near the posterior
+end of the dorsal series, as in most active-bodied mammals. In the lumbar
+region, the accessory zygapophyses, rudimentary in Sloths, are fully
+developed, as in the Anteaters.
+
+The tail is large, and its basal vertebræ have strong lateral and spinous
+processes and chevron bones, indicating great muscular development.
+The scapula resembles that of the Sloths in the union of the acromion
+with the coracoid, and in the bridging over of the suprascapular notch.
+The clavicle is complete and very large, much resembling that of man
+on a large scale. The fore limbs are longer than the hind limbs. The
+humerus has no entepicondylar foramen. The radius and ulna are both
+well developed, and have a considerable amount of freedom of movement.
+The hand is singularly modified. The pollex is represented only by
+a rudimentary metacarpal, but the next three digits are large, and
+terminate in phalanges adapted for the support of immense claws, the
+middle one being especially large. The outer or fifth digit has no claw,
+and it may be considered as certain that the weight of the foot was, in
+standing and walking, chiefly thrown upon this one, which was protected
+by a callous pad below, as in the existing great Anteater, while the
+other toes were curved inwards towards the palm, and only came in contact
+with the ground by their outer surfaces. The mechanical arrangements by
+which the weight of the body was thrown entirely upon the outer side of
+the foot are very curious, and are fully described in Owen’s memoir. The
+pelvis is remarkably wide, even more so than that of the Elephant, but it
+is formed on the same principle as in the Sloths. The femur is extremely
+broad and flattened; the tibia and fibula are short and strong, and
+united together at each end. The hind foot, contrary to the usual rule
+in the Edentata, is even more singularly modified than the hand. Thus
+the ankle-joint is formed upon a peculiar plan, quite unlike that of the
+Sloths, or of any other mammal, except the Megatherium’s nearest allies;
+and the calcaneum projects nearly as far backwards as the fore part of
+the foot does forwards. There is no trace of great toe or hallux, or of
+its corresponding cuneiform bone; the second toe is rudimentary; while
+the third has an enormous ungual phalanx, which, as in those of the hand,
+is remarkable for the immense development of the bony sheath reflected
+from its proximal end around the base of the claw. The two outer toes
+have large and very peculiarly-shaped metatarsals, but only small
+phalanges, and no claws. The creature probably walked upon the outer edge
+of the sole, so that the great falcate claw of the third toe did not come
+into contact with the ground, and so was kept in a state of sharpness
+ready for use. The foot was therefore formed upon quite a different
+principle from that of the Anteaters or Sloths, though somewhat like the
+latter in having two of the toes aborted.
+
+Taking all the various points of its structure together, they clearly
+indicate affinities both with the existing Sloths and with the
+Anteaters, the skull and teeth more resembling those of the former, and
+the vertebral column and limbs the latter. It is also not difficult
+to infer the food and habits of this enormous creature. That it was a
+leaf-eater there can be little doubt; but the greater size and more
+complex structure of its teeth might have enabled it to crush the smaller
+branches as well as the leaves and succulent shoots which form the food
+of the existing Sloths. It is, however, very improbable that it climbed
+into the branches of the trees like its diminutive congeners, and it is
+far more likely that it obtained its subsistence by tearing them down
+with the great hook-like claws of its powerful prehensile fore limbs,
+being easily enabled to reach them by raising itself up upon the massive
+tripod formed by the two hind feet, firmly fixed to the ground by the one
+huge falcate claw, and the stout, muscular tail. The whole conformation
+of the hinder part of the animal is strongly suggestive of such an
+action. There can also be little doubt but that all its movements were as
+slow and deliberate as those of its modern representatives.
+
+An idea at one time prevailed that the Megatherium was covered externally
+with a coat of bony armour like that of the Armadillos; but this
+originated in dermal plates belonging to the Glyptodon having been
+accidentally associated with bones of the Megatherium. Similar plates,
+on a smaller scale, have indeed been found in connection with the
+skeleton of the Mylodon, but never yet with the Megatherium, which we may
+therefore imagine with a covering of coarse hair like that of its nearest
+living allies, the Sloths and Anteaters.
+
+_Scelidotherium_, _Mylodon_, etc.—Of the more important remaining
+genera of this family a briefer notice will suffice. _Scelidotherium_
+(in which _Platyonyx_ may be included) comprises several species of
+considerably smaller dimensions than the Megatherium, and is in some
+respects intermediate between that genus and _Mylodon_. The teeth have
+an oval cross-section, like those of the Sloths, while the skull, in
+which the length of the nasals is subject to great variation in the
+different species, approximates more or less closely to that of the
+_Myrmecophagidæ_. The humerus generally has an entepicondylar foramen;
+and the form and relations of the bones of the feet differ considerably
+from those obtaining in the type genus. _S. leptocephalum_, the type of
+the genus, occurs in Patagonia and Argentina but other species are found
+in Brazil and Chili. The genus _Mylodon_, in its widest sense, may be
+taken to include a number of comparatively large Edentates, some of which
+have been described under the names of _Grypotherium_, _Lestodon_, and
+_Pseudolestodon_. The teeth of the upper jaw are generally of an oval or
+subtriangular section; and in the more typical forms the first and second
+teeth are separated by a short interval, the former being horizontally
+worn. In other species, however, like _M. (Lestodon) armatus_, there is
+a considerable space between the first and second teeth, and the first
+is worn obliquely. The skull is exceedingly like that of the Sloths in
+general contour; and there is not the descending process at the angle of
+the mandible found in _Megatherium_. The humerus has no entepicondylar
+foramen. The species represented in Fig. 63 is from the Pleistocene of
+South America; but the type of the genus is _M. harlani_, from beds
+of corresponding age in Kentucky. The Patagonian _M. (Grypotherium)
+darwini_ is a remarkable form, characterised by the presence of a
+bony arch connecting the premaxillæ with the nasals, of which, as
+already mentioned, there is an incomplete development in _Megatherium_.
+_Megalonyx_, from the Pleistocene of Kentucky, differs from _Mylodon_ by
+the long interval between the first and second teeth, and also by the
+presence of an entepicondylar foramen in the humerus. _Nothrotherium_
+is a smaller form, occurring in the deposits of the Brazilian caves, of
+which the dental features have been already mentioned. The osteological
+characters of these and other allied genera have been fully described
+in the works of Cuvier, Owen, Burmeister, Leidy, Ameghino, Gervais,
+Reinhardt, and others.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.—Skeleton of _Mylodon robustus_ (Pleistocene,
+South America). From Owen.]
+
+_Promegatherium._—Two genera from the infra-Pampean beds of Argentina,
+described as _Promegatherium_ and _Promylodon_, are respectively
+distinguished from _Megatherium_ and _Mylodon_ by the presence of bands
+of enamel on the teeth, which points to the descent of the Edentates from
+mammals with enamelled teeth.
+
+The Tertiary North American forms described as _Moropus_ and
+_Morotherium_,[98] and originally regarded as Edentates, would appear to
+be aberrant Ungulates.
+
+
+_Family_ MYRMECOPHAGIDÆ.
+
+Externally clothed with hair. No teeth. Head elongated. Mouth tubular,
+with a small terminal aperture, through which the long, vermiform tongue,
+covered with the viscid secretion of the enormous submaxillary glands,
+is rapidly protruded in feeding, and withdrawn again with the adhering
+particles of aliment, which are then sucked into the pharynx. Clavicles
+rudimentary. In the manus, the third toe is greatly developed, and has
+a long falcate claw, the others are reduced or suppressed. The pes has
+four or five subequal digits with claws. Posterior dorsal and lumbar
+vertebræ, with additional interlocking zygapophyses. Tail long, sometimes
+prehensile. Uterus simple. Placenta dome-like or discoidal. Brain fairly
+convoluted, and with a large corpus callosum and anterior commissure.
+The animals of this family are the “Anteaters” _par excellence_. They
+feed exclusively on animal substances, mostly insects. One species is
+terrestrial, the others arboreal; none burrow in the ground. They are all
+inhabitants of the Neotropical region.
+
+The reproductive organs, as noticed on p. 181, are of the same general
+type as in the _Bradypodidæ_.
+
+_Myrmecophaga._[99]—Skull greatly elongated and narrow, its upper
+surface smooth and cylindriform. Anteriorly the face is produced into a
+long, tubular rostrum, rounded above and flattened below, with terminal
+nares, and composed of the mesethmoid ossified for more than half its
+length, the vomer, the maxillæ, and the long and narrow nasal bones,
+the premaxillæ being extremely short and confined to the margin of the
+anterior nares. The zygomatic arch is incomplete, the styliform jugal
+only articulating with the maxilla in front, and not reaching to the
+very short zygomatic process of the squamosal. The lachrymal foramen is
+in front of the margin of the orbit. There are no postorbital processes
+to the frontals, or any other demarcation between the orbits and the
+temporal fossæ. Palate extremely elongated, and produced backwards as
+far as the level of the external auditory meatus by the meeting in
+the middle line of the largely developed pterygoids. The glenoid fossa
+a shallow oval facet, with its long diameter from before backwards.
+Mandible very long and slender with an exceedingly short symphysis, no
+distinct coronoid process, and a slightly elevated, elongated, flattened,
+condylar articular surface. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15-16, L 3-2, S 6, C 31.
+Clavicles rudimentary. In the manus the first digit is very slender, the
+second also slender, with compressed phalanges of nearly equal length.
+The third digit is immensely developed; though its proximal phalanx is
+extremely short, its ungual phalanx is so long that the entire length of
+the digit exceeds that of the second. The fourth has a long and rather
+slender metacarpal, and three phalanges diminishing in size, the ungual
+phalanx being very small. The fifth has the metacarpal nearly as long,
+but not so stout, as the fourth, and followed by two small phalanges, the
+last rudimentary and conical. Claws are developed upon all but the fifth.
+In walking the toes are kept strongly flexed, and have their points
+turned upwards and inwards, the weight being supported upon a callous pad
+over the end of the fifth digit, and by the dorsal surfaces of the third
+and fourth digits. The hind feet are short and rather broad, with five
+subequal claws, the fourth the longest, the first shortest; the whole
+sole is placed on the ground in walking. Body rather compressed, clothed
+with long, coarse hair. Tail about as long as the body, and covered with
+very long hair; not prehensile. Ears small, oval, erect. Eyes very small.
+Stomach consisting of a subglobular, thin-walled, cardiac portion, and
+a muscular pyloric gizzard with dense epithelial lining. No ileo-colic
+valve, and a short wide ill-defined cæcum. Mammæ two, pectoral.
+
+There is one species,[100] _M. jubata_, the Great Anteater, or Ant Bear
+(Fig. 64), measuring 4 feet in length without the tail, and upwards of
+2 feet in height at the shoulder. Its prevailing colour is gray, with
+a broad black band, bordered with white, commencing on the chest, and
+passing obliquely over the shoulder, diminishing gradually in breadth
+as it approaches the loins, where it ends in a point. It is extensively
+distributed in the tropical parts of South and Central America,
+frequenting low swampy savannas along the banks of rivers, and the depths
+of the humid forests, but is nowhere abundant. Its food consists mainly
+of termites, to obtain which it opens their nests with its powerful sharp
+anterior claws, and as the insects swarm to the damaged part of their
+dwelling, it draws them into its mouth by means of its long, flexible,
+rapidly-moving tongue covered with glutinous saliva. The Great Anteater
+is quite terrestrial in its habits, being never known to climb trees,
+nor does it burrow underground like the Armadillos. Though generally an
+inoffensive animal, when attacked it can defend itself vigorously and
+effectively with its sabre-like anterior claws. The female bears but a
+single young at a birth.
+
+The union of the pterygoids in the middle line to prolong the narial
+passage is a character found elsewhere among existing mammals only in the
+next genus, in one Armadillo (_Tatusia_), and in certain Cetacea. The
+contrast in length between the skull of the Great Anteater and that of
+the Sloth is, as Professor Parker observes, very marked indeed; the one
+being relatively the longest and the other almost the shortest in the
+whole class. The small size and incomplete development of the jugal bone
+in the zygomatic arch affords another striking contrast to the Sloths
+(Fig. 59).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.—The Great Anteater (_Myrmecophaga jubata_). (From
+Sclater, _List of Animals in Zoological Society’s Gardens_, 1883, p.
+190.)]
+
+_Tamandua._[101]—This genus closely resembles the last in anatomical
+structure, but the head is much less elongated, the fur is short and
+bristly, the tail tapering, prehensile, with the under side throughout
+and the whole of the terminal portion naked and scaly. The stomach is
+similar to that of _Myrmecophaga_, but with the muscular pyloric gizzard
+not quite so strongly developed. There is a distinct ileo-colic valve and
+a short globular cæcum. The fore foot has a very large claw on the third
+toe, moderate-sized claws on the second and fourth, a very minute one on
+the first, and none on the fifth, which is entirely concealed within the
+skin. The hind foot has five subequal claws. Vertebræ: C 7, D 17, L 2, S
+5, C 37. There are very rudimentary clavicles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.—Tamandua Anteater (_Tamandua tetradactyla_). From
+_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1871, pl. xliii.]
+
+The Tamandua (Fig. 65) is much smaller than the Great Anteater, and
+differs essentially from it in its habits, being mainly arboreal. It
+is an inhabitant of the dense primeval forests of South and Central
+America. As different individuals vary much in their coloration, it is
+possible that there may be more than one species. The usual colour is
+yellowish-white, with a broad black lateral band, covering nearly the
+whole of the side of the body.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.—Cæca of the Two-toed Anteater (_Cycloturus
+didactylus_). _i_, Ileum; _c_, colon.]
+
+_Cycloturus._[102]—The skull is much shorter even than in _Tamandua_, and
+is arched considerably in the longitudinal direction. It differs from
+that of the other members of the family mainly in the long canal for
+the posterior nares not being closed by bone below, as the greater part
+of the palatines and the pterygoids do not meet in the middle line. The
+mandible has a prominent, narrow, recurved coronoid, and a well-developed
+angular process; it is strongly decurved in front. Vertebræ: C 7, D 16, L
+2, S 4, C 40. Ribs remarkably broad and flat. Clavicles well developed.
+Manus remarkably modified, the third digit being greatly developed at the
+expense of all the others, and having a stout short metacarpal and but
+two phalanges, of which the most distal is large, compressed, pointed,
+and much curved, and bears a very strong hook-like claw. The second digit
+has the same number of phalanges, and bears a claw, but is very much more
+slender than the third. The fourth is represented only by the metacarpal
+and one nailless phalanx, the first and fifth only by very rudimentary
+metacarpals. The pes is also completely modified into a climbing organ.
+The hallux is rudimentary, consisting of a metatarsal and one phalanx,
+concealed beneath the skin; but the other four toes are subequal and
+much curved, with long pointed compressed claws. The tuber calcanei is
+directed towards the plantar surface, and parallel with it and extending
+to about double its length is a greatly elongated sesamoid ossicle.
+These together support a prominent calcarine cushion, to which the nails
+are opposed in climbing. Stomach pyriform, with muscular walls, but no
+distinct gizzard-like portion, as in the foregoing genera. Commencement
+of the colon provided with two small cæca (Fig. 66), resembling those
+of many birds, narrow at the base, and rather dilated at their terminal
+blind ends, and communicating with the general cavity by very minute
+apertures. Tail longer than the body, tapering, bare on the under
+surface, and very prehensile. Fur soft and silky.
+
+This genus has also but one species certainly known, the Little or
+Two-toed Anteater (_C. didactylus_), an animal not larger than a Rat, of
+a general yellowish-colour, and exclusively arboreal in its habits. It is
+a native of the hottest parts of South and Central America.
+
+
+_Family_ DASYPODIDÆ.
+
+The greater part of the skin strongly ossified. On the back and sides
+the union of numerous quadrate or polygonal scutes forms a hard shield,
+usually consisting of an anterior (scapular) and posterior (pelvic)
+solid portion (which overhang on each side the parts of the body they
+respectively cover, forming chambers into which the limbs are withdrawn),
+and a variable number of rings between, connected by soft flexible skin
+so as to allow of curvature of the body. The top of the head has also a
+similar shield (cephalic), and the tail is usually encased in bony rings
+or plates. The outer or exposed surfaces of the limbs are protected by
+irregular bony scutes, not united at their margins; but the skin of the
+inner surface of the limbs and under side of the body is soft, and more
+or less clothed with hair. Hairs also in many species project through
+apertures between the bony scutes of the back. The ossified dermal scutes
+are everywhere covered by a layer of horny epidermis. Teeth numerous,
+simple, of persistent growth, and usually monophyodont, but in one
+genus (_Tatusia_) a succession of teeth has been observed. Zygomatic
+arch of skull complete. Cervical vertebræ with extremely short, broad,
+and depressed bodies. The atlas free, but the second and third, and
+often several of the others, ankylosed together both by their bodies
+and arches. Lumbar vertebræ with accessory zygomatic processes, and
+very large metapophyses, supporting the bony carapace. Clavicles well
+developed. A third trochanter on the femur. Tibia and fibula ankylosed
+at their distal extremities. Fore feet with strongly developed, curved
+claws, adapted for digging and scratching—three, four, or five in
+number. Hind feet plantigrade, with five toes, all provided with nails.
+Tongue long, pointed, and extensile, though to a less degree than in
+the Anteaters. Submaxillary glands largely developed. Stomach simple.
+Uterus simple. Placenta discoidal, deciduate. The brain is generally
+characterised by the large size of the olfactory lobes (Fig. 57), and the
+slight development of sulci on the hemispheres; the sylvian fissure being
+represented only by a very open and shallow angle. From the earliest
+stage of development the stapes is stirrup-shaped, thus showing a nearer
+affinity to the higher mammals than is presented by the Sloths.
+
+The animals of this family are commonly called Armadillos, a word
+of Spanish origin, having reference to their armour-like covering.
+The existing species are all of small or moderate size. They are
+mostly, though not universally, nocturnal in their habits, and are all
+omnivorous, feeding on roots, insects, worms, reptiles, and carrion.
+Armadillos are harmless and inoffensive creatures, offering no resistance
+when caught, their principal means of escape from their enemies being
+the extraordinary rapidity with which they can burrow in the ground, and
+the tenacity with which they retain their hold in their subterranean
+retreats. Notwithstanding the shortness of their limbs they can run with
+great rapidity. Most of the species are esteemed good eating by the
+natives of the countries in which they live. They are all inhabitants
+of the open plains or the forests of the tropical and temperate
+parts of South America, with the exception of one species (_Tatusia
+novemcincta_), which ranges as far north as Texas. Of the existing
+genera, _Chlamydophorus_ stands apart from the rest in the formation
+of its external covering; but in all other respects _Tatusia_ is the
+most aberrant form, exhibiting a peculiar type of structure of the fore
+feet, which in all the others show modifications, though in very varying
+degrees, of a single and different type.
+
+The reproductive organs of the _Dasypodidæ_ differ from those of the
+Sloths and Armadillos in the presence of a largely developed copulating
+organ in the male, and of a simple vagina of corresponding length in
+the female. The testes are still abdominal, although not in the same
+position; and the penis still wants both the glans and bulb. The uterus
+is nearly or quite as simple as in the Sloths and Anteaters; and there is
+no reason to believe that the placentation is essentially different from
+that obtaining in the other groups.
+
+Subfamily =Chlamydophorinæ=.—In most anatomical characters, especially
+the structure of the fore foot, this little group resembles the
+_Dasypodinæ_; but it differs remarkably from all other known Armadillos,
+living or extinct, in the peculiar modification of the dermal armour.
+
+_Chlamydophorus._[103]—Teeth ⁸⁄₈₋₉, subcylindrical, somewhat compressed,
+moderate in size, smaller at each end (especially in front) than at
+the middle of the series. Skull broad and rounded behind, pointed in
+front. Muzzle subcylindrical and depressed. A conspicuous rounded,
+rough prominence on the frontal bone, just before each orbit. Tympanic
+prolonged into a tubular auditory meatus, curving upwards round the base
+of the zygoma. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11, L 3, S 10, C 15. Upper part of head
+and trunk covered with four-sided horny plates (with very small thin
+ossifications beneath), forming a shield, free, and overhanging the
+sides of the trunk, and attached only along the middle line of the back.
+The plates are arranged in a series of distinct transverse bands, about
+twenty in number between the occiput and the posterior truncated end, and
+not divided into solid thoracic and pelvic shields with movable bands
+between. The hinder end of the body is abruptly truncated and covered by
+a vertically-placed, strong, solid, bony shield, of an oval (transversely
+extended) form, covered by thin epidermic plates. This shield is firmly
+ankylosed by five bony processes to the hinder part of the pelvis.
+Through a notch in the middle of its lower border the tail passes out.
+The latter is rather short, cylindrical in its proximal half, and
+expanded and depressed or spatulate in its terminal portion, and covered
+with horny plates. The dorsal surfaces of the fore and hind feet are also
+covered with horny plates. The remainder of the limbs and under surface
+and sides of the body beneath the overlapping lateral parts of the dorsal
+shield are clothed with rather long, very soft, silky hair. Eyes and ears
+very small, and concealed by the hair. Extremities short. Feet large,
+each with five well-developed claws, those on the fore feet very long,
+stout, and subcompressed, the structure of the digits being essentially
+the same as those of _Xenurus_ and _Priodon_. Nipples two, pectoral.
+Visceral anatomy closely resembling that of _Dasypus_, the cæcum being
+broad, short, and bifid.
+
+The Pichiciago (_C. truncatus_), a small burrowing animal, about 5 inches
+long, inhabits the sandy plains of the western part of the Argentine
+Republic, especially the vicinity of Mendoza. Its horny covering is of
+a pinkish colour, and its silky hair snow white. It is rare, and its
+habits are but little known. A second species, _C. retusa_, from Bolivia,
+has been described by Burmeister. It is of rather larger size, and has
+the dorsal shield attached to the skin of the back as far as its edge,
+instead of only along the median line.
+
+Subfamily =Dasypodinæ=.—Fore feet usually with all five digits developed
+and with nails, though the first and fifth may be suppressed. The
+first and second long and slender, with the normal number and relative
+length of phalanges. The others stout, with short broad metacarpals,
+and the phalanges greatly reduced in length and generally in number
+by coalescence. The ungual phalanx of the third very large, that of
+the others gradually diminishing to the fifth. _Dasypus_, as now
+restricted, has the most normal form of manus, but the modifications so
+markedly developed in all the others (and culminating in _Tolypeutes_)
+are foreshadowed, as it were, in it. Ears wide apart. Mammæ one pair,
+pectoral.
+
+_Dasypus._[104]—Teeth ⁹⁄₁₀ or ⁸⁄₉, of which the anterior in the upper
+jaw is usually implanted in the premaxillary bone. The series of teeth
+extends posteriorly some distance behind the anterior root of the
+zygoma, almost level with the hinder edge of the palate. They are large,
+subcylindrical, slightly compressed, diminishing in size towards each
+end of the series; the anterior two in the mandible much smaller, and
+more compressed than the others. Cranial portion of the skull broad and
+depressed. Facial portion triangular, broad in front and much depressed.
+Auditory bulla completely ossified, perforated on the inner side by the
+carotid canal, and continued externally into an elongated bony meatus
+auditorius, with its aperture directed upwards and backwards. (In all the
+remaining genera of _Dasypodinæ_ the tympanic bone is a mere half ring,
+loosely attached to the cranium.) Mandible with a high ascending ramus,
+broad transversely-placed condyle, and high slender coronoid process.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 11-12, L 3, S 8, C 17-19. Head broad and flat above.
+Muzzle obtusely pointed. Ears of moderate size or rather small, placed
+laterally, far apart. Body broad and depressed. Carapace with six or
+seven movable bands between the scapular and pelvic shields, each plate,
+or scute, being marked by a regular ellipse formed of widely separated
+punctures. Tail shorter than the body, tapering, covered with plates
+forming distinct rings near the base. Fore feet with five toes; the first
+much more slender than the others, and with a smaller ungual phalanx and
+nail; the second, though the longest, also slender. The third, fourth,
+and fifth gradually diminishing in length, all armed with very strong,
+slightly curved, compressed claws, sloping away from an elevated rounded
+inner border to a sharp, outer, and inferior edge. The hind foot rather
+short, with all five toes armed with stout, compressed, slightly curved,
+obtusely pointed claws—the third the longest, the second nearly equal to
+it, the fourth the next, the first and fifth shorter, and nearly equal.
+
+To this genus belongs one of the best known-species of the group, the
+Six-banded Armadillo or Encoubert (_D. sexcinctus_) of Brazil and
+Paraguay. A very similar species, _D. villosus_, the Hairy Armadillo,
+replaces it south of the Rio Plata. There are also two very small
+species—_D. vellerosus_, from the Argentine Republic and North Patagonia,
+and _D. minutus_ from La Plata. The latter differs from the other three
+in having no tooth implanted in the premaxillary bone. Remains apparently
+referable to _D. villosus_ occur in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of
+Brazil.
+
+_Xenurus._[105]—Teeth ⁹⁄₉ or ⁸⁄₈, of moderate size and subcylindrical.
+The most posterior placed a little way behind the anterior root of the
+zygoma, but far from the hinder margin of the palate. Cranium somewhat
+elongated, much constricted behind the orbits, and immediately in front
+of the constriction considerably dilated. Mandible slender; coronoid
+process very small and sharp-pointed, sometimes obsolete. Vertebræ: C
+7, D 12-13, L 3, S 10, C 18. Head broad behind. Ears rather large and
+rounded, wide apart. Movable bands of carapace 12-13; the scutes being
+marked by an obscurely granular sculpture. Tail considerably shorter
+than the body, slender, and covered with nearly naked skin, with but a
+few small, scattered, dermal bony plates, chiefly on the under surface
+and near the apex. On the fore feet the first and second toes are long
+and slender, with small claws and the normal number of phalanges; the
+other toes have but two phalanges; the third has an immense falcate
+claw; the fourth and fifth similar but smaller claws. The hind feet are
+comparatively small, with five toes, bearing small, triangular, blunt
+nails; the third longest, the first shortest. The best known species of
+this genus, the Tatouay or Cabasson, _X. unicinctus_, is, after _Priodon
+gigas_, the largest of the group. It is found, though not abundantly, in
+Surinam, Brazil, and Paraguay, its remains occurring in the Pleistocene
+cavern-deposits of Brazil. Others, _X. hispidus_ and _lugubris_, have
+been described, but little is as yet known of them.
+
+_Priodon._[106]—Teeth variable in number, and generally differing on
+the two sides of each jaw, usually from 20 to 25 on each side above and
+below, so that as many as 100 may be present altogether; but as life
+advances the anterior teeth fall out, and all traces of their alveoli
+disappear. The series extends as far back as the hinder edge of the
+anterior root of the zygoma. The teeth are all very small; those in the
+anterior half of each series being strongly compressed, with flat sides
+and a straight free edge; the posterior ones are more nearly cylindrical,
+with flat truncated, free surfaces. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 3, S 10, C
+23. Head small, elongated, conical. Ears moderate, ovate. Carapace with
+12-13 movable bands. Tail nearly equal to the body in length, gradually
+tapering, closely covered with quadrangular scales, arranged in a
+quincunx pattern. Fore feet with five toes, formed on the same plan as
+those of _Xenurus_, but with the claw of the third of still greater size,
+and that of each of the others, especially the fifth, proportionately
+reduced. Hind foot short and rounded, with five very short toes, with
+short, broad, flat, obtuse nails. The only known species, the Great
+Armadillo (_P. gigas_), is by far the largest of existing members of the
+family, measuring rather more than 3 feet from the tip of the nose to the
+root of the tail, the tail being about 20 inches long. It inhabits the
+forests of Surinam and Brazil. The powerful falcate claws of its fore
+feet enable it to dig with great facility. Its food consists chiefly
+of termites and other insects, but it is said to attack and uproot
+newly-made graves for the purpose of devouring the flesh of the bodies
+contained in them.
+
+_Tolypeutes._[107]—Teeth ⁹⁄₉ or ⁸⁄₉, rather large in proportion to the
+size of the skull, the hinder end of the series reaching nearly to the
+posterior margin of the palate. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11, L 3, S 12, C 13.
+Ears placed low on the sides of the head, rather large, broadly ovate.
+Carapace with its scapular and pelvic shields very free at the sides of
+the body, forming large chambers into which the limbs can be readily
+withdrawn. Only three movable bands; sculpture of scutes in the form
+of subconcentrically arranged granules. Tail short, conical, covered
+with large bony tubercles. The fore feet formed on the same type as in
+the last genus, but the peculiarities carried out to a still greater
+extent. The claw of the third toe is very long and falcate, the first and
+fifth greatly reduced and sometimes wanting. On the hind foot the three
+middle toes have broad, flat, subequal nails, forming together a kind of
+tripartite hoof; the first and fifth much shorter, with more compressed
+nails.
+
+The Armadillos of this genus have the power of rolling themselves up into
+a perfect ball, the shield on the top of the head and the tuberculated
+dorsal surface of the tail exactly fitting into and filling up the
+apertures left by the notches at either end of the carapace. This
+appears to be their usual means of defence when frightened or surprised,
+as they do not burrow like the other species. They run very quickly,
+with a very peculiar gait, only the tips of the claws of the fore feet
+touching the ground. Three species are described:—_T. tricinctus_, the
+Apar; _T. conurus_, the Matico; and _T. muriei_. Remains apparently
+referable to _T. conurus_ are of not uncommon occurrence in the Brazilian
+cavern-deposits.
+
+Subfamily =Tatusiinæ=.—This group contains but one genus, _Tatusia_.[108]
+Teeth ⁸⁄₈ or ⁷⁄₇, very small subcylindrical. The first and second
+subcompressed, the last considerably smaller than the others. They
+present the remarkable peculiarity (elsewhere found among Edentates,
+so far as is yet known, only in _Orycteropus_) of all being, with the
+exception of the last, preceded by two-rooted milk teeth, which are not
+changed until the animal has nearly attained its full size. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 9-11, L 5, S 8, C 20-27. Head narrow, with a long, narrow,
+subcylindrical, obliquely-truncated snout; pterygoids meeting in the
+middle line below the nasal passage. Ears rather large, ovate, and
+erect, placed close together on the occiput. Carapace with seven to nine
+distinct movable bands; sculpture on scutes consisting of pits arranged
+in a V-shape. Body generally elongated and narrow. Tail moderate or long,
+gradually tapering; its dermal scutes forming very distinct rings for
+the greater part of its length. Fore feet with four visible toes, and
+a concealed clawless rudiment of the fifth. Claws all long, slightly
+curved, and very slender, the third and fourth subequal and alike, the
+first and fourth much shorter. Hind feet with five toes, all armed with
+strong, slightly curved, conical, obtusely-pointed nails. The third
+longest, then the second and fourth; the first and fifth much shorter
+than the others.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.—The Peba Armadillo (_Tatusia novemcincta_).]
+
+This genus differs from all the other Armadillos in having a pair of
+inguinal mammæ, in addition to the usual pectoral pair, and in producing
+a large number (four to ten) of young at a birth, all the others having
+usually but one or two.
+
+The Peba Armadillo, _T. novemcincta_ (Fig. 67), is a well-known species,
+having an extensive range from Texas to Paraguay. It is replaced in the
+more southern regions of South America by a smaller species, with shorter
+tail, the Mulita (_T. hybrida_), so called from the resemblance of its
+head and ears to those of a mule. _T. kappleri_ is a large species from
+Surinam.
+
+A rare Armadillo from Peru described under the names of _Cryptophractus
+pilosus_ and _Praopus hirsutus_, but which evidently belongs to
+_Tatusia_, is of some interest owing to the thick coat of hair with
+which it is covered. This animal appears to be closely allied to _T.
+novemcincta_, from which it mainly differs by having the whole of the
+carapace covered with a thick coating of light brown, fine, but rather
+stiff hair, about an inch and a half in length. Similar hair is found
+on the cheeks, the proximal portions of the limbs, and (although less
+abundantly and shorter) on the under surface of the body. The cephalic
+shield, snout, feet, and the tail, with the exception of the root, are
+bare. The coating of hair on the back and sides completely conceals
+the carapace, except near the margin of the scapular region; but by
+separating the hairs the bands and scutes are rendered visible.[109]
+
+In the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Brazil have been found remains
+of _T. novemcincta_, and also of _T. punctata_, which appears to be an
+extinct form nearly allied to _T. kappleri_, but of somewhat larger size.
+
+_Extinct genera._—In addition to remains referable to existing genera,
+the above-mentioned deposits have also yielded evidence of the former
+existence of extinct generic types of Armadillos, some of which attained
+very large dimensions. Of these _Eutatus_ was a large form distinguished
+from all existing genera by the circumstance that the whole of the
+carapace was composed of movable bands, which were thirty-three in
+number. _Dasypotherium_ was a still larger form, furnished with eight
+teeth, of which the second seems to have been larger than the others;
+this genus is regarded as connecting the modern Armadillos with the next
+one. The gigantic _Chlamydotherium_, the scutes of which are common in
+the Brazilian caves, is considered to have been as large as a Rhinoceros;
+the carapace has several movable bands, but the teeth approximate in
+structure to those of the next family, so that the genus tends to connect
+the Armadillos with the Glyptodonts.
+
+
+_Family_ GLYPTODONTIDÆ.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.—Tooth of _Glyptodon_ from the side, and from the
+grinding surface. (After Owen.)]
+
+In the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Brazil, but still more abundantly
+in the fluviatile deposits which cover the country in the neighbourhood
+of Buenos Ayres, are found the remains of some of the most remarkable
+forms of mammals yet discovered, the Glyptodonts, which may be regarded
+as forming a separate extinct family. They differ from the existing
+_Dasypodidæ_ in their large size, and in having the carapace composed of
+a solid piece (formed by the union of a multitude of bony dermal scutes)
+without any movable rings, and in usually having also a ventral piece or
+plastron. The facial portion of the skull is very short. A long process
+of the maxillary bone descends from the anterior part of the zygomatic
+arch. The ascending ramus of the mandible is remarkably high. The teeth
+are ⁸⁄₈ in the known species, all much alike, having two deep grooves or
+flutings on each side, so as to divide them into three nearly distinct
+lobes (Fig. 68). The vertebral column is almost entirely ankylosed into
+a solid tube, and there is a complex joint at the base of the neck, to
+allow of the head being retracted within the carapace. The limbs are
+very strong, and the feet short and broad, resembling externally those
+of an elephant or tortoise. This family is mainly characteristic of the
+southern half of the American continent, but some species of the type
+genus ranged into Texas and Mexico. Many species of the family have
+been described and figured, especially by Burmeister (in the _Annales
+del Museo publico de Buenos Aires_), among which the following may be
+noticed. _Hoplophorus_ is characterised by the sculptured and frequently
+thin scutes of the carapace, those of the periphery being flat, and
+not raised into prominences. The caudal sheath has several overlapping
+movable rings at the base, and ends in a long subcylindrical terminal
+tube similar to the one represented with the carapace of _Glyptodon_
+in Fig. 69, which in all probability really belongs to the genus under
+consideration. Each foot has four complete digits, and the humerus has
+an entepicondylar foramen. Most of the species are of medium size. Part
+of a caudal tube from Uruguay described as _Eleutherocercus_ indicates,
+however, a much larger allied form, in which the tail appears to have
+had a number of stout bristles protruding from the joints between the
+scutes. _Panochthus_ comprises very large Glyptodonts, distinguished by
+the great thickness of the scutes of the carapace, which are ornamented
+with tubercles. The termination of the caudal sheath forms a tube bearing
+large radiated tubercles. _Euryurus_ is distinguished by the radiate
+sculpture of the scutes of the carapace. _Dœdicurus_, of which one
+species was about twelve feet in length, also has a rugose sculpture
+on the carapace; but the termination of the caudal tube is expanded
+into a club-like shape, flattened from above downwards, and covered
+with tubercles mingled with a few large radiate discs, which, as in
+_Panochthus_, probably carried horny spines in the living condition. The
+typical genus _Glyptodon_ has each scute of the carapace ornamented with
+a rosette-like sculpture, the peripheral scutes being raised into conical
+prominences (Fig. 69). The caudal sheath, instead of being like the one
+represented in the figure, was entirely composed of a series of movable
+rings, ornamented with large tubercles. The manus had five digits, and
+the pes four; and there was an entepicondylar foramen to the humerus. A
+species of this genus, which attained very large dimensions, was made the
+type of _Schistopleurum_, on the supposition that the tail of _Glyptodon_
+was of the type represented in Fig. 69. The genus _Thoracophorus_,
+of the Pleistocene of South America, as well as _Carioderma_, of the
+Pliocene of Texas, differ from all the preceding in having the scutes of
+the carapace in the form of disconnected nodules. Glyptodonts also occur
+in South American beds of earlier age than the Pleistocene, some of these
+forms having enamel bands on the teeth. “Why such a form as the Glyptodon
+should have failed to keep his ground is,” as the late Professor W. K.
+Parker remarks, “a great mystery; nature seems to have built him, as Rome
+was built, for eternity.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.—_Glyptodon clavipes_ (Pleistocene, South
+America). From Owen. The tail is incorrectly restored, and it is probable
+that the figured portion belongs to _Hoplophorus_. The left lower corner
+shows an upper and a lower view of the skull, and the right a section of
+the caudal sheath.]
+
+
+_Family_ MANIDÆ.
+
+Covered externally (except the under surface of the body and inside
+of the limbs) with large imbricated horny scales, and scattered
+hairs growing in the intervals. No teeth. Tongue long, vermiform,
+and protractile. No accessory articular processes to the lumbar
+vertebræ, but the anterior zygapophyses largely developed and deeply
+concave, completely embracing the semicylindrical surfaces of the
+posterior zygapophyses. Limbs short, with five complete digits on each
+foot. Scaphoid and lunar bones of carpus united. Uterus bicornuate.
+Placenta diffused and non-deciduate. All the existing forms belong to
+the Ethiopian and Oriental regions of the Old World. The absence of
+additional articular processes to the lumbar vertebræ is a character in
+which this and the following family differ from all the preceding forms.
+
+_Manis._[110]—Skull somewhat of the form of an elongated cone, with the
+small end turned forwards; very smooth and free from crests and ridges.
+No distinction between the orbits and temporal fossæ. The zygomatic arch
+usually incomplete, owing to the absence of the jugal bone. No distinct
+lachrymal bone. Palate long and narrow. The pterygoids extend backwards
+as far as the tympanics, but do not meet in the middle line below.
+Tympanic ankylosed to the surrounding bones, and more or less bullate,
+but not produced into a tubular auditory meatus. Rami of mandible very
+slender and straight, without any angle or coronoid process. From near
+the anterior extremity of the upper edge a sharp, conical, tooth-like
+process projects upwards and outwards. No clavicles. No third trochanter
+to the femur. Ungual phalanges bifid at their terminations. Caudal
+vertebræ with very long, strong transverse processes and numerous
+chevron bones. Tongue long, vermiform, flattened towards the tip; its
+retractor or sterno-glossal muscles arising from the hinder extremity
+of the immensely prolonged ensiform cartilage of the sternum. Stomach
+with thick lining membrane and muscular walls, and a special gland near
+the middle of the great curvature, consisting of a mass of complex
+secreting follicles, the ducts of which terminate in a common orifice.
+No cæcum. A gall-bladder. Head small, depressed, narrow, pointed in
+front, with a very small mouth-opening. Eyes and pinna of ear very small.
+Body elongated, narrow. Tail more or less elongated, convex above,
+flat underneath. The whole of the upper surface of the head, the upper
+surface and sides of the body, the whole of the tail, and the outer sides
+of the extremities covered with large, overlapping, horny scales, but
+usually with a few stiff hairs growing between and projecting beyond
+them. The sides and under surface of the head, the under surface of the
+body, and the inner sides of the limbs without scales, but with a rather
+scanty covering of hair. Limbs short. In walking the dorsal surface and
+outer sides of the phalanges of the two outer digits of the front feet
+alone rest on the ground, the points of the nails turning upwards and
+inwards. The third toe the longest, with a powerful compressed curved
+claw; the second and fourth with similar but smaller claws, that of the
+pollex often almost rudimentary. Hind feet plantigrade, with the hallux
+very short, and the four other toes subequal, with moderate, curved,
+subcompressed nails.
+
+The reproductive organs of _Manis_ are of a totally different type from
+those of the families already noticed. The testes lie in the inguinal
+canal; and the penis is external and well developed. The uterus is
+truly bicornuate, the vagina not divided, and the placenta diffused and
+non-deciduate. All the organs and fœtal membranes are, indeed, formed
+very much on the plan of those of the Ungulates, without any trace of the
+special peculiarities obtaining in the typical American Edentates.
+
+The animals of this genus, which includes all the existing forms, are
+called Pangolins or Scaly Anteaters, and are all of small or moderate
+size, terrestrial and burrowing, and feed mainly on termites. Several
+of them can climb trees. Their length varies from 1 to 5 feet. They can
+roll themselves up in a ball when in danger. Their peculiar elongated
+form, short limbs, long, gradually-tapering tail, and scaly covering give
+them on a superficial inspection more the appearance of reptiles than of
+mammals. The species are not numerous, and may be divided into two groups
+distinguished by a few not very important external characters; these
+groups also coinciding with the present geographical distribution of the
+genus. These two groups, according to Mr. O. Thomas, may be distinguished
+as follows.
+
+The Asiatic pangolins are characterised by having the central series of
+body-scales continued quite to the extreme end of the tail, by having
+many isolated hairs growing up between the scales of the back, and by
+their small external ears. They all have a small naked spot beneath
+the tip of the tail, which is said to be of service as an organ of
+touch. There are three species, viz. _Manis javanica_, ranging from
+Burma, through Malacca and Java, to Borneo; _M. aurita_, found in China,
+Formosa, and Nipal; and the common Indian Pangolin, _M. pentadactyla_,
+distributed over the whole of India and Ceylon. The African species have
+the central series of scales suddenly interrupted and breaking into
+two at a point about 2 or 3 inches from the tip of the tail; they have
+no hair between the scales, and no external ear-conch. The following
+are the four species belonging to this group:—the Long-tailed Pangolin
+(_M. macrura_), which has a tail nearly twice as long as its body, and
+containing as many as forty-nine caudal vertebræ, being the largest
+number known among mammals; the White-bellied Pangolin (_M. tricuspis_),
+Fig. 70, closely allied to the last, but with longer and tricuspid
+scales, and white belly hairs. These two, like the Indian species, have
+a naked spot beneath the tail tip, a character probably correlated with
+the power of climbing, and they are, moreover, peculiar in having the
+outer sides of their fore legs clothed with hair, all the other species
+being scaly there as elsewhere. Lastly, the Short-tailed and the Giant
+Pangolins (_M. temmincki_ and _gigantea_), both of which have their
+tails covered entirely with scales, and evidently never take to arboreal
+habits. All the four species of the second group are found in the West
+African region, one only, _M. temmincki_, extending also into south and
+eastern equatorial Africa.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.—The White-bellied Pangolin (_Manis tricuspis_).]
+
+According to Professor W. K. Parker,[111] who remarks upon the peculiarly
+aberrant nature of the group, the horny scales of the Pangolins really
+consist of cemented hairs. This writer states that “in the early embryo
+lozenge-shaped tracts of skin are seen all over its body, with lines of
+thinner cuticle between. Under the microscope, sections of these thicker
+tracts show that they are composed of fine hairs, cemented together by a
+copious growth of epidermic cells; here and there larger hairs are seen,
+but these fail to reach the surface, turning again towards the inside,
+like nails driven into wood that is too hard for their points.”
+
+The same author also observes[112] that there are occasional instances of
+the presence of eight cervical vertebræ in the Pangolins—a feature which
+has been considered to indicate some former genetic connection between
+this family and the Sloths.
+
+The following account of the habits of _Manis tricuspis_ is given by Mr.
+L. Fraser in his _Zoologia Typica_:—
+
+“During my short residence at Fernando Po I succeeded in procuring two
+living specimens of this animal. The individuals, judging from the bones,
+were evidently not adult; the largest measured 30 inches in length,
+of which the head and body were 12 inches and the tail 18 inches. I
+kept them alive for about a week at Fernando Po, and allowed them the
+range of a room, where they fed upon a small black ant, which is very
+abundant and troublesome in the houses and elsewhere. Even when first
+procured they displayed little or no fear, but continued to climb about
+the room without noticing my occasional entrance. They would climb up
+the somewhat roughly hewn square posts which supported the building
+with great facility, and upon reaching the ceiling would return head
+foremost; sometimes they would roll themselves up into a ball and throw
+themselves down, and apparently without experiencing any inconvenience
+from the fall, which was in a measure broken upon reaching the ground by
+the semi-yielding scales, which were thrown into an erect position by the
+curve of the body of the animal. In climbing, the tail, with its strongly
+pointed scales beneath, was used to assist the feet; and the grasp of
+the hind feet, assisted by the tail, was so powerful that the animal
+would throw the body back (when on the post) into a horizontal position,
+and sway itself to and fro, apparently taking pleasure in this kind of
+exercise. It always slept with the body rolled up; and when in this
+position in a corner of the building, owing to the position and strength
+of the scales, and the power of the limbs combined, I found it impossible
+to remove the animal against its will, the points of the scales being
+inserted into every little notch and hollow of the surrounding objects.
+The eyes are very dark hazel, and very prominent. The colonial name for
+this species of _Manis_ is ‘Attadillo,’ and it is called by the Boobies,
+the natives of the island, ‘Gahlah.’ The flesh is said to be exceedingly
+good eating, and is in great request among the natives.”
+
+The Indian species is said to live in pairs, and to give birth to one or
+two young at a time in the spring. Their burrow reaches a depth of some
+twelve feet, and terminates in a large chamber, which may be as much as
+six feet in diameter. A faint hiss appears to be the only sound emitted
+by these animals.
+
+Remains of a large species of _Manis_, which are indistinguishable from
+the corresponding bones of the existing West African _M. gigantea_,
+are found fossil in cave-deposits in the Karnul district of Madras.
+This is one among several instances of the close connection between the
+Pleistocene and Pliocene mammalian fauna of India with the existing
+African fauna.
+
+_Palæomanis._[113]—The lower Pliocene deposits of the Isle of Samos, in
+the Turkish Archipelago, have yielded remains of a Pangolin fully three
+times the dimensions of _M. gigantea_, upon the evidence of which the
+genus _Palæomanis_ has been established.
+
+
+_Family_ ORYCTEROPODIDÆ
+
+External surface scantily covered with bristle-like hairs. Teeth
+numerous, apparently heterodont, diphyodont, and of peculiar and complex
+structure, being traversed by a number of parallel vertical pulp-canals.
+Lumbar vertebræ with no accessory zygapophyses. Femur with a third
+trochanter. Fore feet without pollex, but all the other digits well
+developed, with strong moderate-sized nails, suited to digging, the
+plantar surfaces of which rest on the ground in walking. Hind feet with
+five subequal toes. Mouth elongated and tubular. Tongue subvermiform.
+Uterus bicornuate. Placenta broadly zonular. Feeding on animal
+substances. Terrestrial and fossorial in habits. Now mainly limited to
+the Ethiopian region.
+
+_Orycteropus._[114]—The total number of permanent teeth appears to be
+from eight to ten in each side of the upper, and eight in the lower jaw;
+but they are never all in place at one time, as the small interior teeth
+are shed before the series is completed behind. In the adult they number
+usually five on each side above and below, of which the first two are
+simple and compressed, the next two larger and longitudinally grooved at
+the sides, the most posterior simple and cylindrical. The last three in
+either jaw having no milk-predecessors, may be regarded as true molars.
+The structure of all these teeth is quite peculiar among mammals, though
+resembling that of some fishes. Their summits are rounded before they are
+worn; their bases do not taper to a root, but are evenly truncated and
+continually growing. Each tooth is made up of an aggregation of parallel
+dental systems, having a slender pulp-cavity in the centre, from which
+the dentinal tubes radiate outwards, and being closely packed together
+each system assumes a polygonal outline as seen in transverse section.
+The small anterior teeth have milk-predecessors which are fully noticed
+below. Skull moderately elongated. The facial portion subcylindrical
+and slightly tapering. The zygoma complete and slender. The palate ends
+posteriorly in the thickened transverse border of the palatines, and is
+not continued back by the pterygoids. The tympanic is annular, and not
+ankylosed to the surrounding bones. The mandible is slender anteriorly,
+but rises high posteriorly, with a slender recurved coronoid, and an
+ascending pointed process on the hinder edge below the condyle, which
+is small, oval, and looks as much forwards as upwards. Vertebræ: C 7,
+D 13, L 8, S 6, C 27. The large number of lumbar vertebræ is peculiar
+among Edentates. Tongue less vermiform than in _Myrmecophaga_, being
+thick and fleshy at the base, and gradually tapering to the apex. The
+salivary apparatus is developed much in the same manner as in that genus,
+but the duct of the submaxillary gland has no reservoir. The stomach
+consists of a large subglobular cardiac portion, with a very thick, soft,
+and corrugated lining membrane, and a smaller muscular, pyloric part,
+with a comparatively thin and smooth lining. There is a very distinct
+ileo-cæcal valve, and a considerable-sized cæcum; also a gall-bladder.
+Head elongated, with a tubular snout, terminal nostrils, and small
+mouth-opening. Ears large, pointed, erect. Tail nearly as long as the
+body, cylindrical, very thick at the base, tapering to the extremity.
+
+The reproductive organs and placentation of _Orycteropus_ are formed upon
+a principle unknown in the more typical Edentates, or, in combination,
+in any other mammals. Thus the testes, in the one described example,
+were inguinal, but appeared to descend, at all events temporarily, into
+a scrotum; but the penis is scarcely larger than that of the Great
+Anteater. The uterus is still more fully bicornuate than in _Manis_,
+with its two lateral chambers opening separately into the vagina, as in
+certain Rodents. The placenta is broadly zonary, but it is not known
+whether it is deciduate or not. It might readily be derived from the
+diffused placenta of _Manis_ by the abortion of the fœtal villi at the
+two poles of the ovum.
+
+The _Orycteropodidæ_ have long been regarded as widely different from
+other Edentates, their presumed affinity with the _Manidæ_ being more or
+less problematical; but the discovery recently made by Mr. O. Thomas[115]
+that they have a milk-dentition still further emphasises their aberrant
+nature. According to this observer, it appears that there are normally
+no less than seven milk-teeth in the upper jaw, the hindmost of which is
+far larger than the others, having a rudimentary crown, and a distinct
+anterior and posterior root. The other milk-teeth are styliform, the
+four anterior ones being very minute, and separated from one another
+by equal intervals; the foremost of all is situated immediately behind
+the premaxillo-maxillary suture. In the mandible only four milk-teeth
+have hitherto been detected, of which the hindmost has the comparatively
+complex form found in the corresponding upper tooth. None of these
+milk-teeth appear, however, to cut the gum, so that the whole set is
+entirely functionless. Under the microscope these milk-teeth show signs
+of possessing a commencement of the remarkable histological structure
+found in the permanent teeth.
+
+Mr. Thomas remarks that since “the three large posterior teeth of
+_Orycteropus_, already distinguished by their more molariform shape, do
+not have milk-predecessors, while all the small teeth anterior to them
+do, and in addition the last milk-tooth is markedly different from those
+in front of it, we ought apparently no longer to look upon this animal as
+an homodont, but instead to consider it as an originally heterodont form
+in which the incisors and canines have been suppressed to allow free play
+to the mobile vermiform tongue.
+
+“But important as a knowledge of the presence of a milk-dentition in
+_Orycteropus_ is, it does not at present render any easier the difficult
+questions as to the phylogeny and systematic position of that animal.
+Although called an Edentate, it has always been recognised as possessing
+many characters exceedingly different from those of the typical American
+members of the order. It has in fact been placed with them rather on
+account of the inconvenience of forming a special order for its reception
+than because of its real relationship to them. Now, as they are either
+altogether toothless, or else homodont and monophyodont (apart from the
+remarkable exception of _Tatusia_), it seems more than ever incorrect
+to unite with them the solitary member of the Tubulidentata, toothed,
+heterodont, and diphyodont, and differing from them in addition by
+its placentation, the anatomy of its reproductive organs, the minute
+structure of its teeth, and the general characters of its skeleton.
+
+“But if _Orycteropus_ is not genetically a near relation of the
+Edentates, we are wholly in the dark as to what other mammals it is
+allied to, and I think it would be premature to hazard a guess on the
+subject. Whether even it has any special connection with _Manis_ is
+a point about which there is the greatest doubt, and unfortunately
+we are as yet absolutely without any palæontological knowledge of
+the extinct allies of either. _Macrotherium_ even, usually supposed
+from the structure of its phalangeal bones, to be related to _Manis_,
+has lately proved to have the teeth and vertebræ of a perissodactyle
+Ungulate, and one could not dare to suggest that ancestors of _Manis_,
+or _Orycteropus_ were to be sought in that direction. Lastly, as the
+numerous fossil American Edentates do not show the slightest tendency
+to an approximation towards the Old World forms, we are furnished with
+an additional reason for insisting on the radical distinctness of the
+latter, whose phylogeny must therefore for the present remain one of the
+many unsolved zoological problems.”
+
+The Aard-Varks (Earth-Pigs) as these creatures are commonly termed,
+from the name bestowed on them by the Dutch Boers of the Cape, are of
+nocturnal habits, sleeping during the day in their burrows, which are
+usually found in the neighbourhood of the tall hills or mounds made by
+termites. Indeed, wherever these hills are abundant it is stated there
+is a good chance of finding an Aard-Vark, the food of these animals
+consisting almost exclusively of termites and ants.
+
+Two existing species are recognised, namely the Cape Aard-Vark (_O.
+afra_) from South Africa, and another (_O. æthiopicus_) from the
+north-eastern parts of Africa, ranging into Egypt. An extinct species
+has been described from the Lower Pliocene of the Isle of Samos, in the
+Turkish Archipelago, differing from the existing forms by the larger
+proportionate size of the lateral metatarsals.
+
+    _Bibliography of Edentata._—No general work on the order has
+    been published since that of Rapp (_Anat. Untersuchungen über
+    die Edentaten_, 2d ed. 1852). Among numerous memoirs on special
+    groups the following may be cited:—_Myrmecophagidæ_:—R. Owen,
+    “Anatomy of Great Anteater,” _Trans. Zool. Soc._ vol. iv.; G.
+    Pouchet, _Mém. sur le Grand Fourmilier_, 1874; W. A. Forbes,
+    “Anat. of Great Anteater,” _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 287.
+    _Megatheriidæ_:—R. Owen, _Extinct Gigantic Sloth (Mylodon
+    Robustus)_, 1842; Id., “On the Megatherium,” _Phil. Trans._
+    1851-56; J. Leidy, “Extinct Sloth-tribe of North America,”
+    _Smithsonian Contrib. to Knowledge_, vii. 1855; H. Burmeister,
+    _Description de la République Argentine_, t. iii. Mammifères,
+    1879,—which contains full references to various memoirs by
+    Owen, Gervais, Reinhardt, and others. _Glyptodontidæ_:—Owen,
+    _Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Mus. Roy. Coll. Surgeons_, 1845;
+    T. H. Huxley, “Osteol. of Glyptodon,” _Phil. Trans._ 1865; H.
+    Burmeister, _Annales del Museo Publico de Buenos Aires_, and
+    _Descript. de la République Argentine_, 1879; H. Gervais and F.
+    Ameghino, _Les Mammifères Fossiles de l’Amérique Méridionale_,
+    Paris, 1880,—which also contains a list of all the S. American
+    Edentates described at that date. _Dasypodidæ_:—J. Murie,
+    “Anatomy of _Tolypeutes_,” _Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. xxx. 1874;
+    A. H. Garrod, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1878. For Placentation of
+    Edentates see W. Turner, _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ xxvii. (1873)
+    p. 72, and _Journ. Anat. and Physiol._ vols. viii. and x.; A.
+    Milne-Edwards, _Ann. Sciences Nat._ [6] viii. p. 1; and for
+    brain, P. Gervais, “Formes cérébrales des Edentés,” _Nouv.
+    Arch. du Muséum_, tom. v.; W. Turner, _Jour. Anatomy_, i. 313
+    (1867). For the dentition of _Orycteropus_ see O. Thomas, “A
+    Milk Dentition in _Orycteropus_,” _Proc. Roy. Soc._ vol. xlvii.
+    p. 246 (1890). Fuller observations on the mutual relations of
+    the various families are given by W. H. Flower, “On the Mutual
+    Affinities of the Animals composing the Order Edentata,” _Proc.
+    Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 358.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE ORDERS SIRENIA AND CETACEA
+
+
+_Order_ SIRENIA.
+
+The purely aquatic habits and fish-like form of the animals of this
+order caused them to be formerly confounded with the Cetacea, but a more
+intimate knowledge of their structure has shown that they really belong
+to a widely different type of the mammalian class.
+
+The head is rounded and not disproportionate in size as compared with
+the trunk, from which it is scarcely separated by any externally visible
+constriction or neck. Nostrils valvular, separate, and placed above
+the fore part of the obtuse truncated muzzle. Eyes very small, with
+imperfectly formed eyelids, capable, however, of contraction, and with
+a well-developed nictitating membrane. Ear without any pinna. Mouth
+of small or moderate size, with tumid lips beset with stiff bristles.
+General form of the body depressed, fusiform. No dorsal fin. Tail
+flattened and horizontally expanded. Fore limbs paddle-shaped, the digits
+being enveloped in a common cutaneous covering, on which rudiments of
+nails are sometimes present. No trace of hind limbs in existing forms.
+External surface covered with a tough, finely wrinkled, or very rugose
+skin, naked, or with fine hairs sparsely scattered over it.
+
+The skeleton is remarkable for the massiveness and density of most of
+the bones of which it is composed, especially the skull and ribs, which
+must add to the specific gravity of these slow-moving animals, and
+aid in keeping them to the bottom of the shallow waters in which they
+dwell, while feeding on aquatic vegetables. The skull presents many
+peculiarities, among which may be indicated the large size and backward
+position of the anterior narial aperture, a further modification of that
+met with in the Tapirs among Ungulates, and presenting some approach to
+that so characteristic of the Cetacea. The nasal bones are generally
+absent in the recent forms, or are only found in a most rudimentary
+condition, attached to the edge of the frontals, far away from the
+middle line; but in some at least of the extinct species these bones,
+though small in size, are normal in situation and relations. In very few
+other respects does the skull present any resemblance to that of the
+Cetacea. In the spinal column of existing forms none of the vertebræ are
+united together to form a sacrum, and the flat ends of the bodies do
+not ossify separately, so as to form disc-like epiphyses in the young
+state, as in nearly all other mammals; traces of epiphyses have, however,
+been recently detected in _Manatus_, and they were fully developed in
+_Halitherium_ and other fossil forms. The anterior caudal vertebræ have
+well-developed chevron bones. In one genus (_Manatus_) there are only six
+cervical vertebræ. There are no clavicles. The humerus has a small but
+distinct trochlear articulation at the elbow-joint. The two bones of the
+forearm are about equally developed, and generally ankylosed together
+at both extremities. The carpus is short and broad, and the digits five
+in number, with moderately elongated and flattened phalanges, which are
+never increased in number beyond the limit usual in the Mammalia. The
+pelvis is extremely rudimentary, consisting of a pair of bones suspended
+at some distance from the vertebral column. In no existing species is
+there any trace of a hind limb, but in the extinct _Halitherium_ an
+acetabular depression and rudimentary femur have been discovered.
+
+Two kinds of teeth, incisors and molars, separated by a wide interval,
+are generally present. The former may be developed into tusks in
+the upper jaw, or may be quite rudimentary. The molars vary much in
+character. In one genus (_Rhytina_) no teeth of any kind are present, at
+least in the adult. Some fossil forms show a more decidedly heterodont
+dentition, while _Halitherium_ has milk-teeth, of which no traces have
+been observed in the recent genera. In all recent types the anterior part
+of the palate, and a corresponding surface on the prolonged symphysis
+of the lower jaw, are covered with rough horny plates of peculiar
+structure, which doubtless assist in mastication. The tongue is small
+and fixed in position, with a surface resembling that of the plates just
+spoken of. The salivary glands are largely developed. The stomach is
+compound, being divided by a valvular constriction into two principal
+cavities, the first of which is provided with a singular glandular pouch
+near the cardiac end, and the second usually with a pair of elongated,
+conical, cæcal sacs or diverticula. The intestinal canal is long, and
+has very muscular walls. There is a cæcum, either simple, conical, and
+with extremely thick walls, as in _Halicore_, or bifid, as in _Manatus_.
+The heart is broad and flat, with its apex deeply cleft between the
+ventricles. The principal arteries form very extensive and complex retia
+mirabilia. The lungs are remarkably long and narrow, as, owing to the
+very oblique position of the diaphragm, the thoracic cavity extends far
+back over the abdomen. The epiglottis and arytenoid cartilages of the
+larynx do not form a tubular prolongation as in the Cetacea, so that the
+epiglottis is not intranarial. The brain is of comparatively small size,
+and the convolutions on the surface of the cerebrum are few and shallow.
+The kidneys are simple. The testes abdominal. The uterus is bicornuate.
+The placenta (in the Dugong) is non-deciduate and zonary. The umbilical
+vesicle disappears early. The mammæ are two, and pectoral, or rather
+postaxillary in position.
+
+The Sirenia pass their whole life in the water, being denizens of
+shallow bays, estuaries, lagoons, and large rivers, but, unlike the
+Cetacea, are not met with in the high seas, far away from the shore.
+Their food consists entirely of aquatic plants, either marine algæ or
+freshwater grasses, upon which they browse beneath the surface, as the
+terrestrial herbivorous mammals do upon the green pastures on shore.
+They are generally gregarious, slow and inactive in their movements,
+mild, inoffensive, and apparently unintelligent in disposition.
+Though occasionally found stranded by the tide or waves, there is no
+satisfactory evidence that they voluntarily leave the water to bask or
+feed on the shore. The habit of the Dugong of raising its round head
+out of the water, and carrying its young under the fore fin, seems to
+have given rise, among the imaginative early voyagers in the Indian
+Ocean, to the legendary beings, half human and half fish, in allusion
+to which the name Sirenia was bestowed by Illiger on the order, though
+certainly the face of a Dugong, when closely inspected, does not bear the
+slightest resemblance to that of the mermaid of romance. The species now
+existing are very few, and there is reason to believe that the time is
+not far distant when they will all become extinct. One species, _Rhytina
+stelleri_, of the North Pacific, was totally exterminated through the
+agency of man during the last century; and the others, being valuable for
+their flesh as food, for their hides, and especially for the oil obtained
+from the thick layer of fat which lies immediately beneath their skin,
+rapidly diminish in numbers as civilised populations occupy the regions
+forming their natural habitat. The surviving species are confined to the
+tropical regions of the shores of both sides of the Atlantic and the
+great rivers which empty themselves into that ocean, and to the coasts of
+the Indian Ocean from the Red Sea to North Australia. In the Miocene and
+early Pliocene epoch Sirenians abounded in the seas of Europe, and their
+remains have been found in deposits of corresponding periods in North
+America. Evidence has also been discovered of the existence of an animal
+of this group in the seas at the bottom of which the Eocene nummulitic
+limestone mountain ranges of Egypt were deposited.
+
+The existing genera present such well-marked distinguishing characters
+that it is on the whole convenient to place them in separate families,
+although, as in so many similar cases, our knowledge of the extinct
+forms, imperfect as it is, goes far to bridge over the distinction
+between them.
+
+
+_Family_ MANATIDÆ.
+
+The characters of this and the two following families may be conveniently
+included under the heading of the single genus by which they are
+respectively represented.
+
+_Manatus._[116]—Incisors ²⁄₂, rudimentary, concealed beneath the horny
+oral plates, and disappearing before maturity. Molars ¹¹⁄₁₁, but rarely
+more than ⁶⁄₆ present at one time, the anterior teeth falling before the
+posterior come into use; similar in characters from beginning to end of
+the series; with square, enamelled crowns, the grinding surface raised
+into tuberculated transverse ridges. The upper teeth with two ridges
+and three roots, the lower teeth with an additional (posterior) ridge,
+or talon, and two roots. The cervical vertebræ present the remarkable
+anomaly of being reduced to six in number, the usual vertebral formula
+being C 6, D 17, L 2, and C 23-25. Rostrum of the skull, formed by
+the union of the premaxillæ in front of the anterior narial aperture,
+shorter than the length of the aperture and scarcely deflected from
+the basicranial axis; premaxillæ and mandibular symphysis not markedly
+deflected (Fig. 72). Tail entire, rounded, or shovel-shaped. Rudimentary
+nails on the fore limbs. Cæcum bifid. Habitat the shores of, and the
+great rivers which empty themselves into, the Atlantic within the
+tropics. These animals are rather fluviatile than marine, ascending large
+rivers almost to their sources.
+
+The Manatee may be selected for a somewhat full description, as being one
+of the best known representatives of this very remarkable order.
+
+The name _Manati_ was apparently first applied to this animal by the
+early Spanish colonists of the West Indies, in allusion to the hand-like
+use which it frequently makes of its fore limbs; by English writers from
+the time of Dampier (who gives a good account of its habits) downwards
+it has been generally spelt “Manatee.” It was placed by Linnæus in his
+heterogeneous genus _Trichechus_, but Storr’s name _Manatus_ is now
+generally accepted for it by zoologists. The question of the specific
+distinction of the African and American Manatees will be treated of
+further on, but it will be chiefly to the latter and better known form
+that the following description applies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.—American Manatee (_Manatus americanus_), from
+life. _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1881, p. 457.]
+
+The size of the Manatee has been much exaggerated, but there is no
+trustworthy evidence of its attaining a greater length than 8 feet. Its
+general external form may be seen in Fig. 71, taken from a living example
+in the Brighton Aquarium. The body is somewhat fish-like, but depressed
+and ending posteriorly in a broad, flat, shovel-like, horizontal tail,
+with rounded edges. The head is of moderate size, oblong, with a blunt,
+truncated muzzle, and divided from the body by a very slight constriction
+or neck. The fore limbs are flattened oval paddles, placed rather low
+on the sides of the body, and showing externally no signs of division
+into fingers, but with a tolerably free motion at the shoulder, elbow,
+and wrist joints, and with three diminutive flat nails near their
+extremities. No traces of hind limbs are discernible either externally
+or internally; and there is no dorsal fin. The mouth is very peculiar,
+the tumid upper lip being cleft in the middle line into two lobes, each
+of which is separately movable, as will be described in speaking of its
+manner of feeding. The nostrils are two semilunar valve-like slits, at
+the apex of the muzzle. The eyes are very minute, placed at the sides
+of the head, and with a nearly circular aperture with wrinkled margins.
+The external ear is a minute orifice situated behind the eye, without
+any trace of pinna. The skin generally is of a dark grayish colour, not
+smooth and glistening, like that of the Cetacea, but finely wrinkled. At
+a little distance it appears naked, but a close inspection, at all events
+in young animals, shows a scanty covering of very delicate hairs, and
+both upper and under lips are well supplied with short stiff bristles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.—Skull of African Manatee (_Manatus
+senegalensis_). ⅕ natural size. From Mus. Roy. Coll. Surgeons.]
+
+The general form of the skull is seen in Fig. 72. The cerebral cavity
+is rather small as compared with the size of the animal, and of oblong
+form; its roof is formed of the parietal bones as in ordinary mammals.
+The squamosal has an extremely large and massive zygomatic process, which
+joins the largely developed jugal bone in front. The orbit is small,
+but prominent and nearly surrounded by bone. The anterior nares taken
+together form a lozenge-shaped aperture, which looks upwards and extends
+backwards considerably behind the orbits. Their sides are formed by the
+ascending processes of the premaxillæ below, and by the supraorbital
+processes of the frontals above, no traces of nasals being found in most
+skulls, though these bones are occasionally present in a most rudimentary
+condition, attached to the edges of the frontals, far away from the
+middle line, in a position quite unique among the Mammalia. In front of
+the narial aperture the face is prolonged into a narrow rostrum, formed
+by the premaxillæ, supported below and at the sides by the maxillæ.
+The under surface of this is very rugose, and in life covered by a
+horny plate. The rami of the mandible are firmly united together at
+the symphysis, which is compressed laterally, slightly deflected, and
+has a rugose upper surface; to this another horny plate is attached,
+which, with that of the upper jaw, functionally supplies the place of
+teeth in the anterior part of the mouth. In the young state there are
+rudimentary teeth concealed beneath these horny plates, which never
+penetrate through them, and must therefore be quite functionless, and
+altogether disappear before the animal is full-grown. There is besides
+on each side of the hinder part of both upper and lower jaws, a parallel
+row of molar teeth, similar in characters from the beginning to the end
+of the series, with square enamelled crowns raised into tuberculated
+transverse ridges; something like those of the Tapir and Kangaroo. The
+upper teeth have two ridges and three roots; the lower teeth have an
+additional posterior small ridge or talon, and but two roots. These teeth
+succeed each other from before backwards, as in the Proboscidea, those
+at the front of the mouth being worn out and shed before those at the
+back are fully developed. There are altogether about eleven on either
+side of each jaw, but rarely more than six are present at one time. The
+brain is remarkably simple in structure, its hemispheres exhibiting none
+of the richness of convolution so characteristic of the Cetacea. The
+mammary glands of the female are situated just behind and to the inner
+side of the origin of the pectoral limb. The red corpuscles of the blood
+are among the largest of those of any members of the class, averaging in
+diameter, according to Gulliver, ¹⁄₂₄₀₀ of an inch.
+
+Manatees pass the whole of their life in the water, inhabiting bays,
+lagoons, estuaries, and large rivers; but the open sea, so congenial
+to the Cetacea, is quite unsuited to their peculiar mode of life. As a
+general rule they prefer shallow water, in which, when not feeding, they
+lie near the bottom, supporting themselves on the extremity of the tail,
+or slowly moving about by the assistance of the fore limbs, the tips of
+which are just allowed to touch the ground, and only raising the top of
+the head above the surface for the purpose of breathing at intervals of
+two or three minutes. In deeper water they often float, with the body
+much arched, the rounded back close to the surface, and the head, limbs,
+and tail hanging downwards. The air in the lungs obviously assists them
+to maintain this position, acting in the same manner as that in the
+air-sac of fishes. Their food consists exclusively of aquatic plants,
+on which they browse beneath the water. They are extremely slow and
+inactive in their movements, and perfectly harmless and inoffensive.
+Frequent attempts have been made to keep specimens alive in captivity,
+and sometimes with considerable success, one having lived in the Brighton
+Aquarium for upwards of sixteen months. It was fed chiefly on lettuce
+and endive, but would also eat leaves of the dandelion, sow-thistle,
+cabbage, turnip, and carrot. From this and other captive specimens some
+interesting observations upon the mode of life of the animal have been
+made. One of these is the free use it makes of its fore limbs. From the
+shoulder-joint, they can be moved in all directions, and the elbow and
+wrist permit of free extension and flexion. In feeding these creatures
+push the food towards their mouths by means of one of the hands, or both
+used simultaneously, and any one who has seen these members thus employed
+can readily believe the stories of their carrying their young about
+under their arms. Still more interesting and quite unique among mammals
+is the action of the peculiar lateral pads formed by the divided upper
+lip, thus described by the late Professor Garrod: “These pads have the
+power of transversely approaching towards and receding from one another
+simultaneously (see Fig. 73, A and B). When the animal is on the point of
+seizing (say) a leaf of lettuce, the pads are diverged transversely in
+such a way as to make a median gap of considerable breadth. Directly the
+leaf is within grasp the lip-pads are approximated, the leaf is firmly
+seized between their contiguous bristly surfaces, and then drawn inwards
+by a backward movement of the lower margin of the lip as a whole.” The
+animal is thus enabled by the unaided means of the upper lip to introduce
+food placed before it without the assistance of the comparatively
+insignificant lower lip, the action greatly recalling to the observer
+that of the mouth of the silkworm and other caterpillars, in which the
+mandibles diverge and converge laterally during mastication. When out
+of water the Manatee is an extremely helpless animal; and, although
+statements are frequently met with in books of its voluntarily leaving
+the water for the purpose of basking or feeding on shore, all trustworthy
+observations of those acquainted with it, either in a state of nature or
+in captivity, indicate that it has not the power of doing so. None of the
+specimens in confinement have been observed to emit any sound.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.—Front view of head of American Manatee, showing
+the eyes, nostrils, and mouth. A, With the lobes of the upper lip
+divaricated; B, with the lip contracted. From Murie, _Trans. Zool. Soc._
+vol. xi.]
+
+Manatees, though much less numerous than formerly, are still occasionally
+found in creeks, lagoons, and estuaries in some of the West India
+Islands, and at various spots on the Atlantic coast of America from
+Florida as far south as about 20° S. lat., and in the great rivers of
+Brazil, almost as high as their sources. They are also met with in
+similar situations on the opposite African coast, from about 16° N. to
+10° S. lat., and as far into the interior as Lake Tchad. Their range may
+even extend, if native reports obtained by Schweinfurth are correctly
+interpreted, to the river Keebaly, 27° E. long.
+
+A considerable number of specific names have been applied to the existing
+Manatees, but according to the researches of Dr. Hartlaub[117] they
+may be reduced to three species, distinguished from one another, among
+other features, by the characters of the skull, and more especially the
+relations of the nasals to the adjacent bones. Of these the American
+Manatee may be known as _M. americanus_, although it has been described
+under the names of _M. latirostris_, and _M. australis_. The African
+Manatee (_M. senegalensis_) differs from the American species in the
+following cranial characters: the anterior part of the rostrum is
+shorter, shallower, and altogether smaller; the orbit is smaller; the
+zygomatic process is more deep and massive; the jugal bone is deeper
+from above downwards; the upper margin of the anterior nares is narrower
+and with a smooth and rounded, instead of a thin and serrated, edge; the
+upper surface of the frontal is flat, instead of concave; the foramen
+magnum and occipital condyles are narrower from side to side, and the
+symphysis of the mandible is smaller and shallower.
+
+Finally, _M. inunguis_ is a fluviatile species confined to the Amazon and
+Orinoco, which has been but recently fully brought under the notice of
+zoologists.
+
+
+_Family_ HALICORIDÆ.
+
+_Halicore._[118]—In the upper jaw a pair of large, nearly straight,
+tusk-like incisors, directed downwards and forwards, partially coated
+with enamel. In the male they have persistent pulps, and bevelled cutting
+edges, which project a short distance from the mouth, but in the female,
+though they remain through life in the alveolar cavity, they are not
+exserted, and, the pulp-cavity being filled with osteodentine, they soon
+cease to grow (as in the female Narwhal). In the young there is also a
+second small deciduous incisor on each side above. At this age there are
+also beneath the horny plate which covers the anterior portion of the
+mandible four pairs of slender conical teeth lodged in wide alveolar
+depressions; these become absorbed before the animal reaches maturity.
+The molars are usually ⁵⁄₅, sometimes ⁶⁄₆, altogether, but not all in
+place at once, as the first falls before the last rises above the gum;
+they are more or less nearly cylindrical in section (except the last,
+which is compressed and grooved laterally), without distinction into
+crown and root, increasing in size from before backwards, with persistent
+pulps and no enamel. The summits of the crowns are tuberculated before
+wearing, afterwards flattened or slightly concave. Skull with rostrum
+formed by the union of the premaxillæ in front of the narial aperture,
+longer than the aperture itself, bending downwards at a right angle with
+the basicranial axis, and enclosing the sockets of the large incisor
+tusks. Anterior part of the lower jaw bent down in a corresponding
+manner. Vertebræ: C 7, D 18-19, L and C 30. Tail broadly notched in the
+middle line, and with two pointed lateral lobes. No nails on the fore
+limbs. Cæcum single.
+
+The Dugongs are more distinctly marine in their habits than the Manatees,
+feeding chiefly on sea-water algæ. They inhabit the shallow bays and
+creeks of the Red Sea, east coast of Africa, Ceylon, islands of the Bay
+of Bengal and the Indo-Malayan Archipelago (including the Philippines),
+and the north coast of Australia, ranging from Barrow Reefs on the west
+to Moreton Bay on the east. Although the distinctive characters are not
+very obvious, they have been divided into three species, according to the
+localities which they respectively inhabit:—_H. tabernaculi_ from the Red
+Sea, _H. dugong_ from the Indian seas, and _H. australis_ from Australia.
+The last-named has lately been the object of a regular “fishery,” chiefly
+on account of its oil, which is peculiarly clear, limpid, and free from
+disagreeable smell, and is said to have the same medicinal properties as
+cod-liver oil. Although often stated in books to attain the length of 20
+feet when adult, there does not appear to be any evidence from actual
+specimens in museums that Dugongs ever reach half that size, 8 feet being
+the common length of adult animals.
+
+The placentation of this genus has been recently described by Sir W.
+Turner, who first indicated its zonary form.
+
+
+_Family_ RHYTINIDÆ.
+
+_Rhytina._[119]—No teeth, their place being supplied functionally by the
+dense, strongly-ridged, horny oral plates. Premaxillary rostrum about as
+long as the anterior narial aperture, and moderately deflected. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 19, L and C 34-37. Head very small in proportion to the body. Tail
+with two lateral pointed lobes. Pectoral limbs small and truncated. Skin
+naked and covered with a very thick, hard, rugged, bark-like epidermis.
+Stomach without cæcal appendages to the pyloric cavity. Cæcum simple.
+
+Only one species of this genus is known, _R. stelleri_, the Northern
+Sea-cow, by far the largest animal of the order, attaining the length of
+20 to 25 feet. It was formerly an inhabitant of the shores of two small
+islands in the North Pacific, Behring and the adjacent Copper Island,
+on the former of which it was discovered by the ill-fated navigator
+whose name the island bears, when, with his accomplished companion, the
+German naturalist Steller, he was wrecked upon it in 1741. Twenty-seven
+years afterwards (1768), as is commonly supposed, the last of the race
+was killed,[120] and its very existence would have been unknown to
+science but for the interesting account of its anatomy and habits left by
+Steller, and the few more or less imperfect skeletons which have recently
+rewarded the researches carried on in the frozen soil of the islands
+around which it dwelt. There is no evidence at present of its having
+inhabited any other coasts than those of the islands just named, although
+it can hardly be supposed that its range was always so restricted. When
+first discovered it was extremely numerous in the shallow bays round
+Behring Island, finding abundant nutriment in the large laminariæ growing
+in the sea. Its extirpation is entirely due to the Russian hunters and
+traders who followed upon the track of the explorers, and, upon Steller’s
+suggestion, lived upon the flesh of the great Sea-cows. Its restricted
+distribution, large size, inactive habits, fearlessness of man, and even
+its affectionate disposition towards its own kind when wounded or in
+distress, all contributed to accelerate its final extinction.
+
+According to Steller’s account, the Rhytina had a skin of a dark brown
+colour, sometimes spotted or streaked with white. The fore limb was
+covered with short brush-like hairs.
+
+
+_Extinct_ SIRENIANS.
+
+_Halitherium._[121]—The Miocene and early Pliocene seas of Europe
+abounded in Sirenians, to which the generic name of _Halitherium_ was
+given by Kaup, but which have also received other names. They had large
+tusk-like incisors in the upper jaw, as in the existing Dugongs, though
+not so greatly developed. Their molar teeth were ⁵⁄₅ or ⁶⁄₆, anteriorly
+simple and single-rooted, posteriorly those above with three and those
+below with two roots, and with enamelled and tuberculated or ridged
+crowns, in all which respects they more resemble those of the Manatee
+than of the Dugong. The anterior molars were deciduous; and there is
+evidence of the presence of milk-teeth. Germs of inferior incisors were
+also present. Some species at least had nasal bones, short, broad, but
+normal in position, whereas in all the existing genera these bones
+are quite rudimentary. Another and still more important evidence of
+conformity to the general mammalian type is the better development of
+the pelvic bone, and the presence of a small styliform femur articulated
+to the acetabulum, although no traces of any other part of the limb
+have been discovered. These ancient Sirenians, which may be regarded
+as representing a distinct family—_Halitheriidæ_—were thus, in dental,
+cranial, and other osteological characters, less specialised than are
+either of the existing species, and if the intermediate links could be
+discovered might well be looked upon as the ancestral forms from which
+the latter have been derived, but at present the transitional conditions
+have not been detected. So far as is yet known, when changes in the
+physical conditions of the European seas rendered them unfitted to be the
+habitation of Sirenians, the _Halitherium_ type still prevailed. If the
+existing Dugongs and Manatees are descended from it, their evolution must
+have taken place during the Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs, the one in
+seas to the east, the other to the west of the African continent, which
+has long formed a barrier to their intercommunication. _Halitherium_
+remains have been found in many parts of Germany, especially near
+Darmstadt, also in France, Italy, Belgium, Malta, etc. Until a few years
+ago none were known from England, probably owing to the absence of beds
+of an age corresponding to those in which they are found on the European
+continent; but a skull and several teeth have been detected among the
+rolled debris of which the Red Crag of Suffolk is partially composed. The
+species are not yet satisfactorily characterised. Some of them appear
+to have attained a larger size than the existing Manatee or Dugong. One
+of these, from the Pliocene of Italy and France, having but ⁵⁄₅ molar
+teeth, has been separated generically under the name of _Felsinotherium_
+by Capellini, by whom it has been fully described; but the difference in
+the number of the teeth does not afford sufficient grounds for separation
+from _Halitherium_. _Miosiren_ of the Belgian Miocene, differs in that
+the last upper molar is the smallest, in place of the largest of the
+whole series of teeth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.—The penultimate and last right lower molars of
+_Halitherium fossile_; from the Miocene of the Continent. (After De
+Blainville.)]
+
+_Other forms._—Remains from the Pliocene of France described as
+_Prohalicore_ are regarded as indicating a Sirenian closely allied to
+_Halicore_; while a molar from the Tertiary of California has been made
+the type of _Desmotylus_, which is likewise referred to the _Halicoridæ_.
+_Dioplotherium_, from the Phosphorites of South Carolina, has been
+considered to connect _Halicore_ with _Halitherium_, but even its ordinal
+position is uncertain.
+
+A portion of a skull found in the Pliocene of Belgium has been described
+as _Crassitherium_ by Van Beneden; and some compressed teeth, somewhat
+similar to but larger than those of the Dugong, discovered in the Miocene
+of the department of Lot-et-Garonne, France, gave origin to the genus
+_Rytiodus_ of E. Lartet. Of this genus, which may be identical with
+_Trachytherium_ of the French Miocene, better preserved remains have
+subsequently been described by Delfortrie. These show that the rostrum
+is more elongated than in _Halitherium_, but the skull is otherwise very
+similar, as are the molar teeth. The incisors are very large, exserted,
+strongly compressed, almost sabre-like, rounded on the upper or anterior
+surface, sharp below, concave on the external and convex on the inner
+side, and transversely striated.
+
+_Pachyacanthus_ from the Miocene of the Vienna basin is also, according
+to Van Beneden, another form of Sirenian, of which, however, the skull
+is not known. In various Miocene marine formations of the United States
+of America other remains of Sirenians have been found, but mostly in
+such a fragmentary condition that they afford at present little evidence
+of the early history of the group in that country. A more satisfactory
+discovery is that of a nearly complete skull and some bones from a
+Tertiary limestone formation in Jamaica. It is of smaller size than
+the Manatee, and, so far as the teeth are concerned, of a still more
+generalised character than _Halitherium_, the dentition being apparently
+_i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ + _m_ (?⁸⁄?₈) = 48. The incisors are small, not
+developed into tusks; the canines (wanting in all existing Sirenians)
+are rather larger than the incisors, judging by the sockets; and the
+molars are bilophodont, and covered with enamel. It has been described
+by Sir R. Owen under the name of _Prorastomus sirenoides_. Some writers
+regard this genus as the type of a distinct family—the _Prorastomatidæ_.
+Unfortunately we have no knowledge of the geological antiquity of
+the formation in which it was embedded. Lastly must be mentioned the
+_Eotherium egyptiacum_, Owen, founded on the cast of a brain, with
+a small quantity of surrounding bone, discovered in the nummulitic
+limestone of Eocene age in the Mokattam Hills, near Cairo. The brain is
+narrower than in _Manatus_, and resembles that of _Halitherium_. This is
+of interest as the most ancient known evidence of any Sirenian whose age
+has been geologically determined. Teeth from the same deposits referred
+to _Manatus_ not improbably belong really to _Eotherium_.
+
+The few facts as yet collected relating to the former history of the
+Sirenia leave us as much in the dark as to the origin and affinities of
+this peculiar group of animals as we were when we only knew the living
+members. They lend no countenance to their association with the Cetacea,
+and on the other hand their supposed affinity with the Ungulata, so much
+favoured by modern zoologists, receives no very material support from
+them.
+
+    _Bibliography of Sirenia._—J. F. Brandt, _Symbolæ
+    Sirenologicæ_, St. Petersburg, 3 fasciculi, 1846-61-68—an
+    exhaustive account of the anatomy, affinities, and literature
+    of the group, with copious illustrations of the osteology of
+    _Rhytina_. _Anatomy of Dugong_:—Everard Home, _Phil. Trans._
+    1820, p. 315; Owen, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1838, p. 29. _Placenta
+    of do._:—W. Turner, _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ vol. xxxv.
+    (1889). _Manatee_:—W. Vrolik, _Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde_,
+    1851; J. Murie, “On the Form and Structure of the Manatee,”
+    _Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond._ vol. viii. p. 127, 1872, and “Further
+    Observations on the Manatee,” _Ibid._ vol. xi. p. 19, 1880;
+    A. H. Garrod, “Notes on the Manatee recently living in the
+    Zoological Society’s Gardens,” _Ibid._ vol. x. p. 137, 1875;
+    H. C. Chapman, “Observations on the Structure of the Manatee,”
+    _Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences of Philadelphia_, 1875, p. 452; A.
+    Crane, “Notes on the Habits of the Manatees in Captivity in
+    the Brighton Aquarium,” _Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond._ 1881, p. 456.
+    _Extinct Sirenia_:—Gervais, _Journal de Zoologie_, tom. i. p.
+    332, 1872. R. Lydekker, _Catalogue of Fossil Mammalia in the
+    British Museum_, pt. v.
+
+
+_Order_ CETACEA.
+
+This is perhaps the most distinctly circumscribed and natural of all the
+larger groups into which the class is divided.
+
+The external form is fish-like, the body being fusiform, passing
+anteriorly into the head without any distinct constriction or neck, and
+posteriorly tapering off gradually towards the extremity of the tail,
+which is provided with a pair of lateral, pointed expansions of skin
+supported by dense fibrous tissue, called “flukes,” forming together a
+horizontally-placed triangular propelling organ, notched in the middle
+line behind.
+
+The head is generally large, in some species attaining to even more
+than one-third of the entire length of the animal, and the aperture of
+the mouth is always wide, and bounded by stiff immobile lips. The fore
+limbs are reduced to the condition of flattened ovoid paddles, encased
+in a continuous integument, showing no external sign of division into
+arm, fore arm, and manus, or of separate digits, and without any trace
+of nails. There are no traces of hind limbs visible externally. The
+general surface of the skin is smooth and glistening, and devoid of
+hair, although in many species there are a few fine bristles in the
+neighbourhood of the mouth, which may either persist through life, or
+be present only in the young state. Immediately beneath the skin, and
+intimately connected with it, is a thick layer of fat, held together
+by a dense mesh of areolar tissue, constituting the “blubber,” which
+serves the purpose of the hairy covering of other mammals in retaining
+the heat of the body. In nearly all species a compressed median dorsal
+tegumentary fin is present. The eye is small, and is not provided with a
+nictitating membrane or true lachrymal apparatus. The external auditory
+meatus is a very minute aperture in the skin situated at a short distance
+behind the eye, and there is no vestige of a pinna. The nostrils open
+either separately or by a single crescentic valvular aperture, not at the
+extremity of the snout, but near the vertex of the head.
+
+The bones generally are spongy in texture, the cavities being filled with
+oil. In the vertebral column the cervical region is remarkably short and
+immobile, and the vertebræ, originally always seven in number, are in
+many species more or less fused together into a solid mass. The odontoid
+process of the axis, when that bone is free, is usually very obtuse, or
+even obsolete. None of the vertebræ are united together to form a sacrum.
+The lumbar and caudal vertebræ are numerous and large, and, as their
+arches are not connected by any articular processes (zygapophyses), they
+are capable of a very free motion in all directions. The epiphyses at
+the ends of the vertebral bodies are very distinct flattened disks, not
+uniting until after the animal has attained its full dimensions.[122]
+There are largely developed chevron bones, the presence of which
+indicates the distinction between the caudal and lumbar vertebræ.
+
+The skull (Fig. 75) is modified in a very peculiar manner. The brain-case
+is short, broad, and high, in fact almost spherical. The supraoccipital
+bone rises upwards and forwards from the foramen magnum, to meet the
+frontals at the vertex, thus completely excluding the parietals from the
+upper region of the cranium. The frontals are expanded laterally to form
+the roof of the orbits. The anterior narial aperture opens upwards, and
+has in front of it a more or less horizontally prolonged rostrum, formed
+of the maxillæ, premaxillæ, vomer, and mesethmoid cartilage, extending
+forwards to form the upper jaw or roof of the mouth.
+
+There are no clavicles. The humerus is freely movable on the scapula
+at the shoulder-joint, but beyond this the articulations of the limb
+are imperfect, the flattened ends of the bones coming in contact with
+each other, with fibrous tissue interposed, allowing of scarcely any
+motion. The radius and ulna are distinct, about equally developed,
+and much flattened, as are also all the bones of the manus. There are
+four, or more commonly five digits, and the number of the phalanges
+of the second and third digits always exceeds the normal number in
+mammals, sometimes very considerably (hyperphalangism); they present the
+exceptional character of having epiphyses at both ends.[123] The pelvis
+is represented by a pair of small styliform bones placed longitudinally,
+suspended below and at some distance from the vertebral column at the
+commencement of the caudal region. These appear to represent the ischia,
+as the crura of the corpora cavernosa are attached to them. In some
+species, to the outer surface of these are fixed other small bones or
+cartilages, the rudiments of the hind limb.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.—A section of the skull of a young Dolphin
+(_Globicephalus melas_) × ⅕. _PMx_, Premaxilla; _Mx_, maxilla; _ME_,
+ossified portion of the mesethmoid; _an_, anterior nares; _Na_, nasal;
+_IP_, interparietal; _Fr_, frontal; _Pa_, parietal; _SO_, supraoccipital;
+_ExO_, exoccipital; _BO_, basioccipital; _Sq_, squamosal; _Per_,
+periotic; _AS_, alisphenoid; _PS_, presphenoid; _Pt_, pterygoid; _pn_,
+posterior nares; _Pl_, palatine; _Vo_, vomer; _s_, symphysis of mandible;
+_id_, inferior dental canal; _cp_, coronoid process of mandible; _cd_,
+condyle; a, angle; sh, stylohyal; _bh_, basihyal; _th_, thyrohyal. (From
+Flower’s _Osteology of Mammalia_.)]
+
+Teeth are generally present, but exceedingly variable in number. In
+the existing species they are of simple, uniform character, all having
+conical or compressed crowns and single roots, and are never preceded
+by milk-teeth. They are therefore homodont and monophyodont. In one
+group, the Mystacocetes, the teeth are absent (except, in the fœtal
+condition), and the palate is provided with numerous transversely placed
+horny laminæ or “baleen.” The salivary glands are rudimentary or absent.
+The stomach is multilocular, its structure being fully noticed under
+the genus _Phocæna_. The intestinal canal is simple, and only in some
+species provided with a small cæcum. The liver is very little fissured,
+and there is no gall-bladder. The vascular system is greatly complicated
+by arterial and venous plexuses, or _retia mirabilia_. The larynx is of
+peculiar shape, the arytenoid cartilages and the epiglottis being much
+elongated, and together forming a tubular prolongation, which projects
+into the posterior nares, and when embraced by the soft palate produces a
+continuous passage between the nostrils and the trachea, as in Ungulates,
+but in a more perfect manner. The brain is large relatively to the size
+of the animal, very round in form, and with its surface divided by sulci
+into very numerous and complex convolutions. The kidneys are deeply
+lobulated. The testes are abdominal. There are no vesiculæ seminales,
+nor os penis. The uterus is bicornuate, and the placenta non-deciduate
+and diffuse. The mammæ are two in number, and the nipples placed in
+depressions on each side of the vulva. The principal ducts of the gland
+are dilated during lactation into large reservoirs, into which the milk
+collects, and from which it is injected by the action of a compressor
+muscle into the mouth of the young animal, by which means the process of
+sucking under water is greatly facilitated and expedited.
+
+The animals of the order Cetacea abound in all known seas, and some
+species are inhabitants of the larger rivers of South America and Asia.
+Their organisation necessitates passing their life entirely in the
+water, as on land they are absolutely helpless. They have, however, to
+rise very frequently to the surface for the purpose of respiration; and,
+in relation to the constant upward and downward movement in the water
+thus necessitated, their principal instrument of motion, the tail, is
+expanded horizontally, quite unlike that of a fish, whose movements
+are mainly in straight-forward or lateral directions. The position of
+the respiratory orifice or nostril on the highest part of the head is
+very important for this mode of life, since it is the only part of the
+body of which the exposure above the surface is absolutely necessary.
+Of the numerous erroneous ideas connected with natural history, few are
+so wide spread and still so firmly believed, notwithstanding repeated
+expositions of its falsity, as that the Cetacea spout out through their
+blowholes water taken in at the mouth. The fact is, the “spouting,” or
+more properly “blowing,” of the Whale is nothing more than the ordinary
+act of expiration, which, taking place at longer intervals than in land
+animals, is performed with a greater amount of emphasis. The moment the
+animal rises to the surface it forcibly expels from its lungs the air
+taken in at the last inspiration, which of course is highly charged with
+watery vapour in consequence of the natural respiratory changes. This,
+rapidly condensing in the cold atmosphere in which the phenomenon is
+generally observed, forms a column of steam or spray, which has been
+erroneously taken for water. It also often happens, especially when the
+surface of the ocean is agitated into waves, that the animal commences
+its expiratory puff before the orifice has quite cleared the top of
+the water, some of which may thus be driven upwards with the blast,
+tending to complete the illusion. In hunting Whales the harpoon often
+pierces the lungs or air passages of the unfortunate victim, and then
+fountains of blood may be forced high in the air through the blowholes,
+as commonly depicted in scenes of Arctic adventure; but this is nothing
+more (allowance being made for the Whale’s peculiar mode of breathing)
+than what always follows severe wounds of the respiratory organs of other
+mammals.
+
+All the Cetacea are predaceous, subsisting on living animal food of
+some kind. One genus alone (_Orca_) eats other warm-blooded animals, as
+Seals, and even members of its own order, both large and small. Some feed
+on fish, others on small floating crustaceans, pteropods, and medusæ,
+while the principal staple of the food of many is constituted by the
+various species of cephalopods, _Loligo_ and other _Teuthidæ_, which must
+abound in certain seas in vast numbers, as they form almost the entire
+support of some of the largest members of the order. In size the Cetacea
+vary much, some of the smaller Dolphins scarcely exceeding 4 feet in
+length, while others are the most colossal of all animals. It is true
+that most statements of their bulk found in general and even zoological
+literature are greatly exaggerated, but even when reduced to their actual
+dimensions (which will be stated under the respective genera) some of
+the existing Whales exceed in size any animal living either at present
+or in former times of which we have any certain evidence. With some
+exceptions, the Cetacea generally are timid inoffensive animals, active
+in their movements, and very affectionate in their disposition towards
+one another, especially the mother towards the young, of which there is
+usually but one, or at most two at a time. They are generally gregarious,
+swimming in herds or “schools” (so termed by the whalers) sometimes
+amounting to many thousands in number; though some species have hitherto
+only been met with either singly or in pairs.
+
+Although by their mode of life so far removed from close observation
+that it is impossible to become as familiar with them in their natural
+condition as with many other animals, Whales are in many respects the
+most interesting and wonderful of all creatures; and there is much in
+their structure and habits well worthy of study, much that is difficult
+to understand, and much that leads to great generalisations and throws
+light upon far-reaching philosophical speculations. One of the first
+lessons which a study of these animals affords is that, in the endeavour
+to discover what a creature really is, from what others it is descended,
+and to what it is related, the general outward appearance affords little
+clue, and we must go deep below the surface to find out the essential
+characteristics of its nature. There was once, and may be still in many
+places, a common idea that a Whale is a fish. To realise the fallacy of
+this notion we have only to consider what a fish really is, what under
+all the diversities of form, size, and colour known among fishes there is
+common to them all, and we see that in everything which characterises a
+true fish and separates it from other classes, as reptiles, birds, and
+mammals, the Whale resembles the last-named and differs from the fish.
+It is as essentially a mammal as a Cow or a Horse, and simply resembles
+a fish externally because it is adapted to inhabit the same element;
+but it is no more on that account a fish than is a bat, because adapted
+to pass a great part of its existence on the wing in the air, nearly
+related to a bird. The whole structure of a whale is a most instructive
+instance of a type of organisation which is common to and characteristic
+of the class Mammalia, but specially modified or adapted to a peculiar
+mode of life. We see in every part the result of two great principles
+acting and reacting upon each other—on the one hand, adherence to type,
+or rather to fundamental inherited structural conditions, and, on the
+other, adaptation to the peculiar circumstances under which it lives, and
+to which in all probability it has become gradually more and more fitted.
+The external fish-like form is perfectly suited for swimming through
+the water; the tail, however, is not placed vertically as in fishes,
+but horizontally, a position which accords better with the constant
+necessity for rising to the surface for the purpose of breathing. The
+hairy covering characteristic of all mammals, which if present might
+interfere with rapidity of movement through the water, is reduced to the
+merest rudiments—a few short bristles about the chin or upper lip—which
+are often only present in very young animals; and the function of keeping
+the body warm is supplied by the “blubber.” The forelimbs, though
+functionally reduced to mere paddles, with no power of motion except at
+the shoulder-joint, have beneath their smooth and continuous external
+covering all the bones, joints, and even most of the muscles, nerves, and
+arteries of the human arm and hand; and the rudiments of hind legs found
+buried deep in the interior of the animal apparently subserve no useful
+purpose, but point an instructive lesson to those who are able to read it.
+
+As before said, the Cetacea form a perfectly well-defined group, sharply
+separated from all other mammals, and with no outlying or doubtful
+forms at present known. Among the existing members of the order, there
+are two very distinct types, the Toothed Whales or Odontoceti and the
+Baleen Whales or Mystacoceti, which present as many marked distinguishing
+structural characters as are found between many other divisions of the
+Mammalia which are reckoned as orders. The extinct _Zeuglodon_, so far
+as its characters are known, does not fall into either of these groups,
+but is in some respects an annectant form, and therefore must be placed,
+provisionally at least, in a third group by itself.
+
+The Mystacocetes appear at first sight to be the most specialised and
+aberrant of the existing Cetacea, as indicated by the absence of teeth,
+the presence of baleen, and the form and size of the mouth; but, as we
+see in other groups, dental characters, and all such as relate to the
+prehension of food generally, are essentially adaptive and consequently
+plastic or prone to variation, and hence cannot well be relied upon
+as tests of affinity. In another character, also adaptive, the laxity
+of the connection of the ribs with the vertebral column and with the
+sternum, and the reduction of that bone in size, allowing great freedom
+of expansion of the thoracic cavity for prolonged immersion beneath
+the water, the Mystacocetes have passed beyond the Odontocetes in
+specialisation. On the other hand, the greater symmetry of the skull, the
+more anterior position of the external nostrils and their double external
+orifice, the form of the nasal bones, the presence of a distinctly
+developed olfactory organ, the mode of attachment of the periotic bone to
+the cranium, the presence of a cæcum and the regular arrangement of the
+alimentary canal, the more normal characters of the manus and the better
+development of the muscles attached to it, and the presence, in many
+species at least, of parts representing not only the bones but also the
+ligaments and muscles of a hind limb,[124] all show less deviation from
+the ordinary mammalian type than is presented by the Odontocetes. Taking
+all these characters into consideration, it does not appear reasonable to
+suppose that either type has been derived from the other, at all events
+in the form in which we see it now, but rather that they are parallel
+groups, both modified in different fashions from common ancestors.
+
+Among the Mystacocetes, in the especially distinguishing characters of
+the division, the Rorquals are less specialised than the Right Whales,
+which in the greater size of the head, the length and compression of the
+rostrum, the development of the baleen, and shortness of the cervical
+region, are exaggerated forms of the type, and yet they retain more fully
+some primitive characters, as the better development of the hind limb,
+the pentadactylous manus, and the absence of a dorsal fin. Both types
+are found distinct in a fossil state at least as far back as the early
+Pliocene age, but generally represented by smaller species than those
+now existing. Some of the Pliocene Rorquals (_Cetotherium_) were, in
+the elongated flattened form of the nasal bones, the greater distance
+between the occipital and frontal bone at the top of the head, and the
+greater length of the cervical vertebræ, more generalised than those
+now existing. In the shape of the mandible also, Van Beneden, to whose
+researches we are much indebted for a knowledge of these forms, discerns
+some approximation to the Odontocetes.
+
+Among the last-named group there are several distinct types, of which
+that represented by _Platanista_, although in some respects singularly
+modified, has been considered to present on the whole approximations
+towards the more normal and general type of mammalian structure. It is
+therefore interesting to find an apparently allied form well represented
+among the earliest fossil remains of Cetaceans in Europe. Almost all the
+other members of the suborder range themselves under the two principal
+heads of Ziphioids (or Physeteroids) and Delphinoids. The former is an
+ancient and once abounding type, of which the Sperm Whale (_Physeter_)
+is a highly specialised form. Among the latter, _Globicephalus_ is a
+modified form as regards the structure of its anterior extremity, and
+_Monodon_ as regards its dentition, while _Delphinus_, with the various
+allied genera, may be regarded as the dominating type of Cetaceans at
+the present day, abundant in slightly differentiated species and also in
+individuals. They are in this respect to the rest of the order much as
+the hollow-horned Ruminants are to the other Ungulates.
+
+The earliest Cetaceans of whose organisation we have anything like
+complete evidence are the Zeuglodonts of the Eocene period,[125]
+which approach in the structure of the skull and teeth to a much more
+generalised mammalian type than either of the existing suborders. The
+smallness of the cerebral cavity compared with the jaws and the rest
+of the skull they share with the primitive forms of many other types.
+The forward position of the narial aperture and the length and flatness
+of the nasal bones, which distinguish them from all existing forms, we
+must also suppose to be a character at one time common to all Cetaceans,
+though now retained (but to a less degree) only by the Mystacocetes.
+Even _Squalodon_, which in its heterodont dentition so much resembles
+_Zeuglodon_ as to have been placed by some zoologists in the same genus,
+entirely differs from it, and conforms with the ordinary Dolphins in its
+essential cranial characters.
+
+The origin of the Cetacea is at present involved in much obscurity.
+They present no signs of closer affinity to any of the lower classes of
+vertebrates than do many other members of their own class. Indeed in all
+that essentially distinguishes a mammal from the oviparous vertebrates,
+whether in the osseous, nervous, reproductive, or any other system,
+they are as truly mammalian as any other group. Any supposed marks
+of inferiority, as absence of limb structure, of hairy covering, of
+lachrymal apparatus, etc., are obviously modifications (or degradations,
+as they may be termed) in adaptation to their special mode of life. The
+characters of the teeth of _Zeuglodon_ and other extinct forms, and
+also of the fœtal Mystacocetes, clearly indicate that they have been
+derived from mammals in which the heterodont type of dentition was fully
+established. The steps by which a land mammal may have been modified
+into a purely aquatic one are indicated by the stages which still
+survive among the Carnivora in the _Otariidæ_ and in the true Seals. A
+further change in the same direction would produce an animal somewhat
+resembling a Dolphin; and it has been thought that this may have been
+the route by which the Cetacean form has been developed. There are,
+however, great difficulties in the way of this view. Thus if the hind
+limbs had ever been developed into the very efficient aquatic propelling
+organs they present in the Seals, it is not easy to imagine how they
+could have become completely atrophied and their function transferred to
+the tail. So that from this point of view it is more likely that Whales
+were derived from animals with long tails, which were used in swimming,
+eventually with such effect that the hind limbs became no longer
+necessary. The powerful tail, with its lateral cutaneous flanges, of an
+American species of Otter (_Lutra brasiliensis_) may give an idea of this
+member in the primitive Cetaceans. But the structure of the Cetacea is,
+in so many essential characters, so unlike that of the Carnivora that
+the probabilities are against these orders being nearly related. Even in
+the skull of the Zeuglodon, which has been cited as presenting a great
+resemblance to that of a Seal, quite as many likenesses may be traced to
+one of the primitive Pig-like Ungulates (except in the purely adaptive
+character of the form of the teeth), while the elongated larynx,[126]
+complex stomach, simple liver, reproductive organs both male and female,
+and fœtal membranes of the existing Cetacea are far more like those
+of that group than of the Carnivora. Indeed it appears probable that
+the old popular idea which affixed the name of “Sea-Hog”[127] to the
+Porpoise contains a larger element of truth than the speculations of many
+accomplished zoologists of modern times. The fact that _Platanista_,
+which, as mentioned above, appears to retain more of the primitive
+characteristics of the group than any other existing form, and also the
+somewhat related _Inia_ from South America, are both at the present day
+exclusively fluviatile, may point to the freshwater origin of the whole
+group, in which case their otherwise rather inexplicable absence from the
+seas of the Cretaceous period would be accounted for.
+
+On the other hand, it should be observed that the teeth of the
+Zeuglodonts approximate more to a carnivorous than to an ungulate type.
+It is scarcely necessary to allude to the hypothesis started by some
+Continental writers to the effect that the Whales are the most primitive
+type of mammals with which we are acquainted, and that they are the
+descendants of the Mesozoic reptilian order Ichthyopterygia, from which
+their hyperphalangism is a direct inheritance. The Ichthyopterygia have
+been shown, on very strong evidence, to have been derived from land
+reptiles, and to have gradually acquired their hyperphalangism as an
+adaptive character suitable to their peculiar mode of life, and there can
+be but little doubt that a similar adaptation has taken place in the case
+of the Whales.
+
+
+_Suborder_ MYSTACOCETI, _the_ BALÆNOIDEA, _Whalebone, or True
+Whales_.[128]
+
+
+_Family_ BALÆNIDÆ.
+
+Teeth never functionally developed, but always disappearing before the
+close of intra-uterine life. Palate provided with plates of baleen
+or “whalebone.” Skull symmetrical. Nasal bones forming a roof to the
+anterior nasal passages, which are directed upwards and forwards.
+Maxilla produced in front of, but not over, the orbital process of the
+frontal. Lachrymal bones small and distinct from the jugal. Tympanic
+bone involuted (Fig. 76), and ankylosed with the periotic, which is
+attached to the base of the cranium by two strong diverging processes.
+Olfactory organ distinctly developed. Rami of mandible arched outwards,
+their anterior ends meeting at an angle, and connected by fibrous tissue
+without any true symphysis. All the ribs at their upper extremities
+articulating only with the transverse processes of the vertebræ; their
+capitular processes, when present, not articulating directly with
+the bodies of the vertebræ. Sternum composed of a single piece, and
+articulating only with a single pair of ribs. No ossified sternal ribs.
+External openings of nostrils distinct from each other, longitudinal. A
+short conical cæcum.
+
+These animals have, when in the fœtal state, numerous minute calcified
+teeth lying in the dental groove of both upper and lower jaws. They are
+best developed about the middle of fœtal life, after which period they
+are absorbed, and no trace of them remains at the time of birth.[129] The
+baleen or whalebone does not make its appearance until after birth. It
+consists of a series of flattened horny plates, between three and four
+hundred in number, on each side of the palate, with a bare interval along
+the middle line. These plates are placed transversely to the long axis of
+the palate, with very short intervals between them. Each plate or blade
+is somewhat triangular in form, with the base attached to the palate
+and the apex hanging downwards. The outer edge of the blade is hard and
+smooth; but the inner edge and apex fray out into long bristly fibres,
+so that the roof of the Whale’s mouth looks as if covered with hair, as
+described by Aristotle. At the inner edge of each principal blade are
+two or three much smaller or subsidiary blades. The principal blades are
+longest near the middle of the series, and gradually diminish towards the
+front and back of the mouth. The horny plates grow from a dense fibrous
+and highly vascular matrix, covering the palatal surface of the maxillæ,
+and sending out lamellar processes, one of which penetrates the base of
+each blade. Moreover, the free edge of these processes is covered with
+very long vascular thread-like papillæ, one of which forms the central
+axis of each of the hair-like epidermic fibres of which the blade is
+mainly composed. A transverse section of fresh whalebone shows that it is
+made up of numbers of these soft vascular papillæ, circular in outline,
+each surrounded by concentrically arranged epidermic cells, and the whole
+bound together by other epidermic cells, that constitute the smooth
+cortical (so-called “enamel”) surface of the blade, which, disintegrating
+at the free edge, allows the individual fibres to become loose and
+assume the hair-like appearance before spoken of. These fibres differ
+from hairs in not being formed in depressed follicles in the enderon,
+but rather resemble the fibres composing the horn of the Rhinoceros.
+The whalebone in fact consists of nothing more than modified papillæ of
+the buccal mucous membrane, with an excessive and cornified epithelial
+development. The blades are supported and bound together for a certain
+distance from their base by a mass of less hardened epithelium, secreted
+by the surface of the palatal membrane or matrix of the whalebone in
+the intervals of the lamellar processes. This is the “intermediate
+substance” of Hunter, the “gum” of the whalers. Baleen varies much in
+colour in different species. In some it is almost jet black, in others
+slate-colour, horn-colour, yellow, or even creamy-white. In some the
+blades are variegated with longitudinal strips of different hues. Baleen
+differs also greatly in other respects, being short, thick, coarse, and
+stiff in some, and greatly elongated and highly elastic in those species
+in which it has attained its fullest development. Its function is to
+strain the water from the small marine molluscs, crustaceans, or fish
+upon which the Whales subsist. In feeding the immense mouth is filled
+with water containing shoals of these small creatures, and then, on the
+Whale closing the jaws and raising the tongue, so as to diminish the
+cavity of the mouth, the water streams out through the narrow intervals
+between the hairy fringe of the whalebone blades, and escapes through the
+lips, leaving the living prey to be swallowed.[130]
+
+Our knowledge of the different structural modifications attained by
+members of this important group of mammals, though largely increased
+of late years, is still imperfect. Formerly they were all divided into
+Right Whales (_Balæna_) and Rorquals or Fin-Whales (_Balænoptera_), the
+latter distinguished by their smaller heads, elongated and slender form,
+free cervical vertebræ, tetradactylous manus, and the presence of very
+conspicuous longitudinal furrows or folds in the skin of the throat
+and chest, and of a small adipose dorsal fin. Recent discoveries have,
+however, brought to light several forms holding a somewhat intermediate
+position, and presenting combinations of characters not found in either
+of the longer known sections. According to our present knowledge the
+group is naturally divided into five very distinct genera, of which the
+leading characters are given below.
+
+_Balæna._[131]—Skin of throat smooth, not furrowed. No dorsal fin.
+Cervical vertebræ united into a single mass. Pectoral limb short, broad,
+and pentadactylous. Head very large. Baleen very long and narrow, highly
+elastic, and black. Scapula high, with a distinct coracoid and acromion
+process. Tympanic (Fig. 78) deep and angular, its inflation comparatively
+slight, and the involuted portion not fig-shaped, and frequently without
+a well-marked depression at the anterior extremity of the superior border
+of the inner surface for the Eustachian canal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.—Greenland or Arctic Right Whale (_Balæna
+mysticetus_).]
+
+The Greenland, or more properly Arctic, Right Whale (_Balæna mysticetus_)
+attains, when full grown, a length of from 45 to 50 feet. Its usual
+vertebral formula is C 7, D 12, L 14, C 22. The external form is shown
+in Fig. 76 from a careful drawing by Mr. Robert Gray. In this species
+all the peculiarities which distinguish the head and mouth of the Whales
+from those of other mammals have attained their greatest development.
+The head is of enormous size, exceeding one-third of the whole length
+of the creature. The cavity of the mouth is actually larger than that
+of the body, thorax and abdomen together. The upper jaw is very narrow,
+but greatly arched from before backwards, to increase the height of the
+cavity and allow for the great length of the baleen blades; the rami of
+the mandible are widely separated posteriorly, and have a still further
+outward sweep before they meet at the symphysis in front, giving the
+floor of the mouth the shape of an immense spoon. The baleen blades
+attain the number of 380 or more on each side, those in the middle of
+the series having a length of 10 or sometimes 12 feet. They are black in
+colour, fine and highly elastic in texture, and fray out at the inner
+edge and ends into long, delicate, soft, almost silky, but very tough,
+hairs. The remarkable development of the mouth and the structures in
+connection with it, which distinguishes the Right Whale among all its
+allies, is entirely in relation to the nature of its food. It is by this
+apparatus that the animal is enabled to avail itself of the minute but
+highly nutritious crustaceans and pteropods which swarm in immense shoals
+in the seas it frequents. The large mouth enables it to take in at one
+time a sufficient quantity of water filled with these small organisms,
+and the length and delicate structure of the baleen provide an efficient
+strainer or hair-sieve by which the water can be drained off. If the
+baleen were rigid, and only as long as is the aperture between the upper
+and lower jaws when the month is shut, a space would be left beneath it
+when the jaws were separated, through which the water and the minute
+particles of food would escape together. But instead of this the long,
+slender, brush-like, elastic ends of the whalebone blades fold back when
+the mouth is closed, the front ones passing below the hinder ones in a
+channel lying between the tongue and the lower jaw. When the month is
+opened, their elasticity causes them to straighten out like a bow unbent,
+so that at whatever distance the jaws are separated the strainer remains
+in perfect action, filling the whole of the interval. The mechanical
+perfection of the arrangement is completed by the great development of
+the lower lip, which rises stiffly above the jaw-bone and prevents the
+long, slender, flexible ends of the baleen from being carried outwards by
+the rush of water from the mouth, when its cavity is being diminished by
+the closure of the jaws and raising of the tongue.
+
+If, as appears highly probable, the “bowhead” of the Okhotsk Sea and
+Behring Strait belongs to this species, its range is circumpolar. Though
+found in the seas on both sides of Greenland, and passing freely from
+one to the other, it is never seen so far south as Cape Farewell; but on
+the Labrador coast, where a cold stream sets down from the north, its
+range is somewhat farther. In the Behring Sea, according to Scammon, “it
+is seldom seen south of the fifty-fifth parallel, which is about the
+farthest southern extent of the winter ice, while on the Sea of Okhotsk
+its southern limit is about the latitude of 54°.” As has been abundantly
+shown by Eschricht and Reinhardt in the case of the Greenland seas,
+“everything tends to prove,” Scammon says, “that the _Balæna mysticetus_
+is truly an ‘ice whale,’ for among the scattered floes, or about the
+borders of the ice-fields or barriers, is its home and feeding-ground.
+It is true that these animals are pursued in the open water during
+the summer months; but in no instance have we learned of their being
+captured south of where winter ice-fields are occasionally met with.” The
+occurrence of this species, therefore, on the British or any European
+coast is exceedingly unlikely, as when alive and in health the southern
+limit of its range in the North Sea has been ascertained to be from the
+east coast of Greenland at 64° N. lat. along the north of Iceland towards
+Spitsbergen, and a glance at a physical chart will show that there are
+no currents setting southwards which could bear a disabled animal or a
+floating carcase to British shores. To this _à priori_ improbability may
+be added the fact that no authentic instance has been recorded of the
+capture or stranding of this species upon any European coast; for the
+cases in which it has been reported as seen in British waters may be
+explained by the supposition of one of the other species of the genus
+being mistaken for it. Still, as two other essentially Arctic Cetaceans,
+the Narwhal and the Beluga, have in a few undoubted instances found
+their way to British shores, it would be rash absolutely to deny the
+possibility of the Greenland Right Whale doing the same.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.—Southern Right Whale (_Balæna australis_).]
+
+The southern Right Whale (_B. australis_, Fig. 77) resembles the last
+in the absence of dorsal fin and of longitudinal furrows in the skin of
+the throat and chest, but differs in that it possesses a smaller head
+in proportion to its body, shorter baleen, a different shaped contour
+of the upper margin of the lower lip, and a greater number (fifteen) of
+ribs and dorsal vertebræ. This form inhabits the temperate seas of both
+northern and southern hemispheres, and is divided into several so-called
+species, according to their geographical distribution:—_B. biscayensis_
+of the North Atlantic, _B. japonica_ of the North Pacific, _B. australis_
+of the South Atlantic, and _B. antipodarum_ and _B. novæ-zealandiæ_ of
+the South Pacific. The differential characters by which they have been
+separated, external as well as anatomical, are, however, slight and
+subject to individual variation; and the number of specimens available
+for comparison in museums is not yet sufficient to afford the necessary
+data to determine whether these characters can be regarded as specific
+or not. The most interesting of these is the Atlantic Right Whale, which
+was formerly abundant in the North Atlantic, but is now so scarce as to
+appear verging on extinction. This was the Whale the pursuit of which
+gave occupation to a numerous population on the shores of the Basque
+provinces of France and Spain in the Middle Ages. From the tenth to
+the sixteenth centuries Bayonne, Biarritz, St. Jean de Luz, and San
+Sebastian, as well as numerous other towns on the north coast of Spain,
+were the centres of an active Whale “fishery,” which supplied Europe
+with oil and whalebone. In later times these Whales were pursued as
+far as the coast of Newfoundland. They were, however, already getting
+scarce when the voyages undertaken towards the close of the sixteenth
+century for the discovery of the north-eastern route to China and the
+East Indies opened out the seas around Spitzbergen; then for the first
+time the existence of the Greenland Whale became known, and henceforth
+the energies of the European whale-fishers were concentrated upon that
+animal. It is a singular fact that the existence of the Atlantic Right
+Whale was quite overlooked by naturalists till lately, all accounts
+referring to it being attributed to the Greenland Whale, supposed once to
+have had a wider distribution than now, and to have been driven by the
+persecution of man to its present circumpolar haunts. To the two Danish
+cetologists Eschricht and Reinhardt is due the credit of having proved
+its existence as a distinct species, from a careful collation of numerous
+historical notices of its structure, distribution, and habits; and
+their restoration of the animal, founded upon these documents, has been
+abundantly confirmed by the capture of various specimens in recent times,
+showing that it still lingers in some of the localities where it formerly
+was so abundant. The only known instances of its occurrence on the coasts
+of Europe in modern times are in the harbour of San Sebastian in January
+1854, in the Gulf of Taranto, in the Mediterranean, in February 1877, and
+on the Spanish coast between Guetaria and Zarauz (Guipuzcoa) in February
+1878. The skeletons of these three whales are preserved in the museums
+of Copenhagen, Naples, and San Sebastian respectively. On the coast of
+the United States several Whales of this species have been taken within
+the last few years. In the North Pacific a very similar if not identical
+species is regularly hunted by the Japanese, who tow the carcases
+ashore for the purposes of flensing and extracting the whalebone. In
+the tropical seas, however, according to Captain Maury’s whale charts,
+Right Whales are never or rarely seen; but the southern temperate ocean,
+especially the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good Hope, Kerguelen’s
+Island, Australia, and New Zealand, is inhabited by “Black Whales,” once
+abundant, but now nearly exterminated through the wanton destruction of
+the females as they visit the bays and inlets round the coast, their
+constant habit in the breeding time. The range of these Whales southward
+has not been accurately determined; but no species corresponding with the
+Arctic Right Whale has as yet been met with in the Antarctic icy seas.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.—The right tympanic bone of an immature individual
+of the Greenland Whale (_Balæna mysticetus_), from the inner (_A_) and
+outer (_B_) aspects. ¹⁄₃ natural size. (From the _Proc. Zool. Soc._)]
+
+Remains of Right Whales are of not uncommon occurrence in the Pliocene
+Crag deposits of England and Belgium. The tympanics of _B. affinis_
+from these deposits appear to indicate a species closely allied to
+_B. mysticetus_, in which this bone is long and angulated anteriorly
+(Fig. 78); while the tympanics from the same deposits described as _B.
+primigenia_ are shorter and more rounded at the antero-inferior angle,
+thus resembling those of _B. australis_. A smaller species, having an
+estimated length of about 20 feet, has been described as _Balænula
+balænopsis_, the generic distinction being made on account of the free
+condition of the atlas and seventh cervical vertebræ; but it seems
+scarcely advisable to regard such a feature as indicating more than a
+less specialised species. _Balæna (Balænotus) insignis_ is a whale of
+somewhat larger dimensions, in which the atlas is generally, and the
+seventh cervical vertebra always, free, while in young individuals the
+axis vertebra may likewise be separate.
+
+_Neobalæna._[132]—Head about one-fourth the total length. Skin of the
+throat not plicated. A small falcate dorsal fin. Vertebræ, C 7, D 17, L
+3, C 16 = 43. The cervical vertebræ are united. The manus small, narrow,
+and tetradactylous, wanting the pollex. The ribs remarkably expanded and
+flattened. The scapula very low and broad, with completely developed
+acromion and coracoid processes. Tympanic approximating to that of
+_Balæna_, but with certain very characteristic peculiarities of shape.
+Baleen very long, slender, elastic, and white. A single species, at
+present very rare, _N. marginata_, from the Australian and New Zealand
+seas is the smallest of the Whalebone Whales, being not more than 20 feet
+in length.
+
+_Rhachianectes._[133]—This combines the small head, elongated form, and
+narrow pectoral fin of _Balænoptera_ with the smooth skin of the throat
+and absence of the dorsal fin of _Balæna_. The baleen is the shortest and
+coarsest of any of the group. Its osteology is imperfectly known. One
+species, _R. glaucus_, the Gray Whale of the North Pacific.
+
+_Megaptera._[134]—Head of moderate size. Baleen plates short and broad.
+Vertebræ, C 7, D 14, L 11, C 21 = 53. Cervical vertebræ free. Scapula
+with acromion and coracoid process absent or rudimentary. Skin of throat
+plicated. Dorsal fin low. Pectoral limb tetradactylous, very long and
+narrow, attaining about one-fourth of the length of the entire animal,
+the metacarpus and phalanges being greatly developed, and the latter very
+numerous. Tympanic still more inflated than in _Balænoptera_, with the
+involuted portion more distinctly pyriform, the Eustachian part of the
+aperture well defined, and two well-marked longitudinal ridges on the
+lower surface of adult specimens.
+
+The Whale commonly called “Humpback” (_Megaptera boops_) by whalers,
+perhaps on account of the low hump-like form of the dorsal fin, is very
+distinctly characterised from all others of the group, especially by the
+immense length of the pectoral fins or flippers, which are indented or
+scalloped along their margins, and are, except at their base, of a white
+colour, nearly all the rest of the body being black. The baleen plates
+are of a deep black colour. Though common in the North Atlantic between
+Norway and Greenland, this Whale does not frequently appear on the coasts
+of the British Isles. One came ashore at Newcastle in 1839; another, a
+young one, was taken in the estuary of the Dee in 1863, and its skeleton
+is preserved in the Liverpool museum; and a nearly full-grown animal
+was captured in the mouth of the Tay in the winter of 1883-84.[135]
+The usual length of the adult ranges from 45 to 50 feet, the female
+being larger than the male. Whales of the genus _Megaptera_ are found
+in the South Atlantic and in both the North and the South Pacific. They
+resemble those of British seas so closely that it is doubtful whether the
+differences which have been observed, and upon which several species have
+been founded, may not be individual peculiarities; but zoologists have
+not yet had the opportunity of examining and comparing such a series of
+specimens of different ages and sexes from different localities as would
+be necessary to determine these points satisfactorily.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.—Humpbacked Whale (_Megaptera boops_).]
+
+Tympanic bones of _Megaptera_ occur in the English and Belgian Crags,
+although somewhat less commonly than those of _Balæna_ and _Balænoptera_;
+they have been described under the names of _Megapteropsis_ and
+_Burtinopsis_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.—The Common Rorqual (_Balænoptera musculus_).]
+
+_Balænoptera._[136]—Head small and flat, and pointed in front. Body long
+and slender. Skin of throat plicated. A small falcate dorsal fin. Baleen
+short and coarse. Cervical vertebræ free. Scapula low and broad, with a
+large acromion and coracoid process. Pectoral limb tetradactylous, small,
+narrow, and pointed. Tympanic (Fig. 81) long, much inflated, and rounded,
+with the involuted portion thickened and pyriform, and the notch for the
+Eustachian canal sharply defined; inner surface flattened, without the
+vertical groove found in _Megaptera_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.—The right tympanic of _Balænoptera musculus_ from
+the inner (A) and outer (B) aspects. ½ natural size. (From the _Proc.
+Zool. Soc._)]
+
+The Rorquals, Fin-Whales, Fin-backs, Finners, or Razor-backs, as they
+are variously called, have the plicated skin of the throat like that
+of _Megaptera_, the furrows being more numerous and close set; but the
+pectoral fin is comparatively small, the dorsal fin distinct and falcate,
+and the tail very much compressed before it expands into the “flukes.”
+The Rorquals are perhaps the most abundant and widely distributed of
+all the whales, being found in some of their modifications in all seas,
+except the extreme Arctic, and probably Antarctic regions. Owing to the
+small quantity and inferior quality of their whalebone, the comparatively
+limited amount of blubber, and their great activity and the difficulty of
+capturing them by the old methods, these Whales were not until recently
+an object of pursuit by whale-fishers; but, since the introduction of
+steam-vessels, and especially of explosive harpoons fired from guns in
+the place of those hurled by the human hand, a regular fishery has been
+established on the coast of Finmark. There are four distinct species
+of this genus in British seas. (1) _Balænoptera sibbaldi_, the “Blue
+Whale,” the largest of all known animals, attains a length of 80 or even
+sometimes 85 feet. Its colour is dark bluish gray, with small whitish
+spots on the breast; the baleen is black; the flippers are larger
+proportionally than in other Rorquals, measuring one-seventh of the
+total length of the body; and the dorsal fin is small and placed very
+far back. This Whale has usually 64 vertebræ, of which 16 bear ribs.
+Like the others of the genus, this species seems to pass the winter in
+the open seas, and approaches the coast of Norway at the end of April
+or beginning of May. At this time its sole food is a small crustacean
+(_Euphausia inermis_) which swarms in the fjords. Several specimens have
+been taken on the British coasts, two fine skeletons from the Firth
+of Forth being preserved in the Edinburgh museums. (2) _Balænoptera
+musculus_, the Common Rorqual, has a length of 65 to 70 feet, is of a
+grayish slate colour above and white underneath, and the baleen is slate
+colour variegated with yellow or brown. It has usually 62 vertebræ, of
+which 15 bear ribs. This is the commonest of all the large Whales on
+the British coasts, scarcely a winter passing without the body of one
+being somewhere washed ashore, usually after stormy weather, and more
+frequently on the south coast, as this species has a more southern range
+than the last, and frequently enters the Mediterranean. It feeds largely
+on fish, and is frequently seen feasting among shoals of herring. (3)
+_Balænoptera borealis_, often called Rudolphi’s Whale from its first
+describer, is a smaller species, scarcely attaining a length of 50 feet.
+It is bluish-black above, with oblong, light-coloured spots, whilst
+the under parts are more or less white; the whole of the tail and both
+sides of the flippers are black; the baleen is black, and the bristly
+ends fine, curling, and white; the flippers are very small, measuring
+one-eleventh of the total length of the body. There are 56 vertebræ,
+with 14 pairs of ribs. This species, according to Collett, feeds chiefly
+on minute crustaceans, mainly _Calanus finmarchicus_ and _Euphausia
+inermis_, and not on fish. Until lately it was considered the rarest of
+the Whales of European seas, and was only known to science from a few
+individuals stranded on the coasts of northern Europe at long intervals,
+the skeletons of which have been preserved in museums. The most southern
+point at which it has been met with hitherto is Biarritz in France. Since
+the establishment of the whaling station near the North Cape it has been
+shown to be a regular summer visitor, and in 1885, 771 individuals were
+captured on the coast of Finmark. (4) _Balænoptera rostrata_, the lesser
+Fin-Whale or Rorqual, is the smallest species found in the northern seas,
+rarely exceeding 30 feet in length. Its colour is grayish-black above,
+whilst the under side is white, including the whole of the lower side of
+the tail; the inner side of the flippers is white; and there is a broad
+white band across the outer side, which is a very characteristic mark of
+the species; the baleen is yellowish-white. The dorsal fin in this and
+the last species is comparatively high, and placed far forwards on the
+body. This Whale has usually 48 vertebræ, 11 of which bear ribs. It is
+common in summer in the fjords of Norway, and is often seen around the
+British Isles. It has been taken, though rarely, in the Mediterranean;
+and ranges as far north as Davis’s Straits.
+
+Rorquals are met with in almost all seas throughout the world, but
+further and more accurate observations are required before their
+specific characters and geographical distribution can be made out. Nearly
+all the individuals hitherto examined with any care, whether from the
+North Pacific, the Australian seas, or the Indian Ocean, come very near
+in structure to one or the other of the Atlantic forms described above,
+so much so that some zoologists have been induced to believe that there
+are but four species, each of which has a wide, almost cosmopolitan
+range, while others have described and named almost every individual
+specimen captured as belonging to a different species.[137]
+
+Tympanics, vertebræ, and other bones of Rorquals are among the commonest
+cetacean remains found in the Pliocene Crags of England and Belgium.
+Several species, varying in dimensions, are known from these deposits,
+_B. definita (sibbaldina)_ being apparently nearly related to the
+existing _B. sibbaldi_. A caudal vertebra from the Upper Eocene of
+Hampshire has been referred to _Balænoptera_, but does not afford
+sufficient evidence to prove the existence of the genus at that date.
+
+_Extinct Genera._—The extinct genus _Cetotherium_ of the European
+Pliocene may be taken to include a number of fossil Whalebone Whales
+allied to the Balænopterine group, several of which have been
+described under other names, such as _Plesiocetus_, _Heterocetus_, and
+_Amphicetus_. They are readily characterised by the form of the tympanic
+bone, which is much narrower in front than behind, the roughened inferior
+surface being in the shape of an isosceles triangle, and the notch for
+the Eustachian canal being smaller, and descending nearer to the inferior
+border of the inner wall than in _Balænoptera_. The skull is longer than
+the latter, with a greater interval between the occiput and the frontal,
+and with longer and more flattened nasals. The relative thickness of
+the cervical vertebræ is also greater. In the typical forms (_e.g._ _C.
+brialmonti_ and _C. dubium_) the mandibular condyle is simple; but in _C.
+(Heterocetus) brevifrons_ it is furnished with a projecting posterior
+talon, as in the Sperm Whale.
+
+_Herpetocetus_ is known by a comparatively small species from the
+Belgian and English Crags, characterised by the extreme inflation of the
+egg-shaped tympanic bone, which approximates to that of _Megaptera_, but
+has the greater part of the cavity filled by bone. There is a talon to
+the condyle of the mandible.
+
+_Palæocetus_, as already mentioned (p. 232), is founded upon the
+ankylosed cervical vertebræ of a small Whale originally considered as
+having been derived from the Kimeridge Clay, but which doubtless came
+from the Suffolk Crag; if it belongs to the _Balænidæ_ it indicates a
+Right Whale.
+
+
+_Suborder_ ARCHÆOCETI.
+
+
+_Family_ ZEUGLODONTIDÆ.
+
+This group is formed to include certain extinct Cetacean-like animals at
+present only known by more or less fragmentary portions of their skeleton
+and teeth, and whose position and affinities are, therefore, still
+subject to doubt.[138]
+
+In the anterior part of both jaws the teeth are simple, conical, or
+slightly compressed, and sharp pointed. The first three in the upper jaw
+are distinctly implanted in the premaxillary bone, and so may be reckoned
+as incisors. The tooth which succeeds, or the canine, is also simple and
+conical, but it does not exceed the others in size. This is followed by
+five teeth having two distinct roots and compressed pointed crowns, with
+denticulated cutting-edges. The dentition is therefore _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁,
+_p_ and _m_ ⁵⁄₅ = 36, resembling that of some Seals.[139] General form
+of the skull elongated and much depressed. Brain-cavity very small, and
+the skull between it and the orbits elongated and narrow. Temporal fossæ
+very large. A strong sagittal crest. Rostrum long and narrow, differing
+from that of other Cetaceans in the large extent to which the premaxillæ
+form the sides of the anterior extremity. Nasal bones elongated, flat,
+and narrow, the opening of the anterior nares being over the middle of
+the elongated compressed rostrum. All the cervical vertebræ free. The
+characters of the dorsal vertebræ and mode of articulation of the ribs
+appear to have resembled those of _Platanista_ rather than _Balæna_,
+_Physeter_, or _Delphinus_. Lumbar vertebræ with elongated bodies, low
+neural spines, and the transverse processes placed low down on the
+bodies. Characters of the limbs not known with certainty.[140]
+
+All the known fossil remains belonging to the animals of this group may
+be referred, provisionally at least, to the genus _Zeuglodon_, so named
+because the first section of a molar tooth examined was taken from the
+base of the crown, where it was beginning to divide into the two roots,
+and looked like two single teeth “linked or yoked together.” This name
+was substituted by Owen for the earlier one _Basilosaurus_ of Harlan,
+with the consent of that author, on the mammalian nature of the animal
+being demonstrated.[141] The latter name is, however, still generally
+retained by American zoologists. The remains have hitherto been found
+chiefly in the Eocene formations of the States of Alabama, Louisiana,
+Mississippi, and Arkansas, and have been assigned to several species.
+A portion of a skull is recorded from the Barton Clay (Eocene) of
+Hampshire, England.
+
+
+_Suborder_ ODONTOCETI, _the_ DELPHINOIDEA, _or Toothed Whales_.
+
+Calcified teeth always present after birth; generally numerous, but
+sometimes a very limited number (in a few cases none) are functionally
+developed. No baleen. Upper surface of the skull more or less
+asymmetrical. Nasal bones in the form of nodules or flattened plates,
+applied closely to the frontals, and not forming any part of the roof to
+the narial passage, which is directed upwards and backwards. Olfactory
+organ rudimentary or absent. Hinder end of the maxilla expanded and
+covering the greater part of the orbital plate of the frontal bone.
+Lachrymal bone either inseparable from the jugal, or, when distinct,
+very large, and forming part of the roof of the orbit. Tympanic bone
+not ankylosed with the periotic, which is usually only attached to the
+rest of the skull by ligament. Rami of mandible nearly straight, much
+expanded in height posteriorly, with a wide funnel-shaped aperture to
+the dental canal, and coming in contact in front by a flat surface of
+variable length, but always constituting a true symphysis. Several of the
+anterior ribs with well-developed capitular processes, articulating with
+the bodies of the vertebræ. Sternum almost always composed of several
+pieces, placed one behind the other, with which several pairs of ribs
+are always connected by the intervention of well-developed cartilaginous
+or ossified sternal ribs. External respiratory aperture single, the two
+nostrils uniting before they reach the surface, usually in the form of a
+transverse subcrescentic valvular aperture, situated on the top of the
+head. Manus always pentadactylous, though the first and fifth digits are
+usually very little developed. No cæcum, except in _Platanista_.
+
+
+_Family_ PHYSETERIDÆ.
+
+No functional teeth in the upper jaw. Mandibular teeth various, often
+much reduced in number. Bones of the cranium raised so as to form an
+elevated prominence or crest behind the nares. Pterygoid bones thick,
+produced backwards, meeting in the middle line, and not involuted to form
+the outer wall of the post-palatine air-sinuses, but simply hollowed
+on their outer side. Anterior facet of periotic bone (Fig. 87) for
+articulation with the tympanic quite smooth; and the posterior tympanic
+surface of the former broad, with a median longitudinal ridge. Transverse
+processes of the arches of the dorsal vertebræ, to which the tubercles
+of the ribs are attached, ceasing abruptly near the end of the series,
+and replaced by processes on the body at a much lower level, and not on a
+line or serially homologous with them, but serially homologous anteriorly
+with the heads of the ribs, and posteriorly with the transverse
+processes of the lumbar vertebræ. (In some genera, as _Physeter_, the
+two processes, upper and lower on each side, are both present and well
+developed in the same vertebra in the region of transition. In others,
+as _Ziphius_ and _Berardius_, they are not both developed on any single
+vertebra.) Costal cartilages not ossified.
+
+Subfamily =Physeterinæ=.—Numerous teeth in the mandible, which are not
+set in distinct bony alveoli, but in a long groove imperfectly divided by
+partial septa, and held in place by the strong, fibrous gum surrounding
+them. No distinct lachrymal bone. Cranium strikingly asymmetrical in
+the region of the narial apertures, in consequence of the left opening
+greatly exceeding the right in size.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.—Skull of Sperm Whale (_Physeter macrocephalus_).]
+
+_Physeter._[142]—Upper teeth apparently of uncertain number, rudimentary,
+and functionless, being embedded in the gum. Lower jaw with from 20 to
+25 teeth on each side, stout, conical, recurved, and pointed at the
+apex until they are worn, without enamel. Upper surface of the cranium
+concave; its posterior and lateral edges raised into a very high and
+greatly compressed semicircular crest or wall. Zygomatic processes of
+jugal bones thick and massive. Rostrum greatly elongated, broad at the
+base, and gradually tapering to the apex. Upper edge of the mesethmoid
+forming a roughened irregular projection between the narial apertures,
+inclining to the left side. Mandible exceedingly long and narrow, the
+symphysis being more than half the length of the ramus. Vertebræ: C 7,
+D 11, L 8, C 24; total 50. Atlas free; all the other cervical vertebræ
+united by their bodies and spines into a single mass. Eleventh pair of
+ribs rudimentary. Head about one-third the length of the body; very
+massive, high and truncated, and rather compressed in front; owing its
+huge size and remarkable form mainly to the accumulation of an oily
+substance secreted by the lining membranes of great cells surrounding the
+narial passage and filling the large hollow on the upper surface of the
+cranium and overlying the rostrum. The single blowhole is longitudinal,
+slightly sigmoid, and placed at the upper and anterior extremity of the
+head to the left side of the middle line. The opening of the mouth is on
+the under side of the head, considerably behind the end of the snout.
+Pectoral fin short, broad, and obliquely truncated. Dorsal fin a mere low
+protuberance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.—The Sperm Whale (_Physeter macrocephalus_).]
+
+The only representative of this genus is the Cachalot or Sperm Whale (_P.
+macrocephalus_, Fig. 83), one of the most colossal of animals, quite
+equalling, if not exceeding, the Greenland Whale in bulk. The length of
+the full-grown male is from 55 to 60 feet, but the female is stated not
+to reach more than half that size. The general colour of the surface
+is black above and gray below, the colours gradually shading into each
+other. The Sperm Whale is one of the most widely distributed of animals,
+being met with usually in herds or “schools” in almost all tropical and
+subtropical seas, but not occurring, except accidentally, in the Polar
+regions. Not unfrequently specimens appear on the coasts of the British
+Isles, but only as solitary stragglers, or as dead carcases, floated
+northwards by the Gulf Stream. It is remarkable that every one of these
+of which we have an accurate record has been an old male. The food of
+this Whale consists mainly of various species of cephalopods (squid and
+cuttle-fish), but fish of considerable size are also eaten. The substance
+called “ambergris,” formerly used in medicine and now in perfumery, is a
+concretion formed in the intestine of this Whale, and is found floating
+on the surface of the seas it inhabits. Its genuineness is proved by the
+presence of the horny beaks of the cephalopods on which the Whale feeds.
+
+The oil contained in the great cavity above the skull, when refined,
+yields “spermaceti,” and the thick covering of blubber which everywhere
+envelops the body produces the valuable “sperm-oil” of commerce; hence
+this animal has long been the subject of a regular chase, by which its
+numbers have been greatly diminished.
+
+_Cogia._[143]—Teeth of the upper jaw absent, or reduced to a rudimentary
+pair in front; in the lower jaw 9 to 12 on each side, rather long,
+slender, pointed, and curved, with a coating of enamel. Upper surface
+of the cranium concave, with thick, raised posterior and lateral
+margins, massive and rounded at their anterior terminations above the
+orbits. Upper edge of the mesethmoid forming a prominent sinuous ridge,
+constituting a kind of longitudinal septum to the base of the great
+supra-cranial cavity. Rostrum not longer than the cranial portion of the
+skull, broad at the base, and rapidly tapering to the apex. Zygomatic
+process of the jugal styliform. Mandible with the symphysis less than
+half the length of the entire ramus. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13 or 14, L and C
+30; total 50 or 51. All the cervical vertebræ united by their bodies and
+arches. External characters not well known, but, judging by the somewhat
+conflicting accounts of those that have had an opportunity of observing
+them, the head is about one-sixth of the length of the body, and obtusely
+pointed in front; the mouth small, and placed far below the apex of the
+snout; the spiracle crescentic, and placed obliquely on the top of the
+head anteriorly to the eyes, and to the left of the middle line; the
+pectoral fins are obtusely falcate; and there is a triangular dorsal fin.
+
+The history of this genus is a good illustration of the difficulties
+in which the study of the Cetacea has been involved by the superficial
+manner in which it has been investigated. The first known example, a
+skull from the Cape of Good Hope in the Paris Museum, was described by De
+Blainville under the name of _Physeter breviceps_. This was afterwards
+with good reason generically separated by Gray. Until within a very
+few years ago only five other individuals had been met with, each of
+which had been described under a different specific name (viz. _grayi_,
+_macleayi_, _simus_, _floweri_, and _potsii_), and which are arranged
+by Gray in two distinct genera. The most careful examination of the
+description given of these specimens, or of the now numerous osteological
+remains available, fails to detect any differences beyond those which
+may be attributed to age or sex, and hence, according to our present
+knowledge, these six supposed species must all be included under one
+name, _C. breviceps_. This animal appears to attain the length of 10 feet
+when adult, and has been met with at various distant localities in the
+Southern Ocean, and also off the coast of Madras and in the North Pacific.
+
+_Extinct Physeteroids._—Teeth of Physeteroids are of very common
+occurrence in the Belgian and English Crags, and evidently indicate the
+former existence of Whales more or less closely allied to the Sperm
+Whale, but often distinguished by the presence of an enamel-cap on
+the crowns of the teeth. The generic determination of these teeth is,
+however, exceedingly difficult, owing to the water-worn condition in
+which they are frequently found, and also on account of the impossibility
+of knowing whether small and large teeth may not be referable to
+different parts of the jaws of the same species or to individuals of
+different ages. Moreover, in the cases of isolated teeth it is impossible
+to know how many were contained in the jaws, and therefore to distinguish
+Physeteroid from Ziphioid teeth. _Physeterula_ is a small form about
+one-third the dimensions of the Sperm Whale, and distinguished by the
+length of the mandibular symphysis being only about one-third that of the
+entire ramus; it is identified by Professor Cope with _Cogia_. _Eucetus_
+(_Dinoziphius_) is founded on teeth which are regarded as closely
+resembling those of _Physeter_, but distinguished by their subcylindrical
+form and the small size of the aperture of the pulp-cavity. It does not
+appear, however, to be certain that these teeth are not worn specimens
+of those described as _Scaldicetus_. _Physetodon_, from the Pliocene of
+Australia, is founded upon the evidence of similar teeth. The teeth from
+the Belgian Crag described as _Scaldicetus_ are somewhat smaller than
+those of the Sperm Whale, and are readily characterised by their cap
+of grooved enamel. Other teeth with enamel-caps have been described as
+_Physodon_ and _Hoplocetus_. The genus _Balænodon_ is founded upon a very
+imperfect large tooth from the English Crag, which is not sufficiently
+well preserved to admit of exact comparison with the other types.
+
+Subfamily =Ziphiinæ=.—Teeth of the mandible (at least in existing forms)
+quite rudimentary and concealed in the gum, except one, or very rarely
+two, pairs which may be largely developed, especially in the male sex.
+A distinct lachrymal bone. Externally the mouth is produced into a
+slender rostrum or beak, from above which the rounded eminence formed by
+a cushion of fat resting on the cranium in front of the blowhole rises
+somewhat abruptly. Spiracle or blowhole single, crescentic, median, as
+in the _Delphinidæ_. Pectoral fin small, ovate, the five digits all
+moderately well developed. A small obtusely falcate dorsal fin situated
+considerably behind the middle of the back. Longitudinal grooves on
+each side of the skin of the throat, diverging posteriorly, and nearly
+meeting in front. In external characters and habits the animals of this
+group closely resemble each other. They appear to be almost exclusively
+feeders on various species of cephalopods, and occur either singly, in
+pairs, or in small herds. By their dental and osteological characters
+they are easily separated into four distinct genera.
+
+_Hyperoödon._[144]—A small conical pointed tooth at the apex of each
+ramus of the mandible, concealed by the gum during life. Skull with the
+upper ends of the premaxillæ rising suddenly behind the nares to the
+vertex and expanded laterally, their outer edges curving backwards and
+their anterior surfaces arching forwards and overhanging the nares; the
+right larger than the left. Nasal bones lying in the hollow between the
+upper extremities of the premaxillæ, strongly concave in the middle line
+and in front; their outer edges, especially on the right side, expanded
+over the front of the inner border of the maxilla. Very high longitudinal
+crests on the maxillæ at the base of the rostrum, extending backwards
+almost to the nares, approaching each other in the middle line above;
+sometimes so massive that their inner edges come almost in contact.
+Anteorbital notch distinct. Mesethmoid but slightly ossified. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 9, L 10, C 19; total 45. All the cervical vertebræ united. Upper
+surface of the head in front of the blowhole hole very prominent and
+rounded, rising abruptly from above the small, distinct snout.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.—_Hyperoödon rostratus._ From a female specimen
+taken off the coast of Scotland, 1882.]
+
+The genus is known typically by _H. rostratus_ (Fig. 84), but an
+imperfect skull has been made the type of _H. planifrons_—a species
+differing considerably in cranial characters from the typical one. The
+females and young males of the first-named species have the contour of
+the head of the same general form as in Fig. 84; the premaxillary crests
+of the cranium being widely separated from one another, and terminating
+in comparatively sharp edges. In the males, however, as age advances the
+summits of these crests become gradually expanded and flattened, till
+they are almost or quite in contact in the middle line. This development
+of the maxillary crests produces a corresponding elevation and flattening
+of the front of the head, so that in very old males this aspect presents
+a flattened disc-like surface rising abruptly from the beak (which thus
+becomes almost buried) and situated in a plane nearly at right angles to
+the line of the back.[145] So different, indeed, is the appearance of the
+skull of an old male from that of a female individual that it was long
+considered that they belonged to different species—the male form having
+been described as _H. latifrons_. The length of an adult male reaches 30
+feet, while that of the female does not exceed 24 feet.
+
+The Hyperoödon, sometimes called “Bottlenose,” a name also vaguely given
+to several species of Dolphin, is a regular inhabitant of the North
+Atlantic, passing the summer in the Spitzbergen seas and going farther
+south in winter. It resembles the Sperm Whale in possessing a large
+store of oil in the upper part of the head, which yields spermaceti when
+refined; on this account, and also for the sake of the blubber, which
+supplies an oil almost indistinguishable from sperm-oil, this Whale has
+been the object of a regular chase in recent years.
+
+The following account of its habits is taken from a paper by Captain D.
+Gray, published in the _Zoological Society’s Proceedings_ for 1882:—
+
+“These Whales are occasionally met with immediately after leaving the
+Shetland Isles in March, and north across the ocean until the ice is
+reached, near the margin of which they are found in the greatest numbers;
+but they are seldom seen amongst it. Although it is not in their nature
+to keep in amongst the ice, they like to frequent the open bays for the
+shelter it gives them from the sea. Sometimes a point of ice overlaps
+them; it is then only that they are seen going out again towards the
+ocean. They are also to be met with from the entrance of Hudson’s Straits
+and up Davis’s Straits, as far as 70° N. lat., and down the east side
+round Cape Farewell, all round Iceland, north along the Greenland ice
+to 77° N. lat.; also along the west coast of Spitzbergen, and east to
+Cherry Island in lat. 72° N. and long. 19° E. Beyond these limits I
+have never seen them; but doubtless they are to be found as far as the
+Straits of Belle Isle on the west, and east to Nova Zembla. From the
+fact that they are not seen in summer farther south than a day’s sail
+from the ice, it would appear that they migrate south in the autumn, and
+north again in the spring. They are gregarious in their habits, going
+in herds of from four to ten. It is rare to see more than the latter
+number together, although many different herds are frequently in sight
+at the same time. The adult males very often go by themselves; but young
+bulls, cows, and calves, with an old male as a leader, are sometimes seen
+together. They are very unsuspicious, coming close alongside the ship,
+round about underneath the boats, until their curiosity is satisfied....
+They vary in colour from black in the young to light brown in the
+older animals. The very old turn almost yellow, the beak and front of
+the head being quite white, with a white band round their necks; all
+of them are grayish-white on the belly. They can leap many feet out
+of the water, even having time while in the air to turn round their
+heads and look about them, taking the water head first, and not falling
+helplessly into it sideways like the larger whales. The full-grown
+whale is 30 feet long by 20 feet in circumference, and yields two tons
+of oil besides two hundredweight of spermaceti.... Their ordinary food
+consists of a bluish-white cuttle-fish, six inches long by three inches
+in circumference, and pointed towards the tail.... They evidently have a
+great depth to go to find them, judging from the length of time that they
+remain away, and from the long heavy blasts they make on coming to the
+surface again.”
+
+Periotic bones of _Hyperoödon_ are found in the Red Crag of Suffolk,
+presenting no character by which they can be specifically distinguished
+from those of the common existing species.
+
+_Ziphius._[146]—A single conical tooth of moderate size on each side of
+the mandible close to the anterior extremity, and directed forwards and
+upwards. Skull with the premaxillæ immediately in front of, and at the
+sides of the nares expanded, hollowed, and with elevated lateral margins,
+the posterior ends rising to the vertex and curving forwards, the right
+being considerably more developed than the left; the conjoint nasals
+forming a strongly pronounced symmetrical eminence at the top of the
+cranium, projecting forwards over the nares, flat above, most prominent
+and rounded in the middle line in front, and separated by a notch on
+each side from the premaxillæ. Anteorbital notch not distinct. Rostrum
+(seen from above) triangular, gradually tapering from the base to the
+apex; upper and outer edges of maxillæ at base of rostrum raised into low
+roughened tuberosities. Mesethmoid cartilage densely ossified in adult
+age, and coalescing with the surrounding bones of the rostrum. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 10, L 10, C 22; total 49. The three anterior cervical vertebræ
+united, the rest free.
+
+The type of this genus is _Z. cavirostris_ of Cuvier, founded upon an
+imperfect skull picked up in 1804 on the Mediterranean coast of France,
+and described and figured in the _Ossemens Fossiles_ under the impression
+that it was that of an extinct species. Many other individuals have,
+however, been subsequently met with in various parts of the world, from
+the Shetland Islands to New Zealand, all referable to the same genus,
+if not to the same species; although, as is usual in such cases, they
+have mostly been described under different names, the so-called genera
+_Petrorhynchus_ and _Epiodon_ being probably referable to the type
+species.
+
+It is quite probable that some of the Physeteroid teeth from the Crag
+deposits mentioned on p. 251 may be referable to _Ziphius_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.—_Mesoplodon bidens._ From Reinhardt.]
+
+_Mesoplodon._[147]—A much compressed and pointed tooth in each ramus of
+the mandible, variously situated, but generally at some distance behind
+the apex (Fig. 86); its point directed upwards, and often somewhat
+backwards, occasionally developed to a great size. Skull with the region
+around the nares as in _Hyperoödon_, except that the nasals are narrow
+and more sunk between the upper ends of the premaxillæ; like those of
+_Hyperoödon_, they are concave in the middle line in front and above.
+No maxillary tuberosities. Anteorbital notch not very distinct. Rostrum
+long, narrow, and solid throughout. Mesethmoid in adult age ossified in
+its entire length, coalescing with the surrounding bones, and showing as
+a narrow band on the upper surface of the rostrum. Vertebræ: C 7, D 10,
+L 10 or 11, C 19 or 20; total 46 to 48. Two or three anterior cervicals
+united, the rest usually free.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.—Left lateral view of skull of _Mesoplodon
+densirostris_.]
+
+Though varying in form, the mandibular teeth of the different members
+of this genus agree in their essential structure, having a small and
+pointed enamel-covered crown, composed of true dentine, which, instead
+of surmounting a root of the ordinary character, is raised upon a solid
+mass of osteodentine. The continuous growth of this greatly alters the
+form and general appearance of the organ as age advances, as seen most
+strikingly in the case of _M. layardi_, where the long, narrow, flat,
+strap-like teeth, curving inwards at their extremities, actually meet
+over the rostrum, and must greatly interfere with the movements of the
+jaw. In one species (_M. grayi_) a row of minute, conical, pointed
+teeth, like those of ordinary Dolphins, 17 to 19 in number, are present
+even in the adults, on each side of the middle part of the upper jaw, but
+embedded by their roots only in the gum, and not in bony alveoli. This
+fact, with the frequent presence of rudimentary teeth in other species of
+this and the last genus in both upper and lower jaws, suggests the idea
+that the Ziphioids are derived from ancestral forms which had teeth of
+normal character in both jaws; the dentition of the living forms having
+become greatly specialised. The existing species of this genus are widely
+distributed in both northern and southern hemispheres, but most frequent
+in the latter. The best established are _M. bidens_, _M. europæus_, _M.
+densirostris_, _M. layardi_, _M. grayi_, and _M. hectori_; but there is
+still much to be learned with regard to their distinctive characters and
+geographical distribution. They were abundant in the Pliocene age, as
+attested by the frequency with which the most imperishable and easily
+recognised portion of their structure, the long, cylindrical rostrum
+of the skull, of more than ivory denseness, is found among the rolled
+and water-worn fragments of animal remains which compose the well-known
+“bone-bed” at the base of the Red Crag of Suffolk Several species have
+been founded upon the evidence of these rostra. Periotic bones of this
+genus (Fig. 87) are of less common occurrence in the Crag; the figure
+is given to illustrate the characteristic features of this bone in the
+present family.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.—The left periotic bone of _Mesoplodon_; from the
+Red Crag of Suffolk. The smooth concave surface in the right upper corner
+of the figure forms the anterior articulation with the tympanic. (From
+the _Cat. Foss. Mamm. Brit. Mus._ pt. v. p. 70.)]
+
+_Berardius._[148]—Two moderate-sized, compressed, pointed teeth on
+each side of the symphysis of the mandible, with their apices directed
+forwards, the anterior being the larger of the two and close to the apex.
+Upper ends of the premaxillæ nearly symmetrical, moderately elevated,
+very slightly expanded, and not curved forward over the nares. Nasals
+broad, massive, and rounded, of nearly equal size, forming the vertex
+of the skull, flattened in front, most prominent in the middle line.
+Anteorbital notch distinct. Rostrum long and narrow. Mesethmoid only
+partially ossified. Small rugous eminences on the outer edge of the upper
+surface of the maxillæ at base of rostrum. Vertebræ: C 7, D 10, L 12, C
+19; total 48. The three anterior cervicals ankylosed, the rest free and
+well developed.
+
+The only known species, _B. arnuxi_, attains the length of 30 feet, and
+has hitherto only been met with in the seas around New Zealand.
+
+_Choneziphius._[149]—The rostral portions of crania from the Antwerp and
+Suffolk Crags, on the evidence of which this genus has been established,
+agree with those of _Mesoplodon_ in having the premaxillæ in contact with
+the intervening bones throughout the length of their inner surfaces, and
+also in showing only a very small portion of the vomer on the inferior
+surface; they differ, however, in that the mesethmoid cartilage remains
+unossified, whereby a fistular vacuity remains. In some species the
+soldering of the inner surfaces of the premaxillæ is incomplete. The
+interorbital region of the skull is flat; and there are two pits in the
+nasal region, of which the right is the larger.
+
+
+_Family_ SQUALODONTIDÆ.
+
+Numerous extinct forms, chiefly known by teeth and fragments of crania,
+may be provisionally placed here, until more of their osteological
+characters shall be brought to light. They differ from all existing
+Cetaceans in having the teeth distinctly differentiated into groups,
+as in the Archæoceti, the posterior molars being two-rooted. The
+cranium has, however, none of the distinguishing characteristics of the
+Zeuglodonts, but essentially resembles that of the Odontoceti, especially
+in the position of the anterior nares and form of the nasal bones.
+
+_Squalodon._[150]—All the forms may be included in this genus, the
+so-called _Rhizoprion_ not being distinct. Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁,
+simple teeth of the molar series (premolars?) ⁴⁄₄, two-rooted molars
+⁷⁄₇ = ¹⁵⁄₁₅; total 60. The double-rooted molars differ from those of
+_Zeuglodon_ in having the denticulations of the crown confined to the
+posterior border, or at all events much less developed on the front
+edge. Very little is known of the structure of these animals beyond the
+skull and teeth, fragments of which have been found widely distributed
+throughout the marine Miocene and early Pliocene formations of Europe,
+especially in the Vienna basin, many parts of France, and the Antwerp and
+Suffolk Crags. They have also been found in formations of corresponding
+age in North America and South Australia. A few isolated teeth have been
+met with in the cave-deposits of Italy, which, if contemporaneous with
+the beds in which they occur, indicate the survival of the genus into the
+Pleistocene period.
+
+
+_Family_ PLATANISTIDÆ.
+
+Under this heading may be placed three very singular genera, which,
+though differing considerably from each other, have several points in
+common, and do not altogether come under the definition either of the
+_Physeteridæ_ or the _Delphinidæ_, especially in the important character
+of the mode of articulation of the ribs with the dorsal vertebræ, the
+tubercular and capitular articulations, distinct at the commencement of
+the series, gradually blending together, as they do in most ordinary
+mammals. The cervical vertebræ are all free. The lachrymal bone is not
+distinct from the jugal. The jaws are long and narrow, with numerous
+teeth in both. The symphysis of the mandible exceeds half the length
+of the whole ramus. Externally the head is divided from the body by a
+slightly constricted neck. Pectoral limbs broad and truncated. Dorsal fin
+small or obsolete. Fluviatile or estuarine in habits. There are three
+distinct genera, which might almost be made the types of families, but it
+is probably more convenient to keep them together, only regarding them as
+representing three subfamilies.
+
+_Platanista._[151]—Teeth about ³⁰⁄₃₀ on each side, set near together,
+rather large, cylindrical, and sharp-pointed in the young; in old animals
+acquiring a large laterally compressed base, which in the posterior part
+of the series becomes irregularly divided into roots. As the conical
+enamel-covered crown wears away, the teeth of the young and old animals
+have a totally different appearance. The rostrum and dentigerous portion
+of the mandible are so narrow that the teeth of the two sides are almost
+in contact. Maxillæ supporting very large, incurved, compressed bony
+crests, which overarch the nares and base of the rostrum, and almost meet
+in the middle line above. Orbits very small and eyes rudimentary, without
+crystalline lens. External respiratory aperture longitudinal, linear.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 10, L 9, C 26; total: 52. A small cæcum. No pelvic
+bones. Dorsal fin represented by a low ridge.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88.—_Platanista gangetica._ (From Anderson.)]
+
+One species, _P. gangetica_, entirely fluviatile, being extensively
+distributed throughout nearly the whole of the river systems, not only of
+the Ganges, but of the Brahmaputra and Indus, ascending as high as there
+is water enough to swim in, but never passing out to sea. It is quite
+blind, and feeds on small fish and crustaceans, groping for them with
+its long snout in the muddy water at the bottom of the rivers. It attains
+the length of 8 feet.[152]
+
+_Inia._[153]—Teeth variable, from 26 to 33 on either side of each jaw;
+those at the posterior part with a distinct tubercle at the inner side
+of the base of the crown. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 3, C 18; total 41.
+Transverse processes of lumbar vertebræ very broad. Sternum short and
+broad, and consisting of a single segment only. Dorsal fin a mere ridge.
+The long cylindrical rostrum externally furnished with scattered, stout,
+and crisp hairs. One species only is known, _I. geoffroyensis_, about 7
+feet in length, inhabiting the upper Amazon and its tributary streams.
+
+_Pontoporia._[154]—Teeth 50 to 60 on either side of each jaw, with a
+cingulum at the base of the crown. Jaws very long and slender. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 10, L 5, C 19; total 41. Transverse processes of the lumbar
+vertebræ extremely broad. Sternum elongated, composed of two segments,
+with four sternal ribs attached. Dorsal fin rather small, triangular,
+pointed. External respiratory aperture transverse, crescentic. This genus
+connects the last two forms with the true _Delphinidæ_. The only species,
+_P. blainvillei_, is one of the smallest members of the whole order, not
+exceeding 5 feet in length. It has only been met with at the mouth of the
+Rio de la Plata, near Buenos Ayres, and there is at present no evidence
+that it ascends into the fresh waters of the river.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89.—_Pontoporia blainvillei._ (From Burmeister.)]
+
+_Fossil forms._—Remains of a Cetacean from the Pleistocene of South
+America were referred by Bravard to _Pontoporia_, but they have been
+regarded by other writers as indicating a distinct genus, for which
+the names _Palæopontoporia_ and _Pontistes_ have been proposed. The
+Upper Tertiary European genera _Champsodelphis_ and _Schizodelphis_
+are generally referred to the present family. The former has wide
+transverse processes to the lumbar vertebræ, as in _Inia_, while the
+teeth also resemble those of that genus. In _Schizodelphis_ the form
+of the rostrum presents a great resemblance to that of the Delphinoid
+genus _Steno_, but the symphysis of the mandible is relatively longer. A
+number of fossil Cetaceans from the Miocene of the United States, such
+as _Priscodelphinus_, _Lophocetus_, _Ixacanthus_, _Rhabdosteus_, etc.,
+are referred by Professor E. D. Cope to this family. _Agabelus_, from the
+same deposits, is an apparently allied, but toothless type.
+
+
+_Family_ DELPHINIDÆ.
+
+Teeth usually numerous in both jaws. Pterygoid bones short, thin, each
+involuted to form with a process of the palate bone the outer wall of
+the post-palatine air-sinus. Symphysis of mandible short, or moderate,
+never exceeding one-third of the length of the ramus. Lachrymal bone not
+distinct from the jugal. The anterior facet on the periotic (Fig. 96)
+for articulation with the tympanic deeply grooved; and the posterior
+tympanic surface of the same bone comparatively narrow, with its ridge
+for articulation with the free border of the tympanic ill-defined, and
+situated close to one edge. Transverse processes of the dorsal vertebræ
+gradually transferred from the arches to the bodies of the vertebræ
+without any sudden break, and becoming posteriorly continuous serially
+with the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebræ. Anterior ribs
+attached to the transverse process by the tubercle, and to the body of
+the vertebra by the head; the latter attachment lost in the posterior
+ribs. Sternal ribs firmly ossified. External respiratory aperture
+transverse, crescentic, with the horns of the crescent pointing forwards.
+
+A very large group, closely united in essential characters but
+presenting great modifications in details. The different types are
+mostly so connected by intermediate or osculant forms that there are
+great difficulties in grouping them into natural subfamilies. Even the
+formation of well-defined genera is by no means satisfactory in all
+cases. They may, however, be divided, perhaps artificially, into two
+groups.
+
+_Group A._—Head rounded, without distinct rostrum or beak. Rostrum of
+skull about as long as cranial portion.
+
+_Monodon._[155]—Besides some irregular rudimentary teeth, the entire
+dentition is reduced to a single pair of teeth which lie horizontally in
+the maxilla, and in the female remain permanently concealed within the
+alveolus so that this sex is practically toothless, while in the male
+(see Fig. 90) the right tooth usually remains similarly concealed and
+abortive, and the left is immensely developed, attaining a length equal
+to more than half that of the entire animal, projecting horizontally from
+the head in the form of a cylindrical, or slightly tapering, pointed
+tusk, without enamel, and with the surface marked by spiral grooves
+and ridges, running in a sinistral direction. (When, as occasionally
+happens, both tusks are developed, the spiral grooves have the same
+direction in each.) Pterygoids very small, not meeting in the middle
+line, but approximating posteriorly. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11, L 6, C 26;
+total 50. Cervical region comparatively long, and all the vertebræ
+distinct, or with irregular unions towards the middle of the series, the
+atlas and axis being usually free. Manus small, short, and broad; second
+and third digits nearly equal, fourth slightly shorter. No dorsal fin.
+
+This genus is now represented only by the well-known Narwhal (_M.
+monoceros_), in which the horn-like tusk of the male often grows to a
+length of 7 or 8 feet. In very young animals several small additional
+teeth, irregular in number and position, are present, but these usually
+disappear soon after birth.
+
+The head is rather short and rounded; the fore limbs or paddles are small
+and broad compared with those of most Dolphins; and (as in the Beluga)
+the median dorsal fin, found in nearly all other members of the group, is
+wanting or replaced by a low ridge. The general colour of the surface is
+dark gray above and white below, but variously marbled and spotted with
+different shades of gray. In the general contour of the body the Narwhal
+resembles the White Whale or Beluga.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.—Upper surface of the skull of male Narwhal
+(_Monodon monoceros_), with the whole of both teeth exposed by removal of
+the upper wall of their alveolar cavities.]
+
+The Narwhal is essentially an Arctic animal, frequenting the icy
+circumpolar seas, and but rarely seen south of 65° N. lat. Three
+instances have, however, been recorded of its occurrence on the
+British coasts, one in the Firth of Forth in 1648, one near Boston in
+Lincolnshire in 1800, while a third, which entangled itself among the
+rocks in the Sound of Weesdale, Shetland, in September 1808, is described
+by Fleming in the _Memoirs of the Wernerian Society_, vol. i. Like most
+other Cetaceans, it is gregarious in its habits, being usually met with
+in “schools” or herds of fifteen or twenty individuals. Its food appears
+to be various species of cephalopods, small fishes, and crustaceans.
+The purpose served in the animal’s economy by the wonderfully developed
+asymmetrical tusk—or “horn,” as it is commonly but erroneously called—is
+not known. As it is present only in the male sex, no function essential
+to the well-being of the individual, such as the procuring of sustenance,
+can be assigned to it, but it must be looked upon as belonging to the
+same category of organs as the antlers of deer, and perhaps may be
+applied to similar purposes. Very little is, however, known of the habits
+of Narwhals. Scoresby describes them as “extremely playful, frequently
+elevating their horns and crossing them with each other as in fencing.”
+They have never been known to charge and pierce the bottom of ships with
+their weapons, as the sword-fish often does. The name “Sea Unicorn,”
+sometimes applied to the Narwhal, refers to the resemblance of its tusk
+to the horn represented as projecting from the forehead of the fabled
+unicorn. The ivory of which the tusk is composed is of very good quality,
+but, owing to the central cavity, which extends the greater part of its
+length, is only fitted for the manufacture of objects of small size.
+The entire tusks are sometimes used for decorative purposes, and are of
+considerable, though very fluctuating, commercial value.
+
+_Delphinapterus._[156]—This genus is closely allied to the last in
+external form, as well as anatomical structure, differing mainly in
+the very distinct character of the dentition. Teeth from ⁸⁄₈ to ¹⁰⁄₁₀,
+occupying the anterior three-fourths of the rostrum and corresponding
+portion of the mandible, rather small, conical, and pointed when unworn,
+but usually becoming obliquely truncated, separated by intervals
+considerably wider than the diameter of the tooth, and implanted
+obliquely, the crowns inclining forwards, especially in the upper jaw.
+Skull rather narrow and elongated, depressed. Premaxillæ convex in front
+of the nares. Rostrum about equal in length to the cranial portion of the
+skull, triangular, broad at the base, and gradually contracting towards
+the apex, where it is somewhat curved downwards. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11,
+L 9, C 23; total 50. Cervical vertebræ free. Manus broad, short, and
+rounded, all the digits being tolerably well developed, except the first.
+No dorsal fin, but a low ridge in its place.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.—Beluga or White Whale (_Delphinapterus leucas_).
+From a specimen taken in the river St. Lawrence, and exhibited in London,
+1877.]
+
+One existing species, _D. leucas_ (Fig. 91), the Beluga or White Whale,
+so called from its pure white colour, about 12 feet long, abundant in
+the Arctic seas, and extending as far south on the American coast as the
+river St. Lawrence, which it ascends for a considerable distance. On rare
+occasions it has been seen on the coast of Scotland.
+
+Remains of a Cetacean from the Lower Pliocene of Tuscany have been
+referred by Brandt to this genus under the name _D. brocchii_.
+
+In all the remaining genera of _Delphinidæ_ the cervical region of the
+vertebral column is very short, and the first two, and usually more, of
+the vertebræ are firmly united.
+
+_Phocæna._[157]—Teeth ²⁵⁄₂₅, small, occupying nearly the whole length
+of the rostrum, with compressed, spade-shaped crowns, separated from
+the root by a constricted neck (Fig. 92). Rostrum rather shorter than
+the cranium proper, broad at the base and tapering towards the apex.
+Premaxillæ raised into tuberosities in front of the nares. The frontal
+bones forming a somewhat square, elevated protuberance in the middle line
+of the skull behind the nares, rising altogether above the flattened
+nasals. Pterygoids very small, and widely separated in the middle line.
+Symphysis of mandible very short. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 14, C 31; total
+65 (subject to slight individual variations). First to sixth cervical
+vertebræ, and sometimes the seventh also, coalesced. Manus of moderate
+size, oval, slightly falcate; second and third digits nearly equal in
+length; fourth and fifth well developed, but shorter. Dorsal fin near the
+middle of the back, triangular; its height considerably less than the
+length of the base; its anterior edge frequently furnished with one or
+more rows of conical horny tubercles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.—Teeth of Porpoise. Twice natural size.]
+
+The common Porpoise (Fig. 93), _P. communis_, is the best known of
+British Cetaceans. The word Porpoise (sometimes spelled Porpus and
+Porpesse) is apparently derived from the French _porc_ and _poisson_, or
+the Italian _porco_ and _pesce_, and thus corresponds with some of the
+English vernacular appellations, “hog-fish,” “sea-hog,” “herring-hog,”
+and the German _Meerschwein_, whence the usual modern French name of the
+animal, _marsouin_. “Porpoise” is commonly used by sailors to designate
+all the smaller Cetaceans, especially those numerous species which
+naturalists call “Dolphins”; but in scientific language it is restricted
+to the genus _Phocæna_ of Cuvier, of which the Porpoise of the British
+seas, _Phocæna communis_, Cuvier (_Delphinus phocæna_, Linnæus), is the
+type.
+
+The Common Porpoise, when full grown, attains a length of 5 feet or a
+little more. The dimensions of an adult female specimen from the English
+Channel were as follows:—length in straight line from nose to median
+notch between the flukes of the tail, 62½ inches; from the nose to the
+anterior edge of the dorsal fin, 29 inches; height of dorsal fin, 4½
+inches; length of base of dorsal fin, 8 inches; length of pectoral fin,
+9¼ inches; breadth of pectoral fin, 3½ inches; breadth of tail flukes,
+13 inches. The under jaw projects about half an inch beyond the upper
+one. The aperture of the mouth is tolerably wide, and is bounded by
+stiff immobile lips, and curves slightly upwards at the hinder end. The
+eye is small, and the external ear represented by a minute aperture in
+the skin, scarcely larger than would be made by the puncture of a pin,
+situated about 2 inches behind the eye. The pectoral fins are of moderate
+size, and slightly falcate. The upper parts are dark gray, or nearly
+black, according to the light in which they are viewed, and the state
+of moisture or otherwise of the skin; the under parts are pure white.
+The line of demarcation between these colours is not distinct (washes or
+splashes of gray encroaching upon the white on the sides), and varies
+somewhat in different individuals. Usually it passes from the throat
+(the anterior part of which, with the whole of the under jaw, is dark)
+above the origin of the pectoral fin, along the middle of the flank, and
+descends again to the middle line before reaching the tail. Both sides of
+the pectoral and caudal fins are black.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.—The Common Porpoise (_Phocæna communis_).]
+
+The Porpoise is sociable and gregarious in its habits, being usually
+seen in small herds, and frequenting coasts, bays, and estuaries rather
+than the open ocean. It is the commonest Cetacean in the seas around the
+British Isles, and not unfrequently ascends the river Thames, having been
+seen as high up as Richmond; it has also been observed in the Seine at
+Neuilly, near Paris. It frequents the Scandinavian coasts, entering the
+Baltic in the summer; and is found as far north as Baffin’s Bay, and as
+far west as the coasts of the United States. Southward its range is more
+limited than that of the Common Dolphin, as, though very common on the
+Atlantic coasts of France, it rarely enters the Mediterranean.
+
+It feeds on fish, such as mackerel, pilchards, and herrings, of which
+it devours large quantities, and, following the shoals, is often caught
+by fishermen in the nets along with its prey. In former times it was a
+common and esteemed article of food in England and in France, but is
+now rarely if ever eaten, being commercially valuable when caught only
+for the oil obtained from its blubber. Its skin is sometimes used for
+leather and boot-thongs, but the so-called “porpoise hides” are generally
+obtained from the Beluga.
+
+A closely similar if not identical species from the American coast of the
+North Pacific has been described under the name of _Phocæna vomerina_,
+and another from the mouth of the Rio de la Plata as _P. spinipennis_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.—Diagrammatic section of the stomach of the
+Porpoise. _a_, Œsophagus; _b_, left, or cardiac, compartment; _c_, middle
+compartment; _d_ and _e_, the two divisions of the right, or pyloric,
+compartment; _f_, pylorus; _g_, duodenum, dilated at its commencement;
+_h_, biliary duct.]
+
+The stomach of the Porpoise (Fig. 94) may be taken as a typical
+example of this organ in the Cetacea. The first and by far the largest
+compartment (_b_) may be regarded as a kind of crop, or dilatation of
+the large œsophagus (_a_). It is lined by a thick white epithelium,
+which ceases abruptly at the entrance into the next cavity. It
+corresponds to the cardiac compartment of the stomach in the Ungulates
+and certain Rodents; but, although its walls do not appear to contain
+peptic glands, its contents undergo partial digestion—probably caused
+by the regurgitation into it of the secretions of the second, or true
+digestive compartment (_c_). This, which is much smaller than the first,
+has very thick walls, the mucous membrane being filled with numerous
+tubular glands. The surface of this membrane is smooth and soft, being
+thrown into numerous folds, which in this genus are arranged in a very
+peculiar and characteristic manner, so as to form a series of prominent
+longitudinal ridges, each of which sends off short lateral ridges at
+right angles to itself, which interdigitate with those proceeding from
+the next longitudinal ridge. The remainder of the stomach (_d_ to _f_)
+may be compared to the pyloric antrum of the stomach of ordinary mammals.
+It is elongated, cylindrical, and intestiniform, with a smooth lining
+membrane, sharply bent upon itself, and terminating in a very small
+circular pyloric aperture (_f_). In the Porpoise the commencement of
+this cavity is constricted off from the remainder, so as to form a small
+globular sac. In most Dolphins (as _Tursiops_, _Globicephalus_, and
+_Grampus_) there are two such small sacs of very similar size and form,
+communicating by circular pylorus-like apertures; and in _Hyperoödon_ the
+whole compartment is divided by a series of constrictions into as many as
+seven separate cavities, which have been regarded as distinct stomachs.
+Immediately beyond the pylorus the duodenum has a globular dilatation, as
+in the camels and some other Ungulates, into the lower end of which the
+biliary duct (_h_) enters.
+
+An allied species, differing mainly in the absence of dorsal fin, and
+in the teeth (with the same form of crown) being fewer in number and of
+larger size, called _Delphinus phacænoides_ by Cuvier, _D. melas_ by
+Schlegel, forms the type of Gray’s genus _Neomeris_.[158] It is rather
+smaller than the Common Porpoise, and almost entirely black in colour.
+Common off the coast of Bombay, it has been met with in other parts of
+the Indian Ocean, and near Japan. The British Museum recently received
+a specimen taken in the Chinese river Yang-tse-kiang nearly a thousand
+miles from the sea, which only differs from others from India in wanting
+a patch of small horny tubercles on the back. As such tubercles are
+present or absent in otherwise similar individuals of _P. communis_,
+it is doubtful whether they can be regarded as constituting a specific
+character.
+
+_Cephalorhynchus._[159]—Rostrum as long and sometimes slightly longer
+than the cranial portion of the skull. Pterygoids widely separated from
+one another. Teeth small (less than 3 mm. in diameter), ²⁵⁄₂₅ to ³⁰⁄₃₀.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 15, C 30; total 65. Dorsal fin low, obtusely
+triangular or rounded. Pectoral fins rather small, narrow, and ovate.
+Typified by _C. heavisidei_, from the southern seas. _C. eutropia_ is
+a very distinct form from the same seas, known only by the skull, and
+referred provisionally to this genus.
+
+_Orcella._[160]—Teeth ¹²⁄₁₂ to ¹⁴⁄₁₄, small, conical, pointed, rather
+closely set, and occupying nearly the whole length of the rostrum. Skull
+subglobular, high. Rostrum nearly equal in length to the cranial portion
+of the skull, tapering. Pterygoids widely separated from one another.
+Manus of moderate size, not elongated, but somewhat pointed. All the
+bones of the digits broader than long, except the proximal phalanges of
+the index and third fingers. Dorsal fin rather small, placed behind the
+middle of the body. Two species, both of small size—_O. brevirostris_,
+from the Bay of Bengal, and _O. fluminalis_, from the Irawadi river, from
+300 to 900 miles from the sea. Our present knowledge of the anatomy,
+geographical distribution, and habits of these interesting Cetaceans is
+almost entirely due to the researches of Dr. J. Anderson.[161]
+
+_Orca._[162]—Teeth about ¹²⁄₁₂, occupying nearly the whole length of the
+rostrum, very large and stout, with conical recurved crowns, and large
+roots, expanded laterally and flattened, or rather hollowed, on the
+anterior and posterior surfaces. Rostrum about equal in length to the
+cranial part of the skull, broad and flattened above, rounded in front;
+premaxillæ broad and rather concave in front of the nares, contracted
+at the middle of the rostrum, and expanding again towards the apex.
+Pterygoids of normal form, but not quite meeting in the middle line.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 11-12, L 10, C 23; total 51 or 52. Bodies of the first
+and second and sometimes the third cervical vertebræ united; the rest
+free. Pectoral fin very large, ovate, nearly as broad as long. All the
+phalanges and metacarpals broader than long. General form of body robust.
+Dorsal fin near the middle of the back, very high and pointed. Anterior
+part of the head broad and depressed.
+
+The animals composing this genus are met with in almost all seas from
+Greenland to Tasmania, but the number of species is still uncertain,
+and possibly they may be all reduced to one. They are readily known,
+when swimming in the water, by the high, erect, falcate dorsal fin,
+whence their common German name of _Schwertfisch_ (Sword-fish). By
+English sailors they are generally known as “Grampuses” or “Killers.”
+They are distinguished from all their allies by their great strength and
+ferocity, being the only Cetaceans which habitually prey on warm-blooded
+animals, for, though fish form part of their food, they also attack
+and devour Seals, and various species of their own order, not only the
+smaller Porpoises and Dolphins, but even full-sized Whales, which last
+they combine in packs to hunt down and destroy, as Wolves do the larger
+Ruminants.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.—The Killer Whale, or Grampus (_Orca gladiator_).
+From Hunter.]
+
+_Orca citoniensis_, of the Italian Pliocene, was of smaller size than
+the existing Killer. Teeth and periotic bones from the Suffolk Crag not
+improbably belong to the same species.
+
+_Pseudorca._[163]—Teeth about ¹⁰⁄₁₀. Cranial and dental characters
+generally like those of _Orca_, except that the roots of the teeth are
+cylindrical. Vertebræ: C 7, D 10, L 9, C 24; total 50. First to sixth
+or seventh cervical vertebræ united. Bodies of the lumbar vertebræ
+distinguished from those of the preceding genera by being more elongated,
+the length being to the width as 3 to 2. Pectoral fin of moderate size,
+narrow, and pointed. Dorsal fin situated near the middle of the back,
+of moderate size, falcate. Head in front of the blowhole high, and
+compressed anteriorly, the snout truncated.
+
+This genus was first known by the discovery of a skull in a subfossil
+state in a fen in Lincolnshire, named by Sir R. Owen _Phocæna
+crassidens_. Animals of apparently the same species were afterwards
+met with in small herds on the Danish coast, and fully described by
+Reinhardt. Others subsequently received from Tasmania were supposed
+at first to indicate a different species, but comparison of a larger
+series of specimens from these extremely distant localities fails to
+establish any characteristic difference, and indicates an immense range
+of distribution for a species apparently so rare. The length of this
+Cetacean is about 14 feet, and its colour entirely black.
+
+_Globicephalus._[164]—Teeth ⁸⁻¹²⁄₈₋₁₂, confined to the anterior half
+of the rostrum and corresponding part of the mandible, small, conical,
+curved, sharp-pointed when unworn, sometimes deciduous in old age. Skull
+broad and depressed. Rostrum and cranial portion about equal in length.
+Upper surface of rostrum broad and flat. Premaxillæ strongly concave
+in front of the nares, as wide at the middle of the rostrum as at the
+base, or wider, and very nearly or completely concealing the maxillæ in
+the anterior half of this region. Pterygoids of normal form, meeting,
+or very nearly so, in the middle line. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11, L 12-14,
+C 28-29; total 58 or 59. Bodies of the anterior five or six cervical
+vertebræ united. Length of the bodies of the lumbar and anterior caudal
+vertebræ about equal to their width. Pectoral limb very long and narrow,
+the second digit the longest, and having as many as 12 or 13 phalanges,
+the third shorter (with 9 phalanges), the first, fourth, and fifth very
+short. Fore part of the head very round, in consequence of the great
+development of a cushion of fat, placed on the rostrum of the skull in
+front of the blowhole. Dorsal fin low and triangular, the length of its
+base considerably exceeding its vertical height.
+
+The type of this well-marked genus is _G. melas_, the Pilot Whale, Ca’ing
+Whale, or Grindhval of the Faroe islanders, which attains the length of
+20 feet, and is of nearly uniform black colour, except the middle of the
+under surface, which is lighter. These animals are extremely gregarious,
+and, unlike the Killers, are mild and inoffensive in disposition, feeding
+principally on cephalopods. Their eminently sociable character constantly
+leads to their destruction, since when attacked they instinctively rush
+together and blindly follow the leaders of the herd. When they are seen
+in the neighbourhood of land, the fishermen endeavour to get to seaward
+of them in their boats, and with shouting and firing of guns to drive
+them into a bay or fjord, pursuing them until they run themselves on
+shore in their alarm. In this way many hundreds at a time are frequently
+driven ashore and killed, when a herd enters one of the bays or fjords of
+the Faroe Islands or north of Scotland. Animals of this well-marked genus
+are found in nearly all seas, and their specific distinctions are not yet
+made out. Specimens from the Australian coasts, where they are generally
+called “Black-fish,” are quite indistinguishable, either by external or
+osteological characters, from those of the North Atlantic.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.—The left periotic bone of _Globicephalus
+uncidens_; from the Suffolk Crag. Natural size. The grooved surface on
+the right is the anterior facet for articulation with the tympanic; the
+posterior tympanic articulation being on the opposite side of the figure.
+(From the _Cat. Foss. Mamm. Brit. Mus._ pt. v.)]
+
+Teeth, periotic (Fig. 96) and tympanic bones from the Suffolk Crag,
+described as _G. uncidens_, indicate a form apparently closely allied to
+the existing species. The periotic is figured in order to illustrate the
+distinctive characters of that bone in the _Delphinidæ_.
+
+_Grampus._[165]—Teeth none in the upper jaw; in the mandible few (3 to
+7 on each side), and confined to the region of the symphysis. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 12, L 19, C 30; total 68. General external characters much as in
+_Globicephalus_, but the fore part of the head less rounded, and the
+pectoral fin less elongated.
+
+But one species, _G. griseus_, is certainly known, about 13 feet long,
+and remarkable for its great variability of colour. It has been found,
+though rarely, in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean. A skull from the
+Cape of Good Hope, which differs slightly from that of the above, has
+been described under the name of _G. richardsoni_.
+
+_Feresia._[166]—This genus, known at present only by two skulls, may be
+provisionally placed here. These appear to indicate a form connecting
+_Globicephalus_, _Grampus_, and _Lagenorhynchus_. From the latter they
+differ chiefly in the smaller number (about ¹²⁄₁₂) and much larger size
+(6-7 mm. in diameter at base of crown) of the teeth.
+
+_Lagenorhynchus._[167]—Rostrum scarcely exceeding the length of the
+cranium, broad at the base and gradually tapering towards the apex,
+depressed. Pterygoids normal, meeting in the middle line. Teeth small
+(not exceeding 4 mm. in diameter), ²³⁄₂₃ to ³³⁄₃₃. Vertebræ very
+numerous, 80 to 90. Spines and transverse processes of the lumbar
+vertebræ very long and slender; centra short. Externally, head with a
+short but not very distinct beak. Two species, _L. albirostris_ and _L.
+acutus_, are occasionally captured on the British coasts. Other species
+occur elsewhere.
+
+_Group B._—Head with distinctly elongated rostrum, or beak, generally
+marked off from the prenarial adipose elevation by a V-shaped groove.
+Rostrum of skull considerably longer than the cranial portion. Atlas and
+axis firmly united; all the other cervical vertebræ free.
+
+If we add to it the above-mentioned genus, _Lagenorhynchus_, this group
+will include all the true Dolphins, Bottle-noses, or, as they are more
+commonly called by seafaring people, “Porpoises,” which are found in
+considerable abundance in all seas, some species being habitually
+inhabitants of large rivers, as the Amazon. They are all among the
+smaller members of the order, none exceeding 10 feet in length. Their
+food is chiefly fish, for the capture of which their long narrow
+beaks, armed with numerous sharp-pointed teeth, are well adapted, but
+some appear also to devour crustaceans and molluscs. They are mostly
+gregarious, and the agility and grace of their movements in the water
+are constant themes of admiration to the spectators of the scene when a
+“school of Porpoises” is observed playing round the bows of a vessel at
+sea.
+
+_Delphinus._[168]—Teeth very numerous in both jaws, ⁴⁰⁄₄₀ to ⁶⁰⁄₆₀,
+occupying nearly the whole length of the rostrum, small, close-set,
+conical, pointed, slightly curved. Rostrum elongated, usually about
+double the length of the cranial portion of the skull. Pterygoids of
+normal form, meeting in the middle line throughout their length. Palate
+with deep lateral grooves. Vertebræ 73 to 75. Pectoral fin of moderate
+size, narrow, pointed, somewhat falcate. Second and third digits well
+developed; the rest rudimental.
+
+The type of the genus is the Common Dolphin of the Mediterranean (_D.
+delphis_, Fig. 97), also found in the Atlantic, and of which a closely
+allied if not identical form is met with in the Australian seas (_D.
+forsteri_) and in the North Pacific (_D. bairdi_). Other species are _D.
+janira_, _D. major_, etc.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.—The Common Dolphin (_Delphinus delphis_). From
+Reinhardt.]
+
+_Tursiops._[169]—Rostrum tapering moderately from base to apex; palate
+not grooved; symphysis of mandible short; other cranial characters as in
+_Delphinus_. Teeth ²¹⁄₂₁ to ²⁵⁄₂₅, stout (6 to 7 mm. in antero-posterior
+diameter). Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 17, C 27; total 64. Limbs as in
+_Delphinus_. Represented by the widely distributed _T. tursio_; _T.
+catalania_ being a second form. Fossil remains of this genus from the
+Italian Pliocene have been recently described.
+
+_Prodelphinus._[170]—Rostrum somewhat variable; mandibular symphysis
+short (less than one-fifth the length of the ramus); other cranial
+characters as in the preceding genus. Teeth ³⁰⁄₃₀ to ⁵⁰⁄₅₀, small, not
+exceeding 3 mm. in diameter. Vertebræ 73 to 78. Limbs as in _Delphinus_.
+Four leading types of this genus are recognised (all of which have
+numerous synonyms) viz. _P. obscurus_, _P. euphrosyne_, _P. doris_, and
+_P. longirostris_.
+
+Péron’s Dolphin (_Delphinus leucorhamphus_, Péron, or _Leucorhamphus
+peroni_, Lilljeborg) resembles some forms of _Prodelphinus_ in its
+cranial characters; but having no dorsal fin, it has been separated
+generically by some writers. It is not improbable that _Delphinus
+borealis_, Peale, from the North Pacific, in which there is likewise no
+dorsal fin, may be an allied form.
+
+_Steno._[171]—Rostrum long, narrow, and compressed, very distinct from
+the cranium; mandibular symphysis as long as, or longer than one-fourth
+the length of the ramus; other cranial characters as in the preceding
+genus. Teeth ²¹⁄₂₁ to ²⁵⁄₂₅, of comparatively large size (5-6 mm. in
+diameter); surface of their crowns finely grooved. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L
+15, C 32; total 66. Represented by _S. rostratus_, from which the forms
+which have received other names are probably not specifically separable.
+
+_Sotalia._[172]—Pterygoids narrow, not meeting in the middle line, and
+in their inner borders diverging posteriorly, instead of being parallel
+as in the preceding genera; other cranial characters much as in _Steno_.
+Teeth tolerably large (4-5 mm. in diameter), ³⁰⁄₃₀ to ³⁵⁄₃₅, with smooth
+enamelled surface. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 10-14, C 22; total 51-55.
+Pectoral fin broad at base, the breadth being caused by the considerable
+development and position of the two outer digits. Six species are
+provisionally recognised as distinct, including the Chinese White Dolphin
+(_S. sinensis_) and _S. pallidus_ from the river Amazon.
+
+    _Bibliography of Cetacea._—D. F. Eschricht, _Untersuchungen
+    über die Nordischen Wallthiere_, 1849, contains a copious
+    bibliography of the group up to the date of publication.
+    Since that time numerous monographs on special families and
+    genera have been published, and a large illustrated general
+    work, _Ostéographie des Cétacés_, by P. J. Van Beneden and P.
+    Gervais, 1869-80. Besides those already referred to in the
+    footnotes, the following may be mentioned; viz. J. F. Brandt,
+    “Untersuchungen über die Fossilen und Subfossilen Cetaceen
+    Europa’s,” in _Mém. de l’Acad. Imp. de St. Pétersbourg_, 7ⁱᵉᵐᵉ
+    sér. vol. xx. 1873; C. M. Scammon, _Marine Mammals of the N. W.
+    Coast of North America_, 1874; W. H. Flower, “On the characters
+    and Divisions of the Families of the _Delphinidæ_,” _Proc.
+    Zool. Soc._ 1883, p. 466, and _List of the Specimens of Cetacea
+    in the British Museum_, 1885; F. W. True, “Review of the Family
+    Delphinidæ,” _Bull. U.S. Nat. Museum_, No. 36, 1889; P. J. Van
+    Beneden, _Histoire Naturelle des Cétacés des Mers d’Europe_,
+    1889.
+
+    For fossil forms, in addition to the works of Van Beneden,
+    Gervais, and Brandt, already cited, the reader may refer to
+    various memoirs published by the former writer in the _Bull.
+    Ac. R. Belgique_ and _Ann. Mus. R. Hist. Nat. Belg._ See also
+    R. Lydekker, “The Cetacea of the Suffolk Crag,” _Quart. Journ.
+    Geol. Soc._ vol. xlii. p. 7 (1887), and _Catalogue of the
+    Fossil Mammalia in the British Museum_, pt. v. (1887).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE ORDER UNGULATA
+
+
+Under this term may be included provisionally a large and rather
+heterogeneous group of mammals, the existing members of which form
+the Pecora and Belluæ of Linnæus, the Ruminantia and Pachydermata of
+Cuvier. A few years ago it was found convenient to restrict the order
+to a well-marked and distinctly circumscribed group, comprising the two
+sections known as Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla, and to leave out
+such isolated forms as the Elephant and Hyrax; but the discovery of a
+vast number of extinct species, which could not be brought under the
+definition of either perissodactyle or artiodactyle Ungulates, and yet
+are evidently allied to both, and to a certain extent bridge over the
+interval between these and the isolated groups just mentioned, makes it
+necessary either to introduce a number of new and ill-defined ordinal
+divisions, or to widen the scope of the original order so as to embrace
+them all.
+
+The existing forms are all animals eminently adapted for a terrestrial
+life, and in the main for a vegetable diet. Though a few are more or
+less omnivorous, and may under some circumstances kill living creatures
+smaller and weaker than themselves for food, none are distinctly
+and habitually predaceous. Their teeth are markedly heterodont and
+diphyodont,—the milk set being well developed and not completely changed
+until the animal attains its full stature. The molars have broad crowns
+with tuberculated or ridged surfaces. There are no clavicles.[173] Their
+toes are provided with blunt, broad nails, or in the majority of cases
+with hoofs, more or less enclosing the ungual phalanges. The scaphoid
+and lunar bones of the carpus are always distinct. The humerus has no
+entepicondylar foramen. The number of digits varies from five to one; and
+the radius and ulna may be united together.
+
+The more generalised of the fossil forms do not conform in all
+respects to the above-mentioned characters; clavicles being present in
+_Typotherium_, and perhaps in some of the Condylarthra, while in the
+latter group the humerus may have an entepicondylar foramen, and thus
+approximate to the corresponding bone of the Carnivora. Wide as is the
+gap between existing Carnivores and Ungulates, there are indeed more or
+less strongly marked evidences of affinity between the earlier members of
+the two orders, as will be again noticed under the head of the suborder
+Condylarthra. A departure from the normal type of foot-structure is
+exhibited by the extinct _Macrotherium_, provisionally included in the
+Perissodactyla, where the digits terminated in long and curved claws.
+
+As a general rule, the cheek-teeth have distinct roots, and in those of
+the existing suborders a gradual increase in the height of the crowns
+of these teeth may be noticed in passing from the more generalised
+to the more specialised types. Those teeth in which the crowns are
+low, and their whole structure visible from the grinding surface, are
+termed _brachydont_ (Fig. 122); while those with higher crowns, in
+which the bases of the infoldings of enamel are invisible from the
+grinding surface, are known as _hypsodont_ (Fig. 123). Again, when the
+tubercles on the crowns of the molars are more or less cone-like in form
+the tooth is said to be _bunodont_; but when they are expanded in an
+antero-posterior direction and curved into a crescent shape the tooth is
+described as _selenodont_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.—Right fore foot of Indian Elephant. × ⅛. U, ulna;
+R, radius; _c_, cuneiform; _l_, lunar; _sc_, scaphoid; _u_, unciform;
+_m_, magnum; _td_, trapezoid; _tm_, trapezium; I to V, first to fifth
+digit.]
+
+The whole order may be divided into the Ungulata Vera, containing the
+suborders Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla, and a somewhat heterogeneous
+assemblage of animals which may be called Subungulata or Ungulata
+Polydactyla. Cope has pointed out a character in the structure of the
+carpus by which the latter are differentiated from the former. Thus in
+all the Subungulata the bones of the proximal and distal row retain the
+primitive or more typical relation to each other (see Fig. 98); the os
+magnum of the second row articulating mainly with the lunar of the
+first, or with the cuneiform, but not with the scaphoid. But in the group
+to which the vast majority of modern Ungulates belong the second or
+distal row has been shifted altogether towards the inner side of the limb
+(see Fig. 99), so that the magnum is brought considerably into relation
+with the scaphoid, and is entirely removed from the cuneiform, as in the
+great majority of existing mammals.
+
+It will be on the whole more convenient to commence our survey of the
+members of this suborder with the more specialised group of the Ungulata
+Vera, in which the Artiodactyla will be taken first.
+
+
+UNGULATA VERA.[174]
+
+In the typical Ungulata the feet are never plantigrade, and the
+functional toes do not exceed four—the inner digit being suppressed,
+at all events in all forms which have existed since the Upper Eocene
+period.[175] The os magnum of the carpus articulates freely with the
+scaphoid. The allantois is largely developed, and the placenta, so far
+as is known, is non-deciduate; the chorionic villi being either evenly
+diffused or collected in groups or cotyledons (in Pecora). The testes
+descend into a scrotum. There is never an os penis. The uterus is
+bicornuate. The mammæ are usually few and inguinal, or may be numerous
+and abdominal (as in Suina), but are never solely pectoral. The cerebral
+hemispheres in existing Ungulates are well convoluted.
+
+The group is now, and has been throughout almost the whole of the
+Tertiary period, composed of two perfectly distinct sections, differing
+from each other, not only in the obvious characters of the structure
+of the limbs, but in so many other parts of their organisation that
+they must be considered as of the rank at least of suborders. The
+characters of these divisions, first indicated by Cuvier, were thoroughly
+established by Owen, by whom the names whereby they are now generally
+known were proposed.
+
+
+_Suborder_ ARTIODACTYLA.
+
+This is a well-defined group, traceable from the Eocene period, though
+then apparently by no means so numerous as the Perissodactyles. Some of
+its types, as that represented in the existing Swine, have retained to
+the present time much of the primitive character of the group; but others
+have been gradually becoming more specialised and perfected in structure,
+and its latest modification, the Cavicorn Ruminants or _Bovidæ_
+(Antelopes, Sheep, and Oxen), are now the dominating members of the great
+Ungulate order, widespread in geographical range, rich in generic and
+specific variation, and numerous in individuals—forming in all these
+respects a great contrast to such decadent types as those represented by
+the Tapirs and Rhinoceroses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99.—Bones of right fore foot of existing
+Artiodactyles. A, Pig (_Sus scrofa_), × ⅓; B, Red Deer (_Cervus
+elaphus_), × ⅐; C, Camel (_Camelus bactrianus_), × ⅛. _U_, Ulna; _R_,
+radius; _c_, cuneiform; _l_, lunar; _s_, scaphoid; _u_, unciform; _m_,
+magnum; _td_, trapezoid; _tm_, trapezium. From Flower’s _Osteology of
+Mammalia_.]
+
+The principal anatomical characters by which the Artiodactyles are
+distinguished from the Perissodactyles are as follows. The premolar and
+molar teeth usually not alike, the former being single and the latter
+two-lobed. The last lower molar of both first and second dentition
+almost invariably three-lobed; and the first tooth of the upper cheek
+series always without a milk-predecessor. Nasal bones not expanded
+posteriorly. No alisphenoid canal. Dorsal and lumbar vertebræ together
+always nineteen, though the former may vary from twelve to fifteen. Femur
+without third trochanter. Third and fourth digits of both feet almost
+equally developed, and their ungual phalanges flattened on their inner or
+contiguous surfaces, so that each is not symmetrical in itself, but when
+the two are placed together they form a figure symmetrically disposed to
+a line drawn between them. Or, in other words, the axis or median line
+of the whole foot is a line drawn between the third and fourth digits,
+while in the Perissodactyles it is a line drawn down the centre of the
+third digit. Distal articular surface of the astragalus divided into two
+nearly equal facets, one for the navicular and the other for the cuboid
+bone. The calcaneum with an articular facet for the lower end of the
+fibula. Stomach almost always more or less complex. Colon convoluted.
+Cæcum small. Placenta diffused or cotyledonary. Mammæ few and inguinal,
+or numerous and abdominal.
+
+In treating of many sections of mammals, it is only from the existing
+species that our characters and classification can be derived, and to
+these chiefly our observations upon the group must be directed, many of
+the extinct forms being so little known that they can only be referred
+to incidentally. With the Ungulata, however, it is quite otherwise. The
+history of the Artiodactyla throughout the Tertiary period is now well
+known, and throws great light upon the position and relations of the
+existing groups.
+
+The principal modifications which have taken place in the type from
+its earliest known and most generalised manifestation have been the
+following:—
+
+1. As regards the teeth. Assumption by the grinding surfaces of the molar
+teeth either of a bunodont or of a selenodont form. Modification of the
+latter from a brachydont to a hypsodont type. Loss of upper incisors.
+Development of canines into projecting tusks. Loss of anterior premolars.
+
+2. As regards the limbs. Reduction of the ulna from a complete and
+distinct bone to a comparatively rudimentary state, in which it coalesces
+more or less firmly with the radius. Reduction of the fibula till nothing
+but its lower extremity remains. Reduction and final loss of external
+pair of digits (second and fifth), with coalescence of the metapodial
+bones of the two middle digits. Union of the navicular and cuboid, and
+sometimes the ectocuneiform, bones of the tarsus.
+
+3. Change of form of the odontoid process of the axis vertebra from a
+cone to a hollow half-cylinder.
+
+4. Development of horns or antlers on the frontal bones, and gradual
+complication of form of antlers.
+
+5. By inference only, increasing complication of stomach with ruminating
+function superadded. Modification of placenta from simple diffused to
+cotyledonary form.
+
+The primitive Artiodactyles, with the typical number (44) of incisor,
+canine, and molar teeth, brachydont molars, conical odontoid process,
+four distinct toes on each foot, with metapodium and all carpal bones
+distinct, no frontal appendages, and (in all probability) simple stomach
+and diffused placenta, were separated at a very early period into
+Bunodonts and Selenodonts, although there is evidence of intermediate
+forms showing a complete transition from the one modification to
+the other. These and other fossil forms so completely connect the
+four groups—Suina, Tylopoda, Tragulina, and Pecora—into which the
+existing members of the suborder have become divided, that in a general
+classification embracing both living and extinct forms these divisions
+cannot be maintained. In the present work, however, it will be convenient
+to retain them, mention being made of some of the chief annectant forms
+in separate sections.
+
+
+SUINA.
+
+The existing members of this group are characterised by their bunodont
+molars, and the absence of a complete fusion of the third and fourth
+metapodials to form a “cannon-bone.” The full Eutherian dentition is very
+frequently present.
+
+Remains of very generalised swine-like animals have been abundantly
+found in Tertiary formations both in America and Europe. In the former
+continent they never (so far as present evidence indicates) underwent any
+great diversity of modification, but gradually dwindled away and almost
+died out, being only represented in the actual fauna by the two closely
+allied species of Peccary, among the smallest and most insignificant
+members of the group, which have existed almost unchanged since the
+Miocene age at least, if the evidence of teeth alone can be trusted. In
+the Old World, on the other hand, the swine have played a more important
+part in recent times, having become widely distributed, and throwing
+off some curiously specialised forms. At the present time, though not
+very numerous in species, they range through the greater part of the Old
+World, except within or near the Arctic Circle, although, in common with
+all the other members of the great Ungulate order, they were completely
+absent from the whole of the Australian region, until introduced by man
+in very recent times.
+
+The existing swine-like animals may be divided naturally into three
+families:—I. _Hippopotamidæ_; II. _Suidæ_, or true Pigs; III.
+_Dicotylidæ_, or Peccaries.[176]
+
+
+_Family_ HIPPOPOTAMIDÆ.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100.—Grinding surface of a worn molar of
+_Hippopotamus amphibius_. (From Owen.)]
+
+Muzzle very broad and rounded. Feet short and broad, having four
+subequal toes, with short rounded hoofs, all reaching the ground in
+walking. Incisors not rooted, but continuously growing; those of the
+upper jaw curved and directed downwards; those of the lower straight and
+procumbent. Canines very large, curved, continuously growing; those of
+the upper jaw directed downwards. Stomach complex. No cæcum.
+
+_Hippopotamus._[177]—This genus may be taken to include all the known
+members of the family; it appears to have been always confined to the
+Old World. The dentition may be expressed by the formula _i_ ²⁻³⁄₁₋₃,
+_c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃. The crowns of the molars (Fig. 100) when worn
+present trefoil-shaped surfaces of dentine; and those of the premolars
+are sharp. The facial portion of the skull is much elongated, the orbits
+are tubular and very prominent, and the mandible has a large rounded
+descending flange at its angle. The ears are small, the tail is short,
+and the legs are likewise so short that the belly is raised but a little
+distance above the ground. The brain is not richly convoluted, and
+differs very considerably from that of the Pigs, approximating in some
+respects to that of the Camel and Giraffe, but on the whole standing
+very much by itself. The stomach of the common species is of enormous
+dimensions, having an axial length of 11 feet, and measuring upwards
+of 15 feet along the greater curvature. Its axis is longitudinal, the
+pylorus being situated almost in the pelvis, and it is divided into three
+distinct compartments, of which the third is cylindrical. The liver of
+the adult is of extremely simple form, elongated transversely, and narrow
+from above downwards. With the exception of a few tufts of hair on the
+lips, on the sides of the head and neck, and at the extremity of the
+short compressed tail, the skin of the hippopotamus, some portions of
+which are two inches in thickness, is entirely destitute of covering.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101.—The Hippopotamus (_Hippopotamus amphibius_).]
+
+The common Hippopotamus (_H. amphibius_), widely distributed in the
+rivers and lakes of the African continent, is a huge bulky animal,
+characterised by having only two incisors on either side of each jaw; the
+central lower pair being very much larger than the outer ones. A male
+from the Upper Nile which lived for nearly thirty years in the gardens of
+the Zoological Society of London measured 12 feet along the back from the
+nose to the root of the tail.
+
+The Hippopotamus lives in herds of from twenty to forty individuals on
+the banks and in the beds of rivers, in the neighbourhood of which it
+finds its food. This consists chiefly of grass and aquatic plants, of
+which it consumes enormous quantities, the stomach being capable of
+containing from 5 to 6 bushels. These animals feed principally by night,
+remaining in the water during the day, although in districts where
+they are undisturbed by man they are less exclusively aquatic. In such
+regions they put their heads boldly out of the water to blow, but when
+rendered suspicious by persecution, they become exceedingly cautious,
+only exposing their eyes and nostrils above the water, and even this they
+prefer doing amid the shelter of water plants. In spite of their enormous
+size and uncouth form, they are expert swimmers and divers, and can
+remain under the water from five to eight minutes. They are said to walk
+with considerable rapidity on the bottoms of rivers, beneath at least a
+foot of water. At nightfall they come on land to feed; and when, as often
+happens on the banks of the Nile, they reach cultivated ground, they do
+immense damage to growing crops, destroying by their ponderous tread even
+more than they devour.
+
+A much smaller species, known as the Pigmy Hippopotamus (_H.
+liberiensis_), inhabits some of the rivers of Western Africa, and is
+characterised by having only a single pair of lower incisors. Mainly on
+this account, it has been proposed to regard this species as representing
+a distinct genus, under the name of _Chœropsis_; but since it agrees
+so essentially in other characters with the common form, and sometimes
+has two incisors on one side of the lower jaw, it appears preferable
+to include it in the type genus. The greater relative size of the
+brain-cavity as compared with the facial portion of the skull renders,
+indeed, the contour of the skull decidedly different from that of _H.
+amphibius_, but this is a feature generally found in young individuals of
+larger species, and also in the adults of allied smaller forms.
+
+Both the existing species are now exclusively confined to Africa, but
+in the Pleistocene and Pliocene periods the genus was widely spread
+over the Old World. Thus in the Upper Pliocene of the Continent and
+the Pleistocene of England we meet with remains of a very large
+fossil Hippopotamus which cannot be specifically distinguished from
+_H. amphibius_. In the Pleistocene and Pliocene of India there are
+two species having three pairs of incisors in both jaws. Of these _H.
+palæindicus_ has the second pair in the lower jaw very minute, and
+evidently just about to disappear; from which we learn that it is this
+pair which is missing in _H. amphibius_. In the still more generalised
+_H. sivalensis_ the three incisors in the lower jaw are of equal size.
+Hexaprotodont species also occur in the Upper Tertiaries of Burma and
+Algeria. Small tetraprotodont species (_H. pentlandi_ and _H. minutus_)
+have left their remains in enormous quantities in the caves and fissures
+of Sicily and Malta.
+
+
+_Family_ SUIDÆ.
+
+An elongated mobile snout, with an expanded, truncated, nearly naked,
+flat, oval terminal surface in which the nostrils are placed. Feet
+narrow; four completely developed toes on each. Hoofs of the two middle
+toes with their contiguous surfaces flattened. The outer (second and
+fifth) digits of existing forms not reaching to the ground in the
+ordinary walking position. Teeth variable in number, owing to the
+suppression in some forms of an upper incisor and one or more premolars.
+Incisors rooted. Upper canines curving more or less outwards or upwards.
+Stomach simple, except for a more or less developed pouch near the
+cardiac orifice. A cæcum. Colon spirally coiled. Confined to the Old
+World.
+
+The mandible has no descending flange at the angle. The crowns of the
+molars do not wear into such distinct trefoils as in the Hippopotamus,
+and are oblong in shape. The last molar of both the upper and lower jaw
+(Fig. 102) has an additional hinder lobe or talon, varying in size in the
+different species. The upper premolars are simpler than the true molars.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102.—Grinding surface of a worn third right lower
+molar of the Wild Boar (_Sus scrofa_). After Owen.]
+
+_Sus._[178]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃; total 44.
+Upper incisors diminishing rapidly in size from the first to the third.
+Lower incisors long, narrow, closely approximated, and almost horizontal
+in position, their apices inclining towards the middle line; the second
+slightly larger than the first, the third much smaller. Canines strongly
+developed and with persistent roots and partial enamel-covering, those
+of the upper jaw not having the usual downward direction, but curving
+strongly outwards, upwards, and finally inwards, while those of the lower
+jaw are directed upwards and outwards with a gentle backward curve,
+their hinder edges working and wearing against the front edges of the
+upper canines[179]. They appear externally to the mouth as tusks, the
+form of the upper lip being modified to allow of their protrusion, but
+are much less developed in the females than in the males. The teeth of
+the molar series gradually increase in size and complexity from first
+to last, and are arranged in contiguous series, except that the first
+lower premolar is separated by an interval from the second. First and
+second upper premolars with compressed crowns and two roots. The third
+and fourth have an inner lobe developed on the crown, and an additional
+pair of roots. The first and second true molars have quadrate crowns,
+with four principal obtuse conical cusps, around which numerous accessory
+cusps are clustered. The length of the third molar is nearly equal
+(antero-posteriorly) to that of the first and second together, its crown
+having, in addition to the four principal cusps, a large posterior talon
+or heel, composed of numerous clustered conical cusps, and supported by
+several additional roots. The lower molar teeth resemble generally those
+of the upper jaw, but are narrower. Milk dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁,
+_m_ ³⁄₃; total 28,—the first permanent premolar having no predecessor in
+this series. The third incisor, in both upper and lower jaws, is large,
+developed before the others, and has much the size, form, and direction
+of the canine. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13-14, L 6, S 4, C 20-24. The hairy
+covering of the body varies much under different conditions of climate,
+but when best developed, as in the European Wild Boar, consists of long
+stiff bristles, mostly abundant on the back and sides, and of a close
+softer curling undercoat.
+
+The skull of the Pigs (Figs. 103-105) has the axis of the face bent down
+upon the basicranial axis, as is also the case with the Sheep. Its most
+striking feature is the elevation and backward slope of the occipital
+crest formed by the union of the supraoccipital and parietals. The broad
+and flat frontals have small postorbital processes, which do not join the
+zygomata, so that the orbits are open behind. The nasals are very long
+and narrow; and the premaxillæ send up long nasal processes, stopping
+short of the frontals. A peculiar prenasal bone is developed at the
+anterior extremity of the mesethmoid, which serves to strengthen the
+cartilaginous snout. The palate is long and narrow, and extends behind
+the last molar tooth. In most species the occipital crest is more nearly
+vertical than in the skull represented in Fig. 104.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103.—Left lateral view of the dentition of the Boar
+(_Sus scrofa_), the roots of the teeth being exposed by removing the
+external lamina of bone.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104.—Left lateral view of the skull of _Sus
+longirostris_. ⅕ natural size. (From Nehring.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105.—Frontal aspect of the cranium of _Sus
+longirostris_, ⅕ natural size. (From Nehring.)]
+
+This genus occurs at present under three principal modifications or
+subgenera.
+
+_A._—_Sus_ proper comprises a number of animals found in a wild state
+throughout the greater part of Europe (except where exterminated by
+human agency), the north of Africa, southern continental Asia, and
+the great islands of the Malayan archipelago, Formosa, and Japan. The
+following among others have been admitted by many zoologists as distinct
+species:—_Sus scrofa_, the Wild Boar of Europe, Asia Minor, and North
+Africa, once common throughout the British Isles; _S. sennaarensis_,
+North-East Africa; _S. cristatus_, India; _S. vittatus_, Java, Borneo,
+Amboyna, Batchian; _S. papuensis_, New Guinea; _S. timorensis_, Timor
+and Rotti; _S. andamanensis_, Andaman Islands; _S. taëvanus_, Formosa;
+_S. leucomystax_, Japan; _S. verrucosus_, Java, Borneo, Ceram; _S.
+barbatus_, Borneo; _S. celebensis_, Celebes, Philippines, and Moluccas;
+_S. longirostris_, Borneo and Java. The last four species form an
+allied group in which the facial portion of the skull may be greatly
+elongated; _S. barbatus_, and _S. celebensis_ being characterised by
+the small size and simple structure of the talon of the third molars.
+The skull of _S. longirostris_ is shown in Figs. 104 and 105. The small
+_S. andamanensis_ also has very simple third molars. _S. vittatus_, _S.
+leucomystax_, _S. cristatus_, _S. taëvanus_, and _S. papuensis_ form
+another group, in which the third molar is generally of very complex
+structure, more or less closely allied to the Wild Boar; and Dr. Nehring
+is inclined to think that the whole five might be included under a
+single specific name. This list will give some idea of the geographical
+distribution of wild Pigs, but it must be borne in mind that through
+the whole of this region, and in fact now throughout the greater part
+of the habitable world, Pigs are kept by man in a domesticated state,
+and it is still an open question whether some of the wild Pigs of the
+islands named above may not be local races derived originally from, or
+crossed with, imported domestic specimens. In New Zealand a wild or
+rather “feral” race is already established, the origin of which is of
+course quite recent, since it is well ascertained that no animal of the
+kind ever lived upon the island until after its settlement by Europeans.
+Whether the various breeds of domestic Pigs have been derived from
+one or several sources is still unknown. As in so many similar cases,
+there is no historic evidence upon the subject, and the researches of
+naturalists, as Nathusius, Rütimeyer, Rolleston, Nehring, and others, who
+have endeavoured to settle the question on anatomical evidence, have not
+led to any satisfactory conclusions. It is, however, tolerably certain
+that all the species or forms of wild Pigs enumerated above and all the
+domestic races are closely allied, and it is probable (though of this
+there has been no opportunity of proof) will breed freely together.
+It is a curious circumstance that the young of all the wild kinds of
+Pigs (so far as yet is known) present a uniform coloration, being dark
+brown with longitudinal stripes of a paler colour, a character which
+completely disappears after the first few months. On the other hand,
+this peculiar marking is rarely seen in domestic Pigs in any part of
+the world, although it has been occasionally observed. It is stated by
+Darwin that the Pigs which have run wild in Jamaica and the semiferal
+Pigs of New Granada have resumed this aboriginal character, and produce
+longitudinally striped young; these must of course be the descendants
+of domestic animals introduced from Europe since the Spanish conquest,
+as before that time there were no true Pigs in the New World. Another
+character by which the European domestic Pig differs from any of the wild
+species is the concave outline of the frontal region of the skull, a form
+still retained by the feral Pigs in New Zealand.
+
+_B._—The diminutive Pig of the Nipal, Terai, and Bhutan, _Sus salvanius_,
+has been separated from the rest by Hodgson under the generic name of
+_Porcula_, but all the alleged distinctive characters prove on more
+careful investigation to have little real value. Owing to its retired
+habits and power of concealment under bushes and long grass in the depths
+of the great Sal Forest, which is its principal home, very little has
+been known of this curious little animal, scarcely larger than a hare.
+The acquisition of living specimens in the London Zoological Gardens has,
+however, afforded opportunities for careful anatomical observation.[180]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106.—Wild Boar and Young.]
+
+_C._—Two well-marked species of African Swine have been with more reason
+separated under the name of _Potamochœrus_. The dentition differs
+from that of the true _Sus_, inasmuch as the anterior premolars have
+a tendency to disappear; sometimes in adult specimens the first upper
+premolar is retained, but it is usually absent, as well as the first
+and often the second lower premolars. The molar teeth are also less
+complex: the last especially having a much less developed talon. There
+are likewise characteristic cranial differences. The two species are very
+distinct in outward appearance and coloration. One is _S. africanus_,
+the South African River-Hog, or Bosch-Vark, of a gray colour, and the
+other _S. porcus_, the West African Red River-Hog (Fig. 107), remarkable
+for its vivid colouring and long pencilled ears. It should be noted that
+the young of both these species, as well as of the pigmy _S. salvanius_,
+present the striped character of the true _Sus_, a strong indication of
+close affinities, whereas in all the following forms this is absent.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107.—The Red River-Hog (_Sus porcus_). From Sclater,
+_Guide to Animals in Zoological Society’s Gardens_, 1883, p. 183.]
+
+The genus _Sus_, in the above extended sense, is well represented in
+the Tertiaries of the Old World from the period of the Lower Pliocene
+upwards. In the Pliocene and Pleistocene of India _S. falconeri_ and
+_S. karnuliensis_ are characterised by the extremely complex structure
+of the molars, in which they show decided signs of approximation to
+the Wart-Hogs; the same feature being exhibited by _S. phacochœroides_
+of the Algerian Pliocene. _S. titan_ and _S. giganteus_, of the Indian
+Pliocene, together with _S. antiquus_ and _S. erymanthius_, of the
+corresponding European deposits, are very large species characterised by
+their comparatively simple molars; _S. titan_ being fully as large as a
+Tapir. _S. hysudricus_ of the Pliocene of India, and _S. palæochœrus_
+of that of Europe, are smaller allied species not improbably related
+to _S. andamanensis_, with which they agree in molar structure. _S.
+arvernensis_, of the Upper Pliocene of France, appears to be allied to
+_S. africanus_; while in the diminutive _S. punjabiensis_ of the Pliocene
+of North-Western India we probably have the direct ancestor of _S.
+salvanius_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 108.—Head of Babirusa (_Babirusa alfurus_).]
+
+_Babirusa._[181]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃; total 34.
+The total number of teeth is therefore considerably reduced, the outer
+upper incisor and the two anterior premolars of both jaws being absent.
+The molars, especially the last, are smaller and simpler than in _Sus_;
+but the great peculiarity of this genus is the extraordinary development
+of the canines of the male. These teeth (Fig. 108) are ever-growing,
+long, slender, and curved, and entirely without enamel covering. Those of
+the upper jaw are directed upwards from their base, so that they never
+enter the mouth, but piercing the skin of the face, resemble horns rather
+than teeth, and curve backwards, downwards, and finally often forwards
+again, almost or quite touching the skin of the forehead. Vertebra:
+C 7, D 13, L 16, S 4. There is but one species (_B. alfurus_), found
+only in the islands of Celebes and Buru. Its external surface is almost
+entirely devoid of hair. With regard to the curiously modified dentition,
+Wallace (_Malay Archipelago_, vol. i. p. 435) makes the following
+observations:—“It is difficult to understand what can be the use of these
+horn-like teeth. Some of the old writers supposed that they served as
+hooks by which the creature could rest its head on a branch. But the
+way in which they usually diverge just over and in front of the eye has
+suggested the more probable idea, that they serve to guard these organs
+from thorns and spines while hunting for fallen fruits among the tangled
+thickets of rattans and other spiny plants. Even this, however, is not
+satisfactory, for the female, who must seek her food in the same way,
+does not possess them. I should be inclined to believe rather that these
+tusks were once useful, and were then worn down as fast as they grew, but
+that changed conditions of life have rendered them unnecessary, and they
+now develop into a monstrous form, just as the incisors of the Beaver and
+Rabbit will go on growing if the opposite teeth do not wear them away. In
+old animals they reach an enormous size, and are generally broken off as
+if by fighting.”
+
+_Phacochœrus._[182]—The Wart-Hogs, so called from the large cutaneous
+lobes projecting from each side of the face, have the teeth still more
+remarkably modified than in _Babirusa_. The milk-dentition, and even
+the early condition of the permanent dentition, is formed on the same
+general type as that of _Sus_, except that certain of the typical teeth
+are absent, the formula being _i_ ¹⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃, total
+34; but as age advances all the teeth have a tendency to disappear,
+except the canines and the posterior molars, which in some cases are the
+only teeth left in the jaws, and attain an extraordinary development.
+The upper canines especially are of great size, and curve outwards,
+forwards, and upwards. Their enamel covering is confined to the apex, and
+soon wears away. The lower canines are much more slender, but follow the
+same curve: except on the posterior surface, their crowns are covered
+with enamel. Unlike those of the Babirusa, the canines of the Wart-Hog
+are large in both sexes. The third molar tooth of both jaws is of great
+size, and presents a structure at first sight unlike that of any other
+mammal, being composed of numerous (22-25) parallel cylinders or columns,
+each with pulp-cavity, dentine, and enamel covering, and packed together
+with cement. Careful examination will, however, show that a similar
+modification to that which has transformed the comparatively simple molar
+tooth of the Mastodon into the extremely complex grinder of the Indian
+Elephant has served to change the tooth of the common Pig into that of
+_Phacochœrus_, and, as already mentioned, some of the fossil Indian and
+African species of _Sus_ indicate the mode in which this transition came
+about. The tubercles which cluster over the surface of the crown of the
+molars of the common Pig are elongated and drawn out into columns in the
+Wart-Hog, as the low transverse ridges of the Mastodon’s tooth become the
+leaf-like plates of the Elephant’s.
+
+Two species of this genus are commonly but rather doubtfully
+distinguished:—_P. africanus_, Ælian’s Wart-Hog, widely distributed
+over the continent; and _P. æthiopicus_, Pallas’s Wart-Hog, confined to
+South-Eastern Africa. In specimens attributed to the latter species the
+dentition reaches its most complete reduction, as in adult animals the
+upper incisors are absent and the lower ones worn down to the roots.
+
+
+_Family_ DICOTYLIDÆ.
+
+Snout as in _Suidæ_. Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+38. Incisors rooted; upper canines directed downwards, with sharp cutting
+hinder edges. Toes, four on the fore feet and three on the hind feet (the
+fifth wanting). Stomach complex. A cæcum. Confined to the New World.
+
+_Dicotyles._[183]—The teeth of the Peccaries (_Dicotyles_) differ from
+those of the true Pigs (_Sus_) numerically in wanting the upper outer
+incisor and the anterior premolar on either side of each jaw, and also
+in the circumstance that the last premolar is nearly as complex as the
+molars. The upper canines have their points directed downwards, not
+outwards or upwards as in the Boars, and are very sharp, with cutting
+hinder edges, and completely covered with enamel until worn. The lower
+canines are large, directed upwards and outwards, and slightly curved
+backwards. The premolar and molar teeth form a continuous series,
+gradually increasing in size from the first to the last. The true molars
+have square quadricuspidate crowns. The stomach is much more complex
+than in the true Pigs, almost approaching that of the ruminants. In
+the feet the two middle (third and fourth) metapodial bones, which are
+completely separate in the Pigs, are united at their upper ends, as
+in the ruminants. On the fore foot the two (second and fifth) outer
+toes are equally developed as in Pigs, but on the hind foot, although
+the inner (or second) is present, the outer (or fifth) toe is entirely
+wanting, giving an unsymmetrical appearance of the member, very unusual
+in Artiodactyles. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 5, S 4, C 7. As in the Pigs,
+the snout is truncated, and the nostrils are situated in its flat,
+expanded, disc-like termination. The ears are rather small, ovate, and
+erect; and there is no external appearance of a tail. The surface of
+the body is well covered with thick bristly hair, and rather behind
+the middle of the back is a large and peculiar gland, which secretes an
+oleaginous substance with a powerful musky odour. This was mistaken by
+the old travellers for a second navel, a popular error which suggested to
+Cuvier the name of _Dicotyles_. When the animal is killed for food, it
+is necessary speedily to remove this gland, otherwise it will taint the
+whole flesh so as to render it uneatable.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 109.—The Collared Peccary (_Dicotyles tajacu_).]
+
+There are two species,[184] so nearly allied that they will breed
+together freely in captivity. Unlike the true Pigs, they never appear
+to produce more than two young ones at a birth. The Collared Peccary
+(_D. tajacu_, Linn., _torquatus_, Cuvier), Fig. 109, ranges from the
+Red River of Arkansas through the forest districts of Central and South
+America as far as the Rio Negro of Patagonia. Generally it is found
+singly or in pairs, or at most in small herds of from eight to ten,
+and is a comparatively harmless creature, not being inclined to attack
+other animals or human beings. Its colour is dark gray, with a white
+or whitish band passing across the chest from shoulder to shoulder.
+The length of the head and body is about 36 inches. The White-lipped
+Peccary or Warree (_D. labiatus_, Cuvier) is rather larger, being about
+40 inches in length, of a blackish colour, with the lips and lower jaw
+white. Its range is less extensive, since it is not found farther north
+than British Honduras or south of Paraguay. It is generally met with in
+large herds of from fifty to a hundred or more individuals, and is of
+a more pugnacious disposition than the former species, and capable of
+inflicting severe wounds with its sharp tusks. A hunter who encounters
+a herd of them in a forest has often to climb a tree as his only chance
+of safety. Both species are omnivorous, living on roots, fallen fruits,
+worms, and carrion; and when they approach the neighbourhood of villages
+and cultivated lands they often inflict great devastation upon the crops
+of the inhabitants.
+
+Remains of the two existing species of Peccary, as well as of one
+much larger extinct form, are found in the cavern-deposits of Brazil;
+while large Peccaries also occur in the Pleistocene of the United
+States, which, although they have been referred to a distinct genus,
+_Platygonus_, on account of their relatively smaller incisors and
+somewhat simpler premolars, may well be included in _Dicotyles_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 110.—The three left upper molars of _Hyotherium
+perimense_, from the Pliocene of India.]
+
+_Allied Extinct Genera._—In the Tertiary deposits of both the Old and
+New World occur remains of Pig-like animals which, so far as we can
+judge, appear to connect the Peccaries so closely with the true Pigs
+as to render the _Dicotylidæ_ really inseparable from the _Suidæ_.
+Of these the American genus _Chænohyus_ has the lower canine with a
+triangular cross section and received into a notch in the upper jaw,
+as in the Peccaries, but the fourth upper premolar is simpler than the
+molars, as in the under-mentioned genus _Hyotherium_. The typical forms
+have only three premolars, but in others, which it has been proposed
+to separate generically as _Bothriolabis_, there are four of these
+teeth. _Hyotherium_, of the Pliocene and Miocene of the Old World, is
+a generalised form allied both to _Sus_ and _Dicotyles_ as well as to
+certain extinct genera. The upper molars (Fig. 110) are characterised
+by their square crowns, the last having no distinct third lobe, and
+coming into use before the first is much worn, while the last premolar
+is simpler than the true molars. The canines, which have an oval section
+and are scarcely larger than the incisors, are not received into a notch
+in the upper jaw. In the Pliocene of India there occurs an apparently
+allied genus known as _Hippohyus_, in which the crowns of the molars
+are much taller, and have lateral infoldings of the enamel, producing
+a very complex pattern on the worn crowns. The European Miocene genus
+_Listriodon_, with the dental formula _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_
+³⁄₃, differs from all the preceding in having the anterior and posterior
+pairs of tubercles of the molars united into ridges running across their
+crowns, so that these teeth resemble the lower molars of the Tapir. The
+genus is also found in the Lower Pliocene of India.
+
+
+EXTINCT TRANSITIONAL ARTIODACTYLES.
+
+In this place it will be convenient to notice briefly a few of the
+extinct types of Tertiary Artiodactyles which connect the existing
+bunodont Suina with the more specialised selenodont groups mentioned
+below so closely as to show that in a strictly palæontological
+classification such groups cannot be maintained. It should be mentioned
+that while some of these extinct forms were in all probability actual
+ancestral links between the bunodonts and selenodonts, others, like
+the Anoplotheres, died out entirely without giving rise to any more
+specialised descendants.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 111.—The imperfect third left upper molar of
+_Hyopotamus giganteus_, Miocene, India. (From the _Palæontologia
+Indica_.)]
+
+_Chœropotamidæ._—In this family the molars are intermediate in
+structure between those of the _Suidæ_ and the next family. The upper
+ones have very broad crowns, with the five columns arranged as in
+_Anthracotherium_; while the premolars are not secant, and may be
+very large. The best known forms are the small _Cebochœrus_ of the
+Phosphorites of Central France; _Chœropotamus_ of the Upper Eocene, the
+type species of which was of the size of a large Pig, with the dental
+formula _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃, and no distinctly selenodont
+structure in the molars; the much larger _Elotherium_, from the Upper
+Eocene and Lower Miocene of both the Old and New Worlds, which presents
+the very rare feature of the absence of a third lobe to the last lower
+molar; and the equally large _Tetraconodon_ of the Pliocene of India,
+in which this third lobe was present and the premolars were of enormous
+size. The remarkable North American Eocene genus _Achænodon_ should
+perhaps also be placed here.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 112.—A right upper molar of _Merycopotamus pusillus_,
+Pliocene, India. (From the _Palæontologia Indica_.)]
+
+_Anthracotheriidæ._—The genera _Anthracotherium_ and _Hyopotamus_, of
+the upper Eocene and Miocene, have the typical Eutherian dental formula;
+the upper molars (Fig. 111) carrying three columns on the anterior and
+two on the posterior half of the crown, all of which are of a more or
+less decidedly selenodont structure. The mandible has a descending
+flange at the angle. The figured tooth (in which the antero-internal and
+antero-median columns are imperfect) may be compared with the diagram
+given in Fig. 5, p. 32, when the homology of the columns or tubercles
+will be at once apparent, the broken antero-median column representing
+the protoconule. Some of the species are of large size, while others are
+comparatively small.
+
+_Merycopotamus._—The genus _Merycopotamus_ of the lower Pliocene
+of India may be regarded as an Anthracotheroid which has lost the
+antero-median column to the upper molars (Fig. 112), so that these teeth
+are consequently quadrituberculate; and may thus be regarded as typical
+examples of the brachy-selenodont modification of molar structure.
+
+_Cotylopidæ._—The Miocene genus _Cotylops_ (_Oreodon_[185]) is the type
+of a large American family in which the upper molars are selenodont and
+usually have four columns, while the lower canine is approximated to
+the incisors and its form and function assumed by the first premolar.
+The last upper premolar is simpler than the molars. There is no flange
+to the angle of the mandible; and the feet have four digits. The
+affinities of this peculiar family are probably widely spread, but they
+may have been derived from the _Anthracotheriidæ_. The type genus has
+the full Eutherian dentition, but in some of the more specialised forms
+(_Cyclopidius_) the upper incisors may be wanting, and large vacuities
+occur in the lachrymal region. The generalised genus _Protoreodon_, of
+the Upper or Uinta Eocene, has five cusps on the upper molars, arranged
+as in the _Anthracotheriidæ_. The pollex is retained in the manus of the
+type genus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 113.—Restoration of _Anoplotherium commune_ (Upper
+Eocene). Cuvier.]
+
+The family may be divided into subfamilies as follows:—
+
+  I. Upper molars with four columns.
+
+     1. Orbits open, no lachrymal fossa, a diastema, the last
+        upper premolar with two outer columns, outer wall of
+        upper molars concave and inclined inwards.—_Agriochœrinæ_
+        (_Agriochœrus_).
+
+     2. Orbits closed, a lachrymal fossa, no diastema, the last
+        upper premolar with one outer column; outer wall of upper
+        molars flattened.—_Cotylopinæ_ (_Cotylops_, _Eporeodon_,
+        _Merycochœrus_, _Cyclopidius_, etc.)
+
+  II. Upper molars with five columns.—_Protoreontinæ_  (_Protoreodon_).
+
+_Anoplotheriidæ._—This family includes several Upper Eocene European
+genera, with selenodont upper molars, carrying five columns arranged as
+those in _Anthracotherium_. One of the earliest known, _Anoplotherium_,
+was fully described by Cuvier from remains found in the Paris gypsum-beds
+(Upper Eocene). Its forty-four teeth formed a series unbroken by a gap
+or diastema, and were of uniform height (as in Man alone of existing
+mammals). Its tail was long, with large chevron bones underneath, not
+usually found in Ungulates, and there were either three or two toes on
+each foot. It was in many respects a much-specialised form, apparently
+not on the line of descent of any of the existing groups.
+
+_Dacrytherium_ is an allied genus whose dentition leads on to that of the
+smaller _Xiphodon_. The latter genus is characterised by the compressed
+and elongated form of the crowns of the first three premolars, which thus
+approximate to those of the Chevrotains. There were only two functional
+digits to the feet. The so-called _Hyopotamus picteti_, of the Swiss
+Eocene, is a species of _Dacrytherium_.
+
+_Cænotheriidæ._—The typical representatives of this family are small
+animals not larger than the Chevrotains, with the full complement of
+teeth, generally no marked gap in the series, and the crowns of the upper
+molars carrying two columns on the anterior and three on the posterior
+half of the crown—precisely the reverse of the arrangement obtaining in
+the _Anthracotheriidæ_. The known forms are from the Upper Eocene and
+Lower Miocene of Europe. In _Cænotherium_ the molars are selenodont,
+while they are bunodont in _Dichobunus_. _Homacodon_, of the Bridger
+Eocene of the United States, is closely allied to the latter. The first
+lower premolar of _Dichobunus_ assumes the form and function of a canine.
+_Spaniotherium_ (_Metriotherium_) is a much larger form, in which the
+molars are not unlike those of _Anthracotherium_, if the arrangement of
+the cusps were reversed; it occurs in the Eocene Phosphorites of France.
+It is suggested that the _Tylopoda_ may have originated from this group.
+
+_Tapirulus_ is a small Eocene Artiodactyle with the columns of the upper
+molars, which are somewhat like those of _Hyopotamus_, tending to form
+transverse ridges; its family position is uncertain.
+
+_Dichodontidæ._—The European genera included in this family all have
+quadritubercular selenodont molars, and show signs of approximating
+more or less closely to existing types. _Dichodon_, from the Upper
+Eocene and Lower Miocene, has the full complement of teeth, which show
+no diastema, and have low crowns. The fourth upper premolar has four
+columns, like the true molars, and the corresponding lower tooth three
+complete lobes; these features being unknown in any other Selenodonts.
+In _Lophiomeryx_, of the same beds, the somewhat higher crowns of the
+molars approximate to those of the _Cervidæ_, but the hinder lobes of
+the upper ones are imperfectly developed; the genus may be allied,
+to the _Tragulidæ_. In the small _Gelocus_, of the Lower Miocene,
+the molars are not unlike those of _Dichodon_; but the navicular and
+cuboid bones of the tarsus were fused together, and the metatarsals had
+united to form a “cannon-bone,” although the metacarpals still remained
+distinct. It is not improbable that upper incisors were wanting; and it
+has been suggested that we have in this genus the ancestral type of the
+_Tragulidæ_ and _Cervidæ_.
+
+
+TYLOPODA.
+
+
+_Family_ CAMELIDÆ.
+
+This group is represented at the present day by the two species of
+Camels of the Old World and the Llamas of South America, collectively
+constituting the family _Camelidæ_. The special characters which
+the Llamas and Camels have in common, and the combination of which
+distinguishes them from the rest of the Artiodactyles, are as follows.
+The premaxillæ have the full number of incisor teeth in the young state,
+and the outermost is persistent through life as an isolated laniariform
+tooth. The canines are present in both jaws, and those of the mandible
+are differentiated from the long, procumbent, and spatulate incisors,
+being suberect and pointed. The crowns of the true molars belong to the
+crescentic or selenodont type, and are very hypsodont; but one or more
+of the anterior premolars is usually detached from the series, and is of
+simple pointed form. The auditory bulla is filled with cancellous tissue.
+The hinder part of the body is much contracted, and the femur long and
+vertically placed, so that the knee-joint is lower in position, and the
+thigh altogether more detached from the abdomen than in most quadrupedal
+mammals. The limbs are long, but with only the third and fourth digits
+developed; no traces of any of the others being present. The trapezoid
+and magnum of the carpus, and the cuboid and navicular of the tarsus
+are distinct. The two metapodial bones of each limb are confluent for
+the greater part of their length, though separated for a considerable
+distance at the lower end. Their distal articular surfaces, instead of
+being pulley-like, with deep ridges and grooves, as in other recent
+Artiodactyles, are simple, rounded, and smooth. The proximal phalanges
+are expanded at their distal ends, and the wide, depressed middle
+phalanges are embedded in a broad cutaneous pad, forming the sole of the
+foot, on which the animal rests in walking, instead of on the hoofs. The
+ungual phalanges are very small and nodular, not flattened on their inner
+or opposed surfaces, and not completely encased in hoofs, but bearing
+nails on their upper surface only. The cervical region is long and
+flexuous, and the vertebræ of which it is composed are remarkable for
+the position of the canal for the transmission of the vertebral artery,
+which does not perforate the transverse process, but passes obliquely
+through the anterior part of the pedicle of the arch (a condition only
+found in two other genera of mammals, _Macrauchenia_ and _Myrmecophaga_).
+There are no horns or antlers. Though these animals ruminate, the
+stomach differs considerably in the details of its construction from
+that of the Pecora. The interior of the rumen or paunch has no villi
+on its surface, and there is no distinct psalterium or manyplies. Both
+the first and second compartments are remarkable for the presence of a
+number of pouches or cells in their walls, with muscular septa, and a
+sphincter-like arrangement of their orifices, by which they can be shut
+off from the rest of the cavity, and into which the fluid portion only
+of the contents of the stomach is allowed to enter.[186] The placenta
+is diffuse, as in the Suina and Tragulina, not cotyledonary, as in the
+Pecora. Finally, the _Camelidæ_ differ not only from other Ungulates,
+but from all other mammals, in the fact that the red corpuscles of the
+blood, instead of being circular in outline, are oval, as in the inferior
+vertebrated classes.
+
+_Camelus._[187]—Dentition of adult: _i_ ¹⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃;
+total 34. First upper premolar simple, placed immediately behind the
+premaxillæ, and separated by a long diastema from the penultimate tooth
+of that series. Lower incisors somewhat proclivous, the outermost the
+largest. Skull elongated, with an overhanging occiput, orbits completely
+surrounded by bone, and the premaxillæ not articulating with the
+arched and somewhat elongated nasals. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 7, S 4, C
+13-15. Ears comparatively short and rounded. One or two dorsal adipose
+humps. Feet broad, with the toes very imperfectly separated. Tail well
+developed, tufted at the end. Hair nearly straight, and not woolly. Size
+very large and bulky.
+
+The genus is now represented by two species, viz. the single-humped
+Arabian Camel (_Camelus dromedarius_), and the double-humped Bactrian
+Camel (_C. bactrianus_, Fig. 114).[188] The former is quite unknown
+in a wild state, but it is reported that wild Bactrian Camels occur
+in the more remote parts of Turkestan. The latter species is found in
+a domesticated state throughout a large portion of Turkestan and the
+neighbouring region, extending as far as the Crimea in the west and
+to Lake Baikal and Pekin in the east. It is a heavier and more clumsy
+animal than the Arabian Camel, with thicker hair, shorter legs, and the
+feet more callous and better adapted to a hard ground. The hair is most
+developed upon the top of the head, neck, humps, arm, and wrist. Bactrian
+Camels are occasionally brought over the stupendous mountain passes south
+of Yarkand to within a few days’ journey of Leh, in Kashmir territory.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 114.—The Bactrian Camel (_Camelus bactrianus_).]
+
+The Arabian Camel is commonly employed as a beast of burden in Africa
+and India, and has of late years been introduced into Australia for
+the same purpose; it is especially valuable in crossing long stretches
+of arid desert from its power of existing for a considerable period of
+time without water. The female goes fully eleven months with young, and
+produces but a single calf at a birth, which is suckled for a whole
+year. In disposition the Camel is surly and subject to furious outbursts
+of temper, especially during the rutting season. At such periods the
+male utters a peculiar and highly disagreeable bubbling noise in its
+throat, well known to all who have travelled in India with Camels as
+their transport. It has been said that the Camel is docile, but Palgrave
+observes:—
+
+“If docile means stupid, well and good; in such a case the Camel is the
+very model of docility. But if the epithet is intended to designate an
+animal that takes an interest in its rider so far as a beast can, that
+in some way understands his intentions, or shares them in a subordinate
+fashion, that obeys from a sort of submissive or half-fellow-feeling with
+his master, like the horse or elephant, then I say that the camel is by
+no means docile—very much the contrary. He takes no heed of his rider,
+pays no attention whether he be on his back or not, walks straight on
+when once set agoing, merely because he is too stupid to turn aside,
+and then should some tempting thorn or green branch allure him out of
+the path, continues to walk on in the new direction simply because he
+is too dull to turn back into the right road. In a word, he is from
+first to last an undomesticated and savage animal, rendered serviceable
+by stupidity alone, without much skill on his master’s part, or any
+co-operation on his own save that of an extreme passiveness. Neither
+attachment nor even habit impress him; never tame, though not wide-awake
+enough to be exactly wild.” The two species breed together freely,
+and among the Yourouks of Asia Minor, hybrids, or mules, the produce
+generally of a male Bactrian and a female Arabian camel are preferred to
+either of the pure breeds.
+
+Fossil remains of Camels are found in the Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills
+in Northern India. These differ from the existing representatives of the
+genus in having a vertical ridge at the antero-external angle of the
+lower molars, whereby they resemble _Auchenia_; their cervical vertebræ
+are also intermediate in structure between those of the latter and the
+existing Camels. A fossil Camel is also found in the Pleistocene of
+Algeria.
+
+_Auchenia._[189]—Dentition of adults normally: _i_ ¹⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₂,
+_m_ ³⁄₃; total 32—one of the lower premolars may, however, be wanting.
+In the upper jaw there is a compressed, sharp, pointed laniariform
+incisor near the hinder edge of the premaxilla, followed, in the male at
+least, by a moderate-sized, pointed, curved true canine in the anterior
+part of the maxilla. The isolated canine-like premolar which follows
+in the Camels is not present. The teeth of the molar series, which are
+in contact with each other, consist of two very small premolars (the
+first almost rudimentary) and three broad molars, constructed generally
+like those of _Camelus_. In the lower jaw the three incisors are long,
+spatulate, and procumbent; the outer ones being the smallest. Next to
+these is a curved, suberect canine, followed after an interval by an
+isolated, minute, and often deciduous simple conical premolar; then a
+contiguous series of one premolar and three molars, which differ from
+those of existing species of _Camelus_ in having a small accessory
+column at the anterior outer edge. The skull generally resembles that
+of _Camelus_, the relatively larger brain-cavity and orbits and less
+developed cranial ridges being due to its smaller size. The nasal bones
+are shorter and broader, and are joined by the premaxillæ. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 12, L 7, S 4, C 15-20. Ears rather long and pointed. No dorsal
+hump. Feet narrow, the toes being more separated than in the camels,
+each having a distinct plantar pad. Tail short. Hairy covering long and
+woolly. Size (in existing forms) smaller, and general form lighter than
+in the Camels. At present and within historic times the genus is entirely
+confined to the western side and southernmost parts of South America, but
+fossil remains have been found in the caves of Brazil, in the pampas of
+the Argentine republic, and in Central and North America.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 115.—Llama (_Auchenia glama_), from an animal living
+in the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London.]
+
+The word Llama, sometimes spelt Lama, is the name by which the Peruvians
+designated one of a small group of closely allied animals, which, before
+the Spanish conquest of America, were the only domesticated hoofed
+mammals of the country, being kept, not only for their value as beasts
+of burden, but also for their flesh, hides, and wool,—in fact, supplying
+in the domestic economy of the people the place of the horse, the ox,
+the goat, and the sheep of the Old World. The word is now sometimes
+restricted to one particular species or variety of the group, and
+sometimes used in a generic sense to cover the whole. Although they were
+often compared by early writers to sheep, and spoken of as such, their
+affinity to the camel was very soon perceived, and they were included
+in the genus _Camelus_ in the _Systema Naturæ_ of Linnæus. They were,
+however, separated by Cuvier in 1800 under the name of _Lama_, changed
+by Illiger in 1811 to _Auchenia_ (in allusion to the great length of
+neck, αὐχήν), a term afterwards adopted by Cuvier, and almost universally
+accepted by systematic zoologists, although there has been of late a
+disposition to revive the earlier name.
+
+In essential structural characters, as well as in general appearance and
+habits, all the animals of this genus very closely resemble each other,
+so that the question as to whether they should be considered as belonging
+to one, two, or more species has been one which has led to a large amount
+of controversy among naturalists. The question has been much complicated
+by the circumstances of the great majority of individuals which have come
+under observation being either in a completely or partially domesticated
+state, and descended from ancestors which from time immemorial have been
+in like condition, one which always tends to produce a certain amount
+of variation from the original type. It has, however, lost much of its
+importance since the doctrine of the distinct origin of species has been
+generally abandoned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 116.—Head of Vicugna, from an animal living in the
+Gardens of the Zoological Society of London.]
+
+The four forms commonly distinguished by the inhabitants of South America
+are recognised by some naturalists as distinct species, and have had
+specific designations attached to them, though usually with expressions
+of doubt, and with great difficulties in defining their distinctive
+characteristics. These are (1) the Llama, _Auchenia glama_ (Linn.), or
+_Lama peruana_ (Tiedemann); (2) the Alpaca, _A. pacos_ (Linn.); (3) the
+Guanaco or Huanaco, _A. huanacus_ (Molina); and (4) the Vicugna, _A.
+vicugna_ (Molina), or _A. vicunna_, (Cuv.) The first and second are only
+known in the domestic state, and are variable in size and colour, being
+often white, black, or piebald. The third and fourth are wild, and of
+a nearly uniform light-brown colour, passing into white below. They
+certainly differ from each other, the Vicugna being smaller, more slender
+in its proportions, and having a shorter head (Fig. 116) than the Guanaco
+(Fig. 117). It may therefore, according to the usual view of species,
+be considered distinct. It lives in herds on the bleak and elevated
+parts of the mountain range bordering the region of perpetual snow,
+amidst rocks and precipices, occurring in various suitable localities
+throughout Peru, in the southern part of Ecuador, and as far south as the
+middle of Bolivia. Its manners very much resemble those of the Chamois
+of the European Alps; and it is as vigilant, wild, and timid. The wool
+is extremely delicate and soft, and highly valued for the purposes of
+weaving, but the quantity which each animal produces is not great.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 117.—Head of Guanaco, from an animal living in the
+Gardens of the Zoological Society of London.]
+
+The Guanaco has an extensive geographical range, from the highlands of
+the Andean region of Ecuador and Peru to the open plains of Patagonia,
+and even the wooded islands of Tierra del Fuego. It constitutes the
+principal food of the Patagonian Indians, and its skin is invaluable
+to them, as furnishing the material out of which their long robes are
+constructed. It is about the size of a European Red Deer, and is an
+elegant animal, being possessed of a long, slender, gracefully curved
+neck and fine legs. Dr. Cunningham,[190] speaking from observation on
+wild animals, says:—
+
+“It is not easy to describe its general appearance, which combines some
+of the characters of a camel, a deer, and a goat. The body, deep at the
+breast but very small at the loins, is covered with long, soft, very
+fine hair, which on the upper parts is of a kind of fawn-colour, and
+beneath varies from a very pale yellow to the most beautiful snow-white.
+The head is provided with large ears, in general carried well back, and
+is covered with short grayish hair, which is darkest on the forehead.
+Occasionally the face is nearly black. As a rule it lives in flocks of
+from half a dozen to several hundreds, but solitary individuals are now
+and then to be met with. They are very difficult to approach sufficiently
+near to admit of an easy shot, as they are extremely wary, but, on being
+disturbed, canter off at a pace which soon puts a safe distance between
+them and the sportsman, even though he should be mounted. Despite their
+timidity, however, they are possessed of great curiosity, and will
+sometimes advance within a comparatively short distance of an unknown
+object, at which they will gaze fixedly till they take alarm, when they
+effect a speedy retreat. Their cry is very peculiar, being something
+between the belling of a deer and the neigh of a horse. It would be
+difficult to overestimate their numbers upon the Patagonian plains; for
+in whatever direction we walked we always came upon numbers of portions
+of their skeletons and detached bones.”
+
+Darwin, who has given an interesting account of the habits of the Guanaco
+in his _Naturalist’s Voyage_, says that they readily take to the water,
+and were seen several times at Port Valdes swimming from island to island.
+
+The Llama is only known as a domestic animal, and is chiefly met with
+in the southern part of Peru. Burmeister, a very competent writer
+on the subject, says that he is perfectly satisfied that it is the
+descendant of the wild Guanaco, an opinion opposed to that of Tschudi. It
+generally attains a larger size than the Guanaco, and is usually white
+or spotted with brown or black, and sometimes altogether black. The
+earliest and often-quoted account of this animal by Agustin de Zarate,
+treasurer-general of Peru in 1544, will bear repeating as an excellent
+summary of the general character and uses to which it was put by the
+Peruvians at the time of the Spanish conquest. He speaks of the Llama
+as a sheep, observing, however, that it is camel-like in shape though
+destitute of a hump:—
+
+“In places where there is no snow the natives want water, and to supply
+this they fill the skins of sheep with water and make other living sheep
+carry them; for, it must be remarked, these sheep of Peru are large
+enough to serve as beasts of burden. They can carry about one hundred
+pounds or more, and the Spaniards used to ride them, and they would
+go four or five leagues a day. When they are weary they lie down upon
+the ground; and as there are no means of making them get up, either by
+beating or assisting them, the load must of necessity be taken off.
+When there is a man on one of them, if the beast is tired and urged to
+go on, he turns his head round and discharges his saliva, which has an
+unpleasant odour, into the rider’s face. These animals are of great
+use and profit to their masters, for their wool is very good and fine,
+particularly that of the species called Pacas, which have very long
+fleeces; and the expense of their food is trifling, as a handful of maize
+suffices them, and they can go four or five days without water. Their
+flesh is as good as that of the fat sheep of Castile. There are now
+public shambles for the sale of their flesh in all parts of Peru, which
+was not the case when the Spaniards came first; for when one Indian had
+killed a sheep his neighbours came and took what they wanted, and then
+another Indian killed a sheep in his turn.”
+
+The disagreeable habit here noticed of spitting in the face of persons
+whose presence is obnoxious is common to all the group, as may be daily
+witnessed in specimens in confinement in the menageries of Europe. One
+of the principal labours to which the Llamas were subjected at the time
+of the Spanish conquest was that of bringing down ore from the mines in
+the mountains. Gregory de Bolivar estimated that in his day as many as
+three hundred thousand were employed in the transport of the produce of
+the mines of Potosi alone; but since the introduction of horses, mules,
+and donkeys the importance of the Llama as a beast of burden has greatly
+diminished.
+
+The Alpaca, though believed by many naturalists to be a variety of the
+Vicugna, is more probably, like the Llama, derived from the Guanaco,
+having the naked callosities on the hind limbs, and the relatively
+large skull of the latter. It is usually found in a domesticated or
+semi-domesticated state, being kept in large flocks which graze on the
+level heights of the Andes of southern Peru and northern Bolivia at an
+elevation of from 14,000 to 16,000 feet above the sea-level, throughout
+the year. It is smaller than the Llama, and, unlike that animal, is not
+used as a beast of burden, but is valued only for its wool, of which the
+Indian blankets and ponchas are made. Its colour is usually dark brown or
+black.
+
+Mention has already been made of the occurrence of fossil Llamas in
+America, but some diversity of view obtains as to the generic position
+of some of these forms, owing to variations in their dental formula.
+Remains apparently referable to the existing species occur in the
+cavern-deposits of Brazil. In the Pleistocene of Mexico we meet with
+_A. (Palauchenia) magna_, which attained the size of a Camel, and had
+always two, and occasionally three, lower premolars; while in one South
+American Pleistocene species, which has been generically separated as
+_Hemiauchenia_, there were invariably three premolars in each jaw. In _A.
+(Holomeniscus) hesterna_, from the Pleistocene of North America, which
+was equal in size to _A. magna_, the premolars were reduced to one in
+each jaw; and the same condition obtains in _A. (Eschatius) vitakeriana_,
+where, however, the upper one is of simpler structure.
+
+_Extinct Cameloids._—Until within the last few years the existence of
+two genera having so very much in common as the Camels and the Llamas,
+and yet so completely isolated geographically, had not received any
+satisfactory explanation; for the old idea that they in some way
+“represented” each other in the two hemispheres of the world was a mere
+fancy without philosophical basis. The discoveries made mostly within
+the past twenty years of a vast and previously unsuspected extinct fauna
+in the American continent of the Tertiary period, as interpreted by
+Leidy, Cope, Marsh, and others, has thrown a flood of light upon the
+early history of this family, and upon its relations to other mammals.
+
+There have been found in these regions many Camel-like animals exhibiting
+different generic modifications; and, what is more interesting, a gradual
+series of changes, coinciding with the antiquity of the deposits in which
+they are found, have been traced from the thoroughly differentiated
+species of the modern epoch down through the Pliocene to the early
+Miocene beds, where, their characters having become by degrees more
+generalised, they have lost all that specially distinguishes them as
+_Camelidæ_, and are merged into forms common to the ancestral type of all
+the other sections of the Artiodactyles. Hitherto none of these annectant
+forms have been found in any of the fossiliferous strata of the Old
+World; and it may therefore be fairly surmised (according to the evidence
+at present before us) that America was the original home of the Tylopoda,
+and that the true Camels have passed over into the Old World, probably by
+way of the north of Asia, where we have every reason to believe there was
+formerly a free communication between the continents, and then, gradually
+driven southward, perhaps by changes of climate, having become isolated,
+have undergone some further special modifications; while those members
+of the family that remained in their original birthplace have become,
+through causes not clearly understood, restricted solely to the southern
+or most distant part of the continent. The occurrence in the dentition of
+the fossil Siwalik Camels of a feature now found only in _Auchenia_ is
+especially interesting from this point of view.
+
+Briefly referring to some of these fossil types, we may note that
+_Pliauchenia_, of the Loup Fork beds (Lower Pliocene) of the United
+States, has three lower premolars, while in _Procamelus_ there were four
+of these teeth. In _Protolabis_ of the Miocene we have a more generalised
+form, in which the dental formula is _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_
+³⁄₃; and from this type a transition may be traced to _Poëbrotherium_,
+which, while having the same dental formula, was no larger than a Fox,
+and had the third and fourth metacarpals separate, with rudiments of the
+fourth and fifth. The earliest undoubted representative of the group is
+_Leptotragulus_, of the Uinta Eocene, which appears to have been closely
+allied to _Poëbrotherium_. It is, however, probable that the first
+lower premolar was wanting; while the other premolars of the mandible
+were much shorter antero-posteriorly than in the last-named genus. The
+manus, moreover, appears to have been less reduced, the second metacarpal
+retaining its connection with the magnum. It is suggested that
+_Leptotragulus_ may have been derived from the Bunodont genus _Homacodon_
+of the Bridger Eocene, mentioned among the _Cænotheriidæ_.
+
+
+TRAGULINA.
+
+
+_Family_ TRAGULIDÆ.
+
+No teeth in premaxillæ. Upper canines well developed, especially in
+the males; narrow and pointed. Lower canines incisiform. No caniniform
+premolars in either jaw, all the premolars except the last in the upper
+jaw being secant. Molariform teeth in a continuous series, consisting
+of _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃. Odontoid process of axis vertebra conical. Fibula
+complete. Four complete toes on each foot. The middle metapodials
+generally confluent, the outer ones (second and fifth) very slender
+but complete, _i.e._ extending from the carpus or tarsus to the digit.
+Navicular, cuboid, and ectocuneiform bones of tarsus united. Tympanic
+bullæ of skull filled with cancellar tissue. No frontal appendages.
+Ruminating, but the stomach with only three distinct compartments, the
+manyplies or third cavity of the stomach of the Pecora being rudimentary.
+Placenta diffused.
+
+This section is represented only by the single family _Tragulidæ_,
+containing a few animals of small size, commonly known as Chevrotains,
+intermediate in their structure between the Deer, the Camels, and the
+Pigs. The large size of the canines of the male and the absence of
+horns caused them to be associated formerly with _Moschus_, one of the
+_Cervidæ_; hence they are often spoken of as “Pigmy Musk-Deer,” although
+they have no musk-secreting gland, or, except in the above-named trivial
+external characters, no special affinities with the true Musk-Deer.
+There has scarcely been a more troublesome and obdurate error in zoology
+than in this association of animals so really distinct. It has been
+troublesome, not only in preventing a just conception of the relations of
+existing Artiodactyles, but also in causing great confusion and hindrance
+in palæontological researches among allied forms; and most obdurate,
+inasmuch as all that has been recently done in advancing our knowledge
+of both groups has not succeeded in eradicating it, not only from nearly
+every one of our zoological text-books, whether British or Continental,
+but even from works of the highest scientific pretensions.
+
+The family is now generally divided into two genera.
+
+_Tragulus_,[191] containing the smallest of the existing Ungulates,
+animals having more of the general aspects and habits of some Rodents,
+as the Agoutis, than of the rest of their own order. The best-known
+species are _T. javanicus_, _T. napu_, _T. stanleyanus_, and _T.
+memmina_. The first three are from the Malay Peninsula, or the islands of
+the Indo-Malayan Archipelago, the last from Ceylon and India. A fossil
+species occurs in the Pliocene of the latter country.
+
+_Dorcatherium_[192] is distinguished chiefly by the feet being stouter
+and shorter, the outer toes better developed, and the two middle
+metacarpals not ankylosed together. Its dental formula (as that of
+_Tragulus_) is usually _i_ ⁰⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃ = 34. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 13, L 6, S 5, C 12-13. The only existing species, _D. aquaticum_
+(Fig. 118), from the west coast of Africa, is rather larger than any of
+the Asiatic Chevrotains, which it otherwise much resembles, but it is
+said to frequent the banks of streams, and have much the habits of Pigs.
+It is of a rich brown colour, with back and sides spotted and striped
+with white. It is evidently the survivor of a very ancient form, as
+remains of the type species (_D. naui_), only differing in size, occur in
+the lower Pliocene and Miocene of Europe; fossil species are also found
+in the Indian Pliocene. In _D. naui_ there are, at least frequently, four
+lower premolars, while the existing species has but three of these teeth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 118.—The African Water-Chevrotain (_Dorcatherium
+aquaticum_).]
+
+_Extinct Traguloids._—A number of small selenodont Artiodactyles from
+various Miocene and Pliocene deposits appear to connect the modern
+Tragulina so closely with _Gelocus_ (p. 294), and thus with the ancestral
+_Cervidæ_, that their classification is almost an impossibility. Thus
+_Leptomeryx_, from the Miocene of the United States, is regarded as a
+Traguloid, having four premolars in each jaw and with the metatarsals
+fused into a cannon-bone. _Prodremotherium_, of the Upper Eocene
+Phosphorites of France, differs in that the metacarpals also form a
+cannon-bone; while in the American _Hypertragulus_, both metacarpals and
+metatarsals remain separate. _Bachitherium_, of the French Phosphorites,
+apparently presents affinity with _Gelocus_, _Prodremotherium_, and
+_Dorcatherium_. In this genus the first of the four lower premolars
+assumes the character and function of a canine, the true canine being
+incisor-like, and there are traces of minute upper incisors.
+
+
+PECORA, OR COTYLOPHORA.
+
+No premaxillary teeth or caniniform premolars. Upper canines generally
+absent, though sometimes largely developed. Inferior incisors, three on
+each side with an incisiform canine in contact with them. Molariform
+teeth consisting of _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃, in continuous series. Auditory
+bullæ simple and hollow within. Odontoid process in the form of a
+crescent, hollow above. Distal extremity of the fibula represented by a
+distinct malleolar bone of peculiar shape, articulating with the outer
+surface of the lower end of the tibia. Third and fourth metacarpals and
+metatarsals confluent. Outer or lateral toes small and rudimentary, or
+in some cases entirely suppressed; their metapodial bones never complete
+in existing forms. Navicular and cuboid bones of tarsus united. Horns or
+antlers usually present, at least in the male sex. Left brachial artery
+arising from a common innominate trunk, instead of coming off separately
+from the aortic arch as in the preceding sections. Stomach with four
+complete cavities. Placenta cotyledonous.[193]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 119.—A shed right antler of the Red Deer (_Cervus
+elaphus_), found in an Irish lake. _a_, Brow tine; _b_, bez tine; _c_,
+tres tine; _d_, crown or royal tine. (After Owen.)]
+
+The Pecora or true Ruminants form at the present time an extremely
+homogeneous group, one of the best-defined and most closely united of any
+of the Mammalia. But, though the original or common type has never been
+departed from in essentials, variation has been very active among them
+within certain limits; and the great difficulty which all zoologists have
+felt in subdividing them into natural minor groups arises from the fact
+that the changes in different organs (feet, skull, frontal appendages,
+teeth, cutaneous glands, etc.) have proceeded with such apparent
+irregularity and absence of correlation that the different modifications
+of these parts are most variously combined in different members of the
+group. It appears, however, extremely probable that they soon branched
+into two main types, represented in the present day by the _Cervidæ_ and
+the _Bovidæ_,—otherwise the antlered and horned Ruminants. Intermediate
+smaller branches produced the existing Musk-Deer and Giraffe, as well as
+the extinct _Helladotherium_ inclining to the first-named group, and the
+extinct _Sivatherium_, _Brahmatherium_, _Hydaspitherium_, and others more
+allied to the latter, although upon the true relationship of these forms
+there is a difference of opinion.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 120.—Head of Deer (_Cervus schomburgki_), showing
+antlers. From Sclater, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1877, p. 682.]
+
+The earliest forms of true Pecora, as _Palæomeryx_, generally had no
+frontal appendages, and some few forms continue to the present day in a
+similar case. In the very large majority, however, either in both sexes
+or in the male only, a pair or occasionally two pairs (_Tetraceros_ and
+the extinct _Sivatherium_) of processes are developed from the frontal
+bones as weapons of offence and defence, these being almost always formed
+on one or other of two types.
+
+1. “Antlers” are outgrowths of true bone, covered during their growth
+with vascular, sensitive integument coated with short hair. When the
+growth of the antler is complete, the supply of blood to it ceases, the
+skin dies and peels off, leaving the bone bare and insensible, and after
+a time, by a process of absorption near the base, it becomes detached
+from the skull and is “shed” (Fig. 119). A more or less elongated portion
+or “pedicle” always remains on the skull from the summit of which a new
+antler is developed. In the greater number of existing species of Deer
+this process is repeated with great regularity at the same period of each
+year. The antler may be simple, straight, subcylindrical, tapering and
+pointed, but more often it sends off one or more branches called “tines”
+or “snags” (Fig. 119). In this case the main stem is termed the “beam.”
+Commonly all the branches of the antler are cylindrical and gradually
+tapering. Sometimes they are more or less expanded and flattened, the
+antler being then said to be “palmated.” In young animals the antlers
+are always small and simple, and in those species in which they are
+variously branched or palmated, this condition is only gradually acquired
+in several successive annual growths. An interesting parallel has been
+observed here, as in so many other cases, between the development of the
+race and that of the individual. Thus the earliest known forms of Deer,
+those of the Lower Miocene, generally have no antlers, as in the young of
+the existing species. The Deer of the Middle Miocene have simple antlers,
+with not more than two branches, as in existing Deer of the second
+year; but it is not until the Pliocene and Pleistocene times that Deer
+occur with antlers developed with that luxuriance of growth and beauty
+of form characteristic of some of the existing species in a perfectly
+adult state. Among recent _Cervidæ_, antlers are wanting in the genera
+_Moschus_ and _Hydropotes_; they are present in both sexes in _Tarandus_
+(the Reindeer), and in the male sex only in all others.
+
+In those forms with the most complex antlers (Figs. 119, 120) the tine
+immediately over the forehead is termed the _brow tine_, the next one
+the _bez tine_, and the third one the _tres tine_; the mass of points at
+the summit of the antler being termed either the _royal_ and _surroyal
+tines_, or collectively the _crown_. The nodulated bony ring at the base
+of the antler, just above the point at which it separates from the
+pedicle when it is shed, is termed the _burr_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 121.—Head of Antelope (_Gazella granti_), showing
+horns. From Sir V. Brooke, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1878, p. 724.]
+
+2. The horns of the _Bovidæ_ consist of permanent, conical, usually
+curved bony processes, into which air-cells continued from the frontal
+sinuses often extend, called “horn-cores,” ensheathed in a case of
+true horn, an epidermic development of fibrous structure, which grows
+continuously, though slowly, from the base, and wears away at the apex,
+but is very rarely shed entire. The only existing species in which
+the latter process occurs regularly and periodically is the American
+Prong-Buck (_Antilocapra_), in which the horns also differ from those of
+all others in being bifurcated. Horns are not present at birth, but begin
+to grow very soon afterwards. The males of all existing _Bovidæ_ possess
+them, and they are also present (though usually not so fully developed)
+in the females of all except the genera _Boselaphus_, _Strepsiceros_,
+_Tragelaphus_, _Antilope_, _Æpyceros_, _Saiga_, _Cobus_, _Cervicapra_,
+_Pelea_, _Nanotragus_, _Neotragus_, _Cephalophus_, and _Tetraceros_; as
+well as in some species of _Gazella_, such as _G. picticandata_ and _G.
+walleri_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 122.—Crown surface of a worn left upper molar
+of _Palæomeryx sivalensis_, to show brachydont type. (From the
+_Palæontologia Indica_.)]
+
+Another character by which different members of the _Pecora_ can be
+distinguished among themselves is derived from the nature of the molar
+teeth. Although there is nothing in the general mode and arrangement of
+the enamel-folds, or in the accessory columns, absolutely distinctive
+between the two principal families, existing species may generally be
+distinguished, inasmuch as the true molars of the _Cervidæ_ are more or
+less brachydont, and those of the _Bovidæ_ generally hypsodont, _i.e._,
+the teeth of the former have comparatively short crowns (Fig. 122),
+which, as in most mammals, take their place at once with the neck (or
+point where the crown and root join) on a level with or a little above
+the alveolar border, and remain in this position throughout the animal’s
+life; whereas in the other forms (Fig. 123), the crown being lengthened
+and the root small, the neck does not come up to the alveolar level
+until a considerable part of the surface has worn away, and the crown
+of the tooth thus appears for the greater part of the animal’s life
+partially buried in the socket. In this form of tooth (which is almost
+always most developed in the posterior molars of the permanent series)
+the constituent columns of the crown are necessarily nearly parallel,
+whereas in the first-described they diverge from the neck towards the
+free or grinding surface of the tooth. In the completely hypsodont form
+the interstices of the lengthened columnar folds of enamel and dentine
+are filled up with cement, which gives stability to the whole organ,
+and is entirely or nearly wanting in the short-crowned teeth. The same
+modification from low to high crowns without essential alteration of
+pattern is seen in an even still more marked manner in some of the
+Perissodactyle Ungulates, the tooth of the Horse bearing to that of
+_Anchitherium_ the same relation as that of an Ox does to the early
+selenodont Artiodactyles. A parallel modification has also taken place in
+the molar teeth of the Proboscidea.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 123.—Inner and outer aspects of an almost unworn left
+upper molar of the Nilghai (_Boselaphus tragocamelus_), to show hypsodont
+type. (From the _Palæontologia Indica_.)]
+
+As the hypsodont tooth is essentially a modification of, and, as it were,
+an improvement upon, the brachydont, it is but natural to expect that
+all intermediate forms may be met with. Even among the Deer themselves,
+as pointed out by Lartet, the most ancient have very short molars, and
+the depressions on the grinding surface are so shallow that the bottom
+is always visible; while in the _Cervidæ_ of the more recent Tertiary
+periods, and especially the Pleistocene and living species, these same
+cavities are so deep that whatever be the state of the dentition the
+bottom cannot be seen. Some existing Deer, as the Axis, are far more
+hypsodont than the majority of the family; and, on the other hand,
+many of the Antelopes (as _Tragelaphus_) retain much of the brachydont
+character, which is, however, completely lost in the more modern and
+highly specialised Sheep and Oxen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 124.—Stomach of Ruminant opened to show internal
+structure. _a_, Œsophagus; _b_, rumen or paunch; _c_, reticulum or
+honey-comb bag; _d_, psalterium or manyplies; _e_, abomasum or reed; _f_,
+duodenum.]
+
+The complicated stomach of the Pecora (Fig. 124), which is necessary for
+the performance of the peculiar function known as “chewing the cud”—a
+function common also to the Tragulina and Tylopoda—is divided into four
+well-defined compartments, known as (1) the Rumen or Paunch, (2) the
+Reticulum or Honey-comb Bag, (3) the Psalterium or Manyplies, (4) the
+Abomasum or Reed. The paunch is a very capacious receptacle, shaped
+like a blunted cone bent partly upon itself. Into its broader base
+opens the œsophagus or gullet at a spot not far removed from its wide
+orifice of communication with the second stomach or honey-comb bag. Its
+inner walls are nearly uniformly covered with a pale mucous membrane,
+which is beset with innumerable close-set, short, and slender villi,
+resembling very much the “pile” on velvet. The honey-comb bag is very
+much smaller than the paunch. It is nearly globose in shape, and receives
+its name on account of the peculiar arrangement of its mucous membrane
+which forms shallow hexagonal cells all over its inner surface. Running
+along its upper wall there is a deep groove, coursing from the first to
+the third stomach. This groove plays an important part in the act of
+rumination. Its walls are muscular, like those of the viscus with which
+it is associated, which allows its calibre to be altered. Sometimes it
+completely closes round so as to become converted into a tube by the
+opposition of its edges. At others it forms an open canal. The manyplies
+is globular in form, and its lining membrane is raised into longitudinal
+folds or laminæ arranged very much like the leaves of a book, and very
+close together. Their surfaces are roughened by the presence of small
+projections or papillæ. The reed is the proper digestive stomach,
+corresponding with the same organ in man. Its shape is somewhat pyriform,
+and its walls are formed of a smooth mucous membrane, which secretes the
+gastric juice.
+
+When the food is first swallowed it is conveyed into the paunch, and
+after undergoing a softening process there it is regurgitated into
+the mouth, and undergoes a further trituration by the molar teeth and
+mixture with the secretion of the salivary and buccal glands. It is then
+swallowed again, but now passes directly through the before-mentioned
+groove into the manyplies, and, after filtering through the numerous
+folds of the lining membrane of this cavity, finally reaches the fourth
+or digestive stomach.
+
+The placenta of the Pecora is characterised by the fœtal villi being
+collected into groups or cotyledons, which may present either a convex
+or a concave surface to the uterus. These cotyledons are received into
+permanent elevations in the mucous membrane of the uterus, the surfaces
+of which present a curvature which is the reverse of the cotyledons.
+
+
+_Family_ CERVIDÆ.
+
+Frontal appendages, when present, in the form of antlers. First molar,
+at least, in both jaws brachydont. Two orifices to the lachrymal duct,
+situated on or inside the rim of the orbit. An antorbital or lachrymal
+vacuity of such dimensions as to exclude the lachrymal bone from
+articulation with the nasal. Upper canines usually present in both
+sexes and sometimes attaining a very great size in the male (see Fig.
+134). Lateral digits of both fore and hind feet, almost always present,
+and frequently the distal ends of the metapodials. Placenta with few
+cotyledons. Gall-bladder absent (except in _Moschus_). This family
+contains numerous species, having a wide geographical distribution,
+ranging in the New World from the Arctic Circle as far south as Chili,
+and in the Old World throughout the whole of Europe and Asia, though
+absent in the Ethiopian and Australian regions.
+
+It may be divided into two subfamilies.
+
+Subfamily =Moschinæ=.—This subfamily is represented solely by the
+Musk-Deer, which differs so remarkably from the true Deer that it is
+considered by several writers as the representative of a separate family.
+The late Professor Garrod even suggested that it should be regarded as an
+extremely aberrant member of the _Bovidæ_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 125.—The Musk-Deer (_Moschus moschiferus_).]
+
+_Moschus._[194]—The Musk-Deer (Fig. 125) in many respects stands by
+itself as an isolated zoological form, retaining characters belonging
+to the older and more generalised types of ruminants before they were
+distinctly separated into the horned and the antlered sections now
+dominant upon the earth. One of these characters is that both sexes are
+entirely devoid of any sort of frontal appendage. In this, however,
+it agrees with one existing genus of true Deer (_Hydropotes_); and,
+as in that animal, the upper canine teeth of the males are remarkably
+developed, long, slender, sharp pointed, and gently curved, projecting
+downwards out of the mouth with the ends turned somewhat backwards.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 5, S 5, C 6. Among the anatomical peculiarities in
+which it differs from all true Deer and agrees with the _Bovidæ_ is the
+presence of a gall-bladder. The hemispheres of the brain are but slightly
+convoluted, and the cotyledons of the placenta are arranged in a peculiar
+linear manner.[195]
+
+Although, owing to variations of colour presented by different
+individuals in different localities and seasons, several nominal species
+have been described, zoologists are now generally agreed that there is
+but one, the _Moschus moschiferus_ of Linnæus. In size it is rather
+less than the European Roe Deer, being about 20 inches high at the
+shoulder. Its limbs, especially the hinder ones, are long. The feet are
+remarkable for the great development of the lateral pair of hoofs, and
+for the freedom of motion they all present, so that they appear to have
+the power of grasping projecting rocky points,—a power which must be
+of great assistance to the animal in steadying it in its agile bounds
+among the crags of its native haunts. The ears are large, and the tail
+quite rudimentary. The hair covering the body is long, coarse, and of a
+peculiarly brittle and pith-like character, breaking with the application
+of an extremely slight force; it is generally of a grayish-brown colour,
+sometimes inclined to yellowish-red, and often variegated with lighter
+patches. The Musk-Deer has a wide distribution over the highlands
+of central and eastern Asia, including the greater part of southern
+Siberia, and extends to Kashmir on the south-west and Cochin-China on
+the south-east, always, however, at considerable elevations,—being
+rarely found in summer below 7000 feet above the sea-level, and ranging
+as high as the limits of the thickets of birch or pines, among which
+it mostly conceals itself in the daytime. It is a hardy, solitary, and
+retiring animal, chiefly nocturnal in its habits, and almost always found
+alone, rarely in pairs, and never in herds. It is exceedingly active
+and sure-footed, having few equals in traversing rocky and precipitous
+ground; and it feeds on moss, grass, and leaves of the plants which grow
+on the mountains among which it makes its home.
+
+Most of the animals of the group to which the Musk-Deer belongs, in
+fact the large majority of mammals, have some portion of the cutaneous
+surface peculiarly modified and provided with glands secreting some
+odorous and oleaginous substance specially characteristic of the species.
+This, correlated with the extraordinary development of the olfactory
+organs, appears to offer the principal means by which animals in a
+state of nature become aware of the presence of other individuals of
+their own species, or of those inimical to them, even at very great
+distances, and hence it is of extreme importance both to the well-being
+of the individual and to the continuance of the race. The situation of
+this specially modified portion of skin is extremely various, sometimes
+between the toes, as in Sheep, sometimes on the face in front of the
+eyes, as in many Deer and Antelopes. Sometimes it is in the form of a
+simple depression or shallow recess, often very deeply involuted, and in
+its fullest state of development it forms a distinct pouch or sac with
+a narrow tubular orifice. In this sac a considerable quantity of the
+secretion can accumulate until discharged by the action of a compressor
+muscle which surrounds it. This is the form taken by the special gland of
+the Musk-Deer, which has made the animal so well known, and has proved
+the cause of an unremitting persecution to its possessor. It is found
+in the male only, and is a sac about the size of a very small orange,
+situated beneath the skin of the abdomen, the orifice being immediately
+in front of the preputial aperture. The secretion with which the sac is
+filled is of dark-brown or chocolate colour, and when fresh described as
+being of the consistence of “moist gingerbread,” but becoming dry and
+granular after keeping. It has a peculiar and very powerful scent, which
+when properly diluted and treated forms the basis of many of our most
+admired perfumes. When the animal is killed the whole gland or “pod” is
+cut out and dried, and in this form reaches the market of the Western
+World, chiefly through China.
+
+Subfamily =Cervinæ.=—This subfamily includes all the true Deer. According
+to the arrangement proposed by Sir V. Brooke[196] the existing _Cervinæ_
+may be divided into the sections Plesiometacarpalia and Telemetacarpalia.
+
+=Plesiometacarpalia.=—In this section, which is mainly characteristic of
+the Old World, the proximal portions of the lateral (second and fifth)
+metacarpals persist, and the vomer is never so ossified as to divide the
+posterior osseous nares into two distinct passages. The premaxillæ nearly
+always articulate with the nasals.
+
+_Cervulus._[197]—Antlers half the length of the head, placed on pedicles
+nearly equal to them in length. Brow tine short, inclined inwards and
+upwards; terminal extremity of beam unbranched, and curved downwards and
+inwards. Lachrymal fossa of skull very large, and extending into facial
+part of jugal; lachrymal (antorbital) vacuity moderate. Ascending portion
+of premaxillæ at least as long as nasals. A permanent ridge extending
+from each pedicle over the orbit, lachrymal fossa and vacuity. Auditory
+bulla much inflated. Upper canines of males very large. Ectocuneiform
+united with naviculo-cuboid of tarsus. No traces of the phalanges of the
+lateral digits.
+
+The native name Muntjac has been generally adopted in European languages
+for a small group of Deer indigenous to the southern and eastern parts
+of Asia and the adjacent islands, which are separated by very marked
+characters from all their allies. They are also called “Kijang” or
+“Kidjang,” and constitute the genus _Cervulus_ of Blainville and most
+zoologists;—_Styloceros_ of Hamilton-Smith, and _Prox_ of Ogilby. They
+are all of small size compared with the majority of Deer, and have long
+bodies and rather short limbs and neck. The antlers, which as in most
+Deer are present in the male only, are small and simple, and the main
+stem or beam, after giving off a very short brow tine, inclines backwards
+and upwards, is unbranched and pointed, and when fully developed curves
+inwards and somewhat downwards at the tip. These small antlers are
+supported upon pedicles or permanent processes of the frontal bones,
+longer than in any other Deer, and the front edges of which are continued
+downwards as strong ridges passing along the sides of the face above the
+orbits, and serving to protect the large supraorbital glands lying on
+their inner sides. The lachrymal fossa of the skull, in which is lodged
+the large suborbital gland or crumen, is of great depth and extent. The
+upper canine teeth of the males are strongly developed and sharp, curving
+downwards, backwards, and outwards, projecting visibly outside the mouth
+as tusks, and loosely implanted in their sockets. In the females they are
+very much smaller. The limbs exhibit several structural peculiarities
+not found in other Deer. The lateral digits of both fore and hind feet
+are very little developed, the hoofs alone being present and their bony
+supports (found in all other Deer) wanting. There is a tufted gland on
+the outer side of the metatarsus.
+
+The Muntjacs are solitary animals, very rarely even two being seen
+together. They are fond of hilly ground covered with forests, in the
+dense thickets of which they pass most of their time, only coming to
+the skirts of the woods at morning and evening to graze. They carry the
+head and neck low and the hind-quarters high, their action in running
+being peculiar and not very elegant, somewhat resembling the pace of a
+sheep. Though with no power of sustained speed or extensive leap, they
+are remarkable for flexibility of body and facility of creeping through
+tangled underwood. They are often called by Indian sportsmen “Barking
+Deer,” a name given on account of their alarm cry, a kind of short shrill
+bark, like that of a fox but louder, which may often be heard in the
+jungles they frequent both by day and by night. When attacked by dogs the
+males use their sharp canine teeth with great vigour, inflicting upon
+their opponents deep and even dangerous wounds.
+
+There is some difference of opinion among zoologists as to the number of
+species of the genus _Cervulus_. Sir Victor Brooke, who investigated this
+question in 1878 (see _Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London_
+for that year, p. 898), came to the conclusion that there are certainly
+three which are quite well marked, viz.—
+
+_C. muntjac_ (Fig. 126), found in British India, Burma, the Malay
+Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Hainan, Banca, and Borneo. The general colour
+is a bright yellowish-red, darker in the upper parts of the back; the
+fore legs from the shoulder downwards and the lower part of the hind
+legs, dark bluish-brown; anterior parts of the face from the muzzle to
+between the eyes, brown—a blackish line running up the inside of each
+frontal ridge; chin, throat, inside of hind legs, and under surface of
+tail white. The female has a black bristly tuft of hair on the spot from
+which the pedicles of the antlers of the male grow. The average length
+of the male, according to Jerdon, is 3½ feet, tail 7 inches, height 26
+to 28 inches. The female is a little smaller. The specimens from Java,
+Sumatra, and Borneo are of larger size than those from the mainland, and
+may possibly be of distinct species or race.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 126.—The Muntjac (_Cervulus muntjac_).]
+
+_C. lacrymans_ of Milne-Edwards, or Sclater’s Muntjac of Swinhoe, from
+Moupin, and near Hangchow, China.
+
+_C. reevesi_, a very small species from southern China.
+
+Subsequently the name _C. crinifrons_ has been applied to a Muntjac
+from Ningpo, China, readily distinguished from all other species by its
+bushy forehead and long tail. Another species from Tenasserim has been
+described as _C. feæ_.
+
+Small Deer from the European Pliocene have been provisionally referred
+to _Cervulus_, but the so-called _Prox furcatus_, of the Miocene, is now
+included in _Palæomeryx_.
+
+_Elaphodus._[198]—Antlers very small, unbranched, supported on long,
+slender, converging pedicles. Ascending rami of premaxillæ shorter than
+nasals. No supraorbital ridges or frontal glands. Upper canines of male
+long, but not everted. A distinct frontal tuft of hair. Other characters
+as in _Cervulus_.
+
+This genus (which has also received the name of _Lophotragus_) is
+represented by a small Deer (Fig. 127) from China of about the same
+size as the Indian Muntjac. The male has minute simple antlers and very
+large canine teeth. There are no supraorbital glands, nor is there a
+tufted gland on the metatarsus. The limbs have the same peculiarities
+as in _Cervulus_, but the mesocuneiform may also ankylose with the
+ectocuneiform, and traces of the metacarpals may remain. The hair is
+coarse and somewhat quill-like.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 127.—Male of _Elaphodus michianus_. From Sclater
+_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1876, p. 273.]
+
+_Cervus._[199]—The great majority of the Deer of the Old World may be
+included in this large genus, which is one not easy of definition. The
+antlers of the male are, however, large, and two or three times the
+length of the head, and may be either rounded or palmate; the canines are
+never large; the ectocuneiform of the tarsus remains distinct from the
+naviculo-cuboid; the lateral digits are represented by their phalanges;
+and the skull does not carry prominent frontal ridges. Vertebræ: C 7, D
+13, L 6, S 4, C 11-14. The size of the lachrymal fossa and vacuity, and
+the degree of inflation of the auditory bulla, are subject to variation
+in the different groups into which the genus may be divided.
+
+The _Rusine_ group is characteristic of the Oriental region, where it is
+typically represented by the Sambur (_C. aristotelis_) of India, Burma,
+and China. The antlers are rounded, and often strongly grooved, without a
+bez tine, and with the beam simply forked at the extremity, upright, and
+but slightly curved; the angle formed by the brow tine, which rises close
+to the burr, being acute. The molars are markedly hypsodont, with small
+accessory columns. The lachrymal fossa is deep and the vacuity large; the
+auditory bulla is slightly inflated and rugose. Tail moderate; neck maned.
+
+The Sambur, which is abundant in hilly districts, is a fine animal,
+standing nearly 5 feet in height, and of massive build; the general
+colour being deep brown. _C. equinus_, of Borneo, Sumatra, and Singapore,
+_C. swinhoei_, of Formosa, _C. philippinus_, and _C. alfredi_ of the
+Philippines, are closely allied species, of which the two latter are
+of smaller dimensions. The Indian Hog Deer (_C. porcinus_) is a still
+smaller form, not larger than the Roe. _C. hippelaphus_ of Java, _C.
+timoriensis_, and _C. moluccensis_ are distinguished by the posterior
+branch of the beam of the antler being considerably larger than the
+anterior.
+
+The _Rucervine_ group is another strictly Oriental one, and is
+represented by the Swamp Deer (_C. duvaucelli_) of India, the closely
+allied _C. schomburgki_ of Siam, of which the antlers are shown in Fig.
+119 (p. 309), and _C. eldi_ of Burma and Hainan. The beam of the antler
+is somewhat flattened, and more curved than in the Rusine group; the
+large brow tine is given off from the beam at an obtuse angle and curves
+upwards; the beam bifurcates into two branches, which again divide. Skull
+as in the Rusine group, but relatively narrower. Tail short; neck maned.
+
+The Swamp Deer is somewhat smaller than the Sambur, and of a full
+yellowish colour. Fossil representatives of this group occur in the
+Pliocene of India.
+
+The _Elaphurine_ group is represented only by the very aberrant _C.
+davidianus_ of Northern China. In size and proportions this species
+approximates to the Swamp Deer, but the antlers are peculiar in rising
+straight from the brow and then giving off a long and straight back tine
+(correlated by Sir V. Brooke with the posterior branch of the Rusine
+antler); the summit of the beam is forked, and in old individuals the
+two tines of the fork may again branch. Nasals long, and much expanded
+between the lachrymal vacuities, of which they form the inner border;
+lachrymal fossa large and deep. Tail long; neck maned.
+
+The _Axine_ group includes only the well-known Axis of India, readily
+distinguished by the white spots with which the body is marked. Antlers
+of a Rusine type, the beam being much curved, and the brow tine usually
+given off at an acute or right angle. Molars very hypsodont. The
+coloration of the Axis is more brilliant than that of any other member of
+the family.
+
+Here may be noticed a group of Deer mainly characteristic of the
+eastern Palæarctic region, frequently known as the _Pseudaxine_ group,
+which appears to connect the Axine with the Elaphine type. Well-known
+representatives of this group are _C. sika_ (Fig. 128) of Japan, _C.
+mantchuricus_ of China, and _C. taëvanus_ of Formosa. The antlers have a
+brow and tres tine, and then a forked beam, of which the posterior tine
+is the smaller. The lachrymal vacuity and fossa are of moderate size;
+and the auditory bulla is only moderately inflated, and quite smooth
+externally. Tail moderate; neck maned. In summer the coat is spotted, but
+is plain in winter. A herd of _C. sika_ have been acclimatised in Ireland
+by Viscount Powerscourt, at Powerscourt, County Wicklow. A number of Deer
+from the Pliocene of Europe, such as _C. perrieri_ and _C. etueriarum_,
+appear to be allied both to the Pseudaxine and Axine groups.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 128.—The Japanese Deer (_Cervus sika_). From Lord
+Powerscourt, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1884, p. 209.]
+
+The _Elaphine_ or typical group is at once characterised by the presence
+of a bez tine to the antlers (Fig. 129), in which the beam is rounded,
+and splits up near the summit into a larger or smaller number of snags,
+often arranged in a cup-like manner. Skull as in the preceding group. All
+the species large. The Red Deer, _C. elaphus_, which is dark brown in
+colour, with a light patch on the rump, inhabits Europe, Western Asia,
+and Northern Africa—the so-called Barbary Deer not being specifically
+distinct. A full-grown Scotch Stag is fully 4 feet in height at the
+withers. The antlers are shed between the end of February and the early
+part of April; old animals shedding earlier than younger ones. The young,
+which (as in all the members of the genus except some of the Rusine
+species) are spotted, are born at the end of May or the beginning of
+June. The points on the antlers increase in number with the age of the
+creature, and when twelve are present it is known in Scotland as a “royal
+stag.” This number, however, is sometimes exceeded, as in the case of a
+pair of antlers, weighing 74 lbs., from a stag killed in Transylvania,
+which had forty-five points. The antlers during the second year consist
+of a simple unbranched stem, to which a tine or branch is added in each
+succeeding year, until the normal development is attained, after which
+their growth is somewhat irregular. Many of the antlers dug up in British
+peat-beds (as Fig. 118) are larger than those of living individuals,
+and in the cave-deposits of England and the Continent antlers are met
+with rivalling those of the Wapiti in size; these large fossil antlers
+probably indicating the ancestral form from which the Red Deer and
+several of the allied species are descended.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 129.—Head of the Wapiti (_Cervus canadensis_).]
+
+The North American Wapiti (_Cervus canadensis_, Fig. 129), the Persian
+Maral (_C. maral_), the Kashmir Stag (_C. cashmeerianus_), as well as
+_C. affinis_ of Tibet, are all closely allied to the Red Deer, but are
+of larger size, this being especially the case with the first two. A
+fine example of the antlers of the Wapiti is shown in the accompanying
+woodcut, and exhibits the absence of a cup at the surroyals, by which
+this species is distinguished from the Red Deer.
+
+The last, or _Damine_ group of existing Deer includes the Common and the
+Persian Fallow Deer. These are readily characterised by the palmation
+of the antlers in the region of the surroyals and the spotted coat.
+The Common Fallow Deer (_C. dama_) stands about three feet in height.
+The Persian Fallow Deer (_C. mesopotamicus_) is very closely allied,
+differing only in its slightly larger size and the form of the antlers,
+the two breeding together. The common species, although now kept in
+English parks, does not appear to be a native of this country, having
+probably been introduced from the regions bordering the Mediterranean.
+The fur is of a yellowish-brown colour (whence the name “fallow”), marked
+with white spots; there is, however, a uniformly dark brown variety found
+in Britain. The bucks and does live apart, except during the pairing
+season; and the doe produces one or two, and sometimes three fawns at
+a birth. The Fallow Deer from the Pleistocene and Pliocene deposits
+of the East Coast described under the names of _C. browni_ and _C.
+falconeri_ appear to have been closely allied to the existing species.
+The remarkable _C. verticornis_, of the Norfolk Forest-bed, is regarded
+as an aberrant member of this group, in which the antlers are very short
+and thick, with the brow tine cylindrical and downwardly curved, and the
+beam expanded above the tres tine into a crown with two points.
+
+The extinct Irish Deer (_Cervus giganteus_), of which the skeleton is
+shown in the woodcut (Fig. 130), is the only representative of the
+_Megacerotine_ group. The antlers, which may have a span of over 11
+feet, are enormously palmated, and have a bifurcated brow tine, a small
+bez tine, and a third posterior tine. The skeleton measures upwards of
+6 feet at the withers. Remains of this species are especially common in
+the peat-bogs of Ireland, but are also met with in Pleistocene deposits
+over a large part of Europe. In addition to the forms already mentioned
+there are many other fossil species of _Cervus_, some of which, like the
+English Pleistocene _C. sedgewicki_, cannot be included in any of the
+existing groups. There is no conclusive evidence of the existence of any
+species of _Cervus_ before the Lower Pliocene period.
+
+=Telemetacarpalia.=—This section includes all the Deer of the New World,
+together with some Old World forms, and is characterised by retaining the
+distal extremities of the lateral (second and fifth) metacarpals. With
+the exception of _Alces_, _Capreolus_, and _Hydropotes_ (which are either
+partly or entirely Old World types), the vomer is so much ossified as to
+divide the posterior bony nares into two distinct orifices (Fig. 132).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 130.—Skeleton of the Gigantic Irish Deer (_Cervus
+giganteus_). After Owen.]
+
+_Rangifer._[200]—The Reindeer, or Caribou as it is termed in North
+America, is the sole representative of the genus _Rangifer_, which is
+sufficiently distinguished from all its allies by the presence of antlers
+in both sexes. The lachrymal vacuity is small. This animal is distributed
+over the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America; the differences
+which may be observable in specimens from different regions not being
+sufficient to allow of specific distinction. The Reindeer is a heavily
+built animal, with short limbs, in which the lateral hoofs are well
+developed, and the cleft between the two main hoofs is very deep, so that
+these hoofs spread out as the animal traverses the snow-clad regions in
+which it dwells. The antlers (Fig. 131) are of very large relative size.
+There is a bez as well as a brow tine, which are peculiar in being either
+branched or palmated. In the American race (Caribou), as well as in some
+of the specimens found fossil in the English Pleistocene (Fig. 131), one
+of the brow tines is generally aborted to allow of the great development
+of the other. The dentition of the Reindeer is frequently remarkable
+for the very small size of the posterior lobe of the last lower molar.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 5, S 5, C 11.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 131.—Skull and antlers of the Reindeer (_Rangifer
+tarandus_), from an English Pleistocene deposit. _br_, Brow tine; _bz_,
+bez tine. (After Owen.)]
+
+The Reindeer has long been domesticated in Scandinavia, and is of
+especial value to the Laplanders, whom it serves as a substitute for
+the Horse, Cow, Sheep, and Goat. It is capable of drawing a weight of
+300 lbs., and its fleetness and endurance are remarkable. Harnessed to
+a sledge it will travel without difficulty 100 miles a day over the
+frozen snow, on which its broad and deeply cleft hoofs are admirably
+adapted for travelling. During the summer the Lapland Reindeer feeds
+chiefly on the young shoots of the willow and birch; and since at this
+season migration to the coast seems necessary to the well-being of this
+animal, the Laplander, with his herds, sojourns for several months in
+the neighbourhood of the sea. In winter its food consists chiefly of the
+so-called reindeer-moss and other lichens which the animal makes use
+of its hoofs in seeking for beneath the snow. The wild Reindeer grows
+to a much greater size than the tame breed; but in Northern Europe the
+former are being gradually reduced through the natives entrapping and
+domesticating them. The tame breed found in Northern Asia is much larger
+than the Lapland form, and is there used to ride on. Remains referable
+to the existing species are found in the cavern and other Pleistocene
+deposits of Europe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 132.—Hinder part of the base of the cranium of the
+Virginian Deer (_Cariacus virginianus_). From Garrod, _Proc. Zool. Soc._
+1877, p. 13.]
+
+_Alces._[201]—The Elk or Moose (_Alces machlis_) has the same general
+distribution as the Reindeer, and is likewise the single existing
+representative of its genus. It is the largest existing member of the
+family, attaining sometimes a height of 8 feet at the withers. The
+antlers (Fig. 133) have neither brow nor bez tine, but form an enormous
+basin-shaped palmation, primarily composed of an anterior and a posterior
+branch; their weight may be as much as 60 lbs. The nasal bones are very
+short, and the narial aperture of great size. The Elk is covered with a
+thick coarse fur of a brownish colour, longest on the neck and throat.
+Its legs are long and its neck short, and as it is thus unable to feed
+close to the ground, it browses on the tops of low plants, the leaves of
+trees, and the tender shoots of the willow and birch. Its antlers attain
+their full length by the fifth year, but in after years they increase in
+breadth and in the number of snags, until fourteen of these are produced.
+Although spending a large part of their lives in forests, Elks do not
+suffer much inconvenience from the great expanse of their antlers, as in
+making their way among trees they are carried horizontally to prevent
+entanglement with the branches. Their usual pace is a shambling trot, but
+when frightened they break into a gallop. The natural timidity of the
+Elk forsakes the male at the rutting season, and he will then attack
+whatever animal comes in his way. The antlers and hoofs are his principal
+weapons, and with a single blow from the latter he has been known to kill
+a wolf. The female often gives birth to two fawns, and with these she
+retires into the deepest recesses of the forest, the young remaining with
+her till their third year. The Elk ranges, but in scanty numbers, over
+the whole of Northern Europe and Asia, as far south as East Prussia, the
+Caucasus, and North China, and over North America from the New England
+States westward to British Columbia. Fossil species are found in the
+Pleistocene deposits of Europe.
+
+_Cervalces._[202]—A remarkable extinct Deer from the Pleistocene of North
+America, described as _Cervalces_, appears in some respects (although
+a true Telemetacarpalian) to connect _Alces_ with _Cervus_. Thus the
+palmated antlers are divided into anterior and posterior branches, but
+below this division there are two tines apparently corresponding to the
+bez and posterior tines of _Cervus giganteus_ (Fig. 130).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 133.—Head of Elk (_Alces machlis_).]
+
+_Capreolus._[203]—Antlers (in the existing species) less than twice the
+length of the head, usually with three tines on each. Brow tine developed
+from the anterior surface of the upper half of the antler, and directed
+upwards. Lachrymal vacuity small. Premaxillæ not always articulating with
+nasals. Auditory bullæ slightly inflated, rugose externally. Vertebræ: C
+7, D 13, L 6, S 6, C 8. Tail very short. Glands in fore feet rudimentary;
+large in hind feet.
+
+The Roe, or Roe Deer (_Capreolus caprea_), is a small form distributed
+over Europe and Western Asia, being one of the species found in the
+British Isles. The male is somewhat over two feet in height at the
+withers, of a dark reddish-brown colour in summer, with a white patch
+on the rump. The small antlers are approximated at their bases, and
+consist of a rugged beam rising vertically for some distance, then
+bifurcating, and the posterior branch again dividing. The Roe dates from
+the Pleistocene period. Extinct Deer from the Continental Pliocene have
+been provisionally referred to _Capreolus_.
+
+_Hydropotes._[204]—No antlers in either sex. Lachrymal fossa deep and
+short (Fig. 134); lachrymal vacuity of moderate size. Orbits small and
+but slightly prominent. Auditory bulla much inflated. Angle of mandible
+much produced backwardly (Fig. 134); alveolar margins of mandible in
+diastema sharp and everted. Canines of male very large, and slightly
+convergent. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 6, S 4, C 10. No tufts on metatarsals.
+Foot glands small in fore feet, deep in hind ones.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 134.—The left lateral view of the skull of a male
+Chinese Water Deer (_Hydropotes inermis_), with the wall of the maxilla
+cut away to show the root of the canine. ½ natural size. (From Sir V.
+Brooke, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1872, p. 524.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 135.—Upper surface of the brain of _Hydropotes
+inermis_. (From Garrod, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1877, p. 792.)]
+
+The Chinese Water Deer (_H. inermis_) is the sole representative of this
+genus. In the absence of antlers and the large canines of the male it
+resembles _Moschus_, although very different in other respects. Thus
+the brain (Fig. 135) has the hemispheres much convoluted, as in other
+_Cervinæ_, and approximates to that of _Pudua_; while the placenta
+and viscera likewise agree with those of the true Deer. In the total
+absence of any ossification of the vomer to divide the posterior nares
+_Hydropotes_ resembles _Capreolus_ and differs from all the following
+genera. The Chinese Water-Deer is nearly of the same size as the Indian
+Muntjac. It has short legs and a long body, the hair covering the latter
+being of a light reddish-brown. It is a remarkably prolific animal,
+differing from all other Deer in producing five or six young at a time.
+
+The mandible of a ruminant from the Middle Miocene of Gers in France,
+described under the name of _Platyprosopus_, presents such a marked
+resemblance to _Hydropotes_ in the form of the angle as to suggest a more
+or less intimate affinity.
+
+_Cariacus._[205]—Skull (Fig. 132) with the vomer dividing the posterior
+nares into two distinct chambers; premaxillæ not reaching nasals. Antlers
+never greatly exceeding the length of the head. Lachrymal vacuity very
+large, and lachrymal fossa small. Auditory bullæ slightly inflated.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 13. Tail long or short. Colour uniform
+in adult.
+
+This genus, which agrees with the Reindeer in the division of the
+posterior nares by the ossified vomer, comprises a number of species
+confined to the New World, none of which attain very large dimensions,
+and the antlers of which are relatively smaller than in the existing
+species of _Cervus_. The genus may be divided into groups.
+
+The typical _Cariacine_ group, as represented by _C. virginianus_, has
+well-developed antlers, with a short brow tine rising from the inner side
+of the beam, and directed upwards, and several branches; a long tail; and
+no upper canines. In this species, as well as in _C. mexicanus_ and other
+forms, the antlers do not divide dichotomously, and the lachrymal fossa
+is of moderate depth. The Mule Deer (_C. macrotis_) of North America is
+distinguished by the dichotomous branching of the antlers and the deeper
+lachrymal fossa. The Virginian Deer is somewhat smaller than the Fallow
+Deer, and of a uniform reddish-yellow colour in summer, and light gray in
+winter.
+
+The _Blastocerine_ group of South America is represented by _C.
+paludosus_ and _C. campestris_, and has dichotomous antlers, with no
+brow tine, and the posterior branch the larger, a short tail, and no
+upper canines. The _Furciferine_ group includes _C. chilensis_ and
+_C. antisiensis_, confined to western South America. The antlers are
+not longer than the head, with a large anterior tine curving forwards
+at right angles to the simple posterior one. Auditory bullæ slightly
+inflated, and rugose. Upper canines may be present. The species are of
+medium size. _C. clavatus_, of Central America, while resembling this
+group in the characters of the skull and the arrangement of the hair on
+the face, agrees with the next one in having simple spike-like antlers.
+
+The South American _Coassine_ group comprises the small forms known as
+Brockets, in which the antlers form simple spikes not exceeding half the
+length of the head. Some six species are known.
+
+Remains of _Cariacus_, mostly or entirely referable to existing species,
+are of common occurrence in the Brazilian cave-deposits. _Blastomeryx_,
+of the Pliocene of North America, is believed to be an allied type.
+
+_Pudua._[206]—Antlers in the form of minute simple spikes. Distinguished
+from the Coassine group of _Cariacus_ by the articulation of the
+premaxillæ with the nasals (as in the _Furciferine_ group), and the
+coalescence of the ectocuneiform with the naviculo-cuboid, as well as by
+various external characters. No upper canines. Represented only by the
+very small _P. humilis_ of the Chilian Andes.
+
+_Extinct Genera._—In the European and other Tertiary deposits several
+genera of extinct _Cervidæ_ occur, of which the more important may
+be briefly mentioned. _Amphitragulus_, of the Lower Miocene of the
+Continent, has four lower premolars, brachydont molars, and no antlers;
+the largest species being somewhat bigger than the Musk-Deer. The closely
+allied _Palæomeryx_ (_Dremotherium_ or _Micromeryx_) generally has but
+three lower premolars, and the brachydont upper molars (Fig. 122), like
+those of _Amphitragulus_, want the small accessory inner column[207]
+found in modern Deer. In _P. feignouxi_, of the Lower Miocene, the
+lateral metacarpals, although slender, were complete, and the males had
+large canines, but no antlers. _P. furcatus_, of the Middle Miocene, had
+small antlers, and the canines appear to have been reduced in size. This
+genus, besides being represented in the European Miocene, also occurs in
+the Pliocene of India and China; some of the species being as large as
+the Red Deer.
+
+
+_Family_ GIRAFFIDÆ.
+
+In the existing genus the frontal appendages consist of a pair of
+short, erect, permanent bony processes placed over the union of the
+frontal and the parietal bones, ossified from distinct centres, though
+afterwards ankylosed to the skull, covered externally with a hairy
+skin, present in both sexes, and even in the new-born animal. Anterior
+to these is a median protuberance on the frontal and contiguous parts
+of the nasal bones, which increases with age, and is sometimes spoken
+of as a third horn. Skull with a lachrymal vacuity. No upper canines.
+Molars brachydont, with rugose enamel; the upper ones having no inner
+accessory column. Lateral digits entirely absent on both fore and hind
+feet, even the hoofs not developed. Humerus with double bicipital groove.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 5, S 3, C 20. Gall-bladder generally absent. Male
+reproductive organs and placenta of a Bovine type. Dentition: _i_ ⁰⁄₃,
+_c_ ⁰⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 136.—The Giraffe (_Giraffa camelopardalis_).]
+
+_Giraffa._[208]—The Giraffe (_G. camelopardalis_) is the sole existing
+representative of the genus, now confined to the Ethiopian region.
+
+In addition to the characters noticed above, the Giraffe is characterised
+by its great size and peculiar proportions; the neck and limbs being
+of great length, and the back inclining upwards from the loins to the
+withers.
+
+To produce the extremely elongated neck the seven cervical vertebræ are
+proportionately long, which gives a somewhat stiff and awkward motion
+to the neck. The ears are large, the lips long and thin, the nostrils
+closable at the will of the animal, the tongue very long and extensile,
+and the tail of considerable length, with a large terminal tuft. An adult
+male may have a total height of 16 feet. The coloration consists of large
+blotches of darker or lighter chestnut-brown on a paler ground, the
+lower limbs and under parts being of a uniform pale colour. The Giraffe
+feeds almost exclusively on the foliage of trees, showing a preference
+for certain varieties of mimosa, and for the young shoots of the prickly
+acacia, for browsing on which its prehensile tongue and large free lips
+are specially adapted. It is gregarious in its habits, living in small
+herds of about twenty individuals, although Sir S. Baker, who hunted it
+in Abyssinia, states that he has seen as many as a hundred together.
+
+Fossil species of _Giraffa_ occur in Pliocene deposits over Greece,
+Persia, India, and China, thus affording one of many striking instances
+of the former wide distribution of the generic types now confined to the
+Ethiopian region.
+
+_Allied Extinct Types._—The Pliocene deposits of many parts of the Old
+World yield remains of a number of large Ruminants which show such
+evident signs of affinity with the Giraffe that it is difficult to draw
+up a definition by which they can be separated in characters of family
+value from that genus. On the other hand, some of these forms approximate
+in the characters of the skull to some of the brachydont members of the
+_Bovidæ_, although it is quite clear from the nature of the cranial
+appendages that they cannot be included in that family. All these forms
+have brachydont molars, with rugose enamel, like those of the Giraffe;
+while several of them have limb-bones approximating to those of the
+latter—the humerus, when known, having a double bicipital groove. The
+nature of the cranial appendages (when present) is not fully understood,
+but it appears that in some cases these approximated more to the type of
+an antler than to that of a horn; although, from the absence of a “burr,”
+they appear never to have been shed. A gradual diminution in the length
+of the limbs and neck can be traced from the more Giraffoid to the more
+Bovoid forms of this extinct group; and it is manifest that if these
+animals be included in the _Giraffidæ_ the definition of that family as
+given above must be somewhat modified. Only brief mention can be made of
+the more important genera.
+
+The imperfectly known _Vishnutherium_, of the Pliocene of India and
+Burma, seems to make the nearest approach to the Giraffe, but the limbs
+and cervical vertebræ were decidedly shorter, although of a similar
+slender type. _Helladotherium_, of the Pliocene of Greece and India, is
+represented by a species of considerably larger size than the Giraffe,
+with no appendages or lachrymal vacuity to the skull, and with shorter
+and stouter limbs and neck.
+
+_Hydaspitherium_, _Bramatherium_, and _Sivatherium_ are Indian genera,
+characterised by the presence of large palmated and antler-like cranial
+appendages, varying considerably in arrangement. The former genus has a
+large lachrymal vacuity which is absent in the two latter. In the first
+and second genera all the appendages rise from a common base; but in
+_Sivatherium_ there is a pair of simple horn-like projections on the
+orbits in addition to the posterior palmated antlers. _Sivatherium_ was
+an animal of huge bulk, being the largest known representative of the
+Pecora.
+
+Another apparently allied type is _Samotherium_, of the Pliocene of
+the Isle of Samos, which appears also to have some affinity with the
+Antelopes. The skull is nearly as large as that of the Giraffe, and is
+of the same elongated shape, although depressed between the conical
+horn-cores, which rise vertically above the orbits, and without a median
+bony prominence on the frontals. The horn-cores form mere processes of
+the frontals. The diastema and the mandibular symphysis are shorter than
+in the Giraffe, and the latter is less deflected. The teeth, although
+larger, are almost indistinguishable from those of the Giraffe, the only
+well-marked difference being that the last lower premolar has a double in
+place of a single postero-internal column.
+
+
+_Family_ ANTILOCAPRIDÆ.
+
+Closely allied to the _Bovidæ_, but the horns deciduous and branched.
+
+_Antilocapra._[209]—The Prong-buck, or Prong-horned Antelope
+(_Antilocapra americana_), as the single existing member of this family
+is called, is an animal of nearly the same size as the Fallow Deer, but
+of a lighter and more graceful build. It is an inhabitant of the prairies
+of North America, where it is one of the few representatives of the
+Cavicorn Pecora. The bony horn-cores are unbranched, and form vertical,
+blade-like projections immediately above the orbit. The horns themselves
+are compressed, and nearly one foot in length, having a gentle backward
+curvature, the short branch arising somewhat above the middle of its
+height, and inclining forwards. When the horn is about to be cast off
+it becomes loosened, and a new one is formed upon the bony core beneath
+it. The ears are long and pointed, and the tail is short. The neck has a
+thick mane of long chestnut-coloured hair, and there is a white patch on
+the rump.
+
+
+_Family_ BOVIDÆ.
+
+Frontal appendages, when present, in the form of non-deciduous horns.
+Molars frequently hypsodont. Usually only one orifice to the lachrymal
+canal, situated inside the rim of the orbit. Lachrymal bone almost always
+articulating with the nasal. Canines absent in both sexes. The lateral
+toes may be completely absent, but more often they are represented by
+the hoofs alone, supported sometimes by a very rudimentary skeleton,
+consisting of mere irregular nodules of bone. Distal ends of the lateral
+metapodials never present. Gall-bladder almost always present. The number
+of cotyledons in the placenta generally varies from 60 to 100; whereas
+in the _Cervidæ_ the number is usually from 5 to 12, _Capreolus_ and
+_Hydropotes_ having the fewest. In _Giraffa_ the number is upwards of
+180. The nature of the horns and horn-cores has been already explained;
+in the majority of genera these appendages are present in both sexes,
+although much larger in the male (see p. 310).
+
+The _Bovidæ_, or hollow-horned Ruminants (Cavicornia), form a most
+extensive family, with members widely distributed throughout the Old
+World, with the exception of the Australian region; but in America they
+are less numerous, and confined to the Arctic and northern temperate
+regions, no species being indigenous either to South or Central America.
+There is scarcely any natural and well-defined group in the whole
+class which presents greater difficulties of subdivision than this;
+consequently zoologists are as yet very little agreed as to the extent
+and boundaries of the genera into which it should be divided. For the
+present the genera provisionally adopted may be arranged under a number
+of sections or groups, which some writers regard as subfamilies. The
+series may be commenced with the Antelopes, the greater number of which
+are now characteristic of the Ethiopian region.
+
+_Alcelaphine Section._—Includes large African Antelopes, of which the
+type genus ranges into Syria; generally characterised by their great
+height at the withers as compared with the rump. Skull with large frontal
+sinuses, extending into the horn-cores, and the horns lyre-shaped or
+recurved, and more or less approximated at the base. No large pits at
+apertures of supraorbital foramina in frontals; upper molars hypsodont
+and narrow. Horns in both sexes. General colour mostly uniform.
+
+_Alcelaphus._[210]—If _Damalis_ be included, this genus is represented
+by some nine or ten living species. Head more or less long and narrow,
+with the muffle moderately broad and naked. Nostrils approximated, edged
+with stiff hairs. Horns compressed and ringed at the base, more or less
+lyrate, and bent back at the tips. Hoofs small. Tail of moderate length,
+and heavy. Two mammæ.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 137.—The Harte-beest (_Alcelaphus caama_).]
+
+In the typical forms, such as the Bubaline Antelope (_A. bubalinus_), the
+Harte-beest (_A. caama_, Fig. 137), and the Tora Antelope (_A. tora_,
+Fig. 138), the horns, which present the peculiar curvature shown in the
+figures, are situated on a crest at the vertex of the skull, and the
+facial portion of the cranium is greatly elongated. The Harte-beest,
+which is found throughout Central and Southern Africa, stands nearly 5
+feet high at the withers, and is a somewhat ungainly looking animal, with
+short hair, which is grayish-brown above and nearly white beneath. In
+the Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills in Northern India there occur remains
+of an _Alcelaphus_ (_A. palæindicus_) in which the skull had the long
+facial portion characteristic of the typical group, while the horns
+approximate to those of the Bontebok. The Blessbok (_A. albifrons_)
+and Bontebok (_A. pygargus_), belonging to the genus _Damalis_ of many
+authors, have the facial portion of the skull shorter, the horns situated
+more in advance of the plane of the occiput, and inclining regularly
+backwards. Of the Blessbok Mr. C. J. Anderson observes that “it is of a
+beautiful violet colour, and is found in company with black Wildebeests
+and Springboks in countless thousands on the vast green plains of short
+crisp, sour grass occupying a central position in South Africa. Cattle
+and horses refuse to pasture on the grassy products of these plains,
+which afford sustenance to myriads of this Antelope, whose skin emits a
+most delicious and powerful perfume of flowers and sweet-smelling herbs.”
+Since the time this was written these Antelopes have been greatly reduced
+in number. _A. (Damalis) hunteri_, from East Africa, appears to be allied
+to _A. senegalensis_, but in the more elongated facial portion of the
+skull approximates to the Harte-beest, and thus confirms the view that
+_Damalis_ should not form a distinct genus.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 138.—Head of _Alcelaphus tora_. From Sclater, _Proc.
+Zool. Soc._ 1873, p. 762.]
+
+_Connochætes._[211]—Head short and massive, with the muffle very broad
+and bristly. Nostrils widely separated, hairy within. Horns on the
+vertex of the skull, immediately over the occiput, approximated at base,
+cylindrical, bent outwards, and recurving upwards at the tip. Extremities
+of premaxillæ much expanded laterally, and firmly ankylosed. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 14, L 6, S 4, C 16. Hoofs very narrow. Tail very long, covered
+throughout with long hairs. Four mammæ. Two species, _C. taurina_ and
+_C. gnu_ (Fig. 139), both from South Africa. The former, or Brindled
+Gnu, is distinguished by the absence of long hair on the face, the black
+(instead of white) tail, and the presence of dark vertical streaks on the
+shoulders; it is never found to the south of the Orange River.
+
+The White-tailed Gnu stands about 4 feet 6 inches at the withers. These
+animals were formerly found in large herds, and are remarkable not only
+on account of their peculiar form, but also for their grotesque actions
+when alarmed. Some interesting observations have recently been published
+upon the mode of development of the horns of the Gnu,[212] from which
+it appears that in very young individuals the horns are straight and
+divergent, situated some distance below the vertex of the head, and
+separated by a wide hairy interval. These young horns form the straight
+tips of those of the adult, the basal downwardly curved portion being
+subsequently developed. In the fully adult animal the base of the horns
+forms a helmet-like mass on the forehead which completely obliterates the
+hairy frontal space of the young.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 139.—The White-tailed Gnu (_Connochætes gnu_).]
+
+_Cephalophine Section._—Small or medium-sized African and Indian
+Antelopes, with simple horns present only in the males, a more or less
+elongated suborbital gland, a lachrymal depression in the skull, and
+square-crowned upper molars (Fig. 140). Lateral hoofs well developed.
+
+_Cephalophus._[213]—One pair of horns, arising far back on the frontals,
+conical, short, angulated at the base, and erect or recurved. Suborbital
+gland opening in the form of a slit, or as a row of pores. Auditory bulla
+divided by a distinct septum. Muffle large and moist. Tail very short.
+Head tufted. Upper molars of larger species with an accessory internal
+column. Dorsal vertebræ fourteen in number. Some sixteen species,
+confined to southern and tropical Africa.
+
+The Duikerboks, as the members of this genus are called, are among
+the most graceful of the African Antelopes, the smallest species not
+being larger than a rabbit. The West African _C. sylvicultor_ and _C.
+longiceps_ are the largest species.
+
+_Tetraceros._[214]—Two pairs of conical horns, of which the anterior are
+much the smaller. Suborbital gland elongated, and lachrymal fossa very
+large. Upper molars (Fig. 140) without accessory internal column. One
+existing Indian species (_T. quadricornis_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 140.—Palatal and outer aspects of the three right
+upper premolars and first molar of the Four-horned Antelope (_Tetraceros
+quadricornis_). From the _Palæontologia Indica_.]
+
+The Four-horned Antelope is found throughout the peninsula of India in
+jungle. The general colour is brown, lighter beneath and on the inside of
+the limbs. Remains of this species are found fossil in the cave-deposits
+of Madras, and a small Ruminant from the Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills
+has been provisionally referred to this genus.
+
+_Cervicaprine Section._—Small or large Antelopes now confined to the
+Ethiopian region, with horns present only in the males, lachrymal vacuity
+generally large, more or less distinct pits at the apertures of the
+supraorbital foramina in the frontals, and narrow upper molars in which
+there is no accessory internal column.
+
+_Neotragus._[215]—Distinguished from the next genus by having the crown
+of the head tufted, muzzle hairy, premaxillæ long and reaching the
+lachrymals, nasals very short, mesethmoid much ossified, third lobe of
+last lower molar either absent or very small, and the hinder lobe of the
+corresponding upper molar much reduced.
+
+Three species, Salt’s Antelope (_N. saltianus_), from Abyssinia, and
+also _N. kirki_ and _N. damarensis_; the two latter having a small
+third lobe to the last molar. Writing of the first-named species, Mr.
+W. T. Blanford[216] observes that “the _Beni-Israel_, or _Om-dig-dig_,
+one of the smallest Antelopes known, abounds on the shores of the Red
+Sea and throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of Abyssinia.
+It is occasionally, but rarely, found at higher elevations; I heard of
+instances of its being shot both at Serafie and Dildi, but it is not
+often seen above about 6000 feet. It inhabits bushes, keeping much to
+heavy jungle on the banks of water-courses, and is usually single, or
+in pairs, either a male and female or a female and young being found
+together; less often the female is accompanied by two young ones, which
+remain with her until full grown.”
+
+_Nanotragus._[217]—Horns small, parallel with frontals, and rising
+immediately above postorbital process of frontals, in front of the
+fronto-parietal suture. Lachrymal fossa very large, suddenly descending
+in front of the orbit, and extending on to the maxilla; lachrymal vacuity
+small. Auditory bulla large and smooth, without internal septum. Nasals
+of moderate length. Crown of the head smooth; naked part of muffle small;
+aperture of suborbital gland small. Lateral hoofs small or absent. Nine
+species.[218]
+
+The typical species is the Royal Antelope (_N. pygmæus_) of Guinea, the
+smallest existing representative of the Pecora. This species, together
+with _N. moschatus_ and _N. tragulus_ have no lateral hoofs, or tufts on
+the knees. In the _Scopophorine_ group, comprising _N. scoparia_, _N.
+montanus_, and _N. hastatus_, both these appendages are present; while in
+the _Oreotragine_ group (_N. melanotis_ and _N. oreotragus_) the former
+are present and the latter absent.
+
+_Pelea._[219]—Horns rather small, compressed, upright, scarcely
+diverging, and placed immediately over the orbits. No suborbital gland,
+nor lachrymal fossa; premaxillæ not reaching nasals. Tail short and
+bushy. Colour uniform. One species—the Rehbok (_P. capreola_), South
+Africa, is nearly of the size of a Fallow Deer, although more resembling
+a Chamois in build and habits. The colour is of a uniform light gray.
+This animal inhabits bare rocky districts, and thus differs widely from
+the Water-buck and its allies.
+
+_Cobus._[220]—Large Antelopes, with the horns large, elongate, sublyrate,
+and ringed at the base, and with rudimentary suborbital glands. Skull
+with a deep frontal hollow, no lachrymal depression, large lachrymal
+vacuity, and the premaxillæ reaching the very long nasals. Tail long,
+with a ridge of hair above, and slightly tufted at the end. Colour
+uniform. Six species, African.
+
+The Antelopes of this genus are water-loving animals, the Water-buck
+(_C. ellipsiprymnus_) and the Singsing (_C. defassus_) being well-known
+examples. Both these species are much alike, standing as much as 4 feet
+6 inches at the withers. The Water-buck of South and Eastern Africa is
+characterised by the coarseness of its long hair; while in the Singsing
+of West and Central Africa the hair is remarkably fine and soft.
+Fossil Antelopes from the Pliocene of India are referred to _Cobus_.
+_Helicophora_, from the Lower Pliocene of Attica, is regarded as allied
+to _Cobus_, but it has no distinct supraorbital pits.
+
+_Cervicapra._[221]—An allied South African genus in which the tail is
+short and bushy and the premaxillæ do not reach the nasals. Three species.
+
+The Reitbok (_C. arundineum_) is of a grizzly ochre colour; it stands
+nearly 3 feet in height, and has horns about 1 foot in length. The Nagor
+(_C. redunca_) is about 6 inches shorter, with horns of half the length,
+and fulvous brown above and white below; the West African _C. bohor_
+being rather larger.
+
+_Antilopine Section._—A large group of moderate-sized or small Antelopes,
+most abundant in the deserts bordering the Palæarctic, Oriental, and
+Ethiopian regions. Horns generally compressed and lyrate, or recurved, or
+cylindrical and spiral, ringed at base, sometimes present in both sexes.
+Skull with large pits at apertures of supraorbital foramina of frontals,
+and generally a distinct lachrymal fossa. Molars of upper jaw narrow,
+without inner accessory column, and resembling those of the Sheep and
+Goats. Tail moderate, compressed, hairy above.
+
+_Antilope._[222]—Horns, present only in the male, long, cylindrical,
+subspiral, and diverging. Suborbital gland large, with a somewhat linear
+opening; lachrymal depression of skull very large, and a small lachrymal
+fissure. Glands in the feet; lateral hoofs present. One species, India.
+
+The well-known Black-buck (_A. cervicapra_) is found on open plains
+all over India, except in lower Bengal and Malabar. Old males are deep
+blackish-brown in colour on the back and sides and the outer surfaces of
+the limbs, the under parts and inner surfaces of the limbs white, and
+the back of the head, nape, and neck yellowish. Young males and females
+are fawn-coloured above. Very large herds are seen in the plains about
+Delhi and Mattra, which are said in some instances to reach to thousands.
+Horn-cores are found in the Pleistocene deposits of the valley of the
+Jumna which cannot be distinguished from those of the existing species.
+
+_Æpyceros._[223]—Horns compressed, lyrate, and wide-spreading; present
+only in male. No suborbital gland, or lachrymal depression in the skull.
+No lateral hoofs. Two species; one from South and the other from West
+Africa.
+
+The Palla (_Æ. melampus_) is a large Antelope standing over 3 feet
+high at the withers, and readily distinguished by its dark red colour,
+gradually shading to white below. It is usually found on or near hills in
+herds of from twenty to thirty. _Æ. petersi_ is from the Congo.
+
+_Saiga._[224]—Nose very large, convex, and inflated. Supraorbital gland
+present. Lachrymal fossa of skull small, and fissure absent; narial
+aperture very large; nasals extremely short; supraorbital pits rather
+small. Horns yellow, lyrate, of moderate length; present only in male.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 10. One species, Eastern Europe and
+Western Asia.
+
+The Saiga (_S. tatarica_) is a clumsily built and somewhat sheep-like
+Antelope inhabiting the steppes; it occurs fossil in the Pleistocene of
+France and England.
+
+_Pantholops._[225]—Allied in the characters of the head and skull to
+_Saiga_, but the nose less convex, the nostrils of the male more swollen,
+and the horns of that sex black, very long, compressed, and lyrate; those
+of female very short. One species, Central Asia.
+
+The Chiru (_P. hodgsoni_) inhabits the highlands of Western Tibet and
+Turkestan. In the former area it generally goes in small herds of from
+three to six, and in the summer may be found grazing in early morning on
+the level spaces frequently found in the river valleys at elevations of
+about 15,000 feet. It is excessively shy and difficult to approach. The
+large size of the narial aperture in the skull of Chiru is suggestive of
+a connection with respiration at a high altitude, but this appears to be
+negatived by the occurrence of the same feature in the Saiga.
+
+_Gazella._[226]—Delicately built and sandy-coloured Antelopes, with
+lyrate or recurved horns, which may be absent in the female, and are
+always smaller and simpler in that sex than in the male. Skull with
+moderate lachrymal fossa, and a distinct lachrymal fissure. Vertebræ: C
+7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 14. Suborbital gland frequently small, and covered
+with hair. Face with a white streak running from the outer side of the
+base of each horn nearly down to the upper end of each nostril, cutting
+off a dark triangular central patch, and bordered externally by a
+diffused dark line (see Fig. 121, p. 310). The Gazelles, of which there
+are some twenty-four existing species, are typically Palæarctic desert
+forms, the Springbok (_G. euchore_) being an outlying South African
+species. _G. picticaudata_ and _G. gutturosa_ are respectively found in
+Western Tibet and Mongolia, the former at great elevations. The majority
+of the Gazelles do not exceed 30 inches in height, although _G. mohr_ is
+36. Sir Victor Brooke classifies[227] the Gazelles as follows:—
+
+  A. No stripe on back; three lower premolars.
+
+     _a._ White of rump not encroaching on the fawn of the haunches.
+
+          I. Female with horns.
+
+             1. Horns lyrate or sublyrate—_G. dorcas_, _G. isabella_,
+                _G. rufifrons_, _G. lævipes_, _G. tilonura_, _G. naso_.
+
+             2. Horns non-lyrate—_G. cuvieri_, _G. leptoceros_, _G.
+                spekei_, _G. arabica_, _G. bennetti_, _G. fuscifrons_,
+                _G. muscatensis_.
+
+          II. Female without horns.
+
+              _G. subgutturosa_, _G. gutturosa_, _G. picticaudata_.
+
+     _b._ White of rump projecting forwards in an angle into the
+          fawn colour of the haunches. Horns in both sexes.
+
+              _G. dama_, _G. mohr_, _G. soemmerringi_, _G. granti_
+              (Fig. 121), _G. thomsoni_.
+
+  B. A white stripe down the back, two lower premolars. Horns in
+     both sexes.—_G. euchore._
+
+The East African _G. walleri_ is an aberrant species, in which the
+females are hornless, which has been made the type of the genus
+_Lithocranius_. It is characterised by the extreme density of the horns
+and skull, the slenderness of the mandible, and the small size of the
+cheek-teeth, the upper molars being relatively broader and lower than
+usual. The cranium is remarkable for the shortness of its facial portion,
+the large size and production backwards of the supraoccipital, and for
+the circumstance that the long basicranial axis is nearly parallel with
+the plane of the palate.
+
+Fossil species of _Gazella_ are found in the Pliocene and Pleistocene
+deposits of Europe and India. _G. deperdita_ (_brevicornis_), of the
+Lower Pliocene of France and Greece, appears to be a generalised species
+in which the lower molars frequently have accessory columns, traces of
+which are found in some of the existing forms.
+
+_Hippotragine Section._—Includes very large African Antelopes, with long
+horns, present in both sexes, which are placed over or behind the orbit,
+and are either recurved, straight, or subspiral. Skull with no distinct
+pits at apertures of supraorbital foramina in frontals, no lachrymal
+fossa, and only a small lachrymal fissure. No suborbital gland. Tail
+long, cylindrical, and tufted at the end. Upper molars extremely
+hypsodont, very broad, and with large accessory columns, thus closely
+resembling those of the Oxen. Some authorities divide this section into
+two. In the Pliocene it occurs in India and Europe.
+
+_Hippotragus._[228]—Horns stout, rising vertically from a crest over
+the orbit at an obtuse angle to the plane of the nasals, then recurved;
+lachrymal fissure in some instances almost obliterated. Neck with an
+erect recurved mane. Tail very distinctly tufted. Four species, tropical
+Africa and south to the Cape.
+
+The Sable Antelope (_H. niger_) is one of the best-known examples of this
+genus, occurring in South and East Africa. It stands upwards of 4½ feet
+in height at the withers, and, except for some white streaks on the face
+and the whole of the under surface of the body, is of a black colour.
+The Blaubok (_H. leucophæus_) is distinguished by the glaucous hue of
+the hair. The other species are the Equine Antelope (_H. equinus_) and
+Baker’s Antelope (_H. bakeri_) from the Sudan, both closely allied, but
+the latter distinguished by its pale fulvous colour, pencilled ears, and
+black stripes on the shoulder.
+
+Skulls of fossil Antelopes from the Pliocene of India have been referred
+to _Hippotragus_ (_H. sivalensis_), and Sir V. Brooke suggests that the
+European Pliocene _Antilope recticornis_ is not generically separable.
+
+_Oryx._[229]—Horns long, slender, nearly straight or somewhat recurved,
+rising behind the orbit, and inclining backwards in the plane of the
+nasals; lachrymal fossa distinct. Nape maned; tail long, and more haired
+than in _Hippotragus_. Four species, ranging over all the African deserts
+to Arabia and Syria.
+
+The Gemsbok (_O. gazella_, Fig. 141), is a South African species
+characterised by its straight horns, the presence of a tuft of hair on
+the throat, as well as by the large patches and stripes of black on the
+head, back, limbs, and flanks. It stands nearly 4 feet in height at the
+shoulder, and the horns are 2 feet 9 inches in length. The colour of the
+upper part of the body is a rusty gray, and of the under part white,
+while these are separated from each other by a well-defined black band
+on either side. These bands unite on the breast, and are continued as a
+single black band until reaching the lower jaw, where they again divide
+and form two transverse bands on the head, terminating at the base of
+the horns. The head otherwise is white, as also are the limbs, with the
+exception of the thighs, which are black. The Gemsbok generally goes
+in pairs, or in small herds of three or four. The Beisa (_O. beisa_)
+of Abyssinia is distinguished by the absence of the tuft of hair on
+the throat. Writing of this species in his _Geology and Zoology of
+Abyssinia_, Mr. W. T. Blanford observes that “the appearance of a herd of
+Oryx is very imposing. They are some of the most elegant and symmetrical
+of animals, the motions being those of a wild Horse rather than of an
+Antelope. Their favourite pace appears to be either a steady quick walk
+or a trot; they rarely break into a gallop unless greatly alarmed. When
+frightened they dash off, sometimes snorting and putting their heads down
+as if charging, raising their long tails, and looking very formidable.
+They are wary animals, though far less so than some other Antelopes. It
+is said that they frequently attack when wounded, and their long straight
+horns are most deadly weapons.” The Arabian Beatrix Antelope (_O.
+beatrix_) is a much smaller animal, with the black markings confined to
+the head, fore limbs, and flanks. Finally, the Leucoryx (_O. leucoryx_)
+of North Africa, while agreeing in size with the Beatrix, differs by its
+curved horns and uniform coloration.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 141.—The Gemsbok (_Oryx gazella_).]
+
+The extinct _Palæoryx_, of the Lower Pliocene of Europe and the Isle of
+Samos, appears to have been an ancestral form of _Oryx_, said to show
+some signs of affinity with _Hippotragus._
+
+_Addax._[230]—Horns with the same inclination as in _Oryx_, but with a
+slight spiral twist. No mane on nape, but a slight one on the throat.
+Hoofs rounded. One species (_A. nasomaculatus_), from North Africa and
+Arabia, the colour of which is nearly white.
+
+_Tragelaphine Section._—Includes large, so-called Bovine, Antelopes now
+mainly characteristic of the Ethiopian region, but with one Oriental
+genus. Horns usually present in the male only (if developed in the female
+smaller), with a more or less distinct ridge in front, and usually
+twisted spirally, the front ridge twisting outwards from the base of the
+horn. Skull without lachrymal fossa, but with a large or small lachrymal
+fissure; usually large pits at the apertures of the supraorbital foramina
+on the frontals; premaxillæ reaching nasals. Muffle large and moist;
+nostrils approximated. Molars hypsodont or brachydont. Vertical white
+stripes frequently present on the body.
+
+_a._ _Hind limbs much shorter than the fore. Horns behind the orbit,
+short, conical, faintly angulated. Nose bovine. Body without vertical
+stripes. Molars_ (Fig. 123, p. 311) _hypsodont, with a large accessory
+column in those of the upper jaw. One Oriental genus._
+
+_Boselaphus._[231]—The one genus of this subsection is represented only
+by the well-known Nilghai (_B. tragocamelus_) of India. The male stands
+over 4 feet in height at the shoulder, with horns about 8 inches in
+length; the hornless female being about one third smaller. Both sexes
+have a short erect mane, and the male has also a tuft of hair upon the
+throat. When adult the sexes are very different in colour, the male being
+of a dark iron gray or slate colour, approaching black on the head and
+legs, while the female and young are of a bright light brown or fawn
+colour. In both male and female at all ages the lips, chin, and under
+parts, as well as two transverse stripes on the inner sides of the ears
+and rings on the fetlocks, are white, and the mane and tip of the tail
+black. The Nilghai is one of the few Antelopes occurring in India, where
+it is found from near the foot of the Himalaya to the south of Mysore,
+though rare to the north of the Ganges and also in the extreme south. It
+is most abundant in Central India, and does not occur in Assam or the
+countries to the east of the Bay of Bengal. It frequents forests and low
+jungles, though often found in tolerably open plains, associating in
+small herds. One, or very often two, young produced at a birth. Fossil
+remains of species of this genus occur in the Pleistocene and Pliocene
+deposits of India.
+
+_b._ _Fore and hind limbs equal. Horns long, and spirally twisted. Nose
+cervine, and aperture of suborbital gland very small. Body generally
+striped. Molars brachydont, those of the upper jaw in existing forms with
+a smaller inner accessory column. Three existing Ethiopian genera._
+
+_Tragelaphus._[232]—Female hornless. Horns of males (Fig. 142) over
+orbit, with one or two spiral turns, obscurely ridged, the posterior
+ridge being more developed than the anterior. Skull with small
+supraorbital pits, very small lachrymal fissure, and no deep intercornual
+depression in the frontals. Neck maned or smooth. Hoofs short or long.
+Coloration usually brilliant, differing markedly in the two sexes, and
+the white bands on the body, when present, numerous and distinct. Seven
+species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 142.—Head of _Tragelaphus gratus_. From Sclater,
+_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1883, p. 36.]
+
+The Harnessed Antelopes are among the handsomest of the whole group. The
+small Guib (_T. scriptus_) is not larger than a Goat, but _T. angasi_ is
+3 feet 4 inches in height at the shoulder. In _T. scriptus_, _T. angasi_,
+and _T. euryceros_, the two sexes differ in colour, the body is marked by
+white stripes descending from a white dorsal streak, and the hoofs are
+short; the third species differing from the others by the absence of a
+mane on the neck, back, and belly. _T. gratus_ agrees with this group in
+coloration (the mane being absent), but differs in the extreme elongation
+of its hoofs. The Nakong, _T. spekei_, while having the long hoofs of
+_T. gratus_, has a perfectly plain body coloration, with a mane on the
+neck. The two species with elongated hoofs inhabit swampy districts, for
+which this peculiar structure is admirably adapted; and the Nakong, when
+frightened, will rush into the water and leave only its nostrils and the
+tips of the horns above the surface. The small Bushbuck (_T. sylvaticus_)
+of South Africa has no stripes, and short hoofs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 143. The Kudu (_Strepsiceros kudu_). From Sclater,
+_List of Animals in Zoological Society’s Gardens_, 1883, p. 136.]
+
+_Strepsiceros._[233]—Females hornless. Horns (Fig. 143) more twisted
+than in _Tragelaphus_, forming an open spiral, with the anterior ridge
+very strongly developed, and rising at an obtuse angle to the plane of
+the nasals. Skull with large supraorbital pits, large lachrymal fissure,
+and deep intercornual depression. Hoofs short. Body with white vertical
+stripes descending from a longitudinal dorsal streak. Two existing
+species.
+
+The Kudu (_S. kudu_, Fig. 143) extends from South Africa to Abyssinia,
+and is only inferior in size to the Eland. The horns are about 4 feet
+in length, and form a very open spiral, and there is a fringe of long
+hair down the front of the neck. The Lesser Kudu (_S. imberbis_), of
+Somali-land is a much smaller form, without the fringe of hair on the
+neck, and with a much smaller axis formed by the spiral of the horns.
+
+An imperfect skull from the Pliocene of Northern India has been referred
+to _Strepsiceros_.
+
+_Oreas._[234]—Females horned. Horns twisted on their own axis, with very
+strong ridges, inclining upwards and outwards in the plane of the nasals.
+General characters of skull as in preceding genus. Stripes on body, if
+present, very faintly marked. One existing species.
+
+The Eland (_O. canna_) is the largest of all the Antelopes, the males
+standing nearly 6 feet at the withers. One variety from South Africa
+is of a uniform pale fawn colour, while the Central African form is of
+a bright tan colour, marked by a number of thin pale vertical stripes
+descending from a dark dorsal ridge—these markings fading more or less in
+the adults. The males have a large dewlap, a tuft of brown hair on the
+forehead, and a small mane on the neck. The straight black horns of the
+male are usually about 18 inches long. Elands were formerly extremely
+abundant in Southern and Eastern Africa, but their destruction has been
+so relentless that they have totally disappeared from extensive areas,
+and are daily becoming scarcer.
+
+Portions of upper jaws from the Pliocene deposits of India appear to
+indicate the former existence in that area of large Antelopes closely
+allied to the Eland, but distinguished from the living species by the
+greater size of the inner accessory column in the upper molars.
+
+_Allied Extinct Types._—Large Antelopes with spirally twisted horns
+appear to have been common over Southern Europe in Pliocene times, but
+their exact affinity is in many cases difficult to determine. Of these,
+_Palæoreas_, which occurs in the Lower Pliocene of Europe and Algeria,
+appears to present affinities both to _Oreas_ and _Strepsiceros_, and may
+have been the ancestral type from which these two genera are derived; the
+upper molars have well-developed accessory columns.
+
+The so-called _Antilope torticornis_, of the French Pliocene, resembles
+_Tragelaphus_ in the greater development of the posterior as compared
+with the anterior ridge of the horn-cores, and has accordingly been
+referred to that genus. _Protragelaphus_, of the Lower Pliocene of
+Attica, differs from all the other types in the absence of the anterior
+ridge on the horn-cores and of the supraorbital pits, while it has a
+distinct lachrymal fossa.
+
+In this place it will be convenient to notice certain fossil forms which
+do not accord with any of the existing sections of the family, and for
+the reception of which the _Palæotragine_ section has been formed. In
+these types the horn-cores are laterally compressed like those of the
+modern Goats, but the upper molars resemble those of the brachydont
+Antelopes. The earliest of these genera, and the first representative
+of the Antelopes yet known, is _Protragoceros_, of the Middle Miocene
+of France, first described as _Antilope clavata_; _Palæotragoceros_ and
+_Tragoceros_, of the Lower Pliocene, are distinguished by their larger
+horns and wider molars.
+
+A remarkable large Antelope from the Lower Pliocene of the Isle of Samos,
+in the Turkish Archipelago, proposed to be described as _Criotherium_,
+appears to be unlike any other form. The horns, which are placed on the
+extreme vertex of the skull, are very short, tightly twisted, and project
+in front of the forehead. The upper molars have short and broad crowns,
+with no accessory column on the inner side.
+
+_Rupicaprine Section._—The Caprine Antelopes, as the typical members of
+this section may be termed, appear to connect the true Antelopes with the
+Goats. They are mostly small or medium-sized forms, inhabiting portions
+of the Palæarctic and Oriental regions, with one outlying North American
+genus. The typical forms present the following features. Horns present,
+and of nearly equal size in both sexes, rising behind the orbits, short,
+ringed at the base, conical or somewhat compressed, and recurved.
+Suborbital gland generally present, in some cases small. Build clumsy;
+hoofs large; tail short, tapering, hairy above. Skull with lachrymal
+fossa, but no fissure. Molars as in the Caprine section.
+
+_Rupicapra._[235]—Horns short and cylindrical, rising perpendicularly
+from the forehead for some distance, then bending sharply backwards and
+downwards, forming hooks with pointed tips. Premaxillæ not reaching the
+nasals. One species, Palæarctic.
+
+The Gemse, or Alpine Chamois (_R. tragus_), inhabits the high mountains
+of Europe from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus. It stands about 2 feet in
+height at the withers. The body is covered in winter with long hair of a
+chestnut-brown colour, that of the head being paler, with a dark brown
+streak on each side. At other seasons the colour is somewhat lighter, in
+spring approaching to gray. Underneath the external covering the body is
+further protected from cold by a coat of short thick wool of a grayish
+colour. The tail is black; the ears are pointed and erect; the hoofs have
+the outer edges higher than the soles, and are thus admirably adapted for
+laying hold of the slightest projection or roughness on the face of the
+rocky precipices it frequents. The Chamois is gregarious, living in herds
+of fifteen or twenty, and feeding generally in the morning or evening.
+The old males, however, live alone, except in the rutting season, which
+occurs in October, when they join the herds, driving off the young males,
+and engaging in contests with each other that often end fatally. The
+period of gestation is twenty weeks, when the female, beneath the shelter
+of a projecting rock, produces one and sometimes two young. In summer the
+Chamois ascends to the limits of perpetual snow, being only outstripped
+in the loftiness of its haunts by the Ibex; and during that season it
+shows its intolerance of heat by choosing such browsing grounds as have a
+northern exposure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 144.—_Nemorhædus crispus._ From Sclater, _List of
+Animals in Zoological Society’s Gardens_, 1883, p. 151.]
+
+_Nemorhædus._[236]—Horns rounded, gradually recurving, without distinct
+hook at the end. Suborbital gland small or wanting; ears large; skull
+with a large lachrymal depression, and the premaxillæ not quite reaching
+the nasals. Some nine species, ranging from the Eastern Himalayas to
+North China and Japan, and southwards to Formosa, the Malay Peninsula,
+and Sumatra. The smallest species is the Himalayan Goral (_N. goral_). Of
+the larger forms we may mention the Himalayan Serow (_N. bubalinus_) the
+Cambing-Utan (_N. sumatrensis_) of Sumatra, and the Japanese _N. crispus_
+(Fig. 144). Of the Serow, Colonel Kinloch remarks that “it is a large and
+powerful beast. The body is covered with very coarse hair, which assumes
+the form of a bristly mane on the head and shoulders, and gives the
+beast a ferocious appearance, which does not belie its disposition. The
+colour is a dull black on the back, bright red on the sides, and white
+underneath, the legs also being dirty white. The ears are very large, the
+muzzle is coarse. The Serow has an awkward gait, but in spite of this can
+go over the worst ground; and it has perhaps no superior in going down
+steep hills. It is a solitary animal, and nowhere numerous.”
+
+_Haploceros._[237]—The Rocky-Mountain Goat (_Haploceros montanus_),
+inhabiting the northern parts of California, appears to be very closely
+allied to _Nemorhædus_. The horns are somewhat compressed at the base;
+there is no suborbital gland; and the ears are small. The hair, which is
+whitish in colour, is very long, and especially abundant in the region of
+the throat, shoulders, flanks, and tail. The animal is about the size of
+a large Sheep.
+
+_Budorcas._[238]—The Takin (_B. taxicolor_) of the Mishmi Hills in Assam,
+and an allied species from Eastern Tibet, are larger forms apparently
+related to _Nemorhædus_, but with a much greater development of the
+horns. The horns of what is considered to be the male[239] arise from
+the vertex of the skull, and are nearly in contact in the middle line;
+they first bend outwards and downwards, and then suddenly upwards
+and backwards. Those regarded by Mr. Hume as referable to the female
+are directed at first outwards, and then gradually curve upwards and
+backwards, without any downward flexure or angulation. The horns of
+the male may be 2 feet in length, with a basal diameter of 13 inches.
+The muzzle is hairy, with a small naked muffle. There appear to be
+considerable seasonal and sexual variations in colour; the body being in
+some cases of a yellow dun, while in others it is a dusky, reddish-brown,
+with much black intermingled. The heads of large males are blackish.
+
+Scarcely anything is known of the habits of the Takin, which never
+appears to have been seen alive by Europeans.
+
+_Caprine Section._—Both sexes with horns, but those of the female small.
+Horns usually compressed, triangular, with transverse ridges, and either
+curving backwards or spiral. Muzzle hairy, without naked muffle.
+Suborbital gland small or absent; lachrymal fossa of skull present or
+absent. Tail short and flattened. Foot-glands frequently present. Molars
+very hypsodont; those of the upper jaw being narrow, without an accessory
+internal column. Mainly Palæarctic, but with some outlying forms.
+
+This section includes the Goats and Sheep, which are so closely connected
+that it is difficult to give well-marked generic characters that will
+hold good for all the species. They seem to be one of the latest
+developments of the _Bovidæ_, since they are unknown before the Pliocene
+period; and are essentially mountain forms.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 145.—The Alpine Ibex (_Capra ibex_).]
+
+_Capra._[240]—Horns flattened from side to side, and either curving
+backwards (Fig. 145) or spirally twisted. No suborbital gland, and no
+lachrymal fossa in the skull. Foot-glands, if present, only in the fore
+feet. Chin more or less bearded. Males with a strong odour. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 9-13. Some dozen species, ranging over all the
+higher mountains of Southern Europe, from Spain to the Caucasus; also
+found in Abyssinia, Persia, Sind, and Baluchistan, thence through the
+higher Himalaya, and so on to Tibet and Northern China. One outlying
+species occurs in the Nilgherries of Southern India.
+
+The European Ibex or Steinbok (Fig. 145), which may be taken as a typical
+Goat, stands about 2½ feet in height at the shoulder. In summer the hair
+is short and smooth, and of an ashy-gray colour, but a long coat is
+developed in winter. The horns of the male rise in a bold backward sweep
+from the forehead, and are characterised by the strong transverse ridges
+on the broad and flat anterior surface. They are said to be not more
+than some 2 feet in length, but these dimensions are greatly exceeded
+by the horns of the Himalayan Ibex. The Alpine Ibex lives at a greater
+height than the Chamois, spending the day just at the limit of perpetual
+snow, and descending at night to graze at lower levels. Both this and the
+Himalayan species generally live in small herds of from five to fifteen
+or more; they are wary animals, although not so much so as many of the
+wild Sheep. The following list, mainly taken from two papers by Mr.
+Sclater,[241] gives the distribution of the various species of Goats,
+with some remarks on their peculiarities:—
+
+(1) _C. ibex_, confined to the Alps of Switzerland, Savoy, and the
+Tyrol, and now nearly extinct, except where artificially preserved.
+(2) _C. sibirica_, closely allied to the preceding, but with larger
+horns, occurs in the Altai Mountains, and throughout the Himalaya from
+Kashmir to Nipal, and northward towards Turkestan. (3) _C. sinaitica_,
+of the mountains of Upper Egypt, the Sinaitic Peninsula, and Palestine,
+is allied to the two preceding species, but has the horns somewhat
+more compressed, with a difference in the ridges on the front. (4) _C.
+caucasica_, a very distinct species, confined to the Caucasus, where
+it inhabits the western part of the Great Caucasus; with thick horns
+curving backwards and outwards in one plane, with the exception of their
+tips, which incline inwards.[242] (5) _C. pallasi_ is an allied species
+from the Eastern Caucasus, distinguished, among other features, by the
+curvature of the horns, which lie flatter and twist more outward from
+the forehead, with a greater terminal inward bend. (6) _C. pyrenaica_,
+of the Pyrenees, and the higher ranges of Central Spain, Andalusia, and
+Portugal, is another nearly related species. (7) _C. ægagrus_, formerly
+abundant over the Grecian Archipelago, but now restricted in Europe to
+Crete and some of the Cyclades, is found throughout the mountains of
+Asia Minor and Persia, and thence to Baluchistan and Sind. The horns
+are thinner and sharper in front than in the Ibexes, and this species
+is generally regarded as the ancestral stock of the various breeds of
+domestic Goats. (8) _C. dorcas_, a Goat from the island of Jura, near
+Eubœa, has been described under this name, and is apparently nearly
+allied to _C. ægagrus_. (9) _C. walie_, an apparently well-characterised
+species from the highest ranges of Abyssinia. (10) _C. falconeri_; the
+Markhoor differs from all the preceding species by the spiral twisting of
+its horns, which attain enormous dimensions. It occurs in the Pir-Panjal
+range south of Kashmir, and thence into Afghanistan and the Suleiman
+range, and northwards to Astor, Gilgit, and Scardo (Baltistan). The
+specimens from the Suleiman range have the spiral of the horns very
+close, somewhat as in the Eland; while in those from Astor, Gilgit, and
+Scardo it is very open, as in the Kudu. The Pir-Panjal race occupies a
+somewhat intermediate position in this respect. (11) _C. jemlaica_, the
+Thar, inhabits suitable regions along the whole range of the Himalaya
+from Kashmir to Bhutan. Together with the next species, it differs from
+the more typical Goats in its short, thick, and much compressed horns,
+the anterior border of which is keeled, and the moist naked muffle. There
+are no glands in the fore feet. It was generically separated by Gray as
+_Hemitragus_. (12) _C. hylocrius_, the so-called Ibex of the Nilgherries,
+Anamallays, and other adjoining ranges of Southern India, is an outlying
+species, apparently allied to the preceding, but with somewhat different
+horns, in which the external angle in front is much rounded off.
+
+Of fossil Goats we have but little knowledge. Remains of _C. pyrenaica_
+are found in cave-deposits at Gibraltar; and it is not improbable that
+the genus is represented in the Upper Pliocene of France. Several species
+occur in the Pliocene of India, _C. sivalensis_ being apparently closely
+allied to _C. jemlaica_, while another has horns resembling those of _C.
+falconeri_, and it is possible that a third may be more nearly related to
+the Ibexes.
+
+_Ovis._[243]—Horns curving backwards and downwards in a bold sweep,
+with the tips everted, generally with more or less prominent transverse
+ridges, and brownish in colour. Suborbital gland and lachrymal fossa
+usually present, but generally small. Foot-glands in all the feet. Chin
+not bearded;[244] males without a strong odour. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L
+6, S 4, C 10-14. Some twelve species, mainly Palæarctic, but extending
+into the adjacent portions of the Oriental region, and with one outlying
+species in North America.
+
+The more typical Sheep are closely connected with the Goats by the
+Himalayan Bharal (_O. nahura_) and the Aoudad (_O. tragelaphus_) of
+Northern Africa, both these species having no suborbital gland and no
+lachrymal fossa, while their comparatively smooth and olive-coloured
+horns show a decided approximation to those of the Goats. Both present,
+however, the ovine character of glands in all the feet. In the typical
+Sheep the basioccipital of the skull is wider in front than behind,
+with the anterior pair of tubercles widely separated and much larger
+than the posterior pair. The Bharal, however, resembles the Goats in
+having an oblong basioccipital, with the posterior tubercles larger and
+more prominent than the anterior ones, both being situated in the same
+antero-posterior line. These transitions towards the caprine type are,
+however, not sufficient to support the view that the Bharal should form
+the type of a distinct genus (_Pseudois_), more especially since some of
+the typical Sheep, like _O. canadensis_, have the lachrymal fossa of the
+skull very much reduced in size.
+
+The distinction of the various permanent modifications under which wild
+Sheep occur is a matter of considerable difficulty. Trivial characters,
+such as size, slight variations in colour, and especially the form and
+curvature of the horns, are relied upon by different zoologists who have
+given attention to the subject in the discrimination of species, but no
+complete accord has yet been established. The most generally recognised
+forms are enumerated below.
+
+The geographical distribution of wild Sheep is interesting. The immense
+mountain ranges of Central Asia, the Pamir and Thian-Shan of Turkestan,
+may be looked upon as the centre of their habitat. Here, at an elevation
+of 16,000 feet above the sea-level, is the home of the magnificent
+_Ovis poli_, named after the celebrated Venetian traveller Marco Polo,
+who met with it in his adventurous travels through this region in the
+thirteenth century. It is remarkable for the great size of the horns of
+the old rams and the wide open sweep of their curve, so that the points
+stand boldly out on each side, far away from the animal’s head, instead
+of curling round nearly in the same plane, as in most of the other
+species. A Sheep from the same region, in which the horns retain their
+more normal development, has received the name of _O. karelini_, but,
+according to Mr. W. T. Blanford,[245] is not distinct specifically from
+_O. poli_. Eastward and northward is found the Argali (_O. argali_),
+with a wide and not very well determined range; it formerly occurred in
+the Altai, but is now found in Northern Mongolia. Still farther north,
+in the Stanovoi Mountains and Kamschatka, is _O. nivicola_, and away on
+the other side of Behring’s Strait, in the Rocky Mountains and adjacent
+highlands of western North America, is the “Bighorn” or Mountain Sheep
+(_O. canadensis_), the only member of the genus found in that continent,
+and indeed—except the Bison, Musk-Ox, Mountain Goat (_Haploceros_), and
+the Prong-buck (_Antilocapra_)—the only hollow-horned Ruminant, being
+like the rest obviously a straggler from the cradle of its race. The two
+last-named species are nearly allied, and are characterised by the slight
+development of the ridges on their horns and the very shallow lachrymal
+fossa. Turning southward from the point from which we started, and
+still a little to the east, in Nipal and Western Tibet, is the Himalayan
+Argali (_O. hodgsoni_), having massive and strongly curved horns, with
+bold ridges, like those of the true Argali. Indeed, were it not for their
+isolated areas there would appear to be no grounds for distinguishing
+these two closely allied forms, and it is not improbable that they
+are really identical. _O. brookei_, appears to have been founded on a
+hybrid between _O. hodgsoni_ and _O. vignei_. In the same districts,
+and also in Southern Ladak, there occurs the Bharal (_O. nahura_), with
+smaller, smoother, and more spreading horns. Passing in a south-westerly
+direction we find a series of smaller forms, _O. vignei_ of Ladak, _O.
+cycloceros_ of Northern India, Persia, and Baluchistan. _O. gmelini_ of
+Asia Minor and Persia, _O. ophion_, confined to the elevated pine-clad
+Troodos Mountains of the island of Cyprus, and said at the time of the
+British occupation in 1878 to have been reduced to a flock of about
+twenty-five individuals, and _O. musimon_, the Moufflon of Corsica and
+Sardinia (see Fig. 146), believed to have been formerly also a native of
+Spain. In the three latter species the females are hornless. Lastly, we
+have the somewhat aberrant, Goat-like Aoudad (_O. tragelaphus_), of the
+great mountain ranges of North Africa, in which, as already mentioned,
+the skull and horns resemble those of the Bharal, although the tail is
+longer, and there is a thick fringe of long hair on the throat, chest,
+and fore legs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 146.—The Moufflon (_Ovis musimon_). From a living
+animal in the London Zoological Gardens.]
+
+We thus find that Sheep are essentially inhabitants of high mountainous
+parts of the world, for dwelling among which their wonderful powers of
+climbing and leaping give them special advantages. No species frequent
+by choice either level deserts, open plains, dense forests, or swamps.
+By far the greater number of species are inhabitants of the continent of
+Asia, one extending into North America, one into Southern Europe, and one
+into North Africa. No wild Sheep exist in any other part of the world,
+unless the so-called Musk-Ox of the Arctic regions, the nearest existing
+ally to the true Sheep, may be considered as one. Geologically speaking,
+Sheep appear to be very modern animals, or perhaps it would be safer to
+say that no remains that can be with certainty referred to the genus
+have been met with in the hitherto explored true Tertiary beds, which
+have yielded such abundant modifications of Antelopes and Deer. They are
+generally considered not to be indigenous in the British Isles, but to
+have been introduced by man from the East in prehistoric times. A fossil
+Sheep (_Ovis savigni_), apparently allied to the Argali, has, however,
+been described from the so-called Forest-bed of the Norfolk coast.
+
+The Sheep was a domestic animal in Asia and Europe before the dawn of
+history, though quite unknown as such in the New World until after the
+Spanish conquest. It has now been introduced by man into almost all
+parts of the world where settled agricultural operations are carried on,
+but flourishes especially in the temperate regions of both hemispheres.
+Whether our well-known and useful animal is derived from any one of the
+existing wild species, or from the crossing of several, or from some
+now extinct species, is quite a matter of conjecture. The variations of
+external characters seen in the different domestic breeds are very great.
+They are chiefly manifested in the form and number of the horns, which
+may be increased from the normal two to four or even eight, or may be
+altogether absent in the female alone, or in both sexes; in the form and
+length of the ears, which often hang pendent by the side of the head;
+in the peculiar elevation or arching of the nasal bones in some Eastern
+races; in the length of the tail, and the development of great masses of
+fat at each side of its root, or in the tail itself; and in the colour
+and quality of the fleece.
+
+_Ovibos._[246]—This genus is generally considered to be a connecting link
+between the Caprine and Bovine sections, but should rather be regarded as
+an aberrant type of the former. Horns of adult male rounded, smooth, and
+closely approximated at their bases, where they are depressed and rugose;
+curving downwards, and then upwards and forwards. Muzzle caprine; no
+suborbital gland, no lachrymal fossa or fissure in skull; orbits tubular;
+a large narial aperture and very short nasals; premaxillæ not reaching
+nasals. Tail short, and molar teeth caprine. One existing and two fossil
+species, Palæarctic and Nearctic.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 147.—The Musk-Ox (_Ovibos moschatus_).]
+
+The animal commonly known as the Musk-Ox (_Ovibos moschatus_), though
+approaching in size the smaller varieties of Oxen, is in structure and
+habits closely allied to the Sheep, its affinities being well expressed
+by the generic name _Ovibos_ bestowed upon it by De Blainville. The
+specific name, as also the common English appellatives “Musk-Ox,”
+“Musk-Buffalo,” or “Musk-Sheep,” applied to it by various authors, refer
+to the musky odour which the animal exhales. This does not appear to be
+due to the secretion of a special gland, as in the case of the Musk-Deer;
+but it must be observed that, except as regards the osteology, very
+little is known of the anatomy of this species. It about equals in size
+the small Welsh and Scotch cattle. The head is large and broad. The horns
+in the old males have extremely broad bases, meeting in the median line,
+and covering the brow and whole crown of the head. They are directed
+at first downwards by the side of the face and then turn upwards and
+forwards, ending in the same plane as the eye. Their basal halves are of
+a dull white colour, oval in section and coarsely fibrous; their middle
+part smooth, shining, and round; their tips black. In the females and
+young males the horns are smaller, and their bases are separated from
+each other by a space in the middle of the forehead. The ears are small,
+erect, and pointed, and nearly concealed in the hair. The space between
+the nostrils and the upper lip is covered with short close hair, as in
+Sheep and Goats, without any trace of the bare muffle of the Oxen.
+The greater part of the animal is covered with long brown hair, thick,
+matted, and curly on the shoulders, so as to give the appearance of a
+hump, but elsewhere straight and hanging down,—that of the sides, back,
+and haunches reaching as far as the middle of the legs and entirely
+concealing the very short tail. There is also a thick woolly under-fur,
+shed in the summer. The hair on the lower jaw, throat, and chest is long
+and straight, and hangs down like a beard or dewlap, though there is no
+loose fold of skin in this situation as in Oxen. The limbs are stout
+and short, terminating in unsymmetrical hoofs, the external one being
+rounded, the internal pointed, and the sole partially covered with hair.
+
+The Musk-Ox is at the present day confined to the most northern parts of
+North America, where it ranges over the rocky barren grounds between the
+60th parallel and the shores of the Arctic Sea. Its southern range is
+gradually contracting, and it appears that it is no longer met with west
+of the Mackenzie River, though formerly abundant as far as Eschscholtz
+Bay. Northwards and eastwards it extends through the Parry Islands and
+Grinnell Land to North Greenland, reaching on the west coast as far south
+as Melville Bay; and it was also met with in abundance by the German
+polar expedition of 1869-70 at Sabine Island on the east coast. No trace
+of it has been found in Spitzbergen or Franz Joseph Land. As proved
+by the discovery of fossil remains, it ranged during the Pleistocene
+period over northern Siberia and the plains of Germany and France, its
+bones occurring very generally in river deposits along with those of
+the Reindeer, Mammoth, and Woolly Rhinoceros. It has also been found in
+Pleistocene gravels in several parts of England, as Maidenhead, Bromley,
+Freshfield near Bath, Barnwood near Gloucester, and also in the lower
+brick-earth of the Thames valley at Crayford, Kent.
+
+It is gregarious in habit, assembling in herds of twenty or thirty head,
+or, according to Hearne, sometimes eighty or a hundred, in which there
+are seldom more than two or three full-grown males. The Musk-Ox runs with
+considerable speed, notwithstanding the shortness of its legs. Major
+H. W. Feilden, naturalist to the Arctic expedition of 1875, says: “No
+person watching this animal in a state of nature could fail to see how
+essentially ovine are its actions. When alarmed they gather together like
+a flock of sheep herded by collie dog, and the way in which they pack
+closely together and follow blindly the vacillating leadership of the old
+ram is unquestionably sheep-like. When thoroughly frightened they take
+to the hills, ascending precipitous slopes and scaling rocks with great
+agility.” They feed chiefly on grass, but also on moss, lichens, and
+tender shoots of the willow and pine. The female brings forth a single
+young one in the end of May or beginning of June after a gestation of
+nine months. According to Sir J. Richardson, “when this animal is fat
+its flesh is well tasted, and resembles that of the Caribou, but has
+a coarser grain. The flesh of the bulls is highly flavoured, and both
+bulls and cows when lean smell strongly of musk, their flesh at the same
+time being very dark and tough, and certainly far inferior to that of
+any other ruminating animal existing in North America.” The carcase of
+a Musk-Ox weighs, exclusive of fat, above 3 cwt. On this subject, Major
+Feilden[247] says: “The cause of the disagreeable odour which frequently
+taints the flesh of these animals has received no elucidation from my
+observations. It does not appear to be confined to either sex, or to any
+particular season of the year; for a young unweaned animal, killed at
+its mother’s side and transferred within an hour to the stew-pans, was
+as rank and objectionable as any. The flesh of some of these animals of
+which I have partaken was dark, tender, and as well flavoured as that of
+four-year old Southdown mutton.”
+
+Remains of two fossil species of this genus (_O. bombifrons_ and _O.
+cavifrons_) have been described from Pleistocene beds in the United
+States, the one from Kentucky and the other from the Arkansas River. Both
+(if indeed they be valid species) appear closely allied to the living
+form.
+
+_Bovine Section._—Horns present and of nearly equal size in both sexes;
+in form rounded or angulated, placed on or near the vertex of the
+skull, extending more or less outwards, and curving upwards near the
+extremities; external surface comparatively smooth and never marked by
+prominent transverse ridges or knobs. Muzzle broad, with large naked
+muffle; nostrils lateral; no suborbital gland. Skull without any trace of
+lachrymal fossa or fissure. Tail long and cylindrical; generally tufted
+at the extremity, rarely hairy throughout. Males usually with a dewlap on
+the throat. No foot-glands. Molar teeth extremely hypsodont; those of the
+upper jaw with a nearly square cross-section, and a large accessory inner
+column.
+
+The section is abundantly represented in the Palæarctic, Oriental, and
+Ethiopian regions, with one Nearctic species and an outlying and aberrant
+species in Celebes.
+
+_Bos._[248]—The whole of the species of Oxen were included by Linnæus in
+the single genus _Bos_, and although the species have been distributed
+by modern zoologists in several genera—such as _Anoa_, _Bubalus_,
+_Bison_, _Poëphagus_, _Bibos_, and _Bos_—the characters by which they are
+separated are so slight that it seems, on the whole, preferable to retain
+the old genus in its original wide sense. Using then the term _Bos_ in
+this sense, it will include all the representatives of the section—about
+a dozen in number—and may be divided into several groups.
+
+The first group includes the Buffaloes (genus _Bubalus_), chiefly
+characterised by their more or less flattened and angulated horns, which
+incline upwards and backwards, with an inward curve towards their tips,
+and are placed below the plane of the occiput, or vertex of the skull.
+The premaxillæ reach to the nasals, and the vomer is peculiar in being
+so much ossified as to join the posterior border of the palate. The back
+has a distinct ridge in the region of the withers; and the forehead is
+frequently convex. Oriental and Ethiopian region, and Celebes.
+
+The most generalised representative of this group is the small Anoa
+(_B. depressicornis_) of Celebes, the type of the genus _Anoa_ or
+_Probubalus_, which has the same cranial structure as in the more
+typical Buffaloes, to the young of which (as was pointed out by the
+late Professor Garrod) it presents a striking resemblance. Its colour
+is black; and the short and prismatic horns are directed upwards from
+the forehead. In the Pliocene Siwaliks of India there occur the remains
+of larger Buffaloes (_B. occipitalis_ and _B. acuticornis_) closely
+allied to the Anoa, but with longer and more distinctly angulated horns.
+The still larger _B. platyceros_ of the last-named deposits, in which
+the horns are wide-spreading and much flattened, appears to be in some
+respects intermediate between the preceding and following forms. The
+typical Indian Buffalo (_Bos buffelus_), which has been domesticated
+over South-East Asia, Egypt, and Southern Europe, is, in the wild state,
+a gigantic animal with enormous horns. These horns are longer, more
+slender, and more outwardly directed in the female than in the male;
+and in the former sex may have a length of more than 6 feet from base
+to tip. They are widely separated at their bases, the forehead is very
+convex, and the ears are not excessively large, and have no distinct
+fringe. These Buffaloes frequent swampy and moist districts in several
+parts of India, but it is in many instances difficult to decide whether
+they belong to really wild or to feral races. Very large skulls,
+specifically indistinguishable from those of the existing form, occur in
+the Pleistocene deposits of the Narbada valley in India; while an allied,
+if not specifically identical form, occurs in the Pliocene of the same
+country. There is some doubt whether _B. antiquus_ of the Pleistocene of
+Algeria is most nearly related to the Indian or to the African species.
+
+In Africa two species of Buffalo are recognised by Sir Victor
+Brooke,[249] namely the large _B. caffer_, occurring typically at the
+Cape, but said by this writer to range to Abyssinia, and the smaller
+_B. pumilus_, which seems to have a very wide distribution. The skulls
+of both these forms are shorter than in the Indian species, while the
+horns are also shorter, much more curved inwardly, and more approximated
+on the forehead. In the large typical form of _B. caffer_ from South
+Africa the colour is black, the horns of the male are very thick, much
+reflected, and closely approximated on the forehead, where they form
+a helmet-like mass.[250] The large northern form described as _B.
+æquinoctialis_ has the horns somewhat less thick, and thus approximates
+to the so-called _B. pumilus_.
+
+The latter occurs typically in Western Africa, where it has also been
+described as _B. brachyceros_. In the typical form the horns are thinner
+and less reflected than in _B. caffer_, and in some specimens they are
+more widely separated on the forehead, and are marked at their bases by
+distinct rugæ. The colour is ruddy brown, inclining to rufous in one
+specimen. The skulls of Buffaloes from West Africa, probably referable to
+the form described as _B. centralis_, appear to connect _B. pumilus_ with
+_B. caffer_, as shown by their larger size and the form of their horns;
+so that further observations are required to show whether the smaller
+form is really entitled to rank as a distinct species, or merely as a
+well-marked local race.
+
+The second group comprises the Bisons, which are more nearly allied to
+the true Oxen, having similar rounded horns, but the skull being less
+massive, with a longer and more tapering frontal region, and a wider
+frontal diameter. The superior part of the forehead is transversely
+arched, the intercornual space elevated in the middle, the horns situated
+below the plane of the occiput, and the orbits more or less prominent.
+The premaxillæ do not extend upwards to reach the nasals. The Bisons
+(Fig. 148) have the body covered with short, crisp, woolly hair, while on
+the head and neck there is an abundance of much longer and darker hair,
+which forms a mane concealing the eyes, ears, and the bases of the horns.
+There is also a long beard beneath the chin; while a line of long hair
+extends from the head nearly to the tail, the latter being tufted at the
+extremity. The withers are much higher than the hind quarters, so that
+there is a kind of hump at the shoulders.
+
+The group is represented by two species—the European and the American
+Bison. The former is the _Bos bonasus_ of Linnæus, and is also identical
+with the _Bos bison_ of Ray. The German name _Wisent_ is the equivalent
+of the Greek _Bison_. The American species is the _Bos americanus_ of
+Gmelin. Both species are closely allied, but the American Bison is
+slightly the smaller animal of the two, and is shorter and weaker in
+the hind quarters, with a smaller pelvis; its body is, however, more
+massive in front; and the hair on the head, neck, and fore quarters is
+longer and more luxuriant. A large bull American Bison, preserved in the
+Museum at Washington, stands 5 feet 8 inches in height at the withers.
+The European Bison appears to have been formerly abundant over a large
+portion of Europe in the Pleistocene period—the fossil race described as
+_B. priscus_ not being specifically distinct; but at the present day it
+exists only in the primeval forests of Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia,
+and the Caucasus, where it is artificially preserved.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 148.—The American Bison (_Bos americanus_). After
+Hornaday.]
+
+The American Bison formerly ranged over about one-third of the North
+American continent. Thus, to quote from Mr. Hornaday,[251] “starting
+almost at tide-water on the Atlantic coast, it extended across the
+Alleghany mountain system to the prairies along the Mississippi, and
+southward to the delta of that great system. Although the great plain
+country of the West was the natural home of the species, where it
+flourished most abundantly, it also wandered south across Texas to
+the burning plains of North-Eastern Mexico, westward across the Rocky
+Mountains into New Mexico, Utah, and Idaho, and northward across a
+vast treeless waste to the bleak and inhospitable shores of the Great
+Slave Lake itself.” In consequence of the settlement of the country by
+Europeans the area inhabited by the Bison was gradually contracted, till
+about 1840 one mighty herd occupied the centre of its former range.
+The completion of the Union Pacific Railway in 1869 divided this great
+herd into a southern and a northern division, the former comprising
+a number of individuals estimated at nearly four millions, while the
+latter contained about a million and a half. Before 1880 the southern
+herd had, however, practically ceased to exist; while the same fate
+overtook the northern one in 1883. In 1889 some twenty stragglers in
+Texas represented the last of the southern herd; while there were a few
+others in Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, and Dakota. A herd of some two
+hundred wild individuals, derived from the northern herd, is preserved by
+the United States Government in the Yellowstone National Park; and it is
+believed that some five hundred of the race known as Wood-Bison exist in
+British territory; but with these exceptions this magnificent species is
+exterminated. The multitudes in which the American Bison formerly existed
+are almost incredible; the prairies being absolutely black with them as
+far as the eye could reach, and the numbers in the herds being, as we
+have said, reckoned by millions. Mr. Hornaday even considers that the
+whole of the game in South Africa was never equal to the number of Bison
+on an equal area of the American prairies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 149.—The Yak (_Bos grunniens_), domestic variety.]
+
+An extinct Bison from the Pleistocene of Texas, known as _Bos latifrons_,
+was probably the ancestor of the recent American species.
+
+The Yak (_Bos grunniens_) appears to be allied both to the Bisons and the
+true Oxen, being distinguished from the former by the different position
+occupied by the long hair, which forms a fringe investing the shoulders,
+flanks, and thighs, and grows over the whole of the tail. In the skull
+the orbits are less tubular, the forehead flatter, and the premaxillæ
+less widely separated from the nasals. There is no distinct dewlap.
+Wild Yaks inhabit the higher regions of Chinese Tibet and the region of
+the Karakoram, as well as the more outlying parts of Ladak, such as the
+Changchemo valley. Owing, however, to incessant pursuit those now found
+within the territories of the Maharaja of Kashmir are stragglers from
+Chinese Tibet. The height of the Yak is somewhat lower than that of the
+larger domestic cattle. The colour of the wild race is black, tending
+to brown on the flanks; but many of the tame breeds which have been
+crossed with ordinary cattle have more or less white (Fig. 149), and it
+is the white tails of these half-breeds that are so esteemed in India as
+“chowries.” Yaks are exceedingly intolerant of heat, and the wild ones
+always live at very great elevations. Tame Yaks are extensively used as
+beasts of burden in Tibet, where they are extremely valuable in crossing
+the high and desolate wastes of that region; they have, however, the
+great drawback that they refuse to eat corn, so that in districts where
+there is no grass it is frequently necessary to make forced marches
+with wearied beasts in order to prevent them (and thus the whole party)
+perishing from starvation.
+
+The skull of an extinct species from the Pliocene of Northern India,
+described as _Bos sivalensis_, appears to indicate a species allied to
+the Yak.
+
+With the Bibovine group we come to the consideration of three Oriental
+species which connect the preceding forms with the typical Oxen. The
+three species are the Gaur (_B. gaurus_) the Gayal (_B. frontalis_,
+Fig. 150) of India, and the Banteng (_B. sondaicus_) of Burma, Java,
+Bali, and Lambok. In this group, as in the true Oxen, there are thirteen
+pairs of ribs, against fourteen in the Bisons. All the three species
+are characterised by the great height of the spines of the anterior
+dorsal vertebræ, causing a prominent ridge down the back. The horns,
+which are of a greenish colour in the Gaur, are somewhat flattened, and
+after running outwards are directed upwards instead of backwards; they
+occupy the vertex of the skull. The frontals are more or less concave,
+the premaxillæ do not join the nasals, and the occipital aspect of
+the skull is characterised by the deep incisions made by the temporal
+fossæ. The lower part of the legs is white (Fig. 150), and the hoofs are
+comparatively small and pointed. The Gaur (_B. gaurus_) is the largest
+of the three species, and inhabits all the large forests of India from
+near Cape Comorin to the foot of the Himalaya; it is commonly known
+to sportsmen as the Indian Bison. It stands fully 6 feet in height
+at the withers, which are much elevated; and since the whole back is
+arched the line from the nose to the root of the tail forms an almost
+continuous curve. The most characteristic feature of the animal is,
+however, the large and convex intercornual frontal crest, which curves
+forward, and thus gives a concave profile to this part of the skull. As
+a rule the Gaur prefers hilly regions, although it is sometimes met with
+on the flat. It is very shy and readily frightened; and it has never
+been domesticated. The Gayal, or Mithan, of which a figure is given in
+woodcut 150, is at once distinguished from the Gaur by the straight line
+between the horns (which are black in colour), owing to the absence of
+the intercornual crest of the latter. The horns are also shorter, more
+rounded, and less curved. In the Indian Museum, Calcutta, there are,
+however, skulls which are to a great extent intermediate between those
+of typical Gaurs and those of typical Gayals, but these may belong to
+hybrids. The Gayal occurs in Assam, Chittagong, and adjacent districts,
+but it appears that these animals exist in a semi-domesticated condition,
+no wild race being known to Europeans, although it is probable that such
+may exist in the unexplored Mishmi Hills.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 150.—The Gayal (_Bos frontalis_). From Sclater, _List
+of Animals in Zoological Society’s Gardens_, 1883.]
+
+The Banteng (_B. sondaicus_) is a smaller and lighter built animal
+than either of the preceding, with a longer and sharper head, and more
+rounded and slender horns. The dorsal ridge is, moreover, but slightly
+developed; while the bright dun colour of the body of the female readily
+distinguishes it from the darker hue of the Gaur and Gayal.
+
+A fossil skull from the Pleistocene deposits of the Narbada valley,
+India, described as _Bos palæogaurus_, is believed to indicate a species
+nearly allied to the Gaur, if indeed it be specifically distinct.
+
+The true Oxen, or Taurine group, are now represented solely by _Bos
+taurus_ and _Bos indicus_. Both of these species are now known only
+by domesticated races, unless the herds of the former preserved at
+Chillingham and some other British parks are the survivors of an original
+wild race. The dorsal ridge of the Bibovine group is here wanting;
+the horns are rounded, with their extremities directed backwards, and
+are placed at the extreme vertex of the skull; while the long frontal
+region is nearly flat; the temporal fossæ scarcely intrude upon the
+occipital aspect of the skull; and the premaxillæ reach the nasals. The
+hoofs are large and rounded. It is known that wild Oxen were abundant
+in the forests of Europe at the time of Julius Cæsar, by whom they were
+described as the Urus, equal to the German Aurochs; and the large skulls
+found in turbary and Pleistocene deposits, and described under the name
+of _Bos primigenius_, can only be regarded as having belonged to the
+large original race of _B. taurus_, of which it has been thought the
+Chillingham cattle are smaller descendants.[252] The subfossil skulls
+described as _B. longifrons_ and _B. frontosus_ must also be looked upon
+as referable to smaller races of the same species. That the domestic
+cattle of Europe are descendants from the various races of the same
+original species there can be no doubt, but in the case of the humped
+cattle of India (_B. indicus_) it is quite probable that their origin
+may be, at least in part, different. The extinct _Bos namadicus_, of the
+Pleistocene deposits of India, was a species with the general characters
+of the Taurine group, but with an inclination to a flattening of the
+horns, and with an approximation to a Bibovine type of occiput, as well
+as with the separation of the premaxillæ from the nasals.
+
+The earliest representatives of this group occur in the Pliocene of the
+Siwalik Hills in Northern India. One of these species (_B. planifrons_)
+appears to be allied to _B. namadicus_; but the other (_B. acutifrons_)
+was a gigantic species characterised by the sharp median angulation of
+the frontal region, and the pyriform section of the enormous horn-cores.
+
+The extinct _B. elatus_, from the Upper Pliocene of France and Italy,
+is the representative of a generalised type, which may be known as the
+Leptobovine group. The males had rounded horn-cores widely separated at
+their bases, and placed low down on the forehead. The females (which have
+been described as _Leptobos_) were often or always hornless. The limbs
+were unusually slender. This group also occurs in the Pliocene of the
+Siwalik Hills.
+
+
+_Suborder_ PERISSODACTYLA.
+
+This is a perfectly well-defined group of Ungulate mammals, represented
+in the actual fauna of the world by only three distinct types or
+families—the Tapirs, the Rhinoceroses, and the Horses—poor in genera
+and species, and (except in the case of the two domesticated species of
+_Equus_, which have been largely multiplied and diffused by man’s agency)
+not generally numerous in individuals, though widely scattered over the
+earth’s surface. Palæontological records, however, show very clearly that
+these are but the surviving remnants of a very extensive and much-varied
+assemblage of animals, which flourished upon the earth through the
+Tertiary geological period, and which, if it could be reconstructed in
+its entirety, would not only show members filling up structurally the
+intervals between the existing apparently isolated forms, but would also
+show several marked lines of specialisation which have become extinct
+without leaving any direct successors.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 151.—Bones of right fore foot of existing
+Perissodactyles. A, Tapir (_Tapirus indicus_), × ⅕; B, Rhinoceros
+(_Rhinoceros sumatrensis_), × ⅙; C, Horse (_Equus caballus_), × ⅛. _U_,
+ulna; _R_, radius; _c_, cuneiform; _l_, lunar; _s_, scaphoid; _u_,
+unciform; _m_, magnum; _td_, trapezoid; _tm_, trapezium.—From Flower,
+_Osteology of Mammalia_.]
+
+The following are the principal characters distinguishing them from
+the Artiodactyla. Premolar and molar teeth in continuous series, with
+massive, quadrate, transversely ridged or complex crowns,—the posterior
+premolars often resembling the true molars in size and structure. Crown
+of the last lower molar commonly bilobed, and if a third lobe is present
+in this tooth it is wanting in the last lower milk-molar. Dorso-lumbar
+vertebræ never fewer than twenty-two, usually twenty-three in the
+existing species. Nasal bones expanded posteriorly. An alisphenoid
+canal. Femur with a third trochanter.[253] The middle or third digit on
+both fore and hind feet larger than any of the others, and symmetrical
+in itself, the free border of the ungual phalanx being evenly rounded
+(see Fig. 151). This may be the only functional toe, or the second and
+fourth may be subequally developed on each side of it. In the Tapirs
+and many extinct forms, the fifth toe also remains on the fore limb,
+but its presence does not interfere with the symmetrical arrangement of
+the remainder of the foot around the median line of the third or middle
+digit. Traces of a hallux have only been found in some extremely ancient
+and primitive forms. The astragalus has a pulley-like surface above
+for articulation with the tibia, but its distal surface is flattened
+and unites to a much greater extent with the navicular than with the
+cuboid, which bone is of comparatively less importance than in the
+Artiodactyla. The calcaneum does not articulate with the lower or distal
+extremity of the fibula. The stomach is always simple, the cæcum is large
+and capacious, the placenta diffused, and the mammæ are inguinal. The
+gall-bladder is invariably absent.
+
+As regards the dentition, the whole of the premolar series may be
+preceded by milk-teeth; and it has been demonstrated in _Rhinoceros_
+that when there is no displacement of the first cheek-tooth that tooth
+is a persistent milk-molar; the same condition apparently holding
+good in _Palæotherium._ This feature indicates considerable dental
+specialisation, the milk-molars, according to the theory generally
+accepted by the leading English zoologists, being the acquired, and the
+premolars the original series. Another peculiar feature of the dentition
+of the Perissodactyla, very rarely met with among the Artiodactyla,
+is that the premolars tend to resemble the true molars; this feature
+occurring in all the existing genera, although not found in the earlier
+generalised types. The cheek-teeth of all the members of the suborder
+are primarily constructed on some modification of what is known as the
+lophodont plan. Thus the upper molars (Fig. 155, p. 375) have an outer
+antero-posterior wall from which proceed two transverse ridges, formed
+by the coalescence of the primitive inner and outer columns, towards
+the inner aspect of the crown; while in the lower molars there may be
+either two simple transverse ridges, or these ridges may be curved into
+crescents, coming into contact with one another at their extremities.
+Those forms having brachydont teeth show this plan of structure in its
+simplest modification; but in cases, as in the Horse, where the teeth
+assume an extremely hypsodont form, the original plan is so obscured by
+infoldings of the enamel that it can only be traced with difficulty.
+
+At the present day the Perissodactyla are sharply differentiated into
+Horses, Tapirs, and Rhinoceroses, but the knowledge already gained of
+the extinct representatives of the suborder shows such a close alliance
+between these groups that it is exceedingly difficult to make any
+satisfactory classification of the whole. This is of course exactly what
+might have been expected; and the same would doubtless be the case with
+all other groups if we knew as much of their past history as we do of
+that of the Perissodactyles.
+
+The detailed account of the anatomy of the Horse given in the sequel will
+afford much information as to the general structure of the members of the
+suborder.
+
+
+_Family_ TAPIRIDÆ.
+
+Both upper and lower cheek-teeth brachydont and simply bilophodont;
+hinder premolars as complex as the molars; last lower molar without third
+lobe; first upper cheek-tooth with a milk-predecessor.[254] Outer columns
+of upper molars conical. Four digits in the manus, and three in the pes.
+
+_Tapirus._[255]—Dentition _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total 42.
+Of the upper incisors, the first and second are nearly equal, with short,
+broad crowns; the third is large and conical, considerably larger than
+the canine, which is separated from it by an interval. Lower incisors
+diminishing in size from the first to the third; the canine, which is
+in contact with the third incisor, large and conical, working against
+(and behind) the canine-like third upper incisor. In both jaws there
+is a diastema between the canines and the commencement of the teeth of
+the cheek-series, which are all in contact. First upper premolar with a
+triangular crown, narrow in front owing to the absence of the anterior
+inner cusp. The other upper premolars and molars all formed on the same
+plan and of nearly the same size, with four roots and quadrate crowns,
+rather wider transversely than from before backwards, each having four
+cusps, connected by a pair of transverse ridges, anterior and posterior.
+The first lower premolar compressed in front; the others composed of a
+simple pair of transverse crests, with a small anterior and posterior
+circular ridge.
+
+Skull elevated and compressed. Orbit and temporal fossa widely
+continuous, there being no true postorbital process from the frontal
+bone. Anterior narial apertures very large, and extending high on the
+face between the orbits; nasal bones short, elevated, triangular, and
+pointed in front. Vertebræ: C 7, D 18, L 5, S 6, C about 12. Limbs short
+and stout. Forefeet with four toes, having distinct hoofs: the first
+is absent, the third the longest, the second and fourth nearly equal,
+the fifth the shortest and scarcely reaching the ground in the ordinary
+standing position. Hind feet with the typical Perissodactyle arrangement
+of three toes,—the middle one being the largest, the two others nearly
+equal. Nose and upper lip elongated into a flexible, mobile snout or
+short proboscis, near the end of which the nostrils are situated. Eyes
+rather small. Ears of moderate size, ovate, erect. Tail very short. Skin
+thick and but scantily covered with hair.
+
+The existing species of Tapir may be grouped into two sections, the
+distinctive characters of which are only recognisable in the skeleton.
+(A) With a great anterior prolongation of the ossification of the nasal
+septum (mesethmoid), extending in the adult far beyond the nasal bones,
+and supported and embraced at the base by ascending plates from the
+maxillæ (genus _Elasmognathus_, Gill). Two species, both from Central
+America, _Tapirus bairdi_ and _T. dowi_. The former is found in Mexico,
+Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama; the latter in Guatemala,
+Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. (B) With ossification of the septum not
+extending farther forward than the nasal bones (_Tapirus_ proper).
+Three species, _T. indicus_, the largest of the genus, from the Malay
+Peninsula (as far north as Tavoy and Mergui), Sumatra, and Borneo,
+distinguished by its peculiar coloration, the head, neck, fore and hind
+limbs, being glossy black, and the intermediate part of the body white;
+_T. americanus_ (_T. terrestris_, Linn.), the common Tapir of the forests
+and lowlands of Brazil and Paraguay (Fig. 152); and _T. roulini_, the
+Pinchaque Tapir of the high regions of the Andes. All the American
+species are of a nearly uniform dark brown or blackish colour when adult;
+but it is a curious circumstance that when young (and in this the Malay
+species conforms with the others) they are conspicuously marked with
+spots and longitudinal stripes of white or fawn colour on a darker ground.
+
+The habits of all the kinds of Tapirs appear to be very similar. They are
+solitary, nocturnal, shy, and inoffensive, chiefly frequenting the depths
+of shady forests and the neighbourhood of water, to which they frequently
+resort for the purpose of bathing, and in which they often take refuge
+when pursued. They feed on various vegetable substances, as shoots of
+trees and bushes, buds, and leaves. They are hunted by the natives of the
+lands in which they live for the sake of their hides and flesh.
+
+The singular fact of the existence of so closely allied animals as the
+Malayan and the American Tapirs in such distant regions of the earth,
+and in no intervening places, is accounted for by what is known of
+the geological history of the race; for the Tapirs must once have had
+a very wide distribution. There is no proof of their having lived in
+the Eocene epoch, but in deposits of Miocene and Pliocene date remains
+undistinguishable generically from the modern Tapirs, and described as
+_T. priscus_, _T. arvernensis_, etc., have been found in France, Germany,
+and in the Red Crag of Suffolk. Tapirs appear, however, to have become
+extinct in Europe before the Pleistocene period, since none of their
+bones or teeth have been found in any of the caverns or alluvial deposits
+in which those of Elephants, Rhinoceroses, and Hippopotamuses occur in
+abundance; but in other regions their distribution at this age was far
+wider than at present, as they are known to have extended eastward to
+China (_T. sinensis_, Owen) and westwards over the greater part of the
+southern United States of America, from South Carolina to California.
+Lund also distinguished two species or varieties from the caves of
+Brazil, one of which appears identical with _T. americanus_. Thus we
+have no difficulty in tracing the common origin in the Miocene Tapirs of
+Europe of the now widely separated American and Asiatic species. It is,
+moreover, interesting to observe how very slight an amount of variation
+has taken place in forms isolated during such an enormous period of time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 152.—The American Tapir (_Tapirus americanus_).]
+
+The anatomy of the soft parts of the Tapirs[256] conforms to the general
+Perissodactyle type, as exemplified in the Rhinoceros and the Horse,
+although on the whole (as might have been expected) presenting a closer
+resemblance to the former. _T. americanus_ differs from _T. indicus_
+by the absence, or at any rate the less development, of the intestinal
+valvulæ conniventes, the presence of a moderator band in the heart,
+the shape of the glans penis, and the more elongated cæcum, which is
+sacculated by four distinct longitudinal fibrous bands. The convolutions
+of the hemispheres of the brain of the Tapirs are simpler than in other
+Perissodactyles, thus tending to confirm the inferences which may
+be drawn from the skeleton and teeth as to the comparatively low or
+generalised organisation of these animals.
+
+_Palæotapirus._—This name has been applied to an imperfectly known form
+from the Upper Eocene Phosphorites of Central France, which is regarded
+by Dr. Filhol as referable to this family.
+
+
+_Family_ LOPHIODONTIDÆ.
+
+Molars brachydont and bilophodont, those of the lower jaw with either
+straight or imperfectly crescentoid ridges; premolars smaller and usually
+simpler than the molars; last lower molar generally with a third lobe.
+Outer columns of upper molars conical or flattened. Digits usually as in
+the preceding family.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 153.—Right side of skull of _Hyracotherium
+leporinum_, from the London Clay. ½ natural size. (After Owen.) 3,
+Occiput; 7, sagittal crest; 11, frontals; 15, nasals; 21, maxilla; 22,
+premaxilla; _d_, mandibular condyle; _a_, aperture of facial nerve; _p_
+1-4, premolars; _m_ 1-3, molars.]
+
+This family includes a number of more or less imperfectly known
+forms, all of which are extinct and apparently confined to the Eocene
+period, and ranging from the size of a Rabbit to that of a Rhinoceros.
+Although some of these appear to have died out without giving rise to
+more specialised forms, it is probable that this family contained the
+ancestral types from which most or all of the modern Perissodactyles
+have been derived. Only very brief mention can be made here of some
+of the leading genera. _Lophiodon_, of the Middle and Upper Eocene of
+Europe, with the dental formula, _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃,
+includes the largest representatives of the family, and is generally
+regarded as a stock which has died out without giving rise to later
+forms. The ridges of the lower molars are straight, and the last of these
+teeth has a third lobe; while the second transverse ridge of the last
+upper premolar is usually incomplete; the outer columns of the upper
+molars are flattened, as in the next genus. _Hyrachyus_, of the Upper
+Eocene of the United States, and probably also occurring in the French
+Eocenes, is an allied genus, with four premolars and no third lobe to
+the last lower molar; the fourth upper premolar having the two ridges
+uniting internally to form a crescent. This genus has been regarded as
+the ancestor of the Rhinocerotic _Hyracodon_. The genus _Hyracotherium_
+was established in 1839 by Owen for a small animal no larger than a
+Hare, the skull of which was found in the London Clay at Herne Bay.
+A more nearly perfect specimen, apparently of the same species, was
+afterwards (in 1857) described under the name of _Pliolophus vulpiceps_,
+of which the skull is figured in the accompanying woodcut. Other forms
+referable to the same genus have been obtained from the Wasatch Eocene
+of the United States, and were described by Professor Marsh under the
+name of _Eohippus_. There were four premolars, the fourth being unlike
+the molars, and in the upper jaw having only one inner cusp. The upper
+molars are of the general type of those of _Lophiodon_, but have conical
+outer columns, and the anterior transverse ridge imperfect, while
+the ridges of the lower molars are crescentoid. _Systemodon_ differs
+from _Hyracotherium_ by the absence of a diastema between the first
+and second premolars; it occurs in the Wasatch Lower Eocene of the
+United States. In _Pachynolophus_ (_Lophiotherium_, _Orotherium_, or
+_Orohippus_), which is common to the Middle and Upper Eocene of Europe
+and the Bridger Eocene of North America, the outer columns of the upper
+molars are flattened, and in some cases, at least, the last premolar
+resembles the molars, that of the upper jaw having two inner cusps.[257]
+This genus, indeed, so closely connects _Hyracotherium_ with the genera
+_Epihippus_ and _Anchilophus_ as to show that the distinction between
+the _Lophiodontidæ_ and _Palæotheriidæ_ is really an arbitrary one.
+_Epihippus_, of the Upper Eocene of the United States, has both the third
+and fourth upper premolars as complex in the molars, and is distinguished
+from _Anchilophus_ by the lower cusps and more imperfect transverse
+ridges of these teeth. The so-called _Orohippus agilis_ belongs to this
+genus. _Isectolophus_ is another American Eocene genus which may be
+provisionally placed in this family; it is regarded by Professors Scott
+and Osborn as connecting _Systemodon_ with the _Tapiridæ_; the fourth
+and probably the third upper premolar approximating in structure to the
+molars; the upper molars have conical outer columns. _Helaletes_ is
+another closely allied form, with similar premolars, but with the outer
+columns of the upper molars flattened.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 154.—Restoration of _Palæotherium_ (Upper Eocene).
+After Cuvier.]
+
+
+_Family_ PALÆOTHERIIDÆ.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 155.—A half-worn right upper molar of _Palæotherium
+magnum_. (After Owen.) _f_, _f_, External surfaces of outer columns;
+_a_, postero-external column (metacone); _b_, antero-external column
+(paracone); _c_, postero-internal column (hypocone); _d_, antero-internal
+column (protocone); _i_, anterior intermediate column (protoconule); _e_,
+median valley; _g_, posterior valley.]
+
+Molars (Fig. 155) brachydont, with the valleys between the ridges never
+filled with cement; upper premolars either simpler than or as complex
+as the molars; lower molars with crescentoid ridges, and the last of
+the series with or without a third lobe. Outer columns of upper molars
+flattened. Orbit (at least usually) confluent with temporal fossa. Three
+digits on each foot. This family includes extinct genera ranging from
+the Middle and Upper Eocene to the Miocene, and passes so gradually into
+the following one that the maintenance of the two can only be supported
+on the ground of convenience. The typical genus, _Palæotherium_, was
+made known to science in the early part of the present century by
+Cuvier, who restored the skeleton (Fig. 154) with a short neck like that
+of the Tapirs, although it has been subsequently found that the neck
+was considerably longer. This genus (which may be taken to include
+_Paloplotherium_) ranges from the Middle to the Upper Eocene of Europe,
+and usually has the full typical dentition, although the first premolar
+may disappear. The last lower molar has a third lobe; and in the typical
+forms the last premolar is as complex as the molars, the diastema is
+short, and the canines are not large. In other forms, however, the
+hinder ridge of the fourth upper premolar may be aborted. The first
+upper cheek-tooth is generally a well-developed tooth, which may have
+a deciduous predecessor. _Anchilophus_, of the Upper Eocene of Europe,
+and _Anchitherium_, of the Miocene of Europe and North America, connect
+the preceding forms with the _Equidæ_. In the latter genus there is the
+full number of teeth, the last lower molar has almost completely lost
+the third lobe of _Anchilophus_, and the surfaces of the two outer lobes
+of the upper molars (Figs. 157, 158) lack the median vertical ridges of
+that genus. In the American species of _Anchitherium_ (which have been
+described as _Mesohippus_ and _Miohippus_) the lateral digits are larger
+than in the European Middle Miocene _Anchitherium aurelianense_; a mere
+splint represents the fifth metacarpal, and the meso- and ento-cuneiform
+of the tarsus do not unite as they do in the latter.
+
+
+_Family_ EQUIDÆ.
+
+Molars hypsodont, with the outer columns of the upper ones flattened, the
+valleys completely filled with cement, and the enamel thrown into folds
+and plications; upper premolars as complex as molars, which they slightly
+exceed in size; ridges of lower molars crescentoid, and complicated by
+enamel-foldings; no distinct third lobe to last lower molar; summits of
+incisors with a central infolding of enamel. Orbit completely surrounded
+by bone. Digits three or one, but in the former case the median one is
+alone of functional importance; ulna and fibula incomplete; meso- and
+ento-cuneiform of tarsus united.
+
+Such are the leading characters which serve to distinguish the existing
+Horses and their nearest fossil allies from the _Palæotheriidæ_. The
+Horse, as being the best known of the Perissodactyle Ungulates, is
+selected for a somewhat detailed description; but before proceeding
+to this it will be advisable to take a brief survey of the relations
+of the _Equidæ_ to the extinct forms already noticed, and also of the
+modifications of the family at present existing.
+
+The earliest form which can be certainly included in this line of descent
+is the American Lower Eocene genus _Phenacodus_ (noticed below under the
+head of the suborder Condylarthra), in which there were five complete
+digits to the feet. From this form there is but a step to _Systemodon_
+and _Hyracotherium_, in which the functional digits of the manus were
+reduced to four, as in _Pachynolophus_ (Fig. 156, _a_), although one
+species retained a rudiment of the metacarpal of the pollex.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 156.—Successive stages of modification of the feet
+of extinct forms of Horse-like animals (chiefly from Marsh), showing
+gradual reduction of the outer and enlargement of the middle toe (III).
+_a_, _Pachynolophus_ (Eocene); _b_, _Anchitherium_ (Early Miocene); _c_,
+_Anchitherium_ (Late Miocene); _d_, _Hipparion_ (Pliocene); _e_, _Equus_
+(Pleistocene).]
+
+The transition from these animals of the Eocene period to the Horses of
+modern times has been accompanied by a gradual increase in size. The
+diminutive _Hyracotherium_ of the Lower, and _Pachynolophus_ of the
+Middle and Upper Eocene were succeeded in the Miocene period by the
+forms to which the name of _Anchitherium_ has been given, of the size of
+sheep; these again in Pliocene times by _Hipparion_ and _Protohippus_, as
+large as the modern donkeys; and it is mainly in the Pleistocene period
+that _Equidæ_ occur which approach in size the existing Horse. Important
+structural modifications have also taken place, with corresponding
+changes in the mode of life of the animal. Thus the neck has become
+elongated, the skull altered in form, the teeth greatly modified, and
+the limbs have undergone remarkable changes. The last two require to be
+described more in detail.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 157.—_a_, Grinding surface of unworn molar tooth
+of _Anchitherium_; _b_, corresponding surface of unworn molar of young
+Horse; _c_, the same tooth after it has been some time in use. The
+uncoloured portions are the dentine or ivory, the shaded parts the
+cement filling the cavities and surrounding the exterior. The black line
+separating these two structures is the enamel or hardest constituent of
+the tooth.]
+
+The teeth in the Eocene forms had, as mentioned above, the characteristic
+number of forty-four. This number has been retained throughout the
+series, at least theoretically; but one tooth on either side of each jaw,
+the anterior premolar, which in all the Eocene and Miocene species was
+well developed, persisting through the lifetime of the animal, is in all
+modern Horses rudimentary, functionless, and generally lost at an early
+period of life, evidently passing through a stage which must soon lead
+to its complete disappearance. The canines have also greatly diminished
+in size, and are rarely present in the female sex, so that practically
+a very large number of adult Horses of the present day have eight teeth
+less than the number possessed by their predecessors. The diastema or
+interval between the incisor and premolar teeth (of essential importance
+in the domesticated Horse to his master, as without it there would be no
+room for inserting the special instrument of subjugation to his commands,
+the bit) already existed in the earliest known forms, but has gradually
+increased in length. The incisors have undergone in comparatively recent
+times that curious change producing the structure more fully described
+hereafter, which distinguishes the Horse’s incisors from those of all
+other known animals, with the exception of the extinct _Macrauchenia_.
+Lastly, the molars have undergone a remarkable series of modifications,
+much resembling in principle those that have taken place in several other
+groups of herbivorous animals. Distinctions in form which existed between
+the premolars, at least in the anterior part of the series, and the true
+molars have gradually disappeared, the teeth becoming all very uniform
+in the shape and structure of their grinding surface. The crowns of all
+these teeth in the early forms were very short (see Fig. 158, _a_); there
+was a distinct constriction, or neck, between the crown and roots; and
+when the tooth was developing, as soon as the neck once rose fairly above
+the alveolar margin, the tooth remained permanently in this position.
+The term “brachydont” expresses this condition of teeth, the mode of
+growth of which may be illustrated by those of man. The free surface had
+two nearly transverse curved ridges, with valleys between (Fig. 157,
+_a_); but the valleys were shallow and had no deposit of cement filling
+them, the whole exposed surface of the unworn tooth being formed of
+enamel. When the ridges became worn down the dentine of the interior was
+exposed, forming islands surrounded by enamel. With the progress of time
+the crowns of the teeth gradually became longer, the valleys deeper,
+and the ridges not only more elevated but more curved and complex in
+arrangement. To give support to these high ridges and save them from
+breaking in use, the valleys or cavities between them became filled up to
+the top with cement, and as the crown wore down an admirable grinding
+surface consisting of patches and islands of the two softer substances,
+dentine and cement, separated by variously reduplicated and contorted
+lines of intensely hard enamel, resulted (Fig. 157, _c_). The crown
+continued lengthening until in the modern Horses it has assumed the form
+called “hypsodont” (Fig. 158, _b_). Instead of contracting into a neck,
+and forming roots, its sides continue parallel for a considerable depth
+in the socket, and as the surface wears away, the whole tooth slowly
+pushes up, and maintains the grinding edge constantly at the same level
+above the alveolus, much as in the perpetually growing Rodent’s teeth.
+But in existing Horses there is still a limit to the growth of the
+molar. After a length is attained which in normal conditions supplies
+sufficient grinding surface for the lifetime of the animal, a neck and
+roots are formed, and the tooth is reduced to the condition of that of
+the brachydont ancestor. It is perfectly clear that this lengthening
+of the crown adds greatly to the power of the teeth as organs of
+mastication, and enables the animals in which it has taken place to find
+their sustenance among the comparatively dry and harsh herbage of the
+open plains, instead of being limited to the more succulent vegetable
+productions of the marshes and forests in which their predecessors
+probably dwelt.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 158.—_a_, Outer view of second upper molar teeth
+of _Anchitherium_ (brachydont form); _b_, corresponding tooth of Horse
+(hypsodont form).]
+
+The modifications of the limbs which took place _pari passu_ with those
+of the teeth must have been associated with increased speed, especially
+over firm and unyielding ground. Short, stout legs, and broad feet, with
+numerous toes, spreading apart from each other when the weight of the
+creature is borne on them, are sufficiently well adapted for plodding
+deliberately over marshy and yielding surfaces, and the Tapirs and the
+Rhinoceroses, which in the structure of the limbs have altered but little
+from the primitive Eocene forms, still haunt the borders of streams and
+lakes and the shady depths of the forests, as was probably the habit
+of their ancient representatives, while the Horses are all inhabitants
+of the open plains, for life in which their whole organisation is in
+the most eminent degree adapted. The length and mobility of the neck,
+position of the eye and ear, and great development of the organ of smell,
+give them ample means of becoming aware of the approach of enemies,
+while the length of their limbs, the angles the different segments form
+with each other, and especially the combination of firmness, stability,
+and lightness in the reduction of all the toes to a single one, upon
+which the whole weight of the body and all the muscular power are
+concentrated, give them speed and endurance surpassing that of almost any
+other animal. When surprised, however, they are by no means helpless,
+both fore and hind feet becoming at need powerful weapons of defence.
+
+If we were not so habituated to the sight of the Horse as hardly ever
+to consider its structure, we should greatly marvel at being told of a
+mammal so strangely constructed that it had but a single toe on each
+extremity, on the end of the nail of which it walked or galloped. Such
+a conformation is without a parallel in the vertebrate series, and is
+one of the most remarkable instances of specialisation, or deviation
+from the usual type, in accordance with particular conditions of life.
+It is clear, both from the structure of the foot itself, and also by an
+examination of the intermediate forms, that this toe corresponds to the
+middle or third digit of the complete typical or pentadactyle foot; and
+there is very strong evidence to show that by a gradual concentration of
+all the power of the limb upon this toe, and the concurrent dwindling
+away and final disappearance of all the others, the present condition of
+the Horse’s foot has been produced.
+
+_Protohippus._[258]—In this Lower Pliocene North American genus (also
+described as _Merychippus_) the cheek-teeth resemble those of the
+generalised species of _Equus_, but have shorter crowns; while the
+milk-molars approximate to the permanent molars of _Anchitherium_. Each
+foot has three digits.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 159.—Three right upper cheek-teeth of _Hipparion_.
+_a_, Antero-external column; _b_, postero-external column; _c_,
+postero-internal column, or posterior pillar; _d_, antero-internal
+column, or anterior pillar; _f_, posterior intermediate column; _i_,
+anterior intermediate column. (From the _Palæontologia Indica_.)]
+
+_Hipparion._[259]—Upper cheek-teeth (Fig. 159), with the antero-internal
+column, or anterior pillar as it may be conveniently termed in this
+family, detached throughout the greater part of its height from the
+adjacent column. Either a single or three digits in each foot. First
+upper premolar large and persistent. This genus was very widely
+distributed in the Pliocene, occurring in Europe, Asia, and North
+America. In the typical European forms, and also in those of North
+America, there were three digits in the feet (Fig. 156, _d_); but in
+the Indian _H. antilopinum_ (separated by Cope as _Hippodactylus_) the
+lateral digits seem to have disappeared. There is some doubt whether or
+no _Hipparion_ should occupy a place in the direct ancestry of the Horse,
+and Professor Cope suggests that while in America the intermediate place
+between _Anchitherium_ and _Equus_ was held by _Protohippus_, in Europe
+the same position was occupied by _Hipparion_—a view which involves the
+dual origin of the Horses of the New and Old Worlds.
+
+_Equus._[260]—Upper cheek-teeth with the anterior pillar (except in
+a very early stage of wear) joined by a narrow neck to the adjacent
+column (Fig. 157, _c_). Each foot with a single complete digit, but with
+remnants of the proximal portions of the second and fourth metapodials
+(Fig. 156, _e_); some extinct forms having claw-like rudiments of the
+terminal phalangeals of the lateral digits. First upper premolar very
+small or altogether absent in existing species, but in some fossil
+species larger and persistent; first lower premolar only occasionally
+developed in some fossil forms. Ears long. Tail long, with long hairs
+either at the end or throughout. A callosity on the inner side of the
+fore limb above the carpus.
+
+_Fossil Species._—In the Pleistocene Horses of South America described
+as _Hippidium_, as well as in the closely allied ones from North America
+for which the name _Pliohippus_ has been proposed, the upper molars
+are shorter and more curved than in the existing species, while their
+anterior pillar is not longer antero-posteriorly than in _Hipparion_;
+the lateral claw-like hoofs persisting. Some of the European Pliocene
+species (like _E. stenonis_) agree with these species in the form of
+the grinding surface of the anterior pillar of the upper molars. In one
+of the species from the Lower Pliocene of India (_E. sivalensis_)—which
+was a contemporary of _Hipparion_—and in all the existing species, the
+grinding surface of the pillar in question is greatly elongated in the
+antero-posterior direction, as in Fig. 157, _c_.
+
+Fossil remains of Horses are found abundantly in deposits of the most
+recent geological age in almost every part in America, from Eschscholtz
+Bay in the north to Patagonia in the south. In that continent, however,
+they became quite extinct, and no Horses, either wild or domesticated,
+existed there at the time of the Spanish conquest, which is the more
+remarkable as, when introduced from Europe, the Horses that ran wild
+proved by their rapid multiplication in the plains of South America
+and Texas that the climate, food, and other circumstances were highly
+favourable for their existence. The former great abundance of _Equidæ_
+in America, their complete extinction, and their perfect acclimatisation
+when reintroduced by man, form curious but as yet unsolved problems in
+geographical distribution.
+
+_Existing Species._—The existing species of the genus are the following:—
+
+The Horse, _Equus caballus_, is distinguished from the others by the long
+hairs of the tail being more abundant and growing quite from the base as
+well as the end and sides, and also by possessing a small bare callosity
+on the inner side of the hind leg, just below the “hock” or heel joint,
+in addition to the one on the inner side of the fore limb above the
+carpus, common to all the genus. The mane is also longer and more
+flowing, and the ears are shorter, the limbs longer, the hoofs broader,
+and the head smaller.
+
+Though the existing Horses are not usually marked in any definite manner,
+or only irregularly dappled, or spotted with light surrounded by a darker
+ring, many examples are met with showing a dark median dorsal streak
+like that found in all the other members of the genus, and even with
+dark stripes on the shoulders and legs indicating “the probability of
+the descent of all the existing races from a single dun-coloured, more
+or less striped, primitive stock, to which our horses still occasionally
+revert.”[261]
+
+In Europe wild Horses were extremely abundant in the Neolithic or
+polished-stone period. Judging from the quantity of their remains
+found associated with those of the men of that time, the chase of
+these animals must have been among man’s chief occupations, and they
+must have furnished him with one of his most important food supplies.
+The characters of the bones preserved, and certain rude but graphic
+representations carved on bones or reindeers’ antlers, enable us to know
+that these Horses were rather small in size, and heavy in build, with
+large heads and rough shaggy manes and tails, much like, in fact, the
+present wild horses of the steppes of the south of Russia. They were
+domesticated by the inhabitants of Europe before the dawn of history, but
+it is doubtful whether the majority of the animals now existing on the
+Continent are derived directly from them, as it is more probable that
+they are descendants from Horses imported through Greece and Italy from
+Asia, derived from a still earlier domestication, followed by gradual
+improvement through long-continued attention bestowed on their breeding
+and training. Horses are now diffused by the agency of man throughout
+almost the whole of the inhabited parts of the globe, and the great
+modifications they have undergone in consequence of domestication and
+selective breeding are well exemplified by comparing such extreme forms
+as the Shetland pony, dwarfed by uncongenial climate, the thoroughbred
+racer, and the London dray-horse. In Australia, as in America, horses
+imported by the European settlers have escaped into the unreclaimed
+lands, and multiplied to a prodigious extent, roaming in vast herds over
+the plains where no hoofed animal ever trod before.
+
+A wild Horse from Central Asia, named _E. prezevalskii_,[262] is
+described as having callosities on both limbs and broad hoofs like _E.
+caballus_; but the long hairs of the tail do not begin until about half
+way down its length. It also differs from _E. caballus_ in having a short
+erect mane and no forelock; neither is there any dorsal stripe. The
+ears are of moderate size; the whole body is of a whitish-gray, paler
+beneath, and reddish on the head and upper parts of the limbs. If rightly
+described this form would appear to be intermediate between the true
+Horses and the Asses.
+
+The second species is the domestic Ass (_E. asinus_), and the wild Asses
+of Africa (_E. asinus_, var. _africanus_ and var. _somalicus_[263]). The
+domestic Ass, which is now nearly as widely diffused and useful to man as
+the Horse, was known in Egypt long before the latter, and is doubtless
+of African origin. The ears are long, the mane erect, the tail without
+long hairs at the base, and there are no callosities on the hind limbs.
+There is a dark dorsal stripe, and another across the shoulders; while
+the limbs are frequently banded. Of the wild forms the Nubian race (var.
+_africanus_) has distinct dorsal and shoulder stripes, but the rings on
+the limbs are often very indistinct; while in the Somali race the dorsal
+stripe is indistinct, and the shoulder stripe wanting, but the rings on
+the limbs are very boldly marked. Teeth and bones from a Pleistocene
+cavern deposit in Madras have been referred to _E. asinus_.
+
+The Asiatic wild Asses, which roam in small herds in the open plains
+of Syria, of many parts of Persia, of the north-west of India, and
+the highlands of Tartary and Tibet, from the shores of the Caspian
+to the frontiers of China, differ from the last in being of a more
+rufous or isabelline colour, instead of pure gray, in wanting the dark
+streak across the shoulder, and having smaller ears. They have all a
+dark-coloured median dorsal stripe. Though it is considered probable by
+many zoologists that they form but a single species[264] (_E. hemionus_),
+they present such marked variations in size and form that they have
+commonly been divided into three—the Syrian Wild Ass (_E. hemippus_), the
+Onager (_E. onager_) from Persia, Baluchistan, the Punjab, Sind, and the
+desert of Kach, and the Kiang or Dzeggetai (_E. hemionus_) of the high
+table-lands of Tibet, where it is usually met with at an elevation of
+15,000 feet and upwards above the sea-level. The last is considerably
+larger than either of the others, and differs from them in external
+appearance, having more the aspect of the horse. They are all remarkably
+swift, having been known to outstrip the fleetest Horse in speed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 160.—The Quagga (_Equus quagga_).]
+
+Lastly, there are four striped species, all inhabitants of Africa. These
+constitute the genus _Hippotigris_ of Hamilton-Smith, but they are
+not separable except by their coloration from the true Asses, and one
+of them, the Quagga (_E. quagga_), may be considered as intermediate.
+This animal was formerly met with in vast herds on the great plains of
+South Africa, between the Cape Colony and the Vaal River, but now, in
+common with most of the larger wild animals of that region, is becoming
+extremely scarce, owing to the encroachments of European civilisation,
+if, indeed, it is not already extinct. In length of ears and character of
+tail it more resembles the Horse than it does the Ass, although it agrees
+with the latter in wanting the callosity on the inner side of the hind
+leg, just below the hock, characteristic of the Horse. The colour of the
+head, neck, and upper parts of the body is reddish-brown, irregularly
+banded and marked with dark brown stripes, stronger on the head and neck
+and gradually becoming fainter until lost behind the shoulder. There
+is a broad dark median dorsal stripe. The under surface of the body,
+the legs, and tail are nearly white, without stripes. The crest is very
+high, surmounted by a standing mane, banded alternately brown and white.
+Though never really domesticated, Quaggas have occasionally been trained
+to harness. The accompanying figure is reduced from a painting made from
+one of a pair which were driven in Hyde Park in the early part of the
+present century. The name is an imitation of the shrill barking neigh of
+the animal—“ouag-ga, ouag-ga,” the last syllable very much prolonged. It
+must be remembered, however, in reading books of African travel that the
+same word is very commonly applied by hunters to Burchell’s Zebra.
+
+Of the Zebras proper, the one which was first known to Europeans, and
+was formerly considered the most common, is the True Zebra (_E. zebra_),
+sometimes called the Mountain Zebra. It inhabits the mountainous regions
+of the Cape Colony; but now, owing to the advances of civilised man into
+its somewhat restricted range, it has become very scarce, and is even,
+like the Quagga, threatened with extermination at no distant date. The
+second species, Burchell’s Zebra (_E. burchelli_), still roams in large
+herds over the plains to the north of the Orange River, but in yearly
+diminishing numbers. Both species are subject to considerable individual
+variations in marking, but the following are the principal characters by
+which they can be distinguished.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 161.—True or Mountain Zebra (_Equus zebra_).]
+
+_E. zebra_ (Fig. 161) is the smaller of the two (about 4 feet high at
+the shoulders), and has longer ears, a tail more scantily clothed with
+hair, and a shorter mane. The general ground colour is white, and the
+stripes are black; the lower part of the face is bright brown. With the
+exception of the abdomen and the inside of the thighs, the whole of the
+surface is covered with stripes, the legs having narrow transverse
+bars reaching quite to the hoofs, and the base of the tail being also
+barred. The outsides of the ears have a white tip and a broad black mark
+occupying the greater part of the surface, but are white at the base.
+Perhaps the most constant and obvious distinction between this species
+and the next is the arrangement of the stripes on the hinder part of the
+back, where there are a number of short transverse bands passing from the
+median longitudinal dorsal stripe towards, and sometimes joining with,
+the uppermost of the broad stripes which run obliquely across the haunch
+from the flanks towards the root of the tail. There is often a median
+longitudinal stripe under the chest.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 162.—Burchell’s Zebra (_Equus burchelli_).]
+
+_E. burchelli_ (Fig. 162) is a rather larger and more robust animal, with
+smaller ears, a longer mane, and fuller tail. The general ground colour
+of the body is pale yellowish-brown, the limbs nearly white, the stripes
+dark brown or black. In the typical form they do not extend on to the
+limbs or the tail; but there is a great variation in this respect, even
+in animals of the same herd, some being striped quite down to the hoofs
+(this form has been named _E. chapmani_). There is a strongly marked
+median longitudinal ventral black stripe, to which the lower ends of the
+transverse side stripes are usually united, but the dorsal stripe (also
+strongly marked) is completely isolated in its posterior half, and the
+uppermost of the broad haunch stripes runs nearly parallel to it. A much
+larger proportion of the ears is white than in the other species. In
+the middle of the wide intervals between the broad black stripes of the
+flanks and haunches fainter stripes are generally seen.
+
+_E. grevyi._—Under this name a Zebra has been described which was sent in
+1882 to Paris from the Galla country, lying to the south of Abyssinia,
+the most northern locality in which Zebras have previously been met
+with. In many of its characters it resembles _E. zebra_, but the stripes
+are much finer and more numerous than in the typical examples of that
+species, and it has a strong, black, and isolated dorsal stripe. Even
+allowing for the great variations that are met with in the markings of
+animals of this group, the aberrant characters of this individual are
+quite sufficient to separate it specifically from the true Zebra of South
+Africa. Other similar specimens have been recently brought from the
+Somali country.
+
+The flesh of the Zebras is relished by the natives as food, and their
+hides are very valuable for leather. Although the many attempts that
+have been made to break in and train these animals for riding or driving
+have sometimes been rewarded with partial success, they have never been
+domesticated in the true sense of the word.
+
+There are thus at least seven modifications of the Horse type at
+present existing, sufficiently distinct to be reckoned as species by
+all zoologists, and easily recognised by their external characters.
+They are, however, all so closely allied that each will, at least in a
+state of domestication or captivity, breed with perfect freedom with
+any of the others. Cases of cross breeds are recorded between the Horse
+and the Quagga, the Horse and Burchell’s Zebra, the Horse and the
+Hemionus or Asiatic wild Ass, the common Ass and the Zebra, the common
+Ass and Burchell’s Zebra, the common Ass and the Hemionus, the Hemionus
+and the Zebra, and the Hemionus and Burchell’s Zebra. The two species
+which are perhaps the farthest removed in general structure, the Horse
+and the Ass, produce, as is well known, hybrids or Mules, which in
+some qualities useful to man excel both their progenitors, and in some
+countries, and for certain kinds of work, are in greater requisition
+than either. Although occasional instances have been recorded of female
+Mules breeding with the males of one or other of the pure species, it is
+doubtful if any case has occurred of their breeding _inter se_, although
+the opportunities of doing so must have been great, as Mules have been
+reared in immense numbers for at least several thousands of years. We may
+therefore consider it settled that the different species of the group are
+now in that degree of physiological differentiation which enables them
+to produce offspring with each other, but does not permit of the progeny
+continuing the race, at all events unless reinforced by the aid of one of
+the pure forms.
+
+The several members of the group show mental differences quite as
+striking as those exhibited by their external form, and more than
+perhaps might be expected from the similarity of their cerebral
+organisation. The patience of the Ass, the high spirit of the Horse, the
+obstinacy of the Mule, have long been proverbial. It is very remarkable
+that, out of so many species, two only should have shown any aptitude for
+domestication, and that these two should have been from time immemorial
+the universal and most useful companions and servants of man, while all
+the others remain in their native freedom to this day. It is, however,
+still a question whether this really arises from a different mental
+constitution causing a natural capacity for entering into relations
+with man, or whether it may not be owing to their having been brought
+gradually into this condition by long-continued and persevering efforts
+when the need of their services was keenly felt. It is quite possible
+that one reason why most of the attempts to add new species to the list
+of our domestic animals in modern times have ended in failure is that it
+does not answer to do so in cases in which existing species supply all
+the principal purposes to which the new ones might be put. It can hardly
+be expected that Zebras and Quaggas fresh from their native mountains
+and plains can be brought into competition as beasts of burden and
+draught with Horses and Asses, whose naturally useful qualities have been
+augmented by the training of thousands of generations of progenitors.
+
+Not unfrequently instances occur of domestic Horses being produced with
+a small additional toe with complete hoof, usually on the inside of the
+principal toe, and, though far more rarely, three or more toes may be
+present. These malformations are often cited as instances of reversion to
+the condition of some of the earlier forms of equine animals previously
+mentioned. Such explanations, however plausible they appear at first
+sight, are nevertheless very doubtful. All the feet of polydactyle horses
+which we have examined bear little resemblance to those of _Hipparion_
+or _Anchitherium_, but look rather as if due to that tendency to
+reduplication of parts which occurs so frequently as a teratological
+condition, especially among domestic animals, and, whatever its origin,
+certainly cannot in many instances, as the cases of entire limbs
+superadded, or of six digits in man, be attributed to reversion.
+
+_Anatomy._—The anatomical structure of the Horse has been described in
+great detail in several works devoted to the subject, which will be
+mentioned in the bibliography, though these have generally been written
+from the point of view of the veterinarian rather than of the comparative
+anatomist. The limits of the present work will only admit of the most
+salient points being indicated, particularly those in which the Horse
+differs from the other Ungulata. Unless otherwise specified, it must be
+understood that all that is stated here, although mostly derived from
+observation upon the Horse, applies equally well to the other existing
+members of the group.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 163.—Side view of skull of Horse, with the bone
+removed so as to expose the whole of the teeth. _PMx_, Premaxilla;
+_Mx_, maxilla; _Na_, nasal; _Ma_, malar or jugal; _L_, lachrymal; _Fr_,
+frontal; _Sq_, squamosal; _Pa_, parietal; _oc_, occipital condyle; _pp_,
+paroccipital process; _i¹_, _i²_, and _i³_³, the three incisors; _c_, the
+canine; _pm¹_, the situation of the rudimentary first premolar, which has
+been lost in the lower, but is present in the upper jaw; _pm²_, _pm³_,
+and _pm⁴_, the three fully developed premolars; _m¹_, _m²_, and _m³_, the
+three true molars.]
+
+_Skeleton._—The skull (Fig. 163) as a whole is greatly elongated, chiefly
+in consequence of the immense size of the face as compared with the
+hinder or true cranial portion. The basal line of the cranium from the
+lower border of the foramen magnum to the incisor border of the palate is
+very nearly straight. The orbit, of nearly circular form, though small in
+proportion to the size of the whole skull, is distinctly marked, being
+completely surrounded by a strong ring of bone with prominent edges.
+Behind it, and freely communicating with it beneath the osseous bridge
+(the postorbital process of the frontal) forming the boundary between
+them, is the small temporal fossa occupying the whole of the side of
+the cranium proper, and in front is the great flattened expanse of the
+“cheek,” formed chiefly by the maxilla, giving support to the long row of
+cheek-teeth, and having a prominent ridge running forward from below the
+orbit for the attachment of the masseter muscle. The lachrymal occupies
+a considerable space on the flat surface of the cheek in front of the
+orbit, and below it the jugal or malar does the same. The latter sends
+a horizontal or slightly ascending process backwards below the orbit to
+join the under surface of the zygomatic process of the squamosal, which
+is remarkably large, and, instead of ending as usual behind the orbit,
+runs forwards to join the greatly developed postorbital process of the
+frontal, and even forms part of the posterior and inferior boundary of
+the orbit, an arrangement not met with in other mammals. The closure
+of the orbit behind distinguishes the skull of the Horse from that of
+the Rhinoceros and Tapir, and also from all of the Perissodactyles of
+the Eocene period. In front of the cerebral cavity, the great tubular
+nasal cavities are provided with well-developed turbinal bones, and are
+roofed over by very large nasals, broad behind, and ending in front in
+a narrow decurved point. The opening of the anterior nares is prolonged
+backwards on each side of the face between the nasals and the elongated
+slender premaxillæ. The latter expand in front, and are curved downwards
+to form the semicircular alveolar border supporting the large incisor
+teeth. The palate is narrow in the interval between the incisor and
+cheek-teeth, in which are situated the large anterior palatine foramina.
+Between the cheek-teeth it is broader, and it ends posteriorly in a
+rounded excavated border opposite the hinder edge of the penultimate
+molar. It is mainly formed by the maxillæ, as the palatines are very
+narrow. The pterygoids are delicate slender slips of bone attached to
+the hinder border of the palatines, and supported externally by, and
+generally ankylosed to, the rough pterygoid plates of the alisphenoid,
+with no pterygoid fossa between. They slope very obliquely forwards,
+and end in curved, compressed, hamular processes. There is a distinct
+alisphenoid canal for the passage of the internal maxillary or main
+branch of the external carotid artery. The base of the cranium is long
+and narrow; the alisphenoid is very obliquely perforated by the foramen
+rotundum, but the foramen ovale is confluent with the large foramen
+lacerum medium behind. The glenoid surface for the articulation of the
+mandible is greatly extended transversely, concave from side to side,
+convex from before backwards in front, and hollow behind, and is bounded
+posteriorly at its inner part by a prominent post-glenoid process. The
+squamosal enters considerably into the formation of the temporal fossa,
+and, besides sending the zygomatic process forwards, it sends down
+behind the meatus auditorius a post-tympanic process which aids to hold
+in place the otherwise loose tympano-periotic bone. Behind this the
+exoccipital gives off a very long paroccipital process. The periotic
+and tympanic are ankylosed together, but not with the squamosal. The
+former has a wide but shallow floccular fossa on its inner side, and
+sends backwards a considerable “pars mastoidea,” which appears on the
+outer surface of the skull between the post-tympanic process of the
+squamosal and the exoccipital. The tympanic forms a tubular meatus
+auditorius externus directed outwards and slightly backwards. It is not
+dilated into a distinct bulla, but ends in front in a pointed styliform
+process; and completely embraces the truncated cylindrical tympanohyal,
+which is of great size, in correspondence with the large development of
+the whole anterior arch of the hyoid. This consists mainly of a long
+and compressed stylohyal, expanded at the upper end, where it sends
+off a triangular posterior process. The basihyal is remarkable for the
+long, median, pointed, compressed “glossohyal” process, which it sends
+forward from its anterior border into the base of the tongue. A similar
+but less developed process is found in the Rhinoceros. The mandible is
+largely developed, especially the region of the angle, which is expanded
+and flattened, giving great surface for the attachment of the masseter
+muscle. The condyle is greatly elevated above the alveolar border; its
+articular surface is very wide transversely, and narrow and convex
+from before backwards. The coronoid process is slender, straight, and
+inclined backwards. The horizontal ramus, long, straight, and compressed,
+gradually narrows towards the symphysis, where it expands laterally to
+form with the ankylosed opposite ramus the wide, semicircular, shallow
+alveolar border for the incisor teeth.
+
+The vertebral column consists of seven cervical, eighteen dorsal, six
+lumbar, five sacral, and fifteen to eighteen caudal vertebræ. There
+may be nineteen rib-bearing vertebræ, in which case five only will be
+reckoned as belonging to the lumbar series. The odontoid process of the
+atlas is wide, flat, and hollowed above, as in the Ruminants. The bodies
+of the cervical vertebræ are elongated, strongly keeled, and markedly
+opisthocœlous, or concave behind and convex in front. Their neural laminæ
+are very broad, the spines almost obsolete, except in the seventh, and
+the transverse processes not largely developed. In the trunk vertebræ the
+opisthocœlous character of the centrum gradually diminishes. The spinous
+processes of the anterior thoracic region are high and compressed. To
+these is attached the powerful elastic ligament, _ligamentum nuchæ_, or
+“paxwax,” which passing forwards in the middle line of the neck above the
+neural arches of the cervical vertebræ, to which it is also connected,
+is attached to the occiput and supports the weight of the head. The
+transverse processes of the lumbar vertebræ are long, flattened, and
+project horizontally outwards or slightly forwards from the arch. The
+metapophyses are moderately developed, and there are no anapophyses.
+The caudal vertebræ, except those quite at the base, are slender and
+cylindrical, without processes and without chevron-bones beneath. The
+ribs are eighteen or nineteen in number on each side, flattened, and
+united to the sternum by short, stout, tolerably well ossified sternal
+ribs. The sternum consists of six pieces; the anterior or presternum
+being extremely compressed, and projecting forwards like the prow of a
+boat. The segments which follow gradually widen, and the hinder part of
+the sternum is broad and flat.
+
+As in all other Ungulates, there are no clavicles. The scapula is
+long and slender; the suprascapular border is rounded, and slowly and
+imperfectly ossified. The spine is very slightly developed; rather above
+the middle its edge is thickened and somewhat turned backwards, but it
+gradually subsides at the lower extremity without forming any acromial
+process. The coracoid process is a prominent rounded nodule. The humerus
+is stout and rather short, and has a double bicipital groove. The ulna
+is quite rudimentary, being only represented by little more than the
+olecranon. The shaft gradually tapers below, and is firmly ankylosed to
+the radius. The latter bone is of nearly equal width throughout. The
+three bones of the first row of the carpus (the scaphoid, lunar, and
+cuneiform) are subequal in size. The second row consists of a very broad
+and flat magnum, supporting the great third metacarpal, having to its
+radial side the trapezoid, and to its ulnar side the unciform, which
+are both small, and articulate distally with the rudimentary second and
+fourth metacarpals. The pisiform is large and prominent, flattened,
+and curved; articulating partly with the cuneiform and partly with the
+lower end of the radius. The large metacarpal is called in veterinary
+anatomy “cannon-bone”; the small lateral metacarpals, which gradually
+taper towards their lower extremities, and lie in close contact with
+the large one, are called “splint-bones.” The single digit consists of
+a moderate-sized proximal (_os suffraginis_, or large pastern), a very
+short middle (_os coronæ_, or small pastern), and a wide, semilunar,
+ungual phalanx (_os pedis_, or coffin-bone). There is a pair of large
+nodular sesamoids behind the metacarpo-phalangeal articulation, and a
+single large transversely extended sesamoid behind the joint between the
+second and third phalanx, called the “navicular bone.”[265]
+
+The carpal joint, corresponding to the wrist of man, is commonly called
+the “knee” of the Horse, the joint between the metacarpal and the first
+phalanx the “fetlock,” that between the first and second phalanges
+the “pastern,” and that between the second and third phalanges the
+“coffin-joint.”
+
+In the hind limb the femur is marked, as in other Perissodactyles, by the
+presence of a “third trochanter,” a flattened process, curving forwards,
+arising from the outer side of the bone, about one-third of the distance
+from the upper end. The fibula is reduced to a mere styliform rudiment
+of the upper end; its lower part being absent or completely fused with
+the tibia. The calcaneum has a long and compressed calcaneal process. The
+astragalus has a large flat articular surface in front for the navicular,
+and a very small one for the cuboid. The navicular and the external
+cuneiform bones are very broad and flat. The cuboid is small, and the
+internal and middle cuneiform bones are small and united together. The
+metapodials and phalanges resemble very closely those of the fore limb,
+but the principal metatarsal is more laterally compressed at its upper
+end than is the corresponding metacarpal. The joint between the femur and
+tibia, corresponding to the knee of man, is called the “stifle joint”;
+while that between the tibia and tarsus, corresponding to the ankle of
+man, is termed the “hock.” The bones and joints of the foot have the
+same names as in the fore limb. The Horse is eminently “digitigrade,”
+standing on the extremity of the single digit of each foot, which is kept
+habitually in a position approaching to vertical.
+
+The muscles[266] of the limbs are modified from those of the ordinary
+mammalian type in accordance with the reduced condition of the bones
+and the simple requirements of flexion and extension of the joints, no
+such actions as pronation and supination, or opposition of digits, being
+possible or needed. The muscles, therefore, which perform these functions
+in other mammals are absent or rudimentary.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 164.—Section of foot of Horse. 1, Metacarpal bone;
+2, first phalanx (_os suffraginis_); 3, second phalanx (_os coronæ_);
+4, third or ungual phalanx (_os pedis_, or coffin-bone); 5, one of the
+upper sesamoid bones; 6, lower sesamoid or “navicular” bone; 7, tendon
+of anterior extensor of the phalanges; 8, tendon of superficial flexor
+(_fl. perforatus_); 9, tendon of deep flexor (_fl. perforans_); 10,
+suspensory ligament of fetlock; 11, inferior or short sesamoid ligament;
+12, derma or skin of the foot, covered with hair, and continued into 13,
+the coronary cushion, 14, the podophyllous or laminar membrane, and 15,
+the keratogenous membrane of the sole; 16, plantar cushion; 17, hoof; 18,
+fatty cushion of fetlock.]
+
+Below the carpal and tarsal joints the fore and hind limbs correspond
+almost exactly in structure as well as function. On the anterior or
+extensor surface of the limb a powerful tendon (7 in Fig. 164), that of
+the anterior extensor of the phalanges (corresponding to the _extensor
+communis digitorum_ of the arm and _extensor longus digitorum_ of the
+foot of man) passes down over the metacarpal bone and phalanges, to be
+inserted mainly into the upper edge of the anterior surface of the last
+phalanx or pedal bone. There is also a much smaller second extensor
+on the outer side of this in each limb, the lateral extensor of the
+phalanges. In the fore leg the tendon of this muscle (which corresponds
+with the _extensor minimi digiti_ of man) receives a slip from that of
+the principal extensor, and is inserted into the first phalanx. In the
+hind leg (where it is the homologue apparently of the _peroneus brevis_
+of man) the tendon becomes blended with that of the large extensor.
+
+A very strong ligamentous band behind the metapodium, arising from near
+the upper extremity of its posterior surface, divides into two at its
+lower end, and each division, being first connected with one of the
+paired upper sesamoid bones, passes by the side of the first phalanx to
+join the extensor tendon of the phalanges. This is called in veterinary
+anatomy the “suspensory ligament of the sesamoids,” or of the “fetlock”
+(10 in Fig. 164); but its attachments and relations, as well as the
+occasional presence of muscular fibres in its substance, show that it
+is the homologue of the short flexor muscle of other mammals, curiously
+modified both in structure and function to suit the requirements of the
+Horse’s foot. Behind or superficial to this are placed the two strong
+tendons of the long flexor muscles, the most superficial, or _flexor
+perforatus_ (8), dividing to allow the other to pass through, and then
+inserted into the middle phalanx. The _flexor perforans_ (9) is as
+usual inserted into the terminal phalanx. In the fore leg these muscles
+correspond with those similarly named in man. In the hind leg, the
+perforated tendon is a continuation of that of the plantaris, passing
+pulley-wise over the tuberosity of the calcaneum. The perforating tendon
+is derived from the muscle corresponding with the long flexor of man, and
+the smaller tendon of the oblique flexor (_tibialis posticus_ of man) is
+united with it.
+
+The hoof of the Horse corresponds to the nail or claw of other mammals,
+but is so constructed as to form a complete and very solid case to the
+expanded termination of the toe, giving a firm basis of support formed of
+a nonsensitive substance, which is continually renewed by the addition of
+material from within as its surface wears away by friction against the
+ground. The terminal phalanx of the toe is greatly enlarged and modified
+in form to support this hoof, and the size of the internal framework of
+the foot is further increased by a pair of lateral fibro-cartilaginous
+masses attached on each side to the hinder edges of the bone, and by a
+fibro-cellular and adipose plantar cushion in the median part. These
+structures are all enclosed in the keratogenous membrane or “subcorneous
+integument,” a continuation of the ordinary derma of the limb, but
+extremely vascular, and having its superficial extent greatly increased
+by being developed into papillæ or laminæ. From this the horny material
+which constitutes the hoof is exuded. A thickened ring encircling the
+upper part, called coronary cushion (13), and the sole (15), are covered
+with numerous thickly set papillæ or villi, and take the greatest share
+in the formation of the hoof; the intermediate part constituting the
+front and side of the foot (14), corresponding with the wall of the
+hoof, is covered with parallel, fine longitudinal laminæ, fitting into
+corresponding depressions in the inner side of the horny hoof.
+
+The horny hoof is divided into a wall or crust consisting of the front
+and sides, the flattened or concave sole, and the “frog,” a triangular
+median prominence, notched posteriorly, with the apex turned forwards,
+situated in the hinder part of the sole. It is formed of pavement
+epithelial cells, mainly grouped in a concentric manner around the
+vascular papillæ of the keratogenous membrane, so that a section near the
+base of the hoof, cut transversely to the long axis of these papillæ,
+shows a number of small circular or oval orifices, with cells arranged
+concentrically round them. The nearer the surface of the hoof, or farther
+removed from the seat of growth, the more indistinct the structure
+becomes.
+
+Small round or oval plates of horny epidermis called “chestnuts,” growing
+like the hoof from enlarged papillæ of the skin, are found on the
+inner face of the fore limb, above the carpal joint, in all species of
+_Equidæ_, and in the Horse (_E. caballus_) alone similar formations occur
+near the upper extremity of the inner face of the metatarsus. Their use
+is unknown.
+
+Behind the joint between the metapodium and the first phalanx is a
+prominence formed by the fatty cushion of the fetlock (18 in Fig. 164).
+On the middle of this is a small bare patch covered with thickened
+epidermis, the _ergot_ or spur, generally concealed beneath the long hair
+which grows around it. This is the functionless vestige of the large
+callous pad found in this situation in the Tapir, and in fact in all
+mammals in which this part reaches the ground in walking.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 165.—Longitudinal and transverse section of upper
+incisor of Horse. _p_, Pulp cavity; _d_, dentine or ivory; _e_, enamel;
+_c_, outer layer of cement; _c′_, inner layer of cement, lining _a_, the
+pit or cavity of the crown of the tooth.]
+
+_Dentition._—The dentition of the Horse, when all the teeth are in place,
+is, as stated before, expressed by the formula _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_
+⁴⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃ = 42. The incisors of each jaw are placed in close contact,
+forming a semicircle. The crowns are broad, somewhat awl-shaped, and of
+nearly equal size. They have all the great peculiarity, not found in
+the teeth of any other living mammal, of an involution of the external
+surface of the tooth (see Fig. 165) forming a deep fossa or pit, the
+bottom of which becomes partially filled up with cement. As the tooth
+wears, the surface, besides the external enamel layer as in an ordinary
+simple tooth, shows in addition a second inner ring of the same hard
+substance surrounding the pit, thus of course adding greatly to the
+efficiency of the tooth as an organ for biting tough, fibrous substances.
+This pit, generally filled in the living animal with particles of food,
+is conspicuous from its dark colour, and constitutes the “mark” by which
+the age of the horse is judged, as in consequence of its extending only
+to a certain depth, it becomes obliterated as the crown wears away,
+when the tooth assumes the character of an ordinary incisor, consisting
+only of a core of dentine surrounded by the external enamel layer. It
+is not quite so deep in the lower as in the upper teeth. The canines
+are either quite rudimentary or entirely absent in the female. In the
+male they are compressed, pointed, and smaller than the incisors, from
+which they are separated by a slight interval. The teeth of the cheek
+series are all in contact with each other, but separated from the canines
+by a considerable toothless space. The anterior premolars are quite
+rudimentary, often, especially in the lower jaw, not developed at all,
+and generally fall by the time the animal attains maturity, so that there
+are but six functional grinding teeth—three that have predecessors in
+the milk-dentition, and hence are considered as premolars, and three
+true molars, but otherwise, except the first and last of the series,
+not distinguishable in form or structure. These teeth in both upper and
+lower jaws are extremely long-crowned or hypsodont (Fig. 158), successive
+portions being pushed out as the surface wears away;—a process which
+continues until the animal becomes advanced in age. The enamelled surface
+is infolded in a complex manner (a modification of that found in other
+Perissodactyles, see Figs. 155, 167), the folds extending quite to the
+base of the crown, and the interstices being filled and the surface
+covered with a considerable mass of cement, which binds together and
+strengthens the whole tooth. As the teeth wear, the folded enamel,
+being harder than the other constituents—the dentine and cement—forms
+projecting ridges on the surface arranged in a definite pattern, which
+give it great efficiency as a grinding instrument (see Fig. 157, _b_ and
+_c_). The free surfaces of the upper teeth are quadrate, except the first
+and last, which are nearly triangular. The lower teeth are much narrower
+than the upper.
+
+The milk dentition consists of _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ⁰⁄₀, _m_ ³⁄₃ = 24,—the
+canines and first or rudimentary premolars having apparently no
+predecessors. In form and structure they much resemble the permanent
+teeth, having the same characteristic enamel-foldings. Their eruption
+commences a few days after birth, and is complete before the end of the
+first year, the upper teeth usually appearing somewhat earlier than those
+of the lower jaw. The first teeth to appear are the first and second
+milk-molars (about five days), then the central incisor (from seven to
+ten days); this is followed by the second incisor (at one month), then
+by the third molar, and finally by the third incisor. Of the permanent
+teeth the first true molar appears a little after the end of the first
+year, followed by the second molar before the end of the second year. At
+about two and a half years the first premolar replaces its predecessor.
+Between two and a half and three years the first incisor appears. At
+three years the second and third premolars and the third true molar have
+appeared; at from three and a half to four years the second incisor; at
+four to four and a half years the canine; and, finally, at five years the
+third incisor, completing the permanent dentition. Up to this period the
+age of the horse is clearly shown by the state of the dentition, and for
+some time longer indications can be obtained from the wear of the incisor
+teeth, though this depends to a certain extent upon the hardness of the
+food or other accidental circumstances. As a general rule, the depression
+caused by the infolding of the surface of the incisor (the “mark”), is
+obliterated in the first or central incisor at six years, in the second
+at seven years, and in the third at eight years. In the upper teeth, as
+the depressions are deeper, this obliteration does not take place until
+about two years later. After this period no certain indications can be
+obtained of the age of the horse from the teeth.
+
+_Digestive Organs._—The lips are flexible and prehensile. The membrane
+that lines them and the cheeks is quite smooth. The palate is long and
+narrow; its mucous surface has seventeen pairs of not very sharply
+defined oblique ridges, extending as far back as the last molar tooth,
+beyond which the velum palati extends for about 3 inches, having a soft
+corrugated surface, and ending posteriorly in an arched border without
+uvula. This embraces the base of the epiglottis, and shuts off all
+communication between the cavity of the mouth and the nasal passages,
+respiration being, under ordinary circumstances, carried on exclusively
+through the nostrils. Between the mucous membrane and the bone of the
+hard palate is a dense vascular and nervous plexus. The membrane lining
+the fauces is soft and corrugated. An elongated raised glandular mass,
+3 inches long and 1 inch from above downwards, extending backwards from
+the root of the tongue along the side of the fauces, with openings on the
+surface leading into crypts with glandular walls, represents the tonsil.
+The tongue, corresponding to the general form of the mouth, is long and
+narrow. It consists of a compressed intermolar portion with a flat upper
+surface, broad behind and becoming narrower in front; and of a depressed
+anterior part rather shorter than the former, which is narrow behind but
+widens towards the evenly rounded apex. The dorsal surface generally is
+very soft and smooth. There are two large circumvallate papillæ near the
+base, rather irregular in form, about a quarter of an inch in diameter
+and half an inch apart. The conical papillæ are very small and close set,
+though longer and more filamentous on the intermolar portion. There are
+no fungiform papillæ on the dorsum, but a few not very conspicuous ones
+scattered along the sides of the organ.
+
+Of the salivary glands the parotid is by far the largest; elongated in
+the vertical direction, and narrower in the middle than at either upper
+or lower extremity. Its upper extremity embraces the lower surface of
+the cartilaginous ear-conch; its lower end reaches the level of the
+inferior margin of the mandible, along the posterior margin of which it
+is placed. Its duct leaves the inferior anterior angle, at first descends
+a little, and runs forward under cover of the rounded inferior border of
+the mandibular ramus, then curves up along the anterior margin of the
+masseter muscle, becoming superficial, pierces the buccinator, and enters
+the mouth by a simple aperture opposite the middle of the crown of the
+third premolar tooth. It is not quite so thick as a goose-quill when
+distended, and nearly a foot in length.
+
+The submaxillary gland is of very similar texture to the last, but much
+smaller; it is placed deeper, and lies with its main axis horizontal.
+It is elongated and slender, and flattened from within outwards. Its
+posterior end rests against the anterior surface of the transverse
+process of the atlas, from which it extends forwards and downwards,
+slightly curved, to beneath the ramus of the jaw. The duct which runs
+along its upper and internal border passes forwards in the usual course,
+lying in the inner side of the sublingual gland, to open on the outer
+surface of a distinct papilla, situated on the floor of the mouth, half
+an inch from the middle line, and midway between the lower incisor teeth
+and the attachment of the frænum linguæ. The sublingual is represented by
+a mass of glands lying just beneath the mucous membrane of the floor of
+the mouth on the side of the tongue, causing a distinct ridge, extending
+from the frænum backwards, and the numerous ducts opening separately
+along the summit of the ridge. The buccal glands are arranged in two rows
+parallel with the molar teeth. The upper ones are the largest, and are
+continuous anteriorly with the labial glands, the ducts of which open on
+the mucous membrane of the upper lip.
+
+The stomach of the Horse is simple in its external form, with a largely
+developed right _cul de sac_, and is a good deal curved on itself,
+so that the cardiac and pyloric orifices are brought near together.
+The antrum pyloricum is small and not very distinctly marked off. The
+interior is divided by the character of the lining membrane into two very
+distinct portions, right and left. Over the latter the dense white smooth
+epithelial lining of the œsophagus is continued, terminating abruptly
+by a raised crenellated border. Over the right part (rather the larger
+portion) the mucous membrane has a grayish-red colour and a velvety
+appearance, and contains very numerous peptic glands, which are wanting
+in the cardiac portion. The œsophageal orifice is very small, and is
+guarded by a strong crescentic or rather horse-shoe-like band of muscular
+fibres, which is supposed to be the cause of the difficulty of vomiting
+in the Horse. The small intestine is of great length (80 to 90 feet),
+its mucous membrane being covered with numerous fine villi. The cæcum is
+of conical form, about 2 feet long and nearly a foot in diameter; its
+walls are sacculated, especially near the base, having four longitudinal
+fibrous bands; and its capacity is about twice that of the stomach. It
+lies with its base near the lower part of the abdomen, and its apex
+directed towards the thorax. The colon is about one-third the length
+of the small intestine, and very capacious in the greater part of its
+course. As usual, it may be divided into an ascending, transverse, and
+descending portion; but the middle or transverse portion is folded into a
+great loop, which descends as low as the pubis; so that the colon forms
+altogether four folds, generally parallel to the long axis of the body.
+The descending colon is much narrower than the rest, and not sacculated,
+and being considerably longer than the distance it has to traverse, is
+thrown into numerous folds.
+
+The liver (Fig. 166) is tolerably symmetrical in its general arrangement,
+being divided nearly equally into segments by a well-marked umbilical
+fissure. Each segment is again divided by lateral fissures, which do
+not extend quite to the posterior border of the organ; of the central
+lobes thus cut off, the right is rather the larger, and has two fissures
+in its free border subdividing it into lobules. The extent of these
+varies, however, in different individuals, being not usually so marked
+as in the figure, which is from a fœtal specimen. The two lateral lobes
+are subtriangular in form. The Spigelian lobe is represented by a
+flat surface between the portal fissure and the posterior border, not
+distinctly marked off from the left lateral by a fissure of the ductus
+venosus, as this vessel is buried deep in the hepatic substance, but
+the caudate lobe is distinct and tongue-shaped, its free apex reaching
+nearly to the border of the right lateral lobe. In most works on the
+anatomy of the Horse this has been confounded with the Spigelian lobe of
+man. There is no gall-bladder (as in all other Perissodactyles), and the
+biliary duct enters the duodenum about 6 inches from the pylorus. The
+pancreas has two lobes or branches—a long one passing to the left and
+reaching the spleen, and a shorter right lobe. The principal duct enters
+the duodenum with the bile-duct, and there is often a second small duct
+which opens separately near to this.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 166.—Under surface of the liver of the Horse. _u_,
+Umbilical fissure; _ll_, left lateral lobe; _lc_, left central lobe;
+_rc_, right central lobe; _rl_, right lateral lobe; _s_, Spigelian lobe;
+_c_, caudate lobe.]
+
+_Circulatory and Respiratory Organs._—The heart has the form of a rather
+elongated and pointed cone. There is one anterior vena cava, formed by
+the union of the two jugular and two axillary veins. The aorta gives off
+a large branch (the anterior aorta) very near its origin, from which
+arise—first, the left axillary, and afterwards the right axillary and the
+two carotid arteries.
+
+Under ordinary circumstances the Horse breathes entirely by the nasal
+passages, the communication between the larynx and the mouth being
+closed by the velum palati. The nostrils are placed laterally, near
+the termination of the muzzle, and are large and very dilatable, being
+bordered by cartilages upon which several muscles act. Immediately within
+the opening of the nostril, the respiratory canal sends off on its upper
+and outer side a diverticulum or blind pouch (called “false nostril”) of
+a conical form, and curved, 2 to 3 inches in depth, lying in the notch
+formed between the nasal and premaxillary bones. It is lined by mucous
+membrane continuous with that of the nasal passage, but its use is not
+apparent. It is longer in the Ass than in the Horse. A similar structure
+is found in the Rhinoceros, and in a much more developed condition in
+the Tapir. Here may be mentioned the guttural pouches, large air sacs,
+diverticula from the Eustachian tubes, and lying behind the upper part
+of the pharynx. These are likewise found in other Perissodactyles,
+but their use is also still not clearly understood. The larynx has the
+lateral sacculi well developed, though entirely concealed within the alæ
+of the thyroid cartilage. The trachea divides into two bronchi, one for
+each lung.
+
+_Nervous System._—The brain differs little, except in details of
+arrangement of convolutions, from that of other Ungulates. The cerebral
+hemispheres are rather elongated and subcylindrical, the olfactory
+lobes are large and project freely in front of the hemispheres, and the
+greater part of the cerebellum is uncovered. The eye is provided with a
+nictitating membrane or third eyelid, at the base of which the ducts of
+the Harderian gland open.
+
+_Reproductive System._—The testes are situated in a distinct sessile or
+slightly pedunculated scrotum, into which they descend from the sixth
+to the tenth month after birth. The accessory generative glands are
+the two vesiculæ seminales, with the median third vesicle, or _uterus
+masculinus_, lying between them, the single bilobed prostate, and a pair
+of globular Cowper’s glands. The penis is large, cylindrical, with a
+truncated, expanded, flattened termination. When in a state of repose it
+is retracted by a muscle arising from the sacrum, within the prepuce, a
+cutaneous fold attached below the symphysis pubis.
+
+The uterus is bicornuate. The vagina is often partially divided by a
+membraneous septum or hymen. The mammæ (as in other members of the
+suborder), are two, inguinally placed. The surface of the chorion is
+covered evenly with minute villi, constituting a diffuse non-deciduate
+placenta. The period of gestation is eleven months.
+
+    _Bibliography._—M. S. Arloing, “Organisation du pied chez le
+    cheval,” _Ann. Sci. Nat._ 1867, viii. pp. 55-81; H. Burmeister,
+    _Los caballos fosiles de la Pampa Argentina_, Buenos Ayres,
+    1875; Chanveau and Arloing, _Traité d’anatomie comparée des
+    animaux domestiques_, Paris, 1871, and English edition by G.
+    Fleming, 1873; E. Cuyer and E. Alix, _Le Cheval_, 1886; A.
+    Ecker, “Das Europäische Wildpferd und dessen Beziehungen zum
+    domesticirten Pferd,” _Globus_, Bd. xxxiv. Brunswick, 1878;
+    Forsyth-Major, “Beiträge zur Geschichte der fossilen Pferde
+    besonders Italiens,” _Abh. Schw. Pal. Ges._ iv. pp. 1-16, pt.
+    iv.; George, “Études zool. sur les Hémiones et quelques autres
+    espèces chevalines,” _Ann. Sci. Nat._ 1869, xii. p. 5; E. F.
+    Gurlt, _Anatomische Abbildungen der Haussäugethiere_, 1824,
+    and _Hand. der vergleich. Anat. der Haussäugethiere_, 2 vols.
+    1822; Huet, “Croisement des diverses espèces du genre cheval,”
+    _Nouv. Archives du Muséum_, 2d sér. tom. ii. p. 46, 1879;
+    Leisering, _Atlas der Anatomie des Pferdes_, Leipsic, 1861;
+    J. M’Fadyean, _The Anatomy of the Horse_, 1884; O. C. Marsh,
+    “Notice of New Equine Mammals from the Tertiary Formation,”
+    _Am. Journ. of Science and Arts_, vol. vii. March 1874; Id.
+    “Fossil Horses in America,” _Amer. Naturalist_, vol. viii.
+    May 1874; Id. “Polydactyle Horses,” _Am. Journ. of Science
+    and Arts_, vol. xvii. June 1879; Franz Müller, _Lehrbuch der
+    Anatomie des Pferdes_, Vienna, 1853; R. Owen, “Equine Remains
+    in Cavern of Bruniquel,” _Phil. Trans._ vol. clix. (1870), p.
+    535; W. Percivall, _The Anatomy of the Horse_, 1832; G. Stubbs,
+    _Anatomy of the Horse_, 1766. F. H. Huth’s _Bibliographical
+    Record of Hippology_ (1887) contains a list of nearly four
+    thousand works on Horses and Equitation, published in the
+    various languages of the civilised world.
+
+
+_Family_ RHINOCEROTIDÆ.
+
+Although the existing members of this family are readily distinguished
+from the other living representatives of the suborder by the simple
+crescentoid form assumed by the ridges of the lower cheek-teeth, yet
+it is exceedingly difficult to give a definition by which they can be
+distinguished from the _Lophiodontidæ_, from some members of which they
+are, indeed, probably derived. The outer columns of the upper molars
+(Fig. 167) are, however, so excessively flattened as to produce a
+continuous thick and nearly straight outer wall, which is often produced
+in advance of the anterior transverse ridge; both transverse ridges
+being but little curved, and intimately connected with the outer wall.
+The upper premolars are in most cases nearly or quite as complex as the
+molars, and the ridges of the lower cheek-teeth are crescentoid. The
+last lower molar has no third lobe. The height of the crowns of the
+cheek-teeth is variable. The skull is large, with the orbit confluent
+with the temporal fossa. There are either three or four digits in the
+manus, and three in the pes. One or more dermal horns are attached to
+the fronto-nasal region of the skull of existing forms, but these were
+wanting in some of the fossil species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 167.—A partially worn second right upper molar of
+_Rhinoceros antiquitatis_. Letters as in Fig. 155 (p. 375), except _k_,
+which indicates a prolongation of the median valley. (After Owen.)]
+
+_Rhinoceros._[267]—Incisors variable, reduced in number, often quite
+rudimentary, and early deciduous. Upper canines absent. Molar series,
+consisting of the full number of four premolars and three molars above
+and below, all in contact and closely resembling each other, except
+the first, which is much smaller than the rest and often deciduous;
+and the last, in which the hinder lobe is partly aborted, so that the
+contour of the crown is triangular. Head large, skull elongated, elevated
+posteriorly into a transverse occipital crest. No postorbital processes.
+Nasal bones large and stout, co-ossified, and standing out freely above
+the premaxillæ, from which they are separated by a deep and wide fissure;
+the latter small, generally not meeting in the middle line in front,
+often quite rudimentary. Tympanics small, not forming a bulla. Brain
+cavity very small for the size of the skull. Vertebræ: C 7, D 19-20, L 3,
+S 4, C about 22. Limbs stout, and of moderate length. Three completely
+developed toes, with distinct broad rounded hoofs on each foot (Fig. 151,
+p. 368), some fossil forms having a fourth in the manus. Eyes small. Ears
+of moderate size, oval, erect, prominent, placed near the occiput. Skin
+very thick, in many species thrown into massive folds. Hairy covering
+scanty. When one horn is present it is situated over the conjoined nasal
+bones; when two, the hinder one is over the frontals. These horns, which
+are of a more or less conical form and usually recurved, often grow to
+a great length (three or even four feet), and are composed of a solid
+mass of hardened epidermic cells growing from a cluster of long dermal
+papillæ. The cells formed on each papilla constitute a distinct horny
+fibre, like a thick hair, and the whole are cemented together by an
+intermediate mass of cells which grow up from the interspaces between
+the papillæ. It results from this that the horn has the appearance of a
+mass of agglutinated hairs, which, in the newly growing part at the base,
+readily fray out on destruction of the softer intermediate substance; but
+the fibres differ from true hairs in growing from a free papilla of the
+derm, and not within a follicular involution of the same.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 168.—A partially worn second right upper molar of
+(_A_) _Rhinoceros sondaicus_, and (_B_) _R. unicornis_. _k_, Fossette cut
+off from median valley; _m_, crotchet; _n_, crista, or combining-plate;
+_e_, anterior valley; _l_, anterior intermediate column. Other letters as
+in Fig. 155, p. 375.]
+
+The large lower cutting teeth of the typical Rhinoceroses have been
+very generally regarded as incisors, but comparison with fossil allied
+types, in which three lower incisors and canines are present, leaves
+little doubt but that they are really canines. The upper molar teeth
+present some amount of specific variation; thus while one type (Fig.
+168, _A_) has only a simple “crotchet” projecting from the posterior
+transverse ridge into the median valley, in others (Fig. 168, _B_)
+this crotchet joins a “crista,” or “combing-plate,” projecting from
+the outer wall to cut off a distinct fossette from the median valley.
+Occasionally, however (as in Fig. 167), the crotchet and combing-plate
+do not completely join, although the fossette is distinctly indicated.
+The first upper premolar may occasionally be preceded by a milk-tooth.
+The Rhinoceroses differ from the Horses and agree with the Tapirs in the
+direction of the cæcum.
+
+The living species of _Rhinoceros_ are all animals of large size, but
+of little intelligence, generally timid indisposition, though ferocious
+when attacked and brought to bay, using the nasal horns as weapons, by
+which they strike and toss their assailant. Their sight is dull, but
+their hearing and scent are remarkably acute. They feed on herbage,
+shrubs, and leaves of trees, and, like so many other large animals which
+inhabit hot countries, sleep the greater part of the day, being most
+active in the cool of the evening or even during the night. They are fond
+of bathing and wallowing in water or mud. None of the species have been
+domesticated. Animals of the group have existed in both the Old and New
+Worlds since the latter part of the Eocene period. In America they all
+became extinct before the end of the Pliocene period. In the Old World
+their distribution has become greatly restricted, and they are no longer
+found in Europe and North Asia, but only in Africa and portions of the
+Indian and Indo-Malayan region.
+
+_Existing Species._—The existing (as well as many of the extinct) species
+of Rhinoceroses naturally divide into three groups, which are regarded by
+some zoologists as of generic value.
+
+_Rhinocerotic, or Typical Group._—The adults with a single large
+compressed incisor above on each side, and occasionally a small lateral
+one; below, a very small incisor and a very large, procumbent, pointed
+canine. Nasal bones pointed in front. A single nasal horn. Skin very
+thick, and raised into strong, definitely arranged ridges or folds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 169.—Indian Rhinoceros (_Rhinoceros unicornis_). This
+figure, and also figures 170, 172, are reduced from drawings by J. Wolf,
+from animals living in the London Zoological Society’s Gardens.]
+
+There are two well-marked species of one-horned Rhinoceroses. (1) The
+Indian Rhinoceros, _R. unicornis_ (Fig. 169) of Linnæus,[268] the
+largest and best known, from being the most frequently exhibited alive
+in England, is at present only met with in a wild state in the terai
+region of Nipal and Bhutan, and in the upper valley of the Brahmaputra
+or province of Assam, though it formerly had a wider range. The first
+Rhinoceros seen alive in Europe since the time when these animals, in
+common with nearly all the large remarkable beasts of both Africa
+and Asia, were exhibited in the Roman shows, was of this species. It
+was sent from India to Emmanuel, King of Portugal, in 1513; and from
+a sketch of it, taken in Lisbon, Albert Dürer composed his celebrated
+but rather fanciful engraving, which was reproduced in so many old
+books on natural history. Both in this and the following species the
+post-glenoid and post-tympanic processes of the squamosal bone of the
+skull unite below so as to completely surround the external auditory
+meatus. The molar teeth are hypsodont, and have a horizontal plane of
+wear; those of the upper jaw (Fig. 168, _b_) being characterised by the
+presence of a combing-plate joining the crotchet, and the absence of
+a distinct buttress at the antero-external angle. The stomach departs
+from the ordinary Perissodactyle type. The small intestine is beset
+over most of its surface with long and fine villi; and the Spigelian
+lobe of the liver is well developed. There is a gland behind the foot.
+Teeth from the Pleistocene of the Narbada valley in India apparently
+indicate the existence of the Indian Rhinoceros at that epoch. (2) The
+Javan Rhinoceros (_R. sondaicus_, Fig. 170) is a smaller form, readily
+distinguished by dental and internal characters, as well as by the
+different arrangement of the plications of the skin (as seen in the
+figures); the horn in the female appears to be very little developed, if
+not altogether absent. This species has a more extensive geographical
+range, being found in the Bengal Sunderbans near Calcutta, Burma, the
+Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, and probably Borneo. The molar teeth have
+shorter crowns than in the preceding species, and wear into ridges;
+those of the upper jaw (Fig. 168, _a_) having no combing-plate, and a
+strongly marked buttress at the antero-external angle (not distinctly
+shown in the figure). The visceral anatomy, according to Beddard,[269]
+does not differ materially from that of the next species. In respect
+to its dentition and anatomical characters this species is indeed more
+nearly allied to the Sumatran than to the Indian Rhinoceros; and thereby
+indicates that the division of the existing Rhinoceroses into separate
+genera is not advisable.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 170.—Javan Rhinoceros (_Rhinoceros sondaicus_).]
+
+_Ceratorhine Group._—The adults with a moderate-sized compressed incisor
+above, and a laterally placed, pointed, procumbent canine below, which is
+sometimes lost in old animals. Nasal bones narrow and pointed anteriorly.
+A well-developed nasal, and a small frontal horn separated by an
+interval. The skin thrown into folds, but these not so strongly marked
+as in the former group. The smallest living member of the family, the
+Sumatran Rhinoceros, _R. sumatrensis_, Cuvier, now represents this group.
+Its geographical range is nearly the same as that of the Javan species,
+though not extending into Bengal; but it has been found in Assam,
+Chittagong, Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo. So far as
+can be determined during the life of the type specimen, it appears that
+the hairy form from Chittagong, described as _R. lasiotis_, is only a
+variety of this species.[270] The molar teeth of the Sumatran Rhinoceros
+are almost indistinguishable from those of the Javan species, and
+reference has already been made to the resemblance between the visceral
+anatomy of these species.[271] The form of the stomach is very similar to
+that of the Horse. The liver (Fig. 171) has a comparatively large caudate
+lobe, but is chiefly remarkable for the peculiar shape of the Spigelian
+lobe, which mainly consists of a thin strip of tissue, 8 inches long, ¾
+inch wide, and ¼ inch deep. The small intestine, in place of the villi of
+_R. unicornis_, has throughout the greater part of its length a uniform
+series of thin and nearly or quite continuous transverse foldings, like
+the valvulæ conniventes of the human small intestine. There is no gland
+behind the foot. The post-glenoid and post-tympanic processes of the
+squamosal do not unite below the auditory meatus. The presence of a
+lateral nasal diverticulum, like that of the Horses and Tapirs, has been
+verified only in this species, although it doubtless occurs in the others.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 171.—Posterior aspect of the liver of _Rhinoceros
+sumatrensis_. _rc_, Right central lobe; _rl_, right lateral lobe; _lc_,
+left central lobe; _ll_, left lateral lobe; _c_, caudate lobe; _sp_,
+Spigelian lobe. (From Garrod, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1873, p. 102.)]
+
+_Atelodine Group._—In the adults the incisors and canines quite
+rudimentary or entirely wanting. Nasal bones thick, rounded and truncated
+in front. Well-developed anterior and posterior horns in close contact.
+Skin without any definite permanent folds.
+
+The two well-marked existing species are peculiar to the African
+continent.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 172.—Common African Rhinoceros (_Rhinoceros
+bicornis_).]
+
+The common Two-horned Rhinoceros, _R. bicornis_, is the smaller of the
+two, with a pointed prehensile upper lip, and a narrow compressed deep
+symphysis of the lower jaw. It ranges through the wooded and watered
+districts of Africa, from Abyssinia in the north to the Cape Colony, but
+its numbers are yearly diminishing, owing to the inroads of European
+civilisation, and especially of English sportsmen. It feeds exclusively
+upon leaves and branches of bushes and small trees, and chiefly frequents
+the sides of wood-clad rugged hills. Specimens in which the posterior
+horn has attained a length as great as, or greater than, the anterior
+have been separated under the name of _R. keitloa_, but the characters of
+these appendages are too variable to found specific distinctions upon.
+The Common African Rhinoceros is far more rarely seen in menageries in
+Europe than either of the three Oriental species, but one has lived in
+the gardens of the London Zoological Society since 1868. The molar teeth
+of this species are of the general type of those of _R. sondaicus_,
+having no combing-plate to join the crotchet in those of the upper jaw.
+The conch of the ear is much rounded at its extremity, and edged by a
+fringe of short hairs; while the nostrils are somewhat rounded. The eye
+is placed immediately below the posterior horn.[272] Both in this and the
+following species the post-glenoid and post-tympanic processes of the
+squamosal do not unite below the auditory meatus. Nothing is known of the
+anatomy of the soft parts of either of them.
+
+Burchell’s or the Square-mouthed Rhinoceros (_R. simus_), sometimes
+called the White Rhinoceros, though the colour (dark slate) is not
+materially different from that of the last species, is the largest of the
+whole group, and differs from all the others in having a square truncated
+upper lip and a wide, shallow, spatulate symphysis to the lower jaw. In
+conformity with the structure of the mouth, this species lives entirely
+by browsing on grass, and is therefore more partial to open countries
+or districts where there are broad grassy valleys between the tracts of
+bush. It is only found in Africa south of the Zambesi, and of late years
+has become extremely scarce, owing to the persecutions of sportsmen;
+indeed, the time of its complete extinction cannot be far off. No
+specimen of this species has ever been brought alive to Europe. Mr. F. C.
+Selous[273] gives the following description of its habits from extensive
+personal observation:—
+
+“The square-mouthed rhinoceros is a huge ungainly-looking beast, with
+a disproportionately large head, a large male standing 6 feet 6 inches
+at the shoulder. Like elephants and buffaloes they lie asleep during
+the heat of the day, and feed during the night and in the cool hours of
+early morning and evening. Their sight is very bad; but they are quick of
+hearing, and their scent is very keen; they are, too, often accompanied
+by rhinoceros birds, which, by running about their heads, flapping their
+wings, and screeching at the same time, frequently give them notice of
+the approach of danger. When disturbed they go off at a swift trot, which
+soon leaves all pursuit from a man on foot far behind; but if chased by
+a horseman they break into a gallop, which they can keep up for some
+distance. However, although they run very swiftly, when their size and
+heavy build is considered, they are no match for an average good horse.
+They are, as a rule, very easy to shoot on horseback, as, if one gallops
+a little in front of and on one side of them, they will hold their
+course, and come sailing past, offering a magnificent broadside shot,
+while under similar circumstances a prehensile-lipped rhinoceros will
+usually swerve away in such a manner as only to present his hind-quarters
+for a shot. When either walking or running, the square-mouthed rhinoceros
+holds its head very low, its nose nearly touching the ground. When a
+small calf accompanies its mother it always runs in front, and she
+appears to guide it by holding the point of her horn upon the little
+animal’s rump; and it is perfectly wonderful to note how in all sudden
+changes of pace, from a trot to a gallop or _vice versâ_, the same
+position is always exactly maintained. During the autumn and winter
+months (_i.e._ from March to August) the square-mouthed rhinoceros is
+usually very fat; and its meat is then most excellent, being something
+like beef, but yet having a peculiar flavour of its own. The part in
+greatest favour among hunters is the hump, which, if cut off whole and
+roasted just as it is in the skin, in a hole dug in the ground, would, I
+think, be difficult to match either for juiciness or flavour.”
+
+The molar dentition is of the type obtaining in _R. unicornis_, so that
+in this respect _R. simus_ has the same relation to _R. bicornis_ as
+is presented by _R. unicornis_ to _R. sondaicus_. The ear-conch of the
+Square-mouthed Rhinoceros is very large, elongated, and pointed at its
+extremity, which bears only a slight tuft of hair; it is much expanded
+in the middle, and the lower portion has its edges united to form a
+short tube. The nostrils have a long slit-like aperture; and the eye is
+situated behind the posterior horn.
+
+_Extinct Species._—Using the generic term _Rhinoceros_ in its widest
+signification, a very large number of fossil forms may be referred to it,
+the earliest of which date from the Upper Eocene (Oligocene) Phosphorites
+of Central France. Only a few of the more important of these types can,
+however, be even mentioned in this place.
+
+In the Pliocene Siwaliks of India _R. sivalensis_ appears to have been
+the direct ancestor of _R. sondaicus_; while _R. palæindicus_ was
+probably nearly related to _R. unicornis_, although the upper molars had
+not developed a combing-plate.
+
+_R. schleirmacheri_, of the Lower Pliocene of Europe, falls into the
+Ceratorhine group, although differing from _R. sumatrensis_ by the union
+of the post-glenoid and post-tympanic processes of the squamosal beneath
+the auditory meatus. The Middle Miocene _R. sansaniensis_ was a closely
+allied if not identical form.
+
+The Atelodine group was very widely spread in past epochs. Thus the
+huge _R. platyrhinus_ of the Indian Pliocene, and the equally large _R.
+antiquitatis_ of the Pleistocene of Europe, were specialised forms with
+a dentition resembling that of _R. simus_, to which they were probably
+allied. An upper molar of _R. antiquitatis_—the so-called Tichorine, or
+Woolly Rhinoceros—is shown in the woodcut on p. 402. Of this species
+nearly whole carcases, with the thick woolly external covering, have been
+discovered associated with those of the Mammoth, preserved in the frozen
+soil of the north of Siberia. In common with some other extinct species
+it had a solid median wall of bone supporting the nasals, from which it
+is inferred that the horns were of a size and weight surpassing that of
+the modern species. In the Lower Pliocene of Attica _R. pachygnathus_
+appears to have been closely allied to _R. bicornis_. Several species
+such as _R. leptorhinus_ (Fig. 173), _R. megarhinus_, and _R. etruscus_,
+occur in the European Pleistocene which do not present a marked
+relationship to any of the living forms. This group is also represented
+in the Pleistocene of Southern India by the small _R. deccanensis_ and
+_R. karnuliensis_.
+
+In the Upper Miocene, or Lower Pliocene, of North America numerous
+Rhinoceroses with incisor teeth occur which have no nasal horn, although
+in those forms of which the limbs are known the fore feet resembled
+those of existing species in having only three digits. These species
+have been generically separated as _Aphelops_, but so closely do they
+resemble existing Rhinoceroses that at one time Professor Cope proposed
+to refer the hornless female of _R. sondaicus_ (described by Lesson as
+_R. inermis_) to the same genus. If these American types be included in
+_Rhinoceros_ there seems no valid reason for separating the European
+Lower Pliocene and Miocene forms described as _Aceratherium_, at least
+some of which have four digits in the manus. This group is represented
+in the Upper Eocene Phosphorites of France, and also by a very large
+species in the Pliocene of India. Lastly, _R. minutus_, of the Lower
+Miocene of France, and an allied North American species are distinguished
+by carrying a pair of very small horns placed transversely across the
+nasals, from which feature it has been proposed that they should be
+separated genetically as _Diceratherium_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 173.—Skull of _Rhinoceros leptorhinus_, from the
+Pleistocene of Essex. About ⅛ natural size.]
+
+_Extinct Generic Types._—The Tertiary deposits of different parts of the
+world have yielded remains of many extinct forms more or less closely
+related to the Rhinoceroses, and some of which should certainly be
+included in the same family; although others perhaps form the types
+of one or more distinct families. One of the most remarkable of these
+extinct types is the huge _Elasmotherium_, from the Pleistocene of
+Siberia, in which the dentition was reduced to two premolars and three
+molars on either side of each jaw. The structure of the skeleton is
+essentially rhinocerotic, the skull having an ossified nasal septum,
+and a huge frontal prominence for the support of a very large horn. The
+teeth are extremely hypsodont, with the enamel plicated to a remarkable
+degree, and unlike those of _Rhinoceros_. The genus is evidently a very
+specialised one.
+
+The other genera we have to notice are more generalised types. Of these
+the North American _Hyracodon_, with the full typical number of teeth,
+and without nasal horn, appears to connect the Rhinoceroses with the
+Lophiodont _Hyrachyus_. The genera _Amynodon_ and _Metamynodon_ (Fig.
+174), from the American Tertiaries, are forms allied to the Rhinoceroses,
+with the full number of incisors and canines, and the hinder lobe of the
+last upper molar not aborted. The lower canines are either upright, or
+less proclivous than in the Rhinoceroses; in _Metamynodon_ the premolars
+are reduced to ³⁄₂. Molar teeth from the Phosphorites of Central France,
+described under the name of _Cadurcotherium_, are constructed on the
+general plan of those of the Rhinoceroses, although distinguished by
+their extreme narrowness; this type of tooth being very similar to that
+found in _Homalodontotherium_ from Tertiary deposits in Patagonia. The
+latter has the full number of teeth, without any diastema in the series.
+Until we have some knowledge of the skeleton of these remarkable forms
+nothing definite can be said as to their serial position.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 174.—Right half of the palatal surface of the cranium
+of _Metamynodon planifrons_, from the Upper Miocene of North America.
+(After Scott and Osborn.)]
+
+
+_Families_ LAMBDOTHERIIDÆ, CHALICOTHERIIDÆ, AND TITANOTHERIIDÆ.
+
+These families contain a large number of more or less nearly related
+extinct types from Tertiary beds of both the Old and New Worlds, some
+of which present most remarkable deviations from the ordinary Ungulate
+structure. All are characterised by their brachydont molars, which depart
+widely from the normal lophodont type. The upper molars consist of four
+columns, of which the two external ones are expanded to form an outer
+wall; the posterior pair being connected in some cases by an oblique
+transverse ridge, while there may be traces of an anterior ridge. The
+premolars are simpler.
+
+_Lambdotheriidæ._—This family is confined to the Upper Eocene and
+Miocene of North America, where it is represented by _Lambdotherium_,
+_Palæosyops_, and _Limnosyops_; it presents the normal type of foot
+structure, and all the genera except the first have the full complement
+of teeth. There were four digits in the manus. The last lower molar has
+a third lobe. _Limnosyops_ differs from _Palæosyops_ in having two inner
+columns to the last upper molar.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 175.—Anterior and distal aspects of a phalangeal bone
+of _Chalicotherium sivalense_. (From the _Palæontologia Indica_.)]
+
+_Chalicotheriidæ._—The genus _Chalicotherium_, which is found in the
+Tertiaries of Europe, Asia, and North America, differs so remarkably
+in the structure of the feet from all other Ungulates that it has
+been proposed to regard it as the representative of a distinct order,
+Ancylopoda. The molars are, however, almost indistinguishable from those
+of the preceding and following families; while the cervical vertebræ
+and portions of the limbs are of a Perissodactyle type. On the other
+hand, the femur has lost its third trochanter; while the phalanges are
+strangely modified, the terminal ones forming long curved claws, while
+the others (Fig. 175) have strong ginglymoid distal articulations.
+These phalanges were, indeed, long regarded as referable to Edentates,
+being described in Europe as _Macrotherium_, and in the United States
+as _Morotherium_ and _Moropus_. _Ancylotherium_, of the Grecian Pikermi
+beds, is founded upon phalanges which indicate an allied genus. The
+Indian species of _Chalicotherium_ is distinguished by the loss of the
+incisors and the upper canine; while all the species want the first
+premolar.
+
+_Titanotheriidæ._—This exclusively North American family includes
+gigantic forms closely allied to the _Lambdotheriidæ_, but with the last
+upper premolar as complex as the molars, and frequently with large bony
+protuberances in the nasal region. The best known genus, _Titanotherium_
+(_Menodus_,[274] _Brontotherium_, _Symborodon_, _Allops_, etc.), may
+either have the full complement of teeth, or the incisors may be reduced
+to ²⁄₀. The canines and incisors are small, and there is no diastema
+when the full dental series is developed. The skull is very like that of
+the Rhinoceroses; but has a transverse pair of large bony prominences
+on the nasal region, varying considerably in shape and size in the
+different species, which in the living animal were probably covered with
+horny sheaths. The third trochanter of the femur was aborted. These
+huge animals—inferior in size only to the Elephant—appear to have been
+abundant in the United States during the Miocene period.
+
+
+_Family_ MACRAUCHENIIDÆ.
+
+This extinct South American family is best known by the genus
+_Macrauchenia_, as represented by _M. patachonica_ and _M. boliviensis_,
+which are apparently from Pleistocene formations. They are very singular
+and specialised forms, quite out of the line of descent of any of the
+existing Perissodactyles, and the steps by which they are connected
+with the rest of the group have not yet been discovered. Of the larger
+species, _M. patachonica_, the skeleton is completely known. It had the
+full number of forty-four teeth, forming an almost uninterrupted series.
+The cervical vertebræ resemble those of the Camels in the position of
+the vertebrarterial canal, but the ends of the centra are flat, and not
+opisthocœlous as in the allied forms. In some of the limb characters it
+resembles the _Equidæ_, but in the articulation of the fibula with the
+calcaneum it agrees with the Artiodactyles. The structure of the feet is,
+however, distinctly Perissodactylate, there being three toes on each. The
+teeth approximate to a Rhinocerotine structure; and the incisors have an
+infolding of the enamel of their crowns, as in those of the Horses. The
+nares open on the top of the skull, and it is probable that the muzzle
+was produced into a short proboscis. Several other South American forms
+have been referred to this family, some of which have received distinct
+generic names, but further evidence is required before many of them can
+be accepted. Possibly _Homalodontotherium_ should be placed here.
+
+
+_Family_ PROTEROTHERIIDÆ.
+
+_Proterotherium._—Here may be noticed certain very remarkable
+Perissodactyles from the South American Tertiaries, for which the name
+_Proterotherium_ has been proposed. The cheek-teeth are so like those
+of _Anchitherium_ that they have been described under that name. The
+upper jaw has one pair of canine-like incisors and no canines, while the
+lower jaw carries two pairs of incisors. In the skull the orbits were
+completely closed, as in the Horses. The feet were tridactyle, like those
+of _Hipparion_, but the tarsus was constructed on an Artiodactyle type.
+
+
+SUBUNGULATA.
+
+By far the greater number of the Subungulata are extinct, and of many of
+those whose former existence has been revealed, chiefly by the labours
+of the American palæontologists, our knowledge is at present necessarily
+imperfect, though daily extending. It will only be possible here to give
+details of some of the more interesting or best-known forms.
+
+The characters by which the skeleton of the feet of the Subungulata
+are distinguished from those of the Ungulata Vera have been already
+mentioned on p. 275. In addition to these it may be observed that the
+feet frequently have five functional digits, and may be plantigrade;
+while the upper surface of the astragalus is generally flattened, instead
+of presenting the strongly-marked pulley-like ridges and groove so
+characteristic of the Ungulata Vera.
+
+
+_Suborder_ HYRACOIDEA.
+
+
+_Family_ HYRACIDÆ.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 176.—_Hyrax capensis._]
+
+This division is constituted to receive a single family of mammals, the
+affinities of which have long constituted a puzzle to zoologists. They
+were first placed among the Rodents, to which animals their small size
+and general appearance and habits give them much superficial resemblance.
+Cuvier’s investigations into their anatomical structure, and especially
+their dental characters, led him to place them among the Ungulates, near
+the genus _Rhinoceros_, a position long accepted by many zoologists.
+Further knowledge of their organisation and mode of development caused
+Milne-Edwards, Huxley, and others to disassociate them from this
+connection, and, failing to find any agreement with any other known
+forms, to place them in an order entirely apart. Palæontology has thrown
+no light upon the affinities of this anomalous and isolated group, as no
+extinct animals possessing their distinctive characters have as yet been
+discovered.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 177.—Skull and dentition of _Dendrohyrax dorsalis_. ×
+⅔.]
+
+The dentition, according to the usual interpretation, consists only of
+incisors and molars, the formula in all known species being _i_ ¹⁄₂,
+_c_ ⁰⁄₀, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃. The upper incisors have persistent pulps,
+and are curved longitudinally, forming a semicircle as in Rodents. They
+are, however, not flattened from before backwards as in that order, but
+prismatic, with an antero-external, an antero-internal, and a posterior
+surface, the first two only being covered with enamel; their apices are
+consequently not chisel-shaped, but sharp pointed. They are preceded by
+functional, rooted milk-teeth. The outer lower incisors, which should
+perhaps be regarded rather as canines, have long tapering roots, but not
+of persistent growth. They are straight, procumbent, with awl-shaped,
+trilobed crowns. Behind the incisors is a considerable diastema. The
+molars and premolars are all contiguous, and formed almost exactly on
+the pattern of some of the Perissodactyle Ungulates. The hyoid arch is
+unlike that of any known mammal. The dorsal and lumbar vertebræ are very
+numerous, 28 to 30, of which 21 or 22 bear ribs. The tail is extremely
+short. There are no clavicles. In the fore foot the three middle toes are
+subequally developed, the fifth is present, but smaller, and the hallux
+is rudimentary, although, in one species at least, all its normal bones
+are present. The ungual phalanges of the four outer digits are small,
+somewhat conical, and flattened in form. The carpus has a distinct os
+centrale. There is a slight ridge on the femur in the place of a third
+trochanter. The fibula is complete, thickest at its upper end, where
+it generally ankyloses with the tibia. The articulation between the
+tibia and astragalus is more complex than in other mammals, the end
+of the malleolus entering into it. The hind foot is very like that of
+_Rhinoceros_, having three well-developed toes. There is no trace of a
+hallux, and the fifth metatarsal is represented only by a small nodule.
+The ungual phalanx of the inner (or second) digit is deeply cleft, and
+has a peculiar long curved claw, the others have short broad nails. The
+stomach is formed upon much the same principle as that of the Horse
+or Rhinoceros, but is more elongated transversely and divided by a
+constriction into two cavities—a large left _cul de sac_, lined by a very
+dense white epithelium and a right pyloric cavity, with a very thick,
+soft, vascular lining. The intestinal canal (Fig. 178) is long, and has
+an arrangement perfectly unique among mammals, indeed among vertebrated
+animals, for, in addition to the ordinary short, but capacious and
+sacculated cæcum (_cm_) at the commencement of the colon, there is, lower
+down, an additional pair of large, conical, pointed, supplemental cæca
+(_c_). The liver is much subdivided, and there is no gall-bladder. The
+brain resembles that of the typical Ungulates far more than the Rodents.
+The testes are permanently abdominal. The ureters open into the fundus
+of the bladder, as in some Rodents. The female has six teats, of which
+four are inguinal and two axillary; and the placenta is zonary, as in the
+Elephant and Carnivora.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 178.—Diagrammatic view of the alimentary canal
+of _Hyrax capensis_, the intestines being somewhat abbreviated. _d_,
+Duodenum; _i_, ileum; _cm_, cæcum; _c_, supplemental colic cæca; _r_,
+rectum.]
+
+There are two distinct forms of Hyrax, differing both in structure and
+habits, which may be accorded generic rank.
+
+_Hyrax._[275]—Molar teeth having the same pattern as those of
+_Rhinoceros_. Interval between upper incisors less than the width of the
+teeth. Lower incisors slightly notched at the cutting edge. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 22, L 8, S 6, C 6. Of this form the earliest known species, _H.
+capensis_ (Fig. 176) is the type. There are several other species, as _H.
+habessinicus_ and _syriacus_, from Eastern Africa and Syria. They inhabit
+mountainous and rocky regions, and live on the ground.
+
+_Dendrohyrax._[276]—Molar teeth having the same pattern as _Palæotherium_
+(except that the third lower molar has but two lobes). Interval between
+upper incisors exceeding the width of the teeth. Lower incisors with very
+distinctly trilobed crowns. Vertebræ: C 7, D 21, L 7, S 5, C 10. The
+members of this section frequent the trunks and large branches of trees,
+sleeping in holes. There are several species, not distinctly defined,
+from western and south Africa, as _D. arboreus_ and _D. dorsalis_. The
+members of both groups appear to have a power like that possessed by the
+Lizards called Geckos of clinging to vertical surfaces of rocks and trees
+by the soles of their feet.
+
+It should be added that some writers separate three of the African
+species usually included in _Hyrax_ (viz. _H. bocagei_, _H. bakeri_, and
+_H. blainvillei_) under the designation of _Heterohyrax_.[277]
+
+
+_Suborder_ PROBOSCIDEA.
+
+This name has been appropriated to a well-marked group of animals,
+presenting some very anomalous characters, allied in many respects to
+the typical Ungulata, but belonging neither to the Artiodactyle nor
+Perissodactyle type of that order. It has been thought that they possess
+some, though certainly not very close, affinities with the Rodentia, and
+also with the Sirenia. It is certain, however, that the two species of
+Elephant, which are the sole living representatives of the group, stand
+quite alone among existing mammals, differing widely from all others
+in many points of their structure. In some respects, as the skull,
+proboscis, and dentition, they are highly specialised; but in others,
+as in the presence of two anterior venæ cavæ and in the structure of
+the limbs, they retain a low or generalised condition. A considerable
+series of extinct forms, extending back through the Pliocene and Miocene
+epochs, show the same type under different modifications, and in still
+more generalised outlines; and certain forms from the Eocene of North
+America, if their affinities are rightly interpreted, appear to link the
+true Proboscidea to some unknown primitive type of Ungulata.
+
+The following are the principal characters common to existing, and, by
+inference, to the extinct, Proboscidea. The nose extended into a long,
+muscular, very flexible and prehensile proboscis, at the end of which
+the nostrils are situated, and from which the name given to the group
+is derived. The teeth consisting of ever-growing incisors of very great
+size, but never exceeding one pair in each jaw, and often present in
+one jaw only; no canines; large and transversely ridged molars. No
+clavicles. Limbs strong, the upper segment, especially in the hind limb,
+the longer. Radius and ulna distinct, the latter articulating extensively
+with the carpus. Fibula and tibia distinct. Astragalus very flat on both
+surfaces. Manus and pes short, broad, and massive, each with five toes,
+though the outer pair may be more or less rudimentary, all encased in
+a common integument, though with distinct, broad, short hoofs. Third
+digit the largest. Two anterior venæ cavæ entering the right auricle.
+Stomach simple. A capacious cæcum. Testes permanently abdominal. Uterus
+bicornuate. Placenta non-deciduate and zonary. Mammæ two, pectoral.
+
+With regard to the teeth, the incisors,[278] which project largely out
+of the mouth, and are commonly called “tusks,” are of an elongated
+conical form, and generally curved. They are composed mainly of solid
+dentine, the fine elastic quality and large mass of which renders it
+invaluable as “ivory” for commerce and the arts. A peculiarity of the
+dentine of most Proboscidea is that it shows, in transverse fractures or
+sections, striæ proceeding in the arc of a circle from the centre to the
+circumference in opposite directions, and forming by their decussations
+curvilinear lozenges, as in the “engine-turning” of the case of a watch.
+The enamel-covering in existing species is confined to the extreme
+apex, and very soon wears off, but in some extinct species it forms
+persistent longitudinal bands of limited breadth. The tusks have small
+milk-predecessors, shed at an early age.
+
+The molar teeth present a remarkable series of modifications, from the
+comparatively simple form in _Dinotherium_, with two or three strongly
+pronounced transverse ridges and a normal mode of succession, to the
+extremely complex structure and anomalous mode of replacement found in
+the true Elephants. The intermediate conditions occur in the various
+species of _Mastodon_. In this genus the enamel-covered transverse
+ridges of each tooth are generally more numerous than in _Dinotherium_,
+and often complicated by notches dividing their edge or by accessory
+columns attached to them, but in the unworn tooth they stand out freely
+on the surface of the crown, with deep valleys between (Fig. 179, I).
+In the Elephants the ridges are still further increased in number, and
+consequently narrower from before backwards, and are greatly extended
+in vertical height, so that, in order to give solidity to what would
+otherwise be a laminated or pectinated tooth, it becomes necessary to
+envelop and unite the whole in a large mass of cement, which completely
+fills up the valleys, and gives a general smooth appearance to the organ
+when unworn; but as the wear consequent upon the masticating process
+proceeds, the alternate layers of tissue of different hardness—cement,
+dentine, and enamel—which are disclosed upon the surface form a fine and
+very efficient triturating instrument. The modification of the tooth of
+a Mastodon into that of an Elephant is therefore precisely the same in
+principle as that of the molar of a Palæotherium into that of a Horse,
+or of the corresponding tooth of one of the primitive Artiodactyles into
+that of an Ox. The intermediate stages, moreover, even in the present
+state of our knowledge, are so numerous that it is not possible to draw a
+definite line between the two types of tooth structure (see Fig. 179, I,
+II, III, IV).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 179.—Longitudinal sections of the crown of a
+molar tooth of various Proboscideans, showing stages in the gradual
+modification from the simple to the complex form. I, _Mastodon
+americanus_; II, _Elephas insignis_; III, _Elephas africanus_; IV,
+_Elephas primigenius_. The dentine is indicated by transverse lines, the
+cement by a dotted surface, and the enamel is black.]
+
+As regards the mode of succession, that of modern Elephants is, as
+before mentioned, very peculiar. During the complete lifetime of the
+animal there are but six molar teeth on either side of each jaw, with
+occasionally a rudimentary one in front, completing the typical number
+of seven. The last three represent the true molars of ordinary mammals;
+those in front appear to be milk-molars, which are never replaced by
+permanent successors, but the whole series gradually moves forwards in
+the jaw, and the teeth become worn away and their remnants cast out in
+front, while development of others proceeds behind. The individual teeth
+are so large, and the processes of growth and destruction by wear take
+place so slowly, that not more than one, or portions of two, teeth are
+ever in place and in use on either side of each jaw at one time, and the
+whole series of changes coincides with the usual duration of the animal’s
+life. On the other hand, the Dinotherium, the opposite extreme of the
+Proboscidean series, has the whole of the molar teeth in place and use
+at one time, and the milk-molars are vertically displaced by premolars
+in the ordinary fashion. Among Mastodons transitional forms occur in
+the mode of succession as well as in structure, many species showing a
+vertical displacement of one or more of the milk-molars, and the same has
+been observed in one extinct species of Elephant (_E. planifrons_) as
+regards the posterior of these teeth.
+
+All known Proboscideans are animals of comparatively large dimensions,
+and some are the most colossal of land mammals. The head is of great
+proportionate size; and, as the brain case increases but little in bulk
+during growth, while the exterior wall of the skull is required to
+be of great superficial extent to support the trunk and the huge and
+ponderous tusks, and to afford space for the attachment of muscles of
+sufficient size and strength to wield the skull thus heavily weighted,
+an extraordinary development of air-cells takes place in the cancellous
+tissue of nearly all the bones of the cranium (Fig. 180). These cells
+are not only formed in the walls of the cranium proper, but are also
+largely developed in the nasal bones and upper part of the premaxillæ and
+maxillæ, the bones forming the palate and the basicranial axis, and even
+extend into the interior of the ossified mesethmoid and vomer. Where two
+originally distinct bones come into contact, the cells pass freely from
+one to the other, and almost all the sutures become obliterated in old
+animals. The intercellular lamellæ in the great mass which surrounds
+the brain cavity superiorly and laterally mostly radiate from the inner
+to the outer table, but in the other bones their direction is more
+irregular. Like the similar but less developed air-cells in the skulls
+of many other mammals, they all communicate with the nasal passages,
+and they are entirely secondary to the original growth of the bones,
+their development having scarcely commenced in the new-born animal, and
+they gradually enlarge as the growth of the creature proceeds towards
+maturity. The nasal bones are very short, and the anterior narial
+aperture is situated high in the face. The zygomatic arch is slender and
+straight, the jugal bone being small, and forming only the middle part of
+the arch, the anterior part of which (unlike that of typical Ungulates)
+is formed only by the maxilla. The maxillo-turbinals are but rudimentary,
+the elongated proboscis supplying their place functionally in warming and
+clearing from dust the inspired air.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 180.—A vertical section of the skull of the African
+Elephant (_Elephas africanus_) taken to the left of the middle line, and
+including the vomer (_Vo_) and the mesethmoid (_ME_). _an_, Anterior,
+and _pn_, posterior narial aperture. ¹⁄₁₂ natural size. (From Flower’s
+_Osteology of the Mammalia_.)]
+
+The neck is very short. The limbs are long and stout, and remarkable for
+the great length of the upper segment (especially the femur) as compared
+with the distal segment, the manus, and pes. It is owing to this and
+the vertical position of the femur that the knee-joint in the hind leg
+is placed much lower, and is more conspicuous externally than in most
+quadrupedal mammals; and this having been erroneously compared with the
+hock-joint or ankle of typical Ungulates, the popular fallacy that the
+joints of the Elephant’s leg bend in a contrary direction to that of
+other mammals has arisen. There is no round ligament in the hip-joint,
+or third trochanter to the femur. The radius and ulna are distinct,
+though fixed in a crossed or prone position. The fibula also is quite
+distinct from the tibia. The feet are short and broad, the carpal and
+tarsal bones being very square, with flattened surfaces for articulation;
+the astragalus especially differs from that of typical Ungulates in its
+flatness, in the absence of a distinct pulley-like articular surface
+at either extremity, and in having no articular facet for the cuboid.
+The fibula articulates with the calcaneum, as in Artiodactyles. Of
+the five toes present on each extremity (see Fig. 98), the middle one
+is somewhat the largest, and the lateral ones smallest, and generally
+wanting (especially in the hind foot) the complete number of phalanges.
+The ungual phalanges are all small, irregular in form, and late in
+ossification. The whole are encased in a common integument, with a flat,
+subcircular, truncated sole, the only external indication of the toes
+being the broad oval nails or hoofs arranged in a semicircle around the
+front edge of the sole. The hind foot is smaller and narrower than the
+front. The liver is small and simple, and there is no gall-bladder. In
+form the brain resembles that of the Rodents and other lower orders
+of mammals, the cerebellum being entirely behind and uncovered by the
+cerebrum, but the hemispheres of the latter are richly convoluted.
+
+The Proboscidea are exclusively vegetable feeders, living chiefly on
+leaves and young branches of forest trees and various kinds of herbage,
+which they gather and convey to their mouth by the very mobile proboscis,
+an organ which combines in a marvellous manner strength with dexterity
+of application, and is a necessary compensation for the shortness and
+inflexibility of the neck, as by it many of the functions of the lips
+of other animals are performed. By its means the Elephant is enabled
+to drink without bending the head or limbs; the end of the trunk being
+dipped into the stream or pool, a forcible inspiration fills the two
+capacious air-passages in its interior with water, which, on the tip of
+the trunk being turned upwards and inserted into the mouth, is ejected
+by a blowing action, and swallowed; or if the animal wishes to refresh
+and cool its skin, it can throw the water in a copious stream over any
+part of its surface. Elephants can also throw dust and sand over their
+bodies by the same means and for the same purpose, and wild animals
+have been frequently observed fanning themselves with leafy boughs held
+in the trunk. The species are at present limited in their geographical
+distribution to the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, but they formerly had
+a far more extensive range.
+
+
+_Family_ ELEPHANTIDÆ.
+
+Cheek-teeth succeeding one another in an arc of a circle, and portions of
+only two, or at most three, of the hinder teeth in use at any one time.
+Premolars frequently lost, and in any case of no functional importance.
+
+_Elephas._[279]—Dentition: _i_ ¹⁄₀, _c_ ⁰⁄₀, _dm_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃ = 26. The
+incisors variable, but usually of very large size, especially in the
+male sex, directed somewhat outwards, and curved upwards, without enamel
+except on the apex before it is worn. The molars composed of numerous
+flattened enamel-covered plates or ridges of dentine, projecting from
+a common many-rooted base, surrounded and united together by cement,
+and extending straight across the crown, without (in most forms) any
+median division into inner and outer columns. The number of plates
+increases from the anterior to the posterior molar in regular succession,
+varying in the different species, but the third and fourth (or the last
+milk-molar and the first true molar), and these only, have the same
+number of ridges, which always exceeds five. Premolars nearly always
+wanting. Skull of adult very high and globular. Mandible ending in front
+in a short, deflected, and spout-like symphysis. Vertebræ: C 7, D 19-21,
+L 3-4, S 4, C 26-33.
+
+The existing species of the genus differ so much that they have been
+referred by some writers to distinct genera; fossil forms show, however,
+such a transition from the one to the other that it is scarcely possible
+to regard them even as the representatives of distinct groups.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 181.—Grinding surface of a half-worn lower molar of
+the Indian Elephant (_Elephas indicus_). _d_, Dentine; _e_, enamel; _c_,
+cement. (From Owen.)]
+
+In the well-known Indian or Asiatic Elephant (_E. indicus_) the average
+number of plates of the six successive molar teeth is expressed by the
+“ridge-formula,” 4, 8, 12, 12, 16, 24. The plates are compressed from
+before backwards, the anterior and posterior surfaces (as seen in the
+worn grinding face of the tooth, Fig. 181) being nearly parallel. Ears of
+moderate size. Upper margin of the end of the proboscis developed into
+a distinct finger-like process, much longer than the lower margin. Five
+nails on the fore feet, and four (occasionally five) on the hind feet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 182.—Grinding surface of a partially worn right upper
+molar of the African Elephant (_Elephas africanus_). Letters as in the
+preceding figure. The left side of the figure is the front of the tooth,
+and the lower side the outer border. (From Owen.)]
+
+This species inhabits in a wild state the forest lands of India, Burma,
+the Malay Peninsula, Cochin China, Ceylon, and Sumatra. The elephants
+from the last-named islands, presenting some variations from those of
+the mainland, have been separated under the name of _E. sumatranus_, but
+the distinction has not been satisfactorily established. The appearance
+of the Asiatic Elephant is familiar to all. Though rarely breeding in
+captivity, it has been domesticated from the most remote antiquity, and
+is still extensively used in the East as a beast of burden. In the wild
+state it is gregarious, associating in herds of ten, twenty, or more
+individuals, and though it may, under certain circumstances, become
+dangerous, it is generally inoffensive and even timid, fond of shade and
+solitude and the neighbourhood of water. The height of the male at the
+shoulder when full grown is usually from 8 to 10 feet, but occasionally
+as much as 11. The female is somewhat smaller.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 183.—African Elephant (_Elephas africanus_). From a
+young specimen in the London Zoological Gardens.]
+
+In the African Elephant (_E. africanus_) the molars (Fig. 182) are of
+coarse construction, with fewer and larger plates and thicker enamel.
+Ridge-formula: 3, 6, 7, 7, 8, 10. The plates not flattened, but thicker
+in the middle than at the edges, so that their worn grinding surfaces
+are lozenge-shaped. Ears very large. The upper and lower margins of the
+end of the trunk forming two nearly equal prehensile lips. But three
+hoofs on the hind foot. This species now inhabits the wooded districts
+of the whole of Africa south of the Sahara, except where it has been
+driven away by human settlements. Fossil remains of Pleistocene age,
+undistinguishable specifically, have been found in Algeria, Spain, and
+Sicily. It was trained for war and show by the ancient Carthaginians and
+Romans, and recent experience of the species in captivity in England
+shows that it is as intelligent as its Asiatic relative, if not more so,
+while surpassing it in courage, activity, and obstinacy. Nevertheless,
+in modern times, no people in Africa have been sufficiently civilised
+or enterprising to care to train it for domestic purposes. It is hunted
+chiefly for the sake of the ivory of its immense tusks, of which it
+yields the principal source of supply to the European market, and the
+desire to obtain which is rapidly leading to the extermination of the
+species. In size the male African elephant often surpasses that of Asia,
+but the female is usually smaller. The circumference of the fore foot is
+half the height at the shoulder, a circumstance which enables the hunters
+to judge from the footprints the exact size of the animals of which
+they are in pursuit. The African Elephant also differs from its Indian
+congener in having tusks in both sexes, whereas in the latter the male
+only is so armed. Moreover, the eye is relatively larger, the forehead
+more convex, and the colour somewhat darker. Whereas the Indian Elephant
+frequents the depths of forests and seldom leaves their shade during the
+daytime, the following account by Sir Samuel Baker indicates different
+habits in the African species. This traveller observes: “In Africa, the
+country being generally more open than in Ceylon, the Elephant remains
+throughout the day either beneath a solitary tree or exposed to the sun
+in the vast prairies, where the thick grass attains a height of from
+nine to twelve feet. The general food of the African Elephant consists
+of the foliage of trees, especially mimosas. Many of the mimosas are
+flat-headed, about thirty feet high, and the richer portion of the
+foliage confined to the crown. Thus the Elephant, not being able to
+reach to so great a height, must overturn the tree to obtain the coveted
+food. The destruction caused by a herd of Elephants in a mimosa forest
+is extraordinary, and I have seen trees uprooted of so large a size that
+I am convinced no single elephant could have overturned them. I have
+measured trees four feet six inches in circumference and about thirty
+feet high uprooted by elephants. The natives have assured me that the
+elephants mutually assist each other, and that several engage together in
+the work of overturning a large tree.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 184.—Restored skeleton of the Mammoth (_Elephas
+primigenius_). From Tilesius in _Mém. Acad. Imp. Sc. St. Pétersbourg_,
+vol. v. (1815). _s_, Scapula; _h_, humerus; _r_, radius; _u_, ulna;
+_c_, carpus; _rs_, ischium; _f_, femur; _t_, tibia; _fi_, fibula; _ta_,
+tarsus.]
+
+_Extinct Species of Elephant._—Abundant remains of Elephants are found
+embedded in alluvial gravels, or secreted in the recesses of caves,
+into which they have been washed by streams and floods, or dragged as
+food by Hyænas and other carnivorous inhabitants of these subterranean
+dens. Such remains belonging to the Pleistocene and Pliocene periods
+have been found in many parts of Europe, including the British Isles,
+in North Africa, throughout the North American continent from Alaska to
+Mexico, and extensively distributed in Asia, where the deposits of the
+sub-Himalayan Siwalik Hills, and equivalent deposits in the Punjab, Perim
+Island,[280] and Burma, belonging to the earliest Pliocene, are rich
+in the remains of Elephants of varied form. These species are chiefly
+known and characterised at present by the skulls and teeth; some of the
+latter resemble the existing Indian and some the African type, but the
+majority are between the two, and make the distinction between the two
+existing species as of generic importance quite impracticable. Others
+again approach so closely in the breadth and coarseness of the ridges
+and paucity of cement to _Mastodon_ as to have been placed by some
+zoologists in that genus. These form the subgenus called _Stegodon_ by
+Falconer, and may be regarded as a distinct group of the genus.
+
+Among the best known extinct Elephants is _E. primigenius_, the
+Mammoth,[281] very closely resembling the existing Indian species, and
+one of the most recently extinct and extensively distributed of all the
+fossil forms. Probably no animal which has not survived to the historic
+period has left such abundant and well-preserved evidence of its former
+existence. The discovery of immense numbers, not only, as in the case
+of most extinct creatures, in the form of fragmentary bones and teeth,
+but often as more or less nearly entire carcases, or “mummies,” as they
+may be called, with the flesh, skin, and hair _in situ_, in the frozen
+soil of the tundras of Northern Siberia, has for a long time given great
+interest to the species, and been the cause of many legendary stories
+among the natives of the lands in which they occur. Among these one of
+the most prevailing is that the Mammoth was, or still is, an animal which
+passes its life habitually in burrows below the surface of the ground,
+and immediately dies if by any chance it comes into the upper air.
+
+Of the whole group the Mammoth is in many respects, as in the size and
+form of the tusks, and especially the characters of the molar teeth,
+the farthest removed from the primitive Mastodon-like type, while its
+nearest surviving relative, _E. indicus_, has retained the slightly more
+generalised characters of the Mammoth’s contemporaries of more southern
+climes, _E. columbi_ of America, and _E. armeniacus_ of the Old World,
+if, indeed, it can be specifically distinguished from them.
+
+The tusks or upper incisor teeth were doubtless present in both sexes,
+but probably of smaller size in the female. In the adult males they
+often attained the length of from 9 to 10 feet measured along the outer
+curve. Upon leaving the head they were directed at first downwards and
+outwards, then upwards and finally inwards at the tips, and generally
+with a tendency to a spiral form not seen in other species of Elephant.
+Different specimens, however, present great variations in curve, from
+nearly straight to an almost complete circle.
+
+It is chiefly by the characters of the molar teeth that the various
+extinct modifications of the Elephant type are distinguished. Those of
+the Mammoth (Fig. 185) differ from the corresponding organs of allied
+species in the great breadth of the crown as compared with the length,
+the narrowness and close approximation of the ridges, the thinness of the
+enamel and its straightness, parallelism, and absence of “crimping,”
+as seen on the worn surface, or in a horizontal section of the tooth.
+Dr. Falconer gave the prevailing “ridge-formula” as 4, 8, 12, 12, 16,
+24. Dr. Leith Adams, working from more abundant materials, has shown,
+however, that the number of ridges of each tooth, especially those at
+the posterior end of the series, is subject to very great individual
+variation, ranging in each tooth of the series within the following
+limits: 3 to 4, 6 to 9, 9 to 12, 9 to 15, 14 to 16, 18 to 27, excluding
+the small plates called talons at each end of the tooth. Besides these
+variations in the number of ridges or plates of which each tooth is
+composed, the thickness of the enamel varies so much as to have given
+rise to a distinction between a “thick-plated” and a “thin-plated”
+variety—the latter being most prevalent among the specimens from the
+Arctic regions, and most distinctively characteristic of the species.
+From the specimens with thick enamel plates the transition to the other
+species or varieties mentioned above, including _E. indicus_, is almost
+imperceptible.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 185.—Grinding surface of upper molar of the Mammoth
+(_Elephas primigenius_). _c_, Cement; _d_, dentine; _e_, enamel. (From
+Owen.)]
+
+The bones of the skeleton generally more resemble those of the Indian
+Elephant than of any other known species, but the skull differs in the
+narrower summit, narrower temporal fossæ, and more prolonged incisive
+sheaths required to support the roots of the enormous tusks. Among the
+external characters by which the Mammoth was distinguished from either
+of the existing species of Elephant was the dense clothing, not only
+of long coarse outer hair, but also of close woolly under hair, of a
+reddish-brown colour, evidently in adaptation to the colder climate
+which it inhabited. This character, for a knowledge of which we are
+indebted to the well-preserved remains found in Northern Siberia, is also
+represented in the rude but graphic drawings of prehistoric age found in
+caverns in the south of France.[282] In size different individuals varied
+considerably, but the average height does not appear to have exceeded
+that of either of the existing species of Elephant.
+
+The geographical range of the Mammoth was very extensive. There is
+scarcely a county in England in which some of its remains have not been
+found either in alluvial deposits of gravel or in caverns, and numbers
+of its teeth are from time to time dredged up from the bottom of the sea
+by the fishermen who ply their trade in the German Ocean, having been
+washed out of the water-worn cliffs of the eastern counties of England.
+In Scotland and Ireland its remains are less abundant, but they have been
+found in vast numbers at various localities throughout the greater part
+of Central Europe (as far south as Santander in Spain and Rome), Northern
+Asia, and the northern part of the American continent, though the exact
+distribution of the Mammoth in the New World is still a question of
+debate. It has not hitherto been met with in any part of Scandinavia or
+Finland.
+
+In point of time, the Mammoth belongs exclusively to the Pleistocene
+epoch, and it was undoubtedly contemporaneous with man in France, and
+probably elsewhere. There is evidence to show that it existed in Britain
+before, during, and after the glacial period.
+
+As before indicated, it is in the northern part of Siberia that its
+remains have been found in the greatest abundance, and in quite
+exceptional conditions of preservation. For a very long period there
+has been from that region a regular export of Mammoth ivory in a state
+fit for commercial purposes, both eastward to China and westward to
+Europe. In the middle of the tenth century an active trade was carried
+on at Khiva in fossil ivory, which was fashioned into combs, vases, and
+other objects, as related by Abu’l Kásim, an Arab writer of that period.
+Middendorff reckoned that the number of tusks which have yearly come into
+the market during the last two centuries has been at least a hundred
+pairs, and Nordenskiöld, from personal observation, considers this
+calculation as probably rather too low than too high. They are found at
+all suitable places along the whole line of the shore between the mouth
+of the Obi and Behring Straits, and the farther north the more numerous
+do they become, the islands of New Siberia being now one of the most
+favourite collecting localities. The soil of Bear Island and of Liachoff
+Islands is said to consist only of sand and ice with such quantities of
+Mammoth bones as almost to compose its chief substance. The remains are
+not only found around the mouths of the great rivers, as would be the
+case if the carcases had been washed down from more southern localities
+in the interior of the continent, but are imbedded in the frozen soil in
+such circumstances as to indicate that the animals had lived not far from
+the localities in which they are now found, and they are exposed either
+by the melting of the ice in unusually warm summers or by the washing
+away of the sea cliffs or river banks by storms or floods. In this way
+the bodies of more or less nearly perfect animals, often standing in the
+erect position, with the soft parts and hairy covering entire, have been
+brought to light.
+
+References to the principal recorded discoveries of this kind, and to the
+numerous speculations to which they have given rise, both among ignorant
+peasants and learned academicians, will be found in Nordenskiöld’s
+_Voyage of the Vega_ (English translation, vol. i. 1881, p. 398 _sq._)
+and a series of papers in the _Geological Magazine_ for 1880 and 1881,
+by H. H. Howorth, as well as in a separate work on the Mammoth by the
+same writer. For the geographical distribution and anatomical characters,
+see Falconer’s _Palæontological Memoirs_, vol. ii. 1868; Boyd Dawkins,
+“_Elephas primigenius_, its Range in Space and Time,” _Quart. Journ.
+Geol. Soc._ xxxv. p. 138 (1879); and Leith Adams, “Monograph of British
+Fossil Elephants,” part ii., _Palæontographical Society_ (1879).
+
+_E. antiquus_, of the European Pleistocene, has a lower ridge-formula
+than in the Mammoth, the molars being narrower, and approximating to
+those of the African Elephant in structure. Small allied forms occur in
+the rock-fissures and caverns of Malta, and have been described as _E.
+mnaidriensis_ and _E. melitensis_; some of the individuals of the latter
+not exceeding 3 feet in height. The European _E. meridionalis_ is a
+southern form of somewhat earlier age, very common in the Upper Pliocene
+of Italy and France, and also in the so-called Forest-bed of the Norfolk
+coast. It attained very large dimensions, its height being estimated at
+upwards of 15 feet. The ridge-formula is lower than in _E. antiquus_, the
+molars are broad, with the worn enamel-discs generally expanded in the
+middle, and the enamel itself is crenulated.
+
+Elephant remains are very abundant in the Pleistocene and Pliocene
+deposits of India, those from the latter beds being the oldest
+representatives of the genus. Of these the Pleistocene _E. namadicus_
+appears closely allied to _E. antiquus_, from which it is distinguished
+by a bold ridge across the forehead. Among the Pliocene forms _E.
+hysudricus_ may be an ancestral type allied to the Indian Elephant;
+while _E. planifrons_ is closely related to _E. meridionalis_, although
+retaining the ancestral feature of developing premolars.
+
+The Stegodont group is peculiar to the eastern parts of the Old World,
+and, as already observed, connects the true Elephants intimately with
+the Mastodons. The molars (Fig. 179, II) are characterised by the
+lowness of the ridges, while the intervening valleys may have but little
+cement, and there may be a more or less distinct longitudinal groove
+in the crown dividing each ridge into an inner and an outer moiety. In
+species like _E. insignis_ the ridge-formula is nearly the same as in
+_E. meridionalis_, but in _E. clifti_ some of the molars carry only six
+ridges, and premolars were present, so that we thus have such a complete
+transition to the next genus that it is very difficult to know where to
+draw the line between the two.
+
+_Mastodon._[283]—Dentition: _i_ ¹⁄₁₋₀, _c_ ⁰⁄₀, _dm_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃. Upper
+incisors large, as in _Elephas_, sometimes with longitudinal bands of
+enamel, more or less spirally disposed. Lower incisors variable; when
+present comparatively small and straight, sometimes persistent, sometimes
+early deciduous, and in some species never present. Grinding surface of
+molars with transverse ridges, the summits of which are divided more
+or less into conical or mammillary cusps, and often with secondary or
+additional cusps between and clustering against the principal ridges;
+enamel thick; cement very scanty, never filling up the interspaces
+between the ridges. The third, fourth, and fifth cheek-teeth (_i.e._ the
+last milk-molar, and the first and second molars) having the same number
+of ridges,[284] which never exceeds five.
+
+In the upper jaw the incisors, though of large size, were apparently
+never so much curved as in some species of Elephant, and they often
+have longitudinal bands of enamel, more or less spirally disposed upon
+their surface, which are not met with in Elephants. Lower incisors were
+present throughout life in some species, which have the symphysis of the
+lower jaw greatly elongated to support them (as in _M. angustidens_, _M.
+pentilici_, and _M. longirostris_). In the common North American species
+(_M. americanus_) the mandibular symphysis is short, but it may have a
+small incisor on one side. In other species no inferior tusks have been
+found, at all events in adult life (see figure of _M. arvernensis_).
+
+The molar teeth increase in size from before backwards, but as many as
+three of these teeth may be in place in each jaw at one time. There is
+in many species a true vertical succession, affecting either the third,
+or the third and second, or (in _M. productus_) the first, second, and
+third of the six molariform teeth. These three are therefore reckoned as
+milk-molars, and their successors as premolars, while the last three,
+which are never changed, correspond to the true molars of those animals
+in which the typical dentition is fully developed. The study of the mode
+of succession of the teeth in the different species of Mastodons is
+particularly interesting, as it exhibits so many stages of the process
+by which the very anomalous dentition of the modern Elephants may have
+been derived by gradual modification from the typical heterodont and
+diphyodont dentition of the ordinary mammal. It also shows that the
+anterior molars of Elephants do not correspond to the premolars of other
+Ungulates, but to the milk-molars, the early loss of which in consequence
+of the peculiar process of horizontal forward-moving succession does
+not require, or allow time for, their replacement by premolars. It must
+be noted, however, that, in the Mastodon in some respects the least
+specialised in tooth-structure, the _M. americanus_ of North America, no
+vertical succession of the molars has yet been observed, although vast
+numbers of specimens have been examined.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 186.—Restoration of the skeleton of _Mastodon
+arvernensis_, from the Pliocene of Europe, (After Sismonda.)]
+
+The Mastodons have fewer ridges on their molar teeth than the
+Elephants; the ridges are also less elevated, wider apart, have a
+thicker enamel-covering, and scarcely any cement filling up the space
+between them. Sometimes (as in _M. americanus_) the ridges are simple
+transverse wedge-shaped elevations, with straight or concave edges. In
+other species the summits of the ridges are more or less subdivided into
+conical cusps, and may have accessory cusps clustering around them (as
+in _M. americanus_, see Fig. 187). When the apices of these are worn by
+mastication, their surfaces present circles of dentine, surrounded by a
+border of enamel, and as the attrition proceeds different patterns are
+produced by the union of the bases of the cusps, a trilobed or trefoil
+form being characteristic of some species (Fig. 188).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 187.—Oblique side and crown view of the last upper
+molar of _Mastodon arvernensis_. (From Owens.)]
+
+As already mentioned, certain of the molariform teeth of the middle of
+the series in Mastodons have the same number of principal ridges, those
+in front of them having fewer and those behind a greater number. These
+teeth were distinguished as “intermediate” molars by Dr. Falconer, and
+are three in number, namely the last milk-molar and the first and second
+true molars (or the third, fourth, and fifth of the whole series). The
+number of ridges on these intermediate molars is nearly always three or
+four, and the tooth in front has usually one fewer and that behind one
+more, so that the ridge-formula of most Mastodons can be reduced either
+to 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, or 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5. The former characterises the
+section called _Trilophodon_ (of which an intermediate molar is shown in
+Fig. 188), and the latter that called _Tetralophodon_ by Dr. Falconer.
+These divisions are very useful, as under one or the other all the
+present known species of Mastodon can be ranged, but observations upon a
+larger number of individuals have shown that the number of ridges upon
+the teeth is not quite so constant as implied by the formulæ given above.
+Their exact enumeration is even difficult in many cases, as “talons” or
+small accessory ridges at the hinder end of the teeth occur in various
+stages of development, until they take on the character of true ridges.
+Transitional conditions have also been shown, at least in some of the
+teeth, between the trilophodont and the tetralophodont forms, and again
+between the latter and what has been called a “pentalophodont” type,
+which leads on towards the condition of dental structure characteristic
+of the true Elephants.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 188.—Grinding surface of the partially worn last left
+lower milk-molar of _Mastodon angustidens_, from the Upper Miocene of
+India. The lower side of the figure is the outer border of the tooth.]
+
+The range of the genus _Mastodon_ in time was from the middle of the
+Miocene period to the end of the Pliocene in the Old World, when it
+became extinct; but in America several species—especially the one best
+known, owing to the abundance of its remains, which has been variously
+called _M. americanus_, _M. ohioticus_, and _M. giganteus_—survived to a
+late Pleistocene period.
+
+The range in space will be best indicated by the following list
+of some of the better known species. (1) Trilophodont series—_M.
+angustidens_,[285] _borsoni_, _pentelici_, _turiensis_, from Europe; _M.
+falconeri_ and _pandionis_, from India; _M. americanus_, _obscurus_, and
+_productus_, North America; and _M. cordillerum_ and _humboldti_, South
+America. (2) Tetralophodont series—_M. arvernensis_, _M. longirostris_,
+from Europe; _M. latidens_, _sivalensis_, and _perimensis_, from
+India; _M. mirificus_, from North America. _Mastodon arvernensis_ and
+_M. longirostris_, together with a trilophodont species, occur in the
+crag-deposits of Norfolk and Suffolk.
+
+
+_Family_ DINOTHERIIDÆ.
+
+An extinct family distinguished from the _Elephantidæ_ by the whole
+series of permanent cheek-teeth being in use at the same time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 189.—Skull of _Dinotherium giganteum_, from the
+Lower Pliocene of Eppelsheim, Hessen-Darmstadt. (After Kaup.) _p_, 3, 4,
+premolars; 1, 2, 3, molars.]
+
+_Dinotherium._[286]—Dentition of adult: _i_ ⁰⁄₁, _c_ ⁰⁄₀, _p_ ²⁄₂,
+_m_ ³⁄₃ = 22; all present at the same time, there being no horizontal
+succession, but the premolars replacing milk-teeth in the ordinary
+manner. The presence or absence of upper incisors has not yet been
+clearly ascertained. Lower incisors large, conical, descending, and
+slightly curved backwards, implanted in a greatly thickened and deflected
+beak or prolongation of the symphysis. In section they do not show the
+decussating striæ characteristic of Mastodons and Elephants. Crowns of
+molars carrying strong transverse, crenulated ridges, with deep valleys
+between, much resembling the lower ones of the Tapirs. Ridge-formula of
+the permanent molar series: 2, 2, 3, 2, 2. The three ridges of the first
+true molar are constant in both upper and lower jaws, although it is
+quite an anomalous character among Proboscideans for this molar to have
+more ridges than those which come behind it. The last milk-molar has also
+three ridges, the penultimate but two. The cranium is much depressed,
+with comparatively little development of air-cells. The remainder of
+the skeleton is imperfectly known, but apparently agrees in its general
+character with that of the other Proboscideans.
+
+Remains of _Dinotherium giganteum_, an animal of elephantine proportions,
+strikingly characterised by the pair of huge tusks descending nearly
+vertically from the front of the lower jaw, were first discovered at
+Eppelsheim, near Darmstadt, and described by Kaup. They have since been
+met with in various Lower Pliocene and higher Miocene formations in the
+south of Germany, France, Greece, and Asia Minor. Closely allied forms
+also occur in the Lower Pliocene and Upper Miocene of India, but none are
+known from America.
+
+
+_Suborder_ AMBLYPODA.
+
+_Uintatherium._[287]—Among the most remarkable of the comparatively
+recent discoveries in the higher Eocene formations of the western
+states of North America has been one of a group of animals of huge
+size, approaching that of the largest existing Elephants, presenting a
+combination of characters quite unlike those known among other recent or
+extinct creatures, and of which there were evidently many species living
+contemporaneously, but all of which became extinct before the close of
+the Eocene period. To form some idea of their appearance, we must imagine
+animals very elephantine in general proportions and in the structure of
+their limbs. The feet had five short toes. The tail, as in the Elephants,
+was long and slender, but the neck, though still short, was not so much
+abbreviated as in the Proboscideans, and there is no evidence that these
+animals possessed a trunk. The head differed greatly from that of the
+Elephants, being long and narrow, more like that of a Rhinoceros, and,
+as in that animal, was elevated behind into a great occipital crest,
+and it had developed upon its upper surface three pairs of conspicuous,
+laterally diverging protuberances—one pair in the parietal region,
+one on the maxillaries in front of the orbits, and one (much smaller)
+near the fore part of the elongated nasal bones. Whether these were
+merely covered by bosses of callous skin, as the rounded form and
+ruggedness of their extremities would indicate, or whether they formed
+the bases of attachment for horns of still greater extent, like those
+of the Rhinoceros or of the Cavicorn Ruminants, can only be a matter
+of conjecture. There were no upper incisors, but usually three on each
+side below, of comparatively small size, as was also the lower canine.
+A huge, compressed, curved, sharp-pointed canine tusk, very similar in
+form and position to that of the Musk-Deer, descended from each side of
+the upper jaw. These were present in both sexes, but very much smaller
+in the female, as was also the flange-like process of the lower jaw by
+which they were guarded. Behind these, and at some distance from them,
+were on each side above and below six cheek-teeth, of comparatively
+small size, placed in continuous series, each with a pair of oblique
+ridges conjoined internally and diverging externally in a V-like manner,
+and provided with a stout basal cingulum. The normal dental formula was
+therefore _i_ ⁰⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃ = 34; and the dentition had
+thus already attained a remarkable degree of specialisation, although the
+brain was smaller and more rudimentary in characters than in almost any
+other known mammal. In its comparative length and the absence of a third
+trochanter the femur of these animals resembles that of the Proboscidea.
+The first discovered evidences of the existence of animals of this group
+were described by Leidy in 1872, under the name of _Uintatherium_ (from
+the Uinta mountains, near which they were found). Subsequently the
+names _Dinoceras_, _Tinoceras_, _Loxolophodon_, etc., have been applied
+to various members of the group, but the characters by which they are
+distinguished do not seem of sufficient importance to allow of their
+separation from the type genus _Uintatherium_.[288]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 190.—Skeleton of _Uintatherium mirabile_. ¹⁄₃₀
+natural size. (From Marsh, _Am. Journ. Sci._ vol. xii. p. 2.)]
+
+_Coryphodon._[289]—Another interesting form referred to this suborder is
+_Coryphodon_, which appears to connect the _Uintatheriidæ_ with the most
+primitive Perissodactyla. It was first described by Owen in 1846 from a
+fragment of a jaw from the London Clay. Other remains were afterwards
+discovered in France, and lately in great abundance, indicating many
+species from the size of a Tapir to that of a Rhinoceros, in the Lower
+and Middle Eocenes of New Mexico and Wyoming in the United States.
+_Coryphodon_ had forty-four teeth; the canines of both jaws were large
+and sharp pointed, and the molars had strongly pronounced oblique
+ridges. The general proportions were those of a Bear, but the tail was
+of moderate length, and the feet short and wide. The femur had a third
+trochanter; and the cranium was devoid of protuberances. The genus should
+be regarded as the type of a distinct family _Coryphodontidæ_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 191.—Palatal aspect of the cranium of _Coryphodon
+hamatus_, from the Wasatch Eocene of New Mexico. ²⁄₉ natural size. (After
+Cope.)]
+
+
+_Suborder_ CONDYLARTHRA.
+
+The term Condylarthra has been proposed by Professor Cope for a number
+of generalised and mostly comparatively small Ungulates, which were
+probably allied both to the Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla, but present
+characters separating them from those divisions as commonly defined. In
+the structure of the carpus and tarsus these forms (which are chiefly
+known to us from the Eocene of the United States) come nearer to the
+Hyracoidea than to any other existing type. As a rule they have the full
+dental formula; the molars are brachydont, generally bunodont, and in
+many instances also tritubercular; while the premolars are always simpler
+than the molars.
+
+The humerus is quite peculiar among Ungulates in having an entepicondylar
+foramen; the femur has a third trochanter; and the form and relations of
+the astragalus are similar to those obtaining in the Carnivora. The feet
+are usually furnished with five functional digits, of which the ungual
+phalanges are pointed. In many respects the skeleton of these remarkably
+generalised Ungulates approximates so decidedly to a Carnivorous type as
+to have led palæontologists to conclude that the Ungulata and Carnivora
+are branches of an original common stock.
+
+In this work space only permits of allusion to a few of the more
+important types of this group. _Periptychus_, which occurs in the lowest
+Eocene of New Mexico, is a bunodont type readily distinguished by the
+vertical flutings of the premolars, and the small size of the incisors
+and canines. It has been suggested that this genus is closely related to
+the stock of the bunodont Artiodactyla. Of greater interest is the genus
+_Phenacodus_, which is regarded as the lowest factor in the series from
+which the modern Horse has been evolved, where it holds the position
+immediately below _Hyracotherium_ or, _Systemodon_ (see p. 374). One of
+the species was about the size of a Bull-dog, while another might be
+compared to a small Leopard. The structure of the cheek-teeth is such
+as might readily be modified into that obtaining in _Hyracotherium_;
+all the feet had five fully developed digits, and the tail was long.
+_Meniscotherium_ and _Hyracodontotherium_ are more specialised forms of
+somewhat later age, with a lophodont dentition: the latter genus being
+European.
+
+
+_Suborder_ TOXODONTIA.
+
+In addition to the _Macraucheniidæ_ and certain other forms noticed
+under the head of the Perissodactyla, the Tertiaries of South America
+have yielded some very remarkable forms of mammalian life, the nature
+and affinities of which have greatly puzzled all zoologists who have
+attempted to unravel them.
+
+_Nesodon_ and _Toxodon_.—Among these _Nesodon_, from Patagonia, has the
+full typical Eutherian number of teeth; the crowns of the incisors being
+short, and the molars having a complex rhinocerotic type of structure
+somewhat intermediate between _Homalodontotherium_ (p. 412) and the
+following genus _Toxodon_. The typical species of _Nesodon_ was about
+as large as a Sheep, but nothing more is known of it than the teeth and
+portions of the skull.
+
+_Toxodon_ is an animal about the size of a Hippopotamus; it was first
+discovered by Darwin, and many specimens have since been found in
+Pleistocene deposits near Buenos Ayres, and described by Owen, Gervais,
+and Burmeister. The teeth consist of large incisors, very small lower
+canines, and strongly curved molars, all with persistent roots, the
+formula being apparently _i_ ²⁄₃, _c_ ⁰⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃ = 38.
+The cranial characters exhibit a combination of those found in both
+Perissodactyles and Artiodactyles, but the form of the hinder part of the
+palate and the absence of an alisphenoid canal belong to the latter; and
+the tympanic, firmly fixed in between the squamosal and the exoccipital,
+ankylosed to both, and forming the floor of a long upward-directed meatus
+auditorius, is so exactly like that of the Suina that it is difficult
+to believe it does not indicate some real affinity to that group. These
+characters seem to outweigh in importance those by which some zoologists
+have linked _Toxodon_ to the Perissodactyla, and the absence of the third
+trochanter and the articulation of the fibula with the calcaneum tell in
+the same direction. According to the recent observations of Ameghino the
+hind feet were certainly tridactylous, and the front feet probably so.
+The earlier allied genera _Protoxodon_ and _Adinotherium_ are definitely
+known to have tridactylous front and hind feet, which conform to the
+Perissodactylate type, the bones of the proximal and distal rows of the
+carpus interlocking. _Acrotherium_, which has similar feet, differs
+from all other Ungulates, and indeed from all Eutherians except some
+individuals of the existing carnivorous genus _Otocyon_, in having eight
+cheek-teeth, five of which have been reckoned as premolars.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 192.—Cranium and Lower Jaw of _Typotherium
+cristatum_. ¹⁄₃ natural size. From Gervais.]
+
+_Typotherium._—_Typotherium_ (Fig. 192), also called _Mesotherium_,
+from the same locality as _Toxodon_, was an animal rather larger than
+a Capybara, and of much the same general appearance. Its skeleton is
+completely known, and shows a singular combination of characters,
+resembling _Toxodon_ or a generalised Ungulate on the one hand, and the
+Rodents, especially the _Leporidæ_, on the other. In the presence of
+clavicles it differs from all known Ungulates, and in having two pairs of
+lower incisors from all Rodents. The teeth are _i_ ¹⁄₂, _c_ ⁰⁄₀, _p_ ²⁄₁,
+_m_ ³⁄₃ = 24.
+
+From the Tertiaries of various parts of South America a number of forms
+more or less closely allied to _Toxodon_ and _Typotherium_ have been
+recently described, but as many of them are very imperfectly known, and
+there is much doubt as to their generic position, it will be unnecessary
+to refer to them further.
+
+It will thus be seen that, although our knowledge of many of these
+forms is still very limited, we may trace among them a curious chain of
+affinities, which would seem to unite the Ungulates on the one hand with
+the Rodents on the other; but further materials are required before we
+can establish with certainty so important a relationship, one which,
+if true, would alter materially some of the prevailing views upon the
+classification of mammals.
+
+
+_Group_ TILLODONTIA.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 193.—Skull of _Tillotherium fodiens_. ⅙ natural size.
+From Marsh.]
+
+Here may be noticed a remarkable group of animals, called by Marsh,
+Tillodontia, the remains of which are found abundantly in the Lower and
+Middle Eocene beds of North America. They seem to combine the characters
+of the Ungulata, Rodentia, and Carnivora. In the genus _Tillotherium_ of
+Marsh (probably identical with the previously described _Anchippodus_ of
+Leidy) the skull (Fig. 193) resembled that of the Bears, but the molar
+teeth were of the Ungulate type, while the large incisors were very
+similar to those of the Rodents. The dental formula is _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁,
+_p_ ³⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃. The first pair of incisors was very small; the upper
+molars were tritubercular, while the lower ones had crescentoid ridges as
+in _Palæotherium_. The skeleton resembled that of the Carnivores, but the
+scaphoid and lunar bones were distinct, and there was a third trochanter
+on the femur. The feet were plantigrade, and each had five digits, all
+with long pointed claws. In the allied genus _Stylinodon_ all the teeth
+were rootless. Some forms were as large as a Tapir.
+
+These, with other more or less closely allied animals, such as
+_Calamodon_ and _Psittacotherium_, constituting a group called
+Tæniodonta, are included by Cope in his large order Bunotheria, to which
+also the existing Insectivora are referred. The dentition of some of
+these forms makes a remarkable approximation towards a Rodent type,
+while it has been suggested that there are also signs of remote Edentate
+affinities. The constantly increasing knowledge of these annectant forms
+adds to the difficulty so often referred to in this work of establishing
+anything like a definite classification of the heterodont mammals.
+An incisor tooth from the Swiss Eocene has recently been referred to
+_Calamodon_.
+
+    _Bibliography of Ungulata._—In addition to the works and
+    memoirs mentioned under the different sections of the order,
+    the following may be referred to:—W. Kowalevsky, “Monographie
+    des genus Anthracotherium,” _Palæontographica_ 1873; Id. “Sur
+    l’Anchitherium aurelianense et sur l’histoire paléontologique
+    des Chevaux,” _Mém. de l’Acad. Imp. des Sciences de St.
+    Pétersbourg_, 1873; Id. “On the Osteology of the Hyopotamidæ,”
+    _Philosophical Transactions_, 1873; L. Rütimeyer, “Versuch
+    einer natürlichen Geschichte des Rindes.” etc., _Neue Denks.
+    der allgem. Schweiz. Gesellsch. für Naturwissenschaften_, 1867;
+    Id. “Die Rinder der Tertiär-Epoche,” _Abhand. der Schweiz.
+    Paläont. Gesellsch._ 1877 and 1878; Id. “Beiträge zu einer
+    Natürliche Geschichte der Hirsche,” _ibid._ 1880-1881; C. J.
+    Forsyth-Major, “Beiträge zur Geschichte der Fossilen Pferde,”
+    _ibid._ 1880; M. Schlosser, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der
+    Stammesgeschichte der Hufthiere und Versuch einer Systematik
+    der Paar- und Unpaarhufer,” _Morph. Jahrb._ 1886; E. D. Cope,
+    “The Perissodactyla,” _Amer. Natural._ 1887; M. Pavlow, “Études
+    sur l’histoire paléontologique des Ongulés,” _Bull. Soc. Imp.
+    Naturalistes Moscow_, 1887-1890. W. B. Scott and H. F. Osborn,
+    “The Mammalia of the Uinta Formation,” _Trans. Amer. Phil.
+    Soc._ vol. xvi. (1889).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE ORDER RODENTIA
+
+
+The Rodentia, or Rodents, form a well-defined order, readily
+distinguished by their large scalpriform incisors and the absence of
+any trace of canines. The existing forms are mostly of comparatively
+small size, and are generally of terrestrial habits, although a few are
+arboreal or natatorial. The dentition is diphyodont; the mandible never
+has more than a single pair of incisors; the premolars are always below
+the full number, being very generally ¹⁄₁, or altogether wanting. The
+feet are plantigrade or semi-plantigrade, generally with five digits,
+and usually unguiculate, although occasionally of a subungulate type.
+Clavicles are present as a rule, although they may be imperfect or
+rudimentary.
+
+The upper incisors resemble the lower in growing uninterruptedly from
+persistent pulps, and, except in the suborder Duplicidentata, agree with
+them in number; the premolars and molars may be rooted or rootless, with
+tuberculated or laminated crowns, and are arranged in an unbroken series.
+The orbits communicate freely with the temporal fossæ; the condyle of the
+mandible is elongated in the antero-posterior direction, and, through the
+absence of a post-glenoid process to the squamosal, admits of a backward
+and forward motion of the jaw. The intestine (except in the _Myoxidæ_)
+has a large cæcum; the testes are inguinal or abdominal; the uterus is
+two-horned, the cornua either opening separately into the vagina or
+uniting to form a corpus uteri; the placenta is discoidal and deciduate;
+and the smooth cerebral hemispheres do not extend backwards so as to
+cover any part of the cerebellum.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 194.—Skull of _Hystrix cristata_ (juv.) _t_, Temporal
+muscle; _m_, masseter; _m′_, portion of masseter transmitted through
+the infraorbital foramen, the superior maxillary nerve passing outwards
+between it and the maxillary bone.]
+
+The Rodents include by far the greatest number of species, and have the
+widest distribution of any of the orders of terrestrial mammals, being in
+fact cosmopolitan, although more abundant in some parts than in others.
+The total number of known existing species exceeds 900. South America may
+be regarded as their headquarters at the present day; while in Australia
+and Madagascar they are represented only by a few genera. All the Rodents
+are exclusively herbivorous, and the whole of them gather their food
+by gnawing. They present considerable diversity of habits. Thus the
+Squirrels are arboreal, and some of them provided with a parachute for
+taking flying leaps from tree to tree; the Hares are cursorial; the
+Jerboas agile jumpers; the Mole-Rats fossorial; while the Beavers and
+Water-Voles are aquatic. In spite, however, of this diversity of habits
+the Rodents present a remarkable similarity in general structure; so
+much so, indeed, that the characters employed for distinguishing the
+various families and genera are comparatively trivial, and of slight
+structural importance. The skull of the Rodents is characterised by the
+invariable presence of the zygomatic arch, of which the middle portion
+is formed by the jugal (Fig. 7, p. 37); and, as already mentioned, the
+orbit communicates freely with the temporal fossa. There is invariably
+a long diastema separating the incisors from the cheek-teeth; and, with
+the exception of the Duplicidentata, the glenoid cavity of the squamosal
+is elongated antero-posteriorly. Postorbital processes of the frontals
+exist only in the Squirrels, Marmots, and Hares; in all other genera they
+are rudimentary or altogether absent; the zygoma never sends upwards a
+corresponding process; the lachrymal foramen is always within the orbital
+margin; in many species the infraorbital foramen is very large (in some
+as large as the orbit), and transmits part of the great masseter muscle
+(Fig. 194, _m_), by means of which the jaws are worked. The zygomatic
+arch varies in its degree of development, and the position of the jugal
+therein is used as a distinguishing character for grouping the families;
+the nasals are, with few exceptions, large, and extend far forwards; the
+parietals are moderate, and there is generally a distinct interparietal.
+The palate is narrow from before backwards—this being especially
+pronounced in the Hares, where it is reduced to a mere bridge between the
+premolars; while in other cases, as in the Mole-Rats (_Bathyerginæ_), it
+is extremely narrow transversely, its width being less than that of one
+of the molar teeth. Auditory bullæ are always present, and generally
+large; in some genera, as in the Gerbilles and Jerboas, there are also
+supplemental mastoid bullæ forming great hemispherical bony swellings at
+the back of the skull (see Fig. 7, _Per_); and in these genera, and in
+the true Hares, the meatus auditorius is tubular and directed upwards
+and backwards. The mandible is characterised by the abruptly narrowed
+and rounded symphysial part supporting the large incisors, as well as by
+the small size of the coronoid process and the great development of the
+angular portion.
+
+The dental formula varies from _i_ ²⁄₁, _c_ ⁰⁄₀, _p_ ³⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃ (total
+28) in the Duplicidentata to _i_ ¹⁄₁, _c_ ⁰⁄₀, _p_ ⁰⁄₀, _m_ ²⁄₂ (total
+12) in _Hydromys_, _Xeromys_, and one species of _Heterocephalus_; but
+in the great majority of forms it is very constant, _i_ ¹⁄₁, _c_ ⁰⁄₀,
+_p_ ⁰⁻¹⁄₀₋₁, _m_ ³⁄₃ being very typical. Only in the Duplicidentata is
+there a second pair of upper incisors, which are of very small size, and
+situated immediately behind the large normal pair. This group is also
+peculiar in that the enamel of the incisors is not confined to their
+anterior surfaces, but extends partially on to their sides. It is by
+reason of the thick layer of enamel on their anterior surface and its
+absence from the posterior surface that the incisors maintain their
+sharp chisel-like edge, which is so essentially characteristic of the
+order. Both the upper and the lower incisors are regularly curved—the
+curvature being somewhat greater in the upper ones—and since they grew
+continuously from persistent pulps, it is quite evident that should any
+accident, such as the loss of one of them, or displacement by fracture
+of the jaw, prevent the regulation of the length by attrition against
+one another, the unopposed tooth will gradually curve upon itself until
+a complete circle or more has been formed, the tooth, perhaps, passing
+during its growth through some part of the animal’s head. The molars, as
+already mentioned, may be rooted or rootless, tuberculated or laminated;
+this diversity of structure occurring even in the same family. When there
+are more than three cheek-teeth those in front of the last three have
+succeeded milk-teeth, and must therefore be considered premolars. In some
+species, as in the Agoutis (_Dasyproctidæ_), the milk-teeth are long
+retained, while in the allied Cavies (_Caviidæ_) they are shed before
+birth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 195.—Vertical and longitudinal section through
+skull of the Beaver (_Castor fiber_) showing the cerebral cavity, the
+greatly developed turbinal lamellæ, the mode of implantation of the large
+incisor, and the curved, rootless molars.]
+
+There are generally nineteen dorso-lumbar vertebræ (thirteen dorsal and
+six lumbar), their form varying in the different genera. In the cursorial
+and leaping species the lumbar transverse processes are generally
+very long, and in the Hares there are large compressed hypapophyses.
+The caudal vertebræ exhibit great variety in structure, being in a
+rudimentary condition in the Guinea-Pig, while in the Jumping Hares
+and prehensile-tailed Porcupines they are of very large dimensions.
+The scapula is usually narrow, with a long acromion; the clavicles may
+be altogether absent or imperfect, as in the Porcupines, Cavies, and
+Hares, but in most species they are well developed. In all existing
+forms the humerus has no entepicondylar foramen, and the radius and
+ulna are distinct. In most species the manus has five digits, with
+phalanges normally developed; the pollex being rarely rudimentary or
+absent. The pelvis has well-developed ischia and pubes, meeting in a
+long, and usually bony, symphysis. The femur varies considerably in form,
+but generally has a well-defined third trochanter; in the Sciurine and
+Hystricine Rodents the tibia and fibula are distinct, but in the Rats
+and other Murines, and in the Hares, these bones are united, often high
+up; the pes is much more variable than the manus, the digits varying
+in number from five, as in the Squirrels and Rats, to four, as in the
+Hares, or even three, as in the Capybara, Viscacha, and Agouti; in the
+_Dipodidæ_ the metatarsals are greatly elongated, and in some of the
+species, as in the Jerboas, they are ankylosed together.
+
+The mouth is divided into two cavities communicating by a constricted
+orifice, an anterior one containing the large incisors, and a posterior
+one in which the molars are placed; the hairy integument of the face
+being continued inwards behind the incisors. This peculiar arrangement
+evidently prevents substances not intended for food getting into the
+mouth, as when the animal is engaged in gnawing through an obstacle.
+In the Hares and Pacas the inside of the cheeks is hairy, and in some
+species, as in the Pouched Rats and Hamsters, there are large internal
+cheek-pouches lined with the hairy integument, which open near the angles
+of the mouth and extend backwards behind the ears. In the New World
+Pouched Rats (_Geomyidæ_) the pouches open externally on the cheeks. The
+tongue presents little variability in length, being always short and
+compressed, with an obtuse apex never protruded beyond the incisors. In
+most species there are three circumvallate papillæ at the base; and the
+apical portion is generally covered with small filiform papillæ, some
+of which in the Porcupines (_Hystrix_) become greatly enlarged, forming
+toothed spines. The stomach varies in form from the simple oval sac of
+the Squirrel to the complex ruminant-like organ of the Lemming. In the
+Water-Vole (_Arvicola amphibius_) and the Agouti (_Dasyprocta aguti_)
+it is strongly constricted between the œsophagus and pylorus. In the
+common Dormouse the œsophagus immediately before entering the stomach is
+much dilated, forming a large egg-shaped sac with thickened glandular
+walls; and in some other species, as in _Lophiomys imhausi_ and in the
+Beaver, glandular masses are attached to and open into the cardiac or
+pyloric pouches. The alimentary canal (Fig. 196) of all Rodents, with
+the exception of the Dormice (_Myoxidæ_), has a cæcum, which is often
+of great length and sacculated, as in the Hares, Water-Voles, and
+Porcupines. In some instances, as in the Hamster and Water-Vole, the long
+colon is spirally twisted upon itself near its commencement. The liver is
+typically divided in all, but the lobes are variously subdivided in the
+different species (in _Capromys_ they are divided into minute lobules);
+and the gall-bladder, though present in most, is absent in a few. In most
+species the penis (which is generally provided with a bone) can be more
+or less completely retracted within the fold of integument surrounding
+the anus, where it lies curved backwards upon itself under cover of the
+integument. It may, however, be carried forward some distance in front
+of the anal orifice, from which in the breeding season, as in the Voles
+and Marmots, the prominent testicular mass separates it. The testes
+in the rutting season form projections in the groins, but (except in
+the Duplicidentata) do not completely leave the cavity of the abdomen.
+Prostatic glands and, except in the Duplicidentata, vesiculæ seminales
+are present in all. The uterus may be double, each division opening by
+a separate aperture into a common vagina, as in _Leporidæ_, _Sciuridæ_,
+and _Hydrochœrus_, or completely two-horned, as in most species. The
+mammæ vary in number and position from the single abdominal pair of the
+Guinea-Pig to the ten thoracico-abdominal pairs found in some of the
+Rats. In the _Octodontidæ_ the mammæ are placed high up on the sides of
+the body.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 196.—Alimentary canal of Rat (_Mus decumanus_), the
+greater part of the small intestine being omitted. _o_, Œsophagus; _d_,
+duodenum; _i_, ileum; _cm_, cæcum; _c_, colon.]
+
+The peculiar odour evolved by many Rodents is due to the secretions of
+special glands, which may open either into the prepuce, as in _Mus_,
+_Arvicola_, _Cricetus_, etc., or into the rectum, as in _Arctomys_ and
+_Aulacodus_ or into the passage common to both, as in the Beaver, or
+again, into pouches opening near the anus, as in the Hare, Agouti, and
+Jerboa.
+
+The integument is generally thin, and the panniculus carnosus (the sheet
+of muscle underlying the skin) rarely much developed. The fur varies
+exceedingly in character. Thus it may be very fine and soft, as in the
+Chinchillas and Hares, in others more or less replaced by spines on the
+upper surface, as in the Spiny-Rats and Porcupines; in several genera, as
+in _Xerus_, _Acanthomys_, _Platacanthomys_, _Echinothrix_, _Loncheres_,
+and _Echinomys_, the spines are flattened. In the muscular structures
+the chief peculiarities are noticeable in the comparatively small size
+of the temporal muscles, and in the great double masseters (Fig. 194),
+which are the principal agents in gnawing; the digastrics also are
+remarkable for their well-defined central tendon, and in many species
+their anterior bellies are united between the mandibular rami; the
+cleidomastoid generally arises from the basioccipital, and the pectoralis
+major is connected with the latissimus dorsi; in the Porcupines and Hares
+the tendons of the flexor digitorum longus and flexor hallucis longus are
+connected in the foot, while in the Rats and Squirrels they are separate,
+and the flexor digitorum longus is generally inserted into the metatarsal
+of the hallux.[290]
+
+Rodents are tolerably well represented in a fossil condition from the
+period of the Upper Eocene, while if _Decticadapis_, of the Lower Eocene
+of Rheims, is rightly referred to it the order dates from the oldest
+Tertiary. All the fossil forms at present known are, however, essentially
+true Rodents, and afford no clue as to the relations of the order with
+other mammals. The remote affinities of the Rodents to the Proboscidea,
+as well as their more marked resemblances to _Typotherium_, have been
+already mentioned. Whether there is a real genetic affinity (as Professor
+Cope suggests) with the Tillodontia cannot be decided with the evidence
+at present available.
+
+
+_Suborder_ SIMPLICIDENTATA.
+
+Only one pair of upper incisors, having their enamel confined to their
+front surfaces. Incisive foramina moderate and distinct; fibula not
+articulating with the calcaneum. Testes abdominal, and descending
+periodically only into a temporary sessile scrotum.
+
+
+_Section_ SCIUROMORPHA.
+
+Zygomatic arch slender, chiefly formed by the jugal, which is not
+supported by a long maxillary process extending backwards beneath it;
+postorbital processes of frontal present or absent; infraorbital opening
+small (except in _Anomalurus_); mandible with the angular part arising
+from the inferior surface of the bony socket of the lower incisor;
+clavicles well developed; fibula distinct.
+
+
+_Family_ ANOMALURIDÆ.
+
+Arboreal forms, having their limbs connected by a cutaneous expansion
+supported by a cartilaginous process arising from the olecranon; tail
+long and hairy, with large imbricated scales on its inferior surface
+near the root; sixteen pairs of ribs; no postorbital processes on the
+frontals; _p_ ¹⁄₁; molars not tuberculate, with transverse enamel-folds.
+Confined to the Ethiopian region.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 197.—_Anomalurus fulgens._ From Alston, _Proc. Zool.
+Soc._ 1875.]
+
+_Anomalurus_,[291] with several species from West and Central Africa,
+alone represents the family. The peculiar caudal scales, which evidently
+assist the animal in climbing, and the position of the cartilaginous
+support of the parachute, are well shown in Fig. 197. All the species
+but two are from Western Africa; _A. orientalis_ occurs near Zanzibar,
+and _A. pusillus_ is from the equatorial regions of that continent.
+According to Mr. O. Thomas,[292] the latter “little animal is most nearly
+allied to the West-African _A. beecrofti_, but differs from that species
+in its duller and less yellow upper side, in the entire absence of rufous
+on its neck and belly, and, as from all the other described species, in
+its diminutive size.”
+
+
+_Family_ SCIURIDÆ.
+
+Arboreal or terrestrial forms, with cylindrical hairy tails, without
+scales, and with twelve or thirteen pairs of ribs. Skull (Figs. 198, 199)
+with distinct postorbital processes; infraorbital opening small; palate
+broad; _p_ ²⁄₁; first upper premolar very small or deciduous; molars
+rooted, tubercular.
+
+Subfamily =Sciurinæ=.—Incisors compressed; form slender; tail long and
+hairy. Cosmopolitan (excluding Australian region).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 198.—Lateral view of skull of American Marmot
+(_Arctomys monax_).]
+
+This subfamily includes the true Squirrels, of which seven existing
+genera are usually recognised.
+
+_Sciurus._[293]—Tail long and bushy; ears generally well developed,
+pointed, often tufted; feet adapted for climbing, the anterior having
+four digits and a rudimentary pollex, and the posterior with five digits,
+all of which have long, curved, and sharp claws. Mammæ, from four to
+six. Skull (Fig. 199) lightly built, with long postorbital processes.
+Penultimate upper premolar, when present, minute.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 199.—Palatal Aspect of cranium of Squirrel (_Sciurus
+bicolor_). Natural size.]
+
+True Squirrels are found in most of the temperate and tropical regions of
+the world, exclusive of Madagascar and the Australian region. They are,
+however, most abundant in the Malayan part of the Oriental region, and
+attain their largest size and most brilliant coloration in the tropics.
+Their size is very variable, so that whereas _S. soricinus_, of Borneo,
+is no larger than a Mouse, _S. bicolor_, of the Malayan region, is nearly
+as large as a Cat. The common English Squirrel (_S. vulgaris_) is found
+over the whole of the Palæarctic region, reaching in one direction from
+Ireland to Japan, and in the other from the north of Italy to Lapland;
+its remains occur in the Norfolk “Forest-bed.” In the Malayan region
+“nearly all the numerous species are brilliantly marked, and many are
+ornamented with variously coloured longitudinal stripes along their
+bodies. One of the commonest and best known of the striped species is
+the little Indian Palm-Squirrel (_S. palmarum_), which in large numbers
+runs about every Indian village. Another Oriental species (_S. caniceps_)
+presents almost the only known instance among mammals of the temporary
+assumption during the breeding season of a distinctly ornamental coat,
+corresponding to the breeding-plumage of birds. For the greater part of
+the year the animal is of a uniform gray colour; but about December its
+back becomes a brilliant orange-yellow, which lasts until about March,
+when it is again replaced by gray. The Squirrel shown in Fig. 200 is a
+native of Burma and Tenasserim, and is closely allied to _S. caniceps_,
+but goes through no seasonal change of colour.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 200.—Burmese Squirrel (_Sciurus pygerythrus_). After
+Anderson.]
+
+“The number of species in the genus is about 75, of which 3 belong to the
+Palæarctic, 15 to the Ethiopian, about 40 to the Oriental, and 16 to the
+combined Nearctic and Neotropical regions” (Thomas).
+
+Fossil species referred to _Sciurus_ are found in the European Tertiaries
+down to the Phosphorites of Central France, while others occur in the
+White River Miocene of the United States.
+
+_Rhithrosciurus._[294]—A very striking Squirrel, confined to Borneo,
+and as yet only known from three or four examples, has been separated
+generically under this name. The general shape of its skull is
+very different from that of other Squirrels; but its most peculiar
+characteristic is the presence of from seven to ten minute parallel
+vertical grooves running down the front face of its incisors; no other
+Squirrel having really grooved incisors, and no other member of the
+whole order incisive grooves resembling these. Its premolars number ¹⁄₁,
+and its molars are simpler and less ridged than in the other genera.
+This Squirrel (_R. macrotis_) is far larger than the English, with an
+enormously long bushy tail, long tufted ears, and black and white bands
+down its sides.
+
+_Xerus._[295]—Fur coarse and spiny. Claws long and comparatively
+straight. Ear-conchs minute or absent. Skull with the postorbital
+processes short and directed backwards, the bony palate prolonged
+considerably behind the tooth-row, and the external ridge on the front
+face of the anterior zygomatic root more developed, and continued much
+farther upwards than in _Sciurus_. Premolars ²⁄₁; molars as in _Sciurus_.
+Mammæ two. This genus contains four well-marked species, known as Spiny
+Squirrels, all natives of Africa. They are terrestrial in their habits,
+living in burrows which they dig for themselves. _X. getulus_, a striped
+species of North Africa, has much the size and appearance of the Indian
+Palm-Squirrel; all the others are a little larger than the English
+Squirrel.
+
+_Tamias._[296]—All the members of this genus are characterised by the
+possession of internal cheek-pouches, and by their style of coloration;
+being ornamented on the back with alternate light and dark bands. Their
+skulls are slenderer and lighter than those of the true Squirrels, from
+which they differ in several unimportant details. There is only one
+functional premolar—the small anterior one usually found in _Sciurus_
+being either absent altogether or quite small and functionless. There
+are some four well-defined species, all found in North America, one (_T.
+asiaticus_) extending also through Siberia into Eastern Europe.[297]
+They are generally known as Ground-Squirrels, but in America, where
+they are among the commonest and best known of the indigenous Rodents,
+as “Chipmunks.” The members of this genus seem to lead into the genus
+_Spermophilus_, so that the division of the _Sciuridæ_ into two
+subfamilies, although convenient for classification, is rather artificial.
+
+Remains of _Tamias_, probably belonging to existing species, occur in the
+Pleistocene deposits of Europe and Nebraska.
+
+_Pteromys_[298] and _Sciuropterus_.[299]—The Flying Squirrels, although
+incapable of true flight, can yet float through the air for considerable
+distances by the aid of an extension of skin connecting their fore and
+hind limbs, and forming a sort of parachute. This parachute is merely a
+lateral extension of the ordinary skin of the body, which passes outwards
+between the limbs and terminates at the wrists and ankles. In addition
+to the lateral membrane there is a narrow and inconspicuous one passing
+from the cheek along the front of the shoulder to the front of the wrist,
+and another—at least in the larger species—stretching across behind the
+body from ankle to ankle and involving the base of the tail. The Flying
+Squirrels are divided into three genera. Of those with a normal dentition
+_Pteromys_ contains the larger and _Sciuropterus_ the smaller species.
+The two differ in certain details of dentition, as well as in the greater
+development in the former of the expanded membranes, especially of the
+“interfemoral” or posterior membrane, which in the latter is almost
+wholly absent. In _Pteromys_ the tail is cylindrical and comparatively
+thin, while in _Sciuropterus_ it is broad, flat, and laterally expanded,
+and evidently compensates for the absence of the interfemoral membrane
+by acting as a supplementary parachute. In appearance Flying Squirrels
+resemble the other forms, although they are even more beautifully
+coloured. Their habits, food, etc., are also very similar to those of the
+true Squirrels, except that they are more decidedly nocturnal, and are
+therefore less often seen by the traveller; their peculiar shrill cry
+is, however, well known to all who have camped out in the regions which
+they inhabit. Their mode of flight is precisely similar to that of the
+Flying Phalangers of Australia. Of each of the two genera there are about
+thirteen or fourteen species, all natives of the Oriental region, except
+that one of _Sciuropterus_ is found in North America, and another in
+Siberia and Eastern Europe.
+
+_Eupetaurus._[300]—Externally as in _Pteromys_, except that the claws
+are less sharp. Skull with a more produced muzzle than in the latter,
+more distinct supraorbital notches, longer anterior palatal foramina,
+and a shorter bony palate. Cheek-teeth differing from those of all
+other _Sciuridæ_ in their hypsodont character. One large species (_E.
+cinereus_), from Gilgit and adjacent districts on the extreme north-west
+of Kashmir territory. This fine Flying Squirrel is chiefly known by one
+entire specimen and some imperfect skins.
+
+_Extinct Genera._—The genera _Pseudosciurus_ and _Sciuroides_, from the
+Upper Eocene of Europe, have the molar teeth more elongated than in
+_Sciurus_. _Gymnoptychus_ with _p_ ¹⁄₁, from the North American Miocene,
+approximates in the structure of its molars to _Tamias_. _Meniscomys_
+(_p_ ²⁄₁), from the latter deposits, together with _Sciurodon_ of the
+French Phosphorites, are regarded as Squirrels showing signs of affinity
+with the _Haplodontidæ_.
+
+Subfamily =Arctomyinæ=.—Incisors not compressed; typically the form
+stout, and the tail comparatively short. This subfamily comprises
+burrowing forms which may be collectively known as Marmots; as already
+mentioned, they are so intimately connected with the preceding subfamily
+that the division into two groups is purely a matter of convenience. They
+are confined to the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions.
+
+_Arctomys._[301]—External form stout and heavy, ears short, tail short
+and hairy, cheek-pouches rudimentary or absent. Fore feet with four
+well-developed digits, and a rudimentary pollex provided with a flat
+nail. Skull (Fig. 198) large and heavy, with the postorbital process
+stout, and at right angles to the axis. Incisors broad and powerful.
+First upper premolar nearly as large as the second. Molar series nearly
+parallel, scarcely converging behind at all.
+
+The various species of true Marmot, which exceed a dozen in number, are
+all much alike in general appearance, ranging in size from about 15 to 25
+inches in length, with tails from 3 to 12 inches long.
+
+The Alpine Marmot (Fig. 201) is peculiar to Europe, being found in
+the Alps, Pyrenees, and Carpathians; its remains occur in European
+Pleistocene deposits. _A. bobac_ occurs in Eastern Europe and Siberia.
+Several species (_e.g._ _A. monax_, Fig. 198) are found in the Nearctic
+region, and many in Kashmir and Central Asia. The long-tailed Red Marmot
+(_A. caudatus_) is a fine Himalayan species, which may be seen on the
+mountain passes to the north of the valley of Kashmir, as soon as the
+snow begins to disappear, sitting at the entrance to its burrow, which is
+generally beneath a rhubarb plant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 201.—Alpine Marmot (_Arctomys marmotta_). After
+Brehm.]
+
+The following account of the habits of the Alpine Marmot is given by
+Professor Blasius: “Marmots live high up in the snowy regions of the
+mountains, generally preferring exposed cliffs, whence they may have a
+clear view of any approaching danger, for which, while quietly basking
+in the sun or actively running about in search of food, a constant watch
+is kept. When one of them raises the cry of warning, the loud piercing
+whistle so well known to travellers in the Alps, they all instantly take
+to flight and hide themselves in holes and crannies among the rocks,
+often not reappearing at the entrance of their hiding-places until
+several hours have elapsed, and then frequently standing motionless on
+the look-out for a still longer period. Their food consists of the roots
+and leaves of various Alpine plants, which, like squirrels, they lift to
+their mouths with their fore paws. For their winter quarters they make a
+large round burrow, with but one entrance, and ending in a sleeping-place
+thickly lined with hay. Here often from ten to fifteen Marmots pass the
+winter, all lying closely packed together fast asleep until the spring.”
+
+_Cynomys._[302]—Size and form intermediate between _Arctomys_ and
+_Spermophilus_. Ears and tail short. Cheek-pouches shallow. Fore feet
+with five claws, that on the pollex as large as that on the fifth toe.
+Skull (Fig. 202) heavily built, with the postorbital processes directed
+outwards. Dentition (as shown in Fig. 202) remarkably heavy, the molar
+teeth differing from those of _Arctomys_ and _Spermophilus_ by having
+three instead of two transverse grooves on their crowns. First premolar
+nearly as large as the second. Molar series strongly convergent behind.
+
+Two species of Prairie Marmots, or, as they are often called,
+“Prairie-Dogs,” are found in North America. They live together in large
+communities, inhabiting burrows excavated at short distances apart, and
+feeding on the buffalo-grass which covers the plains. The small burrowing
+owl (_Athene cunicularia_) and the rattlesnake are often found inhabiting
+their burrows; the former probably availing itself of the convenience of
+a ready-made habitation, the latter coming there to feed on the young
+Marmots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 202.—Palatal aspect of the cranium of the Prairie
+Marmot (_Cynomys ludovicianus_).]
+
+_Spermophilus._[303]—Size much smaller than in either of the preceding
+genera; form more slender and squirrel-like. Tail very variable, from 1
+to 8 or 9 inches in length. Cheek-pouches always present. Fore feet with
+four well-developed toes and a rudimentary pollex, of which the claw may
+be either present or absent. Skull more lightly built than in the other
+preceding genera, with the postorbital processes slender and directed
+backwards. Molar series nearly parallel, as in _Arctomys_, but all these
+teeth much smaller and lighter; first premolar simply rounded, never more
+than about one-third of the size of the second.
+
+The Pouched Marmots, or Sousliks, have nearly the same distribution as
+_Tamias_, and are represented by a considerable number of species. They
+present a far greater range of variation than is found among the true
+Marmots, some of them, such as the European species, being scarcely
+as large as a common squirrel, almost entirely without external ears,
+and with the tail reduced to a mere stump, barely an inch long, while
+others are more than three times this size, with large and often tufted
+ears, and long bushy squirrel-like tails. Professor Blasius gives the
+following details of the habits of the common European Souslik (_S.
+citillus_): “It lives in dry treeless plains, especially on a sandy or
+clayey soil, and is never found either in forests or on swampy ground.
+It forms burrows, often 6 or 8 feet deep, in which food is stored up
+and the winter sleep takes place. Each burrow has but one entrance,
+which is closed up when winter approaches,—a second hole, however, being
+previously formed from the sleeping-place to just below the surface of
+the ground. The second hole is opened the next year, and used as the
+ordinary entrance, so that the number of closed-up holes round a burrow
+gives an indication of the length of time that it has been occupied.
+Sousliks ordinarily feed on roots, seeds, berries, etc., but occasionally
+also on animal food, preying readily on eggs, small birds, and mice,
+the remains of these latter being often found in their burrows. They
+bring forth in the spring from four to eight young ones, which, if taken
+early, may be easily tamed. They are often eaten by the peasants, the
+inhabitants of the Russian steppes considering their flesh an especial
+delicacy.”
+
+Remains of _Spermophilus_ are not uncommon in European Tertiary deposits,
+some belonging to living and others to extinct species.
+
+_Extinct Genera._—_Plesispermophilus_, from the Upper Eocene Phosphorites
+of Central France, appears to be closely allied to the Sousliks.
+_Plesiarctomys_ (_Sciuravus_ or _Paramys_), which is common to the Middle
+Tertiaries of Europe and North America, appears to be a generalised form,
+showing some resemblance both to _Arctomys_ and _Sciurus_, but with
+tritubercular upper molars and no postorbital processes to the skull;
+in the latter respect agreeing with the next family. In the size of the
+preorbital vacuity the skull resembles the Hystricomorpha.
+
+
+_Family_ HAPLODONTIDÆ.
+
+Distinguished from the _Sciuridæ_ by the absence of postorbital processes
+to the frontals, the depressed skull, and the rootless cheek-teeth.
+Premolars ²⁄₁; the penultimate upper one small.
+
+_Haplodon._[304]—_H. rufus_ and _H. major_, of North America, west of the
+Rocky Mountains, are the only representatives of the family; their habits
+are similar to those of _Cynomys_.
+
+
+_Family_ CASTORIDÆ.
+
+Skull massive, without postorbital processes, the angle of the mandible
+rounded, and the cheek-teeth rootless, with re-entering enamel-folds.
+Premolars ¹⁄₁. Habits natatorial.
+
+_Castor._[305]—The upper molars are subequal, each with one internal
+and two external enamel-folds; the stomach has a large glandular
+mass situated to the right of the œsophageal orifice; the anal and
+urethro-genital orifices open within a common cloaca; the tail is broad,
+horizontally flattened, and naked; and the hind feet are webbed. One or
+two species, Palæarctic and Nearctic.
+
+Zoologists are not yet of accord as to whether the European and American
+Beavers should be regarded as distinct species or as local races; the
+general concensus of opinion being in favour of the latter view.
+
+The European Beaver (_C. fiber_) was at one time an inhabitant of the
+British Isles, having been found, according to Pennant, in certain Welsh
+rivers so late as the twelfth century, while subfossil remains of it
+occur in the peat-beds of many parts of the country. In Scandinavia
+Beavers are still found in the neighbourhood of Arendal. Isolated pairs
+are occasionally met with on the banks of the Rhone, Weser, and Elbe;
+and a considerable number are kept in a park belonging to the Emperor
+of Austria, on the banks of the Danube. They also occur sparingly in
+Russia and Poland, in the streams of the Ural Mountains, and in those
+which flow into the Caspian. They live in burrows on the banks of rivers,
+like the Water-Rat, and show little of the architectural instinct so
+conspicuous in the American form, but this may be owing to unfavourable
+external conditions rather than to want of the faculty; for there is a
+well-authenticated instance of a colony of Beavers, on a small stream
+near Magdeburg, whose habitations and dam were exactly similar to those
+found in America.
+
+The American Beaver (_C. canadensis_) extends over that part of the
+American continent included between the Arctic circle and the tropic of
+Cancer; owing, however, to the gradual spread of population over part of
+this area, and still more to the enormous quantity of skins that, towards
+the end of last and the beginning of the present century, were exported
+to Europe, numbering about 200,000 annually, this species is in imminent
+danger of extirpation. It is distinguished from the European Beaver by
+the shorter and somewhat wider nasals.
+
+Remains of extinct species of _Castor_ occur in the Pliocene of Europe,
+and in the North American Miocene; the one from the last-mentioned
+deposits being of small size, and separated by some writers as _Eucastor_.
+
+_Extinct Genera._—A very large Beaver known as _Trogontherium_
+(_Diobroticus_), and distinguished by the nature of the enamel-folds
+of the molars, occurs in the Upper Pliocene and Pleistocene of Europe.
+_Chalicomys_ (_Steneofiber_) is a considerably smaller form from the
+Miocene of Europe and the United States, distinguished from all existing
+Rodents by the presence of an entepicondylar foramen in the humerus.
+_Palæocastor_, of the North American Miocene, is allied.
+
+
+_Section_ MYOMORPHA.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 203.—Side view of skull of _Fiber zibethicus_,
+natural size.]
+
+Skull (Fig. 203), with slender zygomatic arch, in which the jugal seldom
+extends far forwards, being usually supported by the long zygomatic
+process of the maxilla; no postorbital process; infraorbital vacuity
+variable; angle of mandible, except in the _Bathyerginæ_, rising from
+the inferior surface of the incisive alveolus. Clavicles well developed,
+except in _Lophiomys_. Tibia and fibula united.
+
+
+_Family_ MYOXIDÆ.
+
+Small arboreal forms, with long hairy tails, large eyes and ears, and
+short fore limbs. No cæcum in the intestine. Skull with narrow frontals,
+a high and narrow infraorbital vacuity of moderate size, and a long and
+slender coronoid process to the mandible. Premolars ¹⁄₁; molars rooted,
+with transverse enamel-folds.
+
+The Dormice form a natural family allied to the Squirrels in form and
+habits, and confined to the Palæarctic and Ethiopian regions. The absence
+of the cæcum distinguishes them from all other members of the order.
+They are usually divided into the following five genera, but some of
+these are of very doubtful value, and it might be preferable to retain
+_Muscardinus_ and include all the others in _Myoxus_.[306]
+
+_Myoxus._[307]—Represented by the European _M. glis_, and characterised
+by the bushy distichous tail, simple stomach, and the large size and
+complex enamel-folds of the molars, which have flat crowns.
+
+_Eliomys._[308]—Tail tufted and distichous; stomach simple; and the
+molars small, with concave crowns and indistinct enamel-folds. Some seven
+species, Ethiopian and Palæarctic.
+
+_Graphiurus._[309]—Tail short, cylindrical, and tufted at the end; molars
+very small, with the enamel-folds almost absent. Some three Ethiopian
+species.
+
+_Claviglis._[310]—Represented by one West African species, said to be
+distinguished from all other forms by the shorter tail, which is more
+distinctly pencilled. The right to generic distinction is, however, very
+problematical.
+
+_Muscardinus._[311]—Includes the Common Dormouse (_M. avellanarius_)
+of Europe, distinguished by the cylindrical bushy tail, and thickened
+glandular walls of the cardiac extremity of the œsophagus; the molars
+have flat crowns, with complex enamel folds.
+
+_Fossil Dormice._—Using the generic term _Myoxus_ in a more extended
+sense than the above, it has existed in Europe from the date of the Upper
+Eocene. A species nearly as large as a Guinea-Pig, with very complex
+molars, is common in the Pleistocene of Malta.
+
+
+_Family_ LOPHIOMYIDÆ.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 204.—_Lophiomys imhausi_. From Milne-Edwards.]
+
+The genus _Lophiomys_,[312] represented only by _L. imhausi_ (Fig.
+204) of North-East Africa, differs from the typical _Muridæ_ in having
+the temporal fossæ roofed over by a thin plate of bone, rudimentary
+clavicles, and an opposable hallux. On these grounds it has been made
+the type of a family, but since all the features are Murine—the dentition
+being that of a typical Cricetine—it appears doubtful whether that
+distinction is justifiable. The hair forms a crest along on the back, and
+is of a peculiar structure. The habits of this Rodent are arboreal.
+
+
+_Family_ MURIDÆ.
+
+Skull (Fig. 203) with contracted frontals; a short and slender jugal,
+generally reduced to a splint between the zygomatic processes of the
+maxilla and squamosal; the lower root of the former process more or less
+flattened into a perpendicular plate; typically, the infraorbital vacuity
+tall, and wide above and narrow below. Lower incisors compressed; no
+premolars;[313] molars rooted, or rootless, tuberculate, or with angular
+enamel-folds. Pollex rudimental; tail generally nearly naked and scaly.
+Habits various, but mostly terrestrial.
+
+This large and cosmopolitan family, which includes more than a third of
+the existing Rodents, is represented by about forty genera.
+
+Subfamily =Hydromyinæ=.—Molars ²⁄₂ in number, rooted, and divided into
+transverse lobes. Represented by two Australasian genera.
+
+_Hydromys._[314]—External form modified for an aquatic life. Tip of
+muzzle extensively haired, so that the nostrils can be closed. Skull with
+the infraorbital vacuity crescentic, scarcely narrowed below, and its
+external wall without the perpendicular zygomatic plate characteristic of
+most of the family; incisive foramina very small.
+
+Two species, with habits like those of the Water Voles, are known from
+Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea. In the typical _H. chrysogaster_ the
+colour of the back is black, with an admixture of golden-coloured hairs;
+the belly being of a dark golden hue.[315]
+
+_Xeromys._[316]—External form Murine. Tip of muzzle as in _Mus_, not as
+in _Hydromys_. Toes unwebbed. Tail scaly, very finely haired. Skull as
+in _Mus_, with the exception of the rounding of the supraorbital edges.
+Teeth as in _Hydromys_.
+
+Represented by _X. myoides_, of Queensland; a species about twice the
+size of the Common Mouse. This genus serves to connect _Hydromys_ with
+the other Murines, although it is difficult to say to which group it
+comes nearest.
+
+Subfamily =Platacanthomyinæ=.—Molars rooted, with transverse laminæ.
+Flattened spines mingled with the hair; tail thickly haired. Represented
+by one genus.
+
+_Platacanthomys._[317]—The one representative of this genus is _P.
+lasiurus_, found in the clefts of rocks and hollow trees in Southern
+India at elevations of about 3000 feet. This elegant little animal
+closely resembles a Dormouse; the tail and body having a length of 6
+inches.
+
+Subfamily =Gerbillinæ=.—Incisors narrow; molars with transverse laminæ
+(Fig. 205). Auditory bullæ very large in most cases. Hind limbs
+elongated. Tail usually long and hairy. Ranges over the Palæarctic,
+Oriental, and Ethiopian regions.
+
+_Gerbillus._[318]—Upper incisors grooved; first molar with three laminæ,
+second with two, and third with one. There are some sixty species, with
+a range coextensive with that of the family. The Gerbils, with their
+large and bright eyes and long tufted tails, are very graceful creatures,
+inhabiting sandy plains, where they form extensive burrows. Remains of
+existing species are found in cavern-deposits in Madras (Fig. 205).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 205.—The left ramus of the mandible of _Gerbillus
+indicus_, with an enlarged view of the molars, from a cavern deposit in
+Madras. (From the _Palæontologia Indica_.)]
+
+_Pachyuromys._[319]—The African genus _Pachyuromys_ is distinguished by
+the very large size of the auditory bulla, as well as by the short and
+fleshy tail, which is club-shaped. The incisors are narrow and faintly
+grooved.
+
+_Mystromys_,[320] _Otomys_,[321] and _Dasymys_.[322]—These genera, also
+from South Africa, differ from _Gerbillus_ in the form of the molars, and
+are represented by a few species.
+
+_Malacomys._[323]—The one known species of this genus is from the Gaboon,
+and is in some respect intermediate between the true Gerbils and the
+Rats. Thus the dentition and feet are those of the former, but the long
+scaly tail resembles that of the latter.
+
+Subfamily =Phlœomyinæ=.[324]—This subfamily is represented only by
+_Phlœomys_[325] _cumingi_, of the Philippine Islands, in which the
+incisors are very broad, the molars are divided into transverse laminæ,
+and the claws are large. The muzzle is blunt; the ears are hairy
+externally; the tail is moderate, and thickly haired; and the auditory
+bullæ are very small. The first upper molar has three, and the others two
+laminæ.
+
+Subfamily =Dendromyinæ=.—Incisors convex in front; molars ³⁄₃, rooted and
+tuberculated. Ears hairy; claws long. Confined to the Ethiopian region.
+
+_Dendromys._[326]—A small Rodent, with the habits of a Dormouse,
+characterised by its grooved incisors, slender form, and long, scaly
+tail, which is sparsely haired. Two other Murines described as
+_Steatomys_[327] and _Lophuromys_[328] are referred to this subfamily.
+The first is of plump form, with a rather short and thickly haired tail,
+and grooved incisors. The latter resembles _Steatomys_ in form, but has
+fine flattened bristles instead of fur, and plain incisors.
+
+Subfamily =Cricetinæ=.—Molars ²⁄₃, tuberculate and rooted, with the
+tubercles of the upper ones arranged in two longitudinal rows (Fig. 206,
+_B_). This subfamily has an almost cosmopolitan distribution, and appears
+to include the most generalised members of the family, from which the
+more specialised _Murinæ_ have been evolved.
+
+_Cricetus._[329]—According to the arrangement proposed by Mr. O.
+Thomas[330] this genus is taken to include both the Hamsters of the
+Old World (_Cricetus_ proper) and the white-footed or Vesper Mice
+(_Hesperomys_) of the New. Cheek-pouches are frequently present, and
+may be very large. The first molar (Fig. 206, _B_) generally has six
+tubercles. The tail may be very short.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 206.—Left upper molars of _Mus_ (_A_) and _Cricetus_
+(_B_).]
+
+This large and unwieldy genus may be divided into a number of groups or
+subgenera. The typical group includes the Hamsters of the Old World,
+characterised by the large size of their cheek-pouches, the walls of
+which are connected with muscles arising from the lumbar vertebræ. The
+tail is remarkable for its shortness. The best-known species is _C.
+frumentarius_, inhabiting Europe and Northern Asia. The American forms,
+which range over the whole of that continent, comprise a number of
+subgenera, of which the following are the most important. _Rhipidomys_,
+including Dormouse-like forms with long tails and a dentition like
+that of the typical group; _Oryzomys_, represented by Murine species;
+_Calomys_, with short tail and Hamster-like body; _Vesperimus_, with
+only five tubercles on the first molar; _Onychomys_, in which the
+tail is extremely short and Hamster-like, and the form is Arvicoline;
+_Scapteromys_, of Murine form with a long and hairy tail; _Phyllotis_,
+with a shorter tail; _Habrothrix_, an Arvicoline group, with a short
+and thinly haired tail; and _Oxymycterus_, distinguished from the
+preceding by having a nail instead of a claw on the pollex. With regard
+to the distribution of these forms Mr. Thomas[331] remarks that in
+South America as we proceed southwards there is a general tendency “to
+a disappearance of the tropical and northern Mouse- and Dormouse-like
+subgenera _Rhipidomys_, _Vesperimus_, and _Oryzomys_, with the appearance
+and increase of the Vole- and Hamster-like _Habrothrix_ and _Calomys_—a
+change that is curiously paralleled in the Old World by the gradual
+supercession of _Mus_ and _Myoxus_ in favour of _Arvicola_ and _Cricetus_
+as we go northwards from tropical to temperate and arctic regions.” One
+species has spines in the fur.
+
+Remains of _Cricetus_ are abundant in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of
+Brazil, where a number of the forms are referable to existing species;
+the genus is also represented in the Miocene of North America and Europe,
+the species from the former area having been described as _Eomys_, and
+those from the latter as _Cricetodon_.
+
+_Holochilus_[332] (_Nectomys_).—The Rats of this genus are allied to
+the American forms of _Cricetus_, but have the third upper molars
+proportionately larger and the skull more stoutly built. This genus is
+confined to Brazil, and contains about six species, some of which are
+the largest indigenous Rats of America. Two species are aquatic in their
+habits, and have short webs between the toes of their hind feet.
+
+_Sigmodon_[333] differs from _Cricetus_ in the pattern of the molar
+teeth. It contains one species only, the Rice-Rat, _S. hispidus_, ranging
+from the United States to Ecuador.
+
+_Rhithrodon_,[334] and _Ochetodon_.[335]—These are more or less
+like _Cricetus_, but with grooved upper incisors. The first, is a
+South-American genus, and contains five Rat-like species, one from
+Venezuela, another from Peru, and the other three from Patagonia. The
+second consists of three North American mice, of about the size and
+proportions of the English Wood-Mouse (_Mus sylvaticus_).
+
+_Neotoma._[336]—A peculiar North American genus, in which the teeth
+simulate the prismatic appearance of those of the _Arvicolinæ_. There
+are four species known as Wood-Rats, all of about the size of _Mus
+decumanus_; one of them (_N. cinerea_) having a tail almost as bushy as
+a Squirrel’s while the other three have ordinary scaly Rat-like tails.
+
+Fossil remains of _Neotoma_ from cavern-deposits in Pennsylvania are
+not improbably referable to the existing Florida Rat (_N. floridana_).
+_Paciculus_, from the Miocene of the United States, is regarded as an
+allied extinct genus with enamel-folds to the molars.
+
+_Hypogeomys._[337]—This and the following genera are confined to
+Madagascar, where they are the sole representatives of the Rodentia.
+_Hypogeomys_ is a very peculiar form of large size, with long ears, feet,
+and tail. There is only one species, _H. antimena_, a fawn-coloured Rat
+about 9 inches long.
+
+_Nesomys._[338]—Contains two species of long-haired Rats, more or less
+rufous in colour, about the size of the Brown Rat.
+
+_Brachytarsomys._[339]—Represented only by _B. albicauda_, a pretty
+velvety-haired fawn-coloured Rat, with short feet and a long tail.
+
+_Hallomys._[340]—The only species (_H. audeberti_) is very like a
+_Nesomys_, but has much longer hind feet.
+
+_Eliurus._[341]—Represented by one small Dormouse-like species,
+characterised by its nearly naked and short ears, and long tail, of which
+the proximal third is scaly, and the remainder covered with long hair.
+The pollex is rudimental, but the hallux well developed.
+
+Subfamily =Arvicolinæ=.—Molars usually imperfectly rooted or rootless,
+and composed of two longitudinal rows of triangular prisms placed
+alternately (Fig. 207). Tail moderate or short. Common to the Palæarctic
+and Nearctic regions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 207.—Upper (_A_) and lower (_B_) molars of the
+Water-Vole (_Arvicola amphibius_).]
+
+The Voles, as the members of this group are commonly termed, are so
+closely connected with the Cricetines that they may be regarded merely as
+a branch of that subfamily which has attained a peculiarly specialised
+type of molar dentition. The Voles are externally distinguished, as a
+rule, from true Rats and Mice by their more clumsy and heavy build and
+less graceful movements; by the small size of their eyes, the bluntness
+of the muzzle, the small ears, and the shorter limbs and tail.
+
+_Phenacomys._[342]—A North American genus distinguished by its rooted
+molars, and thus connecting the typical forms with Cricetines like
+_Neotoma_. Several species have been described by Dr. C. H. Merriam.
+
+_Arvicola._[343]—The type genus _Arvicola_ has rootless molars, and naked
+soles to the feet. It includes over forty species inhabiting Europe,
+North America, and Asia, a few species entering into the northern limits
+of the Oriental region in India. Three species of the genus are found
+in the British Isles, of which the following account is given by Mr. O.
+Thomas:—
+
+The common Water-Vole (_A. amphibius_) is as large as the Brown Rat.
+Its fur is long, soft, and thick, of a uniform grizzled brown all over,
+except when, as is not uncommon, it is wholly black. The tail is about
+half the length of its head and body, and the hind feet are unusually
+long and powerful, although not webbed, and have five rounded pads
+on their lower surfaces. Its molar teeth (see Fig. 207) present the
+following number of prismatic spaces:—in the upper jaw the first, or
+anterior, has 5, the second 4, and the third 4, of which the last is very
+irregular in shape, and is sometimes itself divided into two, making 5
+in all; in the lower jaw the first has 7 spaces, of which the 3 anterior
+are generally not fully separated from one another, the second has 5,
+and the third 3. These numbers for the different teeth are taken as the
+characters of the subgenus _Paludicola_ of Dr. Blasius, by whom this
+method of subdividing the genus was first introduced. The Water-Vole
+is one of the commonest English mammals, and is perhaps the most
+often actually seen of all, owing to its diurnal habits. It frequents
+rivers and streams, burrowing deeply into their banks, and in this way
+often causing considerable damage. Its food consists almost wholly of
+water-weeds, rushes, and other vegetable substances, but, like so many
+other Rodents, it will also occasionally eat animal food, in the shape
+of insects, mice, or young birds. The female during the warm season of
+the year has three or four litters, each of from two to seven young.
+The range of the Water-Vole extends over the whole of Europe and North
+Asia, from England to China, but it is not found in Ireland. The common
+Field-Vole, or short-tailed Field-Mouse (_A. agrestis_), representing
+the subgenus _Agricola_, is about the size of a House-Mouse, but with
+a short stumpy body, and a tail only about one third the length of the
+head and body combined. Its hind feet have six pads on their inferior
+surfaces. The colour is dull grizzled brown above, and grayish-white
+below. Its molar teeth have respectively 5, 5, and 6 prismatic spaces
+above, and 9, 5, and 3 below. The Field-Vole is one of the commonest of
+our smaller mammals, and frequents fields, woods, and gardens in enormous
+numbers, often doing very considerable damage in the latter, owing to its
+fondness for garden produce of all kinds. It is spread over the whole
+of Great Britain from the Hebrides southwards. Abroad its range extends
+from Finland to North Italy and from France and Spain to Russia. The
+Bank-Vole (_A. glareolus_) resembles in size and general appearance the
+common Field-Vole, but may be distinguished by its more or less rusty or
+rufous-coloured back, its larger ears, and the relatively longer tail,
+which attains to about half the length of the head and body. Its molar
+teeth present characters so different from those of all other Voles as
+to have caused it to be regarded as belonging to an entirely distinct
+genus, for which the name of _Evotomys_ has been used. Their chief
+distinction lies in the fact that, unlike those of all other Voles, their
+pulp-cavities close up in adult life, and they form distinct roots, more
+resembling those of the ordinary Rats and Mice. The enamel-spaces of
+these teeth number respectively 5, 4, and 5 above, and 7, 3, and 3 below.
+The habits of this species are in every way similar to those of the
+Field-Vole. Its range in Great Britain extends northwards to Morayshire,
+beyond which it has not yet been observed. It is also found all along
+the north temperate zone from France to China, and is replaced in North
+America by a closely allied animal known as _A. gapperi_. It is probable,
+however, that both _A. gapperi_ and _A. glareolus_ are only southern
+climatic offshoots of a still more northern species, the _A. rutilus_ of
+Northern Europe, Siberia, and Arctic America.
+
+Fossil remains of _Arvicola_ are common in European Pleistocene deposits,
+and they have also been obtained from the Upper Pliocene of the Norwich
+Crag.
+
+_Synaptomys._[344]—Represented by one North American species, having
+grooved upper incisors, skull and molars like those of _Myodes_, with the
+external characters of _Arvicola_.
+
+_Myodes._[345]—Distinguished from _Arvicola_ by the more clumsy build,
+convex obtuse head, extremely short and Rabbit-like tail, short ears,
+small feet, the soles of which are furred, elongated claws, and thick
+fur, as well as by the breadth and massiveness of the skull, in which the
+zygomatic arch has a laminar expansion and the palate a peculiar contour;
+while the root of the lower incisor does not extend behind the last
+molar, the upper incisors are bevelled, and not grooved, and the molars
+have a characteristic pattern, which cannot be well explained without a
+figure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 208.—The Lemming (_Myodes lemmus_).]
+
+The Lemmings, as the members of the genus are commonly called, are
+represented by the Norwegian Lemming (_M. lemmus_, Fig. 208), and the
+North American _M. obensis_. Different individuals of the Norwegian
+Lemming vary considerably both in size and colour, but its usual length
+is about 5 inches, and its soft fur yellowish brown, marked with spots
+of dark brown and black. It has a short, rounded head, obtuse muzzle,
+small bead-like eyes, and short rounded ears, nearly concealed by the
+fur. The tail is very short. The feet are small, each with five claws,
+those of the fore feet strongest, and fitted for scratching and digging.
+The usual dwelling place of the Lemmings is in the highlands or fells of
+the great central mountain chain of Norway and Sweden, from the southern
+branches of the Langfjeldene in Christiansand-stift to the North Cape and
+the Varangerfjord. South of the Arctic circle they are, under ordinary
+circumstances, exclusively confined to the plateaus covered with dwarf
+birch and juniper above the conifer region, though in Tromsö-amt and in
+Finmarken they occur in all suitable localities down to the level of the
+sea. The nest is formed under a tussock of grass or a stone, constructed
+of short dry straws, and usually lined with hair. The number of young
+in each nest is generally five, sometimes only three, but occasionally
+seven or eight, and at least two broods are produced annually. Their
+food is entirely vegetable, especially grass-roots and stalks, shoots of
+the dwarf birch, reindeer-lichens, and mosses, in search of which they
+form, in winter, long galleries through the turf or under the snow. They
+are restless, courageous, and pugnacious little animals. When suddenly
+disturbed, instead of trying to escape they will sit upright, with their
+back against a stone or other coign of vantage, hissing and showing fight
+in a very determined manner (Fig. 208).
+
+The circumstance which has given more popular interest to the Lemming
+than to a host of other species of the same order of animals is that
+certain districts of the cultivated lands of Norway and Sweden, where
+in ordinary circumstances they are quite unknown, are occasionally and
+at very uncertain intervals, varying from five to twenty or more years,
+literally overrun by an army of these little creatures, which steadily
+and slowly advance, always in the same direction, and regardless of
+all obstacles, swimming across streams and even lakes of several miles
+in breadth, and committing considerable devastation on their line of
+march by the quantity of food they consume. In their turn they are
+pursued and harassed by crowds of beasts and birds of prey, as bears,
+wolves, foxes, dogs, wild cats, stoats, weasels, eagles, hawks, and
+owls, and never spared by man; even the domestic animals not usually
+predaceous, as cattle, goats, and reindeer, are said to join in the
+destruction, stamping them to the ground with their feet, and even eating
+their bodies. Numbers also die from diseases apparently produced from
+overcrowding. None ever return by the course by which they came, and the
+onward march of the survivors never ceases until they reach the sea,
+into which they plunge, and swimming onwards in the same direction as
+before perish in the waves. These extraordinary and sudden appearances
+of vast bodies of Lemmings, and their singular habit of persistently
+pursuing the same onward course of migration, have given rise to various
+speculations, from the ancient belief of the Norwegian peasants, shared
+in by Olaus Magnus, that they fall down from the clouds, to the almost
+equally untenable hypothesis, ingeniously maintained by the late Mr. W.
+D. Crotch, that they are acting in these migrations in obedience to an
+instinct inherited from vastly ancient times, and are still seeking the
+congenial home in a supposed submerged Atlantis, to which their ancestors
+of the Miocene period were wont to resort when driven from their ordinary
+dwelling-places by crowding or scarcity of food. The principal really
+ascertained facts regarding these migrations seem to be as follows.
+When any combination of circumstances has occasioned an increase in the
+numbers of the Lemmings in their ordinary dwelling-places, impelled by
+the restless or migratory instinct possessed in a less developed degree
+by so many of their congeners, a movement takes place at the edge of the
+elevated plateau, and a migration towards the lower-lying land begins.
+The whole body moves forward slowly, always advancing in the same general
+direction in which they originally started, but following more or less
+the course of the great valleys. They only travel by night; and, staying
+in congenial places for considerable periods, with unaccustomed abundance
+of provender, notwithstanding all the destructive influences to which
+they are exposed, they multiply excessively during their journey, having
+families still more numerous and more frequently than in their usual
+homes. The progress may last from one to three years, according to the
+route taken, and the distance to be traversed until the sea-coast is
+reached, which in a country so surrounded by water as the Scandinavian
+peninsula must be the ultimate goal of such a journey. This may be either
+the Atlantic or the Gulf of Bothnia, according as the migration has
+commenced from the west or the east side of the central elevated plateau.
+Those that finally perish in the sea, committing what appears to be a
+voluntary suicide, are only acting under the same blind impulse which has
+led them previously to cross smaller pieces of water with safety.
+
+_Cuniculus._[346]—Cranial and incisive characters those of _Myodes_, in
+the main, but the molars more of an Arvicoline type, the first upper one
+differing from that of all other members of the family in having seven
+prisms. Externally of the general shape of _Myodes_, but distinguished
+by the absence of external ears, the shortness and dense furring of the
+feet, the obsolete pollex with rudimentary nail, and the great length of
+the two middle claws of the manus. Represented by one species, the Banded
+Lemming (_C. torquatus_), of the Arctic region.
+
+Remains of both _C. torquatus_ and _Myodes lemmus_ occur in British
+Pleistocene deposits.
+
+_Fiber._[347]—Closely allied to _Arvicola_, both externally and in
+cranial and dental characters, but with the tail nearly as long as the
+body (apart from the head), compressed, nearly naked, and reticulate.
+Feet incompletely webbed, and the whole body adapted for a thoroughly
+aquatic life.
+
+The Musk-Rat or Musquash (_F. zibethicus_, Fig. 209) is the only
+representative of this genus, and the largest member of the subfamily,
+the head and body being about 12 inches in length. It is rather a heavily
+built animal, with a broad head, no distinct neck, and short limbs; the
+eyes are small, and the ears project very little beyond the fur. The fore
+limbs have four toes and a rudimentary thumb, all with claws; the hind
+limbs are larger, with five distinct toes, united by short webs at their
+bases. The tail is laterally compressed, nearly naked, and scaly. The
+hair much resembles that of a beaver, but is shorter; it consists of a
+thick soft under-fur interspersed with longer stiff, glistening hairs,
+which overlie and conceal the former on the upper surface and sides of
+the body. The general colour is dark umber-brown, almost black on the
+back and gray below. The tail and naked parts of the feet are black. The
+musky odour from which it derives its name is due to the secretion of a
+large gland situated in the inguinal region, and present in both sexes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 209.—The Musk-Rat (_Fiber zibethicus_.)]
+
+The Musk-Rat is peculiar to America, being extensively distributed in
+suitable localities in the northern part of the continent, extending
+from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Rio Grande to the barren
+grounds bordering the Arctic Seas. It is aquatic in its habits, living on
+the shores of lakes and rivers, swimming and diving with great facility,
+feeding on the roots, stems, and leaves of water-plants, or on fruits
+and vegetables which grow near the margin of the streams it inhabits.
+Musk-Rats are most active at night, spending the greater part of the day
+concealed in their burrows dug out of the bank, consisting of a chamber
+with numerous passages, all of which open under the surface of the
+water. For winter quarters they build more elaborate houses of conical
+or dome-like form, composed of sedges, grasses, and similar materials
+plastered together with mud. As their fur is an important article of
+commerce, large numbers are annually killed, being either trapped or
+speared at the mouths of their holes.
+
+The skull of the Musk-Rat is shown in Fig. 203 (p. 459); its structure
+is essentially Arvicoline, but the squamosals are greatly expanded,
+with a corresponding reduction of the parietal and interparietal, and
+the interorbital constriction of the frontals attains its greatest
+development. Fossil remains of _Fiber_ occur in the North American
+Pleistocene.
+
+_Neofiber._[348]—This genus, while agreeing with _Fiber_ in the
+characters of the skull and teeth, differs by the cylindrical tail, and
+the normal form of the feet, in which the toes are not bent laterally
+at an angle with the sole. The single species _N. alleni_, commonly
+known as the Round-tailed Musk-Rat, is found in Florida, and is much
+less completely aquatic in its habits than _Fiber_. Its colour is brown
+above, and silvery-white mixed with rufous below, the sides of the body
+gradually shading from brown to rufous, the forehead and the tip of the
+nose are black, while the tail is rufous mingled with black.
+
+Subfamily =Siphneinæ=.—Includes two genera of Mole-like Rodents with
+an _Arvicoline_ dentition, but with the body thoroughly adapted for a
+subterranean life, the limbs and tail being very short, and the external
+ears rudimentary. Both are Palæarctic.
+
+_Ellobius._[349]—The Russian _E. talpinus_, the typical representative of
+the genus, has short claws, and comes nearest to the _Arvicolinæ_. _E.
+fuscocapillus_ is from Afghanistan.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 210.—_Siphneus armandi._ (From Milne-Edwards.)]
+
+_Siphneus._[350]—This genus (Fig. 210) includes species inhabiting
+Northern and Central Asia, and is characterised by the great length of
+the claws of the manus. Remains of an existing species occur in the
+Pleistocene of the Altai, while an extinct one has been described from
+the Pliocene of North China.
+
+Subfamily =Deomyinæ=.—Represented only by the under-mentioned genus,
+in which the bituberculate anterior and tricuspidate middle ridge of
+the first upper molar presents a condition intermediate between that
+obtaining in the _Cricetinæ_ and that of the _Murinæ_.
+
+_Deomys._[351]—Externally as in _Mus_. Pollex with a narrow nail; hind
+feet elongate. Infraorbital vacuity of skull triangular, not narrowed
+below. Upper incisors with a pair of minute grooves. First upper molar
+with seven distinct tubercles, of which three are placed on the middle
+ridge, and two on each of the others. One species, _D. ferrugineus_, from
+the Lower Congo, an animal about the size of the Common Mouse.
+
+Subfamily =Murinæ=.—Molars rooted and tuberculated; those of the upper
+jaw with three longitudinal rows of tubercles (Fig. 206, _A_).
+
+This group includes the true Rats and Mice, and may be regarded as more
+specialised than the _Cricetinæ_. All the members of the group closely
+resemble one another, and are light and active, with large ears, bright
+eyes, and long and scaly tails. Their coloration, in conformity with the
+fossorial and nocturnal habits of most of the forms, is sombre, and their
+movements are remarkably agile and graceful.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 211.—The Australian Brown-footed Rat (_Mus
+fuscipes_). After Gould.]
+
+_Mus._[352]—Incisors narrow, without grooves. Structure of molars as
+in Fig. 206, _A_ (p. 463). Incisive foramina of skull long; coronoid
+process of mandible well developed. Ears and eyes large; muzzle naked at
+the extremity. Fur soft, in some cases intermingled with spines. Pollex
+with a short nail in place of a claw. No cheek-pouches. Tail long, nearly
+naked, with rings of overlapping scales. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C
+26-32.
+
+This genus is the largest in the whole mammalian class, comprising not
+less than 130 species, ranging over the whole of the Old World, with
+the noteworthy exception of Madagascar. On the whole, the species are
+more numerous in tropical than in temperate regions, and very few occur
+in cold countries. Many of the species living in warm climates have
+flattened spines mingled with the fur; these spines being shed in winter,
+when a warmer covering is necessary, and replaced by hair. Five species
+occur in England, which are briefly noticed below; and it may be observed
+that none of the species are much larger than _M. decumanus_ or smaller
+than _M. minutus_. As a rule the habits of the species are similar to
+those of the English forms, but a few are arboreal, while others again,
+like the one represented in Fig. 211, are aquatic. The earliest known
+representatives of the genus (excluding _Acanthomys gaudryi_ of the Lower
+Pliocene Pikermi beds of Attica) occur in the Pleistocene of Europe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 212.—_A_, Head of Brown Rat (_M. decumanus_). _B_,
+Head of Black Rat (_Mus rattus_).]
+
+The Brown or Norway Rat (_M. decumanus_) is a heavily built animal,
+growing to 8 or 9 inches in length, with a bluff rounded head, small ears
+(Fig. 212, _A_), and a comparatively short tail, which is always shorter
+than the head and body combined, and generally not longer than the body
+alone. The colour is a uniform grayish-brown above and white below,
+the ears, feet, and tail being flesh coloured. Black varieties, which
+are often mistaken for true Black Rats, are by no means rare, but the
+differences in size and proportions form a ready means of distinguishing
+the two. The Brown Rat is believed to be a native of Western China,
+where a race (_M. humiliatus_) has been discovered so like it as to be
+practically indistinguishable. Both this, and the next species agree in
+their predaceous habits, omnivorous diet, and great fecundity. They bear
+four or five times in the year from four to ten blind and naked young,
+which are in their turn able to breed at an age of about six months; the
+time of gestation being about twenty days.
+
+The Black Rat (_M. rattus_) is a smaller and more lightly built species,
+generally not more than 7 inches in length, with a slender head (Fig.
+212, _B_), large ears, and a thin tail of about 8 or 9 inches in length.
+The colour is usually a glossy bluish-black, somewhat lighter below; but
+in the tropical variety described as _M. alexandrinus_ the general colour
+is gray or rufous, and the belly white. The disposition of the Black Rat
+is milder than that of _M. decumanus_, and the white and pied rats kept
+as pets mostly belong to this species. In many localities where it was
+formerly abundant it has been entirely superseded by _M. decumanus_, but
+it is said that in some parts of Germany it has been lately reasserting
+itself.
+
+_M. musculus_, the Common House-Mouse, is, like the Brown Rat, originally
+a native of Asia, whence it has spread to all the inhabited parts of
+the globe. Its habits and appearance are too well known to need any
+description.
+
+_M. sylvaticus_, the Wood or Long-tailed Field-Mouse, is very common in
+many parts of England, often taking to barns and outhouses for shelter
+during the winter. It is of about the same size and proportions as _M.
+musculus_, but of a bright reddish-gray colour, with a pure white belly.
+
+_M. minutus_, the Harvest-Mouse, is the smallest of the European Mice,
+seldom exceeding 2½ or 3 inches in length. It is of a yellowish-red
+colour, with comparatively short ears and tail. It lives entirely away
+from human habitations, generally dwelling in grass or corn-fields, where
+it builds a globular nest of dried grass of the size of a cricket-ball,
+in which the young are nurtured.
+
+_Nesocia._[353]—General characters those of _Mus_, but the incisors and
+molars very much wider, and the tubercles of the latter more connected by
+transverse ridges, thus producing a laminated type of structure.
+
+This genus has been placed by some writers in a distinct subfamily with
+_Phlœomys_, but Mr. O. Thomas regards it as so closely allied to _Mus_
+that even its generic separation may be open to question. It comprises
+several species, mostly spread over Southern Asia, ranging from Palestine
+to Formosa, and from Kashmir to Ceylon, but _N. scullyi_ is found in
+Turkestan. The great Indian Bandicoot-Rat (_N. bandicota_) is the largest
+representative of the subfamily, often exceeding a foot in length. _N.
+bengalensis_ is remarkable for possessing no less than eighteen mammæ.
+Fossil remains of _Nesocia_ occur in the Pleistocene of Madras and in the
+Pliocene of Northern India; those from the first-named deposits being
+referable to existing species.
+
+_Golunda._[354]—Like _Mus_, but with a distinct groove down the front of
+the upper incisors. There are only three species, one from Western India,
+one from West Africa, and the other from Eastern Africa.
+
+_Uromys._[355]—Differs from _Mus_ in having the scales of the tail not
+overlapping, but set edge to edge, so as to form a sort of mosaic work.
+There are about six species of _Uromys_, spread over the northern part of
+the Australian region from the Aru Islands to Queensland.
+
+_Chiruromys._[356]—Externally like _Mus_, but with the terminal portion
+of the tail without scales above, quite naked, transversely wrinkled,
+and prehensile. Scales of remainder of tail more or less pentagonal,
+and arranged in oblique diagonal series. Supraorbital vacuity of skull
+without projecting plate in external wall. Incisive foramina short
+and narrow; auditory bulla small. Upper molars very complex, with the
+tubercles (of which there are eleven in the first tooth) low, and
+distinctly arranged in transverse rows. Known only by _C. forbesi_, from
+mountains in New Guinea, which must be regarded as a specialised form
+very similar in outward appearance to _Uromys cervinipes_.
+
+_Hapalotis._[357]—Hind limbs elongated. Incisive foramina very large. No
+coronoid process to the mandible. This genus is confined to Australia,
+where there are about fifteen species known. They are pretty little
+animals, with long ears and tail, and in many respects resemble the
+Jerboas, whose place they seem to take in the sandy Australian deserts.
+Remains of _H. albipes_ occur in the Pleistocene of New South Wales.
+
+_Mastacomys._[358]—Like _Mus_, but with the molars remarkably broadened,
+and with only four mammæ. The single species of the genus is as yet only
+known from Tasmania, though it has been found fossil in New South Wales;
+it is somewhat similar in size and general appearance to the English
+Water-Vole, but has much longer and softer fur.
+
+_Acanthomys._[359]—Fur almost entirely composed of flattened spines.
+Teeth and skull as in _Mus_, but the coronoid process of mandible
+very small. There are six species of Spiny-Mice known, all of about
+the size of the Common Mouse. They are found in Syria, Palestine, and
+Eastern Africa as far south as Mozambique. _A. dimidiatus_ presents the
+appearance of a little Hedgehog when its spines are erected; it inhabits
+the stony deserts of Arabia Petræa and Palestine, and feeds on bulbs. A
+fossil Mouse (_A. gaudryi_) referred to this genus occurs in the Lower
+Pliocene of Attica.
+
+_Echinothrix._[360]—A very remarkable rat with an extremely elongated
+muzzle, all the bones of the face being much produced. The incisors are
+faintly grooved. The only species is _E. leucura_, an animal of about
+the size of the Brown Rat, with its fur thickly mixed with spines. It is
+found in Celebes.
+
+_Typhlomys._[361]—This genus is represented by a single species from
+China, which resembles a House-Mouse in size and general appearance, but
+has smaller ears, while the eyes are so reduced in size as to be totally
+concealed by the long eyelashes.
+
+_Cricetomys_[362] and _Saccostomus_.[363]—These two African genera
+have been—from the presence of cheek-pouches—usually placed in the
+neighbourhood of _Cricetus_, but their molars are of the Murine type.
+_Cricetomys_ is said to have grooved upper incisors, and is represented
+only by _C. gambianus_. There are two species of _Saccostomus_.
+
+_Pithechirus._—A small Rodent from Sumatra and Java described under this
+name is a true Mouse, having nothing to do with _Chiropodomys_, to which
+it has been compared.
+
+
+_Family_ SPALACIDÆ.
+
+Mole-like forms, with very small or rudimentary eyes and ear-conchs,
+large claws, and short or rudimentary tail. Form cylindrical. Incisors
+large; premolars present or absent; molars rooted, with re-entering
+enamel-folds; palate narrow.
+
+Subfamily =Spalacinæ=.—Angular part of the mandible arising from the
+lower edge of the socket of the lower incisor. No premolars.
+
+_Spalax._[364]—Represented by the great Mole-Rat (_S. typhlus_) of
+South-Eastern Europe, in which the eyes are completely covered by the
+skin.
+
+_Rhizomys._[365]—Eyes uncovered, although very minute; small naked
+ear-conchs; and a short partially hairy tail. Includes several species
+from Northern India, Tibet, China, Burma, Malaya, and Eastern Africa. A
+fossil species occurs in the Pliocene Siwaliks of Northern India.
+
+Subfamily =Bathyerginæ=.—Angular part of the mandible arising from the
+side of the socket of the lower incisor. Premolars absent or present.
+Confined to the Ethiopian region.
+
+_Bathyergus._[366]—Upper incisors strongly grooved; _p_ ¹⁄₁, _m_ ³⁄₃; no
+ear-conchs; very powerful claws. One species (_B. maritimus_), from South
+Africa, attaining a length of about 10 inches.
+
+_Georychus_[367] and _Myoscalops_.[368]—Upper incisors without grooves.
+_Georychus_, with some half dozen species, generally has _p_ ¹⁄₁;
+_Myoscalops_, with one species, usually has _p_ ³⁄₃, and the second toe
+of the foot is the longest. In _Georychus_ the premolar may be wanting,
+and some examples of _Myoscalops_ have only two teeth of this series.
+
+_Heterocephalus._[369]—Small and nearly naked forms, with small head,
+small eyes, no ear-conchs, moderately long tail, and powerful fore feet
+provided with a pair of large pads; _p_ ⁰⁄₀, _m_ ²⁻³⁄₂₋₃. Two species.
+These very remarkable little Rodents are regarded by Mr. O. Thomas as
+very closely allied to _Georychus_, but specialised, and, so to speak,
+somewhat degraded for a purely subterranean life, for which their
+hairless body is peculiarly adapted. They are found in Somali-land, where
+they burrow in the sandy soil.
+
+
+_Family_ GEOMYIDÆ.[370]
+
+Terrestrial or fossorial forms, with large cheek-pouches opening on
+the cheeks outside the mouth. Squamosal much expanded, and the jugal
+extending forwards to the lachrymal. _P_ ¹⁄₁; molars rooted or rootless,
+with transverse laminæ. Nearctic and Neotropical regions.
+
+Subfamily =Geomyinæ=.—Incisors broad; mastoid not appearing on the top
+of the skull; eyes small; ear-conch rudimentary; limbs short, subequal.
+Habits fossorial.
+
+_Geomys._[371]—Upper incisors deeply grooved. The common North American
+Pouched-Rat or “Pocket-Gopher” (_G. bursarius_) inhabits the plains
+of the Mississippi and lives in burrows. Several other species are
+recognised from the Southern United States, Mexico, and Central America.
+The genus is represented in the Pleistocene and Pliocene of the United
+States.
+
+_Thomomys._[372]—Upper incisors plain. Represented by two species, with
+numerous varieties found all over Canada and North America west of the
+Rocky Mountains. Remains referred to an existing species occur in the
+Pliocene of Oregon. _Entoptychus_, from the Miocene of the United States,
+is an allied genus, with broad incisors and rootless molars.
+
+Subfamily =Heteromyinæ=.—Incisors narrow; mastoid appearing largely on
+the top of the skull; eyes and ears moderate or large; hind limbs and
+tail elongated. Habits terrestrial.
+
+_Dipodomys._[373]—This genus is characterised by the rootless molars. It
+is best known by _D. phillipsi_, the Kangaroo-Rat of the desert regions
+east of the Rocky Mountains, having habits like those of the Jerboas. The
+typical forms have four toes in the pes; but in others, which it has been
+proposed to separate as _Dipodops_, there are five: _D. ordi_ and _D.
+agilis_ belong to the latter group.
+
+_Perognathus_[374] and _Heteromys_.[375]—In both these genera, which are
+represented by species of very small size, the molars are rooted; the
+latter being distinguished by the presence of flattened spines mingled
+with the fur, and having species ranging into South America. According to
+Dr. C. H. Merriam the forms described as _Cricetodipus_ are not separable
+from _Perognathus_; while Dr. Coues considers that _Saccomys_ was founded
+upon a species of _Heteromys_. _Pleurolichus_, from the Miocene of the
+United States, is regarded as an extinct genus allied to _Heteromys_.
+
+
+_Family_ DIPODIDÆ.
+
+Terrestrial forms usually with four upper cheek-teeth, and typically with
+the following characters. Incisors compressed; molars with transverse
+enamel-folds; infraorbital vacuity of skull (Fig. 7, p. 37) large and
+rounded; jugal ascending in front to the lachrymal; and the mastoid part
+of the auditory bulla usually very large.
+
+Subfamily =Sminthinæ=.—Molars rooted; _p_ ¹⁄₀, _m_ ³⁄₃. Skull with the
+infraorbital vacuity widest below, and the incisive palatal foramina
+long. Limbs short. Palæarctic.
+
+_Sminthus._[376]—Represented by the Rat-like _S. vagans_ from Northern
+Europe and Asia, in which the ears are rather long and pointed, the tail
+is covered with short hairs and nearly as long as the body, while the
+molars present a somewhat complicated pattern. This genus has generally
+been regarded as an aberrant member of the _Muridæ_, but was transferred
+in 1887 to the present family by Dr. H. Winge.
+
+Subfamily =Zapodinæ=.—Molars rooted; _p_ ¹⁄₁, _m_ ³⁄₃; cervical vertebræ
+free; hind limbs elongated; metatarsals separate; hind feet with five
+digits. Nearctic region.
+
+_Zapus._[377]—The American Jumping-Mouse (_Z. hudsonianus_) extends over
+almost the whole North-American continent from Labrador to Mexico.
+
+Subfamily =Dipodinæ=.—Molars rooted; _p_ ⁰⁻¹⁄₀₋₁, _m_ ³⁄₃; cervical
+vertebræ more or less ankylosed; hind limbs elongated; metatarsals
+united; hind feet with only three functional digits. Palæarctic and
+Ethiopian regions.
+
+This subfamily includes the true Jerboas, and contains three
+genera: _Dipus_[378] with three toes, and _Alactaga_[379] and
+_Platycercomys_[380] with five, the outer two not reaching to the ground.
+The latter is distinguished by the absence of premolars, and comprises
+many species extending from Siberia to Nubia.
+
+Remains of the existing _Alactaga decumana_[381] occur in the Pleistocene
+of Germany, and those of _Zapus hudsonianus_ in the corresponding
+strata of the United States. _Platycercomys_ has been recorded from the
+Pleistocene of Northern Asia.
+
+Subfamily =Pedetinæ=.—Molars rootless; cervical vertebræ free; hind limbs
+elongated; metatarsals separate; hind feet with four digits. Vertebræ: C
+7, D 12, L 7, S 3, C 30. Ethiopian region.
+
+_Pedetes_,[382] the Cape Jumping-Hare (_P. caffer_), by far the largest
+species of the family, extends from Mozambique and Angola to the Cape of
+Good Hope.
+
+
+_Section_ HYSTRICOMORPHA.
+
+Skull (Fig. 213) with a stout zygomatic arch; jugal not supported below
+by a continuation of the maxillary zygomatic process; infraorbital
+vacuity large; mandible with the angular part arising from the outer side
+of the bony socket of the lower incisor. Clavicles perfect or imperfect;
+fibula distinct. One premolar in each jaw.
+
+
+_Family_ OCTODONTIDÆ.
+
+Clavicles complete. Skull with long incisive foramina extending into the
+maxillæ; and usually an inferior angle to the jugal. Molars with external
+and internal enamel-folds; _p_ ¹⁄₁, except in _Ctenodactylus_. Mammæ
+placed high up on the sides of the body. Confined to the Ethiopian and
+Neotropical regions, with the exception of one species of _Echinomys_
+which ranges into Central America. Habits mostly terrestrial, but
+occasionally fossorial or natatorial.
+
+Subfamily =Ctenodactylinæ=.—Molars semi-rooted; jugal as in _Dipodidæ_;
+the two inner toes of the hind feet with a horny comb and rigid bristles.
+Ethiopian region.
+
+_Ctenodactylus._[383]—Represented only by _C. gundi_ from North Africa,
+on the borders of the Sahara. Has no premolars; each foot has four
+digits; the hind limbs are rather longer than the fore; the ears small;
+and the tail reduced to a stump. This animal is about the size of the
+Water-Vole, and dwells on rocky ground, its habits being diurnal. The
+peculiar comb-like inner toes are employed for dressing the fur.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 213.—Skull of _Hydrochœrus capybara_ (reduced).]
+
+_Pectinator._[384]—Closely allied to the preceding, but with a minute
+premolar in each jaw; and a moderately long and bushy tail. One species
+(_P. spekei_), from Somali-land.
+
+Subfamily =Octodontinæ=.—Molars semi-rooted or rootless, with simple
+enamel-folds; fur soft. There are some six existing genera, including
+Rat-like species, all of which are South American, except _Petromys_,
+which is Ethiopian.
+
+_Octodon._[385]—Upper and lower molars alike; ears moderate; tail of
+medium length and tufted. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 7, S 4, C 25. Typically
+represented by _C. cumingi_ of Chili and Peru, with other species from
+Chili and Bolivia. They live in large communities.
+
+_Habrocoma._[386]—Lower molars more complex than the upper; ears large;
+and fur extremely soft. Two Bolivian species.
+
+_Schizodon._[387]—One species, inhabiting elevated spots in the Southern
+Andes, and characterised by the enamel-folds of the upper molars meeting
+in the middle line. The external characters are much the same as in
+_Ctenomys_, but the ears are larger and the claws shorter.
+
+_Ctenomys._[388]—Incisors broad; molars rootless, with kidney-shaped
+crowns; last molar small and cylindrical; eyes and ears very small; claws
+larger than the toes. Some four species. Fossil remains are common in the
+Pleistocene of Buenos Ayres and the cavern-deposits of Brazil. Habits
+fossorial.
+
+_Spalacopus._[389]—Represented by two Chilian species, distinguished
+from the preceding genus by the rudimentary ears. These rodents store up
+magazines of food in their burrows.
+
+_Petromys._[390]—The South African _P. typicus_ is closely allied to
+_Spalacopus_, but differs by its harsh fur, the shortness of the pollex,
+and the somewhat bushy tail. The teeth are semi-rooted, with single inner
+and outer enamel-folds, nearly meeting in the middle.
+
+Subfamily =Echinomyinæ=.—Molars semi-rooted or rootless, with deep and
+curved enamel-folds; fur more or less harsh, frequently mixed with
+spines; tail generally long. One Ethiopian genus, and the remaining nine
+or so Neotropical. Many of the species are of large size, some being
+arboreal and others aquatic.
+
+_Myopotamus._[391]—Incisors very large; molars with two internal and two
+external enamel-folds in the upper, and three internal and one external
+in the lower jaw, last molar the largest; ears moderate; tail about
+two-thirds the length of the head and body, scaly, and sparsely haired;
+hind feet webbed; five digits. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 25. The
+well-known Coypu (_M. coypu_), the only existing representative of this
+genus, is one of the largest living members of the order, and attains a
+length of about 2 feet. It is common in South America, living in burrows
+near water, and feeding on aquatic plants. Fossil remains of the genus
+occur in the caverns of Brazil, as well as in the Tertiaries of Argentina.
+
+_Capromys._[392]—This genus comprises arboreal forms from the West
+Indies allied to the Coypu, but, according to Dr. G. E. Dobson, showing
+signs of affinity with the _Hystricidæ_. The incisors are smaller than
+in the Coypu, and the upper molars have one internal and two external
+enamel-folds; the ears are comparatively small; the tail usually of
+considerable length, and the general form somewhat Rat-like. The typical
+_C. pilorides_ is somewhat smaller than the Coypu, and is confined to
+Cuba; it is remarkable for the subdivision of the lobes of the liver
+into a number of lobules. _C. brachyurus_ and _C. prehensilis_ are also
+confined to Cuba. In Jamaica the genus is represented by _C. melanurus_,
+which is somewhat smaller than a Rabbit, and has no secondary lobulation
+of the liver.[393]
+
+_Aulacodus._[394]—Upper incisors with three deep grooves; molars as
+in _Capromys_. Fur very harsh; tail moderate, sparsely haired; manus
+with rudimentary pollex, and small fifth digit; pes with no hallux, and
+rudimental fifth digit. One species (_A. swinderianus_), from Western and
+Southern Africa, which attains a length of nearly 2 feet, and dwells in
+burrows.
+
+_Plagiodon._[395]—Allied to _Capromys_, but with the enamel-folds of the
+molars very complex, and forming a kind of zig-zag pattern in those of
+the upper jaw. Represented only by _P. ædium_ of Hayti and Jamaica.
+
+_Loncheres_[396] and _Echinomys_.[397]—These genera include small South
+American species, in most of which flattened lanceolate spikes are
+mingled with the fur. The majority of the species occur in Guiana and
+Brazil, but one species of _Echinomys_ has been recorded from Central
+America. Fossil remains of both genera occur in the cavern-deposits of
+Brazil.
+
+_Mesomys._[398]—This genus resembles _Loncheres_ externally, but the
+pollex has a short curved claw, and there are no spines in the fur.
+
+_Dactylomys._[399]—A Brazilian genus presenting the following distinctive
+features. Ears short; tail long and scaly; pollex minute; third and
+fourth digits of manus elongated, with short convex nails. Incisors flat;
+molars divided into two lobes, each of which has a single enamel-fold.
+Represented by two species, _D. typus_ and _D. amblyonyx_, both of which
+seem to be rare and but little known. In the elongation of some of the
+digits _Dactylomys_ recalls _Chiromys_ among the Primates.
+
+_Cercomys._[400]—This South American genus is usually placed near
+_Carterodon_, from which it is readily distinguished by the pointed
+muzzle and the plain incisors.
+
+_Carterodon._[401]—This genus, which was originally described upon the
+evidence of skulls from the Brazil caves, but subsequently found living,
+is readily distinguished by the broad and grooved incisors. The upper
+molars have one inner and two outer enamel-folds; those of the lower jaw
+being the reverse of this.
+
+_Fossil Forms._—Remains of the existing genus _Loncheres_ occur in the
+Brazilian cave-deposits, which also yield the extinct _Dicolpomys_. A
+large number of fossil _Octodontidæ_ from the Tertiaries of South America
+have been described under many generic names, but it will be sufficient
+to mention that _Phloramys_ and _Pithanotomys_ are considered to be
+allied to _Ctenomys_; while _Morenia_, _Orthomys_, and _Trilodon_ show
+affinity to _Myopotamus_. _Pellegrinia_, from the Pleistocene of Sicily,
+may be allied both to _Ctenodactylus_ and _Octodon_.
+
+
+_Family_ THERIDOMYIDÆ.
+
+This extinct family, which is represented in the Tertiaries of Europe
+and the United States, comprises several genera of comparatively small
+Rodents, which are regarded by Dr. Schlosser as nearly related to the
+_Octodontidæ_, although connected by _Archæomys_ with the _Chinchillidæ_.
+The dental formula is the same as in the _Octodontidæ_. In the typical
+genus _Theridomys_, from the Lower Miocene and Upper Eocene of Europe,
+the molars are rooted, and have three or four re-entering enamel-folds,
+which form isolated discs on the worn crowns. _Syllophodus_, from the
+Miocene of the United States, is closely allied. _Protechinomys_ and
+_Trechomys_ are genera from the Phosphorites of Central France with
+rooted molars; while in _Archæomys_ of the same deposits the molars are
+rootless, with the enamel-folds dividing their crowns into laminæ, as in
+the Chinchillas.
+
+
+_Family_ HYSTRICIDÆ.
+
+Build stout. Limbs subequal. A number of long and stout spines in
+the integument. Facial portion of skull short and broad, and the
+jugal without an inferior angle. Molars with external and internal
+enamel-folds; completely or partly rooted.
+
+Subfamily =Synetherinæ=.—Molars rooted; clavicles complete; upper lip
+not cleft; soles tuberculated; pollex absent; four mammæ; tail generally
+prehensile; spines mixed with long hairs. This group is confined to
+America, all the forms except one being arboreal, and their habits less
+strictly nocturnal than in the next subfamily. There are three genera.
+
+_Erethizon._[402]—Represented by the common Canadian Porcupine (_E.
+dorsatus_), a stout heavily-built animal, with long hairs almost or quite
+hiding the spines; four anterior and five posterior toes; and a short
+stumpy tail. It is a native of the greater part of Canada and the United
+States where there is any remnant of the original forest left. Remains of
+_Erethizon_ occur in cavern-deposits in Pennsylvania.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 214.—The Tree Porcupine (_Synetheres prehensilis_).]
+
+_Synetheres._[403]—This genus contains some eight or ten species, known
+as Tree Porcupines (Fig. 214), found throughout the tropical parts of
+South America, and one of them extending northwards into Mexico. They
+are of a lighter build than the Ground Porcupines, are covered with
+short, close, many-coloured spines, often mixed with hairs, and their
+tails are always prehensile. Their hind feet have only four toes, owing
+to the suppression of the hallux; but they have a peculiar fleshy pad on
+the inner side of the foot, between which and the toes boughs and other
+objects can be firmly grasped as with a hand. Vertebræ: C 7, D 17, L 5,
+S 3, C 36. An extinct species of this genus has been described from the
+cavern-deposits of Brazil.
+
+_Chætomys._[404]—Distinguished by the shape of its skull and the greater
+complexity of its teeth. It contains only one species (_C. subspinosus_),
+a native of the hottest parts of Brazil.
+
+Subfamily =Hystricinæ=.—Molars semi-rooted; clavicles incomplete; soles
+smooth; a rudimentary pollex: six mammæ; tail not prehensile. Now
+confined to the Old World, where they occur in Southern Europe, Africa,
+India, and the Malay Archipelago as far eastwards as Borneo. Habits
+terrestrial and nocturnal. Three genera.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 215.—The Common Porcupine (_Hystrix cristata_).]
+
+_Hystrix._[405]—This genus is readily characterised by the inflated
+skull, in which the nasal chamber is often considerably larger than the
+brain-case, and by the short tail, tipped with numerous slender stalked
+open quills, which make a loud rattling noise when the animal moves.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 4, S 4, C 12. The best-known member is the Common
+Porcupine (_H. cristata_, Fig. 215), which occurs throughout Southern
+Europe and North and West Africa, but is replaced in South Africa by
+_H. africæ-australis_, and in India by the Hairy-nosed Porcupine (_H.
+leucura_).
+
+The following account of the habits of the last-named species is from Dr.
+Jerdon: “_Hystrix leucura_ is found over a great part of India, from the
+lower ranges of the Himalayas to the extreme south, but does not occur
+in lower Bengal, where it is replaced by _H. bengalensis_. It forms
+extensive burrows, often in societies, in the sides of hills, banks of
+rivers and nullas, and very often in the dams of tanks, and in old mud
+walls, etc. In some parts of the country they are very destructive to
+various crops, potatoes, carrots, and other vegetables. They never issue
+forth till after dark, but now and then one will be found returning
+to his lair in daylight. Dogs take up the scent of the Porcupine very
+keenly, and on the Nilghiris I have killed many by the aid of dogs,
+tracking them to their dens. They charge backwards at their foes,
+erecting their spines at the same time, and dogs generally get seriously
+injured by their strong spines, which are sometimes driven deeply into
+the assailant. The Porcupine is not bad eating,—the meat, which is white,
+tasting something between pork and veal.”
+
+Besides these three large crested species of _Hystrix_, there are four or
+five smaller species without nuchal crests occurring in North-East India
+and in the Malay region, from Nipal to Borneo.
+
+Fossil species of _Hystrix_ occur in the Pleistocene and Pliocene of
+India, and in Europe from the Upper Pliocene to the Middle Miocene,
+being perhaps also represented in the French Phosphorites. Remains from
+the Pliocene and Miocene of the United States have been referred to
+this genus, and if rightly determined are of especial interest from a
+distributional point of view.
+
+_Atherura._[406]—The Brush-tailed Porcupines are much smaller animals
+than the last, characterised by their long tails tipped with bundles of
+peculiar flattened spines. Of the three species two are found in the
+Malay region and one in West Africa. A fossil species occurs in the
+cavern-deposits of Madras.
+
+_Trichys._[407]—This genus contains but one Bornean species (_T.
+guentheri_), externally very like an _Atherura_, but differing from the
+members of that genus in many important cranial characters.
+
+
+_Family_ CHINCHILLIDÆ.
+
+Terrestrial forms, with elongated hind limbs, bushy tails, very soft fur,
+and complete clavicles. Jugal without an inferior angle, and extending
+forwards to the lachrymal; palate contracted in front and deeply
+emarginate behind; incisors short, and the molars divided by continuous
+enamel-folds into transverse laminæ. Neotropical region. This family
+includes only three existing species, divided into as many genera.
+
+_Chinchilla._[408]—In this genus the fore feet have five and the hind
+four digits, the tail is long and bushy, and the auditory bullæ are
+enormous, appearing on the top of the skull. The one species (_C.
+lanigera_) is restricted to the alpine zones of the Andes from the north
+of Peru to the south of Chili. It is a Squirrel-like Rodent, about 10
+inches in length, the tail somewhat exceeding 5 inches, and the ears very
+large. Its fur is greatly valued on account of its extreme softness and
+delicate gray colour.
+
+_Lagidium_[409] and _Lagostomus_.[410]—_Lagidium_ has four digits in
+both fore and hind feet, and _Lagostomus_ three only in the hind feet,
+and the auditory bullæ are much smaller than in the preceding genus.
+_Lagidium_ has the same distribution as _Chinchilla_; while _Lagostomus_,
+as represented by the Viscacha (_L. trichodactylus_), is found in the
+Pampas from the Uruguay River to the Rio Negro. The Viscachas live in
+burrows, generally in large numbers, and are nocturnal in their habits.
+Remains referable to the existing species, as well as others which appear
+to belong to extinct forms, occur in the Pleistocene deposits of South
+America.
+
+_Extinct Genera._—Several Rodents from the South American Tertiaries
+more or less closely allied to _Lagostomus_ have been described by Dr.
+Ameghino under the names of _Prolagostomus_, _Pliolagostomus_, etc.
+The huge _Megamys_ (_Potamarchus_), from the infra-Pampean deposits of
+Parana and Patagonia, is referred to this family, and has dimensions
+approximating to those of an Ox. Other fossil genera have received the
+names of _Epiblema_ and _Tetrastylus_.
+
+
+_Family_ CASTOROIDIDÆ.
+
+_Castoroides._[411]—The large Beaver-like Rodent with the dimensions of
+a Bear from the Pleistocene of the United States described under this
+name is regarded by Dr. Coues as the type of a family. Its dentition
+is nearest to that of _Chinchilla_ and _Hydrochœrus_, but some of
+the cranial characters are like those of the _Castoridæ_. The genera
+_Amblyrhiza_ and _Loxomylus_, from the Pleistocene of the Antilles,
+appear to be allied types.
+
+
+_Family_ DASYPROCTIDÆ.
+
+Terrestrial forms with subequal limbs, hoof-like claws, short or obsolete
+tail, and rudimentary clavicles. Mandibular masseteric ridge obsolete;
+palate broad; incisors long; molars semi-rooted, with external and
+internal enamel-folds. Neotropical region.
+
+_Dasyprocta._[412]—Includes several slender-limbed species, with three
+hind toes, commonly called Agoutis, inhabiting Central and South America,
+one (_D. cristata_) extending into the West-Indian Islands. Numerous
+fossil remains of this genus occur in the cavern-deposits of Brazil.
+
+_Cælogenys._[413]—This genus is readily characterised by the presence
+of five hind toes, and the extraordinary development of its zygomatic
+arches, which are enormously expanded vertically, forming great convex
+bony capsules on the sides of the face, enclosing on each side a large
+cavity lined with mucous membrane, and communicating by a small opening
+with the mouth. The Paca (_C. paca_) is about 2 feet long, and, like
+the species of _Dasyprocta_, lives generally in the forests or along
+the banks of rivers. This species appears to date from the epoch of the
+Pleistocene deposits of the Brazilian caves. A smaller species from
+Ecuador, living at elevations of from 6000 to 10,000 feet, has been
+described as _C. taczanowskii_.
+
+
+_Family_ DINOMYIDÆ.
+
+Distinguished from the _Dasyproctidæ_ by the cleft upper lip, rather
+long and bushy tail, the presence of four digits in both fore and hind
+feet, and the complete clavicles. The manubrium is broad; the optic
+foramina are confluent; the incisors broad; and the molars rootless, with
+enamel-folds dividing them into transverse laminæ.
+
+_Dinomys._[414]—The sole representative of this family is the Rodent
+known as _D. branicki_, of which hitherto only a single specimen
+has been obtained. This was captured in Peru, where it was found at
+daybreak walking about a courtyard; the inhabitants of the district were
+previously unacquainted with the species, from which its extreme rarity
+may be inferred. Externally it resembles much the Paca, having similar
+S-like nostrils; but in the laminated molars, and many features of the
+skeleton, it differs from all the other Rodents with hoof-like nails. It
+is regarded by its describer, the late Professor Peters, as a connecting
+link between the _Octodontidæ_, _Chinchillidæ_, _Dasyproctidæ_, and
+_Caviidæ_.
+
+
+_Family_ CAVIIDÆ.
+
+Terrestrial or natatorial forms, with short incisors, strong mandibular
+masseteric ridges, long and curved paroccipitals, and palate contracted
+in front. Fore feet with four digits, hind feet with three. Clavicles
+imperfect. Molars divided by enamel-folds into transverse laminæ;
+milk-teeth shed before birth. Other characters as in _Dasyproctidæ_.
+Neotropical region.
+
+_Cavia._[415]—Limbs and ears short, subequal; tail none. Vertebræ: C 7, D
+13, L 6, S 4, C 7. This genus includes several species widely distributed
+throughout South America, extending even to the Straits of Magellan. The
+Restless Cavy (_C. porcellus_), which is found throughout Uruguay and
+Brazil, has been very generally regarded as the ancestral form of the
+domesticated Guinea-Pig. It is about 10 inches long, and weighs a little
+over a pound; its fur is long and of a nearly uniform grayish-brown
+colour. This species is rarely found in dry sandy localities, preferring
+marshes covered with aquatic plants, among which it lies concealed,
+feeding in the early morning and after sunset in the evening; but when
+the soil is dry it forms burrows. It lives in societies of from six to
+eighteen individuals, breeding but once a year, with one, or at most
+only two, young at a birth. The Guinea-Pig (probably a misnomer of
+Guiana-Pig) is larger than _C. porcellus_, and is regarded by Dr. Nehring
+as descended from another species, _C. cutleri_. It is white in colour,
+with irregular patches of reddish-brown and black. The Bolivian Cavy (_C.
+boliviensis_), found throughout the higher regions of Bolivia, usually at
+an elevation of 10,000 or 12,000 feet, is exceedingly shy, and lives in
+burrows, which in some districts are so numerous as to have completely
+undermined the soil. The Rock-Cavy (_C. rupestris_), distinguished by its
+short, blunt nails, is found in rocky situations throughout Brazil, and
+is much sought after for its flesh. The Southern Cavy (_C. australis_),
+common along the coast of Patagonia, forms deep burrows, with several
+outlets, in sandy declivities. Remains of existing species of _Cavia_ are
+found in the cavern-deposits of Lagoa Santa, Brazil.
+
+_Dolichotis._[416]—Characterised by the great length of the ears and the
+short tail. The palate is so much contracted in front that the premolars
+of opposite sides touch by their antero-internal edges. Vertebræ: C 7, D
+12, L 8, S 3, C 10.
+
+The Patagonian Cavy (_D. patachonica_)—the only living representative of
+the genus—is rather larger than a Hare, which it somewhat resembles in
+external appearance. It inhabits the dry sterile districts of Patagonia
+and La Plata, disappearing wherever the country becomes more humid. This
+animal burrows in the earth, although in districts where the Viscacha is
+found it is said to avail itself of the works of the latter. Unlike other
+cavies, its eyes are protected from the glare of the sun by prominent
+eyelashes. The body is covered with a long dense fur of a rusty colour.
+Two young are produced at a birth. Three species of _Dolichotis_ have
+been described from the Brazilian cave-deposits, one of which is probably
+not really separable from the existing form.
+
+_Hydrochœrus._[417]—A large aquatic form with all the feet fully webbed;
+the skull (Fig. 213, p. 481) large, with enormous paroccipital processes;
+and the molars very complex, the third upper one having some twelve
+transverse laminæ. Upper incisors grooved. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 3,
+C 8.
+
+The Capybara (_H. capybara_) is the largest existing Rodent, and the
+only living representative of the genus. It is a bulky and stoutly built
+animal, and attains a length of about 4 feet. The body is covered with
+long and coarse hair, reddish-brown above and brownish-yellow beneath.
+Capybaras are found over the whole of the eastern part of South America,
+and to the westward range into Bolivia and Peru. They frequent the
+borders of rivers and lakes, concealing themselves among reeds and other
+water plants. Remains of _Hydrochœrus_ are found in the cavern-deposits
+of Brazil, which are probably referable to the existing species; one
+extinct species from the Pleistocene of Buenos Ayres is estimated to
+have attained a length of 5 feet, while _H. magnus_ of the same deposits
+was of still larger dimensions. The genus is also represented in the
+Pleistocene of South Carolina and the infra-Pampean beds of Parana.
+
+_Extinct Genera._—A number of South American fossil Rodents have been
+referred to extinct genera of _Caviidæ_. Thus _Plexochœrus_, from the
+Tertiary of Argentina, differs from _Hydrochœrus_ in having only nine
+laminæ in the last upper molar; _Cardiomys_, _Cardiatherium_, etc., from
+the infra-Pampeans are also stated to be allied to _Hydrochœrus_, while
+_Contracavia_, of the same deposits, is related to _Cavia_, but of larger
+size. _Microcavia_, again, from the Pleistocene of Argentina, is regarded
+as connecting _Cavia_ with _Dolichotis_. The Tertiary European genera
+_Issiodoromys_ and _Nesocerodon_ are apparently referable to the present
+family.
+
+
+_Suborder_ DUPLICIDENTATA.
+
+Two pairs of incisors in the upper jaw (the second very small, and placed
+directly behind the large first pair), the enamel of which extends
+round to their posterior surfaces. At birth there are three pairs of
+these incisors, but the outer one on each side is soon lost. Incisive
+foramina large; and usually confluent; bony palate very narrow from
+before backwards; no true alisphenoid canal; fibula ankylosed to the
+tibia, and articulating with the calcaneum. Testes permanently external.
+This suborder includes the Picas, Hares, and Rabbits, all of which are
+strictly terrestrial.
+
+
+_Family_ LAGOMYIDÆ.
+
+Complete clavicles, subequal limbs, no external tail, and short ears.
+Skull depressed, frontals contracted and without postorbital processes;
+_p_ ¹⁄₁ or ²⁄₂; molars rootless, with transverse enamel-folds. Palæarctic
+and Nearctic.
+
+_Lagomys._[418]—Represented by about a dozen species of small
+Guinea-Pig-like animals, inhabiting chiefly the mountainous parts of
+Northern Asia (from 11,000 to 14,000 feet), one species only being known
+from South-East Europe, and another from the Rocky Mountains.
+
+The Picas, or Tailless Hares, live in holes among the rocks of their
+native mountains, and are agile and shy little creatures. The genus is
+well represented through the upper and middle Tertiaries. It has been
+proposed to separate those fossil forms with _p_ ²⁄₁ as _Myolagus_, and
+those with _p_ ¹⁄₁ as _Titanomys_, but this seems scarcely advisable.
+
+
+_Family_ LEPORIDÆ.
+
+Imperfect clavicles, elongated hind limbs, short recurved tail, and
+long ears. Skull (Fig. 216) compressed, frontals with large wing-shaped
+postorbital processes _p_ ³⁄₂; molars as in the _Lagomyidæ_. Cosmopolitan
+(except Australasia). Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 7, S 4, C 13-15.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 216.—Skull of Hare (_Lepus timidus_).]
+
+_Lepus._[419]—The single genus _Lepus_ includes about twenty species,
+all of which resemble one another in general external characters. In all
+the fore limbs have five and the hind only four digits, and the soles of
+the feet are densely clothed with hairs similar to those covering the
+legs; the inner surface of the cheeks is also hairy. Although the family
+has such a wide distribution, the greater number of the species are
+restricted to the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions, only a single species
+(_L. brasiliensis_) extending into South America, where it has existed
+since the date of the Pleistocene deposits of the Brazilian caves.
+
+The Common Hare (_L. timidus_[420]) may be taken as a typical example of
+the genus, and is characterised by the great length of the ears and hind
+limbs. It is found in all parts of Europe except the north of Russia,
+the Scandinavian peninsula, and Ireland. Its fur is usually of a tawny
+gray colour above and white beneath, with the upper surface of the short
+tail and the tips of the ears black. The colour of the fur differs,
+however, considerably in different latitudes and at different seasons of
+the year; showing a tendency to become white during winter in northern
+countries, while assuming a reddish-yellow hue in the more genial climate
+of southern Europe. The Hare is a nocturnal animal, remaining during the
+day on its “form,” as the slight depression is called which it makes in
+the open field, usually among grass.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 217.—The Common Hare (_Lepus timidus_).]
+
+The Mountain Hare (_L. variabilis_) is found throughout the northern part
+of the Palæarctic region, ranging from Ireland in the west to Japan in
+the east, and also occurring in several of the more southerly mountain
+ranges, such as the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Caucasus. It is smaller
+than the common species, with a smaller and more rounded head, and
+shorter ears, tail, and hind limbs. In cold climates the colour of the
+whole animal changes in the winter to a pure white (as in Fig. 218), with
+the exception of the tips of the ears, which remain black. In Ireland no
+winter change of colour takes place.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 218.—The Mountain Hare (_Lepus variabilis_).]
+
+The Rabbit (_L. cuniculus_), speaking of the wild race only, is
+distinguished from the Hare externally by its smaller size, shorter ears
+and feet, the absence or reduction of the black patch at the tip of
+the ears so characteristic of the Hare, and by its grayer colour. The
+skull is smaller and lighter, with a slenderer muzzle and a longer and
+narrower palate. Besides these characters, however, the Rabbit is sharply
+separated from the Hare by the fact that it brings forth its young naked,
+blind, and helpless; to compensate for this, it digs a deep burrow in
+the earth in which they are born and reared, while the young of the Hare
+are born fully clothed with fur, and able to take care of themselves in
+the “form” in which they are born. The weight of the Rabbit is from 2½
+to 3 lbs., although individuals perfectly wild have been recorded up to
+more than 5 lbs. Its general habits are too well known to need a detailed
+description here. It breeds from four to eight times a year, bringing
+forth each time from three to eight young. Its period of gestation is
+about thirty days, and it begins to breed when six months old. It attains
+to an age of about seven or eight years.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 219.—The Rabbit (_Lepus cuniculus_).]
+
+The geographical distribution of the Rabbit presents many most
+interesting peculiarities. It is believed to be originally a native of
+the western half of the Mediterranean basin only, and still abounds in
+Spain, Sardinia, Southern Italy, Sicily, Greece, Tunis, and Algeria; and
+many of the Islands adjoining these countries are quite overrun with
+it. Thence it has spread, partly by man’s agency, northwards throughout
+temperate Western Europe, increasing rapidly wherever it gains a footing;
+and this extension is still going on, as is shown by the case of
+Scotland, in which sixty years ago Rabbits were little known, while they
+are now found in all suitable localities up to the extreme north. It has
+also gained admittance into Ireland, and now abounds there as much as in
+England. Out of Europe the same extension of range has been going on. In
+New Zealand and Australia Rabbits, introduced either for profit or sport,
+have increased to such an extent as to form one of the most serious
+pests that the farmers have to contend against, as the climate and soil
+seem to suit them perfectly, and their natural enemies are too few and
+too lowly organised to keep their numbers within reasonable bounds. In
+other cases Rabbits introduced into islands have become or remained
+more or less distinct from their parent stock; thus the Rabbits both of
+the Falkland Islands and of Jamaica still show traces of their descent
+from domesticated varieties, and have never reverted to the ordinary
+brownish-gray type. And again, as was pointed out by Mr. Darwin,[421]
+the Rabbits in the island of Porto Santo, near Madeira, whose ancestors
+were introduced from Spain in 1418 or 1419, have formed quite a distinct
+diminutive race, barely half the bulk or weight of English Rabbits, and
+differing in certain slight details of colour and habits.
+
+    _Bibliography of Rodentia._—G. R. Waterhouse, “Observations
+    of the Rodentia,” _Mag. Nat. Hist._ iii. (1839); Id. _Ann.
+    Nat. Hist._ viii. and x. (1839-42); Id. “On the Geographical
+    Distribution of the Rodentia,” _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1839, pp.
+    162-174; Id. _Natural History of the Mammalia_, vol. ii.
+    “Rodentia” (1848); Gervais, _Dic. Univ. d’Hist. Nat._ xi. p.
+    202 (1848); Brandt, “Untersuchungen über die craniologischen
+    Entwickelungsstufen und Classification der Nager der Jetzwelt,”
+    _Mém. de l’Acad. Impér. de St. Pétersbourg_ (1855); Lilljeborg,
+    _Systematisk Œfversight af de Gnagnde Däggdjuren_, Upsala,
+    1866; Alston, “On the Classification of the Order _Glires_,”
+    _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1876, pp. 61-98; Trouessart, “Catal. de
+    Rongeurs, Vivants et Fossiles,” _Bullet. Soc. d’Études Scient.
+    d’Angers_, 1880-1881; Coues and Allen, “Monographs of North
+    American Rodentia,” _United States Geol. Surv. of Territories_,
+    vol. xi. (1877); Winge, “Rodentia pa Lagos Santa, Brazil.”
+    _Mus. Lund._ vol. iii. (1887); various papers by Peters in
+    _Monatsber. Ak. Berlin_, and by Alston, Anderson, Blanford,
+    Dobson, Milne-Edwards, Thomas, and others, in _Proc. Zool.
+    Soc._, _Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng._, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._, etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE ORDER CARNIVORA
+
+
+Though the existing Carnivora as at present restricted[422] form a very
+natural and well-defined order among the Mammalia, it is difficult to
+find any important common diagnostic characters by which they can be
+absolutely separated; so that, as in the case of so many other natural
+groups, it is by the possession of a combination of various characters
+that they must be distinguished. Thus they are all unguiculate, and never
+have less than four well-developed toes on each foot, with nails more
+or less pointed, rarely rudimentary or absent. The pollex and hallux
+are never opposable to the other digits. They are regularly diphyodont
+and heterodont, and their teeth are always rooted.[423] Their dentition
+consists of small pointed incisors, usually three in number, on either
+side of each jaw, of which the first is always the smallest and the third
+the largest, the difference being most marked in the upper jaw; strong
+conical, pointed, recurved canines; cheek-teeth variable, but generally,
+especially in the anterior part of the series, more or less compressed,
+pointed, and trenchant; if the crowns are flat and tuberculated they
+are never complex or divided into lobes by deep inflexions of enamel.
+The condyle of the lower jaw is a transversely placed half-cylinder
+working in a deep glenoid fossa of corresponding form. The brain varies
+much in relative size and form, but the hemispheres are never destitute
+of well-marked convolutions (Fig. 23, p. 71). The stomach (Fig. 234)
+is always simple and pyriform. The cæcum is either absent or short
+and simple (Fig. 235), and the colon is not sacculated, or greatly
+wider than the small intestine. Vesiculæ seminales are never present.
+Cowper’s glands are present in some, absent in other groups. The uterus
+is bicornuate. The mammæ are abdominal, and very variable in number.
+The placenta is deciduate, and almost always zonary. The clavicle is
+often entirely absent, and when present is never complete. The humerus
+often has an entepicondylar foramen. The radius and ulna are distinct.
+The scaphoid and lunar bones are united into one, and there is never
+a distinct os centrale in the adult. The fibula is always a distinct
+slender bone.
+
+Several of these characters are, however, not applicable to all the
+members of the extinct group of Carnivores for which the name Creodonta
+has been proposed, as will be noticed in the sequel.
+
+The large majority of the species composing this order subsist chiefly
+upon some variety of animal food, though many are omnivorous, and some
+few chiefly, though not entirely, vegetable eaters. The more typical
+forms live altogether on recently killed warm-blooded animals, and their
+whole organisation is thoroughly adapted to a predaceous mode of life.
+In conformity with this manner of obtaining their subsistence they are
+generally bold and savage in disposition, though some species are capable
+of being domesticated, and when placed under favourable circumstances
+for the development of such qualities exhibit a very high degree of
+intelligence and fidelity. The existing representatives of the order
+are naturally divided into two suborders, the members of the one being
+the more typical, and mainly terrestrial in their mode of life; while
+those of the other are aberrant, having the whole of their organisation
+specially modified for living habitually in water. These are called
+respectively the True, or Fissiped, and the Pinniped Carnivora.
+
+
+_Suborder_ CARNIVORA VERA.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 220.—Left upper carnassial teeth of Carnivora. I,
+_Felis_; II, _Canis_; III, _Ursus_. 1, Anterior, 2, middle (paracone),
+and 3, posterior (metacone) cusp of blade; 4, inner tubercle (protocone)
+supported on distinct root; 5, inner cusp posterior in position, and
+without distinct root, characteristic of the _Ursidæ_.]
+
+Generally adapted for terrestrial progression and mode of life, though
+some may be partially aquatic in their habits. The fore limbs never have
+the first digit, or the hind limbs the first and fifth digits, longer
+than the others. Incisors ³⁄₃ on each side, with very rare exceptions.
+Cerebral hemispheres more or less elongated; always with three or four
+gyri on the outer surface forming arches above each other, the lowest
+surrounding the Sylvian fissure. The molar series of teeth have not
+the uniform characters of those of the Pinnipedia. There is always one
+tooth in each jaw which is specially modified, and to which the name of
+“sectorial” or “carnassial” tooth has been applied. The teeth in front of
+this are more or less sharp pointed and compressed; while those behind
+it are broad and tuberculated. The characters of the carnassial teeth
+deserve special attention, as, though fundamentally the same throughout
+the suborder, they are greatly modified in different genera. The upper
+carnassial is the most posterior of the teeth which have predecessors,
+and is therefore reckoned as the last premolar (_p_ ⁴⁄ of the typical
+dentition). It consists essentially of a more or less compressed blade
+supported on two roots and an inner tubercle supported by a distinct
+root (see Fig. 220). The blade when fully developed has three cusps
+or lobes (1, 2, and 3), but the anterior is always small, and often
+absent. The middle lobe is conical, high, and pointed; the posterior
+lobe has a compressed straight knife-like edge. The inner tubercle (4)
+varies very much in extent, but is generally placed near the anterior
+end of the blade, though sometimes it is median in position. In the
+_Ursidæ_ alone both the inner tubercle and root are wanting, and there
+is often a small internal and posterior cusp (5) without root. In this
+aberrant family also the carnassial is relatively to the other teeth much
+smaller than in the rest of the Carnivora. The lower carnassial (see
+Fig. 221) is the most anterior of the teeth without predecessors in the
+milk-series; it is therefore reckoned the first true molar (_m_ ¹⁄). It
+has two roots supporting a crown, consisting when fully developed of a
+compressed bilobed blade (1 and 2), a heel, or talon (4), and an inner
+cusp (3). The lobes of the blade, of which the hinder (2) is the larger,
+are separated by a notch, generally prolonged into a linear fissure. In
+the most specialised Carnivora, as the _Felidæ_ (I), the blade alone
+is developed, both talon and inner cusp being absent or rudimentary. In
+others, as _Meles_ (V) and _Ursus_ (VI), the heel is greatly developed,
+broad, and tuberculated. The blade in these cases is generally placed
+obliquely, its flat or convex (outer) side looking forwards, so that the
+two lobes are almost side by side, instead of anterior and posterior. The
+inner cusp (3) is generally conical, pointed, and placed to the inner
+side of the hinder lobe of the blade. The special characters of these
+teeth are more disguised in the Sea Otter (_Latax_) than in any other
+form, but even in it they can be traced.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 221.—Left lower carnassial teeth of Carnivora. I,
+_Felis_; II, _Canis_; III, _Herpestes_; IV, _Lutra_; V, _Meles_; VI,
+_Ursus_. 1, Anterior lobe (paraconid) of blade; 2, posterior (protoconid)
+lobe of blade; 3, inner cusp (metaconid); 4, talon (hypoconid). It will
+be seen that the relative size of the two roots varies according to
+the development of the portion of the crown they have respectively to
+support.]
+
+The homology of the various parts of the Carnivorous carnassial with the
+primitive tritubercular type (p. 30) is indicated in the figures. It may
+be observed, however, that the anterior lobe of the three-lobed upper
+carnassial is an element added on to the more primitive two-lobed type.
+When the talon of the lower carnassial, as in _Canis_, consists of a
+large outer and small inner cusp, the latter (not seen in the figure) is
+the entoconid.
+
+The toes are nearly always armed with large, strong, curved, and
+tolerably sharp claws, ensheathing the ungual phalanges, and held more
+firmly in their places by broad laminæ of bone reflected over their
+attached ends from the bases of the phalanges. In some forms, most
+notably the _Felidæ_, these claws are retractile; that is to say, the
+ungual phalanx, with the claw attached, folds back in the fore foot into
+a sheath by the outer or ulnar side of the middle phalanx of the digit,
+being retained in this position when the animal is at rest by a strong
+elastic ligament. In the hind foot the ungual phalanx is retracted on
+to the top, and not the side of the middle phalanx. By the action of
+the deep flexor muscles, the ungual phalanges are straightened out, the
+claws protruded from their sheath, and the soft “velvety” paw becomes
+suddenly converted into a most formidable weapon of offence. The habitual
+retraction of the claws preserves their points from wear in ordinary
+progression.
+
+The skeleton of the Lion represented in Fig. 15 (p. 45) illustrates the
+digitigrade mode of progression of the _Felidæ_, as well as the essential
+characters of the bony framework of a typical Carnivore.
+
+The Fissipedal Carnivora were divided by Cuvier into two groups,
+according to the position of the feet in walking,—the Plantigrada,
+or those that place the whole of the soles to the ground, and the
+Digitigrada, or those that walk only on the toes; and the difference
+between these groups was considered of equal importance to that which
+separated the Pinnigrada or Seals from both of them. The distinction is,
+however, quite an artificial one, since every intermediate condition
+exists between the extreme typical plantigrade gait of the Bears and the
+truly digitigrade walk of the Cats and Dogs; in fact, the greater number
+of the Carnivora belong to neither one form nor the other, but may be
+called “subplantigrade”; often when at rest applying the whole of the
+sole to the ground, but keeping the heel raised to a greater or less
+extent when walking.
+
+An amended classification of the existing forms is into three distinct
+sections, of which the Cats, the Dogs, and the Bears may be respectively
+taken as representatives, and which are hence called Æluroidea, Cynoidea,
+and Arctoidea. This division is founded mainly on characters exhibited
+by the base of the skull, but is corroborated by the structure of other
+parts.[424] The presence or absence of a bridge of bone, covering the
+external carotid artery in a part of its course by the side of the
+alisphenoid bone, and enclosing the “alisphenoid canal” (see Fig. 8, p.
+38), a character to which the late Mr. H. N. Turner first drew attention,
+might seem unimportant at first sight, but it is curiously constant
+in certain groups, which we have other reasons, derived often from a
+combination of less easily definable characters, to regard as natural. It
+is therefore generally mentioned in the following family definitions.
+
+It must, however, be stated that while the arrangement is a convenient
+one as regards the existing Carnivores, it will not hold good when the
+fossil forms are included. Thus there is ample evidence to show that
+the Dogs and Bears were formerly so intimately connected that in a
+palæontological classification the _Canidæ_ cannot be satisfactorily
+separated from the _Ursidæ_; while in another direction the _Canidæ_ were
+closely allied to the ancestral _Viverridæ_. The most important objection
+against this classification is, however, the apparent intimate connection
+exhibited by fossil forms between the _Viverridæ_ and the _Mustelidæ_,
+which, so far as the present evidence goes, tends to show that the latter
+are derived from the former. If this be eventually fully proved, it would
+seem to indicate that the Arctoidea are not a natural group; and that the
+resemblances between the _Ursidæ_ and _Mustelidæ_ have been independently
+acquired, in the course of the descent of the one family from a Canoid,
+and of the other from a Viverroid stock.
+
+
+_Section_ ÆLUROIDEA.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 222.—Left side of the palatal aspect of the cranium
+and mandible of the Suricate (_Suricata tetradactyla_). _c_, Carotid
+foramen; _f_, fissure in floor of auditory meatus. From Mivart, _Proc.
+Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 184.]
+
+The Æluroidea or Cat-like Carnivores include the _Felidæ_, _Viverridæ_,
+_Proteleidæ_, and _Hyænidæ_. The existing representatives of this section
+present the following common features. Auditory bulla (Fig. 222) much
+dilated, rounded smooth, thin-walled, and (except in the _Hyænidæ_)
+divided into two chambers, by a septum. Bony auditory meatus short.
+Paroccipital process applied to, and spread over the hinder part of the
+bulla (Fig. 222). Mastoid process never very salient, and often obsolete.
+Carotid canal (Fig. 8, p. 38, _car_) small, sometimes very inconspicuous.
+Condyloid and glenoid foramina concealed or wanting. Cæcum small, rarely
+absent. Os penis generally small and irregular (large in _Cryptoprocta_).
+Cowper’s glands present; prostate distinctly lobed. Some details of the
+anatomy of the soft parts will be found under the head of _Genetta_.
+
+
+_Family_ FELIDÆ.
+
+In all the forms, both recent and fossil, which can be included in this
+family the canines are strongly developed, there are never more than
+one upper and two lower molars, and the three lower incisors are placed
+in the same horizontal line. With one exception, the humerus has an
+entepicondylar foramen.
+
+The following characters are common to all the existing members. True
+molars reduced to one above and below, that of the upper jaw very small
+and transversely extended. Only two inferior premolars. Upper carnassial
+with three lobes to the blade; lower without talon or inner cusp.
+Auditory bulla not externally constricted. No alisphenoid canal. Carotid
+canal very minute. Digits 5-4. Dorsal vertebræ 13.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 223.—Front view of skull of Lion (_Felis leo_).]
+
+_Felis._[425]—The whole structure of the animals of this genus exhibits
+the Carnivorous type in its fullest perfection. Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_
+¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₂, _m_ ¹⁄₁; total 30. A distinctly cusped inner tubercle to
+the upper carnassial. Claws completely retractile. The upper anterior
+premolar (_p._ 2), always small, and may be absent without any other
+modification in the dental or other structures. Such a variation should
+not therefore be considered as of generic importance. Incisors very
+small. Canines large, strong, slightly recurved, with trenchant edges and
+sharp points, and placed wide apart (Fig. 223). Premolars compressed and
+sharp pointed. The most posterior in the upper jaw (the carnassial), a
+very large tooth, consisting of a subcompressed blade, divided into three
+unequal lobes supported by two roots, with a very small inner tubercle
+placed near the front end of the tooth and supported by a distinct root
+(Fig. 220). The upper true molar a very small tubercular tooth placed
+more or less transversely at the inner side of the hinder end of the
+last. In the lower jaw the true molar (carnassial) reduced to the blade
+alone, which is very large, trenchant, and much compressed, divided
+into two subequal lobes. Occasionally it has a rudimentary talon, but
+never an inner cusp. The skull is generally short and rounded, though
+proportionally more elongated in the larger forms. The facial portion
+is especially short and broad, and the zygomatic arches are very
+wide and strong. The auditory bullæ are large, rounded, and smooth.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 13-29. Clavicles better developed
+than in other Carnivora, but not articulating with either the scapulæ
+or sternum. Limbs digitigrade. Anterior feet with five toes, the third
+and fourth nearly equal and longest, the second slightly and the fifth
+considerably shorter; the pollex still shorter, not reaching as far as
+the metacarpo-phalangeal articulation of the second. Hind feet with
+only four toes. The third and fourth the longest, the second and fifth
+somewhat shorter and nearly equal; the hallux represented only by the
+rudimentary metatarsal bone. The claws all very large, strongly curved,
+compressed, very sharp, and exhibiting the retractile condition in the
+highest degree. The tail varies greatly in length, being in some a mere
+stump, in others nearly as long as the body. Ears of moderate size, more
+or less triangular and pointed. Eyes rather large. Iris very mobile, and
+with a pupillary aperture which contracts under the influence of light
+in some species to a narrow vertical slit, in others to an oval, and in
+some to a circular aperture. Tongue thickly covered with sharp-pointed,
+recurved horny papillæ. Cæcum small and simple.
+
+As in structure so in habits, the Cats may be considered the most
+specialised of all the Carnivora. All the known members of the genus
+feed, in the natural state, almost exclusively on warm-blooded animals
+which they have themselves killed. One Indian species (_F. viverrina_)
+preys on fish and even (it is said) on freshwater molluscs. Unlike the
+Dogs, they never associate in packs, and rarely hunt their prey in open
+ground, but from some place of concealment wait until the unsuspecting
+victim comes within reach, or with noiseless and stealthy tread,
+crouching close to the ground for concealment, approach near enough to
+make the fatal spring. In this manner they frequently attack and kill
+animals considerably exceeding their own size. They are mostly nocturnal,
+and the greater number, especially the smaller species, more or less
+arboreal. None are aquatic, and all take to the water with reluctance,
+though some may habitually haunt the banks of rivers or pools, because
+they more easily obtain their prey in such situations.
+
+The numerous species of the genus are very widely diffused over the
+greater part of the habitable world, though most abundant in the warm
+latitudes of both hemispheres. No species are, however, found in the
+Australian region, or in Madagascar. Although the Old-World and New-World
+Cats (except perhaps the Northern Lynx) are all specifically distinct,
+no common structural character has been pointed out by which the former
+can be separated from the latter. On the contrary, most of the minor
+groups into which the genus has been divided have representatives in both
+hemispheres.
+
+Notwithstanding the considerable diversity in external appearance and
+size between different members of this extensive genus, the structural
+differences are but slight, and so variously combined in different
+species that the numerous attempts hitherto made to subdivide it are all
+unsatisfactory and artificial. The principal differences are to be found
+in the form of the cranium, especially of the nasal and adjoining bones,
+the completeness of the bony orbit posteriorly, the development of the
+first upper premolar and of the inner tubercle of the upper carnassial,
+the length of the tail, the form of the pupil, and the condition and
+coloration of the fur, especially the presence or absence of tufts
+or pencils of hair on the external ears. Writing in 1881 Professor
+Mivart[426] gave the number of existing species of _Felis_ as 48, but
+by Mr. Blanford’s reduction of the number of Indian species[427] the
+list may now be diminished to some 41. The following account is chiefly
+devoted to some of the more important and better known species.
+
+A. _Old World Species._—The Lion (_F. leo_, Fig. 224) has been well known
+to man from the earliest historic times. Its geographical habitat made it
+familiar to all the races among whom human civilisation took its origin,
+and its strongly marked physical and moral characteristics have rendered
+it proverbial, perhaps to an exaggerated degree, and have in all ages
+afforded favourite types for poetry, art, and heraldry. The literature
+of the ancient Hebrews abounds in allusions to the Lion; and the almost
+incredible numbers that are stated to have been provided for exhibition
+and destruction in the Roman amphitheatres (as many as six hundred on a
+single occasion by Pompey, for example) show how abundant these animals
+must have been within accessible distance of the capital of the world.
+
+The geographical range of the Lion was once far more extensive than at
+present, even within the historic period covering the whole of Africa,
+the south of Asia, including Syria, Arabia, Asia Minor, Persia, and the
+greater part of Northern and Central India, and also the south-eastern
+portion of Europe, as shown by the well-known story told by Herodotus of
+the attacks by Lions on the Camels which carried the baggage of the army
+of Xerxes on its march through the country of the Pæonians in Macedonia.
+The very circumstantial account of that historian shows that the animal
+in his time ranged through the country south of the Balkans, through
+Roumania to the west of the River Carasu, and through Thessaly as far
+south as the Gulf of Lepanto and the Isthmus of Corinth, having as its
+western boundary the River Potamo and the Pindus mountains. The whole
+of the evidence relating to the existence of Lions in Europe, and to
+their retreat from that continent shortly before the commencement of the
+Christian era, has been collected in the article on “_Felis spelæa_” in
+Boyd Dawkins and Sandford’s _British Pleistocene Mammalia_ (1868). Fossil
+remains attest a still wider range, as it is shown in the same work that
+there is absolutely no osteological or dental character by which the
+well-known Cave Lion (_F. spelæa_), so abundantly found in cave-deposits
+of the Pleistocene age in Western Europe, can be distinguished from the
+existing _F. leo_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 224.—Lion and Lioness, after a drawing by Wolf in
+Elliot’s Monograph of the _Felidæ_.]
+
+At the present day the Lion is found in localities suitable to its
+habits, and where not exterminated (as it probably was in Europe) by the
+encroachments of man, throughout Africa from Algeria to the Cape Colony,
+and in Mesopotamia, Persia, and some parts of the north-west of India.
+According to Blanford,[428] Lions are still very numerous in the reedy
+swamps bordering the Tigris and Euphrates, and also occur on the west
+flanks of the Zagros mountains and the oak-clad ranges near Shiraz, to
+which they are attracted by the immense herds of swine which feed on the
+acorns. The Lion nowhere exists in the table-land of Persia, nor is it
+found in Baluchistan. In India, where it is verging on extinction, it
+appears now to be confined to parts of Kattywar and Rajputana, though
+within the present century its range extended through the north-west part
+of India, from Bahawalpur and Sind to at least the Jumna (about Delhi),
+southward as far as Khandesh, and in Central India through the Saugor
+and Narbada territories, Bundelkund, and as far east as Palamau. It was
+extirpated in Harriana about 1824. One was killed at Rhyli, in the Dumaoh
+district, Saugor and Narbada territories, so late as in the cold season
+of 1847-48; and one was shot in 1810 near Kot-Deji, Sind.[429]
+
+The great variations in external characters which different Lions
+present, especially in the colour and the amount of mane, has given rise
+to the idea that there are several species, or at all events distinct
+varieties peculiar to different localities. It was at one time supposed,
+on the authority of Captain Walter Smee,[430] that the Lion of Gujerat
+differed essentially from that of Africa in the absence of a mane, but
+subsequent evidence has not supported this view, which was probably
+founded upon young specimens having been mistaken for adults. Lions from
+that district as well as from Babylonia, which have lived in the gardens
+of the London Zoological Society, have had as fully developed manes as
+any other of the species. Mr. F. C. Selous[431] has shown that in South
+Africa the so-called Black-maned Lion and others with yellow scanty manes
+are found, not only in the same locality, but even among individuals of
+the same parentage.
+
+The Lion belongs to a well-defined group, containing the largest members
+of the genus, and differing from the others in the well-marked character
+that the anterior cornu of the hyoid arch is but little ossified, so that
+this arch is connected with the cranium by a long ligament, instead of by
+a continuous chain of bones, and by the less important one that the pupil
+of the eye, when contracted, is a circular hole, instead of a vertical
+slit as in the cat. The Lion agrees with the Tiger and the Leopard in
+these respects, but differs from them in its uniform style of colouring,
+and from all the other _Felidæ_ in the arrangement of its hairy covering;
+thus the hair of the top of the head, chin, and neck, as far back as the
+shoulder, is not only very much longer, but also differently disposed
+from the hair elsewhere, being erect or directed forwards, and so
+constituting the characteristic ornament called the mane. There is also a
+tuft of elongated hairs at the end of the tail, one upon each elbow, and
+in most lions a copious fringe along the middle line of the under surface
+of the body, wanting, however, in some examples.[432] It must, however,
+be observed that these characters are peculiar to the adults of the male
+sex only, and that young lions show indications of the darker stripes and
+mottlings so characteristic of the greater number of the members of the
+genus.
+
+The usual colour of the adult is yellowish-brown, but it may vary from a
+deep red or chestnut brown to an almost silver gray. The mane, as well as
+the long hair of the other parts of the body, sometimes scarcely differs
+from the general colour, but it is usually darker and not unfrequently
+nearly black. The mane begins to grow when the animal is about three
+years old, and is fully developed at five or six.
+
+In size the Lion is only equalled or exceeded by the Tiger among the
+existing _Felidæ_; though both species present great variations, the
+largest specimens of the latter appear to surpass the largest Lions. A
+full-sized South African Lion, according to Selous, measures slightly
+less than 10 feet from nose to tip of tail, following the curves of
+the body. Harris gives 10 feet 6 inches, of which the tail occupies 3
+feet. The Lioness is about a foot less. The tongue, like that of the
+other species of the genus, is long and flat, and remarkable for the
+development of the papillæ of the anterior part of the dorsal surface,
+which (except near the edge) are modified so as to resemble long,
+compressed, recurved, horny spines or claws; these, near the middle line,
+attaining the length of one-fifth of an inch. They give the part of the
+tongue on which they occur the appearance and feel of a coarse rasp, and
+serve the purpose of such an instrument in cleaning the flesh from the
+bones of the animals on which the Lions feed.
+
+The habits of the Lion in a state of nature are fairly well known from
+the united observations of numerous travellers and sportsmen who have
+explored those districts of the African continent in which it is still
+common. It lives chiefly in sandy plains and rocky places interspersed
+with dense thorn-thickets, or frequents the low bushes and tall rank
+grass and reeds that grow along the sides of streams and near the
+springs where it lies in wait for the larger herbivorous animals on
+which it feeds. Although it is occasionally seen abroad during the
+day, especially in wild and desolate regions, where it is subject to
+but little molestation, the night is, as in the case of so many other
+predaceous animals, the period of its greatest activity. It is then that
+its characteristic roar is chiefly heard, as thus graphically described
+by Gordon Cumming:—
+
+“One of the most striking things connected with the Lion is his voice,
+which is extremely grand and peculiarly striking. It consists at
+times of a low, deep moaning, repeated five or six times, ending in
+faintly audible sighs; at other times he startles the forest with loud,
+deep-toned, solemn roars, repeated in quick succession, each increasing
+in loudness to the third or fourth, when his voice dies away in five
+or six low muffled sounds very much resembling distant thunder. At
+times, and not unfrequently, a troop may be heard roaring in concert,
+one assuming the lead, and two, three, or four more regularly taking
+up their parts, like persons singing a catch. Like our Scottish stags
+at the rutting season, they roar loudest in cold frosty nights; but on
+no occasions are their voices to be heard in such perfection, or so
+intensely powerful, as when two or three troops of strange Lions approach
+a fountain to drink at the same time. When this occurs, every member
+of each troop sounds a bold roar of defiance at the opposite parties;
+and when one roars, all roar together, and each seems to vie with his
+comrades in the intensity and power of his voice. The power and grandeur
+of these nocturnal concerts are inconceivably striking and pleasing to
+the hunter’s ear.”
+
+“The usual pace of a Lion,” C. J. Andersson[433] says, “is a walk, and,
+though apparently rather slow, yet, from the great length of his body, he
+is able to get over a good deal of ground in a short time. Occasionally
+he trots, when his speed is not inconsiderable. His gallop—or rather
+succession of bounds—is, for a short distance, very fast—nearly or quite
+equal to that of a horse. Indeed, unless the steed has somewhat the start
+when the beast charges, it will be puzzled to escape. Many instances
+are on record of horsemen who have incautiously approached too near to
+the Lion, prior to firing, who have been pulled down by him before they
+could get out of harm’s way. Happily, however, the beast soon tires of
+the exertion of galloping, and unless his first rush succeeds he, for
+the most part, soon halts and beats a retreat.” “The Lion, as with other
+members of the feline family,” the same writer tells us, “seldom attacks
+his prey openly, unless compelled by extreme hunger. For the most part he
+steals upon it in the manner of a cat, or ambushes himself near to the
+water or a pathway frequented by game. At such times he lies crouched
+upon his belly in a thicket until the animal approaches sufficiently
+near, when, with one prodigious bound, he pounces upon it. In most cases
+he is successful, but should his intended victim escape, as at times
+happens, from his having miscalculated the distance, he may make a second
+or even a third bound, which, however, usually prove fruitless, or he
+returns disconcerted to his hiding-place, there to wait for another
+opportunity.” His food consists of all the larger herbivorous animals of
+the country in which he resides—buffaloes, antelopes, zebras, giraffes,
+or even young elephants or rhinoceroses, though the adults of these
+latter he dare not attack. In cultivated districts the cattle, sheep,
+and even human inhabitants are never safe from his nocturnal ravages.
+He appears, however, as a general rule, only to kill when hungry or
+attacked, and not for the mere pleasure of killing, as with some other
+carnivorous animals. Moreover, he by no means limits himself to animals
+of his own killing, but, according to Selous, often prefers eating game
+that has been killed by man, even when not very fresh, to taking the
+trouble to catch an animal himself. All books of African travel and sport
+abound with stories, many of which are apparently well authenticated, of
+the lion’s prodigious strength, as, exemplified by his being able to drag
+off a whole ox in his mouth to a long distance, even leaping fences and
+dykes with it.
+
+The Lion appears to be monogamous, a single male and female continuing
+attached to each other irrespectively of the pairing season. At all
+events the Lion remains with the Lioness while the cubs are young and
+helpless, and assists in providing her and them with food, and in
+educating them in the art of providing for themselves. The number of cubs
+at a birth is from two to four, usually three. They are said to remain
+with their parents till they are about three years old. The following
+account by an eye-witness gives a good idea of Lion family life[434]:—
+
+“I once had the pleasure of, unobserved myself, watching a lion family
+feeding. I was encamped on the Black Umfolosi in Zululand, and towards
+evening, walking out, about half a mile from camp, I saw a herd of zebra
+galloping across me, and when they were nearly 200 yards off, I saw a
+yellow body flash towards the leader, and saw him fall beneath the lion’s
+weight. There was a tall tree about 60 yards from the place, and anxious
+to see what went on, I stalked up to it, while the lion was still too
+much occupied to look about him, and climbed up. He had by this time
+quite killed the beautifully striped animal, but instead of proceeding
+to eat it, he got up and roared vigorously, until there was an answer,
+and in a few minutes a lioness, accompanied by four whelps, came trotting
+up from the same direction as the zebra, which no doubt she had been to
+drive towards her husband. They formed a fine picture as they all stood
+round the carcase, the whelps tearing it and biting it, but unable to get
+through the tough skin. Then the lion lay down, and the lioness driving
+her offspring before her did the same four or five yards off, upon
+which he got up, and, commencing to eat, had soon finished a hind leg,
+retiring a few yards on one side as soon as he had done so. The lioness
+came up next and tore the carcase to shreds, bolting huge mouthfuls, but
+not objecting to the whelps eating us much as they could find. There was
+a good deal of snarling and quarrelling among these young lions, and
+occasionally a stand-up fight for a minute, but their mother did not take
+any notice of them, except to give them a smart blow with her paw if
+they got in her way.... There was now little left of the zebra but a few
+bones, which hundreds of vultures were circling round waiting to pick,
+while almost an equal number hopped awkwardly about on the ground within
+50 or 60 yards of it, and the whole lion family walked quietly away, the
+lioness leading, and the lion, often turning his head to see that they
+were not followed, bringing up the rear.”
+
+Though not strictly gregarious, Lions appear to be sociable towards their
+own species, and often are found in small troops, sometimes consisting of
+a pair of old Lions, with their nearly full-grown cubs, but occasionally
+of adults of the same sex; and there seems to be good evidence that
+several Lions will associate together for the purpose of hunting upon
+a preconcerted plan. As might be supposed, their natural ferocity and
+powerful armature are sometimes turned upon one another; combats, often
+mortal, occur among male Lions under the influence of jealousy; and
+Andersson relates an instance of a quarrel between a hungry Lion and
+Lioness over the carcase of an Antelope which they had just killed, and
+which did not seem sufficient for the appetite of both, ending in the
+Lion not only killing, but even devouring his mate. Old Lions, whose
+teeth have become injured with constant wear, often become “man-eaters,”
+finding their easiest means of obtaining a subsistence in lurking in
+the neighbourhood of villages, and dashing into the tents at night and
+carrying off one of the sleeping inmates. Lions differ from most of the
+smaller _Felidæ_ in never climbing trees; indeed, as mentioned before,
+they are rarely found in forests.
+
+With regard to the character of the Lion, those who have had
+opportunities of observing it in its native haunts differ greatly. The
+exaggerated accounts of early writers as to its courage, nobility, and
+magnanimity have led to a reaction, which causes some modern authors
+to speak of it in language quite the reverse, and to accuse it of
+positive cowardice and all kinds of meanness. Livingstone goes so far
+as to say, “Nothing that I ever learned of the lion could lead me to
+attribute to it either the ferocious or noble character ascribed to
+it elsewhere,” and he adds that its roar is not distinguishable from
+that of the ostrich. Of course these different estimates depend to
+a great extent upon the particular standard of the writer, and also
+upon the circumstance that Lions, like other animals, undoubtedly show
+considerable individual differences in character, and behave differently
+under varying circumstances. They are certainly not so reckless as to be
+entirely devoid of the instinct of self-preservation, and if one, perhaps
+satiated with a good meal the night before, unexpectedly disturbed in the
+daytime, will occasionally retreat when confronted, even by an unarmed
+man, that is scarcely a reason for assigning cowardice as one of the
+characteristics of the species. The latest authority, Selous, while never
+denying the daring courage of the Lion when hungry or provoked, and
+vindicating the awe-inspiring character of the roar of several Lions in
+unison, when heard at close quarters, as the grandest sound in nature,
+says with regard to its outward aspect:—
+
+“It has always appeared to me that the word ‘majestic’ is singularly
+inapplicable to the lion in its wild state, as when seen by daylight
+he always has a stealthy furtive look that entirely does away with the
+idea of majesty. To look majestic a lion should hold his head high. This
+he seldom does. When walking he holds it low, lower than the line of
+his back, and it is only when he first becomes aware of the presence of
+man that he sometimes raises his head and takes a look at the intruder,
+usually lowering it immediately, and trotting away with a growl. When
+at bay, standing with open mouth and glaring eyes, holding his head
+low between his shoulders, and keeping up a continuous low growling,
+twitching his tail the while from side to side, no animal can look more
+unpleasant than a lion; but there is then nothing majestic or noble in
+his appearance.”
+
+Notwithstanding this evidently truthful description of the animal when
+seen under what may be called unfavourable circumstances, no one with an
+eye for beauty can contemplate the form of a fine specimen of a Lion,
+at all events in a state of repose, even though in the confinement of a
+menagerie, without being impressed with the feeling that it is a grand
+and noble-looking animal.
+
+The Tiger (_F. tigris_) is so closely related to the Lion that it is
+chiefly by external characters that the two species are distinguished.
+There are, however, slight distinctions in the proportionate size of the
+lower teeth, the general form of the cranium, and the relative length of
+the nasal bones and ascending processes of the maxillaries by which the
+skull of the Lion and Tiger can be easily discriminated by the practised
+observer.
+
+Although examples of both species present considerable variations in
+size, and reliance cannot always be placed upon alleged dimensions,
+especially when taken from skins stripped from the body, it seems well
+ascertained that the length of the largest-sized Bengal Tiger may exceed
+that of any Lion. According to Mr. W. T. Blanford,[435] adult males
+measure from 5½ to 6½ feet from the nose to the root of the tail; the
+tail itself measuring some 3 feet in length. Measured along the curves
+of the head and back to the tip of the tail, males usually give a length
+of from 9 to 10 feet, but some specimens reach to 12 feet. The female
+is somewhat smaller, and has a lighter and narrower head. The Tiger
+has no mane, but in old males the hair of the cheeks is rather long
+and spreading. The ground colour of the upper and outer parts of the
+head, body, limbs, and tail is a bright rufous fawn, and these parts
+are beautifully marked with transverse stripes of a dark, almost black
+colour. The markings vary much in different individuals, and even on the
+two sides of the same individual. The under parts of the body, the inside
+of the limbs, the cheeks, and a large spot over each eye are nearly
+white. The Tigers which inhabit hotter regions, as Bengal and the south
+Asiatic islands, have shorter and smoother hair, and are more richly
+coloured and distinctly striped than those of Northern China and Siberia,
+in which the fur is longer, softer, and lighter coloured.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 225.—The Tiger (_Felis tigris_).]
+
+The Tiger is exclusively Asiatic, but has a very wide range in that
+continent, having been found in almost all suitable localities south of
+a line drawn from the river Euphrates, passing along the southern shores
+of the Caspian and Sea of Aral by Lake Baikal to the Sea of Okhotsk.
+Its most northern range is the territory of the Amur, its most southern
+the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Bali. Westward it reaches to Turkish
+Georgia and eastward to the island of Saghalin. It is absent, however,
+from the great elevated plateau of Central Asia, nor does it inhabit
+Ceylon, Borneo, or the other islands of the Indo-Malayan Archipelago,
+except those above mentioned. Its absence from Ceylon leads Mr. Blanford
+to conclude that the Tiger has only recently migrated into Southern India.
+
+The principal food of the Tiger in India is cattle, deer, wild hog, and
+pea-fowl, and occasionally human beings. The regular “man-eater” is
+generally an old Tiger whose vigour is passed, and whose teeth are worn
+and defective; it takes up its abode in the neighbourhood of a village,
+the population of which it finds an easier prey than the larger or
+wilder animals named above. Though chiefly affecting grassy plains or
+swamps, it is also found in forests, and seems to be fond of haunting the
+neighbourhood of old ruins. As a rule, Tigers do not climb trees; but
+when pressed by fear, as during an inundation, they have been known to
+do so. They take to the water readily and are good swimmers. The Tigers
+of the Sundarbans (Ganges delta) continually swim from one island to the
+other to change their hunting-grounds for deer. The following extract on
+the habits of the Tiger is taken from Sir J. Fayrer’s _Royal Tiger of
+Bengal_ (1875):—
+
+“The tigress gives birth to from two to five, even six cubs; but three is
+a frequent number. She is a most affectionate and attached mother, and
+generally guards and trains her young with the most watchful solicitude.
+They remain with her until nearly full grown, or about the second year,
+when they are able to kill for themselves and begin life on their own
+account. Whilst they remain with her she is peculiarly vicious and
+aggressive, defending them with the greatest courage and energy, and
+when robbed of them is terrible in her rage; but she has been known to
+desert them when pressed, and even to eat them when starved. As soon
+as they begin to require other food than her milk, she kills for them,
+teaching them to do so for themselves by practising on small animals,
+such as deer and young calves or pigs. At these times she is wanton and
+extravagant in her cruelty, killing apparently for the gratification
+of her ferocious and bloodthirsty nature, and perhaps to excite and
+instruct the young ones, and it is not until they are thoroughly capable
+of killing their own food that she separates from them. The young tigers
+are far more destructive than the old. They will kill three or four
+cows at a time, whilst the older and more experienced rarely kill more
+than one, and this at intervals of from three or four days to a week.
+For this purpose the tiger will leave its retreat in the dense jungle,
+proceed to the neighbourhood of a village or gowrie, where cattle feed,
+and during the night will steal on and strike down a bullock, drag it
+into a secluded place, and then remain near the ‘marrie,’ or ‘kill,’ for
+several days, until it has eaten it, when it will proceed in search of a
+further supply, and, having found good hunting ground in the vicinity of
+a village or gowrie, continue its ravages, destroying one or two cows or
+buffaloes a week. It is very fond of the ordinary domestic cattle, which
+in the plains of India are generally weak, half-starved, under-sized
+creatures. One of these is easily struck down and carried or dragged off.
+The smaller buffaloes are also easily disposed of; but the buffalo bulls,
+and especially the wild ones, are formidable antagonists, and have often
+been known to beat the Tiger off, and even to wound him seriously.”
+
+In many districts of India the number of Tigers has been very
+considerably diminished of late years. In some other countries they
+appear, however, to be on the increase; thus according to one of the
+administration reports of Java laid before the Dutch Chambers, portions
+of that island are being depopulated through Tigers. In 1882 the
+population of a village in the south-west of the Bantam province was
+removed and transferred to an island off the coast in consequence of the
+trouble caused to the people by Tigers. These animals have now become
+an intolerable pest in parts of the same province. The total population
+is about 600,000, and, in 1887, sixty-one were killed by Tigers, and in
+consequence of the dread existing among the people, it has been proposed
+to deport the inhabitants of the villages most threatened to other parts
+of the country where Tigers are not so common, and where they can pursue
+their agricultural occupations with a greater degree of security. At
+present they fear to go anywhere near the borders of the forest. The
+people seem disinclined, or they lack the means and courage, to attack
+and destroy their enemy, although considerable rewards are offered by
+Government for the destruction of beasts of prey. In 1888 the reward for
+killing a Royal Tiger was raised to two hundred florins. It appears also
+that the immunity of the Tiger is in part due to superstition, for it is
+considered wrong to kill one unless he attacks first or otherwise does
+injury.
+
+The Leopard (_F. pardus_, Fig. 226), although belonging to the same
+restricted group as the two preceding species, is distinguished from both
+by its inferior size, and its coloration. The animal now commonly known
+as the Leopard was called Pard (πάρδος and πάρδαλις) or Panther (πάνθηρ)
+by the ancients. Leopard (_leo-pardus_) is a later term, originally
+applied, it is believed, to the Cheeta or Hunting Leopard, upon the
+supposition that it was a creature intermediate between the Lion and the
+true Pard. If so it has been completely transferred to the more common
+species, and though in this sense a perfectly unnecessary and unmeaning
+term, has gradually superseded those by which this was originally known.
+Pard, so commonly used by Elizabethan authors, is now nearly obsolete
+in the English language, and Panther has either become synonymous with
+Leopard, or is used vaguely for any similar large feline animal, even the
+Puma of America.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 226.—The Leopard (_Felis pardus_).]
+
+Owing to their extensive geographical range, and the great variations,
+both in size, form, and coloration to which Leopards are subject,
+zoologists have scarcely decided whether all the forms popularly referred
+to this animal should be regarded as specifically alike, or whether they
+should constitute several distinct species, but the prevailing opinion
+is in favour of the former view. The attempts to separate a larger and
+more robust variety, under the name of Panther, from a smaller and more
+graceful form, to which the term Leopard might properly be restricted,
+have failed, owing to the existence of intermediate conditions which
+cannot be assigned definitely to either one or the other form.[436] The
+most marked anatomical difference yet noted in different varieties of
+leopard is in the length of the tail as compared with that of the body,
+even the number of the caudal vertebræ showing variation, though within
+what limits, and whether correlated with other characters, has not yet
+been clearly ascertained. The fur of those specimens which inhabit the
+most northern confines of its range of distribution, as North China, is
+longer and softer, and the markings are consequently less distinct than
+on those from more congenial climates, and the well-marked variation thus
+produced has given rise to the idea of specific distinction.
+
+The size of different individuals, as before said, varies greatly, the
+head and body usually measuring from 3½ to 4½ feet in length, and the
+tail from 2½ to 3 feet, but specimens have been met with which fall short
+of or exceed these limits. The ground colour of the fur varies from a
+pale fawn to a rufous buff, graduating into a pure white on the under
+parts and inside of the limbs. This is spotted over with dark brown or
+black; the spots on the back and sides being arranged in rosettes or
+broken rings, which vary greatly in size and distinctness in different
+individuals, but are without the central spot seen in those of the
+Jaguar. The spots on the under parts and limbs are simple and blacker
+than those on the other parts of the body. The bases of the ears behind
+are black, the tips buff. The upper side of the tail is buff, spotted
+with broken rings like the back, its under surface white with simple
+spots. The hair of the cubs is longer than that of the adults, its
+ground colour less bright, and its spots less distinct. Perfectly black
+Leopards, which, however, in certain lights show the characteristic
+markings on the fur, are not uncommon. These appear to be examples of
+melanism, occurring as individual variations, sometimes in one cub out
+of a litter of which the rest are normally coloured, and therefore not
+indicating a distinct race, much less a species. These are met with
+chiefly in Southern Asia. We are not aware of any recorded case from
+Africa, though there seems no reason why they should not occur.
+
+In habits the Leopard resembles the other large Cat-like animals,
+yielding to none in the ferocity and bloodthirstiness of its disposition.
+It is exceedingly quick and active in its movements, but seizes its
+prey by waiting in ambush or stealthily approaching to within springing
+distance, when it suddenly rushes upon it and tears it to the ground with
+its powerful claws and teeth. It preys upon almost any animal it can
+overcome, such as antelopes, deer, sheep, goats, monkeys, peafowls, and
+is said to have a special liking for dogs. It not unfrequently attacks
+human beings in India, chiefly children and old women, but instances have
+been known of a Leopard becoming a regular “man-eater.” When favourable
+opportunities occur, it often kills many more victims than it can devour
+at once, apparently to gratify its propensity for killing, or only for
+the sake of their fresh blood. It generally inhabits woody districts,
+and can climb high trees with facility if necessary for its safety when
+hunted, but usually lives on or near the ground, among rocks, bushes, and
+roots and low branches of large trees.
+
+The present geographical range of the Leopard is very extensive, as it is
+met with in various suitable localities, where not too much interfered
+with by human cultivation, throughout the greater part of Africa from
+Algeria to the Cape Colony, and through the whole of the South of Asia
+from Palestine to China, including all India south of the Himalaya,
+and the islands of Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. Fossil bones and
+teeth, indistinguishable from those of existing Leopards, have been
+found in cave-deposits of Pleistocene age in Spain, France, Germany, and
+England. The evidence of the former existence of the Leopard in England
+is described at length by Boyd Dawkins and Sanford in their _British
+Pleistocene Mammalia_.[437]
+
+The Ounce, or Snow Leopard (_F. uncia_), inhabits the highlands of
+Central Asia, from the lofty mountains of Tibet to the southern parts
+of Siberia, at altitudes of from 9000 to 18,000 feet above the sea.
+It is about the size of the common Leopard, but lighter in colour,
+with longer fur, less distinct spots, and a long thick tail. Its skull
+differs in shape from that of all the other _Felidæ_; the facial portion
+being very broad, the nasal bones especially being wide and depressed,
+and the zygomatic arches very strong and deep. The Clouded Tiger (_F.
+nebulosa_[438]) is a beautifully marked species, with elongated head
+and body, long tail, and rather short limbs. The canine teeth are
+proportionally longer than in any existing member of the genus. It is
+thoroughly arboreal, and is found in the forests of South-East Asia and
+the islands of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Formosa. _F. serval_, the
+Serval, from South Africa, is yellow with black spots, and has a short
+tail and large ears. Numerous smaller species called Tiger Cats and Wild
+Cats, of which the Oriental _F. marmorata_ (Fig. 227) is a good example,
+are found throughout the warmer parts of Asia and Africa. The Wild Cat of
+Europe, _F. catus_, still inhabits the mountainous and wooded parts of
+Great Britain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 227.—The Marbled Cat (_Felis marmorata_). From
+Blanford, _Mammalia of British India_, p. 74, after Elliot.]
+
+The Caffre Cat (_F. caffra_[439]), of Africa and Southern Asia, was the
+species held in veneration by the ancient Egyptians, and immense numbers
+of its mummified remains have recently been found in Egypt, whence they
+have been imported in large quantities to this country for manure. This
+species is generally regarded as the main ancestral stock from which the
+European Domestic Cat has been derived; one of the arguments in support
+of this opinion being that the whole of the sole of the hind foot of
+_F. caffra_ is black, and that the same feature obtains in the darker
+varieties of the Domestic Cat; while in _F. catus_ there are only spots
+of black upon this portion of the limb. Remains of the Caffre Cat occur
+in the Pleistocene cave-deposits at Gibraltar. The Indian _F. rubiginosa_
+is the smallest species of Cat.
+
+The Caracal or Persian Lynx (_F. caracal_) is an animal about the size
+of a fox, of slender build, with a moderately long tail, reaching down
+to the heels. It is of a uniform vinous or bright fulvous brown colour
+above, and is paler, sometimes almost white, beneath. It is quite or
+almost entirely unspotted. The tail has a black tip, and the ears are
+black externally, long, upright, pointed, and surmounted by a pencil
+of fine black hairs. It inhabits Central and North-West India, Persia,
+Arabia, Syria, and the greater part of Africa.
+
+The true Lynxes comprise various species or varieties found in the
+northern and temperate regions of both the Old and New World, all larger
+than the true Wild Cats, with long limbs, short stumpy tail, ears tufted
+at the tip, and pupil of the eye linear when contracted. Their fur is
+generally long and soft, varying, however, according to season and
+locality, and always longish upon the cheeks. Their colour is always
+light brown or gray, and generally more or less spotted with a darker
+shade. The naked pads of the feet are more or less covered by the hair
+that grows between them. The skull and skeleton do not differ markedly
+from those of the other cats, but the small anterior upper premolar tooth
+found in many other species is usually wanting; and the lower carnassial
+has a rudimental talon. Their habits are exactly those of the other Wild
+Cats, and they are exceeded by none in the untameable savageness of their
+disposition. They capture their prey in the same manner, either lying in
+wait, or noiselessly stealing within reach, and then making a sudden rush
+or spring upon it. Their food consists of any mammals or birds which they
+can overpower. In inhabited countries they commit extensive ravages upon
+sheep, lambs, and poultry. Lynxes generally frequent rocky places and
+forests, being active climbers, and passing much of their time among the
+branches of the trees. Their skins are of considerable commercial value.
+
+Zoologists are by no means agreed at present as to the specific
+distinctions, if any really exist, between the various modifications
+of this group. As many as eight species are sometimes recognised, four
+belonging to the Old and four to the New World. The former are _F.
+lynx_, of Scandinavia, Russia, Northern Asia, and till lately the forest
+regions of Central Europe; though not an inhabitant of Britain during
+the historic period, its remains have been found in cave-deposits of
+Pleistocene age; _F. cervaria_, Siberia; _F. pardina_, Turkey, Greece,
+Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain; and _F. isabellina_, Tibet. The American
+varieties are _F. canadensis_, the most northern species, and _F.
+rufa_, the American Wild Cat or Bay Lynx, extensively distributed from
+the Atlantic to the Pacific throughout nearly the whole latitude of
+the United States, but replaced in Texas and southern California by
+_F. maculata_, and in northern Oregon and Washington territory by _F.
+fasciata_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 228.—European Lynx (_Felis lynx_). From a drawing by
+Wolf in Elliot’s _Monograph of the Felidæ_.]
+
+In both cases, as might be supposed, specimens obtained from the more
+southern climates are shorter in their fur, more brightly coloured,
+and more distinctly spotted than those from colder regions. When only
+a few individuals of each most markedly different form are examined
+the distinctions are sufficiently evident. The occurrence, however,
+of transitional or intermediate forms makes it extremely difficult to
+draw the line between the different varieties or species, or to assign
+definite characters by which they can be separated. Wherefore it is best
+at present to accept the so-called species as only provisional, and wait
+until more abundant materials, with fuller knowledge of the localities
+from which they are derived, and of the variations due to age, sex,
+season, and climate, have been more carefully studied. We shall then
+probably come to the conclusion that all or nearly all the existing forms
+of northern Lynxes, whether American or Eurasian, belong to what may
+fairly be called a species, which is becoming by degrees differentiated
+into several more or less strongly marked local varieties. Mr. W. T.
+Blanford has indeed shown that the Tibetan Lynx (_F. isabellina_) is
+inseparable from _F. lynx_; the specimens from Gilgit being intermediate
+in colour between the typical forms of the two races. On the other hand,
+from the evidence of cranial characters, Professor Mivart is disposed to
+regard _F. pardina_ as a valid species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 229.—The Puma (_Felis concolor_).]
+
+B. _New World Species._—The Puma or Couguar (_F. concolor_, Fig. 229),
+commonly called “Panther” in the United States, is about the size of a
+Leopard, but of an uniform brown colour. It usually measures from nose
+to root of tail about 40 inches, the tail being rather more than half
+that length. The head is rather small compared with that of other Cats
+and has no mane. The ears are large and rounded. The tail is cylindrical,
+with some bushy elongation of the hairs near the end, but not forming a
+distinct tuft as in the Lion. The general colour of all the upper parts
+and sides of the adult is a tawny yellowish-brown, sometimes having a
+gray or silvery shade, but in some individuals dark or inclining to
+red. The lower parts of the body, inner surface of the limbs, the
+throat, chin, and upper lip are dirty white; the outside of the ears,
+particularly at their base, and a patch on each side of the muzzle black;
+the end of the tail dusky. The young are, when born, spotted with dusky
+brown and the tail ringed; these markings gradually fading, and quite
+disappearing before the animal becomes full-grown.
+
+The Puma has an exceedingly wide range of geographical distribution,
+extending over a hundred degrees of latitude, from Canada in the north
+to Patagonia in the south, and was formerly pretty generally diffused
+in suitable localities from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, but the
+advances of civilisation have in recent years considerably curtailed
+the extent of the districts which it inhabits. In Central America it is
+still common in the dense forests which clothe the mountain ranges as
+high as 8000 or 9000 feet above the sea-level, where the hideous sound
+of its howling is said to be almost continuously heard at night during
+the breeding season. Though an expert climber, it is by no means confined
+to wooded districts, being frequently found in scrub and reeds along the
+banks of rivers, and even in the open pampas and prairies. Its habits
+much resemble those of the rest of the group to which it belongs; and,
+like the Leopard, when it happens to come within reach of an abundant
+and easy prey, as the sheep or calves of an outlying farming station, it
+kills far more than it can eat, either for the sake of the blood only
+or to gratify its propensity for destruction. It rarely attacks man,
+and, when pursued, escapes if possible by ascending lofty trees. Several
+instances have occurred of Pumas becoming tame in captivity. Edmund Kean,
+the celebrated actor, had one which followed him about like a dog. When
+caressed they express their pleasure by purring like a domestic cat.
+
+_F. onca_, the Jaguar, is a larger and more powerful animal than the
+last, and more resembles the Leopard in its colours. It also is found in
+both North and South America, but with less extensive range, reaching
+northwards only as far as Texas, and southwards nearly to Patagonia.
+It climbs as well as the Puma, and preys to a great extent upon
+monkeys. Several allied smaller elegantly spotted forms inhabiting the
+intratropical regions of America are commonly included under the name
+of Ocelot or Tiger Cat, though zoologists are still undecided whether
+under this designation several distinct species have not been confused,
+or whether all the Ocelots are to be referred to a single species (_F.
+pardalis_) showing great individual or racial variation. Their fur has
+always a tawny yellow or reddish-gray ground colour, and is marked with
+black spots, aggregated in streaks and blotches, or in elongated rings
+enclosing an area which is rather darker than the general ground colour.
+They range through the wooded parts of tropical America, from Arkansas
+in the north as far south as Paraguay, and in their habits resemble
+the other smaller members of the Cat tribe, being ready climbers and
+exceedingly bloodthirsty.
+
+_F. yaguarundi_, rather larger than the Domestic Cat, with an elongated
+head and body, and of a uniform brownish-gray colour, ranges from
+Matamoras to Paraguay. _F. eyra_ is a small Cat, very Musteline in form,
+having an elongated head, body, and tail, and short limbs, and is also
+of a uniform light reddish-brown colour. It is a native of South America
+and Mexico. _F. pajeros_ is the Pampas Cat. The American Lynxes have been
+already noticed with those of the Old World.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 230.—The Ocelot (_Felis pardalis_).]
+
+C. _Fossil Species._—It has been already incidentally mentioned that
+several of the existing species of _Felis_, such as the Lion, Leopard
+and Caffre Cat, are met with in a fossil condition in the European
+Pleistocene deposits, and it may be added that the Pardine Lynx has left
+its remains in the cavern-deposits of Gibraltar. The caves of Brazil have
+yielded remains of the Jaguar and Ocelot; while the Puma is found in the
+Pleistocene of the United States. Existing species now inhabiting India
+are met with in cavern-deposits in Madras. In the Pliocene Siwaliks of
+Northern India the huge extinct _F. cristata_ shows characters connecting
+it both with the Tiger and the Jaguar; and the same deposit also
+contains the remains of a small species of the size of _F. bengalensis_.
+In Europe numerous species occur in the Upper and Lower Pliocene, some
+of which were as large as a Leopard. _F. atrox_ and _F. augusta_, of the
+Pliocene of the United States, were of the dimensions of the Lion.
+
+_Cynælurus._[440]—The Cheeta or Hunting Leopard (_C. jubatus_) is
+distinguished from the other _Felidæ_ by the inner tubercle of the upper
+carnassial, though supported by a distinct root, having no salient cusp
+upon it; by the tubercular molar being more in a line with the other
+teeth; and by the claws being smaller, less curved, and less completely
+retractile, owing to the feebler development of the elastic ligaments.
+The skull is short and high, with the frontal region broad and elevated
+in consequence of the large development of the frontal air-sinuses. The
+head is small and round, the body light, the limbs and tail long. Its
+colour is pale yellowish-brown with small black spots. The Cheeta is
+less savage and more easily tamed than most of the Cats. In Asia it has
+been trained for the chase of the Antelope. It has rather an extensive
+geographical range from the Cape of Good Hope, throughout Africa and the
+south-western parts of Asia, as far as Southern India.
+
+_Extinct Genera._—A number of forms are gradually becoming known,
+especially through the researches of American palæontologists, which,
+though evidently animals of the same general type, and therefore to be
+placed in or near the family _Felidæ_, depart so much in various details
+of structure that they must be referred to different genera. As one of
+the points in which _Felis_ manifests its specialisation is the reduction
+of the number of the molar series of teeth, with concomitant shortening
+of the jaws, it might be supposed that in the earlier and perhaps
+ancestral forms these teeth would be more numerous and approach more
+nearly to the primitive or typical number of the heterodont mammals, viz.
+seven on each side. This is actually the case. Similarly we find that
+many of these forms exhibit a less specialised structure of the teeth
+themselves, as is shown by the absence of the anterior lobe of the upper
+carnassial, and the retention of the hind talon in the corresponding
+lower tooth. Again, some of them have an alisphenoid canal in the skull;
+while the femur may have a third trochanter, and the claws be very
+imperfectly retractile.
+
+An extremely generalised form is the small _Proælurus_, from the Upper
+Eocene and Lower Miocene, with _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ¹⁄₂, an alisphenoid canal,
+and a third trochanter to the femur. _Dinictis_, of the North American
+Miocene, is a larger allied form, with _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₂; the upper
+carnassial having no anterior lobe, and the ungual phalanges being devoid
+of bony sheaths. The characters of the base of the skull, and the form
+and relations of the astragalus, differ very considerably from _Felis_.
+_Pseudælurus_, from the French Miocene, is another very generalised
+Feline, in which there may be either three or four premolars, and the
+lower carnassial may retain its inner cusp. _Ælurictis_, of the French
+Phosphorites, with _p_ ³⁄₃₋₄, _m_ ¹⁄₁₋₂, together with several American
+Miocene genera, such as _Nimravus_ (_p_ ³⁄₂, _m_ ¹⁄₂), _Archælurus_ (_p_
+³⁄₃₋₄, _m_ ¹⁄₂), _Pogonodon_ (_p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₁), and _Hoplophoneus_ (_p_
+²⁻³⁄₂, _m_ ¹⁄₁), approach more closely to the modern Cats, although many
+or all of them retain the alisphenoid canal, and have not yet developed
+the anterior lobe to the upper carnassial, or lost the talon to the lower
+one. _Hoplophoneus_ has a descending flange to the mandible; and its
+scapholunar bone has a line indicating its dual origin; while the femur
+still retains the third trochanter, of which all traces are lost in the
+modern Cats.
+
+On the other hand, some of the extinct _Felidæ_ show a most remarkable
+tendency towards a specialisation not occurring in any of the surviving
+members of the family, viz. an enormous development of the upper canines,
+with which is usually associated an expansion downwards and flattening
+of the anterior part of the ramus of the lower jaw, on the outer side
+of which the canine lies, when the mouth is closed. In _Machærodus
+næogeus_, the Sabre-toothed Tiger, from the caves of Brazil and also
+from Pleistocene deposits near Buenos Ayres, an animal about the size
+of a Tiger, these teeth are 7 inches in length, greatly compressed, and
+finely serrated on the trenchant anterior edges. Similar serrations are
+seen on a much fainter scale in the unworn teeth of modern Tigers. Many
+modifications of this commonly-called “machærodont” type have been met
+with both in the Old and New World. In _M. cultridens_, of the Upper
+Pliocene of Italy and France, the upper canine is long and narrow, with
+smooth cutting edges; the smaller form described as _M. meganthereon_
+being apparently the female of this species. _M. crenatidens_, of
+the same deposits, is distinguished by the shorter and broader upper
+canine, in which both edges are strongly serrated; the same feature
+occurring in the closely allied or identical _M. latidens_ of the English
+cavern-deposits. The Italian Pliocene form described as _M. nestianus_
+has serrations only on the hinder edge of the upper canine, and the third
+lower premolar is separated by a long interval from the fourth. _M.
+necator_, of the Pleistocene of South America, is remarkable as being
+the only member of the family in which the humerus has no entepicondylar
+foramen. A very remarkable form, _Eusmilus_, from the Upper Eocene
+Phosphorites of Central France, differs from all other known Felines in
+having only two pairs of incisors in the lower jaw, and a small canine
+separated by a very long diastema from the cheek-teeth, which consist
+only of one premolar and one sectorial true molar. The lower jaw is
+enormously expanded towards the symphysis to protect the large upper
+canines. This animal then, although of Eocene age, appears to form the
+culminating development of the sabre-toothed or machærodont dentition,
+the most specially carnivorous type of structure known.
+
+Other species of _Machærodus_ are found in the Pliocene deposits of
+Europe and Asia. The accompanying woodcut exhibits the last two upper
+teeth of the Indian _M. sivalensis_, from which it will be seen that the
+inner tubercle of the carnassial is much reduced in size, while the molar
+is very minute.
+
+
+_Family_ VIVERRIDÆ.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 231.—Oral surface of the left upper carnassial and
+molar of _Machærodus sivalensis_.]
+
+Premolars ³⁄₃ or ⁴⁄₄. Molars ¹⁄₁ or ²⁄₂. Upper carnassial usually without
+an anterior lobe, and the lower one with a well-developed talon; second
+lower incisor (as in all the following families) raised above the level
+of the first and third. Auditory bulla externally constricted, and
+divided by a septum. An alisphenoid canal (with very rare exceptions).
+Carotid canal distinct as a groove on the side of the bulla. Humerus
+usually with an entepicondylar foramen. Digits usually 5-5, but sometimes
+the pollex or hallux or both may be wanting. Dorsal vertebræ 13 or 14.
+Limited in distribution to the Old World.
+
+The subfamily =Cryptoproctinæ= contains the single genus
+_Cryptoprocta_.[441] Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ¹⁄₁; total
+36. The teeth generally closely resemble those of the _Felidæ_. The first
+premolar of both jaws is very minute and early deciduous. The upper
+carnassial has a very small inner tubercle, quite at the anterior part
+of the tooth. The true molar is very small and placed transversely. The
+lower carnassial has a large trenchant bilobed blade, and a very minute
+talon, but no inner cusp. Skull generally like that of _Felis_, but
+proportionately longer and narrower. Orbit widely open behind. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 29. Body elongated. Limbs moderate in size. Feet
+subplantigrade; five well-developed toes on each, with sharp, compressed,
+retractile claws. Ears moderate. Tail long and cylindrical.
+
+The only known species, _C. ferox_, the “Foussa” of the Malagasy, is
+peculiar to Madagascar, being the largest carnivorous animal in the
+island. It is about twice the size of the common Cat (5 feet from nose
+to end of tail), with short close fur of nearly uniform pale brown.
+Little is as yet known of its habits, except that it is nocturnal,
+frequently attacks and carries off goats, and especially kids, and shows
+great ferocity when wounded, on which account it is much dreaded by the
+natives.
+
+The remaining numerous specific and generic modifications found in the
+existing animals belonging to this family seem to arrange themselves
+mainly into two tolerably distinct groups, distinguishable by the
+characters of the auditory bulla and neighbouring parts of the base of
+the skull, and by the structure of the feet. The one form has the genus
+_Viverra_ or Civet Cats for its most typical representative, and the
+other _Herpestes_ or the Ichneumons.
+
+Subfamily =Viverrinæ=.—Auditory bulla oval, or rather conical, broad
+and truncated and not everted behind, narrow in front and more or less
+compressed at the sides. The outer or anterior chamber very small and
+flat. The meatus with scarcely any inferior lip, its orifice being
+close to the tympanic ring. Paroccipital process triangular, its apex
+projecting slightly beyond the bulla. Claws strongly curved and more or
+less retractile. Perineal scent-glands generally present.
+
+This subfamily includes both Ethiopian and Oriental forms, but the former
+are the more numerous.
+
+The typical section, which includes five genera, has the following
+characters. Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ²⁄₂ (¹⁄₂ in
+_Prionodon_); total 40. Skull elongated; facial portion small and
+compressed. Orbits well-defined but incomplete behind. Teeth always
+sectorial, never very small. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7 (or D 14, L 6), S
+3, C 22-30. Body elongated and compressed. Head pointed in front; ears
+rather small. Extremities short. Feet small and rounded. Toes short, five
+on each foot. First toe both on fore and hind feet much shorter than the
+others. Palms and soles covered with hair, except the pads of the feet
+and toes, and in some species a narrow central line on the under side
+of the sole, extending backwards nearly to the heel. Tail moderate or
+long; usually marked with dark and light rings. A pair of large glandular
+follicles situated on the perineum (in both sexes), and secreting in most
+species an oily substance of a peculiarly penetrating odour.
+
+The numerous species of this section form a large series, the two
+extremes of which differ considerably, but the several genera into which
+they may be divided blend so into one another that it is difficult to
+differentiate them sharply.
+
+All the animals of this section are, for their size, extremely active,
+fierce, and rapacious. They feed chiefly on small mammals and birds.
+
+_Viverra._[442]—This includes the largest species. The teeth (Fig. 232)
+are stouter and less compressed than in the other genera; the second
+upper molar being especially larger. The auditory bulla smaller and more
+pointed in front. Body shorter and stouter; limbs longer; tail shorter,
+tapering. Under side of tarsus completely covered with hair. Claws
+longer and less retractile. Fur rather long and loose, and in the middle
+line of the neck and back usually elongated so as to form a sort of
+crest or mane; neck with a black gorget. Pupil circular when contracted.
+Perineal glands greatly developed. These characters apply especially
+to _V. civetta_, the African Civet, or “Civet-Cat” as it is commonly
+called, an animal rather larger than a common Fox, and an inhabitant of
+intratropical Africa. _V. zibetha_, the Indian Civet, of about equal
+size, inhabits Bengal, China, the Malay Peninsula, and adjoining islands.
+_V. tangalunga_, from Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippines, and _V.
+megaspila_, from Burma, are smaller but nearly allied animals; the latter
+being more distinctly spotted than either of the others. From these
+species and the next the civet of commerce, once so much admired as a
+perfume in England, and still largely used in the East, is obtained. The
+animals are kept in cages, and the odoriferous secretion collected from
+the interior of the perineal follicles with a spoon or spatula.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 232.—The left upper dentition of the Indian Civet
+(_Viverra zibetha_). From the _Palæontologia Indica_.]
+
+The Rasse or Lesser Indian Civet (_V. malaccensis_) may be regarded as
+the representative of a distinct group of _Viverra_, although often
+referred to a separate genus (_Viverricula_). The size of this animal
+is smaller than in the typical group, the build is slighter, the muzzle
+finer, the claws sharper and more curved, and there is no erectile mane
+along the back. Generally there is an alisphenoid canal in the skull; and
+the anterior chamber of the auditory bulla is much more inflated than the
+hinder one, so that the apparent length of the whole bulla is increased.
+This species is found over the greater part of India, and extends to the
+Malay Peninsula and Southern China.
+
+Large species of _Viverra_ occur in the Pleistocene and Pliocene of
+India, and also in the Pliocene of France, which approximate in some
+characters of the dentition to the extinct genus _Ictitherium_, mentioned
+at the end of the family. Species of this genus have also been described
+from the Miocene and Upper Eocene of Europe. The Lower Miocene _V.
+antiqua_ has an alisphenoid canal, and all the other cranial characters
+of the typical forms.
+
+_Fossa._[443]—The Fossa of Madagascar comes so close to the Rasse that
+its right to generic distinction seems doubtful. There is, however, no
+scent-pouch. The limbs are slender; and there are two small bare spots
+on the sole of the hind foot, above the plantar pads. There is no dark
+line along the back; the throat gorget of _Viverra_ is absent; and in the
+tail the spots only tend to form rings, which are not complete. The skull
+has an alisphenoid canal, and a large bulla as in the typical group of
+_Viverra_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 233.—The Common Genet (_Genetta vulgaris_).]
+
+_Genetta._[444]—The Genettes are smaller animals, with more elongated
+and slender bodies, and shorter limbs than the Civets. Skull elongated
+and narrow. Auditory bulla large, elongated, rounded at both ends. Teeth
+compressed and sharp pointed. The inner side of the third upper premolar
+has a tubercle not present in the previous genus, and the talon of the
+lower carnassial is larger. Pupil contracting to a linear aperture. Tail
+long, slender. Fur short and soft, spotted or cloudy. Under side of the
+tarso-metatarsus with a narrow longitudinal bald streak. No pouch for
+storing the secretion of the scent-gland. _G. vulgaris_, the common
+Genet (Fig. 233), is found in France south of the river Loire, Spain,
+South-Western Asia, and Africa from Barbary to the Cape. _G. felina_,
+_senegalensis_, _tigrina_, and _pardalis_ are other named species, all
+African in habitat.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 234.—Stomach of Genet cut open. _œ_, Œsophagus; _pv_,
+pyloric valve; _x_, sudden bend where the internal folds are interrupted.
+(From Mivart, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 505.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 235.—Cæcum of Genet. (After Mivart, _loc. cit._ p.
+508.)]
+
+A few details (taken from Professor Mivart’s memoirs on the Æluroidea) of
+the anatomy of the soft parts of the Genet may be given as illustration
+of these parts in the Carnivora generally, and of this family and genus
+in particular. The salivary glands are shown in Fig. 19 (p. 56), and
+these conform to the general type prevalent in the Æluroidea. Thus
+there is a distinct zygomatic gland; the parotid with its (Steno’s)
+duct is well developed; and there is a small submaxillary gland. The
+stomach (Fig. 234), while conforming to the simple type characteristic
+of the Carnivora, is much larger than in the Cat; it is characterised
+by the presence of some strongly marked internal folds near the pyloric
+extremity, which stop suddenly at a point where the stomach makes an
+abrupt constriction and flexure. Beyond this point there are three other
+longitudinal folds; and the pyloric valve is small. The allied genera
+present modifications from this form of stomach. The cæcum (Fig. 235) is
+short, thick, and pointed. The liver (Fig. 236) much resembles that of
+the Cat, but differs in that the left lateral lobe is undivided, although
+having a small groove on its posterior or abdominal aspect, while the
+cystic fissure is less deep, and situated more to the right. The caudate
+lobe is relatively longer, has a deep concavity, and runs uninterruptedly
+into the Spigelian; the latter being relatively somewhat larger than in
+the Cat, with a deep groove dividing the proximal third from the distal
+two-thirds. In _Viverra_ the right lateral and right central lobes are
+nearly equal in size. The variations in the form of the liver of the
+allied genera are detailed in Professor Mivart’s memoir. The brain of the
+Genet is shown in Fig. 23 (p. 71); the small depression _d_ placed on
+the superior lateral gyrus appears to be the sole representative of the
+distinct crucial sulcus which distinguishes the brains of the _Felidæ_
+from those of all other members of the Æluroidea.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 236.—Abdominal aspect of the liver of the Genet. _c_,
+Caudal lobe; _gb_, gall-bladder; _ha_, hepatic artery; _hd_, hepatic
+duct; _LC_, left central lobe; _LL_, left lateral lobe; _pv_, portal
+vein; _RC_, right central lobe; _RL_, right lateral lobe; _Sp_, Spigelian
+lobe; _vc_, vena cava. (From Mivart, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 510.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 237.—Cæcum of _Prionodon_. (From Mivart, _Proc. Zool.
+Soc._ 1882, p. 508.)]
+
+_Prionodon._[445]—This and the following genus comprise the beautiful
+Linsangs (Fig. 238), which are distinguished from the preceding genera
+by the loss of the second upper molar, which is, however, very small in
+some of the Genets. In the present genus the ground colour is whitish
+or yellowish with brown or black markings, which may either form broad
+continuous patches across the hinder part of the body, or may be broken
+up into spots. The tail is very long, the limbs comparatively short, and
+the fur very short and close. The pollex and hallux are well developed;
+the claws are almost completely retractile; and the tarsus and metatarsus
+are completely haired. The pupil is round. The cæcum (Fig. 237) is
+remarkably small. This genus is exclusively Oriental, and comprises _P.
+gracilis_ from Borneo, Java, and (?) Sumatra, _P. pardicolor_ from Nipal,
+and _P. maculosus_ from Tenasserim; the head and body of the latter
+measuring from 18 to 20 inches in length. Speaking of _P. pardicolor_,
+Mr. Hodgson observes that it is “equally at home on trees and on the
+ground; it dwells and breeds in the hollows of decayed trees. It is not
+gregarious at all, and preys chiefly upon small birds, which it is wont
+to pounce upon from the cover of the grass. The times of breeding are
+said to be February and August, and the litter to consist of two young,
+there being two litters each year.”
+
+_Poiana._[446]—This African genus, represented solely by one species,
+_P. poënsis_ (Fig. 238), from Fernando Po, is very closely allied to
+the preceding, but the spots are smaller, and show no tendency to run
+into transverse bands or stripes, except in the region of the head and
+shoulder; while the sole of the foot has a narrow bald band running up
+towards the tarsus, as in _Genetta_. The length of the head and body is
+38 inches, and that of the tail about 40 inches. It is probable that this
+animal should really be regarded as a slightly aberrant species of the
+genus _Prionodon_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 238.—The African Linsang (_Poiana poënsis_). From
+Mivart, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 160.]
+
+The five following genera differ in several important respects from all
+the preceding, and collectively constitute the _Paradoxurine_ section
+of Professor Mivart. With the exception of one African form, they are
+mainly Oriental. In this section the auditory bulla is frequently in two
+portions, the posterior moiety in one case being unossified, and it is
+always much narrowed in front (Fig. 239). The palate (as in the figure)
+may be much produced behind the molars; and the teeth are often but
+slightly sectorial, and may be very small. The long tail is in most cases
+not ringed.
+
+_Paradoxurus._[447]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ²⁄₂; total
+40. The blunt and rounded form of the cusps of the hinder premolar and
+the molar teeth distinguishes this genus from most of the members of the
+family. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 29-36. Head pointed in front.
+Ears small, rounded. Body long. Limbs moderate. Palms and soles almost
+entirely naked, and joining the foot-pads without the intervention of
+any hairy space. Claws completely retractile. Pupil vertical. Tail long,
+non-prehensile; in the Indian species without rings. The Paradoxures
+or Palm-Civets are less strictly carnivorous than the other members of
+the family. They are mostly about the size of the common Cat, or rather
+larger, and are partly arboreal in their habits. The species are rather
+numerous, and present considerable variations in the details of the
+form and size of their molar teeth; in only a few does the bony palate
+extend behind the molars. They are restricted geographically to Southern
+Asia and the Indo-Malayan archipelago. The best known species[448] are
+_P. niger_, _P. hermaphroditus_, _P. jerdoni_, _P. aureus_, _P. grayi_
+from India and Burma, _P. philippinensis_ of the Philippines, _P.
+larvatus_ of Southern China and Formosa, _P. leucomystax_ of the Malay
+Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo, and _P. musschenbroeki_ of Celebes. The
+name _Paradoxurus_ was applied from the mistaken notion that the tail
+was prehensile. Mr. Blanford[449] gives the following account of the
+habits of _P. niger_: “The common Palm-Civet, Tree-Cat, or Toddy-Cat,
+is a familiar animal in most parts of India, though, being thoroughly
+nocturnal in its habits, it is but rarely seen in the daytime. It is
+arboreal, passing the day generally in trees, either coiled up in the
+branches, or in a hole in the trunk, and in places where cocoa-nut
+palms are common it frequently selects one of them for a residence.
+Mango groves are also a favourite resort. It not unfrequently takes up
+its abode in the thatched roofs of houses; Jerdon found a large colony
+established in the rafters of his own house in Tellicheri. It even
+occurs in large towns; I have known of one being caught in the middle of
+Calcutta.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 239.—Palatal aspect of the left side of the
+cranium and mandible of _Arctogale leucotis_. _a_, Anterior opening of
+alisphenoid canal; _o_, foramen ovale; _c_, carotid canal ¹⁄₁. (From
+Mivart, _Proc. Zool Soc._ 1882, p. 165.)]
+
+_Arctogale._[450]—This genus—represented only by _A. trivirgata_ of Java,
+and _A. leucotis_ of Burma, Tenasserim, Sumatra, Java, etc.—is chiefly
+distinguished from _Paradoxurus_ by the extremely small size of the
+cheek-teeth (Fig. 239), which are often not in contact with one another;
+the upper carnassial being almost triangular in shape. Palate frequently
+convex longitudinally between the carnassials, and greatly produced
+behind the last molar, with a very narrow bony aperture of the posterior
+nares. The soles of the feet are still more naked than in _Paradoxurus_;
+and the pollex and hallux are more divergent. In _A. leucotis_ the length
+of the head and body is 26·5 inches, and the tail 27 inches. In many
+specimens the three dorsal stripes are much less distinctly marked than
+in others, and tend to break up into spots; while the general coloration
+is considerably lighter.
+
+_Hemigale_,[451] another modification of the Paradoxure type, contains
+one species, _H. hardwickei_, from Borneo and Malacca, an elegant-looking
+animal, smaller and more slender than the Paradoxures, of light gray
+colour, with transverse broad dark bands across the back and loins;
+the proximal portion of the tail being ringed. The tarsus is hairy. The
+general cranial characters are those of _Paradoxurus_, but the auditory
+bulla is ankylosed into a single piece.
+
+_Arctictis._[452]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ²⁄₂; total
+40. The posterior upper molar and the first lower premolar very often
+absent. Cheek-teeth generally small and rounded, with a distinct
+interval between them, but formed generally on the same pattern as
+_Paradoxurus_. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 5, S 3, C 34. Body elongated. Head
+broad behind, with a small pointed face. Whiskers long and numerous. Ears
+small, rounded, but clothed with a pencil of long hairs. Eyes small.
+Limbs short. Soles and palms broad, entirely naked. Tail very long and
+prehensile; thickly covered with long hair. Fur long and harsh. Cæcum
+extremely small. But one species is known, _A. binturong_, the Binturong,
+an inhabitant of Southern Asia from Nipal through the Malay Peninsula to
+the islands of Sumatra and Java. Although structurally agreeing closely
+with the Paradoxures, its tufted ears, long, coarse, and dark hair, and
+prehensile tail give it a very different external appearance. It may
+be regarded as a very aberrant Paradoxure, connected, so far as dental
+characters are concerned, with _Paradoxurus_ by means of _Arctogale_. The
+bony palate also extends considerably behind the last molar, as in the
+latter. The Binturong is slow and cautious in its movements, chiefly if
+not entirely arboreal, and appears to feed on vegetable as well as animal
+substances.
+
+_Nandinia_[453] contains one species, _N. binotata_, a somewhat aberrant
+Paradoxure, from West Africa. It is rather smaller than the true
+Paradoxures, with smaller and more pointed molar teeth, and no cæcum. The
+wall of the hinder chamber of the auditory bulla remains through life
+unossified.
+
+The dentition appears to be of a more decidedly carnivorous type than in
+the other members of the section.
+
+_Cynogale._[454]—This remarkable genus is regarded by Professor Mivart as
+representing a third section of the _Viverrinæ_; it contains one species,
+_C. bennetti_ (described by S. Müller under the name of _Potamophilus
+barbatus_), from Borneo, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula. This is a
+curious Otter-like modification of the Viverrine type, having semiaquatic
+habits, both swimming in the water and climbing trees, living upon fish,
+crustacea, small mammals, birds, and fruit. The number and general
+arrangement of its teeth are as in _Paradoxurus_, but the premolars are
+peculiarly elongated, compressed, pointed and recurved, somewhat as in
+the Seals, though the molars are tuberculated. The head is elongated, the
+muzzle broad and depressed. Whiskers very long and abundant. Ears small
+and rounded. Toes short and slightly webbed at the base. Tail short,
+cylindrical, covered with short hair. Fur very dense and soft, of a dark
+brown colour, mixed with black and gray. Humerus without entepicondylar
+foramen.
+
+Subfamily =Herpestinæ=.—Auditory bulla very prominent, and somewhat
+pear-shaped, the posterior chamber being large, rounded, and generally
+with its greatest prominence to the outer side. The anterior chamber
+considerably dilated, and produced into a short inferior wall to the
+auditory meatus, in which is a depression or vacuity just below the
+centre of the opening of the meatus. Sometimes this vacuity is continued
+into the meatus, forming a narrow fissure. The paroccipital process
+does not project beyond the bulla, but is spread out and lost (in adult
+animals) on its posterior surface. Toes straight; claws lengthened,
+exserted, non-retractile. No perineal glands. The dentition is always of
+a markedly sectorial type; and the orbit may be surrounded by bone. Very
+generally the anus opens into a sac-like depression. The majority of the
+genera are Ethiopian; the type genus alone extending into the Oriental
+and Palæarctic regions.
+
+_Herpestes._[455]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, sometimes ³⁄₃,
+_m_ ²⁄₂; total 40 or 36. Teeth of molar series generally with strongly
+developed, sharply-pointed cusps. Skull elongated, constricted behind
+the orbits. Face short and compressed. Frontal region broad and arched.
+Postorbital processes of frontal and jugal bones well developed,
+generally meeting so as to complete the circle of the orbit behind.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 21-26. Head pointed in front. Ears short
+and rounded. Body very long and slender. Extremities short. Five toes on
+each foot, the first, especially that on the hind foot, very short. Toes
+free, or but slightly palmated. Palms generally naked. Distal portion of
+soles naked, under surface of tarsus and metatarsus usually clothed with
+hair, but considerable specific variation in this respect. Tail long or
+moderate, generally thick at the base, and sometimes covered with more or
+less elongated hair. The longer hairs covering the body and tail almost
+always annulated. This genus contains a very large number of animals
+commonly called Ichneumons, or in India Mungooses, varying in size from
+that of a large Cat down to a Weasel. They are widely distributed over
+the African continent and the southern parts of Asia, especially India
+and the Indo-Malayan archipelago, one species occurring also in Spain.
+They are mostly terrestrial in their habits, feeding on small mammals
+and birds, reptiles, especially snakes, eggs of birds and reptiles, and
+also insects. Some species are partially domesticated, being used to
+keep houses clear of rats, mice, and snakes. _H. ichneumon_ was a sacred
+animal to the ancient Egyptians. They vary considerably in appearance,
+some, as _H. galera_ and _H. urva_ (Fig. 240), are larger and heavier,
+with stouter body, longer limbs, and stronger teeth. The common Indian
+Mungoose (_H. mungo_) is considerably smaller than the Egyptian form;
+its fur is of a pale gray colour, the hairs being largely white ringed,
+while the cheeks and throat are more or less reddish. Like the Egyptian
+species, it is frequently domesticated, and put to a similar use. It is
+especially serviceable in India as a serpent-killer, destroying not only
+the eggs and young of these creatures, but attacking without hesitation
+and killing the most venomous adult snakes. The fact that it invariably
+survives those encounters has led to the belief that it either enjoys
+immunity from the effects of snake-poison, or that after being bitten
+it has recourse, as the natives maintain, to the root of a plant as an
+antidote. Neither of these suppositions has stood the test of scientific
+examination, for it has been found that when actually bitten it falls
+a victim to the poison as rapidly as other mammals, while there is no
+trustworthy evidence of its seeking a vegetable antidote. The truth
+seems to be that the Mungoose, by its exceeding agility and quickness
+of eye, avoids the fangs of the snake while fixing its own teeth in
+the back of the reptile’s neck. One large species, believed to be from
+Africa, recently described as _H. grandis_, is remarkable for the extreme
+complexity of the cusps on the molars, and also for the absence of an
+entepicondylar foramen to the humerus; the latter feature also occurring
+in the allied _H. albicaudatus_. The Oriental _H. urva_ (Fig. 246) is
+stated to be somewhat aquatic in habits, and to feed on frogs and crabs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 240.—The Crab-eating Mungoose (_Herpestes urva_).
+From Blanford, _Mammalia of British India_, p. 130.]
+
+Remains of the small _H. nipalensis_ occur in the cavern-deposits of
+Madras. Viverroids from the Miocene and Upper Eocene of Europe, which
+agree with _Herpestes_ in the presence of an inner tubercle to the
+third upper premolar and of a hinder cusp to the fourth lower premolar,
+have been referred to the existing genus. The species which have been
+separated generically under the three following names are very closely
+allied to _Herpestes_.
+
+_Helogale_,[456] premolars ³⁄₃, without diastema between first and
+second; soles of feet completely naked. Contains two small South-African
+species, _H. parvula_ and _H. undulata_.
+
+_Bdeogale_[457] contains also two small Ichneumon-like animals, _B.
+crassicauda_ and _puisa_, differing from _Herpestes_ proper in having
+only four toes on each foot, both pollex and hallux being absent. The
+orbit is nearly complete, the tail of moderate length and rather bushy.
+
+_Cynictis._[458]—Pollex present, but hallux absent. Skull shorter and
+broader than in _Herpestes_, rather contracted behind the orbits, which
+are large and complete behind. Face short. Anterior chamber of the
+auditory bulla very large. Front claws elongated. _C. penicillata_, from
+South Africa. The cæcum (Fig. 241) of this genus is longer than in any
+other member of the family.
+
+All the foregoing Herpestines have the nose short, with its under surface
+flat, bald, and with a median longitudinal groove. The remaining forms
+have the nose more or less produced, with its under side convex, and a
+space between the nostrils and the upper lip covered with close adpressed
+hairs, and without any median groove.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 241.—Cæcum of _Cynictis penicillata_. (From Mivart,
+_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 508.)]
+
+_Rhinogale._[459]—Toes 5-5. Claws of fore feet short, compressed, acute.
+Under surface of tarsus hairy. Palate flat. Founded on a single specimen
+from East Africa, _R. melleri_.
+
+_Crossarchus._[460]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ²⁄₂; total
+36. Snout elongated. Toes 5-5. Claws on fore feet long and curved.
+Hallux very short. Under surface of tarsus naked. Tail shorter than the
+body, tapering. Palate flat. Fur harsh. Species: _C. obscurus_, the
+Kusimanse, a small burrowing animal from West Africa, of uniform dark
+brown colour; _C. fasciatus_; _C. zebra_; and _C. gambianus_.
+
+_Suricata._[461]—A more distinct genus than any of the above. The dental
+formula as in the last, but the teeth of the cheek-series remarkably
+short in the antero-posterior direction, corresponding with the shortness
+of the skull generally (Fig. 222). Orbits complete behind. Vertebræ: C
+7, D 15, L 6, S 3, C 20. Though the head is short and broad, the nose is
+pointed and rather produced and movable. Ears very short. Body shorter
+and limbs longer than in _Herpestes_. Toes 4-4, the pollex and hallux
+being absent. Claws on fore feet very long and narrow, arched, pointed,
+and subequal. Hind feet with much shorter claws, soles hairy. Tail rather
+shorter than the body. One species only is known, the Suricate, _S.
+tetradactyla_, a small gray-brown animal, with dark transverse stripes on
+the hinder part of the back, from South Africa. The cæcum is short.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 242.—Cæcum of _Galidea elegans_. (From Mivart, _Proc.
+Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 508.)]
+
+_Galidictis_,[462] _Galidea_,[463] and _Hemigalidea_[464] are names
+of three slight generic modifications of the Viverrine type, allied
+to the _Herpestinæ_, but placed by Mivart in a distinct subfamily,
+_Galidictiinæ_. They are all characterised by the absence of the
+alisphenoid canal in the skull, as well as of the entepicondylar foramen
+to the humerus; and are inhabitants of Madagascar. The best known,
+_Galidea elegans_, is a lively Squirrel-like little animal with soft fur
+and a long bushy tail, which climbs and jumps with agility. It is of a
+chestnut-brown colour, the tail being annulated with darker brown. The
+cæcum (Fig. 242) is remarkable for its comparative length and pointed
+termination. _Hemigalidea_ is distinguished by the absence of rings on
+the tail. _Galidictis vittata_ and _striata_ chiefly differ from the
+Ichneumons in their coloration, being gray with parallel longitudinal
+stripes of dark brown.
+
+_Eupleres_[465] is another form, also from Madagascar, which has been
+placed in a subfamily apart. It differs remarkably from all the other
+_Viverridæ_ in the weak development of the jaws and the small size of the
+teeth (Fig. 243), in consequence of which it was, when first discovered,
+placed in the order Insectivora. Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄,
+_m_ ²⁄₂; total 40. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 20. No alisphenoid
+canal; an entepicondylar foramen to the humerus. But one species is
+known, _E. goudoti_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 243.—Skull of _Eupleres goudoti_. ⅘ natural size.
+Mus. Roy. Coll. Surgeons.]
+
+_Extinct Genera._—The Tertiaries of the Old World have yielded
+several genera allied to the existing Viverroids, some of which show
+decided signs of affinity with other families. Of these the Lower
+Miocene _Amphictis_ appears to be nearly related to _Viverra_, but is
+distinguished by the form of the second lower molar, which is longer and
+has two distinct roots. _Palæoprionodon_, of the French Phosphorites, has
+a dentition very like that of _Prionodon_, the molars being reduced to
+¹⁄₂; the skull has an alisphenoid canal and the general basal characters
+of the _Viverridæ_, but resembles the _Mustelidæ_ in the presence of
+a glenoid foramen and in the position of the condylar foramen. In
+_Stenoplesictis_, of the same deposits, the dental formula is _i_ ³⁄₃,
+_c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ²⁄₂; and although the skull has a complete septum
+in the bulla, yet some of the cranial and dental features approximate
+so decidedly towards those of the extinct _Mustelidæ_, as to lead
+some authorities to refer the genus to that family. The most probable
+explanation of this resemblance is that the Musteloids have originated
+from generalised Viverroids allied to _Stenoplesictis_. The Lower
+Pliocene _Ictitherium_ differs from all other Viverroids in the presence
+of three distinct lobes to the upper carnassial, and thereby connects
+the other members of the family so closely with the _Hyænidæ_ that it is
+practically impossible to draw up a definition which will distinguish the
+two families.
+
+The North American Eocene genera _Miacis_ and _Didymictis_ are generally
+regarded as representing a separate family—_Miacidæ_—with affinities both
+to the _Viverridæ_ and _Canidæ_.
+
+
+_Family_ PROTELEIDÆ.
+
+Skull with no alisphenoid canal; and the auditory bulla divided into two
+distinct chambers. Dorsal vertebræ 15. Molars ¹⁄₁. Premolar and molar
+teeth very small and simple in character.
+
+_Proteles._[466]—This genus contains but a single species, _P.
+cristatus_, the Aard-Wolf or Earth-Wolf of the Dutch colonists of the
+Cape, an animal nearly allied to the Hyænas, but remarkably modified
+in its dentition, the molar teeth being very small, placed far apart,
+and almost rudimentary in character (Fig. 244). The canines are long
+and rather slender. The dental formula is _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ and _m_
+⁴⁄₃₋₄; total 30 or 32. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 2, C 24. The fore feet
+with five toes; the pollex though short, with a distinct claw. The hind
+feet with four subequal toes. Claws all strong, blunt, subcompressed, and
+non-retractile. The general external appearance is very like that of a
+small Striped Hyæna, but the muzzle is more pointed and the ears larger.
+It has a copious mane of long hair, capable of being erected when the
+animal is excited, along the middle line of the neck and back. It is a
+native of South Africa, and is a burrowing nocturnal animal, feeding on
+decomposing animal substances, larvæ, and termites. Observations upon
+specimens in captivity indicate that it has neither inclination nor power
+to attack or feed upon living vertebrated animals.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 244.—Skull and Dentition of the Aard-Wolf (_Proteles
+cristatus_). ½ natural size.]
+
+Some writers regard _Proteles_ as representing a subfamily of the
+_Hyænidæ_.[467]
+
+
+_Family_ HYÆNIDÆ.
+
+Skull with no alisphenoid canal; and the auditory bulla not divided by a
+septum into two chambers. Dorsal vertebræ 15. Molars usually ¹⁄₁, but in
+some fossil forms ¹⁄₂, or ²⁄₂, the second lower molar being very small;
+upper carnassial with three distinct lobes; lower carnassial with a
+large blade and small talon. No entepicondylar foramen to the humerus.
+This family is confined to the Old World, where it is now represented
+by a single genus, which, although evidently nearly related to the
+_Viverridæ_, is sufficiently distinct to be regarded as not referable to
+that family. The extinct _Ictitherium_, however, as already mentioned,
+connects the more generalised members of the _Hyænidæ_ very closely with
+the _Viverridæ_.
+
+_Hyæna._[468]—Dentition in existing forms usually _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁,
+_p_ ⁴⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₁; total 34. Teeth, especially canines and premolars,
+very large, strong, and conical. Upper carnassial (Fig. 245) with a
+very large, distinctly trilobed blade and a moderately developed inner
+tubercle placed at the anterior extremity of the blade. Molar very
+small, and placed transversely close to the hinder edge of the last, as
+in the _Felidæ_. Lower carnassial consisting of little more than the
+bilobed blade. Zygomatic arches of cranium very wide and strong. Sagittal
+crest high, giving attachment to very powerful biting muscles. Orbits
+incomplete behind. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 4, C 19. Limbs rather
+long, especially the anterior pair, digitigrade, four subequal toes on
+each, with stout non-retractile claws. Pollex and hallux only represented
+by rudimentary metacarpal and metatarsal bones. Tail rather short. A
+large post-anal median glandular pouch, into which the largely developed
+anal scent glands pour their secretion.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 245.—Outer (_A_) and palatal (_B_) aspects of the
+right upper carnassial tooth of the Striped Hyæna (_Hyæna striata_). From
+the _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._]
+
+The three existing species of Hyæna are divisible into two sections, to
+which some zoologists assign generic rank, but fossil forms show such
+a transition between these two types as to render any such division
+impracticable.
+
+The typical or _Euhyænine_ group presents the following distinctive
+features. Upper molar moderately developed and three-rooted. An inner
+cusp and hind talon more or less developed on the lower molar. Ears
+large, pointed. Hair long, forming a mane on the back and shoulders. _H.
+striata_, the Striped Hyæna (Fig. 246) of Northern Africa and Southern
+Asia. _H. brunnea_, of South Africa, in some respects intermediate
+between this and the next group.
+
+The Striped Hyæna is dirty gray in colour, with narrow transverse
+tawny or blackish stripes on the body and legs; the length of the
+head and body is 3½ feet, and that of the tail, with its hair, 1½
+feet. It occurs throughout peninsular India, where it is most common
+in open hilly districts, and in North Africa. Mr. Blanford[469] gives
+the following account of its habits: “It is a nocturnal animal, and
+although an occasional individual may be met with returning to its den
+in the early morning, its rambles are usually commenced after sunset
+and ended before sunrise. During the night it roams far and wide, and
+no tracks of wild animals are more common in the countries where it is
+found than its unmistakable footprints, very like a dog’s in shape, but
+with the marks of the hind feet conspicuously smaller than those of the
+fore feet. Unlike the Spotted Hyæna, the Striped species appears to
+be solitary in its habits, and it is rare to meet with more than two
+together. The principal food of the Hyæna consists of the carcases of
+animals that have died of disease or been killed by beasts of prey, and
+very often it carries off portions of the body to its den. I once shot
+one that was carrying away the hind leg of a Nilghai. The powerful jaws
+and large teeth are admirably adapted for crushing bones, which are
+consumed by Hyænas, after the flesh has been picked off by vultures and
+jackals. Occasionally sheep or goats, and more often dogs, are carried
+off by Hyænas, and the latter at all events are often taken alive to the
+animal’s den.” The Striped Hyæna is essentially a cowardly animal, and
+one that is much more silent than _H. crocuta_. Remains of _H. striata_
+are found in the cavern-deposits of the south of France, and also in the
+Upper Pliocene of the Val d’Arno in Tuscany, and in the English Red Crag.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 246.—The Striped Hyæna (_Hyæna striata_).]
+
+The _Crocutine_ group presents the following characters. Upper molar
+extremely small, two- or one-rooted, often deciduous. Lower molar
+without trace of inner cusp, and with an extremely small talon. Ears
+moderate, rounded. Hair not elongated to form a mane. _H. crocuta_, the
+Spotted Hyæna (Fig. 247), from Africa south of the Sahara. In dental
+characters as well as in its visceral anatomy, especially as regards the
+reproductive organs of the female,[470] this species may be considered
+as by far the more specialised form. The Spotted Hyæna is a larger and
+bolder animal than the Striped species, hunting in packs, and uttering
+very frequently its unearthly cry. The coloration consists of dark brown
+spots on a yellowish ground. It was formerly very common at the Cape.
+Remains of a large race of this species are exceedingly common in the
+cavern-deposits of Europe, where they were first described under the
+name of _Hyæna spelæa_; teeth have also been met with in the Norfolk
+Forest-bed, and in cavern-deposits in Madras—the latter locality being
+exceedingly interesting from a distributional point of view.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 247.—The Spotted Hyæna (_Hyæna crocuta_).]
+
+In addition to the remains of existing species, to which reference has
+been already made, there were numerous extinct forms of _Hyæna_ in the
+upper Tertiaries of Europe, from the horizon of the Lower Pliocene
+Pikermi beds of Greece upwards. In the Crocutine group _H. colvini_ of
+the Pliocene of India (Fig. 248), and _H. robusta_ of that of Italy,
+appear to have been ancestral forms allied to _H. crocuta_; the former
+being distinguished by the loss of the first upper premolar. _H. eximia_,
+of the Pikermi beds, is a more generalised form, in which the first lower
+premolar (lost in existing forms) is retained. In the typical group, _H.
+arvernensis_ and _H. perrieri_, of the Upper Pliocene of the Continent,
+approximate to _H. brunnea_; although _H. perrieri_ makes a farther step
+towards the Crocutine group by the loss of the inner cusp in the lower
+carnassial. The extinct _Hyænictine_ group, as represented by the Indian
+_H. sivalensis_ and the Grecian _H. græca_, connects _H. striata_ with
+_Palhyæna_. Both are characterised by the presence of a small second
+lower molar behind the carnassial; while _H. græca_ also has four lower
+premolars. Still more generalised is the _Lychyænine_ group; comprising
+_H. macrostoma_ of India and _H. chæretis_ of the Pikermi beds; in these
+forms the muzzle was longer, and the premolars much more compressed than
+in the existing species, thus making a very decided approach to the
+_Viverridæ_. There were four lower premolars; the lower carnassial had
+an inner cusp, and it is probable that there was a second lower molar;
+while the first upper molar was placed partially behind the carnassial.
+The Lower Pliocene _Palhyæna hipparionum_, in which the dental formula
+is _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ²⁄₂, is a smaller form with long jaws
+and compressed premolars which approaches so closely to the Viverroid
+genus _Ictitherium_ as to show pretty clearly how the Hyænas have been
+gradually modified from that stock.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 248.—Outer view of part of the right ramus of the
+mandible of _Hyæna colvini_, showing the third and fourth premolars and
+the carnassial. (From the _Palæontologia Indica_.)]
+
+
+_Section_ CYNOIDEA.
+
+
+_Family_ CANIDÆ.
+
+This section contains the single family of the _Canidæ_, or Dog-like
+animals, which appear to hold an intermediate position between the other
+two sections, retaining also many of the more generalised characters of
+the ancient members of the order. The structure of the auditory bulla and
+adjacent parts of the bones of the skull is intermediate between that
+of the Æluroid and Arctoid forms. In the number and arrangement of the
+teeth they more nearly approach the primitive heterodont type than any
+other existing Carnivora. A cæcum is always present, sometimes short and
+simple, but when long it is folded upon itself in a characteristic manner.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 249.—Right lateral aspect of the skull of the Dog
+(_Canis familiaris_).]
+
+The characters of the base of the cranium are shown in Fig. 8 (p. 38),
+where it will be seen that the auditory bulla is inflated, although
+it has only a rudimental internal septum; the paroccipital process,
+although in contact with the bulla, is prominent, and there is a large
+glenoid foramen. In all the existing forms the humerus has lost the
+entepicondylar foramen; the crowns of the upper molars are triangular in
+shape (Fig. 251), and the blade of the upper carnassial consists of two
+lobes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 250.—Cæcum of the Arctic Fox (_Canis lagopus_). _i_,
+Ileum; _c_, colon. In the natural position the colon is uppermost.]
+
+In the alimentary canal the cæcum (Fig. 250) is extremely characteristic.
+It is a simple appendage of nearly uniform width (about equal to that of
+the ileum) attached to the side of the canal, just beyond the ileo-cæcal
+valve, and with a rounded termination. In a Dog of average size it is 5
+or 6 inches long if uncoiled, but it is normally folded by its mesenteric
+attachments backwards and forwards several times on itself by the side of
+the ileum, after the manner shown in the figure.
+
+The existing Dogs form a very compact group, with numerous species
+closely resembling each other in essential characters, though differing
+considerably externally. The most marked differences are slight
+variations in the number of the true molar teeth, which exceed the usual
+number in the Cape Long-eared Fox (_Otocyon_), and fall short of it in
+some other less aberrant forms to which the names of _Icticyon_ and
+_Cyon_ have been given, and a diminution in the number of toes in the
+Cape Hunting Dog (_Lycaon_), which has 4-4, instead of 5-4 as in the
+remainder of the family. After taking these away, there remain a great
+number of animals called Dogs, Wolves, Jackals, and Foxes, varying from
+one another only in the characters of the tail, ears, fur, form of the
+pupil, and some trifling peculiarities of skull and teeth, upon which
+some authors have divided them into many genera. These divisions are,
+however, extremely difficult, if not impossible, to define, on account of
+the numerous gradual transitions from one form to the other.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 251.—The last four left upper teeth of an extinct
+Wolf (_Canis cautleyi_). From the _Palæontologia Indica_.]
+
+_Canis._[471]—It appears on the whole convenient to retain all the
+species, with the exception of _Otocyon_, _Icticyon_, and _Lycaon_, in
+the old genus _Canis_, the most prominent characters of which are the
+following. Teeth, usually _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ²⁄₃; total
+42. The absence of the last upper molar (_m_ ³⁄), alone distinguishes
+this from the generalised dentition of heterodonts, and this tooth is
+occasionally present in one species (_C. cancrivorus_). In certain
+Asiatic species (_C. primævus_ and its allies), which on this account
+have been separated to form the genus _Cyon_ of Hodgson, the last lower
+molar ⁄_m₃_ appears to be constantly absent. The milk-dentition is _di_
+³⁄₃, _dc_ ¹⁄₁, _dm_ ³⁄₃; total 28,—the first permanent premolar having no
+predecessor. The teeth of both permanent and milk or temporary series are
+figured on p. 26, Fig. 3, from the outer aspect, while the woodcut 251
+shows the palatal aspect of the hinder upper teeth. The upper carnassial
+(_p_ ⁴⁄) consists of a stout blade, of which the anterior lobe is almost
+obsolete, the middle lobe large, conical, and pointed backwards, and the
+posterior lobe in the form of a compressed ridge; the inner tubercle is
+very small, and placed quite at the fore part of the tooth. The first
+molar is more than half the antero-posterior length of the carnassial,
+and considerably wider than it is long; its crown consists of two
+prominent conical cusps, of which the anterior is the larger, and a low
+broad inward prolongation, supporting two more or less distinct cusps and
+a raised inner border. The second molar resembles the first in general
+form, but is considerably smaller. The lower carnassial ⁄_m₁_ is a very
+large tooth, with a strong compressed bilobed blade, the hinder lobe
+being considerably the larger and more pointed, a small but distinct
+inner cusp placed at the hinder margin of the posterior lobe of the
+blade, and a broad, low, tuberculated talon, or heel, occupying about
+one-third of the whole length of the tooth. The second molar is less than
+half the length of the first, with a pair of cusps placed side by side
+anteriorly, and a less distinct posterior pair. The third is an extremely
+small and simple tooth, with a subcircular tuberculated crown and single
+root.
+
+The cranium (Fig. 249) is more or less elongated, the facial portion
+tapering forwards and compressed. The jaws are elongated, and the
+zygomata moderately strong. The postorbital processes of the frontal
+short, leaving the orbit widely open posteriorly. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13,
+L 7, S 3, C 17-22. Clavicles present, but very rudimentary. Limbs of
+moderate proportions, digitigrade. Feet short; five toes on the fore
+foot, the pollex much shorter than the others, and not reaching to the
+ground. Four toes on the hind foot, the hallux being represented by a
+rudiment of the metatarsal.[472] All the toes are provided with exserted,
+non-retractile, slightly curved, and blunt claws, which, being exposed,
+become worn at the tips. Tail moderate, or rather long, generally
+somewhat bushy. The pupil of the eye, when contracted, is in some species
+round, in others elliptical and vertical.
+
+This extensive genus may be considered as truly cosmopolitan. One or more
+species occur in every part of the American continent from Greenland
+to Patagonia and the Falkland Isles; and similarly, in the Old World,
+Europe, Africa, and Asia, with most of the large islands adjacent, and
+even Australia, have their wild Dogs, though in the last case they may
+belong to a feral race, introduced originally by man. They are generally
+sociable animals, hunting their prey in packs. Many species burrow in
+the ground; none habitually climb trees. Though mostly carnivorous,
+feeding chiefly on animals they have chased and killed themselves, many,
+especially among the smaller species, eat garbage, carrion, insects, and
+also fruit, berries, and other vegetable substances. The species are
+very numerous, and, as in most other large genera, very ill-defined,
+few zoologists agreeing as to which of the many slightly different
+modifications should be considered as local varieties and which true
+species. Perhaps the best cranial character by which the different
+members of the genus can be distinguished is that pointed out by
+Burmeister, viz. that in the animals generally called Dogs, Wolves, and
+Jackals the postorbital process of the frontal bone is regularly smooth
+and convex above, with its extremity bent downwards, whereas in Foxes
+this process is hollowed above, with its outer margin (particularly of
+the anterior border) somewhat raised. This modification coincides in the
+main with that upon which Professor Huxley[473] has based his division
+of the group into two parallel series, the Thooids or Lupine forms and
+Alopecoids or Vulpine forms, which he characterises by the presence of
+frontal air-sinuses in the former, which not only affect the external
+contour but to a still greater degree the shape of the anterior part of
+the cranial cavity, and the absence of such sinuses in the latter. The
+pupil of the eye when contracted is round in most members of the first
+group, and vertically elliptical in the others, but more observations are
+required before this character can be absolutely relied upon. The form
+and length of the tail is often used for the purposes of classification,
+but its characters do not coincide with those of the cranium, since many
+of the South American _Canidæ_ have the long bushy tails of Foxes and
+the skulls of Wolves. Taking into account various combinations of these
+and other minor characters, the species may be arranged in the following
+groups, which some authors have considered as of generic importance.
+
+A. _Thooid or Lupine Series._—The typical group, or _Canis_ proper,
+contains the largest members of the genus, the true Wolves of the
+northern parts of both Old and New Worlds (_C. lupus_, etc.), the
+Jackals of Southern Asia and Africa (_C. aureus_, _mesomelas_, etc.),
+and the various breeds of the domestic Dog (_C. familiaris_). The true
+Wolves are (excluding some varieties of the domestic Dog) the largest
+members of the genus, and have a wide geographical range, extending over
+nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, and North America from Greenland
+to Mexico, but they are not found in South America or Africa, being
+replaced in both of these continents by various species of Jackals and
+Foxes. As might be expected from this extensive range, and the varied
+character of the climatic conditions of the countries they inhabit, they
+present great diversities of size, length and thickness of fur, and
+coloration, although resembling each other in all important structural
+characters. These differences have given rise to a supposed multiplicity
+of species, expressed by the names of _C. lupus_, _C. lycaon_ (Central
+Europe), _C. laniger_ and _C. niger_ (Tibet), _C. pallipes_ (India), _C.
+occidentalis_, _C. nubilis_, _C. mexicanus_, etc., of North America, but
+it is very doubtful whether some of these ought to be distinguished as
+other than local varieties. Mr. W. T. Blanford, in his recent work on the
+mammals of India, regards the two forms from Tibet mentioned above as
+inseparable from _C. lupus_. In North America there is a very distinct
+smaller species, called the Coyote or Prairie Wolf (_C. latrans_);
+and perhaps the Japanese Wolf (_C. hodophylax_) may also be distinct,
+although, except for its smaller size and shorter legs, it is scarcely
+distinguishable from the common species. Though generally distributed
+throughout the Indian peninsula, the Indian Wolf (_C. pallipes_), which
+is rather smaller and slighter than _C. lupus_, is not found in Ceylon,
+nor in Burma and Siam. The ordinary colour of the Common Wolf is a
+yellowish or fulvous gray, but specimens have been met with almost pure
+white and others entirely black. In northern countries the fur is longer
+and thicker, and the animal generally larger and more powerful than in
+the southern portion of its range; this being especially the case with
+the Tibetan races. The habits of the Wolf are similar everywhere, and it
+is still, and has been from time immemorial, especially known to man in
+all the countries it inhabits as the devastator of his flocks of sheep.
+They do not catch their prey by lying in ambush, or stealing up close to
+it and making a sudden spring as the Cat tribe do, but by fairly running
+it down in open chase, which their speed and remarkable endurance enable
+them to do; and usually, except during summer, when the young families of
+cubs are being separately provided for by their parents, they assemble in
+troops or packs, and by their combined and persevering efforts are able
+to overpower and kill even such great animals as the American Bison. It
+is singular that such closely allied species as the Domestic Dog and the
+Arctic Fox are among the favourite prey of Wolves, and, as is well known,
+children and even full-grown people are not unfrequently the objects
+of their attack when pressed by hunger. Notwithstanding the proverbial
+ferocity of the Wolf in a wild state, many instances are recorded of
+animals taken when quite young becoming perfectly tame and attached to
+the person who has brought them up, when they exhibit many of the ways of
+a Dog. They can, however, rarely be trusted by strangers.
+
+The history of the Wolf in the British Isles and its gradual extirpation
+has been thoroughly investigated by Mr. J. E. Harting in his work on
+_Extinct British Animals_, from which the following account is abridged:
+To judge by the osteological remains which the researches of geologists
+have brought to light, there was perhaps scarcely a county in England
+or Wales in which, at one time or another, wolves did not abound, while
+in Scotland and Ireland they must have been still more numerous. The
+fossil remains which have been discovered in Britain are not larger
+than, nor in any way to be distinguished from, those of European wolves
+of the present day. Wolf-hunting was a favourite pursuit of the ancient
+Britons as well as of the Anglo-Saxons. In Athelstan’s reign these
+animals abounded to such an extent in Yorkshire that a retreat was
+built by one Acehorn, at Flixton, near Filey, wherein travellers might
+seek refuge if attacked by them. As is well known, great efforts were
+made by King Edgar to reduce the number of wolves in the country, but,
+notwithstanding the annual tribute of 300 skins paid to him during
+several years by the king of Wales, he was not altogether so successful
+as has been commonly imagined. In the reign of Henry III the number of
+wolves in some parts of the country was sufficient to induce the king to
+make grants of land to various individuals upon the express condition of
+their taking measures to destroy these animals wherever they could be
+found. In Edward II’s time the king’s forest of the Peak, in Derbyshire,
+is especially mentioned as infested with wolves, and it was not until the
+reign of Henry VII (1485-1509) that wolves appear to have become finally
+extinct in England. This, however, is rather a matter of inference from
+the cessation of all mention of them in local records than from any
+definite evidence of their extirpation. Their last retreat was probably
+in the desolate wolds of Yorkshire. In Scotland, as might be supposed
+from the nature of the country, the wolf maintained its hold for a much
+longer period. There is a well-known story of the last of the race being
+killed by Sir Ewen Cameron of Lochiel in 1680, but there is evidence
+of wolves having survived in Sutherlandshire and other parts into the
+following century (perhaps as late as 1743), though the date of their
+final extinction cannot be accurately fixed. In Ireland, in Cromwell’s
+time, wolves were particularly troublesome, and said to be increasing in
+numbers, so that special measures were taken for their destruction, such
+as the offering of large rewards for their heads, and the prohibition
+(in 1652) of the exportation of “wolf-dogs,” the large dogs used for
+hunting the wolves. The active measures taken then and later reduced
+their numbers greatly, so that towards the end of the century they became
+scarce, but, as in the case of the sister island, the date of their final
+disappearance cannot now be ascertained. It has been placed, upon the
+evidence of somewhat doubtful traditions, as late as 1766.
+
+Remains of _C. lupus_ are common in the European Pleistocene; while the
+Indian Pliocene _C. cautleyi_, of which the upper teeth are shown in Fig.
+251, was probably the ancestor of _C. pallipes_. _C. neschersensis_, of
+the Upper Pliocene of France, was a smaller extinct Wolf. A lower jaw
+from the French Pleistocene, described under the name of _Lycorus_, has
+only three premolars, but evidently belongs to the Wolf.
+
+The Jackals are smaller than the Wolves, with the bushy tail about
+one-third the length of the head and body, and the carnassials relatively
+shorter as compared with the tubercular molars. The Common Jackal
+(_C. aureus_, Fig. 252) has a very wide distribution, ranging from
+South-Eastern Europe through South-Western Asia to India and Burma, and
+also occurring in Northern Africa; being replaced in the Ethiopian region
+by closely allied species. Remains indistinguishable from _C. aureus_
+occur in the Pliocene Siwaliks of Northern India. Jackals hunt at night
+in packs, uttering the piercing cries so well known to all who have
+resided in countries where these animals are found.
+
+The origin of the Domestic Dog, with its numerous breeds, has been
+the subject of much controversy. Some naturalists believe it to be a
+distinct species, descended from one that no longer exists in a wild
+state; others have sought to find its progenitors in some one of the wild
+or feral races, either of true Dogs, Wolves, or Jackals; while others
+again believe that it is derived from the mingling of two or more wild
+species or races. It was probably the earliest animal domesticated by
+man, and few if any other species have undergone such an extraordinary
+amount of variation in size, form, and proportion of limbs, ears, and
+tail—variations which have been perpetuated and increased by careful
+selective breeding. The Dingo or Australian Dog is met with wild, and
+also as the domestic companion of the aboriginal people. Dogs were also
+in the possession of the natives of New Zealand and other islands of the
+Pacific, where no placental mammals exist naturally, on their discovery
+by Europeans in the last century.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 252.—The Jackal (_Canis aureus_).]
+
+The second group includes the wild Dogs of the south-east of Asia,
+described as _Cyon_, and distinguished by slight modifications as _C.
+rutilans_, _C. dukhunensis_, and _C. javanicus_, and differing from the
+above in wanting the small last lower tubercular molar. This difference
+reduces the number of the teeth to the same as in _Viverra_, and
+is precisely paralleled by some of the species of the extinct genus
+_Cynodictis_ mentioned below. The muzzle is shorter than in other
+species, and the facial profile is slightly convex instead of concave.
+The mammæ are also 12 or 14 instead of the normal 10; while there is
+long hair between the foot-pads. Wild Dogs inhabit not only the whole
+of the Oriental region, but extend into Central Asia as far north as
+the Altai and Amurland (_C. alpinus_). _C. dukhunensis_ ranges from the
+forest regions of peninsular India to Gilgit and Western Tibet, where it
+must inhabit open country. In their general form, and more especially
+the shortness of the legs, these animals come nearer to the Jackals than
+to the Wolves. They hunt their prey in packs. Remains of species of
+this group occur in the cavern-deposits of the Continent, and have been
+described under the name of _C. europæus_.
+
+A group for which the name _Lycalopex_ has been proposed comprises
+certain South American _Canidæ_, distinguished from _Canis_ proper
+by their longer tails and Fox-like aspect:—_C. cancrivorus_, _C.
+brasiliensis_, _C. melampus_, _C. vetulus_, _C. fulvicaudus_, _C.
+azaræ_, _C. magellanicus_, _C. griseus_. The last three have been
+further separated (under the name of _Pseudalopex_) on account of slight
+differences in the relative size of the molar teeth, and of their pupil
+being elliptical when contracted. _Nyctereutes_ (one species, _C.
+procyonides_, from Japan and North-East Asia) has no claims to generic
+distinction but such as are founded upon its long loose fur, short ears,
+and short bushy tail, which give it some superficial resemblance to a
+Raccoon.
+
+B. _Alopecoid or Vulpine Series._—The _Vulpine_ group (_Vulpes_) includes
+the true Foxes, of which there are numerous varieties and species, spread
+over North America, Eurasia, and Africa, which have been described under
+the names of _C. vulpes_ (_Vulpes alopex_), the common Fox of Europe;
+_C. niloticus_, _adustus_, and _variegatus_, Africa; _C. flavescens_,
+_montanus_, _bengalensis_, _japonicus_, _corsac_, Asia; _C. fulvus_,
+_macrurus_, _velox_, North America. Mr. Blanford[474] concludes, however,
+that the Asiatic _C. flavescens_ and _C. montanus_, and very probably
+the North American Cross-Fox (_C. fulvus_) are merely local races of
+_C. vulpes_, distinguished by certain peculiarities of coloration. The
+English Fox measures about 2 feet in length exclusive of the tail, which
+is about a foot long. Its fur is of a reddish-brown colour above, and
+more or less white beneath; the back of the ears and the fore part of
+the limbs are black, and the tip of its bushy tail is white. Its long,
+sharp muzzle, erect pointed ears, and sharp eye, give it the well-known
+appearance of sagacity and cunning. The Fox is a solitary animal,
+inhabiting a burrow, which it either excavates for itself, or obtains by
+ejecting the badger or the rabbit. So averse, indeed, is the Fox to dig
+for itself, that when foiled in its attempts to dispossess the badger,
+it has been known to take up its quarters with the latter, and it can be
+induced to make its home in artificial burrows constructed of stone and
+earth for the purpose of facilitating the operation of digging out the
+cubs. The Fox also occurs in woods, and even in the open country without
+burrows, lying in its “cover” by day and stealing forth at night in
+search of its prey. Remains of the Common Fox occur not unfrequently in
+the Pleistocene deposits of Europe. The Indian _C. bengalensis_ is a very
+much smaller and well-marked species.
+
+The tail of the above forms is clothed with soft fur and long hair,
+uniformly mixed; from them Baird distinguishes, under the name of
+_Urocyon_, other species which have a concealed erect mane of stiff hairs
+along the upper line of the tail. These have also a shorter muzzle and a
+wide space between the temporal crests; they are _C. virginianus_ and _C.
+littoralis_, both from North America. The Arctic Fox (_C. lagopus_, genus
+_Leucocyon_, Gray) has the tail very full and bushy and the soles of the
+feet densely furred below. Its colour changes according to season from
+bluish-gray to pure white.
+
+Certain small elegant African Foxes (_C. zerda_, _famelicus_, and
+_chama_), with very large ears and corresponding large auditory bullæ,
+have been separated under the name of _Fennecus_, and are commonly known
+as Fennecs.
+
+The earliest undoubted occurrence of the genus _Canis_ seems to be in the
+Upper Miocene of Switzerland, where it is represented by the Fox-like _C.
+œningensis_. In the Upper Pliocene of France _C. megamastoides_ is said
+to be allied to the Foxes and Jackals, but with some signs of affinity to
+the extinct _Cynodictis_. In the Pliocene Siwaliks of India there occurs
+_C. curvipalatus_, of the size of a small Fox, which appears to have
+certain resemblances to _Otocyon_.
+
+_Lycaon._[475]—This genus resembles in most of its characters the Dogs
+of the Lupine series, but the teeth are rather more massive and rounded,
+the skull is shorter and broader, and there are but four toes on each
+limb, as in _Hyæna_. The one species, _L. pictus_, the Cape Hunting
+Dog (Fig. 253) from South and East Africa, is very distinct externally
+from all the other _Canidæ_. It is nearly as large as a Mastiff, with
+large, broadly ovate erect ears, and singularly coloured, being not only
+variable in different individuals, but unsymmetrically marked with large
+spots of white, yellow, and black. It presents some curious superficial
+resemblances to _Hyæna crocuta_, perhaps a case of mimetic analogy.
+It hunts its prey in large packs. A lower jaw from a cave-deposit in
+Glamorganshire, which agrees with that of the existing form in the
+presence of an anterior cusp to the last lower premolar, has been made
+the type of a distinct species (_L. anglicus_).
+
+_Icticyon._[476]—The Bush-Dog (_I. venaticus_), from Guiana and Brazil,
+is a species about the size of a Fox, with close hair, and short legs and
+tail, distinguished from all other Dogs by the reduction of the molar
+teeth to ¹⁄₂, and their comparatively small size. The lower carnassial
+is also characterised by the loss of the inner cusp of the blade, and
+the secant form of its hind talon; both these features indicating a
+specialised type. Remains of the Bush-Dog are found in the Pleistocene
+cavern-deposits of Brazil, and were originally described under the name
+of _Speothos_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 253.—The Cape Hunting Dog (_Lycaon pictus_).]
+
+_Otocyon._[477]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁻⁴⁄₄; total 46
+or 48. The molar teeth are thus in excess of any other living heterodont
+mammal. They have the same general characters as in _Canis_, with
+very pointed cusps. The lower carnassial shows little of its typical
+characters, having five cusps on the surface; these can, however, be
+identified as the inner cusp, the two greatly reduced and obliquely
+placed lobes of the blade, and two cusps on the talon. The skull
+generally resembles that of the smaller Foxes, particularly the Fennecs.
+The auditory bullæ are very large. The hinder edge of the mandible has
+a very peculiar form, owing to the great development of an expanded,
+compressed, and somewhat inverted subangular process. Vertebræ: C 7, D
+13, L 7, S 3, C 22. Ears very large. Limbs rather long. Toes 5-4. One
+species, _O. megalotis_, from South Africa, rather smaller than a common
+Fox.
+
+Professor Huxley looks upon this as the least differentiated or most
+primitive existing form of the family, regarding the presence of the
+four molar teeth as a survival of a condition of the dentition exhibited
+by the common ancestors of the existing _Canidæ_ and the existing
+carnivorous Marsupials. There is, however, at present no palæontological
+proof of this, as none of the numerous fossil forms of _Canidæ_ yet
+discovered have more than the normal number of molars.
+
+_Extinct Genera._—A large number of fossil Carnivora have been described
+from various Tertiary deposits which are more or less closely allied to
+the existing _Canidæ_, although, as already mentioned, connecting the
+latter so closely on the one hand with the _Viverridæ_ and on the other
+hand with the _Ursidæ_, that it is almost, if not quite impossible to
+say where one family begins and the other ends. A few only of the more
+important of these annectant types will be mentioned here. _Temnocyon_,
+of the Miocene of the United States, is a true Dog, which agrees with
+_Icticyon_ in having a secant hind talon to the lower carnassial, but
+preserves a generalised character in having an entepicondylar foramen
+to the humerus. An extremely interesting form is _Cynodictis_, of
+the Middle Tertiaries of Europe and the United States, which (as now
+restricted by Dr. Schlosser) includes a number of species mostly not
+larger than Foxes. The dental formula is generally the same as in
+_Canis_, but (as in that genus) the last lower molar may be absent. The
+teeth are very like those of _Viverridæ_, the lower carnassial never
+being greatly elongated antero-posteriorly, and its inner cusp being
+situated immediately on the inner side of the hinder lobe of the blade,
+instead of somewhat behind it, as is the case in most Dogs. In the
+skull the auditory bulla is inflated, but is said to have no distinct
+septum; while the humerus invariably has an entepicondylar foramen. It
+is suggested that _Cynodictis_ is not far removed from the ancestral
+type of many of the Viverroids and Canoids, and may itself have been
+derived from the under-mentioned genus _Amphicyon_. M. Boule considers,
+indeed, that from the resemblance of the Pliocene _Canis megamastoides_
+(p. 553) to _Cynodictis_ we ought to regard the Foxes and Jackals as the
+descendants of _Cynodictis_, while the Wolves have been derived directly
+from _Amphicyon_. The last named genus, which includes some species
+as large as a Bear, is found in the Upper Eocene and Lower Miocene of
+Europe, and is represented in the Miocene of the United States by the
+allied _Daphœnus_. It is characterised by the presence of three upper
+molars—thus bringing up the dental formula to the full Eutherian number;
+by the five digits on all the feet, which were plantigrade; and by
+the presence of a third trochanter to the femur and an entepicondylar
+foramen to the humerus. The teeth are essentially those of a dog, and
+the base of the skull is also dog-like, although it is highly probable
+that the auditory bulla had no trace of a septum. According, however, to
+Dr. Filhol[478] the minute foramina described by Professor Cope[479] in
+the postparietal and mastoid which occur in _Ursus_, but are said to be
+absent in _Canis_, are present in _Amphicyon_. So far, however, as we
+can see, the presence or absence of those foramina cannot be regarded
+as diagnostic of _Ursus_ and _Canis_, although they are generally more
+strongly developed in the former. _Amphicyon_ may, indeed, be considered
+as a very generalised Dog, with affinities to the Bears in the structure
+of its limbs. _Dinocyon_ is a still larger form, from the Middle Miocene
+of France, which, so far as its teeth are concerned, connects _Amphicyon_
+with the Ursoid genus _Hyænarctus_ so closely as to render it absolutely
+impossible to indicate any characters of family importance by which they
+can be distinguished. The upper carnassial of _Dinocyon_ is unknown. For
+other genera, see p. 562.
+
+
+_Section_ ARCTOIDEA.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 254.—Right half of the palatal aspect of the cranium
+of the Raccoon (_Procyon lotor_). Letters as in Fig. 8, p. 38. (From the
+_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1869, p. 10.)]
+
+This section includes a considerable number of forms which agree in the
+essential characteristics of the structures of the base of the cranium
+and reproductive organs, and in the absence of a cæcum to the intestinal
+canal. They have no Cowper’s glands, but there is a rudimentary prostate
+and a large cylindrical penial bone; while all the members of the group
+have five completely developed toes on each foot. Considerable diversity
+is found in the characters of the base of the skull in the various forms,
+but the following features are common to all. The cavity of the auditory
+bulla is simple, and has no trace of a dividing septum; the inferior lip
+of the auditory meatus (_am_, Fig. 254) is considerably prolonged; the
+paroccipital process (_p_) of the exoccipital is more or less triangular,
+directed backwards, outwards, and downwards, and standing quite apart
+from the bulla; the mastoid process (_m_) of the periotic is always
+widely separated from the paroccipital, and generally very prominent;
+the carotid foramen (_car_) is large, and placed on the inner margin of
+the bulla, usually near the middle, but occasionally more posteriorly;
+the condyloid foramen is distinct and exposed, and never sunk into a
+common opening with the foramen lacerum posticum; and the glenoid foramen
+is always present, and usually conspicuous. The alisphenoid canal is
+absent except in _Ursus_, _Melursus_, and _Ælurus_.
+
+It has been already observed (p. 501) that the evidence of fossil forms,
+so far as it goes, is not in favour of the Arctoidea being a natural
+group; so that its retention must be regarded as a somewhat provisional
+measure, largely based on its convenience. The group may be divided into
+the three families, _Ursidæ_, _Procyonidæ_, and _Mustelidæ_.[480]
+
+
+_Family_ URSIDÆ.
+
+In existing forms the true molars ²⁄₃, with broad, flat tuberculated
+crowns. Typically the three anterior premolars of both jaws rudimentary
+and often deciduous. Fourth upper premolar (carnassial) with no third or
+inner root. An alisphenoid canal (except in _Æluropus_). Skull with the
+auditory bulla depressed, and scarcely at all inflated. Feet plantigrade.
+No entepicondylar foramen to the humerus. Kidneys conglomerate.
+Geographical distribution extensive.
+
+_Ursus._[481]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ²⁄₃; total 42.
+The three anterior premolars above and below one-rooted, rudimentary, and
+frequently wanting. Usually the first (placed close to the canine) is
+present, and after a considerable interval the third, which is situated
+close to the other teeth of the molar series. The second is very rarely
+present in the adult state. The fourth (upper carnassial) differs
+essentially from the corresponding tooth of other Carnivores in wanting
+the inner tubercle supported by a distinct root. Its sectorial characters
+are very slightly marked, and it is much smaller than the first molar.
+The crowns of both the true molars are longer than broad, with flattened,
+tuberculated, grinding surfaces. The second has a large backward
+prolongation or heel. The lower carnassial has a small and indistinct
+blade and greatly developed tubercular heel. The second molar is of
+about the same length, but with a broader and more flattened tubercular
+crown. The third is smaller. The milk-teeth are comparatively small, and
+shed at an early age. Skull more or less elongated. Orbits small and
+incomplete behind. Palate prolonged considerably behind the last molar
+tooth. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 5, C 8-10. Body heavy. Feet broad,
+completely plantigrade; the five toes on each foot all well developed,
+and armed with long compressed and moderately curved non-retractile
+claws. Palms and soles naked. Tail very short. Ears moderate, erect,
+rounded, hairy. Fur generally long, soft, and shaggy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 255.—Head of the Brown Bear (_Ursus arctos_). From
+Sclater, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1867, p. 817.]
+
+The Bears are all animals of considerable bulk, and include among them
+the largest members of the order. Though the species are not numerous,
+they are widely spread over the earth’s surface (but absent from the
+Ethiopian and Australian regions, and only represented by one species in
+the Neotropical region), and differ much among themselves in their food
+and manner of life. They are mostly omnivorous or vegetable feeders, and
+even the Polar Bear, usually purely carnivorous or piscivorous, devours
+grass with avidity in summer. The various species maybe arranged in the
+following groups:—
+
+_Thalassarctine Group._—Head comparatively small, molar teeth small and
+narrow. Soles more covered with hair than in the others. This group is
+represented only by the well-known Polar or White Bear (_U. maritimus_)
+of the Arctic regions, which is one of the few mammals which are
+completely white at all seasons of the year.
+
+The typical, or _Ursine_, group includes a number of species, of which
+the Common Brown Bear (_U. arctos_) is the best known example. This
+species is an exceedingly variable one, and has a very wide range in
+the Palæarctic region; the Syrian form described as _U. syriacus_, as
+well as the Hairy-eared Bear (_U. piscator_, Fig. 255) of North-Eastern
+Asia, and the Snow-Bear (_U. isabellinus_) of Kashmir and Nipal, not
+being specifically separable. The Brown Bear hibernates in cold regions,
+and in the Himalaya keeps to comparatively high regions, emerging
+from its winter lair in March, April, or May, according to the season
+and elevation, to feed on the numerous bulbous plants which abound in
+the regions it inhabits. Both the Syrian and Himalayan varieties are
+generally of lighter colour and smaller size than the typical European
+form. Bears were at one time found in the British Isles, from which,
+however, they have been long since exterminated. They are still found in
+the Pyrenees, and are comparatively abundant in parts of Norway, Hungary,
+and Russia. In the Kashmir Himalaya they were very abundant in some
+districts a few years ago, one of the present writers having in 1874 seen
+no less than seven examples at one time from the top of a mountain ridge;
+of late years their numbers have, however, been greatly diminished. The
+Brown Bear, although with strong powers of smelling, is very slow of
+sight and hearing, and in the Himalaya it is easy to approach so near
+that they may be shot with a smooth-bore gun. The Grizzly Bear (_U.
+horribilis_) of North America is so closely allied to the Brown Bear
+that some writers think it should only rank as a very well-marked local
+variety. The Black Bears of the Himalaya (_U. torquatus_), Japan (_U.
+japonicus_), and North America (_U. americanus_) belong to this group.
+The Himalayan species ranges from Persia to Assam, and thence to China
+and Formosa. In the greater part of this area it is essentially a forest
+animal, and may be found in autumn in the forests of the Kashmir valley
+feeding upon chestnuts and other fruits. It is also exceedingly fond
+of maize, mulberries, and walnuts; and a few years ago it was no very
+uncommon sight to see three or even five of these bears up a single
+mulberry or walnut tree in Kashmir. The Spectacled Bear (_U. ornatus_) of
+the Peruvian Andes is another member of this group.
+
+The _Helarctine_ group is represented only by the Malay Bear or Sun Bear
+(_U. malayanus_), in which the head is short and broad; the molar teeth
+are comparatively broad (but the length still exceeding the breadth),
+the tongue is very long and extensile, and the fur short and smooth.
+This small species inhabits the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo,
+Tenasserim, Arakan, Chittagong, and the Garo hills of India; it inhabits
+forest districts, and is an expert climber.
+
+The earliest known occurrence of the genus is in the Lower Pliocene of
+the Indian Siwalik Hills; where it is represented by _U. theobaldi_,
+which was probably the ancestor of the existing _Melursus_. The genus is
+represented in the Upper Pliocene of Europe by the small _U. etruscus_;
+and in the Pleistocene by the existing _U. arctos_, as well as by the
+great extinct Cave-Bear (_U. spelæus_), distinguished by the complexity
+of the crowns of the molars and the total loss of the three anterior
+premolars in the adult condition. Remains of Bears are also found in
+cavern-deposits in the north of Africa. The small _U. namadicus_, from
+the Pleistocene of the Narbada valley, India, may have been allied to _U.
+malayanus_.
+
+_Melursus._[482]—This differs from the true Bears in the first upper
+incisor being absent or shed at a very early age, in the very small
+size of the other teeth, in the very large extensile lips, the deep
+concavity of the palate, and other minor characters. The one species,
+_M. labiatus_, the well-known Sloth-Bear of India, feeds chiefly on
+black ants, termites, beetles, fruit, honey, etc. This species inhabits
+peninsular India, from near the Himalaya to Cape Comorin and Ceylon, and
+its remains are found in the cavern-deposits of Madras. The black hair
+is very long and coarse; there is a light horse-shoe-shaped mark on the
+chest (as in _Ursus torquatus_), and the extremity of the muzzle is of an
+ashy gray.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 256.—_Æluropus melanoleucus._ (From Milne-Edwards.)]
+
+_Æluropus._[483]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₃, _m_ ²⁄₃; total 40.
+Premolars large, increasing in size from first to last, and two-rooted
+except the first. First upper molar with quadrate crown, broader than
+long; second larger than the first. Cranium with zygomatic arches and
+sagittal crest immensely developed, and ascending ramus of mandible
+very high, giving greater spaces for attachments of temporal muscle
+than in any other existing member of the order. Facial portion short.
+Bony palate not extending behind the last molar tooth. No alisphenoid
+canal. Feet bear-like, but soles more hairy, and perhaps less completely
+plantigrade. Fur long and thick. Tail very short. One extremely rare
+species, _A. melanoleucus_ (Fig. 256), discovered by Père David in 1869,
+in the most inaccessible mountains of Moupin in Eastern Tibet. Said to
+feed principally on roots, bamboos, and other vegetables. It is of the
+size of a small Brown Bear, of a white colour, with ears, spots round the
+eyes, shoulders and limbs black. In the large size and complex crowns of
+the upper premolars this genus differs very markedly from the true Bears.
+The fourth upper premolar (carnassial) makes no approach to the markedly
+sectorial type presented by the corresponding tooth of _Hyænarctus_, its
+structure being, on the whole, more like that of _Ælurus_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 257.—Palate of _Arctotherium bonariense_,
+Pleistocene, South America—¼ natural size. (From the _Palæontologia
+Indica_.)]
+
+_Extinct Genera._—The genus _Arctotherium_ includes some very large
+Bear-like animals from the Pleistocene of South America and California,
+in which the dentition departs less widely from a normal carnivorous
+type than in the true Bears. Thus the upper carnassial (Fig. 257) is
+relatively larger than in _Ursus_; while the crowns of the upper molars
+are broader and shorter. The humerus is said to have an entepicondylar
+foramen. _Hyænarctus_, of the Miocene and Pliocene of Europe and Southern
+Asia, has the crowns of the upper molars either square or triangular;
+the upper carnassial having three distinct lobes to the blade, while
+the lower carnassial is practically indistinguishable from that of the
+Dog-like _Dinocyon_ (p. 556). The proximal extremity of the ulna differs
+from that of _Ursus_ in having a long olecranon, and thereby resembles
+the corresponding bone of the Dogs. Indeed all the characters at present
+available tend to show a complete passage from the Tertiary Dog-like
+animals, through _Dinocyon_, _Hyænarctus_, and _Arctotherium_, to the
+true Bears. Most of the species of _Hyænarctus_ were of very large
+dimensions, but smaller forms occur in the Miocene. _Cephalogale_, of
+the Continental Tertiaries, is a genus represented by several species
+of medium size showing evident signs of affinity with _Hyænarctus_. The
+upper molars have subtriangular crowns, while the carnassial is short,
+and has two comparatively low lobes. Here also may be mentioned several
+other genera, apparently more or less closely allied to the present
+group, some of which are regarded by Dr. Schlosser as showing marked
+signs of affinity to the _Procyonidæ_. Among these are _Simocyon_ from
+the Pliocene of Europe, with _p_ ²⁄₂₋₄, _m_ ²⁄₂; and _Enhydrocyon_ of
+the North American Miocene, with _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ²⁄₂, a secant talon to
+the lower carnassial, and a very short skull. The Miocene _Ælurodon_
+comprises several large North American forms, having a trilobed upper
+carnassial like that of _Hyænarctus_, and a dental formula similar to
+that of the latter and _Canis Prohyæna_ is founded upon a much-worn jaw
+of _Ælurodon_. _Hyænocyon_, of the Miocene of the United States, with _p_
+³⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₂, appears to be an allied form, also having a trilobed upper
+carnassial.
+
+
+_Family_ PROCYONIDÆ.
+
+True molars ²⁄₂, tuberculated or multicuspid; upper carnassial short and
+broad. Alisphenoid canal absent, except in _Ælurus_. Feet plantigrade.
+Tail generally annulated. In some cases an entepicondylar foramen to
+the humerus. Typically American, but with the outlying Oriental genus
+_Ælurus_.
+
+_Ælurus._[484]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₄, _m_ ²⁄₂; total
+38. First lower premolar very minute and deciduous. Molars (Fig. 259)
+remarkable for their great transverse breadth and the numerous cusps of
+their crowns. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 3, C 18. Skull (Fig. 259) high
+and compressed, very convex, with the facial portion short, the palate
+convex antero-posteriorly, and the ascending ramus of mandible extremely
+high. Head round. Face short and broad. Ears large, erect, pointed.
+Limbs stout, with large sharp semiretractile claws. Tail nearly as long
+as body, cylindrical, annulated, and clothed with long hairs. Fur long
+and thick. One existing species, _Æ. fulgens_, the Panda (Fig. 258),
+an animal rather larger than a Cat, found in the South-East Himalaya,
+at heights of from 7,000 to 12,000 feet above the sea, among rocks and
+trees, and chiefly feeding on fruits and other vegetable substances. Its
+fur is of a remarkably rich reddish-brown colour, darker below.
+
+The genus _Ælurus_ has been made the type of a distinct family, but its
+relationship to the Raccoons is regarded by Mr. W. T. Blanford[485] as
+sufficiently close to admit of its being included in the same family.
+According to this zoölogist the Panda often sleeps coiled up like a Cat,
+with the bushy tail over its head, but at other times resting on its legs
+with the head tucked under the chest and between the fore legs, after a
+manner said to be common with the Raccoons. Although by no means strictly
+nocturnal, these animals sleep much during the day, and roam out in
+search of food in the morning and evening. The young are born in a very
+helpless condition, and remain for a long period concealed in the holes
+of trees or rocks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 258.—The Panda (_Ælurus fulgens_). The dark nasal
+stripe shown in this figure is generally absent. (From Sclater, _Proc.
+Zool. Soc._ 1869, p. 408.)]
+
+Fossil remains of a species of _Ælurus_ (_Æ. anglicus_) have been
+obtained from the English Pliocene Crag deposits which indicate an animal
+of about one and half times the size of _Æ. fulgens_. The first evidence
+of this fossil species was afforded by part of the mandible with the
+last molar in place, and the subsequent discovery of an entire first
+upper molar renders full confirmation of the generic determination. This
+distribution of _Ælurus_ is very important, as showing how its area
+may have once approximated to that of the ancestors of the American
+representatives of the family. It is probable that the genus existed in
+India during the Siwalik period.
+
+The whole of the under-mentioned genera are American, and are
+characterised by the absence of an alisphenoid canal in the skull.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 259.—Lateral view of skull and right half of palate
+of _Ælurus fulgens_. (From Blanford, _Mammalia of British India_, p.
+190.)]
+
+_Procyon._[486]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ²⁄₂; total 40.
+The molar teeth broad and tuberculated (Fig. 259). The upper carnassial
+with three cusps along the outer margin, and a very broad bicuspid
+inner tubercle, giving an almost quadrate form to the crown. First
+molar with a large tuberculated crown, rather broader than long; second
+considerably smaller, with transversely oblong crown. Lower carnassial
+with an extremely small and ill-defined blade, placed transversely in
+front, and a large inner cusp and hind talon. Second molar as long as the
+first, but narrower behind, with five obtuse cusps. Vertebræ: C 7, D
+14, L 6, S 3, C 16-20. Body stout. Head broad behind, but with a pointed
+muzzle. Limbs plantigrade, but in walking the entire sole is not applied
+to the ground as it is when the animal is standing. Toes, especially of
+the fore foot, very free, and capable of being spread wide apart. Claws
+compressed, curved, pointed, and non-retractile. Tail moderately long,
+cylindrical, thickly covered with hair, annulated, non-prehensile. Fur
+long, thick, and soft. The well-known Raccoon[487] (_Procyon lotor_,
+Fig. 260) of North America is the type of this genus. It is a clumsy
+thickly-built animal about the size of a Badger, with a coat of long
+coarse grayish-brown hairs, short ears, and a bushy black and white
+ringed tail. Its range extends over the whole of the United States, and
+stretches on the west northwards to Alaska and southwards into Central
+America, where it attains its maximum size. The following notes on the
+habits of the Raccoon are taken from Dr. C. H. Merriam’s _Mammals of the
+Adirondack Region_:—
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 260.—The Raccoon (_Procyon lotor_).]
+
+“Raccoons are omnivorous beasts, and feed upon mice, small birds, birds’
+eggs, turtles and their eggs, frogs, fish, crayfish, molluscs, insects,
+nuts, fruits, maize, and sometimes poultry. Excepting the bats and flying
+squirrels, they are the most strictly nocturnal of all our mammals, and
+yet I have several times seen them abroad on cloudy days. They haunt the
+banks of ponds and streams, and find much of their food in these places,
+such as crayfish, mussels, and fish, although they are unable to dive and
+pursue the latter under water, like the otter and mink. They are good
+swimmers, and do not hesitate to cross rivers that lie in their path....
+The Raccoon hibernates during the severest part of the winter, retiring
+to its nest rather early, and appearing again in February or March,
+according to the earliness or lateness of the season. It makes its home
+high up in the hollow of some large tree, preferring a dead limb to the
+trunk itself. It does little in the way of constructing a nest, and from
+four to six young are commonly born at a time, generally early in April
+in this region. The young remain with the mother about a year.”
+
+The South-American _P. cancrivorus_, the Crab-eating Raccoon, is very
+similar to _P. lotor_, but differs by its much shorter fur, larger size,
+proportionally more powerful teeth, and other minor characters. It
+extends over the whole of South America, as far south as the Rio Negro,
+and is very common in all suitable localities. Its habits are similar to
+those of the North-American species. Fossil remains of _Procyon_ have
+been described from the Pleistocene deposits of the United States.
+
+_Bassaris._[488]—A form closely allied to _Procyon_, but of more slender
+and elegant proportions, with a sharper nose, longer tail, and more
+digitigrade feet, and with teeth otherwise like, but smaller, and more
+sharply denticulated. It was formerly, but erroneously, placed among the
+_Viverridæ_. Two species:—_B. astuta_, from the southern parts of the
+United States and Mexico, and _B. sumichrasti_, from Central America.
+
+_Bassaricyon._[489]—This name has been given to a distinct modification
+of the Procyonine type of which at present only two examples are known,
+one from Costa Rica and the other from Ecuador, which, appearing to be
+different species, have been named _B. gabbi_ and _B. alleni_. They much
+resemble the Kinkajou (_Cercoleptes_) in external appearance, but the
+skull and teeth are more like those of _Procyon_ and _Nasua_.
+
+_Nasua._[490]—Dentition as in _Procyon_, but the upper canines are
+larger and more strongly compressed, and the molars smaller. The facial
+portion of the skull is more elongated and narrow. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14,
+L 6, S 3, C 22-23. Body elongated and rather compressed. Nose prolonged
+into a somewhat upturned, obliquely truncated, mobile snout. Tail long,
+non-prehensile, tapering, annulated. These animals, commonly called
+Coatis or Coati-Mundis, live in small troops of eight to twenty, are
+chiefly arboreal, and feed on fruits, young birds, eggs, insects, etc.
+Recent researches have reduced the number of supposed species to two, _N.
+narica_ of Mexico and Central America, and _N. rufa_ of South America
+from Surinam to Paraguay. Remains of this genus, mostly referable to the
+existing species, occur in the cavern-deposits of Brazil.
+
+_Cercoleptes._[491]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ²⁄₂; total
+36. Molars with low flat crowns, very obscurely tuberculated. Skull short
+and rounded, with flat upper surface. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 3,
+C 26-29. Clavicles present, but in a very rudimentary condition. Head
+broad and round. Ears short. Body long and musteline. Limbs short. Tail
+long, tapering, and prehensile. Fur short and soft. Tongue long and very
+extensile. But one species of this somewhat aberrant genus is known, _C.
+caudivolvulus_, the Kinkajou, found in the forests of the warmer parts of
+South and Central America. It is about the size of a Cat, of a uniform,
+pale, yellowish-brown colour, nocturnal and arboreal in its habits,
+feeding on fruit, honey, eggs, and small birds and mammals, and is of a
+tolerably gentle disposition and easily tamed.
+
+
+_Family_ MUSTELIDÆ.
+
+True molars ¹⁄₂ (or ¹⁄₁ in _Mellivora_[492]). No alisphenoid canal. In
+the upper molar the inner tubercular portion is always longer in the
+antero-posterior direction than the secant external portion; the degree
+of inflation of the auditory bulla is but slight; and the palate is
+generally much produced behind the last molars, as is the case with the
+members of the preceding family. The post-glenoid process of the cranium
+is generally considerably curved over the glenoid fossa, so as to hold
+very tightly the condyle of the mandible. The humerus may or may not have
+an entepicondylar foramen. Except in the Otters, the kidneys resemble
+those of the _Procyonidæ_ in being of simple structure.
+
+This family is a large and widely distributed one, especially in the
+northern temperate regions of the earth. The different genera, which are
+very difficult to arrange in any natural order, are rather artificially
+divided, chiefly according to the characters of their feet and claws,
+into the Otter-like (Lutrine), Badger-like (Meline), and Weasel-like
+(Musteline) forms.
+
+Subfamily =Lutrinæ=.—Feet short, rounded (except the hind feet of
+_Latax_). Toes webbed. Claws small, curved, blunt. Head broad and
+much depressed. Upper molar large and quadrate, with its inner
+tubercular portion much expanded antero-posteriorly (Fig. 261). Kidneys
+conglomerate. Habits aquatic.
+
+_Lutra._[493]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total 36.
+Upper carnassial with a trenchant tricuspid blade, and a very large
+inner lobe, hollowed on the free surface, with a raised sharp edge, and
+extending along two-thirds or more of the length of the blade. True molar
+large, with a quadricuspidate crown, broader than long. First upper
+premolar very small, and in some cases absent (Fig. 261). Skull broad and
+depressed, contracted immediately behind the orbits. Facial portion very
+short; brain case large. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14-15, L 6-5, S 3, C 20-26.
+Body very long. Ears short and rounded. Limbs short. Feet more or less
+completely webbed; claws usually well developed on all the toes, although
+they may be rudimentary or absent. Tail long, thick at the base and
+tapering, rather depressed. Fur short and close. The humerus may or may
+not have an entepicondylar foramen. In conformity with the shape of the
+skull, the posterior part of the brain is expanded laterally.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 261.—Palate of _Lutra cinerea_. (From the
+_Palæontologia Indica_.)]
+
+The Common British Otter (_L. vulgaris_), as the type of the genus, may
+be described somewhat fully. It has an elongated, low body, short limbs,
+short broad feet, with five toes on each, connected together by webs, and
+all with short, moderately strong, compressed, curved, pointed claws.
+Head rather small, broad, and flat; muzzle very broad; whiskers thick
+and strong; eyes small and black; ears short and rounded. Tail a little
+more than half the length of the body and head together, very broad and
+strong at the base, and gradually tapering to the end, somewhat flattened
+horizontally. The fur is of very fine quality, consisting of a short soft
+under fur of a whitish-gray colour, brown at the tips, interspersed with
+longer, stiffer, and thicker hairs, very shining, grayish at the base,
+bright rich brown at the points, especially on the upper parts and outer
+surface of the legs; the throat, cheeks, under parts and inner surface of
+the legs brownish-gray throughout. Individual Otters vary much in size;
+but the total length from the nose to the end of the tail averages about
+3½ feet, of which the tail occupies 1 foot 3 or 4 inches. The weight of a
+full-sized male is from 18 to 24 lbs., that of a female about 4 lbs. less.
+
+As the Otter lives almost exclusively on fish, it is rarely met with far
+from water, and usually frequents the shores of brooks, rivers, lakes,
+and, in some localities, the sea itself. It is a most expert swimmer and
+diver, easily overtaking and seizing fish in the water, but when it has
+captured its prey it brings it to shore to devour it. When lying upon the
+bank it holds the fish between its forepaws, commences at the head, and
+then eats gradually towards the tail, which it is said always to leave.
+The female produces three to five young ones at a time, in the month of
+March or April, and brings them up in a nest formed of grass or other
+herbage, usually placed in a hollow place in the bank of a river, or
+under the shelter of the roots of some overhanging tree. The Common Otter
+is found in localities suitable to its habits throughout Great Britain
+and Ireland, though far less abundantly than formerly, for, being very
+destructive to fish, and thus coming into keen competition with those
+who pursue the occupation of fishing either for sport or for gain, it
+is rarely allowed to live in peace when once its haunts are discovered.
+Otter-hunting with packs of hounds of a special breed, and trained for
+the purpose, was formerly a common pastime in the country. When hunted
+down and brought to bay by the dogs, the Otter is finally despatched by
+long spears carried for the purpose by the huntsmen.
+
+The Common Otter ranges throughout the greater part of Europe and Asia,
+the Indian _L. nair_ not being distinct. A closely allied but larger
+species, _L. canadensis_, is extensively distributed throughout North
+America, where it is systematically pursued by professional trappers
+for the value of its fur. The Common Otter is regularly trained by the
+natives of some parts of Bengal to assist them in fishing, by driving the
+fish into the nets. In China Otters are taught to catch fish, being let
+into the water for the purpose attached to a long cord.
+
+Otters are widely distributed over the earth, and, as they are much
+alike in size and coloration, their specific distinctions are by no
+means well defined.[494] Besides those mentioned above, the following
+may be noticed. In the Oriental region there are _L. ellioti_[495] of
+India, _L. sumatrana_ of the Malay countries, and _L. cinerea_ ranging
+over the greater part of the region. The latter species (often known
+as _L. leptonyx_) is of small size, with a short head, and rudimentary
+claws, which may be absent; it was at one time regarded as generically
+distinct, under the name of _Aonyx_. The upper true molar (Fig. 261) is
+characterised by the great development of its inner tubercular portion,
+and the first upper premolar is absent. In the Ethiopian region there
+are two species, _L. capensis_ and _L. maculicollis_. Of the Neotropical
+forms it will suffice to mention the small _L. felina_ and the large _L.
+brasiliensis_. The latter is by far the largest of the existing forms,
+and is characterised by the presence of a prominent flange-like ridge
+along each lateral margin of the tail, on which account it was referred
+by Dr. Gray to a distinct genus, with the name of _Pteronura sambachi_.
+It should be observed that all Otters have a very distinct inner cusp to
+the blade of the lower carnassial, but that the relative size of this
+cusp varies in the different species.
+
+_Extinct Otters._—Several species of fossil Otters have been
+described. Thus in the Indian Siwaliks we have _L. palæindica_, which
+is closely allied to _L. sumatrana_, and a larger form described
+as _L. bathygnathus_. The Pliocene of Hessen-Darmstadt yields _L.
+hessica_; while _L. dubia_, of the Middle Miocene of France, is a
+species characterised by the small size of the inner cusp of the lower
+carnassial—a character in which it resembles those Tertiary forms
+described as _Trochictis_, which are believed to connect _Lutra_ with the
+_Mustelinæ_. Two very large Otters, respectively from the Indian Siwaliks
+and the Italian Miocene, named _L. sivalensis_ and _L. campanii_, may
+be regarded either as representing a very distinct _Enhydriodont_ group
+of _Lutra_ or as referable to a separate genus _Enhydriodon_. They are
+characterised by certain peculiarities in the structure of the teeth,
+and the second upper premolar may be absent in the Indian form. Lastly,
+the genus _Potamotherium_ contains a small Otter (_P. valetoni_) from
+the Lower Miocene of the Continent, which differs from all other known
+_Mustelidæ_ in having a minute second upper true molar. This species is
+evidently a very generalised form approximating to the _Viverridæ_ in
+its dental formula, and also in the characters of the teeth themselves.
+The brain, as recently described by Dr. Filhol, differs from that
+of _Lutra_ and other Mustelines in the great relative width of the
+anterior extremity of the hemispheres and olfactory lobes, and also in
+the disposition of the sulci, in both of which respects it more nearly
+resembles the _Viverridæ_.
+
+_Latax._[496]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total 32.
+Differs from all other existing Carnivora in having but two incisors on
+each side of the lower jaw, the one corresponding to the first (very
+small in the true Otters) being constantly absent. Though the molar teeth
+generally resemble those of _Lutra_ in their proportions, they differ
+very much in the exceeding roundness and massiveness of their crowns
+and bluntness of their cusps. Feet webbed. Fore feet small, with five
+subequal toes, furnished with short compressed claws; palms naked. Hind
+feet very large, depressed, and fin-like. The phalanges flattened as in
+the Seals. The fifth toe the longest and stoutest, the rest gradually
+diminishing in size to the first, all with moderate claws. Tail
+moderate, cylindrical, and obtuse; about one-fourth the length of the
+head and body.
+
+The Sea-Otter (_L. lutris_, Fig. 262) is the sole representative of
+this genus. The entire length of the animal from nose to end of tail
+is about 4 feet, so that the body is considerably larger and more
+massive than that of the English Otter. The skin is peculiarly loose,
+and stretches when removed from the animal so as to give the idea of
+a still larger creature than it really is. The pellage is remarkable
+for the preponderance of the beautifully soft woolly under fur, the
+longer stiffer hairs being very scanty. The general colour is a deep
+liver brown, everywhere silvered or frosted with the hoary tips of the
+longer hairs. These are, however, removed when the skin is dressed for
+commercial purposes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 262.—The Sea-Otter (_Latax lutris_). From Wolf,
+_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1865, pl, vii.]
+
+Sea-Otters are only found upon the rocky shores of certain parts of
+the North Pacific Ocean, especially the Aleutian Islands and Alaska,
+extending as far south on the American coast as Oregon; but, owing to the
+unremitting persecution to which they are subjected for the sake of their
+skins, which rank among the most valuable known to the furrier, their
+numbers are greatly diminishing, and, unless some restriction can be
+placed upon their destruction, such as that which protects the Fur-Seals
+of the Pribyloff Islands, the species is threatened with extermination,
+or, at all events, excessive scarcity. When this occurs, the occupation
+of five thousand of the half-civilised natives of Alaska, who are
+dependent upon Sea-Otter hunting as a means for obtaining their living,
+will be gone. The principal hunting grounds at present are the little
+rocky islets and reefs around the island of Saanach and the Chernobours,
+where they are captured by spearing, clubbing, or nets, and recently
+by the more destructive rifle bullet. They do not feed on fish, like
+the true Otters, but on clams, mussels, sea-urchins, and crabs, for the
+mastication of which the blunt cusps of their teeth are admirably suited.
+The female brings forth but a single young one at a time, apparently
+at any season of the year. They are excessively shy and wary, and all
+attempts to rear the young ones in captivity have hitherto failed.
+
+Subfamily =Melinæ=.—Feet elongated. Toes straight. Claws non-retractile,
+slightly curved, subcompressed, blunt; those of the fore foot especially
+large. Upper molar variable. Kidneys simple. Habits mostly terrestrial
+and fossorial.
+
+_Mephitis._[497]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total
+34. Upper molar larger than the carnassial, subquadrate, rather broader
+than long. Lower carnassial with talon less than half the length of
+the whole tooth. Bony palate terminating posteriorly opposite the
+hinder border of the last molar tooth. Facial portion of skull short
+and somewhat truncated in front. Vertebræ: C 7, D 16, L 6, S 2, C 21.
+Head small. Body elongated. Limbs moderate, subplantigrade. Ears short
+and rounded. Tail long, abundantly clothed with very long fine hair.
+Anal glands largely developed. The secretion of these glands, which can
+be discharged at the will of the animal, has an intolerably offensive
+odour, which circumstance has rendered the Skunks, as they are commonly
+called, proverbial. They are strictly nocturnal animals, terrestrial and
+burrowing, feeding chiefly on small mammals, birds, reptiles, insects,
+worms, roots, and berries. All the known species have a prevalent black
+colour, varied by white strips or spots on the upper part (Fig. 263).
+They generally carry the body, much arched, and the tail erect, the long
+loose hair of which waves like a plume over the back. There are three
+species, all inhabitants of the American continent, over which they have
+an extensive range.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 263.—The Common Skunk (_Mephitis mephitica_).]
+
+The Common Skunk (_M. mephitica_, Fig. 263) is an animal of about
+the size of a small Cat, ranging from Hudson’s Bay to Guatemala. The
+following account of its habits is given by Dr. C. H. Merriam in his
+_Mammals of the Adirondack Region_:—
+
+“The skunk preys upon mice, salamanders, frogs, and the eggs of birds
+that nest on or within reach from the ground. At times he eats carrion,
+and if he chances to stumble upon a hen’s nest the eggs are liable to
+suffer; and once in a while he acquires the evil habit of robbing the
+hen-roost, but as a rule skunks are not addicted to this vice. Of all
+our native mammals perhaps no one is so universally abused and has so
+many unpleasant things said about it as the innocent subject of the
+present biography; and yet no other species is so valuable to the farmer.
+Pre-eminently an insect-eater, he destroys more beetles, grasshoppers,
+and the like than all our other mammals together, and in addition to
+these he devours vast numbers of mice. He does not evince that dread of
+man that is so manifest in the great majority of our mammals, and when
+met during any of his circumambulations rarely thinks of running away. He
+is slow in movement and deliberate in action, and does not often hurry
+himself in whatever he does. His ordinary gait is a measured walk, but
+when pressed for time he breaks into a low shuffling gallop. It is hard
+to intimidate a skunk, but when once really frightened he manages to get
+over the ground at a very fair pace. Skunks remain active throughout the
+greater part of the year in this region, and hibernate only during the
+severest portion of the winter. They differ from most of our hibernating
+mammals in that the inactive period is apparently dependent solely on the
+temperature, while the mere amount of snow has no influence whatever upon
+their movements. Skunks, particularly when young, make very pretty pets,
+being attractive in appearance, gentle in disposition, interesting in
+manners, and cleanly in habits—rare qualities indeed! They are playful,
+sometimes mischievous, and manifest considerable affection for those who
+have the care of them. Their flesh is white, tender, and sweet, and is
+delicious eating. Skunks have large families, from six to ten young being
+commonly raised each season; and as a rule they all live in the same hole
+until the following spring.”
+
+The two ducts leading from the anal glands open at the tips of two small
+conical papillæ placed in such a position that the animal can protrude
+them externally, and can thus guide the direction of the jet of nauseous
+fluid, which can be propelled by the powerful muscles surrounding the
+glands to a distance of from 8 to 12 feet.
+
+The Long-tailed Skunk (_M. macrura_), from Central and Southern Mexico,
+has two lateral stripes, and a longer and more bushy tail than the
+common species. _M. putorius_, of the Southern United States and thence
+southwards to Yucatan and Guatemala, is of a much smaller size, with four
+interrupted white lateral stripes, and a skull differing considerably in
+form from that of the type species. It is regarded by some writers as
+representing a distinct genus, _Spilogale_; and has been recently divided
+by Dr. C. H. Merriam into several nominal species.
+
+_Conepatus._[498]—The Skunk of tropical America (_C. mapacito_), ranging
+from Texas to Chili and Patagonia, differs considerably from the true
+Skunks, although in colour it is almost precisely similar to the common
+species, with which it also agrees in the variation of the relative
+development of the black and white. Its build is heavier than that of
+_Mephitis_; the snout and head are more Pig-like; and the nostrils open
+downwards and forwards instead of laterally on the sides of the muzzle.
+The skull also has many special characters, and the teeth are different
+in shape and, as, a rule, in number also, the first minute premolar of
+_Mephitis_ being almost invariably absent, so that the dental formula is
+_i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total 32.
+
+Remains of _Conepatus_, which have been referred to three species, are
+found in the cavern-deposits of Brazil.
+
+_Arctonyx._[499]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total
+38. Incisor line curved, the outer teeth being placed posteriorly to the
+others. Lower incisors proclivous. First premolars often rudimentary
+or absent. Upper molar much larger than the carnassial, longer in the
+antero-posterior direction than broad; lower carnassial with a very
+large, low, tuberculated talon. Cranium elongated and depressed; face
+long, narrow, and concave above. Bony palate extending as far backwards
+as the level of the glenoid fossa; palatal bones dilated; suborbital
+foramina very large. Vertebræ: C 7, D 16, L 4, S 4, C 20. Snout long,
+naked, mobile, and truncated, with large terminal nostrils, much like
+that of a Pig. Eyes small. Ears very small and rounded. Body compressed
+rather than depressed. Limbs of moderate length and digitigrade in
+walking. Tail moderate, tapering. A full soft under fur, with longer,
+bristly hairs interspersed. The best-known species is _A. collaris_,
+the Sand-Badger, or _Bhálu-soor_[500] (_i.e._ Bear-pig) of the natives,
+found in the mountains of the north-east of India and Assam. It is rather
+larger than the English Badger, higher on its legs, and very Pig-like
+in general aspect, of a light gray colour, with flesh-coloured snout
+and feet; and is nocturnal and omnivorous in habits. The imperfectly
+known _A. taxoides_ from Assam and Arakan, and perhaps China, is a much
+smaller species. A third form probably exists in Eastern Tibet. Professor
+Mivart remarks that the brain-case of _Arctonyx_ is narrower than in any
+other Arctoid; while the palate is relatively longer than in any other
+Carnivore except _Procyon_; and the metatarsus is relatively shorter than
+in any other member of the order.
+
+_Mydaus._[501]—Dentition as in the last genus, but the cusps of the
+teeth more acutely pointed. Cranium elongated, face narrow and produced.
+Suborbital foramen small, and the palate, as in all the succeeding genera
+of this group, produced backwards about midway between the last molar
+tooth and the glenoid fossa. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14-15, L 6-5, S 3, C 12.
+Head pointed in front; snout produced, mobile, obliquely truncated, the
+nostrils being inferior. Limbs rather short and stout. Tail extremely
+short, but clothed with rather long bushy hair. Anal glands largely
+developed, and emitting an odour like that of the American Skunks. One
+species, _M. meliceps_, the Teledu, a small burrowing Badger, found
+in the mountains of Java at an elevation of 7000 or more feet above
+sea-level.
+
+_Meles._[502]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total 38.
+The first premolar in both jaws extremely minute and often deciduous.
+Upper molar very much larger than the carnassial, subquadrate, as broad
+as long. Lower carnassial with a broad, low, tuberculated talon, more
+than half the length of the whole tooth. The post-glenoid processes of
+the skull are so strongly developed, and the glenoid fossa is so deep,
+that the condyle of the lower jaw is firmly held in its place even after
+all the surrounding soft parts are removed. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S
+3, C 18. Muzzle pointed. Ears very short. Body stout, broad. Limbs short,
+strong, subplantigrade. Tail short. The best-known species is the common
+Badger (_M. taxus_) of Europe and Northern Asia, still found in many
+parts of England, where it lives in woods, is nocturnal, burrowing, and
+very omnivorous, feeding on mice, reptiles, insects, fruit, acorns, and
+roots. Other nearly allied species, _M. leucurus_ and _M. chinensis_, are
+found in continental Asia, _M. canescens_ in Persia, and _M. anakuma_ in
+Japan.
+
+The appearance of the common Badger is too well known to need
+description, but, it may be mentioned that a full-grown individual stands
+about a foot in height at the shoulder, and measures from 2½ to 3 feet
+in length. The young are born in a naked and blind condition, usually in
+litters of three or four. It appears that the usual period of gestation
+is about eleven and a half months, but instances are recorded where the
+period has been protracted to upwards of fifteen months.
+
+Fossil remains of the common Badger are found in the Pleistocene deposits
+of Europe, while extinct species have been described from the Lower
+Pliocene beds of Maragha, in Persia.
+
+_Taxidea._[503]—Dental formula as in _Meles_, except that the rudimentary
+anterior premolar appears to be always wanting in the upper jaw. The
+upper carnassial much larger in proportion to the other teeth. Upper
+molar about the same size as the carnassial, triangular, with the apex
+turned backwards. Talon of lower carnassial less than half the length
+of the tooth. Skull very wide in the occipital region; the lambdoidal
+crest very greatly developed, and the sagittal but slightly, contrary to
+what obtains in _Meles_. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 3, C 16. Body very
+stoutly built and depressed. Tail short. The animals of this genus are
+peculiar to North America, where they represent the Badgers of the Old
+World, resembling them much in appearance and habits. _T. americana_ is
+the common American Badger of the United States; _T. berlandieri_, the
+Mexican Badger, is perhaps only a local variety.
+
+_Mellivora._[504]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₁; total
+32. Upper carnassial large, with its inner tubercle quite at the anterior
+end of the blade, as in the following genera; molar much smaller and
+transversely extended, having a very small outer and a larger rounded
+inner lobe. Talon of lower carnassial very small, scarcely one-fourth of
+the whole length of the tooth, and with but one cusp; lower tubercular
+molar absent. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 4, S 4, C 15. Body stout, depressed.
+Limbs short, strong. Head depressed, nose rather pointed. External ears
+rudimentary. Tail short. The animals of this genus are commonly called
+Ratels. _M. indica_ from India, and, _M. ratel_ (Fig. 264) from South
+and West Africa, have nearly the same general appearance and size, being
+rather larger than a common Badger. Their coloration is peculiar, all
+the upper surface of the body, head, and tail being ashy gray, while the
+lower parts, separated by a distinct longitudinal boundary line, are
+black. The two species may be distinguished by the circumstance that the
+African one has a distinct white line round the body at the junction of
+the gray of the upper side with the black of the lower, while in the
+Indian form this line is absent; the teeth also of the former are, on the
+whole, larger, rounder, and heavier than those of the latter. In spite of
+these differences the two are, however, so nearly allied that they might
+almost be considered as local races of a single widely spread species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 264.—The African Ratel (_Mellivora ratel_).]
+
+The following account of the Indian species is extracted from Dr.
+Jerdon’s _Mammals of India_: “The Indian badger is found throughout the
+whole of India, from the extreme south to the foot of the Himalayas,
+chiefly in hilly districts, where it has greater facilities for
+constructing the holes and dens in which it lives; but also in the north
+of India in alluvial plains, where the banks of large rivers afford
+equally suitable localities wherein to make its lair. It is stated to
+live usually in pairs, and to eat rats, birds, frogs, white ants, and
+various insects, and in the north of India it is accused of digging out
+dead bodies, and is popularly known as the grave-digger. It doubtless
+also, like its Cape congener, occasionally partakes of honey. It is often
+very destructive to poultry, and I have known of several having been
+trapped and killed whilst committing such depredations in Central India
+and in the northern Circars. In confinement the Indian badger is quiet
+and will partake of vegetable food, fruits, rice, etc.”
+
+A fossil species of _Millivora_, apparently closely allied to the
+existing forms, occurs in the Pliocene Siwaliks of India. The same
+deposits have also yielded remains of an extinct genus described as
+_Mellivorodon_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 265.—_Helictis personata._ (From Blanford, _Mammalia
+of British India_, p. 175.)]
+
+_Helictis._[505]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total
+38. Upper carnassial with a large bicuspid inner tubercle; upper molar
+smaller, wider transversely than in the antero-posterior direction.
+Lower carnassial with talon about one-third the length of the tooth.
+Skull elongated, rather narrow and depressed. Facial portion especially
+narrow. Infraorbital foramen very large. Head rather small and produced
+in front, with an elongated, obliquely truncated, naked snout. Ears
+small. Body elongated. Limbs short. Tail short or moderate, bushy.
+Several species are described (_H. orientalis_, _personata_ [Fig. 265],
+_moschata_, _subaurantiaca_), all from Eastern Asia; they are all small
+animals compared with the other members of the subfamily, climbing trees
+with agility and living much on fruit and berries as well as on small
+mammals and birds. The two first named species occur in British India,
+_H. orientalis_ also ranging into Java; the Chinese _H. subaurantiaca_ is
+brilliantly coloured in the region of the throat.[506]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 266.—Left lateral and superior aspect of the brain of
+_Helictis subaurantiaca_. (From Garrod, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1879, p. 307.)]
+
+The brain of _Helictis_, represented in the accompanying figure, shows
+the general type of cerebral structure characteristic of the _Mustelidæ_.
+The brain of this genus differs, however, from that of every other
+Carnivore in that the hippocampal gyrus rises to the surface on either
+side of the great longitudinal fissure, in consequence of which there is
+no crucial fissure, and the so-called “Ursine lozenge,” so characteristic
+of the Arctoidea, is incomplete behind. The superior gyrus, as in
+_Ictonyx_ and _Mustela_, ceases at the superior posterior angle of the
+hemisphere.
+
+_Ictonyx._[507]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total
+34. In general characters the teeth much resemble those of the Polecats
+(_Mustela_), being more delicately cut and sharply cusped than in most
+of the foregoing. Upper molar smaller than the carnassial, narrow from
+before backwards. Lower carnassial with a small narrow talon and distinct
+inner cusp. General form of body Musteline. Limbs short. Fore feet large
+and broad, with five stout, nearly straight, blunt, and non-retractile
+claws, of which the first and fifth are considerably shorter than the
+others. Tail moderate, with longer hairs towards the end, giving it a
+bushy appearance. Hairs generally long and loose. The best known species
+of this genus, _I. zorilla_, the Cape Polecat, was placed by Cuvier in
+the genus _Mustela_, and by Lichtenstein in _Mephitis_; and in many
+characters it forms a transition between these genera. It is about the
+size of an English Polecat, but conspicuous by its coloration, having
+broad, longitudinal bands of dark brown, alternating with white. Its
+odour is said to be as offensive as that of the American Skunks. From the
+Cape of Good Hope it ranges as far north as Senegal. Another species, _I.
+frenata_, from Sennaar and Egypt, has been described.
+
+Subfamily =Mustelinæ=.—Toes short, partially webbed; claws short,
+compressed, acute, curved, often semiretractile. Upper molar of moderate
+size, wide transversely. Kidneys simple. Terrestrial and arboreal in
+habits.
+
+_Galictis._[508]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total 34.
+Molars small but stout. Upper carnassial with the inner tubercle near
+the middle of the inner border of the tooth. Lower carnassial with talon
+small, and inner cusp small or absent. Body long. Limbs short; claws
+non-retractile. Palms and soles naked. Head broad and depressed. Tail
+of moderate length. The best-known species are _G. vittata_, the Grison
+(genus _Grisonia_, Gray), and _G. barbara_, the Tayra (genus _Galera_,
+Gray), both South American; _G. allamandi_ is an intermediate form.
+
+Remains of _Galictis_ occur in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Brazil,
+and also in the Pleistocene of North America.
+
+_Mustela._[509]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁻⁴⁄₃₋₄, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total
+34 or 38. Upper carnassial with inner tubercle close to the anterior edge
+of the tooth. Molar nearly as large as carnassial. Lower carnassial with
+small or no inner cusp. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 3, C 18-23. Body long
+and slender. Limbs short, digitigrade. Feet rounded; toes short, with
+compressed, acute, semiretractile claws. Tail moderate or long, more or
+less bushy.
+
+The genus _Mustela_, as restricted by Cuvier (_Règne Animal_, 1817),
+contains a very natural assemblage of animals commonly called Martens,
+Sables, Polecats, Stoats, Ermines, and Weasels, all closely allied in
+structure and habits. A structural division, however, occurs between the
+two first-named and all the others, especially shown in the presence
+of an additional small premolar tooth on each side of the jaw; and,
+availing himself of this and some other minor characters, Cuvier divided
+the genus into two subgenera, for the first of which he retained the
+name of _Mustela_, and to the second assigned that of _Putorius_. Three
+years later Nilsson (_Skand. Fauna_, 1820) definitely constituted the
+two groups into genera, applying to the first the name of _Martes_, by
+which the animals composing it had been generally designated by the Latin
+writing zoologists of the preceding century, and keeping _Mustela_ for
+the more typical Weasels and their immediate allies. Later zoologists
+have been divided between the nomenclature of Cuvier, which has the
+priority, and that of Nilsson, which on other grounds is preferable.
+Those who adopt the latter affirm that Cuvier’s names, being only used
+by him in a subgeneric sense, and not binominally, need not be applied
+generically, but this is contrary to the practice usually followed in
+such cases; and therefore, if the original genus be divided, the name
+_Mustela_ should be retained for the Martens, and _Putorius_ for the
+Polecats and Weasels. Here, however, the genus will be employed in its
+wider sense, and divided into two groups.
+
+The typical group of the Martens[510] presents the following distinctive
+features. Body long, slender, and very flexible, though less so than in
+the true Weasels. Head somewhat triangular; muzzle pointed, the nose
+extending a little beyond the lips; eyes large and prominent; ears
+conspicuous, broad, somewhat triangular, rounded at the ends, furred
+outside and in. Limbs short; feet rounded; toes short, five on each
+foot, all with short, compressed, curved, sharp-pointed claws; soles
+densely furred between the naked pads. Tail moderately long, more or
+less bushy. Outer fur long, strong, and glossy; a very abundant soft
+under fur. Skull elongated and depressed. Facial portion moderate and
+rather compressed. Zygomata arched and wide, but slender. Postorbital
+processes small. Auditory bullæ large, but not very globose. Mandible
+with a strong triangular vertical coronoid process and a well-developed
+angular process. Premolars ⁴⁄₄. Upper incisors in a straight transverse
+line, rather long and compressed; first and second subequal, third
+considerably larger. Lower incisors very small, especially the first, and
+crowded together, the second placed rather behind the others. Canines
+long and sharp-pointed. Upper premolars: first very small, with simple
+crown and one root; second and third nearly equal in size and two-rooted,
+with simple compressed sharp-pointed crowns, with very slightly developed
+accessory cusps; fourth (the carnassial) with blade consisting chiefly of
+the central and posterior lobes, the anterior being rudimentary, inner
+tubercle small and confined to the anterior part of the tooth. True molar
+tubercular, about twice as wide transversely as in the antero-posterior
+direction, having an outer, more elevated, but smaller portion, bearing
+three blunt tubercles; to the inner side of this the crown is contracted,
+and its surface deeply hollowed; it then expands again into a broad low
+lobe, with the central part elevated, and a raised, even, semicircular,
+slightly crenated internal border. Lower premolars: first very small,
+simple, and one-rooted; second, third, and fourth increasing slightly in
+size, with high compressed pointed crowns and posterior accessory cusps,
+best marked in the third. First molar (carnassial) with well-marked
+bilobed blade, talon scarcely more than one-third of the length of the
+tooth, and a very small inner cusp. Second molar small, single-rooted,
+with a low, flattened, subcircular or oval tubercular crown.
+
+In geographical distribution the Martens are limited to the northern
+hemisphere, ranging throughout the greater part of the temperate regions
+of both Old and New Worlds, as far north as conditions of existence
+suited to their habits are met with, and southwards in America to 35° N.
+lat., while in Asia one species is met with as far in this direction as
+the island of Java.
+
+The various species appear to be very similar in their habits. They
+live in woods and rocky places, and are thoroughly arboreal, spending
+most of their time in trees, although descending to the ground in quest
+of prey. They climb with great facility, and are agile and graceful in
+their movements. Some species are said occasionally to resort to berries
+and other fruit for food, but as a rule they are strictly carnivorous,
+feeding chiefly on birds and their eggs, small mammals, as squirrels,
+hares, rabbits, and moles, but chiefly mice of various kinds, of which
+they destroy great numbers, and occasionally snakes, lizards, and frogs.
+In proportion to their size they are among the most bloodthirsty of
+animals, though less so than the true Weasels. The female usually makes
+her nest of moss, dried leaves, and grass in the hollow of a tree, but
+sometimes in a hole among rocks or ruined buildings, and produces several
+young at a birth, usually from four to six. Though wild and untameable
+to a great degree if captured when fully grown, when taken young they
+are very docile, and have frequently been made pets of, not having the
+strong unpleasant odour of the smaller _Mustelidæ_. The common European
+Marten appears to have been partially domesticated by the Greeks and
+Romans, and to have been used to keep houses clear from rats and mice
+before cats were introduced.[511] In the same way, according to Hodgson,
+the Yellow-bellied Weasel (_M. cathia_) “is exceedingly prized by the
+Nipalese for its service in ridding houses of rats. It is easily tamed;
+and such is the dread of it common to all Murine animals that not one
+will approach a house where it is domiciled.” It is, however, to the
+great value attached to the pelts of these animals that their importance
+to man is chiefly due. Though all yield fur of serviceable quality, the
+commercial value varies immensely, not only according to the particular
+species from which it is obtained, but according to individual variation,
+depending upon age, sex, season, and other trifling circumstances. The
+skins from northern regions are more full and of a finer colour and gloss
+than those from more temperate climates, as are those of animals killed
+in winter compared with the same individuals in the summer season. The
+caprices of fashion have, moreover, set wholly factitious values upon
+slight shades of colour, recognised and named by experienced furriers,
+but not indicating any specific or other distinctions of which zoologists
+have any cognisance. Enormous numbers of animals are annually caught,
+chiefly in traps, to supply the demand of the fur trade, Siberia and
+North America being the principal localities from which they are obtained.
+
+With the exception of the Pekan (_M. pennanti_) all the Martens are so
+much alike in size, general colouring, and cranial and dental characters
+that the discrimination of the species, and assignment of the proper
+geographical distribution to each, has been a subject which has sorely
+perplexed the ingenuity and patience of zoologists. The following
+description by Dr. Elliott Coues of the external characters of the
+American Pine Marten (_M. americana_) will apply almost equally well
+to most of the others: “It is almost impossible to describe the colour
+of the Pine Marten, except in general terms, without going into the
+details of the endless diversities occasioned by age, sex, season, or
+other incidents. The animal is ‘brown,’ of various shades from orange or
+tawny to quite blackish; the tail and feet are ordinarily the darkest,
+the head lightest, often quite whitish; the ears are usually rimmed
+with whitish; on the throat there is usually a large tawny-yellowish or
+orange-brown patch, from the chin to the fore legs, sometimes entire,
+sometimes broken into a number of smaller, irregular blotches, sometimes
+wanting, sometimes prolonged on the whole under surface, when the animal
+is bicolor like a Stoat in summer. The general ‘brown’ has a grayish
+cast, as far as the under fur is concerned, and is overlaid with rich
+lustrous blackish-brown in places where the long bristly hairs prevail.
+The claws are whitish; the naked nose pad and whiskers are black. The
+tail occasionally shows interspersed white hairs, or a white tip.”
+
+The species generally recognised as distinct are the following, the first
+five belonging to the Old and the last two to the New World:—
+
+_M. foina_, the Beech Marten, Stone Marten, or White-breasted
+Marten.—Distinguished from the following by the greater breadth of the
+skull, and some minute but constant dental characters, by the dull
+grayish-brown colour of the fur of the upper parts, and the pure white
+of the throat and breast. It inhabits the greater part of the continent
+of Europe, but is more southern than the next in its distribution, not
+being found in Sweden or Norway, nor, according to the investigations of
+Mr. Alston, in the British Isles, although included in their fauna by
+all earlier writers; to the eastward it ranges into Afghanistan and the
+Himalaya.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 267.—The Pine Marten (_Mustela martes_).]
+
+_M. martes_, the Pine Marten (Fig. 267).—Outer fur rich dark brown; under
+fur reddish-gray, with clear yellow tips; breast spot usually yellow,
+varying from bright orange to pale cream-colour or yellowish-white.
+Length of head and body 16 to 18 inches; of tail (including the hair) 9
+to 12 inches. This species is extensively distributed throughout northern
+Europe and Asia, and was formerly common in most parts of Great Britain
+and Ireland. Though commonly called “Pine Marten,” it does not appear to
+have any special preference for coniferous trees, except that, inasmuch
+as they constitute the greater proportion of the forests of the countries
+which it inhabits, it is more often met with in them than in any other.
+With regard to its recent occurrence in the British Isles, Mr. Alston
+writes in the _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1879:—
+
+“Although greatly reduced in numbers by persecution, it still maintains
+its ground in the wilder districts of Scotland, the north of England,
+Wales, and Ireland; and occasionally specimens are killed in counties
+where the species was thought to have been long extinct. In Scotland it
+is still found, though comparatively rarely, in the Lews and in most of
+the Highland mainland counties, being perhaps most abundant in Sutherland
+and Ross-shire, especially in the deer forests. In the Lowlands a Marten
+is now a very great rarity; but a fine example was killed in Ayrshire
+in the winter of 1875-76. In the north of England Mr. W. A. Durnford
+says the species is still plentiful in the wilder parts of Cumberland,
+Westmoreland, and Lancashire, and in Lincolnshire several have been
+recorded, the latest killed in 1865, by Mr. Cordeaux. In Norfolk one
+was shot last year; and I have myself examined a fine example which was
+shot in Hertfordshire, within 20 miles of London, in December 1872. In
+Dorsetshire the last is said to have been killed in 1804; but a specimen
+occurred in Hampshire about forty years ago, and another in Surrey in
+1847. In Ireland the following counties were enumerated by Thompson as
+habitats of this species: Donegal, Londonderry, Antrim, Down, Armagh,
+Fermanagh, Longford, Galway, Tipperary, Cork, and Kerry. The _Cat-crann_
+is probably now a rarer animal in Ireland than it was when Thompson
+wrote; but it still exists in various districts, especially in County
+Kerry, whence the society has received several living examples; and
+Professor A. Leith Adams states that it has been seen of late years even
+in county Dublin.”
+
+_M. zibellina_, the Sable (German, _Zobel_ and _Zebel_; Swedish, _sabel_;
+Russian, _sobel_, a word probably of Turanian origin).—Closely resembling
+the last, if indeed differing from it except in the quality of the fur,
+which is the most highly valued of that of all the group. Found chiefly
+in Eastern Siberia.
+
+_M. flavigula_, the Indian Marten.—Inhabits the southern slopes of the
+Himalaya, the Nilgiri Hills, the interior of Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula,
+and Java. The coloration of this species is very striking, the upper
+parts being blackish-brown, and the throat and breast yellow or orange,
+in the bright coloured variety. It differs from the other species in
+having the soles of the feet more or less naked.
+
+_M. melampus._—Japan.
+
+_M. americana_, the North-American Sable or Marten.—A species so closely
+allied to the European Pine Marten and Asiatic Sable that it is very
+difficult to assign constant distinguishing characters between them. The
+importance of the fur of this animal as an article of commerce may be
+judged of from the fact that 15,000 skins were sold in one year by the
+Hudson’s Bay Company as long ago as 1743, and the more recent annual
+imports into Great Britain have exceeded 100,000. It is ordinarily caught
+in wooden traps of very simple construction, being little enclosures of
+stakes or brush in which the bait is placed upon a trigger, with a short
+upright stick supporting a log of wood, which falls upon its victim on
+the slightest disturbance. A line of such traps, several to a mile, often
+extends many miles. The bait is any kind of meat, a mouse, squirrel,
+piece of fish, or bird’s head. It is principally trapped during the
+colder months, from October to April, when the fur is in good condition,
+as it is nearly valueless during the shedding in summer. Dr. Coues tells
+us that, notwithstanding the persistent and uninterrupted destruction to
+which the American Sable is subjected, it does not appear to diminish
+materially in numbers in unsettled parts of the country. It holds its own
+partly in consequence of its shyness, which keeps it away from the abodes
+of men, and partly because it is so prolific, bringing forth six to eight
+young at a litter. Its home is sometimes a den under ground or beneath
+rocks, but oftener the hollow of a tree, and it is said frequently to
+take forcible possession of a squirrel’s nest, driving off or devouring
+the rightful proprietor.
+
+_M. pennanti_, the Pekan or Pennant’s Marten, also called Fisher
+Marten, though there appears to be nothing in its habits to justify the
+appellation.—This is the largest species of the group, the head and
+body measuring from 24 to 30 inches, and the tail 14 to 18 inches. It
+is also more robust in form than the others, its general aspect being
+more that of a Fox than a Weasel; in fact, its usual name among the
+American hunters is “Black Fox.” Its general colour is blackish, lighter
+by mixture of brown or gray on the head and upper fore part of the body,
+with no light patch on the throat, and unlike the other Martens generally
+darker below than above. It was generally distributed in wooded districts
+throughout the greater part of North America, as far north as Great Slave
+Lake, 63° N. lat., and Alaska, and extending south to the parallel of
+35°; but at the present time it is almost exterminated in the settled
+parts of the United States east of the Mississippi.
+
+Fossil remains of a Marten from the Pliocene Siwaliks of India indicate a
+species which cannot be distinguished from those now inhabiting the same
+region; while remains of _M. martes_ occur in European cavern-deposits,
+and in the fens of Cambridgeshire.
+
+With the _Putoriine_ group (genus _Putorius_) we come to those smaller
+forms distinguished by having only three premolars in each jaw, by the
+absence of an inner cusp to the blade of the lower carnassial, as well as
+by certain external characters. This group contains a few species known
+as Minks, differing from the rest by slight structural modifications,
+and especially by their semiaquatic habits. They are distinguished
+from the Polecats, Stoats, and Weasels, which constitute the remainder
+of the group, by the facial part of the skull being narrower and
+more approaching in form that of the Martens, by the premolar teeth
+(especially the anterior one in the upper jaw) being larger, by the toes
+being partially webbed, and by the absence of hair in the intervals
+between the naked pads of the soles of the feet. The two best-known
+species, so much alike in size, form, colour, and habits that although
+they are widely separated geographically some zoologists question their
+specific distinction, are _M. lutreola_, the _Nörz_ or _Sumpfotter_
+(Marsh-Otter) of Eastern Europe, and _M. vison_, the Mink of North
+America. The former inhabits Finland, Poland, and the greater part of
+Russia, though not found east of the Ural Mountains. Formerly it extended
+westward into Central Germany, but is now very rare, if not extinct,
+in that country. The latter is found in places which suit its habits
+throughout the whole of North America. Another form, _M. sibirica_, from
+Eastern Asia, of which much less is known, appears to connect the true
+Minks with the Polecats.
+
+For the following description, chiefly taken from the American form
+(though almost equally applicable to that of Europe), we are mainly
+indebted to Dr. Coues’s _Fur-bearing Animals of North America_. In size
+it much resembles the English Polecat,—the length of the head and body
+being usually from 15 to 18 inches, that of the tail to the end of the
+hair about 9 inches. The female is considerably smaller than the male.
+The tail is bushy, but tapering at the end. The ears are small, low,
+rounded, and scarcely project beyond the adjacent fur. The pellage
+consists of a dense, soft, matted under fur, mixed with long, stiff,
+lustrous hairs on all parts of the body and tail. The gloss is greatest
+on the upper parts; on the tail the bristly hairs predominate. Northern
+specimens have the finest and most glistening pellage; in those from
+southern regions there is less difference between the under and over
+fur, and the whole pellage is coarser and harsher. In colour different
+specimens present a considerable range of variation, but the animal is
+ordinarily of a rich dark brown, scarcely or not paler below than on the
+general upper parts; but the back is usually the darkest, and the tail is
+nearly black. The under jaw, from the chin about as far back as the angle
+of the mouth, is generally white. In the European Mink the upper lip is
+also white, but as this occasionally occurs in American specimens it
+fails as an absolutely distinguishing character. Besides the white on the
+chin, there are often other irregular white patches on the under parts of
+the body. In very rare instances the tail is tipped with white. The fur,
+like that of most of the animals of the group to which it belongs, is an
+important article of commerce.
+
+The principal characteristic of the Mink in comparison with its congeners
+is its amphibious mode of life. It is to the water what the other Weasels
+are to the land, or Martens to the trees, being as essentially aquatic
+in its habits as the Otter, Beaver, or Musk-Rat, and spending perhaps
+more of its time in the water than it does on land. It swims with most of
+the body submerged, and dives with perfect ease, remaining long without
+coming to the surface to breathe. It makes its nest in burrows in the
+banks of streams, breeding once a year about the month of April, and
+producing five or six young at a birth. Its food consists of frogs, fish,
+freshwater molluscs and crustaceans, as well as mice, rats, musk-rats,
+rabbits, and small birds. In common with the other animals of the genus,
+it has a very peculiar and disagreeable effluvium, which, according to
+Coues, is more powerful, penetrating, and lasting than that of any animal
+of the country except the Skunk. It also possesses the courage, ferocity,
+and tenacity of life of its allies. When taken young, however, it can be
+readily tamed, and lately Minks have been extensively bred in captivity
+in America, both for the sake of their fur and for the purpose of using
+them in like manner as Ferrets in England, to clear buildings of rats.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 268.—The Common Polecat (_Mustela putorius_).]
+
+The Polecats include four species confined to the northern hemisphere,
+the best known of which is the Common Polecat (_M. putorius_, Fig.
+268). The Ferret is a domesticated variety of this species, generally of
+a yellowish-white colour; whereas the Wild Polecat is dark brown above
+and black beneath, the face being variegated with dark brown and white
+markings.
+
+The skull is rough, strongly ridged, and of a far more powerful type than
+that of the Stoats, Weasels, or Martens; being in the female much smaller
+and lighter than in the male. The fur, which is long, coarse, and of
+comparatively small value, changes its colour very little, if at all, at
+the different seasons of the year.
+
+The distribution and habits of this species have been described by
+Blasius, the following being an abstract of his account. The Polecat
+ranges over the greater part of Europe, reaching northwards into Southern
+Sweden, and in Russia to the region of the White Sea. It does not occur
+in the extreme South, but is common everywhere throughout Central Europe.
+In the Alps it ranges far above the tree-line during the summer, but
+retreats in winter to lower ground. In fine weather it lives either in
+the open air, in holes, fox-earths, rabbit-warrens, under rocks, or
+in wood-stacks, while in winter it seeks the protection of deserted
+buildings. During the day it sleeps in its hiding-place, sallying forth
+at night to plunder dovecots and hen-houses. It climbs but little, and
+shows far less activity than the Marten. It feeds ordinarily on small
+mammals, such as rabbits, hamsters, rats, and mice, on such birds as it
+can catch, especially poultry and pigeons, and also on snakes, lizards,
+frogs, fish, and eggs. Its prey is devoured only in its lair, but,
+even though it can carry away but a single victim, it commonly kills
+everything that comes in its way, often destroying all the inhabitants of
+a hen-house in order to gratify its passion for slaughter. The pairing
+time is towards the end of the winter, and the young, from three to
+eight in number, are born in April or May, after a period of gestation
+of about two months. The young, if taken early, may be easily trained,
+like Ferrets, for rabbit catching. The Polecat is very tenacious of life,
+and will bear many severe wounds before succumbing; it is also said to
+receive with impunity the bite of the adder. Its fetid smell has become
+proverbial.
+
+Four other species of Polecats are known, viz.—The Siberian Polecat
+(_M. eversmanni_) of Western and Northern Asia is nearly allied to the
+European species, but the head and back are almost white, and the skull
+is stouter and more constricted behind the orbits. The Tibetan _M.
+larvata_ is distinguished from the last by the presence of a process
+connecting the pterygoid with the auditory bulla, and by a difference
+in the shape of the upper molar. The American Polecat (_M. nigripes_),
+inhabiting the central plateau of the United States, and extending
+southwards into Texas, is another closely allied species, although some
+zoologists have made it the type of the genus _Cynomyonax_. Finally,
+the Mottled Polecat (_M. sarmatica_) is a species sparsely distributed
+in Eastern Europe and parts of Western Asia, but common in Southern
+Afghanistan. Its skull, although smaller, resembles that of the common
+species; but the coloration is very different, all the upper parts being
+mottled with large irregular reddish spots on a white ground, and the
+under side, limbs, and tail deep shining black. The tail is long.
+
+The Common Polecat occurs in a fossil condition in the cave-deposits of
+Europe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 269.—The Common Weasel (_Mustela vulgaris_).]
+
+The remaining members of the genus comprise the true Weasels and Stoats,
+which are of almost cosmopolitan distribution. In the Common Weasel (_M.
+vulgaris_, Fig. 269) the upper parts, outside of limbs and tail, are a
+uniform reddish-brown, the under parts pure white. In very cold regions,
+both in Europe and America, it turns completely white in winter, but less
+regularly and at a lower temperature than the Stoat, from which it is
+easily distinguished by its smaller size, and by its wanting the black
+end of the tail. The length of the head and body of the male is usually
+about 8 inches, that of the tail 2½ inches; the female is smaller.
+
+This species is pretty generally distributed throughout Europe, Northern
+and Central Asia, British North America, and the northern portions of the
+United States. It possesses in a full degree all the active, courageous,
+and bloodthirsty disposition of the rest of the genus, but its diminutive
+size prevents it attacking and destroying any but the smaller mammals
+and birds. Mice, rats, voles, moles, and frogs constitute its principal
+food. It is generally found on or near the surface of the ground, but it
+can not only pursue its prey through very small holes and crevices of
+rocks and under dense tangled herbage, but follow it up the stems and
+branches of trees, or even into the water, swimming with perfect ease. It
+constructs a nest of dried leaves and herbage, placed in a hole in the
+ground or a bank or hollow tree, in which it brings up its litter of four
+to six (usually five) young ones. The mother will defend her young with
+the utmost desperation against any assailant, having been often known to
+sacrifice her own life rather than desert them.
+
+The Stoat or Ermine (_M. erminea_) has nearly the same distribution as
+the Weasel, but in Asia it is said to extend into parts of the Kashmir
+Himalaya. Its size, as already mentioned, considerably exceeds that
+of the Weasel; and its most distinctive feature is the black tip at
+the end of the tail, which remains when the rest of the pellage turns
+white. The white winter skins from the northern regions of its habitat,
+where the fur is thick and close, form the well-known and valuable
+ermine of commerce. Remains of the Stoat are found in the Pleistocene
+cavern-deposits of Europe. The other species of Weasels are very numerous
+and widely distributed.
+
+_Extinct Mustelines._—A number of European Miocene Carnivores may be
+referred to the genus _Mustela_ in its wider sense, and serve to confirm
+the propriety of this use of the term. Thus _M. sectoria_ is a species
+of somewhat larger size than the Stoat, with _p_ ⁴⁄₄, while in _M.
+angustifrons_ the number of premolars is ³⁄₄, and in _M. mustelina_
+⁴⁄₃; the latter species agreeing very closely in size with the Stoat.
+The extinct _Plesictis_, in which there are _p_ ⁴⁄₄ and the lower
+carnassial has a large inner cusp, is distinguished from _Mustela_ by the
+circumstance that the temporal ridges of the skull never unite to form
+a sagittal crest. Moreover, the inner tubercular portion of the upper
+molar (as in some of the Miocene species of _Mustela_) is shorter in an
+antero-posterior direction than the secant outer moiety; and the auditory
+bulla is more inflated than in _Mustela_, although it has no septum.
+Both these features indicate a decided approximation to the Viverroid
+genus _Stenoplesiotis_ (p. 539); and since there are no well-marked
+characters of family value by which these two genera can be distinguished
+the available evidence points to a transition from the Viverroid to the
+Musteloid type. _Mustela larteti_, of the Middle Miocene of France,
+should perhaps be referred to _Ictonyx_.
+
+_Pœcilogale._[512]—This genus has been made for the reception of the
+South African _Mustela albinucha_, in which the coloration is similar
+to that of _Ictonyx_, but the number of cheek-teeth is usually reduced
+to _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_ ¹⁄₁, although there may be a second lower molar. The
+auditory bulla is quite flat.
+
+_Lyncodon._[513]—This name has been proposed for a small Musteline from
+Patagonia, with _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_ ¹⁄₁, which Mr. O. Thomas suggests may be
+nothing more than an aberrant southern form of _Mustela_ (_Putorius_)
+_brasiliensis_. The auditory bulla is more inflated than in the typical
+Weasels. This animal is somewhat larger than the Stoat.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 270.—The Wolverene (_Gulo luscus_).]
+
+_Gulo._[514]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ¹⁄₂; total 38.
+Crowns of the teeth very stout. Upper molar very much smaller than the
+carnassial. Lower carnassial large, with very small talon and no inner
+cusp. Third upper incisor unusually large, almost like a canine. The
+dentition, though really but a modification of that of the Weasels,
+presents a great general resemblance to that of the Hyæna. Palate
+prolonged somewhat behind the last molar. Humerus with an entepicondylar
+foramen. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 3, C 15. Body and limbs stoutly
+made. Feet large and powerful, subplantigrade, with large, compressed,
+much curved, and sharp-pointed claws. Soles of the feet (except the
+pads of the toes) covered with thick bristly hairs. Ears very small,
+nearly concealed by the fur. Eyes small. Tail short, thick, and bushy.
+Fur full, long, and rather coarse. The one species, the Wolverene or
+Glutton (_G. luscus_, Fig. 270), an inhabitant of the forest regions
+of Northern Europe, Asia, and America, much resembles a small Bear in
+appearance. It is a very powerful animal for its size, climbs trees, and
+lives on grouse, squirrels, hares, foxes, beavers, reindeer, and is said
+to attack even horses and cows. The Wolverene has a curious habit of
+stealing and secreting articles of which it can make no possible use, as
+is exemplified in the following instance related by Dr. Coues: “A hunter
+and his family, having left their lodge unguarded during their absence,
+on their return found it completely gutted—the walls were there, but
+nothing else. Blankets, guns, kettles, axes, cans, knives, and all the
+other paraphernalia of a trapper’s tent had vanished, and the tracks left
+by the beast showed who had been the thief. The family set to work, and,
+by carefully following up all his paths, recovered, with some trifling
+exceptions, the whole of the lost property.” The pairing season occurs in
+March, and the female, secure in her burrow, produces her young, four or
+five at a birth, in June or July. In defence of these she is exceedingly
+bold, and the Indians, according to Coues, “have been heard to say that
+they would sooner encounter a she-bear with her cubs than a carcajou (the
+Indian name of the glutton) under the same circumstances.”
+
+Fossil remains of the Wolverene are found in cavern and other Pleistocene
+deposits in various parts of Europe.
+
+
+_Suborder_ PINNIPEDIA.
+
+The Eared-Seals, Walruses, and Seals differ from the rest of the
+Carnivora mainly in the structure of their limbs, which are modified
+for aquatic progression,—the two proximal segments being very short
+and partially enveloped in the general integument of the body; while
+the third segment, especially in the hinder extremities, is elongated,
+expanded, and webbed. There are always five well-developed digits on
+each limb. In the hind limb the two marginal digits (first and fifth)
+are stouter and generally longer than the others. The teeth also differ
+from those of the more typical Carnivora. The incisors are always fewer
+than ³⁄₃. The cheek series consists generally of four premolars and one
+molar of very uniform characters, with never more than two roots, and
+with conical, more or less compressed, pointed crowns, which may have
+accessory cusps, placed before or behind the principal one, but are never
+broad and tuberculated; and there is no differentiated carnassial tooth.
+The milk-teeth are very small and simple, and are shed or absorbed at a
+very early age, usually either before or within a few days after birth.
+The brain is relatively large; the cerebral hemispheres being broad in
+proportion to their length, with numerous and complex convolutions. There
+is a very short cæcum. The kidneys are divided into numerous distinct
+lobules. There are no Cowper’s glands. The mammæ are either two or four,
+and abdominal in position. No clavicles. Tail always very short. Eyes
+very large and exposed, with flat cornea.
+
+The animals of this group are all aquatic in their mode of life, spending
+the greater part of their time in the water, swimming and diving with
+great facility, feeding mainly on fish, crustaceans, and other marine
+animals, and progressing on land with difficulty. They always come on
+shore, however, for the purpose of bringing forth their young. They
+are generally marine, but they occasionally ascend large rivers, and
+some inhabit inland seas and lakes, as the Caspian and Baikal. Though
+not numerous in species, they are widely distributed over the world,
+but occur most abundantly on the coasts of lands situated in cold and
+temperate zones. The suborder is divisible into three well-marked
+families: the _Otariidæ_, Fur-Seals or Sea-Bears, which form a transition
+from the Fissiped Carnivora to the Seals; the _Trichechidæ_, containing
+the Walrus; and the _Phocidæ_ or typical Seals.
+
+The resemblances between the skull and other parts of the body of the
+Fur Seals and the Ursoid true Carnivora is suggestive of some genetic
+relationship between the two groups, and Professor Mivart[515] expresses
+the opinion that the one group is the direct descendant of the other. The
+same writer goes on to suggest that if the Eared-Seals have been derived
+from Bear-like Carnivores this need not necessarily hold good with the
+true Seals, which may have had another, and possibly Lutrine, origin.
+The presence of an alisphenoid canal in _Ursus_ and the _Otariidæ_,
+and its absence in _Lutra_ and the _Phocidæ_, together with other
+osteological features, are cited in support of this view; but although
+these resemblances and differences are certainly remarkable, yet much
+more evidence is required before the hypothesis can be accepted as even
+a probable one. It must, moreover, be borne in mind that the true Bears
+are a very modern group; and there is a possibility that the Pinnipeds
+may prove to have been independently derived from the extinct Carnivora
+noticed below under the name of Creodonta.
+
+
+_Family_ OTARIIDÆ.
+
+When on land the hind feet are turned forwards under the body, and aid
+in supporting and moving the trunk as in ordinary mammals. A small
+external ear. Testes suspended in a distinct external scrotum. Skull
+with postorbital processes, and an alisphenoid canal. Angle of mandible
+inflected. Palms and soles of feet naked.
+
+_Otaria._[516]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ¹⁻²⁄₁; total
+34 or 36. First and second upper incisors small, with the summits of
+the crowns divided by a deep transverse groove into an anterior and a
+posterior cusp of nearly equal height; the third large and canine-like.
+Canines large, conical, pointed, recurved. Molars and premolars usually
+⁵⁄₅, of which the second, third, and fourth are preceded by milk-teeth
+shed a few days after birth; sometimes (as in Fig. 271) a sixth upper
+molar (occasionally developed on one side and not the other); all with
+similar characters, generally uniradicular; crown moderate, compressed,
+pointed, with a single principal cusp, and sometimes a cingulum, and more
+or less developed anterior and posterior accessory cusps. Vertebræ: C 7,
+D 15, L 5, S 4, C 9-14. Head rounded. Eyes large. Pinna of ear small,
+narrow, and pointed. Neck long. Skin of all the feet extended far beyond
+the nails and ends of the digits, with a deeply-lobed margin. The nails
+small and often quite rudimentary, especially those of the first and
+fifth toes of both feet, the best developed and most constant being the
+three middle claws of the hind foot, which are elongated, compressed, and
+curved.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 271.—Skull of _Otaria forsteri_. (From Gray, _Proc.
+Zool. Soc._ 1872, p. 660.)]
+
+The Eared-Seals, commonly called Sea-Bears or Sea-Lions, are widely
+distributed, especially in the temperate regions of both hemispheres,
+though absent from the coasts of the North Atlantic. As might be
+inferred from their power of walking on all fours, they spend more of
+their time on shore, and range inland to greater distances, than the
+true Seals, especially at the breeding time, though they are obliged
+always to return to the water to seek their food. They are gregarious
+and polygamous, and the males are usually much larger than the females,
+a circumstance which has given rise to some of the confusion existing
+in the specific determination of the various members of the genus. Some
+of the species possess, in addition to the stiff, close, hairy covering
+common to all the group, an exceedingly fine, dense, woolly under fur.
+The skins of these, when dressed and deprived of the longer harsh outer
+hairs, constitute the “seal-skin” of commerce, so much valued for
+wearing apparel, which is not the product of any of the true Seals.
+The best-known species are _O. stelleri_, the Northern Sea Lion, the
+largest of the genus, from the North Pacific, about 10 feet in length;
+_O. jubata_, the Patagonian or Southern Sea Lion (Fig. 272), from the
+Falkland Islands and Patagonia; _O. californiana_, from California,
+frequently exhibited alive in menageries in Europe; _O. ursina_, the
+common Sea-Bear or Fur-Seal of the North Pacific, the skins of which are
+imported in immense numbers from the Prybiloff Islands; _O. pusilla_,
+from the Cape of Good Hope; _O. forsteri_ and others, from the coasts of
+Australia and various islands scattered over the southern hemisphere.
+These have been grouped by some zoologists into many genera, founded upon
+very trivial modifications of teeth and skull. In a recent memoir Mr.
+Beddard[517] concludes that if the genus be split up at all, it should
+be divided into _Otaria_, containing only _O. jubata_ (with its numerous
+synonyms), and _Arctocephalus_, comprising all the other species. The
+latter group is distinguished by the more narrow and pointed nose, the
+longer ears, the palate not excavated nor truncated posteriorly, the
+presence of a hook-like process to the pterygoids, and by the posterior
+border of the nasals extending behind the zygoma.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 272.—The Patagonian Sea-Lion (_Otaria jubata_). From
+Sclater, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1866, p. 80.]
+
+The following account of _O. ursina_ in the Prybiloff Islands is taken,
+with slight verbal alteration, from Nordenskiöld’s _Voyage of the Vega_:
+“The Sea-Bears are found year after year during summer at certain parts
+of the coast, known as ‘rookeries,’ where, collected in hundreds of
+thousands, they pass several months without the least food. The males
+or ‘bulls’ come first to the place, most of them in the month of May
+or in the beginning of June. The most violent conflicts, often with a
+deadly issue for one of the parties, now arise regarding the space of
+about a hundred square feet which each bull-seal considers necessary for
+his home. The strongest and most successful in fight retain the best
+places near the shore; the weaker have to crawl farther up on land,
+where the chances of getting a sufficient number of spouses are not
+particularly great. The fighting goes on with many feigned attacks and
+parades. At first the contest concerns only the proprietorship of the
+soil. The attacked, therefore, never follows his opponent beyond the area
+he has once taken up, but haughtily lays itself down, when the enemy
+has retired, in order to collect strength for a new combat. The animal
+in such a case grunts with satisfaction, throws himself on his back,
+scratches himself with his fore feet, attends to his toilet, or cools
+himself by slowly fanning with one of his hind feet; but he is always on
+the alert and ready for a new fight, until he is tired out and meets his
+match and is driven farther up from the beach. In the middle of June the
+females come up from the sea. At the water’s edge they are received in
+a very gallant way by some strong bulls that have succeeded in securing
+for themselves places next the shore, and now are bent by fair means or
+foul on annexing the females for their harem. But scarcely is the female
+that has come up out of the water established with male No. 1 than he
+rushes towards a new female on the surface of the water. Male No. 2 now
+stretches out his neck and without ceremony lays hold of the female of
+No. 1, to be afterwards exposed to a similar trick by No. 3. In such
+cases the females are quite passive, never fall out with each other, and
+bear with patience the severe wounds they often get when they are pulled
+about by the combatants, now in one direction, now in another. All the
+females are finally distributed in this way after furious combats among
+the males, those of the latter who are nearest the beach getting from
+12 to 15 consorts to their share. Soon after landing the females bring
+forth their young, which are treated with great indifference, and are
+protected by their adopted father only within the limits of the harem.
+Next comes the pairing season, and when it has passed there is an end
+to the arrangement and distribution into families at first so strictly
+maintained. The males, rendered lean by three months’ absolute fasting,
+by degrees leave the rookery, which is left in possession of the Walruses
+and the young Sea Bears, including a number of young males that have not
+ventured to the place before. In the middle of September, when the young
+have learned to swim, the place is quite abandoned, with the exception of
+single animals that have for some reason remained behind.”
+
+
+_Family_ TRICHECHIDÆ.
+
+In many characters the single genus representing this family is
+intermediate between the _Otariidæ_ and _Phocidæ_, but it has a
+completely aberrant dentition. It has no external ears, as in the
+_Phocidæ_; but when on land the hind feet are turned forwards and used
+in progression, though less completely than in the _Otariidæ_. The upper
+canines are developed into immense tusks, which descend a long distance
+below the lower jaw. All the other teeth (Fig. 273), including the lower
+canines, are much alike, small, simple, and one-rooted, the molars
+with flat crowns. The skull is without postorbital process, but has an
+alisphenoid canal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 273.—Diagram of the dentition of the Walrus
+(_Trichechus rosmarus_). The denticles placed apart from the others are
+milk-teeth, and disappear soon after birth. The small teeth in connection
+with the jaws frequently persist throughout life.]
+
+_Trichechus._[518]—Dentition of young: _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ and _m_ ⁵⁄₄.
+Many of these teeth are, however, lost early or remain through life in
+a rudimentary state concealed by the gums. The teeth which are usually
+developed functionally are _i_ ¹⁄₀, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ⁰⁄₀; total
+18. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 4, C 12. Head round. Eyes rather small.
+Muzzle short and broad, with on each side a group of long, very stiff,
+bristly whiskers. The remainder of the hair-covering very short and
+adpressed. Tail very rudimentary. Fore feet with subequal toes, carrying
+five minute flattened nails. Hind feet with subequal toes, the fifth
+slightly the largest, having cutaneous lobes projecting beyond the ends
+as in _Otaria_; first and fifth with minute flattened nails; second,
+third, and fourth with large, elongated, subcompressed pointed nails.
+
+_Trichechus_ is the almost universally accepted generic name by which
+the Walrus or Morse[519] is known to zoologists, but some confusion has
+been introduced into literature by the revival of the nearly obsolete
+terms _Rosmarus_ by some authors and _Odobænus_ by others. _T. rosmarus_
+is the name of the species met with in the Arctic seas; that of the
+North Pacific, if distinct, is _T. obesus_. The preceding and following
+descriptions will apply equally to both. A full-grown male Walrus
+measures from 10 to 11 feet from the nose to the end of the very short
+tail, and is a heavy, bulky animal, especially thick about the shoulders.
+The soles of both fore and hind feet are bare, rough, and warty. The
+surface of the skin generally is covered with short, adpressed hair of
+a light, yellowish-brown colour, which, on the under parts of the body
+and base of the flippers, passes into dark reddish-brown or chestnut.
+In old animals the hair becomes more scanty, sometimes almost entirely
+disappearing, and the skin shows ample evidence of the rough life and
+pugnacious habits of the animal in the innumerable scars with which it is
+usually covered. It is everywhere more or less wrinkled, but especially
+over the shoulders, where it is thrown into deep and heavy folds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 274.—The Walrus (_Trichechus rosmarus_).]
+
+The tusks are formidable weapons of defence, but their principal use
+seems to be scraping and digging among the sand and shingle for the
+molluscs and crustaceans on which the Walrus feeds. They are said also
+to aid in climbing up the slippery rocks and ledges of ice on which
+so much of the animal’s life is passed. Although this function of the
+tusks is affirmed by numerous authors, some of whom appear to have had
+opportunities of actual observation, it is explicitly denied by Malmgren.
+
+Walruses are more or less gregarious in their habits, being met with
+generally in companies or herds of various sizes. They are only found
+near the coast or on large masses of floating ice, and rarely far out in
+the open sea; and, though often moving from one part of their feeding
+ground to another, they have no regular seasonal migrations. Their young
+are born between the months of April and June, usually but one at a
+time, never more than two. Their strong affection for their young, and
+their sympathy for each other in times of danger, have been particularly
+noticed by all who have had the opportunity of observing them in their
+native haunts. When one of their number is wounded, the whole herd
+usually join in a concerted and intelligent defence. Although harmless
+and inoffensive when not molested, they exhibit considerable fierceness
+when attacked, using their great tusks with tremendous effect either on
+human enemies who come into too close quarters or on Polar Bears, the
+only other adversaries they can meet with in their own natural territory.
+Their voice is a loud roaring, and can be heard at a great distance; it
+is described by Dr. Kane as “something between the mooing of a cow and
+the deepest baying of a mastiff, very round and full, with its bark or
+detached notes repeated rather quickly seven or nine times in succession.”
+
+The principal food of the Walrus consists of bivalved molluscs,
+especially _Mya truncata_ and _Saxicava rugosa_, two species very
+abundant in the Arctic regions, which it digs up from the mud and sand
+in which they lie buried at the bottom of the sea by means of its tusks.
+It crushes and removes the shells by the aid of its grinding teeth and
+tongue, swallowing only the soft part of the animal. It also feeds on
+other molluscs, sand-worms, star-fishes, and shrimps. Portions of various
+kinds of algæ or sea-weeds have been found in its stomach, but whether
+swallowed intentionally or not is still doubtful.
+
+The commercial products of the Walrus are its oil, hide (used to
+manufacture harness and sole-leather and twisted into tiller ropes), and
+tusks. The ivory of the latter is, however, inferior in quality to that
+of the Elephant. Its flesh forms an important article of food to the
+Eskimo and Tchuktchis. Of the coast tribes of the last-named people the
+Walrus forms the chief means of support. “The flesh supplies them with
+food, the ivory tusks are made into implements used in the chase and for
+other domestic purposes, as well as a affording a valuable article of
+barter, and the skin furnishes the material for covering their summer
+habitations, harness for their dog-teams, and lines for their fishing
+gear” (Scammon).
+
+Geographically the Walrus is confined to the northern circumpolar
+regions of the globe, extending apparently as far north as explorers
+have penetrated, but its southern range has been much restricted of late
+in consequence of the persecutions of man. On the Atlantic coast of
+America it was met with in the sixteenth century as low as the southern
+coast of Nova Scotia, and in the last century it was common in the Gulf
+of St. Lawrence and on the shores of Labrador. It still inhabits the
+coast round Hudson’s Bay, Davis Straits, and Greenland, where, however,
+its numbers are daily decreasing. It is not found on the Arctic coast
+of America between the 97th and 158th meridians. In Europe occasional
+stragglers have reached the British Isles, and it was formerly abundant
+on the coasts of Finmark. It is rare in Iceland, but Spitzbergen, Nova
+Zembla, and the western part of the north coast of Siberia are still
+constant places of resort, in all of which a regular war of extermination
+is carried on. The North Pacific, including both sides of Behring’s
+Strait, northern Kamschatka, Alaska, and the Pribyloff Islands, are also
+the haunts of numerous Walruses, which are isolated from those of the
+North Atlantic by the long stretches of coast, both of Siberia and North
+America, where they do not occur. The Pacific Walrus appears to be as
+large as, if not larger than, that of the Atlantic; its tusks are longer
+and more slender, and curved inwards; the whiskers are smaller, and the
+muzzle (of the skull) relatively deeper and broader. These and certain
+other minor differences have induced some naturalists to consider it
+specifically distinct under the name of _Trichechus obesus_. Its habits
+appear to be quite similar to those of the Atlantic form. Though formerly
+found in immense herds, it is rapidly becoming scarce, as the methods of
+destruction used by the American whalers, who have systematically entered
+upon its pursuit, are far more certain and deadly than those of the
+native Tchuktchis, to whom, as mentioned before, the Walrus long afforded
+the principal means of subsistence.
+
+Fossil remains of Walruses and closely allied animals have been found in
+the United States, and in England, Belgium, and France, in deposits of
+Pliocene age.
+
+
+_Family_ PHOCIDÆ.
+
+The true Seals are the most completely adapted for aquatic life of all
+the Pinnipeds. When on land the hind limbs are extended behind them and
+take no part in progression, which is effected by a series of jumping
+movements produced by the muscles of the trunk, in some species aided by
+the fore limbs only. The palms and soles of the feet are hairy. There
+is no pinna to the ear, and no scrotum, the testes being abdominal. The
+upper incisors have simple, pointed crowns, and vary in number in the
+different groups. All the forms have well-developed canines and ⁵⁄₅ teeth
+of the cheek-series. In those species of which the milk-dentition is
+known, there are three milk molars (Fig. 275), which precede the second,
+third, and fourth permanent molars; the dentition is therefore _p_ ⁴⁄₄,
+_m_ ¹⁄₁, the first premolar having as usual no milk-predecessor. The
+skull has no postorbital process and no alisphenoid canal; and the angle
+of the mandible is not inflected. The fur is stiff and adpressed, without
+woolly under fur.
+
+Subfamily =Phocinæ=.—Incisors ³⁄₂. All the feet with five well-developed
+claws. The toes on the hind feet subequal, the first and fifth not
+greatly exceeding the others in length, and with the interdigital
+membrane not extending beyond the toes.
+
+_Halichœrus._[520]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ¹⁄₁;
+total 34. Crowns of molars large, simple, conical, recurved, slightly
+compressed, with sharp anterior and posterior edges, but without
+accessory cusps, except sometimes in the two hinder ones of the lower
+jaw. With the exception of the last one or two in the upper jaw and the
+last in the lower jaw they are all uniradicular. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L
+5, S 4, C 14.
+
+One species, _H. grypus_, the Gray Seal of the coasts of Scandinavia and
+the British Isles (see page 604.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 275.—Upper permanent and deciduous dentition of the
+Greenland Seal (_Phoca grœnlandica_). The first and second deciduous
+incisors are already absorbed.]
+
+_Phoca._[521]—Dental formula as the last. Teeth smaller and more pointed.
+Molars (Figs. 275 and 276) with two roots (except the first in each jaw);
+and their crowns with accessory cusps. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 4,
+C 12-15. Head round and short. Fore feet short, with five very strong,
+subcompressed, slightly curved, rather sharp claws, subequal in length.
+On the hind feet the claws much narrower and less curved. The species of
+this genus are widely distributed throughout the northern hemisphere, and
+include _P. barbata_, the Bearded Seal; _P. grœnlandica_, the Greenland
+Seal; _P. vitulina_, the Common Seal (Fig. 277); and _P. hispida_, the
+Ringed Seal of the North Atlantic; _P. caspica_, from the Caspian and
+Aral Seas; and _P. sibirica_, from Lake Baikal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 276.—Skull of Common Seal, showing form of teeth.]
+
+Although the members of this subfamily swim and dive with the greatest
+ease, often remaining as much as a quarter of an hour or more below the
+surface, and are dependent for their sustenance entirely on living prey
+captured in the water, yet they frequently resort to sandy beaches,
+rocks, or ice-floes, either to sleep or to bask in the sun, and
+especially for the purpose of bringing forth their young. The latter
+appears to be the universal habit, and, strange as it may seem, the
+young seals—of some species at least—take to the water at first very
+reluctantly, and have actually to be taught to swim by their parents. The
+number of young produced is usually one annually, though occasionally
+two. They are at first covered with a coat of very thick, soft, nearly
+white fur, and until it falls off they do not usually enter the water.
+This occurs in the Greenland and Gray Seal when from two to three weeks
+old, but in the Common Seal apparently much earlier. One of this species
+born in the London Zoological Gardens had shed its infantile woolly
+coat and was swimming and diving about in its pond within three hours
+after its birth. The movements of the true Seals upon the ground or ice
+are very different from those of the Eared-Seals. Thus the hinder limbs
+(by which mainly they propel themselves through the water) are on land
+always perfectly passive, stretched backwards, with the soles of the
+feet applied to each other, and often raised to avoid contact with the
+ground. Sometimes the fore limbs are equally passive, being placed close
+to the sides of the body, and motion is then effected by a shuffling or
+wriggling action produced by the muscles of the trunk. When, however,
+there is any necessity for a more rapid mode of progression the animals
+use the fore paws, either alternately or simultaneously, pressing the
+palmar surface on the ground and lifting and dragging the body forwards
+in a succession of short jumps. In this way they manage to move so fast
+that a man has to step out beyond a walk to keep up with them; but such
+rapid action costs considerable effort, and they very soon become heated
+and exhausted. These various modes of progression appear to be common to
+all species so far as has been observed.
+
+Most kinds of Seals are gregarious and congregate, especially at the
+breeding season, in immense herds. Such is the habit of the Greenland
+Seal (_Phoca grœnlandica_), which resorts in the spring to the ice-floes
+of the North Sea, around Jan Mayen Island, where about 200,000 are
+killed annually by the crews of the Scotch, Dutch, and Norwegian sealing
+vessels. Others, like the Common Seal of the British islands (_P.
+vitulina_), though having a wide geographical range, are never met with
+in such large numbers or far away from land. This species is stationary
+all the year round, but some have a regular season of migration, moving
+south in winter and north in summer. They are usually harmless, timid,
+inoffensive animals, though, being polygamous, the old males often fight
+desperately with each other, their skins being frequently found covered
+with wounds and scars. They are greatly attached to their young, and
+remarkably docile and easily trained when in captivity; indeed, although
+there would seem little in the structure or habits of the Seal to fit
+it by nature to be a companion of man, yet there is perhaps no wild
+animal which attaches itself so readily to the person who takes care
+of and feeds it. Seals appear to have much curiosity, and it is a very
+old and apparently well-attested observation that they are strongly
+attracted by musical sounds. Their sense of smell is very acute, and
+their voice varies from a harsh bark or grunt to a plaintive bleat.
+Seals feed chiefly on fish, of which they consume enormous quantities;
+some, however, subsist largely on crustaceans, especially species
+of _Gammarus_, which swarm in the northern seas, also on molluscs,
+echinoderms, and even occasionally sea-birds, which they seize when
+swimming or floating on the water.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 277.—The Common Seal (_Phoca vitulina_).]
+
+Although the true Seals do not possess the beautiful under fur
+(“seal-skin” of the furriers) which makes the skin of the Sea-Bears so
+precious, yet their hides are still sufficiently valuable as articles of
+commerce, together with the oil yielded by their fat, to subject them to
+a devastating persecution, by which their numbers are being continually
+diminished.
+
+Two species of seals only are met with regularly on the British
+coasts, the Common Seal and the Gray Seal. The former (Fig. 277) is
+a constant resident in all suitable localities round the Scottish,
+Irish, and English coasts, from which it has not been driven away by
+the molestations of man. Although, naturally, the most secluded and
+out-of-the-way spots are selected as their habitual dwelling-places,
+there are few localities where they may not be occasionally met with.
+Within the writers’ knowledge one was seen not many years ago lying on
+the shingly beach at so populous a place as Brighton, and another was
+caught in the river Welland, near Stamford, 30 miles from the sea. They
+frequent bays, inlets, and estuaries, and are often seen on sandbanks
+or mudflats left dry at low tide, and, unlike some of their congeners,
+are not found on the ice-floes of the open sea, nor, though gregarious,
+are very large numbers ever seen in one spot. The young are produced
+at the end of May or beginning of June. They feed chiefly on fish, and
+the destruction they occasion among salmon is well known to Scottish
+fishermen. The Common Seal is widely distributed, being found not only on
+the European and American coasts bordering the Atlantic Ocean, but also
+in the North Pacific. It is from 4 to 5 feet in length, and variable in
+colour, though usually yellowish-gray, with irregular spots of dark brown
+or black above and yellowish-white beneath. The Gray Seal (_Halichœrus
+grypus_) is of considerably larger size, the males attaining when fully
+adult a length of 8 feet from nose to end of hind feet. It is of a
+yellowish-gray colour, lighter beneath, and with dark gray spots or
+blotches, but, like most other Seals, is liable to great variations of
+colour according to age. This species appears to be restricted to the
+North Atlantic, having been rarely seen on the American coasts, but not
+farther south than Nova Scotia; it is chiefly met with on the coasts of
+Ireland, England, Scotland, Norway, and Sweden, including the Baltic
+and Gulf of Bothnia, and Iceland, though it does not appear to range
+farther north. It is apparently not migratory, and its favourite breeding
+places are rocky islands; the young being born in the end of September or
+beginning of October.
+
+Subfamily =Monachinæ=.—Incisors ²⁄₂. Cheek-teeth two-rooted, except the
+first. On the hind feet the first and fifth toes greatly exceeding the
+others in length, with nails rudimentary or absent.
+
+_Monachus._[522]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ¹⁄₁; total 32.
+Crowns of molars strong, conical, compressed, hollowed on the inner side,
+with a strongly marked lobed cingulum, especially on the inner side, and
+slightly developed accessory cusps before and behind. The first and last
+upper and the first lower molar considerably smaller than the others.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 2, C 11. All the nails of both fore and
+hind feet very small and rudimentary. One species, _M. albiventer_, the
+Monk-Seal of the Mediterranean and adjacent parts of the Atlantic.
+
+The other genera[523] of this section have the same dental formula, but
+are distinguished by the characters of the cheek-teeth and the feet. They
+are all inhabitants of the shores of the southern hemisphere.
+
+_Ogmorhinus._[524]—All the teeth of the cheek-series with three distinct
+pointed cusps, deeply separated from each other; of these the middle or
+principal cusp is largest and slightly recurved; the other two (anterior
+and posterior) are nearly equal in size, and have their apices directed
+towards the middle one. Skull much elongated. One species, _O. leptonyx_,
+the Sea-Leopard, widely distributed in the Antarctic and southern
+temperate seas.
+
+_Lobodon._[525]—Cheek-teeth with much-compressed elongated crowns and a
+principal recurved cusp, rounded and somewhat bulbous at the apex, and
+one anterior, and one, two, or three posterior, very distinct accessory
+cusps. One species, _L. carcinophaga_.
+
+_Pœcilophoca._[526]—Cheek-teeth small, with simple, subcompressed,
+conical crowns, having a broad cingulum, but no distinct accessory cusps.
+One species, _P. weddelli_.
+
+_Ommatophoca._[527]—All the teeth very small; those of the cheek-series
+with pointed recurved crowns, and small posterior and still less
+developed anterior accessory cusps. Orbits very large. Nails quite
+rudimentary on front, and absent on hind feet. The skull bears a
+considerable resemblance to that of the members of the next subfamily,
+towards which it may form a transition. There is one species, _O. rossi_,
+of which very little is known.
+
+Subfamily =Cystophorinsæ=.—Incisors ²⁄₁. Teeth of cheek-series generally
+one-rooted. Nose of males with an appendage capable of being inflated.
+First and fifth toes of hind feet greatly exceeding the others in length,
+with prolonged cutaneous lobes, and rudimentary or no nails.
+
+_Cystophora._[528]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₁, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ¹⁄₁; total
+30. The last molar has generally two distinct roots. Beneath the skin
+over the face of the adult male, and connected with the nostrils, is a
+sac which, when inflated, forms a kind of hood covering the upper part of
+the head. Nails present, though small, on the hind feet. One species, _C.
+cristata_, the Hooded or Bladder-Nose Seal of the Polar Seas.
+
+_Macrorhinus._[529]—Dentition as the last, but cheek-teeth of simpler
+character, and all one-rooted. All the teeth, except the canines, very
+small relatively to the size of the animal. Hind feet without nails.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 3, C 11. Nose of adult male produced into a
+short tubular proboscis, ordinarily flaccid, but capable of dilatation
+and elongation under excitement. One species, _M. leoninus_, the
+Elephant Seal, or Sea-Elephant of the whalers, the largest of the whole
+family, attaining the length of nearly 20 feet. Formerly abundant in the
+Antarctic Seas, and also found on the coast of California.
+
+_Extinct Seals._—Remains of animals of this group have been found in late
+Miocene and Pliocene strata in Europe and America, the most abundant and
+best-preserved being those of the Pliocene Antwerp Crag, the subject of
+an illustrated monograph by Van Beneden. Nothing has, however, yet been
+discovered which throws any light upon the origin of the group, since
+all the extinct forms at present known come within the definition of
+the existing families; and, though annectant forms between these occur,
+there are as yet no transitions to a more generalised type of mammal.
+Indeed, all those of which the characters are best known belong to the
+completely developed Phocine or Trichechine, and not to the Otariine,
+type. The typical genus _Phoca_ occurs in the Antwerp Crag, while remains
+of Seals provisionally referred to this genus are found in the Pliocene
+of the Crimea and the Miocene of Malta and Virginia. Of the other
+Antwerp forms _Callophoca_ is said to be allied to _Phoca grœnlandica_,
+_Platyphoca_ to _Phoca barbata_, _Phocanella_ to _Phoca foetida_,
+_Gryphoca_ to _Halichœrus_, _Palæophoca_ and _Monatherium_ to _Monachus_,
+and _Mesotaria_ to _Cystophora_; while _Prophoca_ does not appear to
+come very close to any existing form. It should be observed that it is
+extremely doubtful whether all these fossil Seals are really entitled to
+generic distinction.
+
+    _Bibliography of Pinnipedia._—J. A. Allen, _History of North
+    American Pinnipeds_, 1880; St. George Mivart, “Notes on the
+    Pinnipedia,” _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1885, p. 484; P. J. Van
+    Beneden, _Ossements fossiles d’Anvers_, in the _Mém. Acad. Roy.
+    d. Belgique_.
+
+
+_Suborder_ CREODONTA.
+
+The discovery of fossil remains in Eocene and early Miocene formations
+both in Europe and North America shows that numerous species of
+terrestrial carnivorous animals existed upon the earth during those
+periods which cannot be referred to either of the sections into which
+the order has now become broken up. By some zoologists these have been
+supposed to be Marsupials, or at least to show transitional characters
+between the Metatherian and Eutherian subclasses. By others they are
+looked upon as belonging altogether to the latter group, and as the
+common ancestors of existing Carnivores and Insectivores, or perhaps
+rather as descendants or relatives of such common ancestors, retaining
+more of the generalised characters than any of the existing species. They
+shade off almost insensibly into numerous other forms less distinctly
+carnivorous, to the whole of which, including the modern Insectivora,
+Cope (to whom we are indebted for much of our knowledge of the American
+extinct species) gives the name of BUNOTHERIA, those more specially
+related to the existing Carnivora forming the suborder Creodonta. These
+are instances, however, in which the application of the principles of
+classification adopted in the case of existing species, of which the
+entire structure is known, and which have become divided into isolated
+groups by the extinction of intermediate forms, is almost impossible.
+If the generally accepted view of evolution is true, and the extreme
+modifications pass insensibly into each other by minute gradations (a
+view the palæontological proof of which becomes strengthened by every
+fresh discovery), there must be many of these extinct forms which cannot
+be assigned to definitely characterised groups. There are, however, some
+which stand out prominently from the others as formed on distinct types,
+having no exact representatives at present living on the earth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 278.—Anterior portion of the skull of _Hyænodon
+leptorhynchus_. (After Filhol.)]
+
+The more typical Creodonts appear, however, to be so closely related to
+the true Carnivora through the extinct _Miacidæ_ (p. 539), that it is on
+the whole advisable to regard them as representing a distinct suborder
+of Carnivora. In the strong development of the canines (Fig. 278) they
+are distinguished from the modern Insectivora; and they also differ from
+the latter and resemble the true Carnivores in the form of the incisors,
+the second one in the lower jaw (when three are present) being thrust
+up above the level of the other two in the manner obtaining in most of
+the modern Carnivora. Some of the most generalised forms included in the
+present group approximate so closely to the Condylarthrous Ungulates as
+to indicate that both groups have probably had a common origin.
+
+The Creodonta as a whole are characterised by the small size of the
+brain, the absence of a single differentiated carnassial tooth, and the
+triangular form or secant character of their upper molars. In the carpus
+the scaphoid and lunar were usually distinct; the femur has a third
+trochanter; the upper or tibial surface of the astragalus usually wants
+the groove found in modern Carnivores: and the feet were plantigrade. The
+curious resemblance of the molars of many of these forms to those of the
+Marsupials may indicate a genetic relationship between the two groups;
+but, on the other hand, the presence of a full set of milk-teeth and the
+absence of palatal vacuities, or of an inflection of the angle of the
+mandible, sharply distinguishes them from that order. Space permits of a
+notice only of the more interesting forms.
+
+_Hyænodontidæ._—This family is taken to include some of the more
+specialised types, such as the European and American _Hyænodon_ and
+_Oxhyæna_ and the European _Pterodon_. In _Hyænodon_ (Fig. 278) the
+dental formula is _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ²⁄₃; the fourth premolar
+above and the first true molar below being formed upon the “carnassial”
+plan, but the teeth behind these, instead of being tuberculated as in all
+existing Carnivora, repeat the characters of the carnassial, and also
+increase in size, especially in the lower jaw, from before backwards.
+The last lower molar differs from the two preceding teeth, and is very
+like the carnassial of _Felis_. The scaphoid and lunar of the carpus
+were fused together. Some species, as _H. leptorhynchus_, were as large
+as a Wolf, while others did not exceed a Fox in size. _Pterodon_ is
+readily distinguished by having _m_ ³⁄₃, by the larger size of the inner
+tubercles of the upper molars, and the similarity in the form of the
+three lower molars. In some species there were only two upper incisors,
+and the first lower premolar may be wanting. _Oxhyæna_ is a specialised
+form with _i_ ²⁻³⁄₀, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ²⁄₂, and a very long
+mandibular symphysis.
+
+_Proviverridæ._—The European and American genus _Proviverra_
+(_Cynohyænodon_ or _Stypolophus_) may be regarded as representing a
+second family. The dental formula in this genus is the typical _i_
+³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃, the upper molars have a large inner
+tubercle, while the lower molars are differentiated into a blade and
+talon, the blade having a large inner cusp. The upper teeth closely
+resemble the molars of _Dasyurus_, while the lower molars are like the
+lower carnassial of _Cynodictis_ and _Viverra_; and thus indicate how the
+Creodonts may have passed into the true Carnivores through the extinct
+_Miacidæ_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 279.—The three right upper molars of _Arctocyon
+dueli_ (_a_), and the second of _A. gervaisi_ (_b_); from the lowest
+Eocene of Rheims. _pr_, protocone; _pa_, paracone; _me_, metacone; _hy_,
+hypocone; _ml_, metaconule; _pl_, paraconule. (From Osborn.)]
+
+_Arctocyonidæ and Mesonychidæ._—The first of these families is
+represented by _Arctocyon primævus_, one of the oldest known Tertiary
+mammals, from the lowest Eocene beds of La Fère, department of Aisne,
+France, and also by other species from corresponding beds at Rheims. The
+dental formula is _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_?⁄₃₋₄, _m_ ³⁄₃. The upper molars
+(Fig. 279) are tritubercular, with an incipient postero-internal column
+(hypocone); the lower are quadritubercular; and the premolars simple.
+The typical species was of large size, but the two of which the teeth
+are figured were considerably smaller. In the American _Mesonyx_ the
+dental formula was the typical one, the jaws were comparatively short,
+the mandibular symphysis was elongated, the cheek-teeth were of simple
+structure, and resembled the premolars of many of the true Carnivora,
+and the astragalus had a grooved tibial surface and distinct distal
+facets for the cuboid and navicular, resembling in the latter respect the
+corresponding bone of a Perissodactyle Ungulate. The terminal phalanges
+had deeply fissured extremities, and are said to be more like those of
+Rodents than true Carnivores. _Mesonyx ossifragus_ was larger than a
+Grizzly Bear. _Amblyctonus_, of the same deposits, differs by the smooth
+tibial face of the astragalus and the development of an anterior cusp to
+the lower molars.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE ORDER INSECTIVORA
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 280.—Right lateral aspect of the anterior portion of
+the cranium of _Erinaceus collaris_. Enlarged. (From Dobson, _Proc. Zool.
+Soc._ 1881, p. 403.)]
+
+The Insectivora comprise a number of comparatively small mammals,
+generally of terrestrial, although rarely of arboreal or aquatic habits,
+and presenting the following common features. They are unguiculate, and
+have plantigrade or subplantigrade, and generally pentadactylate feet, in
+which the pollex and hallux are not opposable to the other digits. They
+are diphyodont and heterodont, and the teeth are rooted. The molars are
+studded with sharp cusps, the crowns of the upper molars being either
+quadrangular or triangular; there are never less than two incisors in
+either side of the mandible; and in many cases the incisors, canines, and
+anterior premolars are not clearly differentiated from one another (Fig.
+280); the canines being usually weak. Clavicles are present, except in
+_Potamogale_. The body is clothed with fur or protected by an armature
+of spines; the testes are inguinal or placed near the kidneys, and are
+not received into a scrotum; the penis is pendent or suspended from the
+wall of the abdomen; the uterus is two-horned and with or without a
+distinct corpus uteri; the placenta is discoidal and deciduate; and the
+smooth cerebral hemispheres do not extend backwards over the cerebellum
+(Fig. 281). The projection of the muzzle far beyond the extremity
+of the lower jaw is a very general feature. The humerus generally
+has an entepicondylar foramen. Certain forms, such as _Talpa_ and
+_Galeopithecus_, are unique among mammals in having ossified intercentra
+in the dorso-lumbar region of the vertebral column.
+
+Representatives of this order are found throughout the temperate and
+tropical parts of both hemispheres (except South America and Australia),
+and exhibit much variety both in organisation and in habits. With the
+exception of the _Tupaiidæ_, all are nocturnal; the greater number
+are cursorial, but some (_Talpa_, _Chrysochloris_, _Oryzorictes_) are
+fossorial; some (_Potamogale_, _Nectogale_, _Myogale_) are natatorial,
+and a few (_Tupaiidæ_) arboreal; while the species of the aberrant
+genus _Galeopithecus_ glide through the air like the Flying Squirrels.
+To the great majority the term insectivorous is strictly applicable,
+_Galeopithecus_ alone being phytophagous; while _Potamogale_ is said to
+feed on fish, and the different species of Moles live chiefly on worms.
+The general organisation of the Insectivora indicates a very low type,
+and were it not for the specialised character of their placentation and
+the tendency to lose the differentiated characters of the anterior teeth
+they might be regarded as closely allied to the ancestral type of many of
+the heterodont mammals. The strongly marked distinction of the canines
+from the incisors and anterior premolars in the Mesozoic and most of
+the Tertiary mammals (excepting some of the Ungulates) points, however,
+very decidedly to the conclusion that the want of definition between
+these teeth in many of the modern Insectivora is an acquired feature.
+Fossil forms apparently indicate a relationship on the one hand with the
+Creodont Carnivora, and on the other with the Lemuroid Primates; indeed
+it is in some instances impossible to say whether extinct genera are
+really Insectivores or Lemuroids.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 281.—Upper surface of the brain of _Tupaia
+ferruginea_. (From Garrod, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1879, p. 304.)]
+
+In most Insectivora the cranial cavity is of small relative size, and
+in none is the brain-case elevated to any considerable extent above the
+facial line. The facial part of the skull is generally much produced,
+and the premaxillary and nasal bones are well developed. The zygomatic
+arch is usually slender or deficient, the latter being the case in most
+of the species; and postorbital processes of the frontals are found only
+in the _Galeopithecidæ_, _Tupaiidæ_, and _Macroscelididæ_. The number
+of dorsal vertebræ varies from 13 in _Talpa_ to 19 in _Centetes_; that
+of the lumbar from 3 in _Chrysochloris_ to 6 in _Talpa_ and _Sorex_;
+and of the caudal from the rudimentary series of 8 in _Centetes_ to the
+40 or more of _Microgale_. Not less variable are the characters of the
+vertebræ themselves; the spinous processes often being very long in one
+and short in another species of the same genus. In the _Soricidæ_ and
+_Myogale_ the neural arches of the cervical vertebræ are very slender.
+In the _Soricidæ_ and _Gymnura_ the four anterior vertebræ develop large
+single hypapophyses. In _Galeopithecus_ the centrum of each vertebra
+supports posteriorly a pair of intercentral ossifications; while in
+_Erinaceus_, _Myogale_, and _Talpa_ small oval ossicles are found on
+the inferior surfaces of the lumbar interspaces. In _Erinaceus_, owing
+to the thickness of the neural cord in the cervical region and its
+abrupt termination, the diameter of the neural canal in the cervical
+and first two dorsal vertebræ greatly exceeds that of any of the
+succeeding vertebræ. The sternum is variable, but generally narrow,
+bilobate in front, and divided into segments. The pectoral girdle
+presents some remarkable adaptive modifications, most fully expressed
+in _Talpa_, having relation to the use of the fore limbs in burrowing;
+but in the Golden Moles (_Chrysochloris_) the forearm and manus alone
+become specially modified for this purpose. In _Galeopithecus_ and
+_Macroscelides_ the bones of the forearm (radius and ulna) are distally
+united. The manus has generally five digits, but in _Rhynchocyon_ and
+in one species of _Oryzorictes_ the pollex is wanting, while in the
+true Moles it is extremely modified. The femur has, in most species,
+a prominent ridge below the greater trochanter representing a third
+trochanter. In _Galeopithecus_, _Tupaia_, _Centetes_, _Hemicentetes_,
+_Ericulus_, and _Solenodon_ the tibia and fibula are distinct, but in all
+the other genera more or less united together. The pes usually possesses
+five digits (rarely four by reduction of the hallux); and in some forms,
+as in the leaping species (_Macroscelides_, _Rhynchocyon_), the tarsal
+bones are greatly elongated. The form of the pelvis, and especially of
+the symphysis pubis, varies within certain limits; and these differences
+have been proposed by Leche as a basis for the classification of the
+families. Thus in the _Galeopithecidæ_, _Tupaiidæ_, and _Macroscelididæ_
+there is a long symphysis; in the _Erinaceidæ_, _Centetidæ_, and
+_Potamogalidæ_ the symphysis is short; and in the _Soricidæ_, _Talpidæ_,
+and _Chrysochloridæ_ there is none.
+
+Space does not admit of attempting a sketch of the modifications of the
+muscular system, which will be found fully described in Dr. Dobson’s
+_Monograph_, referred to in the bibliography. As to the nervous system,
+it has been already mentioned that the brain throughout the order
+presents a low type of organisation; in none of the members do the
+cerebral hemispheres present any trace of convolutions, nor do they
+extend backwards so as to cover the cerebellum, while the olfactory
+lobes are large and project in front, and the corpus callosum is short
+and thin. In the Hedgehogs (_Erinaceus_) the spinal column ends abruptly
+opposite the third or fourth dorsal vertebra in a slender filament,
+and the dorsal and lumbar nerves, given off in front of this point,
+are carried backwards in two compressed bundles occupying the suddenly
+narrowed spinal canal as far as the sacrum.
+
+Owing to the similarity in the character of the food, the truly
+insectivorous species, forming more than nine-tenths of the order,
+present little variety in the structure of their digestive organs. Except
+in _Galeopithecus_ the stomach is a simple, thin-walled sac; but in some,
+as in _Centetes_ and allied genera, the pyloric and œsophageal openings
+are very close together. The intestinal canal has much the same calibre
+throughout, and varies from three (in the Shrews) to twelve times (in
+the Hedgehogs) the length of the head and body. In the arboreal genera,
+_Galeopithecus_ and _Tupaia_, as well as in the _Macroscelididæ_, all of
+which probably feed in part on vegetable substances, most of the species
+possess a cæcum. The liver is deeply divided into lobes, the right and
+left lateral being cut off by deep fissures; and both the caudate and
+Spigelian lobes being generally well developed. The gall-bladder, which
+is usually large and globular, is placed on the middle of the posterior
+surface of the right central lobe.
+
+In most of the members of the order (_Soricidæ_, _Centetidæ_,
+_Chrysochloridæ_) the penis is capable of being more or less completely
+retracted within the fold of integument surrounding the anus; in some
+(_Galeopithecidæ_, _Talpidæ_) it is pendent in front of the anus; while
+in others (_Macroscelididæ_, _Erinaceidæ_, _Solenodontidæ_) it is
+carried forwards and suspended from the abdominal wall. In the subfamily
+_Centetinæ_ and _Chrysochloris_ the testes lie immediately behind the
+kidneys, but in others more or less within the pelvis. During the rutting
+season they become greatly enlarged, forming protrusions in the inguinal
+region. Except in _Rhynchocyon_ the uterine cornua are long and open
+into a short corpus uteri, which in many species (_Soricidæ_, _Talpidæ_,
+_Centetidæ_, _Chrysochloridæ_) is not separated from the vagina by a
+distinct os uteri. With the exception of _Galeopithecus_ all Insectivora
+appear to be multiparous, the number of young at a birth varying from two
+to eight in _Erinaceus_, and from twelve to twenty in _Centetes_. The
+position of the mammary glands and the number of the teats vary greatly.
+Thus in _Galeopithecus_ there are two pairs of axillary teats, and in
+_Solenodon_ a single post-inguinal pair; but in most species they range
+from the thorax to the abdomen, varying from two pairs in _Gymnura_ to
+twelve in _Centetes_. In _Chrysochloris_ the thoracic and inguinal teats
+are lodged in deep cup-shaped depressions.
+
+Odoriferous glands exist in many species. In most Shrews these glands
+occur on the sides of the body at a short distance behind the axilla,
+and their exudation is probably protective, since few carnivorous
+animals will eat the dead bodies of these creatures. In both species of
+_Gymnura_ and in _Potamogale_ large pouches are situated on either side
+of the rectum and discharge their secretions by ducts, opening in the
+first-named genus in front of, and in the latter within the margin of the
+anus. In _Centetes_ the ducts of similarly situated racemose glands open
+by pores at the bottom of deep pits placed at either side of the anus.
+
+The integument is thin, but in many species is lined by a muscular coat,
+which is probably more developed in the Hedgehogs (_Erinaceidæ_) than in
+any other mammal. In this family and the _Centetidæ_ most of the species
+are protected by spines implanted in the panniculus carnosus muscle, and
+more or less replacing the fur of the upper surface of the body.
+
+The order is usually divided into two suborders, but the very aberrant
+genus which constitutes the first might well be raised to ordinal rank.
+It has little in common with the true Insectivora, but as it certainly
+belongs to no other of the recognised mammalian orders it is retained
+among them chiefly to avoid the inconvenience of increasing the number of
+ordinal divisions for the sake of a single isolated form.
+
+
+_Suborder_ DERMOPTERA.
+
+Upper and lower incisors compressed, multicuspidate, the lower deeply
+pectinated; fore and hind limbs connected by a broad integumentary
+expansion forming a parachute.
+
+
+_Family_ GALEOPITHECIDÆ.
+
+In addition to the characters given under the head of the suborder it may
+be mentioned that the orbit is nearly surrounded by bone, the zygomatic
+arches are well developed, the tympanic forms a bulla, the ulna is
+distally united with the radius, the tibia and fibula are distinct, the
+pubic symphysis is long, the penis is pendent, the testes are received
+into inguinal pouches, the mammæ are axillary, the uterus is two-horned,
+and there is a large cæcum.
+
+_Galeopithecus._[530]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃;
+total 34. Second upper incisor and canine with two roots. Two species—_G.
+volans_ and _G. philippinensis_. The former, which is distinguished
+from the latter by the form of the upper incisors, has a total length
+of nearly 2 feet. The long and slender limbs are connected by a broad
+integumentary expansion extending outwards from the sides of the neck
+and body, and forming also a web between the fingers and toes as far as
+the base of the claws (Fig. 282); the hind limbs are further connected by
+a similar expansion passing outwards along the back of the feet to the
+base of the claws, and, inwardly, involving the long tail to the tip,
+forming a true interfemoral membrane, as in the Bats.
+
+The two species of Flying Lemurs, as the representatives of this genus
+are commonly but erroneously called, live in the forests of the Malay
+Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippine Islands, where they feed
+chiefly on the leaves and fruits of trees. Their habits are nocturnal,
+and during the daytime they cling to the trunks or limbs of trees, head
+downwards, in a state of repose. With the approach of night their season
+of activity commences, when they may be seen gliding from tree to tree
+supported on their cutaneous parachute, and they have been observed to
+traverse in this way a space of 70 yards with a descent of only about one
+in five.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 282.—Feet of _Galeopithecus philippinensis_.]
+
+_Galeopithecus_ was referred by some of the older zoologists and
+anatomists to the Bats, and by others to the Lemurs, but Professor
+Peters’s view, that it belongs to neither of these orders, and should be
+considered an aberrant Insectivore, has been very generally accepted,
+although, as mentioned above, the association is by no means a close one.
+Besides differing from the Bats in the form of the anterior limbs and of
+the double-rooted outer incisor and canine, it also contrasts strongly
+with them in the presence of a large sacculated cæcum, and in the great
+length of the colon, which is so remarkably short in all the Chiroptera.
+From the Lemurs, on the other hand, the form of the brain, the characters
+of the teeth, the structure of the skull, and the deciduate discoidal
+placenta completely separate it. In a recent elaborate memoir on the
+myology and affinities of _Galeopithecus_ Dr. Leche[531] considers that
+we have in this genus an indication of the mode in which the Insectivora
+were modified into the Chiroptera, although it is completely off the
+direct line of descent. The deeply pectinated crowns of the lower
+incisors of _Galeopithecus_ are quite unique in the class, and the only
+approach to the double-rooted canine, except in _Erinaceus_ and _Talpa_,
+is found among the Marsupials in _Perameles_, where the root of the
+canine is grooved.
+
+
+_Suborder_ INSECTIVORA VERA.
+
+Upper and lower incisors conical, unicuspidate or with basal cusps only,
+the lower not pectinated; limbs free, formed for terrestrial progression.
+
+The following table gives a key to the distinctive characters of the
+existing families:—
+
+  I. Upper molars broad, multicuspidate, with more or less
+     well-defined W-shaped crowns.
+
+     A. Symphysis pubis long; generally a cæcum; cerebral cavity
+        comparatively large.
+
+        _a._ Orbit encircled by bone; metatarsus moderate; arboreal.
+             _Tupaiidæ_.
+
+        _b._ Orbit not encircled by bone; metatarsus greatly elongated;
+             terrestrial. _Macroscelididæ._
+
+    B. Symphysis pubis short or none; no cæcum; cerebral cavity
+       small; skull without postorbital processes.
+
+        _a._ First and second upper molars with a central fifth cusp.
+
+             _a′._ Tympanic annular, not forming a bulla. _Erinaceidæ._
+
+        _b._ No central fifth cusp to upper molars.
+
+             _a′._ Tympanic annular, not forming a bulla; no zygomatic
+                   arch. _Soricidæ._
+
+             _b′._ Tympanic forming a bulla; zygomatic arch developed.
+                   _Talpidæ._
+
+  II. Upper molars narrow, with V-shaped crowns.
+
+             _a′._ Tympanic annular, not forming a bulla; zygomatic
+                   arch imperfect.
+
+                   _a″._ No clavicles. _Potamogalidæ._
+
+                   _b″._ Clavicles well developed.
+
+                         _a‴._ Skull constricted between the orbits;
+                               penis suspended. _Solenodontidæ._
+
+                         _b‴._ Skull not constricted; penis pendent,
+                               retractile. _Centetidæ._
+
+             _b′._ Tympanic forming a bulla; zygomatic arch well
+                   developed. _Chrysochloridæ._
+
+The second section, in which the molars are of the primitive
+tritubercular type, should probably be regarded as containing the most
+generalised representatives of the order; and it is noteworthy that the
+whole of them are confined to Africa, Madagascar, and the West Indies,
+whereas most of the first section are widely distributed over the
+Palæarctic and Oriental regions. None of the existing families of the
+second section are known in a fossil condition, although it is suggested
+that the extinct _Leptictidæ_ includes allied types.
+
+
+_Family_ TUPAIIDÆ.
+
+Skull with comparatively large brain-case, orbit surrounded by bone,
+well-developed zygomatic arch, perforated jugal, and a tympanic bulla.
+Upper molar broad, with cusps arranged in a W. Pubic symphysis long;
+radius and ulna, and tibia and fibula separate; metatarsus only slightly
+longer than tarsus. Usually a short cæcum. Habits arboreal and diurnal.
+Confined to the Oriental region.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 283.—The Pentailed Tree-Shrew (_Ptilocercus lowi_).
+From Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1848. ½ natural size.]
+
+_Tupaia._[532]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+38. Feet naked beneath, the sole furnished with projecting pads; claws
+moderate, curved, and sharp; head pointed; ears rounded; tail bushy,
+distichous, with short hair below. The Tree-Shrews, of which there are
+some nine species, are found in India, Burma, the Malay Peninsula,
+the Nicobars, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. The species closely resemble
+one another, differing chiefly in size and in the colour and length of
+the fur. Their general appearance is very Squirrel-like. Their food
+consists of insects and fruit, which they usually seek in the trees, but
+also occasionally on the ground. When feeding they often sit on their
+haunches, holding the food, after the manner of Squirrels, between their
+forepaws.
+
+_Ptilocercus._[533]—Represented only by the Pentailed Tree-Shrew (_P.
+lowi_, Fig. 283) of Borneo, in which the tail is of extraordinary length,
+with the proximal two-thirds naked, and the remaining third furnished
+with a bilateral fringe of long hairs, from which the genus takes its
+name.
+
+_Extinct Genera._—An Insectivore from the Middle Miocene of France,
+described as _Lantanotherium_, is said to be nearly allied to _Tupaia_.
+The genus _Parasorex_, from strata of similar age, has the dental formula
+_i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃, and is regarded as connecting the
+present with the following family.
+
+
+_Family_ MACROSCELIDIDÆ.
+
+Skull with comparatively large brain-case, strong zygomatic arch, a
+tympanic bulla, orbit surrounded by bone, imperforate jugal, and usually
+no postorbital process. Molars broad, with four cusps arranged in a W.
+Pubic symphysis long; proximal end of tibia and fibula united; radius
+and ulna united or separate; metatarsus much longer than tarsus. A large
+cæcum. Habits terrestrial, saltatorial, and nocturnal. The family is
+confined to Africa.
+
+_Macroscelides._[534]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ²⁄₂₋₃;
+total 40 or 42. Distal extremity of radius and ulna united. Five digits
+in manus, and five or four in pes. This genus, which is taken to include
+_Petrodromus_, comprises ten species widely distributed throughout the
+African continent. All are closely related, resembling one another
+in general form, and even in the colour of the fur. They fall into
+two groups, distinguished by the presence or absence of a small third
+lower molar.[535] _M. tetradactylus_ (Fig. 284), the type of the genus
+_Petrodromus_, differs from all the other species in the absence of the
+hallux, and of the third lower molar. These animals are commonly known
+as Jumping Shrews, and, like the following genus, have the muzzle much
+produced.
+
+_Rhynchocyon._[536]—Dentition: _i_ ¹⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ²⁄₂;
+total 36. Upper incisor frequently shed in the adult. Radius and ulna
+distinct; hind limbs relatively shorter, and proboscis longer than in the
+type genus; four digits in each foot. Four closely allied species have
+been described from East Africa. The head and body of the type species
+measures about 8 inches in length; and the long tail is covered with a
+ringed skin, sparsely haired. Its habits are fossorial.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 284.—_Macroscelides tetradactylus._ × ½. (From
+Peters, _Reise nach Mossambique._)]
+
+
+_Family_ ERINACEIDÆ.
+
+Skull with a small brain-case; no postorbital process; slender and
+occasionally imperfect zygomatic arch, and an annular tympanic, which
+does not form a bulla. Upper molars with four principal cusps and a small
+central median cusp. Acromion of scapula bifid; pubic symphysis short;
+radius and ulna free, but tibia and fibula united proximally. No cæcum;
+penis carried forward and suspended from the wall of the abdomen. Habits
+terrestrial. Found in the Palæarctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions.
+
+Subfamily =Gymnurinæ=.—Palate completely ossified; pelvis very narrow;
+fur without spines.
+
+_Gymnura._[537]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃; total 44.
+This genus, if _Hylomys_ is rightly included, is represented by the two
+species, _G. rafflesi_ and _G. suilla_, from the Malay Peninsula and
+Indian Archipelago. The former has the appearance of a large Rat with
+a long tail and head and projecting mobile snout; the latter, which is
+much smaller, with a short tail and small third upper premolar, has long
+been known under the name of _Hylomys suillus_, and classed with the
+_Tupaiidæ_. Both species present a very generalised type of dentition,
+in this respect occupying an almost central position in the order.
+_G. suilla_ is represented in Mount Kina-Balu, Borneo, by a variety
+characterised by the presence of a dark dorsal streak. Many zoologists
+prefer to retain _Hylomys_ as a distinct genus.
+
+Subfamily =Erinaceinæ=.—Palate imperfectly ossified; pelvis wide; fur
+with spines.
+
+_Erinaceus._[538]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+36. The first pair of upper incisors (Fig. 285) are considerably larger
+than the others, and are widely separated from one another in the middle
+line; the canine is very similar to the third incisor; and, except
+in _E. europæus_ (Fig. 285), each of these teeth is inserted by two
+distinct roots (Fig. 280, p. 610). The first lower incisor is large and
+proclivous. The number of vertebræ is C 7, D 15, L 6, S 3, C 11.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 285.—Right lateral aspect of the anterior portion of
+the skull of the Hedgehog (_Erinaceus europæus_). Enlarged. (From Dobson,
+_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1881, p. 403.)]
+
+The Hedgehogs comprise nearly twenty species, distributed throughout
+Europe, Africa, and the greater part of Asia, but not found in
+Madagascar, Ceylon, Burma, Siam, the Malay Peninsula, or Australia. All
+the species resemble one another in the armature of spines investing the
+upper surface and sides of the body; and all possess the power of rolling
+themselves up into the form of a ball, protected on all sides by the
+strong spines; the dorsal integument being brought downwards and inwards
+over the head and tail, so as to include the limbs also, by the action of
+special muscles. The common Hedgehog (_E. europæus_) is the most aberrant
+species, differing from all the rest in the peculiarly shaped and
+single-rooted third upper incisor and canine (Fig. 285), and in its very
+coarse, harsh fur. The dentition of the long-eared North Indian form,
+_E. collaris_ (Fig. 280), may be considered characteristic of all the
+other species, the only important differences being found in the variable
+size and position of the second upper premolar, which is very small,
+external, and deciduous in the Indian _E. micropus_ and _pictus_. The
+former species, limited to South India, is further distinguished by the
+absence of the jugal bone. Of the African species, _E. diadematus_, with
+long frontal spines, is probably the commonest; while _E. albiventris_
+has been made the type of a separate genus on account of the total
+absence of the hallux.
+
+The well-known European species feeds on insects, worms, slugs, mice,
+rats, lizards, snakes, etc., as well as on eggs, fruit, and roots. It
+hibernates during the winter. The young are usually produced in July
+or August in litters of not more than four, but there may be a second
+litter in October; and the period of gestation is believed not to exceed
+a month. The Indian, and probably also the African species, do not
+hibernate.
+
+The existing _E. europæus_ dates from the Pleistocene period, and extinct
+species of the genus are found in the Upper and Middle Miocene of the
+Continent.
+
+_Extinct Genera._—The French Lower Miocene genus, _Palæoerinaceus_,
+appears to be allied to _Erinaceus_, but is distinguished by the
+wider and completely ossified palate. In the Upper Eocene of Central
+France there are two genera, which appear to be most nearly allied to
+_Gymnura_, although connected by _Palæoerinaceus_ with _Erinaceus_. Of
+these _Necrogymnurus_,[539] with which _Cayluxotherium_ is apparently
+identical, has teeth like _Gymnura_, but an imperfectly ossified palate
+like _Erinaceus_; and the skull is remarkable for the peculiar rugose
+structure of the parietal and temporal regions. _Comphotherium_ is
+distinguished by the presence of a cingulum to the lower molars, like
+that found in _Gymnura_.
+
+
+_Family_ SORICIDÆ.
+
+Skull (Fig. 286) long and narrow, with no zygomatic arch or postorbital
+process, and the tympanic ring-like and not forming a bulla. Upper molars
+with the cusps arranged in a distinct W. No pubic symphysis. The tibia
+and fibula united. No cæcum. Habits usually terrestrial, rarely aquatic.
+Distribution extensive.
+
+The Shrews are Rat-like or Mouse-like insectivores, with the body covered
+with hair, and the muzzle long and pointed. Their dentition (Fig. 286)
+is peculiar and characteristic. Thus the first upper incisor is large
+and hook-like, with a more or less developed basal cusp on the posterior
+border. Between this and the last premolar there are a variable number
+of small teeth, representing the other incisors, the canine, and the
+anterior premolars; although, owing to the early obliteration of the
+maxillo-premaxillary suture, their homology is exceedingly difficult to
+determine. Three molars are invariably present, of which the third is
+much the smallest. In the mandible there are always six teeth, but in one
+species of _Myosorex_ there may be a seventh. The first lower incisor
+is usually directed horizontally forwards; the second incisor (formerly
+reckoned as the canine) is the smallest tooth of the series, the fourth
+premolar being slightly larger.
+
+This family, which includes considerably more than half the
+representatives of the order, has a distribution coextensive with the
+latter. Many classifications of this difficult group have been attempted,
+but according to the latest proposal of Dr. Dobson,[540] the genera may
+be divided into two subfamilies, distinguished by the apparently trivial
+character of the colour of the teeth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 286.—Left lateral view of the cranium and mandible
+of _Sorex veræpacis_. In the cranium—_i_, first incisor; _c_, fourth
+incisor; _p_, canine; _m_, fourth premolar: in the mandible—_i_, first
+incisor; _c_, second incisor; _p_, fourth premolar; _m_, first molar.
+(From Alston, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1877.)]
+
+Subfamily =Soricinæ=.—Summits of the teeth coloured red.
+
+_Sorex._[541]—Dentition: _i_ ⁴⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ²⁄₁, _m_ ³⁄₃; total 32.
+Openings of male and female generative organs separated from the anal
+orifice; penis cylindrical or tapering; ear well developed; tail long,
+covered with equal or subequal hairs.
+
+It has been shown by Brandt that the position of the premaxillo-maxillary
+sutures in the type of the genus is between the fourth and fifth tooth,
+so that it appears that we must regard this genus as differing from all
+other Eutherian mammals in having four upper incisors. Dr. Dobson, in
+his paper quoted, classes the tooth here reckoned as the upper canine
+with the premolar series in all the Shrews. Habits terrestrial. Species
+numerous, inhabiting the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions.
+
+Of the two species found in the British Isles the Common Shrew (_S.
+vulgaris_, Fig. 287) is by far the most common in England, and is about
+the size of the House Mouse, to which it approximates in general form.
+The body is clothed with close long fur, very soft and dense, and varying
+in colour from light reddish to dark brown above, rarely speckled or
+banded with white. The under surface of both the body and the tail is
+grayish. The basal four-fifths of all the hairs above and beneath are
+dark bluish-gray; the hairs of the tail are less densely set and coarser.
+On each side of the body, at a point about one-third of the distance
+between the elbow and the knee, may be found, especially in the rutting
+season, a gland covered by two rows of coarse hairs. This secretes a
+peculiar fluid, on which the odour of the animal depends; this odour
+being evidently protective, and rendering the creature secure against the
+attacks of many predaceous animals.
+
+The geographical range of the Common Shrew is exceedingly wide, extending
+eastwards through Europe and Asia (north of the Himalayas) to North
+America.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 287.—The Common Shrew (_Sorex vulgaris_).]
+
+The Lesser Shrew (_S. pygmæus_[542]) is far less common in England and
+Scotland, although more abundant in Ireland, where _S. vulgaris_ is
+unknown. It is distinguished from the latter not only by its inferior
+dimensions, but also by the circumstance that the third upper incisor is
+not longer than the fourth, and by the considerably shorter length of the
+forearm and manus. This species extends through Europe and Asia as far
+as the inland of Saghalin. Both this and the preceding species generally
+live in wooded districts, making their nests under the roots of trees, or
+in slight hollows. The great mortality noticeable among the Shrews in the
+early part of the autumn is probably due to insufficiency of food. The
+breeding season extends from the latter part of April to the beginning of
+August. The young, which are blind, naked, and toothless at birth, are
+very quickly developed. The number in a litter is usually from five to
+seven, but may be as many as ten.
+
+The Alpine Shrew (_S. alpinus_), which is restricted to the Alpine region
+of Central Europe, is slightly larger than the common species, from which
+it is distinguished by the longer tail, the length of which exceeds that
+of the head and body, by the fur being dark on both surfaces of the body,
+and also by the larger size of the upper canine.
+
+In North America _S. bendirei_ is by far the largest species of the
+genus; and, as in many other species of the same country, the fourth
+upper incisor is relatively small. In _S. hoyi_ (separated by some
+writers as _Microsorex_), of the same country, this tooth is rudimentary.
+
+Other North American Shrews, which are regarded by some zoologists as
+generically distinct under the name of _Neosorex_, are aquatic, and
+thus take the place of the Old World genus _Crossopus_. These are _S.
+palustris_ of the Rocky Mountains and _S. hydrodromus_ of Unalaska
+Island, both of which resemble _Crossopus_ in having the feet provided
+with swimming fringes, but agree with the other species of _Sorex_ in
+their dentition and the character of the tail. The former species is
+about the size of _Crossopus fodiens_, while the latter is scarcely
+larger than _S. pygmæus_.
+
+_Soriculus._[543]—Dentition: _i_ ⁴⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ¹⁻²⁄₁, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+30, or rarely 32. Opening of male or female generative organs forming
+with the anal orifice a shallow cloaca. Ear and tail as in _Sorex_. First
+upper incisor with an internal cusp. Habits terrestrial.
+
+This genus is the only representative in the Oriental region of the
+_Soricinæ_, which are otherwise confined to the Palæarctic and Nearctic
+regions. The Indian and Burmese species comprise _S. nigrescens_, _S.
+caudatus_, and _S. macrurus_.
+
+_Notiosorex._[544]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ¹⁄₁, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+28. Tail moderate; first upper incisor without an inner cusp; other
+characters as in _Soriculus_. Habits terrestrial.
+
+This American genus is represented by _S. crawfordi_ and _S. evotis_,
+which are found in Central America and Mexico, and are thus some of the
+most southerly representatives of the Shrews in that continent. Their
+external appearance is very similar to that of the Old World genus
+_Crocidura_.
+
+_Blarina._[545]—Dentition: _i_ ⁴⁻³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ²⁄₁, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+32 or 30. Ear truncated above; tail short; otherwise as in _Soriculus_.
+This group of so-called Earless or Short-tailed Shrews is mainly North
+American, the common forms being _B. dekayi_ and _B. brevicauda_. The
+species vary considerably in size; and _B. mexicana_ and _micrura_ extend
+the range of the genus into Mexico and Guatemala. The following account
+of the habits of _B. brevicauda_ is taken from Dr. Merriam’s _Mammals
+of the Adirondack Region_: “The rigours of our northern winters seem to
+have no effect in diminishing its activity, for it scampers about on the
+snow during the severest weather, and I have known it to be out when the
+thermometer indicated a temperature of -20° Fahr. It makes long journeys
+over the snow, burrowing down whenever it comes to an elevation that
+denotes the presence of a log or stump, and I am inclined to believe that
+at this season it must feed largely upon the chrysalides and larvæ of
+insects that are always to be found in such places.” Dr. Merriam has made
+the interesting discovery that the common short-tailed North American
+Shrew supplements its insectivorous fare by feeding on beech-nuts, which
+will account for the generally very worn state of the teeth in this
+species.
+
+_Crossopus._[546]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ²⁄₁, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+30. Opening of male or female generative organs enclosed within the same
+ring as the anal orifice; penis broad, with lateral processes. Ears
+small, not truncated. Tail long, with an inferior fringe of elongated
+hair; feet also fringed. Habits aquatic. The Palæarctic Water-Shrew (_C.
+fodiens_) is considerably larger than the Common Shrew, from which it is
+readily distinguished externally by its shorter and much broader muzzle,
+comparatively smaller eyes, and larger feet adapted for swimming,—the
+sides of the feet and toes being provided with comb-like fringes of stiff
+hairs. The tail is longer than the body, and possesses a well-developed
+swimming fringe of moderately long, regularly arranged hairs, which
+extend along the middle of the flat under surface from the end of its
+basal third to its extremity. The fur of the body is long and very dense,
+varying much in colour in different individuals, and this has given rise
+to descriptions of many nominal species; the prevailing shades are dark
+brown, almost black, above, and more or less bright ashy tinged with
+yellowish beneath; sometimes in the same litter there are individuals
+with the under surface more or less dark coloured. In the number as well
+as in the shape of the teeth the Water-Shrew differs from the Common
+Shrew: there is a premolar less on each side above; the bases of the
+teeth are much more prolonged posteriorly; and their cusps are much less
+stained brown, so that in old individuals with worn teeth they often
+appear altogether white. This species resembles the otter in its aquatic
+habits, swimming and diving with great agility. It frequents rivers and
+lakes, making its burrows in the overhanging banks, from which when
+disturbed it escapes into the water. Its food consists of insects and
+their larvæ, small crustaceans, and probably the fry of small fishes. It
+is generally distributed throughout England, is less common in Scotland,
+and as yet it has not been recorded in Ireland; specimens have been
+obtained from many parts of Europe, and also from Asia as far eastward as
+the Altai Mountains.
+
+Subfamily =Crocidurinæ=.—Teeth completely white.
+
+_Myosorex._[547]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ²⁄₁₋₂, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+30 or 32. Penis cylindroid and tapering; male or female generative
+organs opening close to anal orifice, but not forming a cloaca. Ears
+well developed; tail long, clothed with equal or subequal hairs. Habits
+terrestrial.
+
+This genus is typically represented by _M. varius_, a very small Shrew
+from the Cape, which is quite unique among the whole family in having a
+rudimental seventh pair of lower teeth.
+
+_Crocidura._[548]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ²⁻¹⁄₁, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+28 or 30. Male or female generative organs forming a short cloaca with
+the anal orifice. Tail long, with a mixture of long and short hairs.
+Other characters as in _Myosorex_. Habits terrestrial.
+
+This Old World genus includes over seventy nominal species, which have
+been divided into four subgenera, _C. aranea_ and _C. suaveolens_ of
+Continental Europe, and _C. cœrulea_ of India, being well-known forms.
+The species are very variable and difficult to discriminate. _C. aranea_
+has a very wide distribution, ranging from Central and Southern Europe
+to North Africa and Central Asia. The name Musk-Rat is popularly applied
+in India to _C. cœrulea_, which frequents houses at night, hunting round
+rooms for cockroaches and other insects, and occasionally uttering a
+sharp shrill cry. The strong musky odour of this animal arises from
+large glands situated beneath the skin of the side of the body, a short
+distance behind the fore limbs. This odour is so powerful and penetrating
+that it is popularly believed in India that if the animal runs over a
+corked bottle of wine or beer it will infect the fluid within. Jerdon
+says that certainly many bottles are met with quite undrinkable from the
+peculiar musky odour of their contents, but, rejecting the possibility of
+its passing through the glass, he attributes it to the corks having been
+infected previously to bottling, stating in corroboration of this view
+that he has never found the odour in liquors bottled in England.
+
+_Diplomesodon._[549]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ¹⁄₁, _m_ ³⁄₃;
+total 26. Tail moderate; soles of the feet hairy. Other characters as in
+_Crocidura_. Habits terrestrial.
+
+This genus is represented only by _D. pulchellus_ of the Kirghiz steppes,
+which is allied to the following form, although retaining the normal
+Shrew-like external contour.
+
+_Anurosorex._[550]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ¹⁄₁, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+26. Ear very short; tail rudimental or short; soles of feet naked. Other
+characters as in _Diplomesodon_.
+
+The two species of this genus are Mole-like terrestrial forms, of which
+the typical _A. squamipes_ occurs in Tibet, while _A. assamensis_ is
+found in Assam. The latter species has the longer tail. The habits of
+both are probably fossorial.
+
+_Chimarrogale._[551]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ¹⁄₁, _m_ ³⁄₃;
+total 28. Penis broad, with lateral processes; male or female generative
+organs opening within the same integumentary ring as the anal orifice.
+Tail long, with an inferior fringe of elongated hairs; ears small;
+plantar callosities simple; toes free. Habits aquatic.
+
+This genus includes _C. himalayica_ of the Himalaya and _C.
+platycephalus_ of Japan. Both have the feet fringed, and, together with
+the next genus, may be regarded as the eastern analogues of _Crossopus_
+among the red-toothed series; their structural resemblances to the
+latter, if Dr. Dobson’s classification is a natural one, being probably
+due to adaptation for a similar mode of life.
+
+_Nectogale._[552]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ¹⁄₁, _m_ ³⁄₃;
+total 28. External ears not forming a conch, valvular. Plantar
+callosities forming adhesive pads; toes webbed. Other characters as in
+_Chimarrogale_. Habits aquatic.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 288.—_Nectogale elegans._ (From Milne-Edwards,
+_Mammif. Tibet_.)]
+
+The sole representative of this genus is the Tibetan Water-Shrew (_N.
+elegans_, Fig. 288), which differs from all other members of the family
+by the webbed toes and the presence of the disc-like adhesive pads on the
+under surface of the feet, which are believed to enable the creature to
+hold on to smooth rocks or stones in the beds of the streams it inhabits.
+This species is probably more completely aquatic in its habits than the
+allied _Chimarrogale_.
+
+_Fossil Soricidæ._—Remains of existing species of _Sorex_ or _Crossopus_
+occur in the Norfolk Forest bed, while an extinct species has been found
+in the Pleistocene of Sardinia. _Crocidura_ occurs in the cavern-deposits
+of Madras. Shrews from the Miocene and Upper Eocene of Europe have been
+referred to _Sorex_ and the genus _Amphisorex_, which is a synonym of
+_Crossopus_.
+
+
+_Family_ TALPIDÆ.
+
+Allied to the _Soricidæ_, but distinguished by the presence of a
+zygomatic arch and auditory bulla in the skull, and by the form of
+the teeth. The eyes are very small, and in some species covered with
+skin; the ears are short and concealed by the fur; the fore limbs are
+generally more or less modified for digging; there is no symphysis pubis;
+the intestine has no cæcum; the tibia and fibula are united; and the
+unicuspidate first upper and lower incisors are not extended horizontally
+forwards.
+
+This family is connected with the _Soricidæ_ by _Urotrichus_ and
+_Uropsilus_. All the members are limited to the temperate regions
+of Europe, Asia, and North America; and the majority of them are of
+fossorial habits, although a few are aquatic or cursorial. The family has
+been divided into two subfamilies by Professor Mivart, and since this
+arrangement has been very generally adopted it will be followed here.
+From the presence of intermediate forms like _Scaptonyx_ Dr. Dobson, in
+the second part of his _Monograph of the Insectivora_, has proposed a
+different arrangement, which, with the omission of some forms which are
+of not more than subgeneric value, is as follows:—
+
+    MYOGALÆ—_Myogale_.
+    CONDYLURÆ—_Condylura_.
+    SCALOPES { _Scapanus_.
+             { _Scalops_.
+    TALPÆ—_Talpa_.
+    UROTRICHI { _Scaptonyx_.
+              { _Urotrichus_.
+    UROPSILI—_Uropsilus_.
+
+Subfamily =Myogalinæ=.—Clavicles and humerus moderately elongated; manus
+without falciform bone.
+
+_Myogale_.[553]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+44. Feet webbed. Habits aquatic. This genus is represented by the two
+species _M. moschata_ (Fig. 289) and _M. pyrenaica_, of which the former
+is by far the largest member of the family, its total length being about
+16 inches. Its long proboscis-like snout projects far beyond the margin
+of the upper lip; the toes are webbed as far as the bases of the claws;
+and the long scaly tail is laterally flattened, so as to form a powerful
+instrument of propulsion when swimming. This species inhabits the banks
+of streams and lakes in South-East Russia, where its food consists of
+various aquatic insects. _M. pyrenaica_, living in a similar manner in
+the region of the Pyrenees, is very much smaller, has a round tail, and
+a proportionally longer snout. Fossil remains of _M. moschata_ occur in
+the Norfolk Forest bed, and were originally described under the name of
+_Palæospalax_. The genus is also represented in the Middle and Lower
+Miocene of the Continent.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 289.—The Desman (_Myogale moschata_). ¹⁄₃ natural
+size.]
+
+_Urotrichus._[554]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₁, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₃ or ³⁄₄, _m_
+³⁄₃; total 36. Feet not webbed; manus broad. Habits fossorial. The
+Mole-Shrews, as these animals are called, are represented by _U.
+talpoides_ of the mountains of Japan and _U. gibbsi_ of North America.
+These two species are small and closely allied animals; the American form
+(which it has been proposed to separate subgenerically as _Neurotrichus_)
+having _p_ ³⁄₄.
+
+_Uropsilus._[555]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₁, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+34. Manus narrow; tail naked and scaly. Habits cursorial. The single
+species, _U. soricipes_, from the borders of Tibet, is a slate-coloured
+animal with the external form of a Shrew but the skull of a Mole.
+
+Subfamily =Talpinæ=.—Clavicle and humerus very short and broad; manus
+with a large falciform bone.
+
+A. First upper incisor much larger than the second (New World Moles).
+
+_Scalops._[556]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+36. Extremity of muzzle simple; hind feet webbed; tail short and nearly
+naked. Represented by three species in the United States.
+
+_Scapanus._[557]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+44. Extremity of muzzle simple. The two North American species of this
+genus resemble _Scalops_ in general characters, but have a dentition like
+_Condylura_. The habits are like those of the latter, and the right to
+generic distinction is doubtful.
+
+_Condylura._[558]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃;
+total 44. Extremity of muzzle surrounded by filiform appendages. The
+Star-nosed Mole (_C. cristata_) derives its name from the star-like ring
+of appendages at the extremity of the muzzle, with the nostrils in the
+centre. The general contour is Mole-like, but the tail is nearly as long
+as the body, and the manus is somewhat less powerful, with its terminal
+phalanges not cleft. The length of the head and body is about 5 inches.
+This species is common in parts of North America, and forms tunnels in
+the ground like the Common Mole.
+
+B. First upper incisor scarcely larger than the second (Old World Moles).
+
+_Scaptonyx._[559]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+42. Manus moderately broad, as in _Urotrichus_. Represented only by _S.
+fusicaudatus_ of Eastern Tibet, which may be regarded as connecting
+_Talpa_ with _Urotrichus_, having the head of the former and the limbs of
+the latter.
+
+_Talpa._[560]—Dentition (usually): _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃;
+total 44. Manus extremely broad.
+
+This genus includes the true Moles, of which the common English
+Mole[561] (_T. europæa_) is the type. This animal is about 6 inches in
+total length, of which rather more than one inch is occupied by the
+tail. The body is elongated and cylindrical, and, owing to the very
+anterior position of the fore limbs, the head appears to rest between
+the shoulders; the muzzle is long and obtusely pointed, terminated by
+the nostrils, which are close together; the minute eye is almost hidden
+by the fur; the ear is without a conch, and opens on a level with the
+surrounding integument. The fore limbs are rather short and very
+muscular, terminating in broad, naked, shovel-shaped feet, with the palms
+normally directed outwards, and each with five subequal digits armed with
+strong flattened claws. The hind feet are long and narrow, and the toes
+are provided with slender claws. The body is densely covered with soft,
+erect, velvety fur, the hairs being uniform in length and thickness,
+except on the muzzle and short tail. The colour of the fur is generally
+black, with a more or less grayish tinge, or brownish-black, but various
+paler shades up to pure white have been observed.
+
+The food of the Mole consists chiefly of the earth-worm, in pursuit of
+which it forms its well-known underground excavations. Its habits were
+many years ago studied and described by M. Henri le Court. Like many
+other mammals, the Mole has a lair to which it may retire for security.
+This consists of a central nest formed under a hillock, placed in some
+protected situation, as under a bank, or between the roots of trees. The
+nest, which is lined with dried grass or leaves, communicates with the
+main run by four passages, of which only one joins it directly, leading
+downwards for a short distance and then ascending again. The other
+three are directed upwards and communicate at regular intervals with a
+circular gallery constructed in the upper part of the hillock, which in
+turn communicates by five passages leading downwards and outwards with
+another much larger gallery placed lower down on a level with the central
+nest, from which passages proceed outwards in different directions, one
+only communicating directly with the main run, while the others, curving
+round, either soon join or end blindly. The main run is somewhat wider
+than the animal’s body: its walls are smooth, and formed of closely
+compressed earth, the depth varying according to the nature of the soil,
+but ordinarily from 4 to 6 inches. Along this tunnel the animal passes
+backwards and forwards several times daily, and here traps are laid by
+mole-catchers for its capture. From the main run numerous passages are
+formed on each side, along which the animal hunts its prey, throwing out
+the soil in the form of mole-hills. The Mole is one of the most voracious
+of mammals, and, if deprived of food, is said to die in from ten to
+twelve hours. Almost any kind of flesh is eagerly devoured by captive
+Moles, which have been seen by various observers, as if maddened by
+hunger, to attack animals nearly as large as themselves, such as birds,
+lizards, frogs, and even snakes; toads, however, they will not touch, and
+no form of vegetable food attracts their notice. If two Moles be confined
+together without food, the weaker is invariably devoured by the stronger.
+Moles take readily to the water, in which respect they resemble their
+representatives on the North American continent. Bruce, writing in 1793,
+remarks that he saw a Mole paddling towards a small island in the Loch of
+Clunie, 180 yards from land, on which he noticed mole-hills.
+
+The sexes come together about the second week in March, and the
+young—generally from four to six in number—which are brought forth in
+about six weeks, quickly attain their full size.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 290.—Skeleton of Mole × ⅔ (lower jaw removed to
+show base of skull). _c_, Calcaneum; _c.h._, clavicular articulation
+of the humerus; _cl._, clavicle; _e.c_, external condyle of humerus;
+_f._, femur; _fb_, fibula; _fc_, falciform bone (radial sesamoid); _h_,
+humerus; _i.c_, internal condyle of humerus; _il_, left ilium; _i.p_,
+ramus of the ilium and pubis; _is._, ischium; _l.d_, ridge of insertion
+of latissimus dorsi muscle; _l.t_, lesser trochanter; _m_, manubrium
+sterni; _o_, fourth intercentral ossicle; _ol_, olecranon; _p._, pubis
+widely separated from that of the opposite side; _pa._, patella; _p.m._,
+ridge for insertion of pectoralis major muscle; _pt._, pectineal
+eminence; _r_, radius; _rb_, first rib; _s_, plantar sesamoid ossicle
+corresponding to the radial sesamoid (os falciforme) in the manus; _sc._,
+scapula; _s.h._, scapular articulation of the humerus; _t_, tibia; _u_,
+ulna.]
+
+The Mole exhibits in the whole of its organisation a perfect adaptation
+to its peculiar mode of life. In the structure of the skeleton (Fig.
+290) very striking departures from the typical mammalian form are
+noticeable. Thus the presternum is so much produced anteriorly as to
+extend forward as far as a vertical line from the second cervical
+vertebra, carrying with it the very short and almost quadrate clavicle,
+which is articulated with its anterior extremity and distally with the
+humerus; being also connected ligamentously with the scapula. The fore
+limbs are thus brought opposite the sides of the neck, and from this
+position a threefold advantage is derived: in the first place, as this
+is the narrowest part of the body, they add but little to the general
+width, which if increased, would lessen the power of movement in a
+confined space; secondly, this position allows of a longer fore limb than
+would otherwise be possible, and so increases its power; and, thirdly,
+although the entire limb is relatively very short, its anterior position
+enables the animal, when burrowing, to thrust the claws so far forward
+as to be in a line with the end of the muzzle, the importance of which
+is evident. Posteriorly, the hind limbs are similarly removed out of the
+way by approximation of the hip-joints to the centre line of the body.
+This is effected by inward curvature of the innominate bones at the
+acetabula to such an extent that they almost meet in the centre, while
+the pubic bones are widely separated behind. The shortness of the fore
+limb is caused by the great reduction in the length of the humerus, which
+has lost all resemblance to its normal shape. In addition to the usual
+articulation with the glenoid cavity of the scapula, the humerus also has
+a separate articulation with the extremity of the clavicle. The bones
+of the manus are enormously expanded laterally; this expansion being
+increased by the large sickle-like bone on the radial side of the carpus,
+which is considered by some anatomists to represent the prepollex. The
+skull is long and tapering, with very slender zygomatic arches and
+elongated nasals, which are ankylosed together, and in advance of which
+the mesethmoid is more or less ossified. The vertebræ are usually C 7,
+D 13, L 6, S 6, C 10-12; all having very strong surfaces for mutual
+articulation. The upper incisors are chisel-like, and the canine has two
+roots; the first three upper premolars are simple and conical, but the
+fourth is much larger, and canine-like. In the mandible the incisors are
+small and somewhat proclivous, while the canine can only be distinguished
+from them by its position: the first lower premolar is larger than the
+others.
+
+The Common Mole has an exceedingly wide distribution, ranging over the
+greater part of the Palæarctic region, where it is met with in places so
+widely sundered as England and Japan. It occurs in both the Himalaya and
+Altai mountains. In Ireland it is unknown, and in Scotland it extends as
+far north as Caithness. Eight species of the genus are recognised, which
+may be grouped, from the characters of their dentition, as follows, viz.:
+_i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃, _T. wogura_; _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_
+⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃, _T. europæa_, _cæca_, _longirostris_, _micrura_; _i_ ³⁄₃,
+_c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃, _T. leucura_, _leptura_; _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_
+³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃, _T. moschata_.
+
+Except in _T. europæa_, the eyes are covered by a membrane. In _T.
+micrura_ the short tail is concealed by the fur. _T. cæca_ is found south
+of the Alps; the remaining species are Asiatic, and two only—_T. micrura_
+and _T. leucura_—occur south of the Himalaya. _T. moschata_, of Tibet,
+is regarded by some zoologists as generically distinct under the name of
+_Scaptochirus_.
+
+Remains of _T. europæa_ occur in the Norfolk Forest bed, while extinct
+species are found in the European Tertiaries as far down as the Lower
+Miocene, although it has been proposed to separate some of these forms
+generically. _Protalpa_, of the Upper Eocene Phosphorites of Central
+France, is very closely allied, but the structure of the humerus is
+somewhat less specialised.
+
+_Extinct Genera._—A number of extinct Insectivora from the European
+Tertiaries more or less closely allied to the Moles have been described,
+but since our knowledge of most of them is extremely imperfect their
+precise affinities are in many instances problematical. Of these, the
+Lower Miocene _Tetracus_ is said to have affinity both with _Myogale_ and
+_Erinaceus_; while the forms described as _Mysarachne_ and _Echinogale_,
+are considered to connect the present with the two preceding families.
+_Plesiosorex_ is another Lower Miocene type known only by the mandible,
+in which there are ten teeth; it is generally referred to the
+_Myogalinæ_. The minute _Amphidozotherium_, of the French Phosphorites,
+is considered to be allied to _Urotrichus_.
+
+
+_Family_ ADAPISORICIDÆ.
+
+This extinct family is represented by the genera _Adapisorex_ and
+_Adapisoriculus_, of the lowest Eocene of Rheims, which are regarded as
+allied to the _Soricidæ_, but somewhat more specialised. In the type
+genus the formula of the lower teeth is _i_ 2, _c_ 1, _p_ 4, _m_ 3; the
+incisors and canine being proclivous, and the molars (of which the last
+is small and without a third lobe) quadritubercular. _Adapisoriculus_ is
+a smaller form with differently shaped molars.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 291.—The last left upper cheek-teeth of
+_Pleuraspidotherium aumonieri_; from the Lowest Eocene of Rheims. _pr_,
+protocone; _me_, metacone; _pa_, paracone; _b_, cingulum-cusp. (From
+Osborn.)]
+
+Here also may be mentioned the genera _Orthaspidotherium_ and
+_Pleuraspidotherium_, from the above-mentioned deposits, which are
+probably members of the present order. They appear to have been animals
+somewhat smaller than a Hedgehog, with quadritubercular upper molars
+(Fig. 291), and the hinder premolars more complex than those of the
+_Erinaceidæ_. In the first-named genus the dental formula is _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_
+¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃; the third and fourth upper premolars having one
+outer column. _Pleuraspidotherium_ has apparently only three premolars,
+of which the third and fourth (Fig. 291) have two outer columns. The
+humerus in both has no entepicondylar foramen, the femur has a third
+trochanter, and the astragalus is vertically perforated.
+
+
+_Family_ POTAMOGALIDÆ.
+
+Skull with a small brain-case, no zygomatic arch or postorbital process,
+and the tympanic annulate and not forming a bulla. Upper molars with the
+cusps arranged in a broad V, and somewhat intermediate in structure
+between those of the preceding and succeeding families. No clavicle;
+pubic symphysis ligamentous; tibia and fibula typically united distally.
+No cæcum. Confined to the Ethiopian region.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 292.—_Potamogale velox._ × ¼. (From Allman, _Trans.
+Zool. Soc._ vol. vi. pl. i.)]
+
+_Potamogale._[562]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+40. Represented only by _P. velox_ of Western Equatorial Africa. This
+animal (Fig. 292) inhabits the banks of streams, and is thoroughly
+adapted for an aquatic life; it is nearly 2 feet in length, the
+tail measuring about half. The long cylindrical body is continued
+uninterruptedly into the thick laterally compressed tail, the legs are
+very short, and the toes are not webbed, progression through the water
+evidently depending wholly on the action of the powerful tail, while the
+limbs are folded inwards and backwards. The muzzle is broad and flat, and
+the nostrils are protected by valves. The fur is dark brown above, the
+extremities of the hairs on the back being of a metallic violet hue by
+reflected light, beneath whitish. This curious animal was discovered by
+M. du Chaillu.
+
+_Geogale._[563]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃; total 34.
+This genus is known solely by _G. aurita_, a small Mouse-like species
+from Madagascar, agreeing closely with _Potamogale_ in the general form
+of the skull and teeth. The tibia and fibula are distinct, but it is not
+known whether a clavicle exists; and the material at present available is
+insufficient to definitely fix the natural position of the genus.
+
+
+_Family_ SOLENODONTIDÆ.
+
+Skull with a small brain-case constricted between the orbits, no
+zygomatic arch or postorbital process, and the tympanic annulated and not
+forming a bulla. Upper molars tritubercular, the cusps being arranged in
+a V. Pubic symphysis short; tibia and fibula distinct. Vertebræ: C 7, D
+15, L 4, S 5, C 23. No cæcum. The penis is carried forwards and suspended
+from the abdomen; the testes are received into perineal pouches; the
+mammary glands are post-inguinal; the uterine cornua end in cæcal sacs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 293.—_Solenodon cubanus._ × ⅕ (From Peters, _Abh.
+Akad. Berlin_.)]
+
+_Solenodon._[564]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+40. This genus, with _S. paradoxus_ and _S. cubanus_ (Fig. 293), from
+Hayti and Cuba respectively, alone represents the family. These species,
+which differ chiefly in the colour and quality of the fur, have a
+remarkably long cylindrical snout, a long naked tail, feet formed for
+running, and the body clothed with long, coarse fur.
+
+The position of the mammæ quite behind on the buttocks is unique among
+Insectivora. The first upper incisor is much enlarged, and this and
+the other incisors, canines, and premolars, closely resemble those of
+_Myogale_; the second lower incisor is, as in _Potamogale_, much larger
+than the anterior one, and is deeply hollowed out internally. While thus
+apparently showing relationship with the _Talpidæ_, the form of the
+crowns of the molar teeth connects them with the next family.
+
+
+_Family_ CENTETIDÆ.
+
+Skull (Fig. 294) with a small cylindrical brain-case not constricted
+between the orbits, no zygomatic arch or postorbital process, and the
+tympanic annulate and not forming a bulla. Upper molars tritubercular.
+Pubic symphysis short; and the tibia and fibula either united or free.
+No cæcum. The penis is pendent and retractile within the fold of the
+integument surrounding the anus; the testes are abdominal; the mammæ
+are thoracic and ventral; and the uterine cornua are terminated by the
+Fallopian tubes. All the species are limited to Madagascar.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 294.—Left lateral view of the skull of the Tenrec
+(_Centetes ecaudatus_). Reduced.]
+
+Subfamily =Centetinæ=.—Tibia and fibula distinct; testes near kidneys;
+fur with spines.
+
+_Centetes._[565]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total 38.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 19, L 5, S 3, C 8. The single species is the well-known
+Tenrec (_C. ecaudatus_), characterised by the absence of a tail; it
+reaches a total length of from 12 to 16 inches, and is the largest known
+Insectivore. The adult males have long canines, the extremities of the
+lower pair being received into pits in front of the upper ones (Fig.
+294). It is probably the most prolific of all mammals, since as many as
+twenty-one young are said to have been brought forth at a birth. The
+young have strong white spines arranged in longitudinal lines along the
+back, but these are lost in the adult animal, which is provided only with
+a nuchal crest of long rigid hairs. In rare instances a fourth upper
+molar may be developed.
+
+_Hemicentetes._[566]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+40. This genus is represented by the two species _H. semispinosus_ (of
+which the skull is shown in Fig. 295) and _H. nigriceps_. It differs from
+_Centetes_ by the presence of the third upper incisor, the much smaller
+canines, and by the form of the skull. Both species are very much
+smaller than _C. ecaudatus_, and the dorsal spines are retained in the
+adult state. Vertebræ: C 7, D 16, L 5, S 3, C 9.
+
+_Ericulus._[567]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total 36.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 17, L 6, S 4, C 9. The single species, _E. setosus_,
+is a Hedgehog-like animal, having the whole upper surface and the short
+tail densely covered with close-set spines. The facial bones are much
+shorter than in any of the preceding genera, and the first upper incisor
+is elongated, as in _Erinaceus_. Judging from the slight development of
+the cutaneous muscles compared with those of the true Hedgehogs, it is
+probable that complete involution of the body does not take place.
+
+Subfamily =Oryzorictinæ=.—Tibia and fibula united; testes near urethra;
+fur without spines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 295.—Skull of _Hemicentetes semispinosus_. × 2. (From
+Mivart, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1871.)]
+
+_Microgale._[568]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+40. This genus includes _M. longicaudata_ and _M. cowani_, both of which
+are small Mouse-like species, the former with a tail double the length
+of the head and body, and having 43 caudal vertebræ; teeth like those
+of _Centetes ecaudatus_, but, owing to the comparatively much shorter
+muzzle, not separated by wide spaces, and the last premolar and molar
+with internal basal processes.
+
+_Oryzorictes._[569]—Represented by two species, _O. hova_ and _O.
+tetradactylus_, the latter distinguished by the presence of only four
+digits in the manus, the three inner having long laterally compressed
+fossorial claws. The general form of the head and body of the two species
+known is like that of a Mole. These animals burrow in the rice-fields and
+do much damage to the crops.
+
+
+_Family_ CHRYSOCHLORIDÆ.
+
+Skull conical, not constricted between the orbits, without postorbital
+process, but with well-developed zygomatic arch and tympanic bulla. Upper
+molars tritubercular, with the crowns very tall. No pubic symphysis; the
+tibia and fibula united. The eyes are covered by the hairy integument;
+the ears short and concealed by the fur; the internal generative organs
+are as in _Centetinæ_; the mammæ are thoracic and inguinal and placed in
+cup-shaped depressions. Habits fossorial. Confined to the southern part
+of the Ethiopian region, not extending to Madagascar.
+
+This family is closely allied to the _Centetidæ_, occupying the same
+relative position with respect to that family that the _Talpidæ_ does
+to the _Soricidæ_. Compared with the _Talpidæ_, we find the following
+differences in the structural adaptation to a fossorial life; the
+manubrium sterni is not anteriorly elongated, neither are the clavicles
+shortened; but this is compensated for by a deep hollowing out of the
+antero-lateral walls of the thorax, the ribs in these parts and the
+sternum being convex inwards. The long clavicles have their distal
+extremities pushed forward, and the concavities on the sides and inferior
+surface of the thorax lodge the thick muscular arms.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 296.—The Golden Mole (_Chrysochloris obtusirostris_).]
+
+_Chrysochloris._[570]—Dentition: _i_ ³⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁻²⁄₃₋₂;
+total 40 or 36. Vertebræ: C 7, D 19, L 3, S 5, C 8. This genus includes
+some seven or eight South African species, commonly known as Golden
+Moles (Fig. 296). Those species, in which the molars are reduced to ²⁄₂,
+with a basal talon to the lower ones, and without a prominence in the
+temporal fossa, have been placed in a separate genus, _Chalcochloris_,
+by Professor Mivart. Nearly all the species have the fur of the upper
+surface of a brilliant metallic lustre, varying from golden bronze to
+green and violet of different shades. The manus has four digits, of which
+the two outer are small, while the middle ones are large, with immensely
+powerful claws.
+
+_Extinct Types._—The only fossil forms which can be referred to
+the section of the Insectivora with tritubercular molars are the
+_Leptictidæ_, of the Eocene and Miocene of North America. This family
+includes the genera _Leptictis_, _Mesodectes_, and _Ictops_, all of which
+are regarded by Dr. Schlosser as true Insectivora, although they were
+placed by Professor Cope with the Creodont Carnivora.
+
+    _Bibliography of Insectivora._—Peters, _Reise nach
+    Mossambique—Säugeth._ 1852; Id. “Ueber die Classification
+    der Insectivora,” _Monatsb. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin_, 1865,
+    and other papers; Mivart, “On the Osteology of Insectivora,”
+    _Journ. Anat. and Phys._ 1867, 1868, and _Proc. Zool. Soc._
+    1871; Gill, “Synopsis of Insectivorous Mammals,” _Bull. Geol.
+    and Geog. Survey, U.S.A._ Washington, 1875 (includes a
+    general bibliography of the order); Dobson, _Monograph of the
+    Insectivora, Systematic and Anatomical_, London, 1882-90.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE ORDER CHIROPTERA.
+
+
+Mammals, having their fore limbs specially modified for flight. The
+forearm consists of a rudimentary ulna, and a long curved radius.
+The carpus has six bones supporting a small pollex and four greatly
+elongated fingers, between which and the sides of the body and the
+hinder extremities a thin expansion of the integument (the wing-membrane
+or patagium) is extended. The knee is directed backwards, owing to the
+rotation of the hind limb outwards by the wing membrane; a peculiar
+elongated cartilaginous process (the calcar), rarely rudimentary or
+absent, arising from the inner side of the ankle-joint, is directed
+inwards, and supports part of the posterior margin of an accessory
+membrane of flight, extending from the tail or posterior extremity of
+the body to the hinder limbs (the interfemoral membrane). The penis
+is pendent; the testes are abdominal or inguinal; the mammary glands
+thoracic and generally postaxillary; the uterus is simple or with more or
+less long cornua; the placenta discoidal and deciduate; and the smooth
+cerebral hemispheres do not extend backwards over the cerebellum. The
+dental series includes incisors, canines, premolars, and molars and never
+exceeds _i_ ²⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total 38.
+
+The animals comprised in this order are at once distinguished by the
+presence of true wings, and this peculiarity is accompanied by other
+modifications of bodily structure having special relation to flight.
+Thus, in contrast to most other mammals, in which the hind limbs greatly
+preponderate in size over the fore, in the present order the fore limbs
+immensely exceed the short and weak hinder extremities. The thorax, as
+giving origin to the great muscles which sustain flight, and containing
+the proportionately large lungs and heart, is remarkably capacious, and
+the ribs are flattened and close together; the shoulder-girdle is also
+greatly developed in comparison with the weak pelvic bones.
+
+Linnæus included the Bats among the Primates, mainly on account of the
+number of their upper incisors, supposed to be always four, the thoracic
+position of the mammæ, and the pendent condition of the penis. Many
+other zoologists, taking into consideration the placental characters and
+the form of the uterus, have followed him; but it is evident that the
+situation of the mammæ is related to the necessarily central position of
+the young during flight, the shortness of the uterine cornua, observable
+in so many species, to the generally uniparous gestation requiring less
+room, while the discoidal deciduate placenta is equally present in and
+characteristic of the Insectivora, many species of which also have the
+penis pendent. Thus, the reasons for maintaining the Bats in this high
+position being disposed of, we find in the low organisation of their
+brain a proof of their inferior status; while furthermore, although they
+differ widely from all other mammals in external form, it is evident that
+this is only the result of special adaptation to aerial locomotion; and,
+taking into account their whole bodily structure, we may accept the view
+of Professor Huxley that they should merely be regarded as exceedingly
+modified Insectivora.
+
+So thoroughly, however, has this adaptation for flight been carried out
+that of all animals the Bats are the least terrestrial, not one of them
+being equally well fitted for progression on the earth. This is due to
+the hind as well as the fore limbs being pressed into the service of
+aerial locomotion. Thus the hind limb is so rotated outwards by the
+wing-membrane that, contrary to what obtains in all other vertebrates,
+the knee is directed backwards, and corresponds in position to its serial
+homologue the elbow. It necessarily follows from this arrangement that
+when a Bat is on the ground it rests on all fours, having the knees
+directed upwards; while, in order to bring it into a position for forward
+progression, the foot rotates forwards and inwards on the ankle. Walking
+under these circumstances is at best only a kind of shuffle, and that
+this is fully recognised by the animal is evidenced by its great anxiety
+to take wing, or, if this be impracticable, to ascend to some point
+where it can hitch itself up by the claws of the hind legs in its usual
+position when at rest.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 297.—Skeleton and flying-membranes of the Noctule
+Bat (_Vesperugo noctula_). × ⅓. _c_, Clavicle; _h_, humerus; _r_,
+radius; _u_, ulna (rudimentary); _d¹_, pollex; _d²_, _d³_, _d⁴_, _d⁵_,
+other digits of the manus supporting _wm_, the wing-membrane; _m_, _m_,
+metacarpal bones; _ph¹_, first phalanx; _ph²_, second phalanx; _ph³_,
+third phalanx; _am_, antebrachial membrane; _f_, femur; _t_, tibia; _fb_,
+fibula (rudimentary); _c_, calcar supporting _im_, the interfemoral
+membrane; _pcl_, postcalcaneal lobe.]
+
+The bones of the skeleton are characterised by their slenderness and
+the great size of the medullary canals in those of the extremities.
+The vertebral column is short, and the vertebræ differ very slightly
+in number and form throughout the species. The general number of the
+dorso-lumbar vertebræ is 17, of which 12 are dorsal; the cervicals are
+very broad, but short from before backwards, their breadth being due to
+the great transverse diameter of the spinal canal rendered necessary by
+the comparatively large size of the spinal cord, which, after giving off
+the nerves to the fore limbs and thorax, rapidly diminishes in size,
+and in the lumbo-sacral region is reduced to a fine thread. Except in
+the frugivorous _Pteropodidæ_, the vertebræ, from the third cervical
+backwards, are devoid of neural spines. From the first dorsal to the
+last lumbar vertebra the spinal column forms a single curve backwards,
+which is most pronounced in the lumbar region. The centra of the vertebræ
+are but slightly movable upon each other, and in old individuals appear
+to become partially ankylosed together. The caudal vertebræ are simple
+cylindrical bones without processes; their number and length being
+extremely variable even in closely allied species; and the anterior
+caudals are generally united to the ischial tuberosities. The relative
+development of the caudal vertebræ is, indeed, intimately correlated
+to the habits of the animals; the long tail in the insectivorous forms
+supporting and controlling the position of the large interfemoral
+membrane, which appears not only to aid their rapid motions when in
+pursuit of their prey by acting as a rudder, but also to assist in the
+capture and retention of the larger insects. In the frugivorous types,
+on the other hand, this is not required, and the tail is accordingly
+rudimentary or absent. In all Bats the presternum has a prominent keel
+for the attachment of the great pectoral muscles. In most species the
+ribs are much flattened, and in some they are partially ankylosed by
+their contiguous margins.
+
+The skull is subject to considerable structural variations, even
+within the limits of a single family. Postorbital processes to the
+frontals are found only in the _Pteropodidæ_, and some _Nycteridæ_ and
+_Emballonuridæ_. _Pteropus leucopterus_ and _Pteralopex_ are peculiar in
+having the orbit completely surrounded by bone. A slender zygomatic arch
+is present, except in some of the _Phyllostomatidæ_.
+
+The milk-teeth are peculiar in that they are utterly unlike those of the
+permanent series. They are slender, with sharp recurved cusps; and as a
+rule are shed at an early period (in the _Rhinolophidæ_ before birth),
+but may coexist with some of the fully developed permanent teeth. The
+permanent teeth are subject to great variation of form, although they
+always have distinct roots. In the Insectivorous types they are acutely
+cusped, the cusps in those of the upper jaw being arranged in a more or
+less distinct W; but in the frugivorous forms, like the _Pteropodidæ_ and
+some of the _Phyllostomatidæ_, the molars are longitudinally grooved or
+hollowed out.
+
+The pectoral girdle maintains a very constant type. Thus the clavicle is
+very long, strong, and curved; and the scapula large, oval, triangular,
+with a long curved coracoid process. The humerus, though long, is
+scarcely two-thirds the length of the radius. The ulna is rudimentary,
+its proximal extremity, which articulates with but a small part of the
+humerus, being ankylosed to the radius; and immediately beyond the joint
+it is reduced to a slender splint-like bone, extending about as far
+as the middle of the radius. In all species a detached sesamoid bone
+exists in the tendon of the triceps muscle. The radius is very long,
+in some species actually equal to the length of the head and body. The
+proximal row of the carpus consists of a single bone formed by the united
+scaphoid, lunar, and cuneiform; which, with the extremity of the radius,
+forms the radio-carpal joint. In the distal row the trapezium, trapezoid,
+and magnum vary in size in the different families, the unciform appearing
+to be the most constant, and the pisiform being generally very small.
+
+The manus is always furnished with five digits. The first, fourth, and
+fifth digits consist of a metacarpal and two phalanges; but in the
+second and third digits the number of phalanges is different in certain
+families. The pollex always terminates in a claw, which—like the proximal
+phalanx—is best developed in the frugivorous species. In most of the
+frugivorous _Pteropodidæ_ the second digit is provided with a claw; but
+in all other Bats this and the remaining digits are unarmed. In the
+genus _Triænops_ alone a very peculiar short bony process projects from
+the outer side of the proximal extremity of the terminal phalanx of the
+fourth digit. The relative development of the digits and their phalanges
+will be noticed under each family.
+
+As might be expected from the small size of the posterior limbs, the
+pelvic girdle is relatively weak. The ilia are long and narrow. In the
+males of most species the pubic bones of opposite sides are very loosely
+united in front, while in females they are widely separated; and in
+the family _Rhinolophidæ_ alone do these bones form a symphysis. The
+ileo-pectineal eminence develops a long pectineal process, which in the
+subfamily _Hipposiderinæ_ is continued forwards to the anterior extremity
+of the ilium enclosing a preacetabular foramen unique among mammals. The
+acetabulum is small and directed outwards and slightly upwards; and with
+this is related the peculiar position of the hind limb already noticed
+as one of the chief characteristics of the order. The femur is slender
+and cylindrical, with a small head and very short neck, and scarcely
+differs in form throughout the order. The bones of the leg and foot are
+variable; in the subfamily _Molossinæ_ alone is there a well-developed
+fibula, while in all other species this bone is either very slender, or
+cartilaginous and ligamentous in its upper third, or reduced to a small
+bony process above the heel, as in _Megaderma_, or altogether absent, as
+in _Nycteris_.
+
+The foot consists of a very short tarsus, and of slender, laterally
+compressed toes, with much curved claws. The hallux is composed of a
+metacarpal, a proximal and an ungual phalanx, and is slightly shorter
+than the other four toes, each of which has an additional phalanx, except
+in the subfamily _Hipposiderinæ_ and in the anomalous genera _Thyroptera_
+and _Myxopoda_, where all the toes have the same number of phalanges as
+the first digit, and are equal to it in length. In the genus _Chiromeles_
+the first digit is thumb-like and separated from the others, and in the
+typical _Molossinæ_ the first and fifth digits are much thicker than the
+intermediate toes.
+
+The most noticeable peculiarities in the myology of the order consist in
+the separated bands or slips into which the platysma is divided, and in
+the presence of the remarkable muscle termed occipito-pollicalis, which
+extends from the occipital bone to the base of the terminal phalanx of
+the pollex.
+
+Although, as already mentioned, the brain presents a low type of
+organisation, yet probably no animals possess so delicate a sense of
+touch as the Chiroptera. It is undoubtedly this perceptive power which
+enabled the individuals deprived of sight, hearing, and smell, in
+Spallanzani’s well-known experiments, to avoid the numerous threads hung
+across the rooms in which they were permitted to fly about. In the
+common Bats the tactile organs evidently exist, not only in the delicate
+vibrissæ which spring from the sides of the muzzle, but also in the
+highly sensitive and widely extended integumentary structures entering
+into the formation of the wing-membranes and ear-conchs; while in many
+other species, notably in the tropical Rhinolophine and Phyllostomatine
+Bats, peculiar foliaceous cutaneous expansions surrounding the nasal
+apertures or extending backwards behind them are added. These structures,
+collectively known as the “nose-leaf” (whence the term “leaf-nosed
+Bats”), have been shown by Dr. Dobson to be made up partly of the
+extended and thickened marginal integument of the nostrils, and partly of
+the highly differentiated glandular eminences occupying the sides of the
+muzzle, in which, in all the common Bats, the vibrissæ are implanted.
+
+In all species of leaf-nosed Bats, and especially in the _Rhinolophidæ_,
+where the nasal appendages reach their highest development, the superior
+maxillary division of the fifth nerve is of remarkably large calibre.
+The nasal branch of this nerve, which is given off immediately beyond
+the infraorbital foramen, is by far the largest portion; the palpebral
+and labial branches consisting of a few slender nerve-fibres only. This
+branch passes forwards and upwards on the side of the maxilla, but soon
+spreads out into numerous filaments extending into the muscles and
+integument above, and into the base of the nose-leaf. The nerve supply
+of the nose-leaf is further augmented by the large nasal branch of the
+ophthalmic division of the fifth nerve. While the many foliations,
+elevations, and depressions which vary the form of the nose-leaf
+greatly increase the sensory surface supplied by the fifth nerve, and
+during rapid flight intensify the vibrations conveyed to it, the great
+number of sweat and oil glands which enter into its structure perform
+a function analogous to that of the glands of the auditory canal in
+relation to the membrana tympani in maintaining its surface in a highly
+sensitive condition. The nasal appendages of the Chiroptera may thus be
+regarded as performing the office of an organ of a very exalted sense
+of touch standing in the same relation to the nasal branches of the
+fifth nerve as the aural apparatus to the auditory nerve; for, as the
+latter organ collects and transmits the waves of sound, so the former
+receives impressions arising from vibrations communicated to the air by
+approaching objects.
+
+In no order of mammals is the ear-conch so greatly developed or so
+variable in form. Thus in most of the insectivorous species the ears
+are longer than the head, while in some, as in the common Long-eared
+Bat (_Plecotus auritus_), their length nearly equals that of the head
+and body. The form of the conch is very characteristic of the various
+families; in most the tragus is remarkably large, in some extending
+nearly to the outer margin of the conch; and its function appears to be
+to cause undulations in the waves of sound, and so intensify and prolong
+them. It is worthy of notice that in the _Rhinolophidæ_, the only family
+of insectivorous Bats wanting the tragus, the auditory bullæ reach their
+greatest size, and the highly sensitive nasal appendages their highest
+development; and that in the typical group of the _Molossinæ_ the
+ear-conch is divided by a prominent keel; and the antitragus is unusually
+large in those species in which the tragus is minute (see Fig. 298, _a_).
+In the frugivorous Bats the form of the ear-conch is very simple, and but
+slightly variable, throughout the various types.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 298.—Head of _Molossus glaucinus_. (From Dobson,
+_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1876.) _a_, Antitragus; _b_, keel of the ear-conch;
+_c_, notch behind antitragus.]
+
+In all Bats the ears are extremely mobile, each moving independently at
+the will of the animal. This has been observed even in the frugivorous
+_Pteropodidæ_, in which the peculiar vibratory movements first noticed in
+_Artibeus perspicillatus_ may also be seen when the animals are alarmed.
+
+The opening of the mouth is anterior in most species, but in many it is
+inferior, the extremity of the nose being more or less produced beyond
+the lower lip,—so much so indeed in the small South-American species
+_Rhynchonycteris naso_ as to resemble that of the Shrews. The lips
+exhibit the greatest variety in form, which will be referred to under
+each family. The absence of a fringe of hairs is characteristic of all
+fruit-eating Bats, and probably always distinguishes them from the
+insectivorous species, which they may resemble in the form of their teeth
+and other respects.
+
+The œsophagus is narrow in all species, and especially so in the
+sanguivorous Desmodont _Phyllostomatidæ_. The stomach presents two
+principal types of structure, which correspond respectively to the two
+great divisions of the order, the Megachiroptera and the Microchiroptera;
+in the former (with the exception of _Harpyia_) the pyloric extremity
+is more or less elongated and folded upon itself, in the latter it is
+simple, as in the Insectivora Vera; a third exceptional type is met with
+in the Desmodont _Phyllostomatidæ_, where the left or cardiac extremity
+is greatly elongated, forming a long narrow cæcum-like appendage.
+The intestine is comparatively short, varying from one and a half
+to four times the length of the head and body, being longest in the
+frugivorous and shortest in the insectivorous species. Only in _Rhinopoma
+microphyllum_ and _Megaderma spasma_ has a very small cæcum been found.
+
+The liver is characterised by the great size of the left lateral lobe,
+which occasionally equals half the size of the whole organ; the right
+and left lateral fissures are usually very deep; in the Megachiroptera
+(_Harpyia_ excepted) the Spigelian lobe is ill-defined or absent, and
+the caudate is generally very large; but in the Microchiroptera, on the
+other hand, the Spigelian lobe is very large, while the caudate is small,
+in most species forming a ridge only. The gall-bladder is generally
+well developed and attached to the right central lobe, except in the
+_Rhinolophidæ_, where it is connected with the left central.
+
+In most species the hyoids are simple, consisting of a chain of
+slender, elongated, cylindrical bones connecting the small basi-hyoid
+with the cranium, while the pharynx is short, the larynx shallow with
+feebly developed vocal cords, and guarded by a short, acutely-pointed
+epiglottis, which in some genera (_Harpyia_, _Vampyrus_) is almost
+obsolete. In _Epomophorus_, however, we find a remarkable departure
+from the general type. Thus the pharynx is long and very capacious; the
+aperture of the larynx is far removed from the fauces, and, opposite to
+it, opens a canal, leading from the narial chambers, and extending along
+the back of the pharynx; the laryngeal cavity is spacious and its walls
+are ossified; the hyoid bone is quite unconnected, except by muscle, with
+the cranium; the ceratohyals and epihyals are cartilaginous and greatly
+expanded, entering into the formation of the walls of the pharynx, and in
+the males of three species at least, supporting the orifices of a large
+pair of air-sacs communicating with the pharynx (Fig. 299).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 299.—Head and neck of _Epomophorus franqueti_ (adult
+male, natural size). The anterior (_a.ph.s_) and posterior (_p.ph.s_)
+pharyngeal sacs are opened from without, the dotted lines indicating the
+points where they communicate with the pharynx; _s_, thin membranous
+septum in middle line between the anterior pharyngeal sacs of opposite
+sides; _s.m._, sterno-mastoid muscle separating the anterior from the
+posterior sac. (Dobson, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1881.)]
+
+In extent, peculiar modifications, and sensitiveness the cutaneous
+system reaches its highest development in this order. As a sensory organ
+its chief modifications in connection with the external ear and with the
+nasal and labial appendages have been described when referring to the
+nervous system. It remains therefore to consider its relative development
+as part of the organs of flight.
+
+The extent and shape of the flying-membranes depend mainly on the form of
+the bones of the anterior extremities, and on the presence or absence of
+the tail. Certain modifications of these membranes, however, are met with
+which do not depend on the skeleton, but are related to the habits of the
+animals, and to the manner in which the wing is folded in repose.
+
+These membranes consist of the “antebrachial membrane,” extending from
+the point of the shoulder along the humerus and more or less of the
+forearm to the base of the pollex, the metacarpal bone of which is
+partially or wholly included in it; the “wing-membrane,” which is spread
+out between the greatly elongated fingers, and extends along the sides
+of the body to the posterior extremities, generally reaching to the
+feet; and the “interfemoral membrane,” the most variable of all, which
+is supported between the extremity of the body, the legs, and the calcar
+(Fig. 297).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 300.—Frontal sac and nose-leaf in male and female of
+_Hipposiderus larvatus_. (Dobson, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1873.)]
+
+The antebrachial and wing-membranes are most developed in those species
+fitted only for aerial locomotion, which when at rest hang with the body
+enveloped in the wings; but in the family _Emballonuridæ_, and especially
+in the subfamily _Molossinæ_ (the species of which are the best fitted
+of all Bats for terrestrial progression), the antebrachial membrane is
+reduced to the smallest size, and is not developed along the forearm,
+leaving also the pollex quite free, and the wing-membrane is very
+narrow and folded in repose completely under the forearm. The relative
+development of the interfemoral membrane has been referred to above
+in describing the caudal vertebræ. Its small size in the frugivorous
+and sanguivorous species, in which its presence would be injurious as
+impeding their motions when searching for food as they hang suspended
+by their feet, is easily understood. Odoriferous glands and pouches
+opening on the surface of the outer skin are developed in many species,
+but in most cases more so in males than in females, and thus constitute
+secondary sexual characters, which will be referred to when treating of
+the peculiarities of certain species.
+
+All the fossil Chiroptera at present known are true Bats in every sense
+of the word, and therefore throw no light on the origin of the order.
+The earliest representatives of the order occur in beds of Upper Eocene
+(Lower Oligocene) age.
+
+The order is divided by Dobson into the suborders Megachiroptera and
+Microchiroptera.
+
+
+_Suborder_ MEGACHIROPTERA.
+
+Frugivorous Bats, generally of large size. Crowns of molars smooth,
+marked with a longitudinal groove (cuspidate in _Pteralopex_); bony
+palate continued behind the last molar, narrowing slowly backwards; three
+phalanges in the index finger, the third phalanx generally terminated by
+a claw; sides of the ear-conch forming a complete ring at the base; tail,
+when present, inferior to (not contained in) the interfemoral membrane;
+pyloric extremity of the stomach generally much elongated; the Spigelian
+lobe of the liver ill-defined or absent, and the caudate well developed.
+
+Limited to the tropical and subtropical parts of the eastern hemisphere.
+
+Mr. O. Thomas[571] considers that the ordinary type of molar dentition
+found in this suborder is a specialised adaptation from the cuspidate
+type of the Microchiroptera; the genus _Pteralopex_ retaining the
+ancestral form of teeth.
+
+
+_Family_ PTEROPODIDÆ.
+
+Since all the forms are included in this family its characters may be
+taken to be the same as those of the suborder.
+
+Subfamily =Pteropodinæ=.—Tongue moderate; molars well developed.
+
+_Epomophorus._[572]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁻¹⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₃, _m_ ¹⁄₂;
+total 28 or 26. Tail absent or very short, when present free from
+interfemoral membrane; second digit of manus clawed; premaxillæ united.
+This genus includes some seven species inhabiting Africa south of the
+Sahara. The head is large and long, and the lips are expansible, and
+frequently with peculiar folds. The ears have a white tuft of hair on
+the margin; and in the males of most species there are large glandular
+pouches in the skin of the side of the neck near the shoulder, from the
+mouth of which project long and coarse yellowish hairs, forming tufts
+on the shoulders, from which the genus takes its name. Another male
+secondary sexual character consists in the presence of a pair of large
+air-sacs extending outwards on each side from the pharynx beneath the
+integument of the neck, in the position shown in Fig. 299. These sacs
+are evidently capable of being greatly distended at the will of the
+animal, and their inflation probably occurs under the same circumstances
+that the wattles of male gallinaceous birds swell up, namely, when
+engaged in courting the females. Other remarkable conditions in which
+these Bats appear to differ from all other species occur in the form of
+the hyoid bones and larynx. These Bats appear to live principally on
+figs, the juicy contents of which their large lips and capacious mouths
+enable them to swallow without loss.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 301.—Head of Fox-Bat (_Pteropus personatus_). From
+Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1866.]
+
+_Pteropus._[573]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ²⁄₃; total 34.
+This genus has more than forty species, and thus includes more than half
+the members of the family. All are of large size, and the absence of a
+tail, the long pointed muzzle (Fig. 301), and the woolly fur covering the
+neck render their recognition easy. They are commonly known as “Flying
+Foxes,” or Fox-Bats; and one of the species (_P. edulis_) inhabiting Java
+measures 5 feet across the fully extended wings, and is thus the largest
+known species of the order. All the species closely resemble one another
+in dentition, and are mainly distinguished by the form of the ears and
+the quality of the fur. _P. scapulatus_, from North-East Australia,
+approaches the species of the second subfamily in the remarkable
+narrowness of its molars and premolars.
+
+The range of this genus extends from Madagascar and the neighbouring
+islands through the Seychelles to India, Ceylon, Burma, the Malay
+Archipelago, Southern Japan, New Guinea, Australia, and Polynesia (except
+the Sandwich Islands, Ellice’s Group, Gilbert’s Group, Tokelau, and the
+Low Archipelago). Of the islands inhabited by it some are very small and
+remote from any continent, such as Savage Island in the South Pacific and
+Rodriguez in the Indian Ocean. Although two species inhabit the Comoro
+Islands, which are scarcely 200 miles from the African coast, not a
+single species is found in Africa; but in India, separated by thousands
+of miles of almost unbroken ocean, a species exceedingly closely allied
+to the common Madagascar Fox-Bat is abundant. The Malay Archipelago
+and Australia are their headquarters; and in some places they occur in
+countless multitudes. Mr. Macgillivray remarks of _P. conspicillatus_:
+“On the wooded slope of a hill on Fitzroy Island I one day fell in with
+this Bat in prodigious numbers, looking while flying in the bright
+sunshine (so unusual for a nocturnal animal) like a large flock of rooks.
+On close approach a strong musky odour became apparent, and a loud
+incessant chattering was heard. Many of the branches were bending under
+their load of Bats, some in a state of inactivity, suspended by their
+hind claws, others scrambling along among the boughs, and taking to wing
+when disturbed.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 302.—Female and young of _Xantharpyia collaris_.
+(From Sclater, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1870, p. 127.)]
+
+_Xantharpyia._[574]—Dentition as in _Pteropus_, but a short tail present,
+and the fur on the back of the neck similar to that of the body. This
+genus is represented by some nine species, which have a distribution very
+similar to that of _Pteropus_, except that they extend into Africa, and
+are not found in Australia and Polynesia. _X. ægyptiaca_ inhabits the
+chambers of the Great Pyramid and other deserted buildings in Egypt, and
+is probably the species so generally figured in Egyptian frescoes. Fig.
+302 exhibits an African species of this genus in the attitude assumed by
+the Fox-Bats when at rest.
+
+_Boneia._[575]—This genus, as represented by _B. bidens_ of Borneo,
+differs from _Xantharpyia_ in having only a single pair of upper incisors.
+
+_Cynopterus._[576]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₂₋₁, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ²⁄₂; total
+32 or 30. Muzzle short, grooved like _Pteropus_ in front; tail and fur
+generally as in _Xantharpyia_, but the former sometimes wholly absent.
+This genus, with seven species, is almost limited to the Oriental region.
+_C. marginatus_ is very common in India, and extremely destructive to
+ripe fruit of every description. Dr. Dobson states that “he gave to a
+specimen of this Bat obtained at Calcutta a ripe banana, which, with the
+skin removed, weighed exactly 2 ounces; the animal immediately, as if
+famished with hunger, fell upon the fruit, seizing it between the thumbs
+and the index fingers, and took large mouthfuls out of it, opening the
+mouth to the fullest extent with extreme voracity. In the space of three
+hours the whole fruit was consumed. Next morning the Bat was killed, and
+found to weigh one ounce, or half the weight of the food eaten in three
+hours. Indeed the animal when eating seemed to be a kind of living mill,
+the food passing from it almost as fast as devoured, and apparently
+unaltered, eating being, as it were, performed only for the pleasure of
+eating.”
+
+_Harpyia._[577]—Dentition: _i_ ¹⁄₀, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₃, _m_ ²⁄₂; total 24.
+Premaxillæ well developed and united in front; facial bones much elevated
+above the margin of the jaw, nostrils tubular (Fig. 303); body and
+limbs as in _Cynopterus_. Includes two species from the Austro-Malayan
+sub-region, readily recognised by the peculiar tubular and projecting
+nostrils, as shown in the accompanying woodcut.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 303.—Head of _Harpyia major_. (From Dobson, _Proc.
+Zool. Soc._ 1877.)]
+
+_Cephalotes._[578]—Dentition: _i_ ¹⁄₁, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₃, _m_ ²⁄₃; total
+28. Premaxillæ separate in front; nostrils simple; muzzle short; index
+finger without a claw; tail short. Includes one species, having the same
+distribution as _Harpyia_. The wing-membrane arises from the middle line
+of the back, to which it is attached by a longitudinal very thin process
+of the integument; the wings are quite naked, but the back covered by
+them is clothed with hair.
+
+_Pteralopex._[579]—External characters as in _Pteropus_; ears short
+and hairy; wings arising from the middle line of the back. Muzzle very
+short; plane of orbit directed more upwards than in _Pteropus_; orbit
+surrounded by bone; sagittal crest strongly developed. Teeth cuspidate;
+upper incisors with broad posterior ledges; upper canine short and thick,
+with a stout secondary cusp in the middle of the posterior border, and
+two smaller postero-internal basal cusps; cheek-teeth short and broad,
+with their anterior and posterior basal ledges so developed and the main
+cusps so nearly conical as to obliterate the longitudinal grooving of
+_Pteropus_. Lower incisors very disproportionate, the outer pair being
+nearly twenty times the bulk of the inner; lower canine stout, with a
+simple posterior basal ledge. Represented by _P. atrata_ of the Solomon
+Islands. As already mentioned, Mr. Thomas regards the dentition of this
+genus as the most generalised type found in the suborder.
+
+Subfamily =Carponycterinæ=.—Facial part of skull much produced; molars
+narrow, and scarcely raised above the gum; and the tongue exceedingly
+long, attenuated in the anterior third, and armed with long recurved
+papillæ near the tip.
+
+_Notopteris._[580]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₁, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₃, _m_ ²⁄₂; total
+28. Index finger without a claw; wings arising from the middle line of
+the back; tail long; first upper premolar long, with two roots. The
+single representative of the genus, _N. macdonaldi_, inhabits the Fiji
+Islands, Aneiteum Island, and New Guinea. It is at once distinguished
+from all other Bats of this family by the length of its tail, which is
+nearly as long as the forearm.
+
+_Eonycteris._[581]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ²⁄₃;
+total 34. First upper premolar small, with a single root. This genus
+is likewise represented by a single species (_E. spelæa_), from the
+Farm Caves, Moulmein, Burma, which has somewhat the appearance of
+_Xantharpyia_; but the absence of a claw to the index finger and the
+characteristic tongue and teeth at once distinguish it.
+
+_Carponycteris_[582] and _Melonycteris_,[583] each with a single
+species, are closely allied; the index finger in both has a claw, and
+the number of the teeth is the same as in _Eonycteris_. _Carponycteris
+minima_ is the smallest known species of the suborder, being much smaller
+than the common Noctule Bat of Europe, and its forearm scarcely longer
+than that of the Long-eared Bat. It is nearly as common in certain
+parts of India as _Cynopterus marginatus_ (compared with which it is
+proportionally equally destructive to fruit), and extends eastward
+through the Malay Archipelago as far as New Ireland, where it is
+associated with _Melonycteris melanops_, distinguished from it by its
+larger size and the total absence of the tail.
+
+_Nesonycteris._[584]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₁, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ²⁄₃; total
+32. Allied to _Melonycteris_, but distinguished by the absence of the
+inner pair of lower incisors, and of a claw to the index finger. Tail
+wanting. Represented by _N. woodfordi_, of the Solomon Islands.
+
+_Callinycteris._[585]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃;
+total 32. Allied to the preceding, but with a short tail; no claw to
+index. One species from Celebes.
+
+_Trygenycteris._[586]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ²⁄₃;
+total 34. No external tail; a claw on index. One species from West Africa.
+
+
+_Suborder_ MICROCHIROPTERA.
+
+Insectivorous (rarely frugivorous or sanguivorous) Bats, of comparatively
+small size. Crowns of molars acutely cusped, marked by transverse
+grooves; bony palate narrowing abruptly, not continued backwards
+laterally behind the last molar; one rudimentary phalanx (rarely two
+phalanges or none) in the index finger, which is never terminated
+by a claw; outer and inner sides of ear-conch commencing inferiorly
+from separate points of origin; tail, when present, contained in the
+interfemoral membrane, or appearing upon its upper surface; stomach
+simple (except in the Desmodont _Phyllostomatidæ_); Spigelian lobe of the
+liver very large, and the caudate generally small. Inhabit the tropical
+and temperate regions of both hemispheres. The members of this suborder
+may be divided into two sections.
+
+
+_Section_ VESPERTILIONINA.
+
+Tail contained within the interfemoral membrane; the middle pair of upper
+incisors never large, and separated from each other by a more or less
+wide space. Middle finger with two osseous phalanges only (except in
+_Myxopoda aurita_, _Thyroptera tricolor_, and _Mystacops tuberculatus_).
+First phalanx of the middle finger extended (in repose) in a line with
+the metacarpal bone.
+
+
+_Family_ RHINOLOPHIDÆ.
+
+In all the species of this family the nasal appendages are highly
+developed, and surround the sides of the nasal apertures, which are
+situated in a depression on the upper surface of the muzzle; the ears are
+large and generally separate, without trace of a tragus; the premaxillæ
+are rudimentary, suspended from the nasal cartilages, and supporting
+a pair of very small incisors; the molars have acute W-shaped cusps;
+the skull is large, and the nasal bones which support the large nasal
+cutaneous appendages are much expanded vertically and laterally; in
+the females a pair of teat-like appendages are found in front of the
+pubis; and the tail is long and produced to the posterior margin of the
+interfemoral membrane. This family is found in the temperate and tropical
+parts of the eastern hemisphere.
+
+From whatever point of view the _Rhinolophidæ_ may be considered, they
+are evidently the most highly organised of insectivorous Bats. In them
+the osseous and cutaneous systems reach the most elaborate development.
+Compared with those of the present family the bones of the extremities
+and the flying-membranes of other Bats appear coarsely formed, and
+even their teeth seem less perfectly fitted to crush the hard bodies
+of insects. The very complicated nasal appendages, which evidently act
+as delicate organs of special perception, here reach their highest
+development, and the differences in their form afford valuable characters
+in the discrimination of the species, which resemble one another very
+closely in dentition and in the colour of the fur.
+
+Subfamily =Rhinolophinæ=.—First toe with two, other toes with three,
+phalanges each; ilio-pectineal spine not connected by bone with the
+antero-inferior surface of the ilium.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 304.—Head of Indian Horse-shoe Bat (_Rhinolophus
+mitratus_). (From Dobson, _Monogr. Asiat. Chiropt._)]
+
+_Rhinolophus._[587]—Dentition: _i_ ¹⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃;
+total 32. Nose-leaf (Fig. 304) with a central process behind and
+between the nasal orifices, posterior extremity lanceolate, antitragus
+large. Includes more than twenty species. _R. luctus_, in which the
+forearm has a length of 3 inches, is the largest species, inhabiting
+elevated hill tracts in India and Malayana; _R. hipposiderus_ of Europe,
+extending into South England and Ireland, forearm 1·5 inches, is one
+of the smallest; and _R. ferrum-equinum_, with the forearm 2·3 inches
+in length, represents the average size of the species, which are
+mainly distinguished from one another by the form of the nose-leaf.
+The last-named species extends from England to Japan, and southward to
+the Cape of Good Hope. The genus is represented in the Himalaya by the
+closely allied _R. tragatus_, distinguished by having three vertical
+grooves on the lower lip, in place of the single groove found in _R.
+ferrum-equinum_. _Rhinolophus_ is represented in the Upper Eocene
+Phosphorites of Central France by _R. antiquus_ and _R. dubius_; the
+former appears to have the same dental formula as in the existing
+species, but differs slightly in the structure of some of the lower
+molars, so that it is separated generically by some writers under the
+name of _Pseudorhinolophus_. The face is also longer than in existing
+forms, and there are certain differences in the structure of the skull.
+_Alastor_, from the same deposits, differs from _Rhinolophus_ by the
+extreme shortness of the nasal region. _Palæonycteris_, from the Lower
+Miocene of France, is said to be allied to _Rhinolophus_, but the
+premolars are ³⁄₃, and the limb bones are stated to resemble those of
+_Molossus_.
+
+Subfamily =Hipposiderinæ=.—Toes equal, of two phalanges each;
+ilio-pectineal spine united by a bony isthmus with a process derived from
+the antero-inferior surface of the ilium.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 305. Head of _Hipposiderus calcaratus_. (From Dobson,
+_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1877.)]
+
+_Hipposiderus._[588]—Dentition: _i_ ¹⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁻¹⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃;
+total 30 or 28. Tail well developed. This genus, of which more than
+twenty species have been described, differs from _Rhinolophus_ in the
+form of the nose-leaf, which is not lanceolate behind and is unprovided
+with a central process covering the nostrils. The largest species,
+_H. armiger_, appears to be the most northerly, having been taken at
+Amoy in China, and in the Himalaya at an elevation of 5,500 feet. Many
+of the species are provided with a peculiar frontal sac behind the
+nose-leaf, rudimentary in females (Fig. 305), which the animal can evert
+at pleasure; the sides of this sac secrete a waxy substance, and its
+extremity supports a pencil of straight hairs.
+
+_Anthops._[589]—Like _Hipposiderus_, but with the tail rudimentary,
+consisting merely of three or four vertebræ hidden in the base of the
+interfemoral membrane. Nose-leaf very complicated, its upright transverse
+portion emarginate above, and the projections rounded and hollowed
+behind, and their substance quite thin. Premolars ²⁄₂. Represented by _A.
+ornatus_ of the Solomon Islands.
+
+Mr. O. Thomas, the describer of this Bat, remarks that it is evidently
+more nearly allied to the preceding than to the succeeding genera,
+although it agrees with _Cœlops_ in the rudimentary tail.
+
+_Rhinonycteris_[590] and _Triænops_.[591]—These are two allied genera
+with well-developed tails; the former being represented by _R. aurantia_
+from Australia, and the latter by _T. persicus_ from Persia and Eastern
+Africa. _Triænops_ (Fig. 306) is characterised by the remarkable form of
+its nasal appendages and ears, and the presence of a peculiar osseous
+projection from the proximal extremity of the second phalanx of the
+fourth finger.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 306.—Head of _Triænops persicus_. × 2. (From Dobson,
+_Monogr. Asiat. Chiropt._)]
+
+_Cœlops._[592]—This genus is known only by a single species, _C. frithi_,
+from the Bengal Sunderbans, Java, and Siam (in the roof of the great
+pagoda at Laos); and is distinguished, not only by the form of its
+nose-leaf, but also by the great length of the metacarpal of the index
+finger, as well as by the shortness of the calcar and interfemoral
+membrane and the rudimental tail.
+
+
+_Family_ NYCTERIDÆ.
+
+This small family, including only two genera of Bats of peculiar aspect,
+limited to the tropical and subtropical parts of the eastern hemisphere,
+is distinguished from the _Rhinolophidæ_ by the presence of a distinct
+tragus to the ear, and by the premaxillæ being cartilaginous or small and
+separated from one another in front by a distinct space.
+
+_Megaderma._[593]—Dentition: _i_ ⁰⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁻¹⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+28 or 26. This genus, which is represented by five species, is readily
+recognised by the absence of upper incisors, the cylindrical narrow
+muzzle surmounted by an erect naked cutaneous nose-leaf, the base of
+which conceals the nasal orifices, by the immense connate ears with large
+bifid tragi, and by the great extent of the interfemoral membrane, in
+the base of which the very short tail is concealed. _M. gigas_ (Fig.
+307), from Central Queensland (length of forearm 4·2 inches), is not
+only the largest species of the genus but also of the suborder. _M.
+lyra_, common in India (forearm 2·7 inches), has been caught in the act
+of sucking the blood, while flying, from a small species of _Vesperugo_,
+which it afterwards devoured, so that it is probable that the Bats of
+this genus do not confine themselves to insect prey alone, but also feed,
+when they can, upon the smaller species of Bats and other small mammals.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 307.—_Megaderma gigas._ × ½. (From Dobson, _Proc.
+Zool. Soc._ 1880.)]
+
+The Oriental _M. spasma_ and _M. lyra_ differ from the Ethiopian _M. cor_
+and _M. frons_ in having two upper premolars instead of one, and also in
+the shape of the frontals and nasals.
+
+_Nycteris._[594]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ¹⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+32. This genus, of which there are seven species, differs so much from
+_Megaderma_ that it may be considered the type of a separate subfamily.
+As in that genus, the frontal bones are deeply hollowed out and expanded
+laterally, the muzzle presents a similar cylindrical form, and the lower
+jaw also projects, but the single elevated nose-leaf is absent, and
+instead of it the face is marked by a deep, longitudinal, sharp-edged
+groove extending from the nostrils (which are on the upper surface of
+the muzzle, near its extremity) to the low band connecting the bases of
+the large ears, the sides of this depression being margined as far back
+as the eyes by small horizontal cutaneous appendages. All the species
+resemble one another closely, and are mainly distinguished by the form
+of the tragus and the size and relative position of the second lower
+premolar. With the exception of _N. javanica_, they are all limited to
+the Ethiopian region.
+
+
+_Family_ VESPERTILIONIDÆ.
+
+Nostrils opening by simple crescentic or circular apertures at the
+extremity of the muzzle, not surrounded by distinct foliaceous cutaneous
+appendages; premaxillæ small, lateral, and separated by a wide space
+in front; tragus distinct. In addition to these characters, it may be
+observed that the skull is of moderate size, the nasal and frontal
+bones not being much extended laterally or vertically, nor furrowed by
+deep depressions. The number of incisors varies from ²⁄₃ to ¹⁄₃, rarely
+(in _Antrozous_ only) ¹⁄₂, premolars ³⁄₃, or ²⁄₂, or ¹⁄₂, rarely (in
+_Vesperugo noctivagans_ of North America) ²⁄₃; the upper incisors are
+small, separated by a wide space in the middle line, and placed in pairs
+or singly near the canine; the molars are well-developed, with acute
+W-shaped cusps.
+
+This family, which may be regarded as occupying a central position in
+the suborder, includes the common simple-faced Bats of all countries,
+of which the well-known Pipistrelle and the Whiskered Bat (_Vespertilio
+mystacinus_) may be taken as familiar types, and its species number more
+than 150, or considerably more than one-third the total number of the
+known species of the entire order. The various genera may be conveniently
+grouped into the _Plecotine_, _Vespertilionine_, _Miniopterine_, and
+_Thyropterine_ divisions.
+
+In the _Plecotine_ division, of which the common Long-eared Bat
+(_Plecotus auritus_) is the type, the crown of the head is but slightly
+raised above the face-line, the outermost upper incisor is close to the
+canine, and the nostrils are margined behind by grooves on the upper
+surface of the muzzle, or by rudimentary nose-leaves; the ears also are
+generally very large and united.
+
+_Plecotus._[595]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+36. Outer margin of ear-conch ending abruptly near the angle of the
+mouth, the inner margin with a more or less prominent rounded projection
+directed inwardly above the base; tragus very large, tapering upwards,
+with a lobe at the base of its outer margin, rounded, and placed half
+horizontally. This genus is represented by the European Long-eared Bat
+(_P. auritus_), and _P. macrotis_, restricted to North America. The
+latter is distinguished by the great size of the glandular prominences of
+the sides of the muzzle, which meet in the centre above and behind the
+nostrils. _P. auritus_ extends over the greater part of the Palæarctic
+region, occurring in Ireland in the west and the Himalaya in the east.
+
+_Synotus._[596]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃; total 34.
+This genus is distinguished from the preceding by the loss of one lower
+premolar and by the outer margin of the ear being carried forwards above
+the mouth and in front of the eye; it includes the European Barbastelle
+Bat (_S. barbastellus_) and _S. darjilingensis_ from the Himalaya.
+
+_Otonycteris._[597]—Dentition: _i_ ¹⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ¹⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+30. The reduction in the number of upper incisors readily characterises
+this genus, which appears to connect the typical representatives of the
+section, through _Scotophilus_, with the Vespertilionine division. It is
+represented by a single species, _O. hemprichi_, from North Africa and
+the Himalaya.
+
+_Nyctophilus._[598]—Dentition: _i_ ¹⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ¹⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃;
+total 30. This and the following genera are distinguished from all the
+preceding by the presence of a rudimentary nose-leaf. The present genus
+contains _N. timoriensis_ of the Australian region, and _N. microtis_ of
+New Guinea.
+
+_Antrozous._[599]—Dentition: _i_ ¹⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ¹⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+28. Readily distinguished from the other members of the whole family
+by having but two lower incisors, and from the other species of the
+section by the separate ears. The single species, _A. pallidus_, inhabits
+California.
+
+The _Vespertilionine_ division includes some nine-tenths of all the
+representatives of the family. They are distinguished from the preceding
+section by the simple nostrils, opening by crescentic or circular
+apertures at the extremity of the muzzle, the generally small size of the
+ears, and the absence of grooves on the forehead.
+
+_Vesperugo._[600]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁻¹⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁻¹⁄₂₋₃, _m_
+³⁄₃; total 34, 30, or 36. This large genus comprises about one-third
+of the section, and is divided into groups or subgenera, according to
+the number of premolars and incisors; the latter varying from ²⁄₃ to
+¹⁄₃ in the subgenera _Scotozous_ and _Rhogeëssa_, and the premolars
+from ²⁄₂ to ¹⁄₂ (in the subgenus _Lasionycteris_ ²⁄₃). The Bats of
+this genus are generally easily distinguished by their comparatively
+thickly formed bodies, flat broad heads and obtuse muzzles, short,
+broad, and triangular obtusely-pointed ears, obtuse and usually slightly
+incurved tragus, short legs, and by the presence in most species of a
+well-developed post-calcaral lobule. This lobule (which is supported
+by a cartilaginous process derived from the calcar) may act as a kind
+of adhesive disc in securing the animal’s grasp when climbing over
+smooth surfaces. _Vesperugo_ probably contains the greatest number of
+individuals among the genera of Chiroptera, and, with the exception of
+_Vespertilio_, its species have also the widest geographical range, being
+almost cosmopolitan; and one of the species, the well-known Serotine
+(_V. [Vesperus] serotinus_) is remarkable as the only species of Bat
+known to inhabit both the Old and the New World; one (_V. borealis_)
+has been found close to the limits of the Arctic circle, and another
+(_V. magellanicus_) inhabits the cold and desolate shores of the Straits
+of Magellan, being doubtless the Bat referred to by Mr. Darwin in the
+_Naturalist’s Voyage_. The Common Pipistrelle (_V. pipistrellus_),
+ranging over the greater part of the Palæarctic region, is the best known
+species.
+
+_Chalinolobus._[601]—This genus agrees with _Vesperugo_ in the dental
+formula, but is readily distinguished by the presence of a well-defined
+lobe projecting near the angle of the mouth from the lower lip, and
+by the unicuspidate first upper incisor. The species fall into two
+subgenera—_Chalinolobus_ proper, with _p_ ²⁄₂, represented by _C. morio_
+from New Zealand, Tasmania, and Australia, and three other species from
+Australia; and _Glauconycteris_, with _p_ ¹⁄₂, limited to Southern
+and Equatorial Africa, and known by _C. argentatus_ and two other
+species, the Bats of this subgenus being especially remarkable for their
+peculiarly thin membranes, traversed by very distinct reticulations and
+parallel lines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 308.—Head of _Scotophilus emarginatus_. (Dobson,
+_Monogr. Asiat. Chiropt._)]
+
+_Scotophilus._[602]—Dentition: _i_ ¹⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ¹⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+30. This genus comprises a comparatively small number of species nearly
+allied to _Vesperugo_, and some of which approach so closely to the
+aberrant types of the latter ranged under the subgenus _Scotozous_, as to
+render the definition of the present genus almost impossible.[603] The
+species are restricted to the tropical and subtropical regions of the
+eastern hemisphere, though widely distributed within these limits. The
+more typical species are distinguished especially by the single pair of
+unicuspidate upper incisors separated by a wide space and placed close
+to the canines, by the small transverse first lower premolar squeezed in
+between the canine and second premolar, and, generally, by their conical
+nearly naked muzzles and remarkably thick leathery membranes. _S. kuhli_
+is probably the commonest species of Bat in India, and appears often on
+the wing even before the sun has touched the horizon, especially when
+the white-ants are swarming, feeding eagerly upon them as they rise in
+the air. _S. gigas_, from Equatorial Africa, with the forearm measuring
+3·4 inches, is by far the largest species. _S. albofuscus_, from the
+Gambia, which is readily distinguished from the other species by its
+white wings, is an aberrant form, in which the lower premolars are long
+and not crowded together, and thereby so closely resembles _Vesperugo_
+(_Scotozous_) _dormeri_ as to render it almost impossible to distinguish
+_Scotophilus_ and _Vesperugo_. The figured species is from India.
+
+_Nycticejus._[604]—This genus, with the same dental formula as
+_Scotophilus_, is distinguished by the first lower premolar not being
+squeezed in between the adjoining teeth, and by the comparatively much
+greater size of the last upper molar. It includes only the common North
+American _N. humeralis_ (_crepuscularis_), a small Bat scarcely larger
+than the Pipistrelle. It seems, however, as pointed out by Mr. O. Thomas,
+that the discovery of _Scotophilus albofuscus_ renders the generic
+distinctness of _Nycticejus_ no longer tenable, and that the species
+should be known as _Scotophilus humeralis_.
+
+_Atalapha._[605]—Dentition: _i_ ¹⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁻¹⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+32 or 30. The five species of this genus, which are confined to the
+New World, are generally characterised by the interfemoral membrane
+being more or less covered with hair (in the two commonest species, _A.
+noveboracensis_ and _A. cinerea_, wholly covered), and by the peculiar
+form of the tragus, which is expanded above and abruptly curved inwards.
+These species have two upper premolars, of which the first is extremely
+small and quite internal to the tooth-row.
+
+_Harpyiocephalus._[606]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_
+³⁄₃; total 34. This genus includes some eight species of small
+Bats distinguished by their prominent tube-like nostrils and hairy
+interfemoral membrane. _H. suillus_, from Java and neighbouring
+islands, is the best-known species, and another closely allied (_H.
+hilgendorfi_)has been described by Professor Peters from Japan. The
+remaining six species are known only from the Himalaya and Tibet. All
+appear to be restricted to the hill tracts of the countries in which they
+are found.
+
+_Vespertilio._[607]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+38. Next to _Vesperugo_, this genus includes by far the largest number
+of species, amounting to over forty; it has, however, rather a wider
+geographical distribution in both hemispheres, one species at least being
+recorded from the Navigators’ Islands. The species are easily recognised
+by the peculiar character of the upper incisors, the crowns of which
+diverge from each other; by the large number of premolars, of which the
+second upper one is always very small; and by the oval elongated ear and
+narrow attenuated tragus. In the British Isles this genus is represented
+by four species, viz. Bechstein’s Bat (_V. bechsteini_); the Reddish-Gray
+Bat (_V. nattereri_), of very local occurrence; Daubenton’s Bat (_V.
+daubentoni_); and the Whiskered Bat (_V. mystacinus_).
+
+_Cerivoula._[608]—This genus, which has the same dental formula as
+_Vespertilio_, is distinguished by the parallel upper incisors, and the
+comparatively large size of the second upper premolar. Some ten species
+have been described from the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, of which _C.
+picta_, from India and the Indo-Malayan sub-region, is the best-known,
+being well characterised by its brilliantly coloured orange fur and
+conspicuously marked membranes, which are variegated with orange and
+black. This genus includes the most delicately formed and most truly
+insectivorous, tropical, forest-haunting Bats, which appear to stand
+as regards the species of _Vespertilio_ in a position similar to that
+occupied by _Chalinolobus_ with respect to _Vesperugo_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 309.—Side and front views of the head of _Cerivoula
+hardwickei_. (Dobson, _Monogr. Asiat. Chiropt._)]
+
+The _Miniopterine_ division includes only two genera, and is
+characterised by the great elevation of the crown of the head above the
+facial line, and also by the upper incisors being separated from the
+canine and also in the middle line.
+
+_Natalus._[609]—This genus, while having the divisional characters
+mentioned above, agrees in the dental formula and its general external
+form with _Cerivoula_, from which it is distinguished by the short
+triangular tragus. It includes three species, restricted to South and
+Central America and the West Indies; the head of _N. micropus_ being
+shown in Fig. 310.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 310.—Head of _Natalus micropus_. × 3. (Dobson, _Proc.
+Zool. Soc._ 1880.)]
+
+_Miniopterus._[610]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+36. In addition to the difference in the number of the teeth, this genus
+is distinguished by the shortness of the first phalanx of the middle
+finger and the great length of the tail, which is wholly contained
+within the interfemoral membrane; it includes four species, restricted
+to the eastern hemisphere. Of these the best-known, _M. schreibersi_,
+is very widely distributed, being found almost everywhere throughout
+the tropical and warmer temperate regions of the eastern hemisphere;
+specimens from Germany, Madagascar, Japan, and Australia differing in no
+appreciable respect from one another.
+
+The last or _Thyropterine_ division, which likewise comprises only two
+genera, is characterised by the presence of an additional osseous phalanx
+in the middle finger and an equal number of phalanges in the toes, and
+also by peculiar accessory clinging organs attached to the extremities.
+
+_Thyroptera._[611]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+38. In the single species _T. tricolor_ of Brazil the clinging organs
+have the appearance of small, circular, pedunculated, hollow discs (Fig.
+311), resembling in miniature the sucking cups of cuttle-fishes, and are
+attached to the inferior surfaces of the thumbs and soles of the feet.
+With these the animal is enabled to maintain its hold when creeping over
+smooth vertical surfaces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 311.—Suctorial discs in _Thyroptera tricolor_. _a_,
+Side and _b_, concave surface, of thumb-disc; _c_, foot with disc, and
+calcar with projections (all much enlarged). Dobson, _Proc. Zool. Soc._
+1876.]
+
+_Myxopoda._[612]—The second genus is likewise represented only by a
+single species—_M. aurita_ of Madagascar—and is distinguished from the
+preceding by the characters of the teeth and the form of the ears.
+The whole inferior surface of the pollex supports a large sessile
+horse-shoe-shaped adhesive pad, with the circular margin directed
+forwards and notched along its edge, and a smaller pad occupies part of
+the sole of the foot.
+
+_Fossil Vespertilionidæ._—It is not improbable that _Vesperugo_ is
+represented in the Upper Eocene of the Paris basin by _V. parisiensis_,
+which appears to be allied to _V. serotina_, although it has been
+regarded by some writers as generically distinct, under the name of
+_Nyctitherium_. _Vesperugo_ (_Nyctitherium_) also occurs in the Bridger
+Eocene of the United States; _Nyctilestes_ from the same deposits being
+an allied extinct genus. A number of European Miocene species have been
+referred to _Vespertilio_, but the term in these cases must be used in
+a somewhat wide sense. _Vespertiliavus_, of the Phosphorites of Central
+France, differs from _Vespertilio_ in the proportions of its premolars.
+
+
+_Section_ EMBALLONURINA.
+
+Tail perforating the interfemoral membrane and appearing on its upper
+surface, or produced considerably beyond the truncated membrane; the
+middle pair of upper incisors generally large and close together.
+
+
+_Family_ EMBALLONURIDÆ.
+
+First phalanx of the middle finger folded (in repose) on the dorsal
+surface of the metacarpal bone (except in _Noctilio_ and _Mystacops_).
+Nostrils opening by simple circular or valvular apertures at the
+extremity of the muzzle, not surrounded or margined by foliaceous
+cutaneous appendages; tragus distinct.
+
+The _Emballonuridæ_ are generally easily distinguished by the peculiar
+form of the muzzle, which is obliquely truncated, the nostrils projecting
+more or less in front beyond the lower lip; by the first phalanx of the
+middle finger being folded in repose forwards on the upper surface of the
+metacarpal bone; by the tail, which either perforates the interfemoral
+membrane or is produced far beyond it; and by the upper incisors, which
+are generally a single pair separated from the canine and also in the
+middle line. The family is cosmopolitan like the _Vespertilionidæ_, but
+rarely extends north or south of the thirtieth parallel of latitude.
+
+Subfamily =Emballonurinæ=.—Tail slender, perforating the interfemoral
+membrane, and appearing upon its upper surface, or terminating in it;
+legs long, fibula very slender; upper incisors weak.
+
+In the _Furipterine_ division the tail terminates in the interfemoral
+membrane; the crown of the head is greatly elevated above the face-line;
+the thumb and first phalanx of the middle finger are very short; and the
+dentition is _i_ ²⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total 38.
+
+Represented by two genera, _Furipterus_[613] and _Amorphochilus_,[614]
+each including one species of peculiar aspect; the latter distinguished
+from the former by the widely separated nostrils and the great extension
+backwards of the bony palate. Habitat South America.
+
+In the typical or _Emballonurine_ division part of the tail is included
+in the basal half of the interfemoral membrane, the remaining part
+passing through and appearing upon its upper surface; the crown of the
+head is slightly elevated; the pollex and first phalanx of the middle
+finger are moderately long; and the number of the premolars is always ²⁄₂.
+
+_Emballonura._[615]—Incisors ²⁄₃. Extremity of the muzzle more or less
+produced beyond the lower lip, forehead flat. Contains some five species,
+inhabiting islands from Madagascar through the Malay Archipelago to the
+Navigators’ Islands.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 312.—Ear of _Emballonura raffrayana_, × 2. (Dobson,
+_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1878.)]
+
+_Coleüra._[616]—Incisors ¹⁄₃. Extremity of the muzzle broad, forehead
+concave. Has two species from East Africa and the Seychelles Islands.
+
+_Rhynchonycteris._[617]—This genus is distinguished from _Coleüra_ by the
+much-produced extremity of the muzzle. The single species, _R. naso_,
+from Central and South America, is very common in the vicinity of streams
+throughout the tropical parts of these countries; it is usually found
+during the day resting on the vertical faces of rocks, or on the trunks
+of trees growing over the water, and, owing to the peculiar grayish
+colour of the fur covering the body and growing in small tufts from
+the antebrachial membrane, so as to counterfeit the weathered surfaces
+of rocks and the bark of trees, easily escapes notice. As the shades
+of evening approach it appears early on the wing, flying close to the
+surface of the water, and seizing the minute insects that hover over it.
+
+_Saccopteryx._[618]—Incisors ¹⁄₃. Antebrachial membrane with a pouch
+opening on its upper surface. This genus contains six species from
+Central and South America. In the adult males a valvular longitudinal
+opening is found on the upper surface of the membrane, varying in
+position in different species. This opening leads into a small pouch (in
+some species large enough to hold a pea), the interior of which is lined
+with a glandular membrane secreting an unctuous substance of a reddish
+colour with a strong ammoniacal odour. The presence of this sac only in
+males indicates that it is a secondary sexual character analogous to the
+shoulder-pouches of _Epomophorus_ and the frontal sacs of _Hipposiderus_.
+It is quite rudimentary in the females.
+
+_Taphozous._[619]—Incisors ¹⁄₂; upper pair deciduous. This genus,
+represented by some ten species, inhabiting the tropical and subtropical
+parts of all the eastern hemisphere except Polynesia, forms the
+second group of this division, distinguished by the cartilaginous
+premaxillaries, deciduous upper incisors, and the presence of only
+two lower incisors. Most of the species have a peculiar glandular sac
+(Fig. 313) placed between the angles of the lower jaw. This is a sexual
+character, for, while always more developed in males than in females, in
+some species, although distinct in the male, it is quite absent in the
+female. An open gular sac is wanting in both sexes in _T. melanopogon_,
+but about its usual position the openings of small pores may be seen, the
+secretion exuding from which probably causes the hairs to grow very long,
+forming the black beard found in many male specimens of this species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 313.—Heads of _Taphozous longimanus_, showing
+relative development of gular sacs in male and female. (Dobson, _Proc.
+Zool. Soc._ 1873.)]
+
+In the _Diclidurine_ division there is but a single genus, represented by
+two species.
+
+_Diclidurus._[620]—Dentition: _i_ ¹⁄₃, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+32. Both species are from the Neotropical region, the typical _D.
+albus_ ranging as far north as Central America. This Bat resembles the
+species of _Taphozous_ in the form of the head and ears, but, besides
+other characters, differs from all other Bats in possessing a peculiar
+pouch, opening on the centre of the inferior surface of the interfemoral
+membrane; the extremity of the tail enters this, and perforates its
+fundus.
+
+The _Noctilionine_ division is likewise represented only by a single
+genus, with two species. This genus connects the present with the
+following family, possessing characters common to both, but also so many
+remarkable special peculiarities as almost to warrant the formation of a
+separate family for its reception.
+
+_Noctilio._[621]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₁, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ¹⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+28. The two species _N. leporinus_ and _N. albiventer_ inhabit Central
+and South America. The typical _N. leporinus_ is a Bat of very curious
+aspect, with strangely folded lips, erect cutaneous processes on the
+chin, and enormous feet and claws. The first upper incisors are close
+together, and so large as to conceal the small outer ones, while in the
+lower jaw there is one pair of small incisors. This apparent resemblance
+to a Rodent actually led Linnæus to remove this species from the Bats and
+place it in the Rodents. This Bat is remarkable for feeding on fish—a
+circumstance which has only recently been fully authenticated.
+
+The remaining genus of this subfamily is regarded as representing another
+division, which may be known as the _Rhinopomatine_ division.
+
+_Rhinopoma._[622]—This genus, represented by the single species _R.
+microphyllum_, might also be elevated to the rank of a family, for it is
+difficult to determine its exact affinities, a kind of cross relationship
+attaching it to the _Nycteridæ_ on the one hand and to this family,
+in which it is here placed provisionally, on the other. This species,
+distinguished from all other Microchiroptera as well by the presence of
+two phalanges in the index finger as by its remarkably long and slender
+tail projecting far beyond the narrow interfemoral membrane, inhabits
+the subterranean tombs in Egypt and deserted buildings generally from
+North-East Africa to Burma.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 314.—Skull of _Rhinopoma microphyllum_. × 2. (Dobson,
+_Monogr. Asiat. Chiropt._)]
+
+Subfamily =Molossinæ=.—Tail thick, produced far beyond the posterior
+margin of the interfemoral membrane (except in _Mystacops_); legs short
+and strong, with well-developed fibula; upper incisors strong. This
+subfamily includes all the species of _Emballonuridæ_ with short and
+strong legs and broad feet (whereof the first toe, and in most species
+the fifth also, is much thicker than the others, and furnished with long
+curved hairs), well-developed callosities at the base of the thumbs,
+and a single pair of large upper incisors occupying the centre of the
+space between the canines. In all the species the feet are free from the
+wing-membrane, which folds up perfectly under the forearm and legs; the
+interfemoral membrane is retractile, being movable backwards and forwards
+along the tail, and this power of varying its superficial extent must
+confer upon these Bats great dexterity in quickly changing the direction
+of their flight, as when obliged to double in pursuing their swift
+insect prey, which their extremely expansible lips evidently enable them
+to secure with ease. Like the preceding subfamily, the genera may be
+arranged in divisions, of which there are two.
+
+The _Molossine_ division is characterised by the production of the tail
+beyond the posterior margin of the interfemoral membrane; it includes
+three genera.
+
+_Chiromeles._[623]—Dentition: _i_ ¹⁄₁, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ¹⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃; total
+26. Hallux much larger than the other toes and separable from them, ears
+separate. This genus is represented by a single species, _C. torquatus_,
+of large size (forearm 3·1 inches) and peculiar aspect, inhabiting the
+Indo-Malayan sub-region. This Bat is nearly naked, a collar only of
+thinly spread hairs half surrounding the neck; and is further remarkable
+for its enormous throat-sac and curious nursing-pouches. The former
+consists of a great semicircular fold of skin forming a deep pouch round
+the neck beneath, and concealing the orifices of large subcutaneous
+pectoral glands, which discharge an oily fluid of insufferably offensive
+smell. The nursing-pouch is formed on each side by an extension of a fold
+of skin from the side of the body to the inferior surfaces of the humerus
+and femur. In the anterior part of this pouch the mammæ are placed.
+
+_Molossus._[624]—Dentition: _i_ ¹⁄₁₋₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ¹⁻²⁄₁, _m_ ³⁄₃;
+total 24 or 28. Upper incisors close together in the middle line.
+There are some ten species, restricted to the tropical and subtropical
+regions of the New World. The woodcut of the head of _M. glaucinus_
+(Fig. 315) exhibits the general physiognomy of the Bats of this genus.
+_M. obscurus_, a small species, is very common in tropical America. It
+inhabits the hollow trunks of palms and other trees, and also the roofs
+of houses. The males and females live apart (as, indeed, appears to be
+the case in most, if not in all, species of Bats). In the hollow trunk
+of a palm two colonies were discovered, one consisting of from 150 to
+200 individuals, exclusively males, while the other was composed almost
+entirely of females.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 315.—Head of _Molossus glaucinus_. (Dobson, _Proc.
+Zool. Soc._ 1876.)]
+
+_Nyctinomus._[625]—Dentition: _i_ ¹⁄₃₋₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁻¹⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃;
+total 32 or 28. Upper incisors separated in the middle line. The
+genus contains about twenty-five species, inhabiting the tropical and
+subtropical parts of both hemispheres. The lips of the Bats of this genus
+are even more expansible than in _Molossus_, in many of the species (as
+in the woodcut of the head of _N. macrotis_, Fig. 316) showing vertical
+wrinkles. _N. tæniotis_, one of the largest species, alone extends into
+Europe, and has been taken as far north as Switzerland. _N. johorensis_,
+from the Malay Peninsula, is remarkable from the extraordinary form of
+its ears. _N. brasiliensis_ is nearly as common as _Molossus obscurus_
+in tropical America, and extends farther north (California) and south
+than that species.
+
+In the _Mystacopine_ division the tail perforates the interfemoral
+membrane and appears upon the upper surface.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 316.—Head of _Nyctinomus macrotis_. (Dobson, _Proc.
+Zool. Soc._ 1876.)]
+
+_Mystacops._[626]—This genus includes only _M. tuberculatus_ of New
+Zealand, where, together with _Chalinolobus tumorio_, it represents the
+whole indigenous mammalian fauna of the islands. There are three distinct
+phalanges in the middle finger; the greater part of the wing-membrane is
+exceedingly thin, but a narrow portion along the forearm, the sides of
+the body, and the legs is remarkably thick and leathery; beneath this
+thickened portion the wings are folded. With the wings thus encased, this
+species is the most quadrupedal of Bats. Other peculiarities of structure
+are found in the remarkable form of the claws of the thumbs and toes,
+which have each a small talon projecting from its concave surface near
+the base, also in the sole of the foot and inferior surface of the leg,
+as shown in Fig. 317. The plantar surface, including the toes, is covered
+with soft and very lax integument deeply wrinkled, and each toe is marked
+by a central longitudinal groove with short grooves at right angles to
+it. The lax wrinkled integument is continued along the inferior flattened
+surface of the ankle and leg. These peculiarities appear to be related to
+climbing habits in the species.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 317.—Pollex and leg and foot of _Mystacops
+tuberculatus_, enlarged. (Dobson, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1876.)]
+
+_Fossil Emballonuridæ._—In the cavern-deposits of Madras remains of
+the existing _Taphozous saccolæmus_ are not uncommon; while in the
+corresponding beds of Brazil bones of a _Molossus_, probably referable
+to _M. temmincki_, now inhabiting the same region, are met with. It has
+been suggested that remains from the Upper Eocene Phosphorites of Central
+France may indicate the existence of the genus _Taphozous_ at that early
+epoch.
+
+
+_Family_ PHYLLOSTOMATIDÆ.
+
+Middle finger with three well-developed bony phalanges; first phalanx
+of the middle finger short; nostrils in the front part of the cutaneous
+nasal appendages, or opening by simple apertures at the extremity of
+the muzzle; chin with warts or erect cutaneous ridges; premaxillæ well
+developed, united in front.
+
+The members of this family are readily distinguished by the third phalanx
+in the middle finger, associated either with distinct cutaneous nasal
+appendages, or with well-developed first upper incisors, or with both.
+Unlike the _Rhinolophidæ_, their eyes are generally large; and the tragus
+is well developed, maintaining almost the same form throughout the
+species, however much the other parts of the body may vary. The fur is of
+a dull colour, and the face and back (in the _Stenodermatine_ division
+especially) are often marked with white streaks, as in the _Pteropodidæ_,
+of which these Bats take the place in the western hemisphere. A few
+species, probably all those with the tail and interfemoral membrane well
+developed, feed principally on insects, while the greater number of the
+species of the _Vampirine_ and _Glossophagine_ divisions appear to live
+on a mixed diet of insects and fruits; and the _Desmodontine_ division,
+of which two species only are known, are true blood-suckers, and have
+their teeth and intestinal tract specially modified in accordance with
+their habits. The family is restricted to the tropical and subtropical
+parts of Central and South America.
+
+Subfamily =Chilonycteriinæ=.—Nostrils opening by simple apertures at the
+extremity of the muzzle in front, not margined by a distinct nose-leaf;
+chin with expanded leaf-like appendages. It includes two genera.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 318.—Head of _Mormops blainvillei_. (Dobson, _Cat.
+Chiropt. Brit. Mus._)]
+
+_Chilonycteris._[627]—Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃;
+total 34. The crown of the head is moderately elevated above the facial
+line, and the basicranial axis is almost in the same plane as the facial.
+There are about half a dozen species.
+
+_Mormops._[628]—The two species of this genus are distinguished from
+_Chilonycteris_ by the great elevation of the crown of the head above
+the line of the face, as well as by the basicranial plane being nearly
+at right angles to the facial. Both species are noticeable for their
+peculiar physiognomy, as is shown in the accompanying woodcut (Fig. 318).
+
+Subfamily =Phyllostomatinæ=.—Nostrils opening on the upper surface of
+the muzzle, the nasal apertures more or less surrounded or margined by
+well-developed cutaneous appendages, forming a distinct nose-leaf; chin
+with warts. The numerous genera, most of which can only be mentioned here
+by name, may be arranged under four divisions.
+
+In the first or _Vampirine_ division the muzzle is long and narrow in
+front; the distance between the eyes is generally less than, rarely equal
+to, that from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle; the nose-leaf
+is well developed, horse-shoe shaped in front, and lanceolate behind;
+interfemoral membrane well developed; tail generally distinct, rarely
+absent; inner margin of the lips not fringed. The dentition is: _i_
+²⁄₂₋₁, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₂₋₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total 32. The cusps of the upper
+molars are usually well developed, and arranged in a W. Nearly all the
+species of this division appear to be insectivorous, so that the name
+applied to them must not be considered as having any relation to their
+habits. _Vampyrus spectrum_, a large Bat inhabiting Brazil, of forbidding
+aspect, which was long considered by naturalists to be sanguivorous
+in its habits, and named accordingly by Geoffroy, has been shown by
+the observations of modern travellers to be mainly frugivorous, and is
+considered by the inhabitants of the countries in which it is found to
+be perfectly harmless. It is the largest Bat in America, the length of
+the forearm being 4·2 inches. _Otopterus waterhousei_ appears to prey
+occasionally on small species of Bats, like _Megaderma lyra_ of the
+eastern hemisphere, which it resembles in many respects.
+
+_Lonchorhina_,[629] _Otopterus_,[630] _and Dolichophyllum_.[631]—These
+three genera are characterised by the tail continuing to the hinder
+margin of the interfemoral membrane. _Lonchorhina_ is represented by the
+single species _L. aurita_, in which the nose-leaf is much elongated, and
+the ear-conch and tragus are unusually large.
+
+_Vampyrus_,[632] _etc._—In all the remaining genera of this division the
+tail perforates the interfemoral membrane, so as to appear upon its upper
+surface. These genera are _Vampyrus_, _Lophostoma_, _Micronycteris_,[633]
+_Trachyops_, _Phylloderma_, _Phyllostoma_, _Anthorhina_,[634] _Mimon_,
+_Hemiderma_[635] and _Rhinophylla_; all, with the exception of the last,
+being distinguished from one another chiefly by the form of the skull
+and the presence or absence of the second lower premolar. _Trachyops_,
+_Phylloderma_, and the three last-named genera are each represented by a
+single species. _Phyllostoma hastatum_, in which the forearm has a length
+of 3·2 inches, and next in point of size to _Vampyrus spectrum_, is a
+well-known species in South America; _P. elongatum_ (Fig. 319) differs
+in its smaller size and much larger nose-leaf. _Hemiderma brevicauda_
+is a small species, which forms a connecting link between this and the
+next division. _Rhinophylla pumilio_, the smallest known species of the
+family, is further distinguished by the narrowness of its molars, which
+do not form W-shaped cusps, and by the very small size of the last upper
+molar; characters connecting it with the _Stenodermatine_ division.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 319.—Head of _Phyllostoma elongatum_. (From Dobson,
+_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1866.)]
+
+In the second or _Glossophagine_ division of the subfamily the muzzle
+is long and narrow; the tongue remarkably long and extensible, much
+attenuated towards the tip, and beset with very long filiform recurved
+papillæ; lower lip with a wide groove above, and in front margined by
+small warts; nose-leaf small; tail short or absent. Dentition: _i_ ¹⁄₁,
+_c_ ²⁄₂, _p_ ²⁻³⁄₃₋₂, _m_ ²⁄₃₋₂; teeth very narrow; molars with narrow
+W-shaped cusps, sometimes indistinct or absent; lower incisors very small
+or deciduous.
+
+The ten species included in this division are arranged under seven
+genera,[636] distinguished principally by differences in the form and
+number of the teeth and the presence or absence of the zygomatic arch.
+The form and position of the upper incisors are extremely variable.
+In _Glossophaga_ and _Phyllonycteris_ the upper incisors form, as in
+the _Vampyrine_ division, a continuous row between the canines; in
+_Monophylla_ and _Leptonycteris_[637] they are separated into pairs by
+a narrow interval in front; while in _Lonchoglossa_, _Glossonycteris_,
+and _Chœronycteris_ they are widely separated and placed in pairs near
+the canines. In the first four genera the lower incisors are present (at
+least up to a certain age), while in the last three they are deciduous
+even in youth. The zygomatic arch is wanting in _Phyllonycteris_,
+_Glossonycteris_, and _Chœronycteris_.
+
+The typical species is _Glossophaga soricina_, which so closely resembles
+_Hemiderma brevicauda_, both in external form and dentition, that it has
+frequently been confounded with it. Its long fimbriated tongue, which
+it possesses in common with other species of the division, led Spix to
+describe it as a blood-sucker, believing that this organ was used to
+increase the flow of blood. This view is, however, without foundation,
+and from later observations it is evident that the peculiarly shaped
+tongue is used by the animal to lick out the pulpy contents of fruits
+having hard rinds. The food of the species of this division appears to
+consist of both fruit and insects, and the long tongue may also be used
+for extracting the latter from the deep corollæ of certain flowers. This
+type of tongue is shown in the woodcut of the head of _Chœronycteris_
+(Fig. 320); and it is paralleled among the Megachiroptera by the
+Carponycteriine _Pteropodidæ_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 320.—Head of _Chœronycteris mexicana_, showing
+fimbriated tongue. (Dobson, _Cat. Chiropt. Brit. Mus._)]
+
+The _Stenodermatine_ division is characterised by the muzzle being very
+short and generally broad in front, the distance between the eyes nearly
+always exceeding (rarely equal to) that from the eye to the extremity
+of the muzzle; nose-leaf short, horse-shoe shaped in front, lanceolate
+behind (except in _Brachyphylla_ and _Centurio_); interfemoral membrane
+always concave behind; tail none; inner margin of the lips fringed
+with conical papillæ. Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₂₋₁, _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_ ³⁻²⁄₃₋₂; the
+number of the molars being either ³⁄₃, ²⁄₃, or ²⁄₂ in different species;
+premolars and molars very broad (except in _Sturnira_), the latter with
+concave or flat crowns margined externally by raised cutting-edges.
+Although the members of this division are usually distinguished from
+those of the Vampirine division by the peculiar shortness and breadth of
+the muzzle and the form of the molars, yet certain species of the latter
+closely resemble those of the former in external appearance, agreeing
+almost absolutely in the form of the nose-leaf, of the ears and tragus,
+and of the warts on the chin. These resemblances indicate that, while
+the form of the teeth and jaws has become modified to suit the nature of
+the food, the external characters, being but slightly affected by this
+cause, have remained much the same. The food of these Bats appears to
+be wholly or in great part fruit. The twenty species have been grouped
+into nine genera, distinguished by the form of the skull and teeth.
+_Artibeus_, with six species, includes the well-known frugivorous Bat,
+_A. perspicillatus_. Waterton believed that _A. planirostris_, a common
+Bat in British Guiana, usually found in the roofs of houses, and now
+known to be frugivorous, was the true blood-sucking Vampire. _Stenoderma
+achradophilum_, found in Jamaica and Cuba, associated with _Artibeus
+perspicillatus_, from which it is scarcely distinguishable externally
+except by its much smaller size, differs altogether in the absence of
+the horizontal plate of the palatal bones. _Sturnira lilium_, while
+agreeing with the above in the form of the nose-leaf and ears, differs
+from all the species of the family in its longitudinally-grooved molars,
+which resemble those of the _Pteropodidæ_ more closely than those of
+any other Bats; and the presence of tufts of long differently coloured
+hairs over glands in the sides of the neck shows another common character
+still more remarkable, which can scarcely be considered the result of
+adaptive change. _Centurio senex_ is the type of a genus distinguished
+from _Stenoderma_ and other genera of this division by the absence
+of a distinct nose-leaf; its facial aspect, as shown in Fig. 321, is
+altogether bizarre.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 321.—Head of _Centurio senex_. (Dobson, _Cat.
+Chiropt. Brit. Mus._)]
+
+In the last or _Desmodont_ division the muzzle is conical and short;
+there is a distinct nose-leaf; the interfemoral membrane is very
+short; and the tail is wanting. Dentition: _i_ ¹⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₃,
+_m_ ¹⁻⁰⁄₁₋₀; total 24 or 20. Upper incisors very large, trenchant,
+occupying the whole space between the canines; premolars very narrow,
+with sharp-edged longitudinal crowns; molars rudimentary or wanting;
+stomach greatly elongated, intestiniform. There are only two genera, the
+single species of each of which are the true blood-sucking Vampires.
+They appear to be confined chiefly to the forest-clad parts, and their
+attacks on men and other warm-blooded animals were noticed by some of
+the earliest writers. Thus Peter Martyr (Anghiera), who wrote soon after
+the conquest of South America, says that in the Isthmus of Darien there
+were Bats which sucked the blood of men and cattle when asleep to such a
+degree as to kill them. Condamine, a writer of the eighteenth century,
+remarks that at Borja (Ecuador) and in other places they had entirely
+destroyed the cattle introduced by the missionaries. Sir Schomburgk
+relates that at Wicki, on the river Berbice, no fowls could be kept on
+account of the ravages of these creatures, which attacked their combs,
+causing them to appear white from loss of blood. Although these Bats
+were known thus early to Europeans, the species to which they belonged
+were not determined until about sixty years ago, several of the large
+frugivorous species having been wrongly set down as blood-suckers and
+named accordingly; and it fell to the lot of Darwin to determine at least
+one of the blood-sucking species, the following being his account of the
+circumstances under which the discovery of the sanguivorous habits of
+_Desmodus rufus_ was made: “The Vampire Bat is often the cause of much
+trouble by biting the horses on their withers. The injury is generally
+not so much owing to the loss of blood as to the inflammation which
+the pressure of the saddle afterwards produces. The whole circumstance
+has lately been doubted in England; I was therefore fortunate in
+being present when one was actually caught on a horse’s back. We were
+bivouacking late one evening near Coquimbo, in Chili, when my servant,
+noticing that one of the horses was very restive, went to see what was
+the matter, and, fancying he could detect something, suddenly put his
+hand on the beast’s withers and secured the Vampire.”
+
+These Bats present, in the extraordinary differentiation of the
+manducatory and digestive apparatus, a departure from the type of
+other members of the family unparalleled in any of the other orders of
+Mammalia, standing apart from all other mammals as being fitted only
+for a diet of blood, and capable of sustaining life upon that alone.
+Travellers describe the wounds inflicted by the large sharp-edged
+incisors as similar to those caused by a razor when shaving: a portion of
+the skin being shaved off and a large number of severed capillary vessels
+thus exposed, from which a constant flow of blood is maintained. From
+this source the blood is drawn through the exceedingly narrow gullet—too
+narrow for anything solid to pass—into the intestine-like stomach, whence
+it is probably gradually drawn off during the slow process of digestion,
+while the animal, sated with food, is hanging in a state of torpidity
+from the roof of a cave or the inner side of a hollow tree.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 322.—Head of Vampire Bat (_Desmodus rufus_).]
+
+_Desmodus._[638]—No true molar, and no calcar. The Common Vampire (_D.
+rufus_) is widely spread over the tropical and subtropical parts of
+Central and South America from Oaxaca to Southern Brazil and Chili. It is
+a comparatively small species, a little larger than the common Noctule,
+the head and body being about 3 inches in length, the forearm 2½, with a
+remarkably long and strong thumb; it is destitute of a tail, and has a
+peculiar physiognomy, well represented in Fig. 322. The body is covered
+with rather short fur of a reddish-brown colour, but varying in shade;
+the extremities of the hairs being sometimes ashy. The teeth are peculiar
+and admirably adapted for the purposes for which they are employed. The
+upper incisor is greatly enlarged, and of somewhat triangular shape (Fig.
+323); the canine, although smaller than the incisor, is large and sharp;
+but the cheek-teeth are very small, with laterally compressed crowns
+rising but slightly above the level of the gum, their longitudinally
+disposed cutting-edges being continuous with the base of the canine and
+with each other. The lower incisors are small, bifid, and separated from
+the canine, with a space in front. The lower cheek-teeth are narrow, like
+those in the upper jaw, but the anterior tooth is slightly larger than
+the others, and separated by a small space from the canine. Behind the
+lower incisors the jaw is deeply hollowed out to receive the extremities
+of the large upper incisors. The exceedingly narrow œsophagus opens at
+right angles into the slender, intestine-like stomach, which almost
+immediately terminates on the right, without a distinct pylorus, in the
+duodenum, but on the left forms a greatly elongated fundus, bent and
+folded upon itself, appearing at first sight like part of the intestines.
+This cardiac extremity of the stomach is, for a short distance, to the
+left of the entrance of the œsophagus, still very narrow, but soon
+increases in size, till near its termination it attains a diameter quite
+three times that of the short pyloric portion. The length of this cardiac
+diverticulum of the stomach appears to vary from 2 to 6 inches, the size
+in each specimen probably depending on the amount of food obtained by the
+animal before it was captured.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 323.—Dentition of _Desmodus rufus_. _a_, Front view
+of upper teeth; _b_, left lateral view of upper and lower teeth.]
+
+_Diphylla._[639]—A small true molar in each jaw, and a rudimentary
+calcar. The single species _D. ecaudata_ inhabits Brazil, and appears to
+be much less abundant than _Desmodus rufus_, from which, in addition to
+the characters already mentioned, it is distinguished by its slightly
+smaller size, the absence of a groove in the front of the lower lip,
+the non-development of the interfemoral membrane in the centre, and the
+peculiar form of the lower incisors, which are much expanded in the
+direction of the jaws and pectinated, forming a semicircular row touching
+each other, the outer pair being wider than the inner ones, and having
+six notches, the inner pair having only three notches.
+
+_Fossil Phyllostomatidæ._—Remains of _Vampyrus spectrum_, as well as of
+several species of _Phyllostoma_ or closely allied types, are found in
+the cavern deposits of Brazil. The mandible of a large Bat from the Upper
+Eocene Phosphorites of Central France, described as _Necromantis_, has
+been referred to this family—a determination which, if confirmed, will be
+of great interest from a distributional point of view.
+
+    _Bibliography of Chiroptera._—G. E. Dobson, _Catalogue of the
+    Chiroptera in the Collection of the British Museum_, 1878,
+    including descriptions of all the species of Bats then known;
+    subsequent papers by the same author in _Rep. Brit. Assoc._,
+    _Proc. Zool. Soc._, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._, and _Bull. Soc.
+    Zool. de France_; by Peters in _Monatsb. Akad. Wiss. Berlin_;
+    by O. Thomas in _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._, _Proc. Zool. Soc._,
+    and _Ann. Mus. Genova_; and by J. Scully in _Ann. Mag. Nat.
+    Hist._ and _Journ. As. Soc. Bengal_; H. A. Robin, _Recherches
+    Anatomiques sur les Mammifères de l’Ordre des Chiroptères_,
+    Paris, 1881; W. T. Blanford, “Notes on Indian Chiroptera,”
+    _Journ. As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. lviii. (1888). See also papers
+    by Jentink, Bocage, and others.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE ORDER PRIMATES
+
+
+This order in the system of Linnæus includes Man, the Monkeys, the
+Lemurs, and the Bats. By common consent of all zoologists the last-named
+animals have been removed into a distinct order; but with regard to the
+association of the others there has been, and still is, much difference
+of opinion.
+
+That all the Monkeys, from the highest Anthropoid Apes to the lowest
+Marmosets, form a natural and tolerably homogeneous group seems never
+to have been questioned; but whether the Lemurs on the one hand and Man
+on the other should be united with them in the same order are points of
+controversy. If, in accordance with the traditional views of zoologists,
+the former are still considered to be members of this order, they must
+form a suborder apart from all the others, with which they have really
+very little in common except the opposable hallux of the hind foot, a
+character also met with in the Opossums, and which is therefore of very
+secondary importance.[640]
+
+Using the term Primates in this wider sense it is not easy to give
+any precise definition of the order. The dentition is diphyodont and
+heterodont; the number of incisors being very generally ²⁄₂, and that
+of the molars, with the exception of the _Hapalidæ_, being ³⁄₃. The
+cheek-teeth are adapted for grinding, the molars being more complex than
+the premolars, and usually having four main tubercles, which may be
+either subconical or more or less compressed. The orbit is invariably
+surrounded by a ring of bone; the clavicles are well developed; and the
+radius and ulna are never united. The scaphoid and lunar of the carpus,
+and commonly also the centrale, remain distinct from one another. There
+are usually five digits furnished with well-developed nails in both
+the manus and the pes; but the pollex may be rudimentary or wanting.
+The hallux, except in Man, is opposable to the other digits, and has a
+flat nail (absent in _Simia_); and the pollex, when present, is usually
+also more or less opposable. The terminal phalanges of the digits are
+flattened (except in the second digit of the pes of the Lemuroidea), and
+not cleft at their extremities. The fingers and toes generally do not
+taper towards their extremities, but (except in _Chiromys_) are dilated,
+flattened, and rounded at their tips. The humerus has no entepicondylar
+foramen, nor the femur a third trochanter. In the alimentary canal
+(Fig. 324) the stomach is generally simple, although sacculated in the
+subfamily _Semnopithecinæ_ of the _Cercopithecidæ_; and there is always
+a cæcum, which is generally of large size. The placenta may be either
+non-deciduous, or discoidal and deciduous. There are always two mammæ in
+the pectoral region, except in _Chiromys_; and the testes descend into a
+scrotum.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 324.—Alimentary canal of _Galago_, the greater part
+of the small intestine being omitted. _d_, duodenum; _i_, ileum; _cm_,
+cæcum; _r_, rectum.]
+
+The Lemuroidea are decidedly low in the scale of organisation, their
+placentation being of a lower type than that of the Insectivora; and all
+the Primates retain generalised features in their pentadactylate limbs
+and more or less bunodont cheek-teeth. In respect to cerebral characters
+and other features the higher representatives of the order have, however,
+acquired a specialisation clearly indicating their right to occupy
+the highest position in the animal kingdom. So far as the available
+material admits of forming an opinion, fossil forms appear to indicate
+an intimate connection between the Lemuroidea and Insectivora, so that
+in some cases it is almost impossible to determine whether an extinct
+type should be referred to the former or to the latter group. It is
+noteworthy that while in all existing Primates the upper molars are of
+a quadrituberculate type, in the extinct Lemuroid genus _Anaptomorphus_
+they are trituberculate.
+
+
+_Suborder_ LEMUROIDEA.
+
+The Latin term _Lemur_ was applied by Linnæus to the typical
+representatives of the present group of Primates, having been suggested
+by the nocturnal habits and strange ghost-like appearance of some of
+its members. As these animals had previously no vernacular appellation
+in English, this name has been generally adopted, and is now completely
+anglicised, making “Lemurs” in the plural. The French call them _Makis_,
+and the Germans _Halbaffen_, in allusion to their forming a transition
+from monkeys to ordinary quadrupeds. For the same reason they are called
+_Prosimiæ_ by some systematic writers. When the name was bestowed by
+Linnæus only five species were known, of which one, _L. volans_, Linn.
+(_Galeopithecus volans_ of modern writers), is now removed by common
+consent from the group. Notwithstanding the discovery of many new and
+curious forms, the Lemurs remain a very natural and circumscribed
+division of the animal kingdom, though no longer considered a single
+genus, but divided up into many genera and even families.
+
+The existing species are not numerous, and do not diverge widely in their
+organisation or habits, being all of small or moderate size, all adapted
+to an arboreal life, climbing with ease, and, as they find their living,
+which consists of fruits, leaves, birds’ eggs, small birds, reptiles, and
+insects, among the branches of the trees, they rarely have occasion to
+descend to the ground. None are aquatic, and none burrow in the earth.
+Many of the species, although by no means all, are nocturnal in their
+habits, spending the day in sleeping in holes, or rolled up in a ball,
+perched on a horizontal branch, or in the fork of a tree, and seeking
+their food by night. Their geographical distribution is very peculiar; by
+far the larger proportion of species, including all those to which the
+term “Lemur” is now especially restricted, being exclusively inhabitants
+of Madagascar, where they are so abundant and widely distributed that
+it is said by M. Grandidier, who has contributed more than any other
+traveller to enrich our knowledge of the structure and manners of these
+animals, that there is not a little wood in the whole island in which
+some of them cannot be found. From Madagascar as a centre a few species
+less typical in character extend through the African continent westward
+as far as Senegambia, and others are found in the Oriental region as far
+east as the Philippine Islands and Celebes.
+
+The following are the essential characters by which the suborder as a
+whole is distinguished from the Anthropoidea. Skull with the orbit
+opening freely into the temporal fossa beneath the postorbital bar
+(except in _Tarsius_); and the lachrymal foramen situated externally to
+the margin of the orbit (Fig. 327). The pollex and hallux are always
+well developed, the latter being especially large; the second or index
+digit of the manus may be rudimentary; while in the pes the second digit
+invariably terminates in a long pointed claw. The cerebral hemispheres do
+not completely overlap the cerebellum, and are but slightly convoluted.
+The uterus is bicornuate. The placenta is non-deciduate, and either
+diffused or bell shaped—the whole of the chorion except the cephalic
+pole being covered with villi; and the allantois is of very great size.
+There may be abdominal mammæ. Except in _Chiromys_, the first pair of
+upper incisors are separated in the middle line. In marked contrast to
+the Anthropoidea, the middle or transverse portion of the colon is almost
+always folded or convoluted on itself. (See Fig. 324.)
+
+In subdividing the group for the purpose of a more detailed description
+of the different animals of which it is composed it must first be noted
+that there are two very aberrant forms, each represented by a single
+species—the little _Tarsius_ of the Indian archipelago, and the singular
+_Chiromys_ or Aye-aye, which, though an inhabitant of Madagascar, the
+headquarters of the suborder, and living in the same forests and under
+the same external conditions as the most typical Lemurs, exhibits a most
+remarkable specialisation in the structure of its limbs and teeth, the
+latter being modified so as to resemble, at least superficially, those of
+the Rodents, in which order it was once placed. The differences between
+these two forms and the remaining Lemurs are so great that the whole
+suborder naturally divides itself into three families, the first of which
+may be again divided into four subfamilies.
+
+
+_Family_ LEMURIDÆ.
+
+Upper incisors two on each side, small and separated by an interval in
+the middle line. Upper canine large, conical, compressed, and pointed.
+Premolars two or three, molars three on each side above and below, with
+numerous more or less pointed cusps. In the front of the lower jaw are
+on each side two or three closely approximated, long, slender teeth
+lying almost horizontally and projecting forwards. These are generally
+considered to represent the incisors and canine, but there is some doubt
+about their homologies, and they may be all considered as incisors, the
+canine being absent. The first lower premolar larger than those behind
+it, and shaped like a canine, of which it performs the function (Fig.
+327). The orbit and temporal fossa widely continuous beneath the bar
+of bone (formed by the frontal and jugal) constituting the posterior
+boundary of the former cavity. The fibula well developed and distinct
+from the tibia. All the digits of both feet (except the second of the
+hind foot) with flat nails, and corresponding form of ungual phalanges.
+
+Subfamily =Indrisinæ=.—The dentition of the adult consists of thirty
+teeth, usually expressed by the formula _i_ ²⁄₁, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_
+³⁄₃; but, as indicated above, they may be _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_
+³⁄₃. In the milk-dentition there are twenty-two teeth, the true molars
+of course not being represented, but there are two additional teeth in
+the fore part of the lower jaw which have no successors in the permanent
+series. Hind limbs greatly developed, but the tarsus normal. Hallux of
+large size, and very opposable. The other toes united at their base by a
+fold of skin, which extends as far as the end of the first phalanx. Mammæ
+two, pectoral. Cæcum very large, and colon extremely long and spirally
+coiled.
+
+The animals of this group are, as their organisation indicates,
+essentially arboreal, and feed exclusively on fruit, leaves, buds, and
+flowers. They are restricted geographically to the island of Madagascar.
+Among them are the largest members of the suborder. A detailed and
+beautifully illustrated account of their characters, external and
+internal, and distribution and habits, is given in the _Histoire
+Naturelle de Madagascar_, by A. Grandidier and Alphonse Milne-Edwards
+(1875). The species are not numerous and are distributed into three
+genera.
+
+_Indris._[641]—Upper incisors subequal in size. Upper canine larger than
+the first premolar. Muzzle moderately long. Ears exserted. Carpus without
+an os centrale. Tail rudimentary. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 9, S 4, C 9.
+
+The only well-established species is the Indris (_I. brevicaudata_, Fig.
+325), discovered by Sonnerat in 1780. It is the largest of the Lemurs,
+the length of the head and body being about 2 feet, and the tail 2
+inches. It is very variable in colour, for although usually nearly black,
+marked with whitish spots principally in the lumbar region and forearm,
+individuals have been found quite white. It inhabits exclusively the
+forests of a part of the east coast of Madagascar, living in small troops
+of four or five in number, and resembling in most of its habits the
+animals of the next genus.
+
+_Propithecus._[642]—Second upper incisor much smaller than the first.
+Upper canine larger than the first premolar. Muzzle rather short. Ears
+short, concealed by the fur. An os centrale in the carpus. Tail long.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 8, S 3, C 28.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 325.—Indris (_Indris brevicaudata_). From
+Milne-Edwards and Grandidier, _Mammifères de Madagascar_, pl. 12.]
+
+The species are all subject to great variations in colour, which has
+led to much difficulty in discriminating them, and to much confusion of
+synonymy. Grandidier and Milne-Edwards recognise three as certainly
+distinct—_P. diadema_, _P. verreauxii_, and _P. coronatus_ (Fig. 326).
+Some of these are to be found in almost every part of the island of
+Madagascar, living in the woods in small bands of six or eight together,
+and feeding exclusively on buds, flowers, and berries. Their powerful
+hind limbs enable them to leap from tree to tree, often to a distance of
+10 yards, without any apparent effort, and thus seeming to fly through
+the air. When obliged to descend to the ground to pass from one clump
+of trees to another they do not run on all fours, but stand erect, and
+throwing their arms above their heads progress by a series of short
+jumps, producing an effect which is described by travellers who have
+seen them thus in their native haunts as exceedingly ludicrous. They are
+not nocturnal, but most active in the morning and evening, remaining
+seated or coiled up among the branches during the heat of the day. They
+are naturally of a quiet and gentle disposition, and do not show much
+intelligence. All the species are also less vociferous than the true
+Lemurs, only when alarmed or angered making a noise which has been
+compared to the clucking of a fowl. Like the rest of the subfamily they
+never have more than a single young one at a time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 326.—_Propithecus coronatus._ (From Milne-Edwards and
+Grandidier, _Mammifères de Madagascar_, pl. 7.)]
+
+_Avahis._[643]—Second upper incisor larger than the first. Upper canine
+scarcely larger than the first premolar. Muzzle very short. Ears very
+small and hidden in the fur, which is very soft and woolly. Carpus
+without an os centrale. Tail long. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11, L 9, S 3, C 23.
+
+One species, _A. laniger_, the Woolly Lemur, or Avahis, considerably
+smaller than any of the last genus. It differs from them in its habits,
+being quite nocturnal, and not associating in small troops, but being
+always met with either alone or in pairs. It is very slow in its
+movements, and rarely descends to the ground, but when it does it walks
+upright like the other _Indrisinæ_. It is found throughout the forests
+which clothe the mountains on the east coast of Madagascar, and also in a
+limited district on the north-west coast, the specimens from the latter
+locality being of smaller size and rather different in colour.
+
+Subfamily =Lemurinæ=.—The dentition in the adult consists of thirty-six
+teeth, which, as usually enumerated, are _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_
+³⁄₃. In the fore part of the lower jaw are on each side three elongated,
+compressed, procumbent teeth, of which the outer, usually considered
+the homologue of the canine, is larger than the others. All the forms
+have long tails. Hind limbs not of the same disproportionate size as in
+the last group; and the cæcum much less developed. Tarsus but slightly
+elongated, the calcaneum being always less than one-fourth the length of
+the tibia. Toes of the hind feet free to the base. Habitat, Madagascar,
+and some of the adjacent Comoro Islands.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 327.—Skull of Ring-tailed Lemur (_Lemur catta_). × ⅓;
+_uc_, Upper canine; _lc_, lower canine; _pm_, premolars; _m_, molars.]
+
+This group contains the typical Lemurs, or rather those to which the
+term is now chiefly restricted. Two somewhat aberrant members make it
+necessary to divide it into three genera.
+
+_Lemur._[644]—Upper incisors separated by an interval in the middle, and
+not in contact with each other or the canine, in front of which they are
+both placed. Muzzle elongated. Ears conspicuous and tufted. Mammæ two,
+pectoral. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 7 (or D 13, L 6), S 3, C 27.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 328.—The Ring-tailed Lemur (_Lemur catta_).]
+
+Animals much about the size of a common Cat, with Fox-like faces, soft
+thick fur, and long tails well clothed with hair. Not having the same
+disproportionate size of the limbs as the last group, they are much
+more quadrupedal in their actions, walking on the ground or running
+along the branches of trees on all four feet, but also jumping with
+marvellous agility. They are gregarious, living in small troops, are
+diurnal in their habits, but most active towards evening, when they make
+the woods resound with their loud cries. They feed not only on fruits
+and buds, but also on eggs, young birds, and insects. When at rest or
+sleeping they generally coil their long, bushy tails around their bodies,
+apparently for the sake of the warmth it affords. They have either one
+or two young ones at a birth, which are at first nearly naked, and are
+carried about, hanging close to and almost concealed by the hair of the
+mother’s belly. After a while they change their position and mount upon
+the mother’s back, where they are carried about until they are able to
+climb and leap by themselves. Though no member of the _Indrisinæ_ has as
+yet lived long enough in captivity to be brought alive to Europe, various
+species of _Lemurinæ_ are commonly seen in menageries, and often breed in
+England. They present a great tendency to variation in their colouring,
+in consequence of which many nominal species have been made. The most
+distinct, and at the same time most beautiful, is the Ring-tailed Lemur
+(_L. catta_, Fig. 328), of a delicate gray colour, and with a long tail
+marked with alternating rings of black and white. This is said by Mr.
+G. A. Shaw[645] to be an exception to all the other Lemurs in not being
+arboreal, but living chiefly among rocks and bushes. Pollen, however,
+says that it inhabits the forests of the south-west parts of Madagascar,
+living, like its congeners, in considerable troops, and not differing
+from them in its habits. He adds that it is extremely gentle, and active
+and graceful in its movements, and utters at intervals a little plaintive
+cry like that of a domestic cat. All the others have the tail of uniform
+colour. The largest species is _L. varius_, the Ruffed Lemur, sometimes
+black and white, and sometimes reddish-brown, the variation apparently
+not depending on sex or age, but on the individual. In _L. macaco_ the
+male is black and the female red. _L. mongoz_, _L. collaris_, and _L.
+albifrons_ are other well-known species.
+
+_Hapalemur._[646]—Upper incisors very small, subequal, separated widely
+in the middle line. Those of either side in contact with each other and
+with the canine, the posterior one being placed on the inside, and not in
+front of the latter. Muzzle very short and truncated. Mammæ four. There
+is apparently but one species, _H. griseus_, smaller than any of the true
+Lemurs, of a dark gray colour, with round face and short ears. It is
+quite nocturnal, and lives chiefly among bamboos, subsisting on the young
+shoots. A second species has been named _H. simus_, but it is doubtful if
+it is more than a variety.
+
+_Lepidolemur._[647]—Upper incisors absent or rudimentary. Muzzle more
+elongated than in the last. No distinct os centrale in the carpus.
+_L. mustelinus_ is the best-known species. It has, at all events when
+adult, no upper incisors. It is rare, and like _Hapalemur_ nocturnal in
+its habits. A second closely allied species, but with better developed
+premaxillæ, containing a pair of small styliform incisors, has been
+described by Peters[648] under the name of _Myxocebus caniceps_.
+
+Subfamily =Galaginæ=.—Dentition as in _Lemurinæ_, from which the members
+of this subfamily are distinguished by the elongation of the tarsus,
+caused by a peculiar modification of the calcaneum and the navicular, the
+distal portion of the former and the whole of the latter having the form
+of almost cylindrical rods placed side by side, while the other bones
+retain nearly their normal form and proportion.
+
+_Chirogaleus._[649]—Last upper premolar very much smaller than the first
+molar, with only one external cusp. The animals included under this name
+appear to form a transition between the true Lemurs and the Galagos. The
+genus was originally established by Geoffroy St. Hilaire in 1812 for
+the reception of three species only known at that time by drawings made
+in Madagascar by the traveller Commerson. Subsequent discoveries have
+brought to light several others that may be referred to it, including
+one or two which are sometimes considered as forming a genus apart under
+the name of _Microcebus_. They are all small, some being less than a
+rat in size, long-tailed, and nocturnal in their habits. One of the
+largest, _C. furcifer_, is of a reddish-gray colour, and distinguished
+by a dark median stripe on its back which divides on the top of the head
+into two branches, one of which passes forwards above each eye. The most
+interesting peculiarity of these animals, a knowledge of which we owe
+to M. Grandidier, is that certain species (_C. samati_, _C. gliroides_,
+_C. milii_, etc.) during the dry season coil themselves up in holes of
+trees and pass into a state of torpidity like that of the hibernating
+animals in the winter of northern climates. Before this takes place
+an immense deposit of fat accumulates upon certain parts of the body,
+especially upon the basal portion of the tail, which has then dimensions
+corresponding to that of the well-known fat-tailed Sheep of the Cape, but
+which by the time they emerge from their torpor has acquired its normal
+proportions. The smallest species, to which many names have been given
+(_C. pusillus_, _rufus_, _smithi_, etc.), lives among the small branches
+on the tops of the highest trees, feeding on fruit and insects, and
+making nests which resemble those of birds.
+
+_Galago._[650]—Last upper premolar with two large external cusps, and
+nearly equalling the first molar in size. Calcaneum about one-third the
+length of the tibia, and the navicular much longer than the cuboid.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 3, C 22-26. Tail long, and generally bushy.
+Ears large, rounded, naked, and capable of being folded at the will of
+the animal. Mammæ four, two pectoral and two inguinal.
+
+The Galagos differ from all the Lemuroids previously mentioned, inasmuch
+as they are inhabitants, not of Madagascar, but of the African continent,
+being widely distributed in the wooded districts from Senegambia in the
+west to Abyssinia in the east, and as far south as Natal. They pass the
+day in sleep, but are very active at night, feeding on fruit, insects,
+and small birds. When they descend to the ground they sit upright, and
+move about by jumping with their hind legs, like jerboas and kangaroos.
+They are pretty little animals, varying in size from that of a small cat
+to less than a rat, with large eyes and ears, soft woolly fur, and long
+tails. There are several species, of which _G. crassicaudatus_, from
+Mozambique, is the largest. A similar species, or perhaps variety, from
+Angola is _G. montieri_. _G. garnetti_, _alleni_, _maholi_, _demidoffi_,
+and _senegalensis_ are other recognised species. The last-mentioned was
+the first known to science, having been brought from Senegal by Adanson,
+and described in 1796 by Geoffroy, who adopted the name _Galago_, by
+which it was said to be called by the natives.
+
+Subfamily =Lorisinæ=.—Dental formula as in _Lemurinæ_. Index finger very
+short, sometimes rudimentary and nailless. Fore and hind limbs nearly
+equal in length. Tarsus not specially elongated. Pollex and hallux
+diverging widely from the other digits, the hallux especially being
+habitually directed backwards. Tail short or quite rudimentary. Mammæ
+two, pectoral.
+
+A small group of very peculiar animals, of essentially nocturnal habits,
+and remarkable for the slowness of their movements. They are completely
+arboreal, their limbs being formed only for climbing and clinging to
+branches, not for jumping or running. They have rounded heads, very
+large eyes, short ears, and thick, short, soft fur. They feed not only
+on vegetable substances, but, like many of the _Lemuridæ_, on insects,
+eggs, and also birds, which they steal upon while roosting at night. None
+of the species are found in Madagascar. One of the greatest anatomical
+peculiarities of these animals is the breaking up of the large arterial
+trunks of the limbs into numerous small parallel branches, constituting a
+_rete mirabile_, which is found also in the Sloths, with which the Loris
+are sometimes confounded on account of the slowness of their movements.
+The animals of this group are usually divided into four genera, though
+the characters by which they are separated are very trivial. There are
+more properly two natural divisions.
+
+_A._ Characterised by the index finger being small, but having the
+complete number of phalanges, and by their Asiatic habitat.
+
+These form the genus _Loris_ of Geoffroy St. Hilaire (1796), _Stenops_
+of Illiger (1811), but they were in 1812 divided by Geoffroy into two
+genera, _Nycticebus_ and _Loris_, a division which has been accepted by
+most modern zoologists.
+
+_Nycticebus._[651]—First upper incisor larger than the second, which is
+often early deciduous. Inner margins of the orbits separated from each
+other by a narrow flat space. Nasal and premaxillary bones projecting
+but very slightly in front of the maxillæ. Body and limbs stout. No
+external tail. Vertebræ: C 7, D 17, L 6, S 3, C 12. The species are _N.
+tardigradus_, the common Slow Lemur or Loris, of the Malay Countries,
+Sumatra, and Borneo; _N. javanicus_, of Java; and _N. cinereus_ (Fig.
+329) of Siam and Cochin China. The habits of all are much alike. They
+lead a solitary life in the recesses of large forests, chiefly in
+mountainous districts, where they sleep during the day in holes or
+fissures of large trees, rolled up into a ball, with the head between the
+hind legs. On the approach of evening they awake; and during the night
+they ramble among the branches of trees, slowly and quietly, in search
+of their food, which consists of tender leaves and fruit, small birds,
+insects, and mice. When in quest of living prey they move noiselessly
+till quite close, and then suddenly seize it with one of their hands. The
+female produces but one young one at a time. _L. tardigradus_ was placed
+by Linnæus at the head of the list of species of his genus _Lemur_, and
+its habits doubtless suggested the generic name which was transferred by
+Geoffroy to the less nocturnal and spectre-like Madagascar members of the
+group.[652]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 329.—The Gray Loris (_Nycticebus cinereus_). From A.
+Milne-Edwards, _N. Archives du Muséum_, vol iii. pl 3.]
+
+_Loris_.[653]—Upper incisors very small and equal. Orbits very large,
+and only separated in the middle line above by a thin vertical plate of
+bone. Nasals and premaxillæ produced forwards considerably beyond the
+anterior limits of the maxillæ, and supporting a pointed nose. Body and
+limbs slender. No external tail. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 9, S 3, C 6.
+This genus is represented only by the Slender Loris (_L. gracilis_) of
+Southern India and Ceylon (Fig. 330). This species is common in some
+of the forest regions of Southern India, and may be purchased in the
+bazaars at Madras, its eyes being regarded as a remedy by the natives for
+ophthalmic diseases. It is a strange-looking creature, about the size
+of a squirrel, of a yellowish-brown colour, with large, prominent eyes,
+pointed nose, long thin body, long, angularly bent, slender limbs, and no
+tail. Its habits, according to Mr. W. T. Blanford,[654] are “very similar
+to those of _Nycticebus tardigradus_, except that the Slender Loris is
+rather quicker in its movements, though still slow in general. Like its
+ally, it is purely nocturnal and arboreal, living upon shoots and young
+leaves, insects, birds’ eggs, birds, and lizards. It is said to be very
+fond of honey or syrup. It sleeps rolled up in a ball with its head
+between its legs, grasping its perch with its arms.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 330.—The Slender Loris (_Loris gracilis_). From
+Blanford, _Mammalia of British India_, p. 47.]
+
+_B._ Index fingers reduced to a mere tubercle without nail. Both the
+known species are from West Africa.
+
+_Perodicticus._[655]—A short tail, about a third of the length of the
+trunk. Two or three of the anterior dorsal vertebræ have very long
+slender spinous processes which in the living animal project beyond the
+general level of the skin, forming distinct conical prominences, covered
+only by an exceedingly thin and naked integument. The Potto, _P. potto_,
+is one of the oldest known members of the lemuroid group, having been
+described in 1705 by Bosman, who met with it in his voyage to Guinea.
+It was, however, lost sight of until 1825, when it was rediscovered in
+Sierra Leone, and fully described by Bennett in 1830 under the name of
+_Perodicticus geoffroyi_. Bennett’s generic name has been retained, but
+the specific name bestowed by Gmelin, adopted from Bosman, has been
+restored. It is also found in the Gaboon. It is strictly nocturnal,
+and slower in its movements even than _Nycticebus tardigradus_, which
+otherwise it much resembles in its habits.
+
+A second species, the Awantibo (_P. calabarensis_), rather smaller and
+more delicately made, with smaller hands and feet and rudimentary tail,
+constitutes the genus _Arctocebus_ of Gray. It is found at Old Calabar,
+and is very rare, only a few individuals having as yet been met with.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 7, S 3, C 9.[656]
+
+
+_Family_ TARSIIDÆ.
+
+Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₁, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total 34. The first upper
+incisor large, and in contact with its fellow of the opposite side.
+Canine of moderate size. Molars with numerous pointed cusps. Lower canine
+semi-erect, its apex diverging from that of the single incisor. First
+lower premolar smaller than those behind it. Orbit to a large extent
+separated from the temporal fossa by a bony partition. Fibula slender,
+with its lower half confluent with the tibia. Second and third digits of
+the hind foot with compressed claws; all the other digits of both feet
+with flat nails. Calcaneum and navicular bone of the foot elongated as in
+the Chirogales and Galagos, but to a still greater extent. Colon short
+and not folded. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 3, C 27.
+
+_Tarsius._[657]—The family contains the single genus _Tarsius_, of which
+but one species is known, _T. spectrum_, the Tarsier, a very singular
+little animal, rather smaller than an English squirrel, with very large
+eyes and ears, a long thin tail, tufted at the end, and immensely
+elongated tarsal portion of the foot, in allusion to which its generic
+name was given to it. It inhabits the forests of many of the islands of
+the Indo-Malayan archipelago, including Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, and
+some of the Philippines, feeds chiefly on insects and lizards, sleeps
+during the day, but is tolerably active at night, moving chiefly by
+jumping from place to place, an action for which the structure of its
+hind legs, which present a curious resemblance to those of a frog, seems
+particularly well adapted. It is rare, not more than two being generally
+found together, and only brings forth one young at a time.[658]
+
+
+_Family_ CHIROMYIDÆ.
+
+Dentition of adult: _i_ ¹⁄₁, _c_ ⁰⁄₀, _p_ ¹⁄₀, _m_ ³⁄₃; total 18.
+Incisors very large, compressed, curved, with persistent pulps and enamel
+only in front, as in Rodents. Teeth of cheek series with flat, very
+indistinctly tuberculated crowns. In the young the first set of teeth
+more resemble those of the normal lemurs, being _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _m_
+²⁄₂, all very small. Orbit surrounded by a ring of bone posteriorly,
+beneath which it communicates freely with the temporal fossa. Fibula well
+developed and distinct from the tibia. All the digits of both feet with
+pointed rather compressed claws, except the hallux, which has a flattened
+nail. Middle digit of the hand excessively attenuated. Vertebræ: C 7, D
+12, L 6, S 3, C 27.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 331.—Skull of Aye-aye (_Chiromys madagascariensis_).
+× ⅙ Mus. Roy. Coll. Surgeons.]
+
+_Chiromys._[659]—This family, like the last, is formed for the
+reception of a single genus, _Chiromys_,[660] containing one species,
+_C. madagascariensis_, the Aye-aye, an animal about the size of a cat,
+with a broad rounded head, short face, and large and naked ears. It has
+very large hands and long thin fingers with pointed claws, one of which
+(the middle or third) is remarkable for its extreme slenderness. The
+foot resembles that of the other lemurs in its large opposable hallux,
+with a flat nail, but all the other toes have pointed compressed claws,
+like that of the second toe in the _Lemurinæ_ and the second and third
+in the _Tarsiidæ_. Tail long and bushy. General colour dark brown, the
+outer fur being long and rather loose, with a woolly undercoat. Mammæ
+two, inguinal in position. It is a native of Madagascar, where it was
+discovered by Sonnerat in 1780. The specimen brought to Paris by that
+traveller was the only one known until 1860. Since then many others have
+been obtained, and they may frequently be seen living in the gardens of
+the Zoological Society of London. Like so many of the Lemurs, the Aye-aye
+is completely nocturnal in its habits, living either alone or in pairs,
+chiefly in the bamboo forests. Observations upon captive specimens have
+led to the conclusion that it feeds principally on succulent juices,
+especially of the sugar-cane, which it obtains by tearing open the hard
+woody circumference of the stalk with its strong incisor teeth. It is
+said also to devour certain species of wood-boring caterpillars, which
+it obtains by first cutting down with its teeth upon their burrows, and
+then picking them out of their retreat with the claw of its attenuated
+middle finger. It constructs large ball-like nests of dried leaves,
+lodged in a fork of the branches of a tree with the opening on one side.
+The resemblance of its teeth to those so characteristic of the Rodentia
+caused it to be placed formerly in that order, and it was only when its
+anatomical characters were fully known that its true affinities with the
+Lemurs became apparent.[661]
+
+
+_Extinct_ LEMUROIDS.
+
+The discoveries of the last few years have revealed the former existence,
+both in Europe and North America, of a number of extinct animals more
+or less closely allied to the living Lemurs, which are of especial
+interest as showing in some instances characters of a more generalised
+type than is the case with the living representatives of the suborder.
+It is, however, in some cases very difficult to determine whether these
+extinct forms should be referred to the Lemuroidea or Insectivora; and
+if those naturalists are right who regard these groups as survivors of a
+very generalised ancestral type of mammalian organisation, it is to be
+expected that as we recede in time we should find that the two groups
+show more and more marked signs of a natural connection. The earliest
+reference of one of these extinct Upper Eocene types to the Primates was
+made in 1862 by Professor L. Rütimeyer, of Basle, who described part of
+an upper jaw with three teeth from the so-called Bohnerz of Egerkingen,
+near Soleure in Switzerland, under the name of _Cænopithecus lemuroides_,
+regarding the animal to which the specimen belonged as partaking of
+the characters both of the Lemurs and the American Monkeys. Most other
+palæontologists refused, however, to accept this determination, and it
+was not until many years later that the researches of Gaudry and Filhol
+showed not only that _Cænopithecus_ was indeed a true Lemuroid, but also
+that it was either identical with or closely allied to a form described
+by Cuvier in the early part of this century under the name of _Adapis_
+and regarded as referable to the Ungulata. Later researches have brought
+to light other Lemuroids in the Tertiaries of both the Old and the New
+World; and it is very noteworthy that all these types seem to have
+disappeared from both regions with the close of the upper portion of the
+Eocene period.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 332.—The last five right upper cheek-teeth of
+_Microchœrus antiquus_ (_A_) and _Microchœrus erinaceus_ (_B_). Twice
+natural size, and natural size.]
+
+Among the more interesting of the forms which are generally regarded
+as true Lemuroids we may first mention a small species from the Quercy
+Phosphorites, of which the hinder cheek-teeth are shown in Fig. 332,
+_A_, which was originally described as _Necrolemur antiquus_, but
+appears to be generically identical with _Microchœrus erinaceus_, of the
+upper Eocene of Hampshire, of which the corresponding teeth are shown
+in _B_ of the same figure. In this genus, according to Dr. Schlosser,
+the dental formula is _i_ ²⁄₁, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃, or the same
+as in the existing _Tarsius_; but it is not improbable that in some
+instances the first lower premolar may have been developed. The upper
+molars of _M. erinaceus_ differ from those of _M. antiquus_ by the
+simpler structure of their columns and the smaller size of the external
+cingulum, which lacks the median cusp found in the latter. The angle of
+the mandible is produced into a large hook-like flange which at once
+distinguishes the genus from all existing Lemurs; and the anterior lower
+premolar is not canine-like. _M. antiquus_ is of very small size, but
+the larger _M. edwardsi_ of the same deposits comes nearer in dimensions
+to _M. erinaceus_. The upper molars decrease in size from the first to
+the third, the first and second having a median cusp in the external
+cingulum, by which they are readily distinguished from the corresponding
+teeth of the under-mentioned genus _Hyopsodus_. The third upper molar
+differs from that of _Hyopsodus_ by its small size and the abortion of
+its posterior columns. The skull approximates to that of the living genus
+_Galago_, exhibiting the same inflation of the auditory bulla. The upper
+molars are also not unlike one species of that genus, but the fourth
+upper premolar has but one outer cusp, as in _Chirogaleus_.
+
+The small _Anaptomorphus_, from the North American Eocene, has a skull of
+about the same size as that of the smallest species of _Microchœrus_, but
+the dental formula is _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃, and the upper
+molars are of the tritubercular type.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 333.—The left upper cheek-teeth of _Adapis magna_,
+from the Upper Eocene of Hampshire.]
+
+The well-known _Adapis_ (_Aphelotherium_ or _Palæolemur_), of the Upper
+Eocene of France and England, differs from all existing Lemuroids in
+possessing four premolars[662]; the dental formula being _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_
+¹⁄₁, _p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₃. The fourth upper premolar has two outer cusps,
+and the upper molars (Fig. 333) resemble those of _Lepidolemur_ and
+_Hapalemur_, while the lower canine is a well-developed tooth performing
+the usual function of biting against the canine of the upper jaw. The
+lower incisors have upright, spatulate crowns, as in the true Apes. The
+skull is said to approximate in contour to that of _Propithecus_. The
+typical _A. parisiensis_ is of comparatively small size, but the species
+of which the upper cheek-teeth are shown in the woodcut is of much larger
+dimensions. The skull of _A. magna_, which measures upwards of 4 inches
+in length, resembles that of _A. parisiensis_ in its general characters,
+but is modified much in the way that the skulls of larger animals differ
+from the smaller ones of the same natural group. Thus the brain-chamber
+and orbits are relatively smaller, the face larger, the muscular crests
+more developed, and the constriction between the cerebral and the facial
+portion of the skull more marked. These modifications remove the skull
+in its general characters still farther from the existing Lemurs—so
+much so that M. Filhol refers it and the other species of _Adapis_ to
+a distinct zoological type, intermediate between the lemurs and the
+pachyderms, to which he gives the name of _Pachylemuriens_, but later
+researches do not support this view. As mentioned above, it has been
+suggested that _Cænopithecus lemuroides_ is inseparable from _Adapis
+parisiensis_, but the postero-internal column of the upper molars is said
+to be larger. The genera _Tomitherium_ and _Notharctus_, of the Eocene
+of the United States, appear to be allied to _Adapis_, but the second
+has a larger lower canine. The same deposits have also yielded more or
+less imperfect remains of other forms departing more widely from the
+existing Lemuroid type. Of these _Hyopsodus_, of the Wasatch and Bridger
+Eocene of the United States, has the dental formula _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁,
+_p_ ⁴⁄₄, _m_ ³⁄₅. The quadrituberculate upper molars have well-developed
+accessory intermediate columns (protoconule and metaconule), and thus
+resemble those of _Microchœrus_; the external surfaces of the outer
+columns of their teeth being flattened, with vertical ridges and a
+distinct cingulum. The third upper molar has its postero-internal column
+(hypocone) partly aborted, but is otherwise as well developed as the
+preceding molars. _Microsyops_, of the North American Eocene, appears
+to have been an allied form in which there were probably only three
+premolars.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 334.—The right upper cheek-teeth of _Plesiadapis
+remensis_; from the Lowest Eocene of Rheims. × ³⁄₂. _p_, 3, 4, premolars;
+_m_, 1, 2, 3, molars. (From Osborn.)]
+
+The genera _Protoadapis_ and _Plesiadapis_, from the lowest Eocene of
+Rheims, may not improbably be regarded as primitive Lemuroids. The lower
+molars are quinquetubercular, and not unlike those of _Microsyops_; the
+dental formula of the lower jaw is _i_ 2, _c_ 1, _p_ 3-4, _m_ 3 in the
+first-named genus, but in the second the dentition is reduced to _i_
+²⁄₁, _c_ ¹⁄₀, _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃. In _Plesiadapis_ the lower and the first
+upper incisor are enlarged, the upper molars (Fig. 334) tritubercular,
+and the lower quadritubercular. _Indrodon_, of the lowest Eocene of the
+United States, resembles _Plesiadapis_ in its tritubercular upper molars,
+and appears to have a nearly similar dental formula. _Mixodectes_, of
+the same deposits, was probably a more or less closely allied type.
+_Pelycodus_ of the Wasatch Eocene of North America, in which the hallux
+was not opposable, and _Cryptopithecus_ of the German Eocene, may be
+regarded as very generalised Lemuroids.
+
+    _Bibliography._—Besides the works and memoirs on particular
+    families and genera referred to above, see St. G. Mivart,
+    “Notes on the Crania and Dentition of the _Lemuridæ_,” in
+    _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1864 (pp. 611-648) and 1867 (pp. 960-975);
+    Mivart and Murie, “On the Anatomy of the _Lemuroidea_,” in
+    _Trans. Zool. Soc._ 1872, vol. vii. pp. 1-113; W. Turner, “On
+    the Placentation of the Lemurs,” in _Phil. Trans._ vol. clxvi.
+    pp. 569-587; F. Pollen and D. C. Van Dam, _Recherches sur la
+    Faune de Madagascar_. 2ᵐᵉ parte, “Mammifères,” 1868. For the
+    fossil types see M. Schlosser, “Die Affen, Lemuren, etc., des
+    Europäischen Tertiärs,” in _Beitr. Pal. Œstr-Ungar_, 1888.
+
+
+_Suborder_ ANTHROPOIDEA.
+
+This suborder includes the whole of the remaining members of the
+Primates, namely, those animals commonly known as Marmosets, Monkeys,
+Baboons, and Apes, together with Man himself. The characters by which
+the Anthropoidea are distinguished as a whole from the Lemuroidea may be
+summarised as follows. Skull with the orbit separated from the temporal
+fossa by a vertical plate of bone joining the postorbital bar, and
+the lachrymal foramen situated within the margin of the orbit. Pollex
+sometimes rudimentary or absent; second digit of manus always well
+developed, and that of the pes usually with a flattened nail (not so in
+_Hapalidæ_). The cerebral hemispheres of the brain either completely
+or almost completely cover the cerebellum, and are much convoluted.
+Uterus not bicornuate. The placenta is deciduate and discoidal; and the
+allantois is small. There are never abdominal mammæ. As additional points
+of distinction from the Lemuroidea, it may be mentioned that the anterior
+cornu of the hyoid is shorter than the posterior; the inner pair of upper
+incisors are in contact in the middle line; and the transverse portion of
+the colon extends uninterruptedly across the abdomen.
+
+The Anthropoidea may be divided into the five families—_Hapalidæ_,
+_Cebidæ_, _Cercopithecidæ_, _Simiidæ_, and _Hominidæ_, of which the first
+and second are confined to the New, and the third and fourth to the Old
+World.
+
+In noticing some of the salient features in the external and internal
+structure of the Anthropoidea it will be found convenient to allude to
+all the members of the first four families as Apes, in contradistinction
+to Man. In respect to relative size the extremes are found in the Gorilla
+on the one hand and _Hapale_ on the other; the difference in this
+respect between these two forms being greater than that between Man and
+a Squirrel. The relative proportions between the limbs and the body, and
+also between the fore and hind limbs, are subject to great variation.
+Thus in _Hylobates_ and _Ateles_ both pairs of limbs are much elongated;
+in the former case the pectoral being much longer than the pelvic pair
+(Fig. 335). In other cases, as in the Orang (Fig. 354), while the arms
+are very long, the legs are short; but in the subfamily _Cercopithecinæ_
+both pairs are short and subequal. Only in the _Hapalidæ_ and some of the
+_Cebidæ_ are the legs proportionately as long as in Man.
+
+The tail is as much as three times the length of the body in _Ateles_;
+while in the _Simiidæ_ it is totally absent. In the majority of genera it
+is long in all the species; but in some cases, as in _Macacus_, it may be
+either long, short, or absent in the different species of a single genus.
+
+Equally marked variations occur in the shape of the head. Thus in
+_Ateles_ it is rounded; while in the Orang it is elevated vertically;
+in _Chrysothrix_ it is produced posteriorly; and in the Baboons
+(_Cynocephalus_) it is characterised by the great production of
+the muzzle and the terminal position of the nostrils, whereby a
+characteristic Dog-like form is assumed. The eyes are always directed
+forwards, and are never more separated from one another than in Man,
+although, as in _Chrysothrix_, they may be closer together. They are
+of very large size in _Nyctipithecus_, while in the Baboons they are
+relatively small in proportion to the size of the head. The ears
+are invariably well developed, and are usually pointed at their
+postero-superior angle. Those of man are characterised by the soft
+depending portion known as the “lobule,” of which there is a rudiment
+in the Gorilla. In the majority of Apes the nose is but very slightly
+prominent; but it attains an extraordinary development in _Nasalis
+larvatus_, and is scarcely less remarkable in _Semnopithecus roxellanæ_
+(Fig. 349). Among the Gibbons the Hoolock has a distinctly aquiline nose.
+The nostrils are terminal in the true Baboons; and while in all the Old
+World Apes they are approximated, in those of the New World they are
+separated by a broad septum. With the exception of the Orang, the lips of
+the Apes are thin.
+
+The pollex makes a nearer approach in form to the human thumb in the
+Chimpanzee than in any other Ape. Man differs from all the Apes in having
+the hallux frequently longer instead of shorter than the other digits of
+the foot. The hallux of the Orang is peculiar in having no nail, but in
+other cases the nail is flat; the nails of the other digits of the Apes
+are never quite flat, and in some of the _Cebidæ_ they are decidedly
+compressed laterally, while in the _Hapalidæ_ they assume the form of
+sharp and curved claws.
+
+All the Apes have the greater part of the body well clothed with hair. In
+the Gibbons and the _Cercopithecidæ_ the buttocks have naked ischiatic
+callosities, which attain their greatest development in _Cynocephalus_
+and its allies. The male of the Orang has a well-developed beard, and in
+_Cercopithecus diana_ there is long hair on the cheeks and chin, while
+in _Macacus silenus_ the face is surrounded by a fringe of long hair,
+separated by an interval on the forehead. Long hair is found on the
+head in _Hapale œdipus_ and in some species of _Semnopithecus_; while
+in the Bonnet Monkey (_Macacus sinicus_) it radiates in all directions
+from a central point on the vertex. Long hair clothes the shoulders
+in _Cynocephalus hamadryas_ and _Hapale humeralifer_; and the end of
+the tail has a tuft in two species of _Cynocephalus_ and in _Macacus
+sinicus_. Many of the African _Colobi_ and some species of the Howlers
+have very long hair on the flanks; and in _Pithecia_ this development of
+hair extends to the greater part of the body and the tail, _P. satanas_
+also having a long beard. In all the lower Apes the hairs on the arm and
+forearm are directed towards the hand quite down to the wrist; and the
+same arrangement obtains in _Hylobates_. In the other _Simiidæ_, however
+(as in man), the points of the hairs of the arm and forearm converge
+at the elbow. Darwin’s explanation of this peculiarity is that these
+Apes are accustomed to sit with the arms bent, so that the rain is thus
+enabled to run off at the elbow.
+
+In one species of _Hapale_ the hair is of a silky texture, and in the
+South American _Eriodes_, and _Macacus tibetanus_ (as in all the mammals
+inhabiting the arid and severe climate of Tibet) it becomes woolly.
+
+The development of very brilliant colours on the naked parts of the body,
+such as the face, sexual organs, and ischiatic callosities is a marked
+feature of many of the _Cercopithecidæ_ and some other Apes.
+
+With the exception of the long tail found in most forms, the general
+structure of the skeleton of the Apes is very similar to that of man,
+but there are marked differences in the form of the jaws and of the
+innominate bones. The proportion of the facial to the cranial region
+of the skull varies with the shape of the head, of which brief mention
+has already been made; the greatest development of the facial portion
+being in the Baboons. Curiously enough, some of the lower American
+Monkeys, and more especially _Chrysothrix_, have the greatest relative
+development of the cranial part of the skull of all the Apes; this
+character being, however, one common to all the smaller representatives
+of particular groups, and obviously necessary to provide the requisite
+amount of brain-space. In the convexity of the frontal region of the
+skull the American forms, and more especially _Pithecia_, make the
+nearest approximation to man, and the same is true with regard to the
+occipital production, which is most developed in _Chrysothrix_. Most of
+the _Simiidæ_ exhibit, however, a distinct convexity of the occiput,
+and thereby differ markedly from the _Cercopithecidæ_, in which this
+region is flat. The rotundity of the cranium is obscured in the larger
+Apes, such as the Orang (Fig. 353) and Gorilla, by the development of
+prominent bony ridges for muscular attachment; these attaining their
+maximum in the males of the species last named, where the sagittal crests
+and the supraorbital ridges are very prominent. The mastoid process is
+always smaller in the Apes than in Man, and as it diminishes in size the
+petrosal tends to assume an inflated or bullate condition. The orbits in
+shape are most like that of Man in the Gorilla; and, in accordance with
+the size of the eyes, they are of enormous dimensions in _Nyctipithecus_.
+
+The angle formed by the plane of the foramen magnum with that of the
+basicranial axis is subject to variation according to the degree of
+convexity of the occiput, but is generally smaller than in Man, although
+larger in _Chrysothrix_. There is an external bony meatus auditorius in
+Man, the _Simiidæ_, and the _Cercopithecidæ_, but none in the _Cebidæ_
+and _Hapalidæ_.
+
+The premaxillæ of the Apes are always large; and, except in the
+Chimpanzee, the premaxillo-maxillary suture persists until after the
+permanent dentition has been developed. The nasals are smaller and
+flatter than in Man, but are largest in _Mycetes_. The two rami of the
+mandible are invariably completely ankylosed at the symphysis in the
+adult. The Siamang (_Hylobates syndactylus_) is the only ape in which the
+mandibular symphysis slows a slight projection in front corresponding
+to the human chin. In _Mycetes_ the angle of the mandible attains an
+enormous development (Fig. 338) to protect the huge inflated basihyal.
+The frontal sinuses, though present, in the _Simiidæ_, are generally
+replaced in the _Cercopithecidæ_ by a coarse diploë, but they are present
+in the _Cebidæ_ and _Hapalidæ_, being especially large in _Cebus_. In
+fully adult individuals the cranial sutures become obliterated, the
+internasal suture disappearing at an early age in the _Simiidæ_ and most
+of the _Cercopithecidæ_. As in many Carnivora, the tentorium, or membrane
+separating the cerebrum from the cerebellum, may become ossified in some
+of the American forms.
+
+The number of the teeth in the Old World Apes is invariably the same as
+in Man, namely _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃, total 32; but in the
+_Cebidæ_ the cheek-teeth are _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃, and in the _Hapalidæ_ _p_
+³⁄₃, _m_ ²⁄₂. It is probable that the two pairs of incisors correspond
+to the first and third of the typical series of three. In all Apes the
+dental series is interrupted by a diastema, and the canines of the
+males are large. Man alone has an uninterrupted dental series of a
+horse-shoe-form, without prominent canines.
+
+According to recent researches the Chimpanzee and some of the other
+_Simiidæ_ exhibit a more or less close approximation to the sigmoid
+curvature of the vertebral column which is so characteristic of Man,
+and there is also some approach to it in the Baboons. The number of
+dorsal vertebræ in the Apes may vary from eleven, as in some species
+of _Cercopithecus_ and _Macacus_, to fourteen in certain forms of
+_Hylobates_, and to fifteen in _Nyctipithecus_. The _Cebidæ_ generally
+have thirteen; and the same number obtains in the Chimpanzee and Gorilla,
+while the Orang resembles Man in having but twelve. The lumbar vertebræ
+show a range in number of from four to seven. In the _Simiidæ_ there are
+four or five of these vertebræ, the length of the lumbar region being
+shorter in this family than in the other Apes, with the exception of
+_Ateles_. The shortness of the lumbar region in the last-named genus is
+compensated by the relative length of the dorsal region, as is shown in
+Fig. 335.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 335.—Skeleton of the Black-handed Spider Monkey
+(_Ateles geoffroyi_). From De Blainville.]
+
+The sacrum is longest in the _Simiidæ_ and Man, its greatest absolute
+length occurring in the Gorilla, and the relative greatest length being
+found in _Hylobates_. The _Simiidæ_ never have less than five, and may
+have six sacral vertebræ; while in the lower forms there are generally
+only two or three, although occasionally four in some of the American
+forms. The Orang and some of the Baboons make the nearest approximation
+to Man in the marked angle formed at the junction of the sacrum with
+the lumbar vertebræ. Except in the _Simiidæ_ and _Macacus inuus_, the
+number of caudal vertebræ in the Apes always exceeds four, but they may
+be reduced to five in the Mandrill (_Cynocephalus maimon_). In _Macacus_
+and _Uacaria_ the shortness of the tail is attained by the small size
+of the vertebræ themselves, the number of which may be from fifteen to
+seventeen. Other forms usually have from twenty to thirty-three caudals,
+the latter number occurring in _Ateles_ (Fig. 335), where the tail is
+relatively the longest. The tail is, however, absolutely longest in
+_Semnopithecus_, _Colobus_, and their allies, the length being partly
+due to the size of the component vertebræ. Chevron bones are present in
+all forms having a distinct tail; and, together with other processes for
+muscular attachment, attain their greatest development in _Ateles_.
+
+The vertebral processes known as metapophyses and anapophyses, which
+are generally inconspicuous in Man, and are but small in the _Simiidæ_,
+attain a large development in the lower forms. The metapophyses
+generally commence in the eighth or ninth dorsal, and continue to the
+anterior caudals, where they gradually merge in the prezygapophyses.
+The anapophyses, which are most developed in the _Cebidæ_, project
+outwards and backwards from one vertebra to embrace the prezygapophyses
+of the succeeding one. They occur generally in the same region as the
+metapophyses, but usually cease at the penultimate lumbar, although in
+some cases they can be traced on to the posterior cervicals and anterior
+caudals, in the latter region passing into the transverse processes.
+
+In most Apes the sternum is narrow, and consists of a more or
+less enlarged manubrium, followed by a chain of subequal and
+antero-posteriorly elongated bones, from three to six in number. In
+the _Simiidæ_ alone is there a broad sternum, or one consisting of a
+manubrium, followed by a single bone only, as in _Hylobates_. The Orang
+presents a peculiarity, in that the sternum long remains made up of
+ossifications arranged in pairs, side by side, successively. The true
+ribs are seven in number on each side in the highest forms, but in
+_Hylobates_ there are sometimes eight. In _Ateles_ there are sometimes
+nine pairs. In _Hapale_ the number varies from six to eight, and it is
+seven or eight in the other genera. The angles of the ribs are never so
+marked as in Man; although most marked in _Hylobates_. _Pithecia_ is
+distinguished by the greater relative breadth of the ribs. In no Ape is
+the thorax half as broad again as it is deep from back to breast; but in
+the _Simiidæ_ its transverse diameter exceeds its depth by from about
+one-fourth to a little under one-third of the latter. In _Ateles_, and
+sometimes in _Mycetes_, the thorax is wider than deep, but in all the
+rest it is deeper than wide.
+
+In regard to the appendicular skeleton it may be observed that the
+Gorilla and Orang make the nearest approach to Man in the form of the
+scapula; and that the supraspinous fossa of this bone is largest in
+_Gorilla_ and _Mycetes_, being remarkably small in _Simia_. The _Cebidæ_
+have a distinct suprascapular notch which is often converted by a bar of
+bone into a foramen; this bar in _Mycetes_ giving rise to a peculiar flat
+process. The acromion and coracoid processes are most developed in the
+_Simiidæ_ and _Ateles_.
+
+The relative length of the fore and hind limbs has been already briefly
+touched upon. The humerus closely resembles that of Man throughout the
+suborder; the nearest approximation occurring in the _Simiidæ_. As in the
+Lemuroidea, this bone never has an entepicondylar foramen, but in many
+of the American forms it has a supracondylar perforation. The radius and
+ulna, like the tibia and fibula, are always perfectly distinct throughout
+their length; and the hand can be pronated and supinated upon the
+forearm. Man, the Gorilla, and the Chimpanzee differ from other forms in
+having no os centrale in the carpus.
+
+The brain of Apes is always much smaller in absolute dimensions than in
+Man. Thus, according to Professor Mivart,[663] “the cranial capacity is
+never less than 55 cubic inches in any normal human subject, while in
+the Orang and Chimpanzee it is but 26 and 27½ cubic inches respectively.
+The relative size of the brain varies inversely with the size of the
+whole body, but this is the case in warm-blooded vertebrates generally.
+The extreme length of the cerebrum never exceeds, as it does in Man, two
+and a quarter times the length of the basicranial axis. The proportion
+borne by the brain to its nerves is less in the Apes than in Man, as also
+is that borne by the cerebrum to the cerebellum. In general structure
+and form the brain of Apes greatly resembles that of Man. Each half
+of the cerebrum contains a triradiate lateral ventricle, and though
+in some _Cercopithecidæ_ the posterior cornu is relatively shorter
+than in man, it again becomes elongated in the _Cebidæ_, and in many
+of the latter it is actually longer relatively than it is in man. The
+posterior lobes of the cerebrum are almost always so much developed as
+to cover over the cerebellum, the only exceptions being the strangely
+different forms _Mycetes_ and _Hylobates syndactylus_. In the latter
+the cerebellum is slightly uncovered, but it is so considerably in the
+former. In _Chrysothrix_ the posterior lobes are much more largely
+developed relatively than they are in man. The cerebrum has almost always
+a convoluted external surface. In this group, however, as in mammals
+generally, a much-convoluted cerebrum is correlated with a considerable
+absolute bulk of body. Thus in _Hapale_ (and there only) we find the
+cerebrum quite smooth, the only groove being that which represents the
+Sylvian fissure. In _Simia_ and _Gorilla_ and _Anthropopithecus_, on the
+contrary, it is very richly convoluted. A hippocampus minor is present
+in all Apes, and in some of the _Cebidæ_ it is much larger relatively
+than it is in Man, and is absolutely larger than the hippocampus major.
+Of all Apes, the Orang has a brain which is most like that of Man;
+indeed, it may be said to be like Man’s in all respects, save that it
+is much inferior in size and weight, and that the cerebrum is more
+symmetrically convoluted and less complicated with secondary and tertiary
+convolutions. If the brain of _Simia_ be compared with that of _Gorilla_
+and _Anthropopithecus_, we find the height of the cerebrum in front
+greater in proportion in the former than in the latter; also the bridging
+convolutions, though small, are still distinguishable, while they are
+absent in the Chimpanzee. Nevertheless this character cannot be of much
+importance, since it reappears in _Ateles_, while two kinds of the genus
+_Cebus_ (so closely allied as to have been sometimes treated as one
+species) differ strangely from each other in this respect. The corpus
+callosum, in Apes generally, does not extend so far back as in Man, and
+it is very short in _Pithecia_. In the Orang and Chimpanzee there are,
+as in Man, two corpora albicantia, while in the lower Monkeys there is
+but one. The vermis of the cerebellum is larger in the _Cebidæ_ than
+in the _Simiidæ_ and _Cercopithecidæ_. In all Apes below the _Simiidæ_
+each lateral lobe of the cerebellum gives off a small lobule, which is
+received into a special fossa of the petrous bone. Certain prominences
+of the medulla oblongata, termed corpora trapezoidea, which are found in
+lower mammals, begin to make their appearance in the _Cebidæ_.”
+
+The organs connected with the functions of alimentation, circulation,
+and excretion, as well as the muscles, conform generally to the type
+obtaining in Man, of which full description will be found in works on
+human anatomy. The tongue is longer in Apes than in Man; and a uvula is
+generally present, although rudimentary in the _Cebidæ_. The peculiar
+sacculation of the stomach in the subfamily _Semnopithecinæ_ has been
+already mentioned; this sacculation is most developed at the cardiac
+extremity, where it somewhat resembles a colon spirally coiled. In
+_Hylobates_ the stomach is very like that of Man, differing only in the
+more elongated and distinct pylorus. _Pithecia_ has a more globular
+stomach, while in _Hapale_ the cardiac and pyloric apertures are
+approximated. The intestine of Apes is devoid of valvulæ conniventes,
+and it is only in Man and the _Simiidæ_ that the colon is furnished with
+a vermiform appendage. The colon varies from a fully sacculated form in
+_Hylobates_ to a smooth one in _Cebus_.
+
+The liver of Apes is subject to a considerable amount of variation. In
+the _Simiidæ_ it comes more or less close to the human type; that of
+the Orangs being usually divided only into two principal lobes by the
+umbilical vein, and showing no trace of lateral fissures. In the Gorilla
+these fissures are present, so as to produce right and left lateral
+and central lobes. _Hylobates_ has a liver (Fig. 352) which perhaps
+is nearer to the human than that of any of the other _Simiidæ_. In the
+_Cercopithecidæ_ the liver differs from that of the _Simiidæ_ by the
+deeply cleft lateral fissures, and has a comparatively small and pointed
+caudate lobe. The enormous size of the stomach in _Colobus_ causes the
+liver to be very narrow, and pushed to the left side. The liver of the
+_Cebidæ_ (Fig. 336) and _Hapalidæ_, in addition to the deeply cleft
+lateral fissures, is characterised by the great size and quadrangular
+form of the caudate lobe (_c_), which attains its maximum development in
+_Ateles_. The gall-bladder is always present.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 336.—Under surface of the liver of the Black-handed
+Spider Monkey (_Ateles melanochir_). _u_, Umbilical fissure; _vc_, vena
+cava; _ll_, left lateral lobe; _lc_, left central lobe; _rc_, right
+central lobe; _rl_, right lateral lobe; _s_, Spigelian lobe; _c_, caudate
+lobe; _g_, gall-bladder.]
+
+The larynx is in many Apes furnished with sac-like appendages, which are
+variable in different species as regards number, size, and situation.
+They may be dilatations of the laryngeal ventricle, as in _Simia_,
+_Gorilla_, and _Anthropopithecus_, or they may open above the false
+vocal chords so as to be extensions of the thyro-hyoid membrane,
+as in _Hylobates_. There may be but a single median opening in the
+front part of that membrane at the base of the epiglottis, as in the
+_Cercopithecidæ_. There may be a single median opening at the back of the
+trachea, just below the cricoid cartage, as in _Ateles_; there may be but
+a single sac, or there may be five, as sometimes in _Mycetes_. These may
+be enormous, meeting in the middle line in front and extending down to
+the axillæ, as in the Gorilla and Orang. A sac may occupy the cavity of
+the expanded body of the hyoid, as in _Mycetes_.
+
+The hyoid has its basilar part generally somewhat more convex and
+enlarged than in Man; but in _Mycetes_ it becomes greatly enlarged and
+deeply excavated, so as to form a great bony bladder-like structure. The
+posterior cornua of the hyoid (thyrohyals) are never entirely absent, but
+the anterior or lesser cornua may be so, as in _Mycetes_. The anterior
+cornua never exceed the posterior cornua in length; but they may be
+(_e.g._ in _Cercopithecus_) more largely developed relatively than in
+Man, and may even be jointed, as in _Lagothrix_.
+
+The lungs have generally the form of those of man; but the right lung
+may have four lobes, as in _Hylobates_. The great arterial trunks in
+_Simia_, _Gorilla_, and _Anthropopithecus_ are arranged as in Man. In
+_Hylobates_ and the lower Apes, however, the left carotid artery may take
+its origin from the innominate artery.
+
+In regard to their distribution in time the earliest record that we as
+yet have of the occurrence of Apes is in the Middle Miocene of Europe,
+where forms are met with apparently so closely allied to some of the
+higher existing types that it is evident we must look much farther
+back before we can get any clue to the origin of the suborder. Since
+all the known fossil Old World Apes are referable to the _Simiidæ_ or
+_Cercopithecidæ_, and no representatives of these families have been
+obtained from the Tertiaries of America, it would appear that the
+distinction of the Apes of the Old World from those of the New is of very
+old standing.
+
+At the present day Apes are mainly confined to tropical and subtropical
+regions. In the Old World _Macacus inuus_ is found as far north as
+Gibraltar, _M. tibetanus_ and _Semnopithecus roxellanæ_ inhabit western
+Tibet, while in Japan we have _M. speciosus_. In the New World one
+species of _Ateles_ is known to occur as far north as latitude 19° in
+Southern Mexico, and may range a few degrees higher. To the southward
+species are found near the Cape, in Timor, and the Malay Archipelago;
+while in America they range in Brazil and Paraguay to about latitude 30°.
+The Tibetan species are found at a very high elevation; and in the outer
+Himalaya the Langurs (_Semnopithecus_) may be seen in winter and spring
+leaping from bough to bough of snow-covered pines.
+
+Apes are very abundant in the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, as well as
+in that part of America which extends from Panama to Southern Brazil.
+Ceylon, Borneo, Sumatra, and Java may be mentioned as islands where
+Ape-life attains great development; but they are unknown in Madagascar
+and the West Indian Islands, and of course in the Australasian region.
+
+We have already alluded to the circumstance that while the _Simiidæ_
+and _Cercopithecidæ_ are exclusively confined to the Old World, the
+_Cebidæ_ and _Hapalidæ_ are equally restricted to the New, and we may
+accordingly proceed to notice a few points in relation to generic
+distribution. Of the larger _Simiidæ_ the Gorilla and Chimpanzee
+are confined to Equatorial Africa, and the Orang to Malayana; but
+there is evidence of the former existence of a species of Chimpanzee
+(_Anthropopithecus_) and not improbably of an Orang (_Simia_) in Northern
+India. The Gibbons (_Hylobates_) are now exclusively Oriental. Europe
+has only _Macacus inuus_ of Gibraltar, also found in Africa north of
+the Sahara, and therefore strictly Palæarctic in distribution. The
+Ethiopian region includes in the _Cercopithecidæ_ the genus _Colobus_
+(the African analogue of _Semnopithecus_), _Cercopithecus_, and the
+Baboons (_Cynocephalus_, etc.) The Baboons range, however, into Arabia
+and Syria, and also existed during the Pliocene epoch in Northern
+India. _Semnopithecus_ and _Macacus_ are very characteristic of the
+Oriental region; but, as already mentioned, outlying species extend into
+various parts of the Palæarctic region. _Macacus_ has indeed a very
+wide distribution, extending from Gibraltar and North Africa to Japan.
+The allied _Cynopithecus_, represented only by _C. niger_ of Celebes,
+approximates to the Baboons; while the one species of _Nasalis_ is
+peculiar to Borneo. Remains of _Semnopithecus_ and _Macacus_ occur in the
+Tertiaries of India and Europe, which also yield allied extinct types
+noticed in the sequel.
+
+In America, north of Panama, the genera known to be represented are
+_Chrysothrix_, _Nyctipithecus_, _Cebus_, _Ateles_, _Mycetes_ and _Hapale_
+in Veragua; _Nyctipithecus_, _Cebus_, _Ateles_, and _Mycetes_ in Costa
+Rica and Nicaragua; _Ateles_ and _Mycetes_ in Guatemala; and _Ateles_
+in Southern Mexico. Brazil is the headquarters of the American Apes;
+but different portions of that vast region have a somewhat distinct
+Ape fauna. Thus the genus _Eriodes_ appears in South-Eastern Brazil
+to represent the species of _Ateles_ inhabiting the more northern and
+western parts of the empire. Southwards, the genera _Cebus_, _Mycetes_,
+_Chrysothrix_, and _Callithrix_ extend farthest; but they do not probably
+all extend to the farthest limit yet known, namely 30° S. The species
+found farthest south are _Mycetes caraya_, _Cebus fatuellus_, and
+_Callithrix personatus_.
+
+
+_Family_ HAPALIDÆ.
+
+Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ²⁄₂; total 32. No bony external
+auditory meatus, a broad internarial septum, and no cheek-pouches. Tail
+non-prehensile; no ischiatic callosities. Pollex not opposable; a long,
+curved, and pointed claw to all the digits except the hallux.
+
+This family, which includes the smallest representatives of the suborder,
+commonly known as Marmosets, is confined to the New World. In addition
+to the diagnostic characters given above, it may be mentioned that the
+pollex is elongated and the hallux very small, while the pectoral limbs
+are not longer than the pelvic pair; and the tail is long and more or
+less thickly covered with elongated hairs.
+
+The dentition of the Marmosets sufficiently distinguishes them from all
+other members of the suborder, although they are evidently nearly allied
+to the _Cebidæ_. The small size of the hallux, and the total incapacity
+of the pollex to oppose itself in the least degree to the other digits,
+as well as the presence of claws on all the digits of the manus, are,
+however, equally characteristic features. These animals (Fig. 337) are
+not larger than Squirrels, and are of active arboreal habits, living
+in small companies, and adding insects to the ordinary fruit diet.
+Frequently, as in the figured species, the head is furnished on either
+side with a long tuft of hair projecting outwards and backwards. They
+give birth to as many as three young ones at a time, and thereby differ
+from all other members of the suborder, in which one is the normal
+number. They are divided into two genera, according to the proportionate
+size of the lower canine to the incisors; but some species present an
+intermediate condition, so as to render this distinction of somewhat
+doubtful value.
+
+_Hapale._[664]—Lower canine not longer than the incisors. A number of
+species have been described, among which may be mentioned _H. jacchus_,
+_H. albicollis_, _H. aurita_, and _H. humeralifer_. Remains of species of
+this genus have been found in the cavern-deposits of Brazil.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 337.—The Golden Marmoset (_Midas chrysoleucas_). From
+_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1868, pl. 24.]
+
+_Midas._[665]—Lower canine considerably longer than the incisors. No
+less than twenty-four species of this genus have been named, among
+which the Silky Marmoset (_M. rosalia_) of Columbia, the Pinche Monkey
+(_M. œdipus_) of South-Eastern Brazil, and the Golden Marmoset (_M.
+chrysoleucas_, Fig. 337) are well-known types.
+
+
+_Family_ CEBIDÆ.
+
+Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ³⁄₃, _m_ ³⁄₃; total 36. Tail frequently
+prehensile; digits with nails; other characters as in the _Hapalidæ_.
+
+The members of this American family are at once distinguished by the
+dental formula, which is numerically higher than in any other Apes.
+The various species range over the whole of tropical America, but are
+most abundant in the dense forest regions of Brazil, where they live
+a completely arboreal life, to which the prehensile tails of many of
+them are so specially adapted. They are in most respects closely allied
+to the _Hapalidæ_, but the pollex diverges somewhat from the plane of
+the other digits; while the retention of the third molar is a very
+distinctive feature. None of the species attain the dimensions of the
+larger _Cercopithecidæ_ of the Old World. The genera are usually arranged
+in five subfamilies.
+
+Subfamily =Mycetinæ=.—Lower incisors vertical; hyoid bones enormously
+inflated; tail long and prehensile, naked beneath at the end; pollex well
+developed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 338.—Side view of skull and hyoid bone of the Red
+Howling Monkey (_Mycetes seniculus_). From De Blainville.]
+
+_Mycetes._[666]—The sole representatives of this subfamily are the
+well-known Howling Monkeys, all of which are included in the genus
+_Mycetes_. They are of more bulky build, and have more produced muzzles
+than the other members of the family. The truncated occipital region, and
+the extraordinary development of the rami of the mandible, especially
+of their angular and ascending portions, are the chief peculiarities
+by which the skulls (Fig. 338) of the members of this genus are
+characterised. The last named character, which is more marked in the male
+than in the female sex, is related to the enormous size of the vocal
+organs, which the rami of the mandible enclose and protect. The inflated
+hyoid bone, which forms a deep cup, is shown in the figure. The Howlers
+are subject to great individual and sexual variation of colours, so that
+the discrimination of species from local races is difficult. In one
+species the male is black and the female straw-coloured; and several of
+the species have bright red or golden hair on the flanks. In disposition
+these creatures are sluggish and stupid, but their chief characteristic
+is their prodigious power of voice. Mr. Bates, in his _Naturalist on the
+Amazons_, observes that “when Howlers are seen in the forest there are
+generally three or four of them mounted on the topmost branches of a
+tree. It does not appear that their harrowing roar is emitted from sudden
+alarm; at least it was not so in captive individuals. It is probable,
+however, that the noise serves to intimidate their enemies.”
+
+Several species have been described, the Red Howler (_M. seniculus_) and
+the Ursine Howler (_M. ursinus_) being well-known forms. Remains of this
+genus probably referable to existing types are found fossilised in the
+cavern-deposits of Brazil. An allied fossil form from the South American
+Pleistocene has been described as _Protopithecus_.
+
+Subfamily =Pitheciinæ=.—Lower incisors inclined forward at their
+summits; hyoid bone normal; tail long or short, non-prehensile; pollex
+well developed. Two genera are included in this subfamily, readily
+distinguished by the length of the tail.
+
+_Pithecia._[667]—The Sakis, as the representatives of this genus are
+commonly termed, are readily characterised by the length of the tail; the
+angle of the mandible is expanded, although less so than in _Mycetes_. A
+number of species have been described, the Black Saki (_P. satanas_) of
+the Lower Amazons, being one of the best known. While some species, like
+_P. hirsuta_, have long hair covering the whole of the head, body, and
+tail, in others only the head, or the cheeks and chin, are so clothed.
+
+_Uacaria._[668]—The Uakari Monkeys differ from all the other _Cebidæ_
+by their short Baboon-like tail. The Bald Uakari (_U. calva_) of the
+Rio Negro, and the closely allied _U. rubicunda_ of the Upper Amazons,
+are remarkable for their scarlet face, which forms a striking contrast
+to the long, silky, whitish hair covering the body. According to Mr.
+Bates, the Uakaris live in forests which are inundated during a great
+part of the year, and never descend to the ground; they appear to be
+rare and of local distribution. The third species, _U. melanocephala_,
+differs considerably from both the others. The cæcum of _U. calva_,
+according to Mr. F. E. Beddard, measures upwards of “10 inches along
+the greater curvature; it is separated from the colon by a very marked
+constriction; it is not sacculated, and when fully distended with air is
+curved on itself into a little less than a circle; it is furnished with a
+well-developed median frenum carrying blood-vessels.” A similar type of
+cæcum is also found in _Callithrix_ and _Pithecia_.
+
+Subfamily =Nyctipithecinæ=.—Lower incisors vertical; hyoid normal; tail
+long, non-prehensile; pollex well developed.
+
+Three genera are included in this subfamily, the species being partly
+insectivorous.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 339.—The Moloch Teetee (_Callithrix moloch_). From
+_Archives du Muséum_, vol. iv. pt. 3.]
+
+_Callithrix._[669]—Head small, depressed, and not elongated; nares widely
+separated; canines small; angle of mandible expanded as in _Pithecia_;
+tail with long hair.
+
+This genus comprises several small species, mostly from Brazil and the
+Amazons, and commonly known as Teetees, one of the best-known species
+(_C. moloch_, Fig. 339) being represented in the accompanying woodcut.
+The smaller eyes and the more widely separated nostrils distinguish them
+from _Nyctipithecus_; while the small canines and the bushy tail readily
+mark their distinction from _Chrysothrix_. Remains of _Callithrix_ have
+been found in the Brazilian caves.
+
+_Chrysothrix._[670]—Head greatly elongated; orbits large and closely
+approximated; canines well developed; tail with comparatively short hair.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 340.—The Lemurine Douroucouli (_Nyctipithecus
+lemurinus_). From _Archives du Muséum_, vol. iv, pl. 2.]
+
+The small Squirrel Monkeys, of which four species have been described,
+are characterised by the great backward projection of the occipital
+region of the skull, and by orbits approximating in size to those of the
+next genus.
+
+_Nyctipithecus._[671]—Head rounded; orbits very large, separated by a
+narrow septum; nares somewhat approximated.
+
+The Douroucoulis (Fig. 340), as the members of this genus are called, are
+of nocturnal habits, in association with which the eyes are of enormous
+dimensions, as in the Lemuroid genus _Loris_. The following account, of
+two species of this genus is taken from Mr. Bates’s _Naturalist on the
+Amazons_: “They sleep all day long in hollow trees, and come forth to
+prey on insects and eat fruit only in the night. They are of small size,
+the body being about a foot long, and the tail 14 inches, and are thickly
+clothed with soft gray and brown fur, similar in substance to that of the
+Rabbit. Their physiognomy reminds one of the Owl or Tiger-Cat; the face
+is rounded and encircled by a ruff of whitish fur; the muzzle is not at
+all prominent; the mouth and chin are small; the ears are very short,
+scarcely appearing above the hair of the head; and the eyes are large
+and yellowish in colour, imparting the staring expression of nocturnal
+birds of prey. The forehead is whitish, and decorated with black stripes,
+which in one of the species (_N. trivirgatus_) continue to the crown,
+and in the other (_N. felinus_) meet on the top of the forehead. _N.
+trivirgatus_ was first described by Humboldt, who discovered it on the
+banks of the Cassiquiare, near the headquarters of the Rio Negro.”
+
+Subfamily =Cebinæ=.—Lower incisors vertical; hyoid bone normal; tail long
+and prehensile; pollex present or absent.
+
+This subfamily includes the typical members of the family, which are
+arranged in four genera.
+
+_Ateles._[672]—Form slender; limbs very long; fur not woolly; pollex
+absent; tail naked beneath distally; nails not much laterally compressed
+and pointed.
+
+This genus includes the well-known Spider Monkeys (Fig. 341), which by
+their long limbs and tail are admirably adapted to a purely arboreal
+life, although they lack the active and agile habits of the Old World
+Gibbons. The tail with the under surface of its extremity naked affords
+the most completely prehensile type of this organ, and can sustain the
+weight of the whole body. Objects are not unfrequently grasped by it and
+brought within reach of the hand or mouth. Owing to the absence of the
+pollex the power of grasping is very imperfect in the hand. At least
+fourteen species of this genus have been described, among the best-known
+being _A. melanochir_ (Fig. 341), _A. paniscus_ of Guiana, _A. geoffroyi_
+of Central America, _A. ater_ of Eastern Peru, and _A. hybridus_ of
+Colombia.
+
+_Eriodes._[673]—Form slender; limbs very long; fur woolly; internasal
+septum narrower than usual in the family; pollex rudimentary; tail naked
+beneath distally; nails exceedingly compressed laterally, and pointed.
+
+This genus is represented by three species from South-East Brazil, which,
+while closely allied to the true Spider Monkeys, differ by their woolly
+hair, the narrow internasal septum, the presence of a rudimentary pollex,
+and the great compression of the nails. The species are _E. arachnoides_,
+_E. hemidactylus_, and _E. hypoxanthus_.
+
+_Lagothrix._[674]—Form rather robust; limbs moderate; fur woolly; pollex
+well developed; tail distally naked beneath.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 341.—The Black-handed Spider Monkey (_Ateles
+melanochir_). From _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1871, pl. 15.]
+
+The Woolly Monkeys differ from the preceding genera by the presence
+of a well developed pollex. They resemble _Eriodes_ in their fur and
+compressed nails, but differ in the more widely separated nares. The tail
+resembles that of the preceding genera. Speaking of these Monkeys Mr.
+Bates observes that “the Barrigudos are very bulky animals, whilst the
+Spider Monkeys are remarkable for the slenderness of their bodies and
+limbs. I obtained specimens of what have been considered two species,
+one (_L. olivaceus?_) having the head clothed with gray, the other (_L.
+humboldti_, Fig. 342) with black fur. They both live together in the same
+places, and are probably only differently coloured individuals of one and
+the same species. I sent home a very large male of one of these kinds,
+which measured 27 inches in length of trunk, the tail being 26 inches
+long; it was the largest monkey I saw in America, with the exception of
+a black Howler, whose body was 28 inches in height. The skin of the face
+in the Barrigudo is black and wrinkled, the forehead is low, with the
+eyebrows projecting.... In the forests the Barrigudo is not a very active
+animal; it lives exclusively on fruits, and is much persecuted by the
+Indians on account of the excellence of its flesh as food.” Five species
+are usually recognised, viz. _L. canus_, _L. humboldti_, _L. castelnaui_,
+_L. tschudii_, and _L. geoffroyi_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 342.—Humboldt’s Lagothrix (_Lagothrix humboldti_).
+From _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1863, pl. 31.]
+
+_Cebus._[675]—Form rather robust; limbs moderate; fur not woolly; pollex
+well developed; tail not naked beneath distally.
+
+This, the typical, genus includes the Sapajous or Capuchins (Fig.
+343), which are so commonly seen in this country in captivity, being
+the favourite Monkeys of itinerant musicians. They are smaller and
+stouter in build than the Spider Monkeys, from which they are readily
+distinguished by the well-developed pollex, and the absence of a naked
+under surface to the extremity of the tail. At least twenty species
+have been described (_C. fatuellus_, _C. lunatus_, _C. capucinus_, _C.
+albifrons_, _C. hypoleucus_, etc.), but it is probable that some of these
+are not entitled to stand, since there is a large amount of individual
+variation. Fossil remains of species of _Cebus_ have been described from
+the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Brazil.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 343.—The White-cheeked Sapajou (_Cebus lunatus_).
+From _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1865, pl. 45.]
+
+
+_Family_ CERCOPITHECIDÆ.
+
+Dentition: _i_ ²⁄₂, _c_ ¹⁄₁, _p_ ²⁄₂, _m_ ³⁄₃; total 32. Crowns of molars
+elongated antero-posteriorly, with the tubercles forming a pair of
+imperfect transverse ridges, and the last lower molar usually with a hind
+talon. A bony external auditory meatus. A narrow internarial septum. Tail
+non-prehensile. Ischiatic callosities present. Cheek-pouches present or
+absent. Pollex, when present, opposable. Pelvic limbs never much longer
+than pectoral. Sternum narrow. Cæcum without vermiform appendage.
+
+This family includes all the Old World Apes, with the exception of the
+_Simiidæ_, and may be divided into the subfamilies _Cercopithecinæ_ and
+_Semnopithecinæ_.
+
+Subfamily =Cercopithecinæ=.—Pelvic and pectoral limbs approximately
+equal; tail variable; cheek-pouches present; stomach simple.
+
+This subfamily comprises, the African Baboons, the common Indian
+Monkeys constituting the genus _Macacus_, together with the African
+_Cercopithecus_ and _Cercocebus_ and a few allied types.
+
+_Cynocephalus._[676]—Muzzle much elongated (Fig. 344), with the nostrils
+terminal; ischial callosities very large; tail more or less short; muzzle
+swollen by enlargement of the maxillæ. Now confined to Africa and Arabia.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 344.—Skeleton of the Chacma Baboon (_Cynocephalus
+porcarius_). From De Blainville.]
+
+This genus comprises the typical Baboons, and we may select the
+well-known Mandrill (_C. maimon_), of tropical West Africa, as a good
+illustrative example. It may be mentioned in passing that the name
+Mandrill appears to have been first introduced into English literature by
+William Smith in his _New Voyage to Guinea_, published in 1744, wherein
+he mentions among the animals of Sierra Leone one “called by the white
+men in this country Mandrill,” but adds, “why it is so called I know
+not.”[677] Smith gives sufficiently accurate details to show that his
+animal is not that now called Mandrill, but the Chimpanzee. Buffon,
+however, while quoting Smith’s description, transferred the name to the
+very different species now under consideration, and to that it has been
+attached ever since.
+
+The Baboons generally are distinguished from most other Monkeys by
+the comparative equality of the length of their limbs, which with the
+structure of the vertebral column adapts them rather for quadrupedal
+progression on the ground than for climbing among the branches of trees;
+and some of them, like the South African Chacma (_C. porcarius_), of
+which the skeleton is shown in Fig. 344, live habitually among rocks,
+and are much less completely frugivorous than other Apes. They are also
+remarkable for the great size of their face and jaws as compared with the
+part of the skull which encloses the brain. The Mandrill, in addition
+to these characters, is distinguished by the heaviness of its body,
+stoutness and strength of its limbs, and exceeding shortness of its tail,
+which is a mere stump, not 2 inches long, and usually carried erect. It
+is, moreover, remarkable for the prominence of its brow ridges, beneath
+which the small and closely approximated eyes are deeply sunk; the
+immense size of the canine teeth; the great development of a pair of oval
+bony prominences on the maxillary bones in front of the orbits, rising on
+each side of the median line of the face, and covered by a longitudinally
+ribbed naked skin; and more especially for the extraordinarily vivid
+colouring of some parts of the skin. The body generally is covered with a
+full soft coating of hair of a light olive-brown above and silvery-gray
+beneath, and the chin is furnished underneath with a small pointed
+yellow beard. The hair of the forehead and temples is directed upwards
+so as to meet in a point on the crown, which gives the head a triangular
+appearance. The ears are naked and of a bluish-black colour. The hands
+and feet are naked and black. A large space around the greatly developed
+ischial callosities, as well as the upper part of the insides of the
+thighs, are naked and of a crimson colour, shading off on the sides to
+lilac or blue, which, depending not upon pigment but upon injection of
+the superficial blood-vessels, varies in intensity according to the
+condition of the animal—increasing under excitement, fading during
+sickness, and disappearing after death. But it is in the face that the
+most remarkable disposition of vivid hues occur, more resembling those
+of a brilliantly coloured flower than what might be expected in the
+cutaneous covering of a mammal. The cheek-prominences are of an intense
+blue, the effect of which is heightened by deeply sunk longitudinal
+furrows of a darker tint, while the central line and termination of the
+nose are a bright scarlet. Notwithstanding the beauty of these colours
+in themselves, the whole combination, with the form and expression of
+features, quite justifies Cuvier’s assertion that “il serait difficile de
+se figurer un être plus hideux que le Mandrill.”
+
+It is only to fully adult males that this description applies. The female
+is of much smaller size, and of more slender make; and, though the
+general tone of the hairy parts of the body is the same, the prominences,
+furrows, and colouring of the face are very much less marked. The young
+males have black faces. At the age of three the blue of the cheeks begins
+to appear, but it is not until they are about five, when they cut their
+great canine teeth, that they acquire the characteristic red of the end
+of the nose.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 345.—The Yellow Baboon (_Cynocephalus babuin_). From
+_Archives du Muséum_, Vol. ii. pl. 34.]
+
+The Mandrills, especially the old males, are remarkable for the ferocity
+of their disposition, as well as for other disagreeable qualities, which
+are fully described in Cuvier’s account of the animal in _La Ménagerie
+du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle_ (1801), but when young they can easily
+be tamed. Like the rest of the Baboons, they appear to be rather
+indiscriminate eaters, feeding upon fruit, roots, reptiles, insects,
+scorpions, etc., and inhabit open rocky ground rather than forests. Not
+much is known of the Mandrill’s habits in the wild state, nor of the
+exact limits of its geographical distribution. The specimens brought to
+Europe all come from the west coast of tropical Africa, from Guinea to
+the Gaboon.
+
+An allied species, the Drill (_C. leucophæus_), which resembles the
+Mandrill in size, general proportions, and shortness of tail, but wants
+the bright colouring of the face which makes that animal so remarkable,
+inhabits the same district. Other well-known species are the Yellow
+Baboon (_C. babuin_), of West Africa (Fig. 345); the Arabian Baboon
+(_C. hamadryas_), of Arabia and Abyssinia; and the Anubis Baboon (_C.
+anubis_), of West Africa.
+
+It is very noteworthy from a distributional point of view, as showing
+the former intimate connection between the faunas of the Oriental and
+Ethiopian regions, that fossil remains of Baboons have been found in the
+Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Madras, and also in the older Pliocene
+beds of the Siwalik Hills in Northern India; the two species from the
+latter deposits having been described as _C. subhimalayanus_ and _C.
+falconeri_.
+
+_Theropithecus._[678]—Distinguished from _Cynocephalus_ by the nostrils
+not being terminal, but situated as in _Macacus_. This genus is
+represented by the Abyssinian Gelada (_T. gelada_) and the allied _T.
+obscurus_.
+
+_Cynopithecus._[679]—The Black Ape of Celebes (_C. niger_) forms a
+connecting link between the Baboons and the genus _Macacus_; the skull
+differing from that of the latter in the development of longitudinal
+ridges on the sides of the upper surface of the maxillæ, as in some of
+the species of _Cynocephalus_. The muzzle is also more produced than in
+_Macacus_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 346.—The Tibetan Macaque (_Macacus tibetanus_). From
+Milne-Edwards, _Recherches des Mammifères_, pl. 34.]
+
+_Macacus._[680]—Muzzle considerably produced; nostrils not terminal;
+cheek-pouches and ischial callosities well developed; tail long, short,
+or absent; a distinct talon to the third lower molar.
+
+With the exception of the Barbary Ape (_M. inuus_) of Northern Africa
+and Gibraltar, the Macaques are now exclusively Asiatic, one species
+(Fig. 346) occurring in Tibet, and another (_M. speciosus_) being found
+in Japan. All these Monkeys are of stout build, and it is chiefly by the
+greater production of the muzzle, the larger ischiatic callosities, and
+the frequent shortness of the tail that they are distinguished from the
+under-mentioned African genera. The transition from the longer-tailed
+to the short-tailed forms is so complete that the proposed generic
+separation of the latter as _Innus_ is impracticable. In _M. innus_ the
+tail is wanting; in _M. tibetanus_ (Fig. 346) and _M. nemestrinus_ of
+Tenasserim it is short; in the common Bengal Monkey (_M. rhesus_) it is
+about one-half the length of the head and body, while in _M. cynomolgus_
+and its allies it is still longer. In the Indian Lion-tailed Monkey (_M.
+silenus_) it is tufted at the end.
+
+The following summary of the habits of the Macaques is taken from Mr. W.
+T. Blanford’s _Mammals of British India_: “The species of the present
+genus resemble each other in their habits; they are found in flocks,
+often of considerable size, and generally composed of individuals
+of both sexes and of all ages. They are active animals, though less
+rapid in their movements, whether on trees or on the ground than the
+_Semnopitheci_. Their food is varied, most of the species, if not all,
+eating insects as well as seeds, fruits, etc., and one kind feeding
+partly on crustacea. They have occasionally been known to devour lizards,
+and, it is said, frogs also. All have the habit of cramming food into
+their cheek-pouches for mastication at leisure—a practice that must be
+familiar to any one who has fed monkeys in confinement. The voice and
+gestures of all the species are similar, and differ entirely from those
+of both the Gibbons and _Semnopitheci_.... The majority of the species
+are very docile when young. They thrive well, and several of them have
+bred in confinement. The period of gestation is almost seven months, only
+a single young one, as a rule, being produced at a birth. They become
+adult at the age of four or five years, but breed earlier.”
+
+The Common Indian _M. rhesus_ is found in the Himalaya at an elevation of
+over 8000 feet.
+
+Fossil remains of _Macacus_ are found in India in the Pleistocene of
+Madras and the Pliocene of the Punjab; and they also occur in the
+Pliocene of France and Italy, those from the latter deposits having been
+incorrectly separated as _Aulaxinuus_. Part of the jaw of a Monkey from
+the Pleistocene of Essex has been described as _Macacus pliocenus_, and
+is very interesting as showing the presence of Apes in Europe at that
+late period.
+
+_Cercocebus._[681]—An African genus agreeing with _Macacus_ in the
+presence of a hind talon to the third lower molar, but with the other
+characters of _Cercopithecus_. The species of this genus are known as
+Mangabeys, or White-eyelid Monkeys, and include _C. collaris_, _C.
+fuliginosus_, _C. æthiops_, and _C. albigena_; all being from West Africa.
+
+_Cercopithecus._[682]—Muzzle more or less short; ischial callosities
+moderate; tail long; no talon to third lower molar. Build more slender
+than in _Macacus_. Confined to Africa.
+
+The members of this and the last genus include those Monkeys which in
+their comparative slender build and length of tail make the nearest
+approach to the next subfamily. There are numerous species, among which
+the Green Monkey (_C. cullitrichus_), the Grivet (_C. griseo-viridis_),
+the Vervet (_C. lalandi_), the Pluto Monkey (_C. pluto_, Fig. 347). The
+Patas (_C. ruber_), the Diana Monkey (_C. diana_), and the Mona Monkey
+(_C. mona_) are well-known types.
+
+Subfamily =Semnopithecinæ=.[683]—Pelvic limbs longer than the pectoral,
+tail very long; no cheek-pouches; stomach sacculated. Build slender.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 347.—The Pluto Monkey (_Cercopithecus pluto_). From
+Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1848, p. 57.]
+
+This subfamily is represented by three genera, of which one is African
+and two are Asiatic. Mr. W. T. Blanford, in his _Mammals of British
+India_, observes that “the members of this subfamily are readily
+distinguished by their slender form, and by the absence of cheek-pouches.
+They are more purely herbivorous than the Macaque Monkeys, and a
+considerable portion of their food consists of leaves and young shoots.
+In consequence probably of the nature of their food, these Monkeys are
+more delicate than the species of _Macacus_, and are thus less easily
+kept in captivity. They are consequently far less well represented in
+European museums, and have been less studied by European naturalists.
+Very little is known of their general life-history or of their feeding
+habits.”
+
+Their digestive organs are much modified, the stomach attaining an
+extraordinary complexity, which may be described as follows. An ordinary
+stomach must be supposed to lie immensely elongated, and gradually
+tapering from the cardiac end to a very prolonged, narrow, pyloric
+extremity. Then two longitudinal muscular bands, corresponding in
+situation to the greater and lesser curvatures of an ordinary stomach—the
+former commencing just below the fundus, and the latter at the cardiac
+orifice, and both proceeding towards the pylorus—are developed, so as
+to pucker up the cavity into a number of pouches, exactly in the same
+principle as the human colon is puckered up by its three longitudinal
+bands. These pouches are largest and most strongly marked at the
+œsophageal end, and becoming less and less distinct, quite cease several
+inches before the pylorus is reached, the last part of the organ being
+a simple smooth-walled tube. The fundus, or cardiac end of the stomach,
+is formed by a single large sac, slightly constricted on its under
+surface by the prolongation of the interior longitudinal band, or that
+corresponding to the great curvature. The œsophagus enters into the upper
+part of the left, or pyloric end of this sac, or rather at the point
+of junction between it and the second (also a very large) sacculus.
+Furthermore, the whole of this elongated sacculated organ is, by the
+brevity, as it were, of the lesser curvature, coiled upon itself in an
+irregularly spiral manner, so that when _in situ_ the pylorus comes to be
+placed very near the œsophageal entrance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 348.—Lateral view of the skull and palatal aspect of
+the cranium of _Semnopithecus nemæus_. (From De Blainville.)]
+
+_Nasalis._[684]—Skull resembling that of the _Cercopithecinæ_ in that the
+lower border of the nasal bones extends considerably below the lower
+border of the orbits, whereas in the other _Semnopithecinæ_ the aperture
+of the nares extends upwards between the orbits. Nose produced into a
+large proboscis. Other characters as in _Semnopithecus_.
+
+This genus includes only the Proboscis Monkey (_N. larratus_) of Borneo,
+remarkable for the great prolongation of the nose in the adult. In young
+animals the nose is relatively much shorter, and bent upwards after the
+manner of that of _Semnopithecus roxellanæ_ (Fig. 349).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 349.—_Semnopithecus roxellanæ._ (From Milne-Edwards,
+_Recherches des Mammifères_, pl. 36.)]
+
+_Semnopithecus._[685]—Pollex small; narial aperture extending upwards
+between the orbits. Now confined to Asia.
+
+This genus is characteristic of South-Eastern Asia from the Himalaya
+southwards, the Oriental region being its headquarters. The development
+of the muzzle is less than in the Macaques, and the facial angle is
+higher, but it does not appear that this indicates greater intellectual
+capacity. The outlying _S. roxellanæ_[686] (Fig. 349), of the highlands
+of Eastern Tibet and Kansu, is remarkable for the peculiar upturned nose,
+in which respect, as already mentioned, it recalls the young of _Nasalis
+larvatus_. The genus is represented in India and Burma by no less than
+fourteen species, of which the common Indian Langur, or Hanuman Monkey
+(_S. entellus_) and the larger Himalayan Langur (_S. schistaceus_) are
+two of the best known. In the former the length of the head and body is
+about 24, and that of the tail 38 inches in adult males. This monkey,
+owing to the veneration in which it is held by the Hindus, is a great
+pest in many parts of India, frequently pilfering grain from the shops
+in the native bazaars. According to Mr. Blanford, it “is usually found
+in smaller or larger communities, composed of individuals of both sexes
+and of all ages, the youngest clinging to their mothers and being carried
+by them, especially when alarmed. An old male is occasionally found
+solitary, as with so many other mammals.... Apart from villages, the
+high trees on the banks of streams or of tanks, and, in parts of Central
+India, rocky hills are the favourite haunts of these monkeys. Whether
+on trees, on rocks, or on the ground, they are exceedingly active.” The
+closely allied _S. schistaceus_ attains a larger average size, full grown
+males attaining a length of 30 inches, the tail measuring 36 inches.
+In the spring and winter this species may be observed in the Kashmir
+Himalaya leaping among the snow-laden trees of the forest. In a fossil
+state _Semnopithecus_ occurs in the Pleistocene and Pliocene of India,
+and it has also been recorded from the Pliocene of France and Italy.
+
+_Colobus._[687]—This African genus differs from _Semnopithecus_ in that
+the pollex is absent or reduced to a small tubercle, which may or may not
+carry a nail. About eleven species have been described, some of which are
+remarkable for the beautiful mantle of long silky hair which hangs down
+from each side of the body, and for their tufted tails. In _C. guereza_
+from Abyssinia these are white, and the rest of the body and limbs black.
+Others (as _C. satanas_) are entirely black. The skins of the long-haired
+species are largely imported into Europe for the manufacture of ladies’
+muffs, etc.
+
+_Extinct Genera._—Certain types of Apes from the European Tertiaries
+indicate genera referable to the _Cercopithecidæ_, but distinct from
+any of those now living. Of these _Mesopithecus_,[688] from the Lower
+Pliocene Pikermi beds of Attica, is known by almost complete skeletons,
+and resembles _Macacus_ in the shortness and stoutness of the limbs, but
+agrees with _Semnopithecus_ in the characters of the skull and teeth. An
+allied Monkey from the Lower Pliocene of Perpignan, in France, differs
+from _Mesopithecus pentelici_ by its superior size, proportionately more
+produced muzzle, and larger hind talon to the last lower molar; it has
+been described under the name of _Dolichopithecus_.[689]
+
+The genus _Oreopithecus_[690] was founded upon the remains of an Ape
+from the Middle Miocene of Monte Bamboli, in Tuscany, of somewhat larger
+size than a Gibbon, and apparently presenting characters connecting
+the _Cercopithecidæ_ and _Simiidæ_. According to Dr. Ristori,[691] it
+resembles the former, especially _Cynocephalus_ and _Semnopithecus_, in
+the long dental series and the elongation of the last molars; but in the
+shortness of the face, rounding of the chin, and the diagonal arrangement
+of the molar tubercles, it approximates to the _Simiidæ_, of which it may
+have been an ancestral type.
+
+
+_Family_ SIMIIDÆ.
+
+Crowns of molars relatively wide, with the angles more or less rounded
+off, the tubercles not forming transverse ridges, and the last lower
+molar without a hind talon. No tail. No cheek-pouches. Ischiatic
+callosities, if present, small. Pectoral limbs much longer than pelvic.
+Sternum broad. Cæcum with vermiform appendage. Centrale of carpus
+sometimes absent. Other characters as in _Cercopithecidæ_.
+
+This family contains the true Anthropoid Old World Apes, namely the
+Gibbons, Orangs, Chimpanzees, and Gorillas, which are the most highly
+organised of all the Apes, and thus make the nearest approach to Man.
+
+_Hylobates._[692]—Skull not produced at the vertex; body and limbs
+slender, the pectoral limbs being so elongated that the hands reach
+the ground when walking upright; hallux well developed; a centrale in
+the carpus; and small ischiatic callosities. Size smaller than in the
+following genera, the height of the largest species (_H. syndactylus_)
+not much exceeding 3 feet. Now confined to Asia.
+
+The Gibbons, or Long-armed Apes (Figs. 350, 351), are readily
+distinguished from the remaining members of the family by the characters
+given above, as well as by the circumstance that they are the only Apes
+which habitually walk in an upright position. It is in these animals
+that we meet with the last traces of the ischial callosities so largely
+developed in the _Cercopithecidæ_. The species are now restricted to
+South-Eastern Asia, being especially abundant in the Malay Archipelago
+and adjacent regions.
+
+The largest species is the Sumatran Siamang (_H. syndactylus_), which
+attains a height of 3 feet, and has been generically separated by some
+writers as _Siamanga_. It is remarkable as having a better developed
+chin and wider sternum than any other Ape, and differs from the other
+members of the genus by the circumstance that the second and third digits
+of the pes are united by skin as far as their last joints. Exclusive of
+this species, the Gibbons differ but little from one another in size and
+general conformation, and since the colour of individuals undoubtedly
+referable to a single species is remarkably variable, there is much
+uncertainty about the number of species, and much confusion in the
+nomenclature. Among well-marked species we may mention the Hoolock (_H.
+hoolock_), ranging from the South of Assam through Sylhet and Cachar
+to the Irawadi Valley near Bhamo, the White-handed Gibbon (_H. lar_,
+Fig. 350), which is found in Tenasserim and throughout Malayana, the
+Dun-coloured Gibbon (_H. entelloides_, Fig. 351) of Malayana, and the
+Tufted Gibbon (_H. pileatus_) of Siam and Cambogia.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 350.—The White-handed Gibbon (_Hylobates lar_). From
+Blanford, _Mammals of British India_, p. 8.]
+
+The following account of the habits of the Gibbons is taken from Mr.
+W. T. Blanford’s _Mammals of British India_. “Gibbons are thoroughly
+arboreal, and Hoolocks are almost, if not entirely, confined to
+hill-forest. They move chiefly by means of their long arms, by which
+they swing themselves for prodigious distances from branch to branch
+and from tree to tree. They descend hillsides at a surprising pace,
+their descent being accomplished by grasping bamboos or branches that
+bend beneath their weight, and allow them to drop until they can seize
+the ends of other bamboos or branches lower on the slope, and take
+another mighty swing downwards. They also ascend with great rapidity,
+swinging themselves from tree to tree. When walking on the ground the
+Hoolock rests on its hind feet alone, with the sole flat on the ground,
+and the great toe widely separated from the other digits. The arms are
+usually held upwards, sometimes horizontally, their great length giving
+the animal a very peculiar aspect. Gibbons walk rather quickly, with a
+waddling gait, and can easily be overtaken by men when on the ground. The
+food of these Apes consists of fruit, leaves, young shoots, spiders (of
+which they are very fond), insects, birds’ eggs, and almost certainly of
+young birds, if not of any birds they can capture. Anderson found that
+small birds were killed and devoured by Hoolocks in confinement with a
+method and eagerness that showed this prey to be the natural food of the
+Apes. The Hoolock drinks with its lips, putting its head down to the
+water as Monkeys do. All species of _Hylobates_ have a powerful voice,
+and the common name of the Hoolock is taken from its peculiar double
+call, which is repeated several times. At a distance the sound much
+resembles a human voice; it is a peculiar wailing note, audible from
+afar, and in the countries inhabited by these animals is one of the most
+familiar forest sounds. The calls commence at daybreak, and are continued
+till 9 or 10 A.M., several of the flock joining in the cry, like hounds
+giving tongue. After 9 or 10 o’clock in the morning the animals feed or
+rest, and remain silent throughout the middle of the day, but recommence
+calling towards evening, though to a less extent than in the earlier part
+of the day.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 351.—The Dun-coloured Gibbon (_Hylobates
+entelloides_). From _Archiv. du Muséum_, vol. ii. pl. 29.]
+
+The skull of the Gibbons, although agreeing with that of other Apes in
+its prognathism, presents a somewhat human appearance, and the molar
+teeth are also very like diminutive human molars. In the anterior inward
+inclination of the two series of cheek-teeth and the inward position
+of the upper premolars the Gibbons make an approach to the human type
+unknown in other Apes.
+
+The figure of the liver of one species of this genus is introduced to
+show the general absence of lateral fissures and the small size of the
+caudate lobe (_c_) characteristic of the liver of all the _Simiidæ_,
+except _Gorilla_ (see p. 706), as well as that of Man. Another specimen
+of the liver of the same species showed scarcely any trace of a caudate
+lobe.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 352.—Under surface of the liver of _Hylobates lar._
+_u_, Umbilical fissure; _p_, portal fissure; _vc_, vena cava; _l_, left
+lobe; _r_, right lobe; _s_, Spigelian lobe; _c_, caudate lobe; _g_,
+gall-bladder.]
+
+A fossil Ape from the Middle Miocene of France, originally described as
+_Pliopithecus_, indicates an extinct Gibbon which does not appear to be
+generically separable from _Hylobates_.
+
+_Simia._[693]—Skull (Fig. 353) produced at the vertex; body and limbs
+massive; the pectoral limbs reaching to the ankle; a centrale in the
+carpus; hallux very small; sixteen dorso-lumbar vertebræ, and twelve
+pairs of ribs; no ischiatic callosities. Oriental.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 353.—Side view of the skull of adult Orang (_Simia
+satyrus_). From _Trans. Zool. Soc._ vol. i. pl. 53.]
+
+This genus includes the large red-haired Apes from Sumatra and Borneo
+commonly known as Orangs, or Orang-Utans,[694] of which there is probably
+only a single species (_S. satyrus_). These animals inhabit the swampy
+forests near the coasts; and the males attain a height of about 4 feet 4
+inches. The body is very bulky and the legs exceedingly short, but the
+arms are very long, reaching in the erect posture down to the ankles.
+The Orang walks resting on the knuckles of the hands and the outer sides
+of the feet, with the soles of the latter turned mainly inwards, as in
+Fig. 354. Its movements appear to be slow and deliberate, and in those
+specimens which have been kept in captivity in this country the demeanour
+is languid and melancholy, although this is far from being the case with
+those shown in the more congenial climate of the Zoological Gardens at
+Calcutta. The habits of these animals are arboreal, and they build a kind
+of shelter or nest of boughs and leaves; their food appears to consist
+mainly of fruits, and is exclusively of a vegetable nature. The whole
+of the body is clothed with long hair of a reddish-brown colour, and
+full-grown males have a well developed beard; the males not unfrequently
+also develop a large warty protuberance, formed of fibro-cellular tissue,
+on either side of the face. The hands are long, and are characterised
+by the small size of the pollex, which does not reach to the end of
+the metacarpal of the index finger. The feet have a similar structure,
+the hallux only reaching to the middle of the proximal phalange of the
+adjacent toe, and being often destitute not only of a nail, but likewise
+of the terminal phalange. The presence of a centrale in the carpus is a
+feature in which _Simia_ agrees with _Hylobates_ and the lower Apes, and
+differs from the two following genera and Man. With very rare exceptions
+the number of dorso-lumbar vertebræ is sixteen, of which twelve carry
+ribs, and therefore belong to the dorsal series, while the remaining
+four are lumbar. The distinction between the last lumbar and the first
+sacral vertebræ is clearly marked in young skeletons by the additional
+pleurapophysial ossifications (sacral ribs) in the transverse processes
+of the latter. Thus though _Simia_ presents a closer resemblance to
+Man than does _Anthropopithecus_ in the number of ribs, it differs
+in the more important characters of that of the whole series of
+trunk-vertebræ.[695] The hemispheres of the brain are much convoluted;
+the whole brain being more human-like than in any other Ape. The larynx
+is remarkable for having a prolongation from each ventricle, which in the
+adult become of enormous dimensions, and unite in front of the trachea to
+form one large sac extending downwards between the muscles to the axilla.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 354.—The Orang-Utan (_Simia satyrus_). From Mr.
+Wolf’s sketch at the Zoological Gardens.]
+
+The skull of the Orang (Fig. 353) is characterised by its highly vaulted
+cranial portion, which is comparatively short (brachycephalic). The
+sagittal crest is well developed on the vertex, and has a highly convex
+contour; the superciliary ridges are but moderately developed, and do not
+stand out in the prominent manner so characteristic of the Gorilla. The
+aperture of the nares in the skull is more pear-shaped than in the two
+following genera.
+
+The canines of the male Orang attain a great development; and the molars
+are characterised by the complex structure of their cusps and the
+numerous rugosities on the crown surface. The outer border of the upper
+premolars is placed in the same line as that of the molars.
+
+The broken canine tooth of a large Anthropoid Ape from the Lower Pliocene
+of the Siwalik Hills probably indicates the existence at that period of a
+species of _Simia_ in Northern India.
+
+_Gorilla._[696]—Skull not produced at the vertex; body and limbs massive,
+the pectoral limb not reaching below the middle of the lower leg (Fig.
+355); no centrale in the carpus: hallux well developed; seventeen
+dorso-lumbar vertebræ, of which thirteen carry ribs; no ischiatic
+callosities. Male much larger than female, and with very strongly marked
+cranial ridges, which are wanting in the latter. Mandibular symphysis
+long. Ethiopian.
+
+The well-known Gorilla (Fig. 356), of which there seems to be only one
+species (_G. savagei_), is found in Western Equatorial Africa, chiefly or
+entirely in the district enclosed by the Cameroon and Congo rivers. It
+is the largest of all the Apes, its bulk considerably exceeding that of
+man, although from the shortness of the legs it appears never to attain a
+greater height than 5½ feet. The first introduction of this animal to the
+notice of zoologists was made in 1847 by Dr. Thomas Savage, but it was
+not fully known till many years later.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 355.—Skeleton of the Gorilla. (From De Blainville.)]
+
+The skin of the Gorilla is entirely black, the hair being blackish, but
+turning more or less gray in old individuals. The arms reach down as far
+as the middle of the lower leg; while the pollex extends only a short
+distance beyond the base of the first phalange of the index finger,
+and the hallux reaches nearly as far as the distal extremity of the
+corresponding digit of the foot. The digits of both the hand and foot are
+united together by integument as far as the distal extremities of the
+first phalanges. The larynx has very capacious air-sacs, which meet in
+front of the trachea and communicate with the ventricles; and in advanced
+age these sacs may extend to the axilla. The ears are relatively small.
+The skull is of an elongated or dolichocephalic type; that of the adult
+male being characterised by the enormous development of the supraorbital
+ridges, which form a kind of penthouse over the eyes, and contribute to
+the peculiarly ferocious appearance of the animal. The sagittal crest is
+also very large. The canine teeth of the male are very large, and are
+inclined outwards in both jaws. In the cheek-teeth the upper premolars
+are of considerable antero-posterior extent, with their outer border
+placed in the same line as that of the molars; and the third upper molar
+is larger than either of the others.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 356.—The Gorilla (_Gorilla savagei_). From _Trans.
+Zool. Soc._ vol. iv. pl. 43.]
+
+The posterior cervical vertebræ are characterised by the great height
+of their neural spines, which thus form a strong basis for the powerful
+cervical muscles supporting the massive skull. In some instances
+the fourth lumbar vertebra becomes ankylosed to the sacrum, as is
+occasionally found to be the case in some of the lower human races.
+
+In the absence of a centrale to the carpus, and also in the number of
+the dorso-lumbar vertebræ, the present and following genus resemble man;
+although they both differ in having thirteen in place of twelve pairs of
+ribs.
+
+The brain of the Gorilla, according to Dr. Hartmann, resembles that
+of the Orang in the complexity of its convolutions, and is thereby
+distinguished from that of the Chimpanzee. In form it is of the long oval
+characteristic of Man; the brain of the Chimpanzee and Orang being more
+rounded.
+
+Gorillas live in family parties in the depths of the dense forests of
+Western Equatorial Africa, seeking their food during the day, while at
+night it is said that the female and young ascend a tree at the foot of
+which the male sleeps. They walk with the backs of their closed hands and
+the flat soles of the feet placed on the ground. Although there has been
+much exaggeration on this point, it appears certain that the male Gorilla
+is an extremely ferocious and dangerous animal when brought to bay, but
+the statements as to its making unprovoked assaults on men do not appear
+authentic. They utter deep guttural sounds, which on some occasions may
+be described as grunts and at others as a roar.
+
+_Anthropopithecus._[697]—One of the most important differences of this
+genus from the preceding is the absence of any marked disparity between
+the two sexes, either in the size or the conformation of the skull,
+although the male can always be distinguished by the larger size of the
+canine teeth. The mandibular symphysis is also much shorter. Differences
+in the characters of the teeth are described below. The genus is confined
+at the present day to the Ethiopian region.
+
+The Chimpanzees (Fig. 357) inhabit Western and Central Equatorial
+Africa; and there has been much discussion whether they should all be
+included under one specific name (_A. troglodytes_), or whether there are
+really two or more species. A female specimen now living in the London
+Zoological Gardens, characterised among other distinctive features by the
+nearly bald head, clearly indicates, however, a second species, which
+probably corresponds to the imperfectly defined _A. calvus_ of Du Chaillu.
+
+The region inhabited by the Chimpanzees extends from the Gambia to the
+Benguela, reaching as far inland as 28° E. long. The Common Chimpanzee is
+a smaller animal than the Gorilla, its height not exceeding 5 feet. In
+colour it is darker than the latter, and the ears are relatively larger.
+In the upright position the arms reach only a short distance below the
+knee, in which respect the Chimpanzee is more human-like than any of the
+other Apes. The face is furnished with distinct whiskers, eyebrows, and
+eyelashes. The pollex reaches nearly or quite to the base of the first
+phalange of the index finger, and the hallux to the base of the second
+phalange of the corresponding digit of the foot. The laryngeal sacs are
+as largely developed as in the Gorilla.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 357.—The Chimpanzee (_Anthropopithecus troglodytes_).
+From Mr. Wolf’s drawing of a young individual in the Zoological Society’s
+Gardens.]
+
+Although the skull of the Chimpanzee has distinct superciliary ridges,
+yet the high bony crests of the calvarium of the male Gorilla are
+wanting, and the whole coronal region of the skull is more rounded and
+far less rugged.
+
+The canine teeth of the male Chimpanzee are relatively much smaller than
+in the Gorilla and Orang. The upper molars are characterised by the
+third one being smaller than either of the other two, as well as by the
+presence of an indistinct cingulum on their inner surfaces. The upper
+premolars differ from those of the other genera of the family by the
+shortness of their antero-posterior diameter, and also by the larger
+size of their external as compared with their internal cusps; while the
+outer border of these teeth is placed internally to that of the upper
+molars. In all these respects the teeth of the Chimpanzee make a decided
+approximation to the human type.
+
+Many young individuals of the Chimpanzee have been brought to Europe, but
+they appear to succumb sooner or later to the effects of an unsuitable
+climate. All these examples show that the disposition of this Ape is
+gentle, lively, and intelligent, and in all respects markedly opposite
+to that of the Orang. In a wild state these Apes are essentially
+forest-dwellers, and are more arboreal in their habits than the Gorilla.
+They live either in families, or in small parties of several families.
+Frequently at least they construct a kind of nest in the trees as a
+sleeping-place; the male being said to sleep on a forked branch below the
+level of this nest. In walking the Chimpanzee usually supports himself on
+the backs of his closed fingers, and either on the soles of the feet or
+on the closed toes.
+
+From a distributional point of view the discovery of a fossil Ape in the
+Pliocene of the Punjab, apparently closely allied to the Chimpanzee,
+is of great interest. This determination rests upon the evidence of an
+imperfect palate originally described under the name of _Palæopithecus_,
+but subsequently referred to the present genus. The teeth of this jaw
+present all the essential characters of those of the Chimpanzee, but
+the two series of cheek-teeth have a slight anterior convergence, the
+premolars are shorter in the antero-posterior direction than is usually
+the case in that species, and the outer incisor is relatively narrower
+than in the latter. In these features the extinct _A. sivalensis_ makes a
+nearer approximation to the human type than is the case with its living
+congeners.
+
+_Dryopithecus._[698]—The extinct _Dryopithecus_ of the Middle Miocene of
+France is represented by a single species of the approximate size of the
+Chimpanzee, and appears to be the most generalised member of the family.
+According to the recent observations of Professor Gaudry,[699] while it
+resembles the Gorilla in that the two series of lower cheek-teeth diverge
+anteriorly and the penultimate premolar is larger than the last of that
+series, it differs in having a much longer and narrower mandibular
+symphysis, and thus indicates a transition to the _Cercopithecidæ_. A
+gradual transition in the form of the mandible may, indeed, be traced
+from _Dryopithecus_, through _Gorilla_, to _Anthropopithecus_; the latter
+having a short and wide symphysis, with the two series of cheek-teeth
+slightly converging anteriorly, and the penultimate premolar being not
+larger than the last. In all these specialised characters the jaw of
+the Chimpanzee approximates to that of Man, in which the symphysis is
+still further shortened and widened, and the anterior convergence of the
+cheek-teeth so much increased as to produce a horse-shoe-like form in the
+whole dental series.
+
+
+_Family_ HOMINIDÆ.
+
+In the _Systema Naturæ_ of Linnæus Man was separated only generically
+from the Apes, but in the next great work which exercised a widespread
+influence over the progress of zoological science, the _Règne Animal_ of
+Cuvier, he forms a distinct order under the name of Bimana, the Monkeys
+and Lemurs being associated together as Quadrumana. This has been the
+prevailing arrangement in the zoological systems of the present century,
+though in the classification of Owen his position is still farther
+removed from that of the Monkeys, as in it the genus _Homo_ forms one
+of the four primary divisions or subclasses of the Mammalia, called
+Archencephala, the Quadrumana being united with the Carnivora, Ungulata,
+and others in another division called Gyrencephala. On the other hand,
+the tendency of most modern systematists, for reasons which have been
+fully stated by Professor Huxley,[700] is to revert towards the Linnæan
+position.
+
+Considering solely the facts of Man’s bodily structure, it can be
+clearly demonstrated that the points in which he differs from the Ape
+most nearly resembling him are not of greater importance than those by
+which that Ape differs from other universally acknowledged members of
+the group; and therefore, in any natural system, if Man is to be made a
+subject of zoological classification upon the same principles as those
+applied elsewhere, he must be included in the order which comprises
+the Monkeys. We say upon the same principles as are applied elsewhere,
+since zoological classification has never taken into consideration
+the psychological characteristics which distinguish the subjects of
+its investigations, but only their tangible and physical structure,
+otherwise endless confusion would result, at all events with our very
+imperfect knowledge of animal psychology. The essential attributes which
+distinguish Man, and give him a perfectly isolated position among living
+creatures, are not to be found in his bodily structure, and should
+therefore either be left entirely out of consideration, or have such
+weight given to them as would remove him completely out of the region
+of zoological classification. To profess to classify Man as if he were
+one of the animals (as in all points of the structure and functions of
+his organs he undoubtedly is), to place him in the class Mammalia, and
+then to allow other considerations to influence the judgment as to the
+particular position he should occupy in the class, is most illogical.
+
+Man, therefore, considered from a zoological point of view, must be
+included in the order Primates, even if the Lemurs be removed from it,
+since his structural affinities with the Monkeys are far closer than
+are those of the so-called “Half-Apes.” We may, without treading upon
+debatable ground, go farther, and say that the differences between Man
+and the Anthropoid Apes are really not so marked as those which separate
+the latter from the American Monkeys. This being admitted, perhaps the
+best exposition relating to the present condition of the order will be
+to regard Man as representing a fifth family of the Anthropoidea, which
+should be known as the _Hominidæ_. In thus ranking Man as one of the five
+principal families or sections of the suborder it should, however, be
+observed that this course does not in the least degree imply that such
+families are precisely equivalent to one another, or that the intervals
+by which they are separated are of equal importance; all that we commit
+ourselves to being that they are five perfectly distinct groups, all
+branches from a common stem, and in the present state of nature not
+united by any intermediate types.
+
+The distinctions between the _Hominidæ_ and _Simiidæ_ are chiefly
+relative, being greater size of brain and of brain-case as compared
+with the facial portion of the skull, smaller development of the
+canine teeth of the males, complete adaptation of the structure of the
+vertebral column to the vertical position, greater length of the lower
+as compared with the upper extremities, and greater length of the hallux
+or great toe, with almost complete absence of the power of bringing it
+in opposition to the other four toes. The last feature together with the
+small size of the canine teeth are perhaps the most marked and easily
+defined distinctions that can be drawn between the two groups.
+
+Man is universally admitted to form a single genus, _Homo_ of Linnæus,
+but a question of considerable importance in treating of him from a
+zoological point of view, and one which has been a subject of much
+controversy, is whether all men should be considered as belonging to a
+single or to several species. This question is perhaps of less importance
+now than formerly, when those who maintained a plurality of species
+associated with the hypothesis plurality of origin. One of the strongest
+arguments against the view that the various races of Man represent more
+than one species is that none of those who have maintained it have been
+able to agree as to how many distinct specific modifications can be
+defined, almost every number from three to twenty or more having been
+advocated by different authors. If the distinguishing characters of
+the so-called species had been so marked, there could not be such a
+remarkable diversity of opinion upon them. Again, the two facts—(1) that,
+however different the extremes of any two races may be in appearance
+(and it must be admitted that, as advocated by many polygenists, the
+differences are greater than many which are considered specific among
+other animals), every intermediate gradation can be found through which
+the one passes into the other, and (2) that all races are fertile _inter
+se_—are quite conclusive in favour of considering Man as representing a
+single species in the ordinary sense in which the word is now used, and
+of treating of all his various modifications as varieties or races.
+
+The great problem at the root of all zoology, the discovery of a natural
+classification which shall be an expression of our knowledge of the real
+relationship or consanguinity of different forms, is also applicable to
+the study of the races of Man. When we can satisfactorily prove that any
+two of the known groups of mankind are descended from the same common
+stock, a point is gained. The more such points we have acquired the more
+nearly shall we be able to picture to ourselves, not only the present,
+but also the past distribution of the races of Man upon the earth, and
+the mode and order in which they have been derived from one another.
+But the difficulties in the way of applying zoological principles to
+the classification of Man are vastly greater than in the case of most
+animals. When groups of animals become so far differentiated from each
+other as to represent separate species, they remain isolated; they
+may break up into further subdivisions—in fact, it is only by further
+subdivision that new species can be formed; but it is of the very essence
+of species, as now universally understood by naturalists, that they
+cannot recombine, and so give rise to new forms. With the varieties of
+Man it is otherwise. They have never so far separated as to answer to
+the physiological definition of species. All races, as said above, are
+fertile with one another, though perhaps in different degrees. Hence new
+varieties have constantly been formed, not only by the segmentation of
+portions of one of the old stocks, but also by various combinations of
+those already established.
+
+Without entering into the difficult question of the method of Man’s first
+appearance upon the world, we must assume for it vast antiquity,—at all
+events as measured by any historical standard. Of this there is now
+ample proof. During the long time Man existed in a savage state—a time
+compared to which the dawn of our historical period is as yesterday—he
+was influenced by the operation of those natural laws which have
+produced the variations seen in other regions of organic nature. The
+first Men may very probably have been all alike; but when spread over
+the face of the earth and subjected to all kinds of diverse external
+conditions,—climate, food, competition with members of their own
+species or with wild animals,—racial differences began slowly to be
+developed through the potency of various kinds of selection acting upon
+the slight variations which appeared in individuals in obedience to the
+tendency planted in all living things. These differences manifested
+themselves externally in the colour of the skin, the colour, quality,
+and distribution of the hair, the form of the head and features, and the
+proportions of the limbs, as well as in the general stature.
+
+Geographical position must have been one of the main elements in
+determining the formation and permanence of races. Groups of Men isolated
+from their fellows for long periods, such as those living on small
+islands, to which their ancestors may have been accidentally drifted,
+would naturally, in course of time, develop a new type of features, of
+skull, of complexion, or hair. A slight set in one direction in any of
+these characters would constantly tend to intensify itself, and so new
+races would be formed. In the same way different intellectual or moral
+qualities would be gradually developed or transmitted in different groups
+of Men. The longer a race thus formed remained isolated the more strongly
+impressed and the more permanent would its characteristics become, and
+less liable to be changed or lost when the surrounding circumstances
+were altered or under a moderate amount of intermixture from other
+races—the more “true,” in fact, would it be. On the other hand, on large
+continental tracts, where no mountain ranges or other natural barriers
+form obstacles to free intercourse between tribe and tribe, there would
+always be a tendency towards uniformity, from the amalgamation of races
+brought into close relation by war or by commerce. Smaller or feebler
+races would be destroyed or absorbed by others impelled by superabundant
+population or other causes to spread beyond their original limits; or
+sometimes the conquering race would itself disappear by absorption into
+the conquered.
+
+Thus for untold ages the history of Man has presented a shifting
+kaleidoscopic scene: new races gradually becoming differentiated out of
+the old elements, and, after dwelling a while upon the earth, becoming
+either suddenly annihilated or gradually merged into new combinations;
+a constant destruction and reconstruction; a constant tendency to
+separation and differentiation, and a tendency to combine again into
+a common uniformity—the two tendencies acting against and modifying
+each other. The history of these processes in former times, except in
+so far as they may be inferred from the present state of things, is
+a difficult study, owing to the scarcity of evidence. If we had any
+approach to a complete palæontological record, the history of Man could
+be reconstructed; but nothing of the kind is forthcoming. Evidence of
+the anatomical characters of Man as he lived on the earth during the
+time when the most striking racial characteristics were being developed,
+during the long ante-historic period in which the Negro, the Mongolian,
+and the Caucasian were being gradually fashioned into their respective
+types, is entirely wanting, or if any exists it is at present safely
+buried in the earth, perhaps to be revealed at some unexpected time and
+in some unforeseen manner. Even the materials from which a history of
+the modifications of the human species as known to our generation must
+be constructed are rapidly passing away, since the age in which we live
+is an age in which, in a far greater degree than any previous one, the
+destruction of races, both by annihilation and absorption, is going
+on. Owing to the rapid extension of maritime discovery and commerce,
+changes such as have never been witnessed before are now taking place
+in the ethnology of the world—changes especially affecting the island
+populations among which, more than elsewhere, the solution of many of
+those problems may be looked for. The subject is, however, attracting the
+attention of observers of all countries to a greater degree than it ever
+has before, and such progress has been made in perfecting the methods of
+investigation of racial characteristics that we are beginning to learn
+what lines of research are profitable and what are barren, so that we
+may hope the time is not far distant when we may get some clear insight
+into the knowledge of the natural classification and relationships of the
+races of Man.
+
+The following is a brief summary of the principal results which appear to
+have been attained up to the present time by the study of this somewhat
+difficult subject.[701]
+
+The most ordinary observation is sufficient to demonstrate the fact
+that certain groups of men are strongly marked from others by definite
+characters common to all members of the group, and transmitted regularly
+to their descendants by the laws of inheritance. Thus the Chinaman
+and the Negro, the native of Patagonia and the Andaman Islander, are
+as structurally distinct from each other as are many of the so-called
+species of any natural group of animals. Indeed, it may be said with
+truth that their differences are even greater than those which mark the
+groups called genera by many naturalists of the present day. Nevertheless
+the difficulty of parcelling out all the individuals composing the
+human species into certain definite groups, and of saying of each man
+that he belongs to one or other of such groups, is insuperable. No such
+classification has ever been, or, indeed, can ever be obtained. There
+is not one of the most characteristic and most extreme forms, like
+those just named, from which transitions cannot be traced by almost
+imperceptible gradations to any of the other equally characteristic
+and equally extreme forms. Indeed, a large proportion of mankind is
+made up, not of extreme or typical, but of more or less generalised
+or intermediate forms, the relative numbers of which are continually
+increasing, as the long-existing isolation of nations and races breaks
+down under the ever-extending intercommunication characteristic of the
+period in which we live.
+
+The difficulties of framing a natural classification of Man, or one
+really representing the relationship of the various minor groups to each
+other, are well exemplified by a study of the numerous attempts which
+have been made from the time of Linnæus and Blumenbach onwards. Even in
+the first step of establishing certain primary groups of equivalent rank
+there has been no accord. Thus four primitive types were sketched out by
+Linnæus—the European, Asiatic, African, and American. These were expanded
+into five by Blumenbach by the addition of the Malay,[702] and reduced by
+Cuvier to three by the suppression of the last two. Many later writers
+have largely increased the number of these so-called primary divisions,
+but the conclusion, so often arrived at by various anthropologists, and
+so often abandoned for some more complex system, that the primitive
+man, whatever he may have been, has in the course of ages divaricated
+into three extreme types, represented by the Caucasian of Europe, the
+Mongolian of Asia, and the Ethiopian of Africa, and that all existing
+individuals of the species can be ranged around these types, or somewhere
+or other between them, seems, on the whole, to give the clearest view
+of the facts of the case. Large numbers are doubtless the descendants
+of direct crosses in varying proportions between well-established
+extreme forms; for, notwithstanding opposite views formerly held by some
+authors on this subject, there is now abundant evidence of the wholesale
+production of new races in this way. Others may be the descendants of
+the primitive stock before the strongly marked existing distinctions had
+taken place, and therefore present, though from a different cause from
+the last, equally generalised characters. In these cases it can only be
+by most carefully examining and balancing all characters, however minute,
+and finding out in what direction the preponderance lies, that a place
+can be assigned to them. It cannot be too often insisted on that the
+various groups of mankind, owing to their probable unity of origin, the
+great variability of individuals, and the possibility of all degrees of
+intermixture of races at remote or recent periods of the history of the
+species, have so much in common that it is extremely difficult to find
+distinctive characters capable of strict definition by which they may be
+differentiated. It is more by the preponderance of certain characters
+in a large number of members of a group, than by the exclusive or even
+constant possession of these characters in each of its members, that the
+group as a whole must be characterised.
+
+Bearing these principles in mind, we may endeavour to formulate, as far
+as they have as yet been worked out, the distinctive features of the
+typical members of each of the three great divisions, and then show into
+what subordinate groups each of them seems to be divided.
+
+We begin with the Ethiopian, Negroid, or Melanian, or “black” type. It
+is characterised by a dark, often nearly black, complexion; black hair,
+of a kind called “frizzly” or, incorrectly, “woolly,” _i.e._ each hair
+is closely rolled up on itself, a condition always associated with a
+more or less flattened or elliptical transverse section; a moderate
+or scanty development of beard, an almost invariably dolichocephalic
+skull; small and moderately retreating jugal bones (mesopic face); a
+very broad and flat nose, platyrhine in the skeleton; moderate or low
+orbits; prominent eyes; thick, everted lips; prognathous jaws; large
+teeth (macrodont); a narrow pelvis (index in the male 90 to 100); a
+long forearm (humero-radial index 80); and certain other proportions of
+the body and limbs which are being gradually worked out, and reduced to
+numerical expression as material for so doing accumulates.
+
+The most characteristic examples of the second great type, the Mongolian
+or Xanthous, or “yellow,” have a yellow or brownish complexion; black
+coarse straight hair, without any tendency to curl, and nearly round
+in section; on all other parts of the surface except the scalp scanty
+and late in appearing; a skull of variable form, mostly mesocephalic
+(though extremes both of dolichocephalism and brachycephalism are found
+in certain groups of this type); a broad and flat face, with prominent,
+anteriorly-projecting jugal bones (platyopic face); nose small, mesorhine
+or leptorhine; orbits high and round, with very little development of
+glabella or supraciliary ridges; eyes sunken, and with the aperture
+between the lids narrow; in the most typical members of the group with a
+vertical fold of skin over the inner canthus, and with the outer angle
+slightly elevated; jaws mesognathous; teeth of moderate size (mesodont).
+The proportions of the limbs and form of the pelvis have yet to be worked
+out, the results at present obtained showing great diversity among
+different individuals of what appear to be well-marked races of the
+group, but this is perhaps due to the insufficient number of individuals
+as yet examined with accuracy.
+
+The last type, which, for want of a better name, we must still call by
+the misleading one that has the priority, Caucasian, or “white,” has
+usually a light-complexioned skin (although in some, in so far aberrant
+cases, it is as dark as in the Negroes); hair fair or black, soft,
+straight, or wavy, in section intermediate between the flattened and
+cylindrical form; beard fully developed; form of cranium variable, mostly
+mesocephalic; jugal bones retreating; face narrow and projecting in
+the middle line (pro-opic); orbits moderate; nose narrow and prominent
+(leptorhine); jaws orthognathous; teeth small (microdont); pelvis
+broad (pelvic index of male 80); forearm short, relatively to humerus
+(humero-radial index 74).
+
+In endeavouring to subdivide into minor groups the numerous and
+variously-modified individuals which cluster around one or other of
+these great types—a process quite necessary for many practical or
+descriptive purposes—the distinctions afforded by the study of physical
+characters are often so slight that it becomes necessary to take other
+considerations into account, among which geographical distribution and
+language hold an important place.
+
+I. The Ethiopian or Negroid races may be primarily arranged as follows:—
+
+A. African or Typical Negroes.—Inhabitants of all the central portion
+of the African continent, from the Atlantic on the west to the Indian
+Ocean on the east, greatly mixed all along their northern frontier with
+Hamitic and Semitic Melanochroi, a mixture which, taking place in various
+proportions and under varied conditions, has given rise to many of the
+numerous races and tribes inhabiting the Sudan.
+
+A branch of the African Negroes are the Bantu—distinguished chiefly,
+if not entirely, by the structure of their language. Physically
+indistinguishable from the other negroes with whom they come in contact
+in the Equatorial regions of Africa, the Southern Bantu, or Kaffirs,
+as they are generally called, show a marked modification of type,
+being lighter in colour, having a larger cranial capacity, less marked
+prognathism, and smaller teeth. Some of these changes are probably due to
+crossing with other races.
+
+B. The Negrillos—diminutive sub-brachycephalic tribes, inhabiting the
+dense forests of Central and Western Equatorial Africa—represent a
+distinct section of the Negro race. They form the only exceptions to the
+general dolichocephaly of the African branch of the Negroid division, and
+when found in a pure state are the smallest of all known human races,
+averaging scarcely more than 4 feet in height. The colour of their skin
+is yellowish rather than black.
+
+C. The Bushmen (Bosjesmen, men of the woods, of the Dutch colonists of
+South Africa) constitute a very distinct modification of the Negro type.
+The hair shows the extreme of the frizzly character; being shorter and
+less abundant than that of the ordinary Negro, it has the appearance of
+growing in separate tufts, which coil up together into rounded balls
+compared to “peppercorns.” In their yellow complexion, wide cheek-bones,
+and peculiar form of the eyes they so much resemble some of the Mongolian
+races that anthropologists have been inclined to trace affinities to
+or admixture with them, although the character of the hair makes such
+a supposition almost inadmissible. The width of the cheek-bones and
+the narrowness of the forehead and chin give a lozenge shape to the
+front view of the face. The forehead is prominent and straight; the
+nose extremely flat and broad, more so than in any other race; the lips
+prominent and thick, although the jaws are less prognathous than in the
+true Negro races. The cranium has many special characters by which it
+can be easily distinguished from that of any other race. The average
+height of the males is about 4 feet 8 inches. There is every reason to
+believe that the Bushmen represent the earliest race of which we have
+any knowledge inhabiting the southern part of the African continent, but
+that long before the advent of Europeans upon the scene they had been
+invaded from the north by Negro tribes, who, being superior in size,
+strength, and civilisation, had taken possession of the greater part of
+their territories, and, mingling freely with the aborigines, had produced
+the mixed race called Hottentots, who retained the culture and settled
+pastoral habits of the Negroes, with many of the physical features of the
+Bushmen. These in their turn, encroached upon by the Kaffirs from the
+north and by Europeans from the south, are now greatly diminished, and
+threatened with the same fate which will surely soon befall the scanty
+remnant of the early inhabitants who still retain their primitive type.
+
+D. Oceanic Negroes or Melanesians.—These include the Papuans of New
+Guinea and the majority of the inhabitants of the islands of the Western
+Pacific, and form also a substratum of the population, greatly mixed with
+other races, of regions extending far beyond the present centre of their
+area of distribution.
+
+They are represented, in what may be called a hypertypical form, by the
+extremely dolichocephalic Kai Colos, or mountaineers of the interior of
+the Fiji Islands, although the coast population of the same group has
+lost the distinctive characters by crossing. In many parts of New Guinea
+and the great chain of islands extending eastwards and southwards ending
+with New Caledonia they are found in a more or less pure condition,
+especially in the interior and more inaccessible portions of the islands,
+almost each of which shows special modifications of the type recognisable
+in details of structure. Taken altogether, their chief physical
+distinction from the African Negroes lies in the fact that the glabella
+and supraorbital ridges are generally well developed in the males,
+whereas in Africans this region is usually smooth and flat. The nose
+also, especially in the northern part of their geographical range, New
+Guinea, and the neighbouring islands, is narrower (often mesorhine) and
+prominent. The cranium is generally higher and narrower. It is, however,
+possible to find African and Melanesian skulls quite alike in essential
+characters.
+
+The now extinct inhabitants of Tasmania were probably pure, but aberrant,
+members of the Melanesian group, which had undergone a modification from
+the original type, not by mixture with other races, but in consequence
+of long isolation, during which special characters had been gradually
+developed. Lying completely out of the track of all civilisation and
+commerce, even of the most primitive kind, they were little liable to
+be subject to the influence of any other race; and there is in fact
+nothing among their characters which could be accounted for in the way
+above suggested, as they were intensely, even exaggeratedly, Negroid in
+the form of nose, projection of mouth, and size of teeth, typically so
+in character of hair, and aberrant chiefly in the width of the skull in
+the parietal region. A cross with any of the Polynesian or Malay races
+sufficiently strong to produce this would, in all probability, have also
+left some traces on other parts of their organisation.
+
+On the other hand, in many parts of the Melanesian region there
+are distinct evidences of large admixture with Negrito, Malay, and
+Polynesian elements in varying proportions, producing numerous physical
+modifications. In many of the inhabitants of the great island of New
+Guinea itself and of the islands lying around it this mixture can be
+traced. In the people of Micronesia in the north and New Zealand in the
+south, although the Melanesian element is present, it is completely
+overlaid by the Polynesian, but there are probably few, if any, of the
+islands of the Pacific in which it does not form some factor in the
+composite character of the natives.
+
+The inhabitants of the continent of Australia have long been a puzzle to
+ethnologists. Of Negroid complexion, features, and skeletal characters,
+yet without the characteristic frizzly hair, their position has been
+one of great difficulty to determine. They have, in fact, been a
+stumbling-block in the way of every system proposed. The solution,
+supported by many considerations too lengthy to enter into here, appears
+to lie in the supposition that they are not a distinct race at all, that
+is, not a homogeneous group formed by the gradual modification of one
+of the primitive stocks, but rather a cross between two already-formed
+branches of these stocks. According to this view, Australia was
+originally peopled with frizzly-haired Melanesians, such as those who
+still do, or did before the European invasion, dwell in the smaller
+islands which surround the north, east, and southern portions of the
+continent, but that a strong infusion of some other race, probably a
+low form of Caucasian Melanochroi, such as that which still inhabits
+the interior of the southern parts of India, has spread throughout the
+land from the north-west, and produced a modification of the physical
+characters, especially of the hair. This influence did not extend across
+Bass’s Straits into Tasmania, where, as just said, the Melanesian element
+remained in its purity. It is more strongly marked in the northern
+and central parts of Australia than on many portions of the southern
+and western coasts, where the lowness of type and more curly hair,
+sometimes closely approaching to frizzly, show a stronger retention
+of the Melanesian element. If the evidence should prove sufficiently
+strong to establish this view of the origin of the Australian natives,
+it will no longer be correct to speak of a primitive Australian, or even
+Australoid, race or type, or look for traces of the former existence of
+such a race anywhere out of their own land. Absolute proof of the origin
+of any race is, however, very difficult, if not impossible, to obtain,
+and there is nothing to exclude the possibility of the Australians being
+mainly the direct descendants of a very primitive human type, from which
+the frizzly-haired Negroes may be an offset. This character of hair is
+probably a specialisation, for it seems very unlikely that it was the
+attribute of the common ancestors of the human race.
+
+E. The fourth branch of the Negroid race consists of the diminutive
+round-headed people called Negritos, still found in a pure or unmixed
+state in the Andaman Islands, and forming a substratum of the population,
+though now greatly mixed with invading races, especially Malays, in the
+Philippines, and many of the islands of the Indo-Malayan Archipelago,
+and of some parts of the southern portion of the mainland of Asia. They
+also contribute to the varied population of New Guinea, where they appear
+to merge into the taller, longer-headed, and longer-nosed Melanesians
+proper. They show in a very marked manner some of the most striking
+anatomical peculiarities of the Negro race, such as the frizzly hair,
+the proportions of the limbs, especially the humero-radial index, and
+the form of the pelvis; but they differ in many cranial and facial
+characters, both from the African Negroes on the one hand, and the
+typical Oceanic Negroes, or Melanesians, on the other, and thus form a
+very distinct and well-characterised group. Wherever they are still found
+they are obviously holding their own with difficulty, if not actually
+disappearing, and there is much about their condition of civilisation and
+the situations in which they occur to induce us to look upon them, as in
+the case of the Negrillos of Central and the Bushmen of South Africa, as
+the remains of a population which occupied the land before the incoming
+of the present dominant races.
+
+II. The principal groups that can be arranged round the Mongolian type
+are as follows:—
+
+A. The Eskimo appear to be a branch of the typical North Asiatic Mongols,
+who in their wanderings northwards and eastwards across the American
+continent, where they have been isolated almost as perfectly as an island
+population would be, hemmed in on one side by the eternal Polar ice,
+and on the other by hostile tribes of American Indians, with which they
+rarely, if ever, mingled, have gradually developed characters, most of
+which are strongly-expressed modifications of those seen in their allies
+who still remain on the western side of Behring Strait. It has also been
+shown that these special characteristics gradually increase from west to
+east, and are seen in their greatest perfection in the inhabitants of
+Greenland, at all events in those where no crossing with the Danes has
+taken place. A typical Eskimo skull presents a combination of characters
+by which it can be at once distinguished from that of any other of the
+groups of mankind. Such scanty remains as have yet been discovered of the
+earliest inhabitants of Europe do not present any structural affinities
+to this type, and there is therefore no justification for the supposition
+that they belonged to the same race, although it is not unlikely that
+similar external conditions may have led them to adopt similar modes of
+life.
+
+B. The typical Mongolian races constitute the present population of
+Northern and Central Asia. They are not very distinctly, but still
+conveniently for descriptive purposes, divided into a Northern and a
+Southern group.
+
+_a._ The members of the former, Mongolo-Altaic or Sibiric group, are
+united by the affinities of their language. These people, from the cradle
+of their race in the great plateau of Central Asia, have at various
+times poured out their hordes upon the lands lying to the west, and
+thence penetrated almost to the heart of Europe. The Lapps, Finns, the
+Magyars, and the Turks are each the descendants of one of these waves of
+incursion, but they have for so many generations intermingled with the
+peoples through whom they have passed in their migrations, or whom they
+have found in the countries in which they have ultimately settled, that
+their original physical characters have been completely modified. Even
+the Lapps, that diminutive tribe of nomads inhabiting the most northern
+parts of Europe, supposed to be of Mongolian descent, show so little of
+the special attributes of that branch that it is difficult to assign them
+a place in it in a classification based upon physical characters. The
+Japanese are said by their language to be allied rather to the Northern
+than to the following branch of the Mongolian stock.
+
+_b._ The southern Mongolian or Sinitic group, divided from the former
+chiefly by language and habits of life, includes the greater part of the
+population of China, Tibet, Burma, and Siam.
+
+C. The next great division of Mongoloid people is the Malay, forming the
+bulk of the population of the Indo-Malayan Archipelago and (mixed with
+the Negro) of Madagascar, subtypical it is true, but to which an easy
+transition can be traced from the most characteristic members of the type.
+
+D. The brown Polynesians, Malayo-Polynesians, Mahoris, Sawaioris, or
+Kanakas, as they have been variously called, seen in their greatest
+purity in the Samoan, Tongan, and Eastern Polynesian Islands, are still
+more modified, and possess less of the characteristic Mongolian features;
+but yet it is difficult to place them anywhere else in the system. The
+large infusion of the Melanesian element throughout the Pacific must
+never be forgotten in accounting for the characters of the people now
+inhabiting the islands—an element in many respects so diametrically
+opposite to the Mongolian that it would materially alter the characters,
+especially of the hair and beard, which has been with many authors a
+stumbling-block to the affiliation of the Polynesian with the Mongolian
+stock. This mixture is physically a fine one, and in some proportions
+produces a combination, as seen, for instance, in the Maories of New
+Zealand, which in all definable characters approaches quite as near, or
+nearer, to the Caucasian type than to either of the stocks from which it
+may be presumably derived. This resemblance has led some ethnologists
+to infer a real extension of the Caucasian element at some very early
+period into the Pacific Islands, and to look upon their inhabitants as
+the product of a mingling of all the three great types of men. Though
+this is a very plausible theory, it rests on little actual proof,
+since the combination of Mongolo-Malayan and Melanesian characters in
+different degrees, together with the local variations certain to arise
+in communities so isolated from each other and exposed to such varied
+conditions as the inhabitants of the Pacific Islands, would probably
+account for all the modifications observed among them.
+
+E. The native population (before the changes wrought by the European
+conquest) of the great continent of America, excluding the Eskimo,
+present, considering the vast extent of the country they inhabit and
+the great differences of climate and other surrounding conditions, a
+remarkable similarity of essential characters with much diversity of
+detail.
+
+The construction of the numerous American languages, of which as many
+as twelve hundred have been distinguished, is said to point to unity of
+origin, as, though widely different in many respects, they are all, or
+nearly all, constructed on the same general grammatical principle—that
+called _polysynthesis_—which differs from that of the languages of any
+of the Old World nations. The mental characteristics of all the American
+tribes have much that is in common, and the very different stages of
+culture to which they had attained at the time of the conquest, as that
+of the Incas and Aztecs and the hunting or fishing tribes of the north
+and south, which have been quoted as evidence of diversities of race,
+were not greater than those between different nations of Europe, as
+Gauls and Germans on the one hand, and Greeks and Romans on the other,
+in the time of Julius Cæsar. Yet all these were Aryans, and in treating
+the Americans as one race it is not intended to imply that they are more
+closely allied than the different Aryan peoples of Europe and Asia. The
+best argument that can be used for the unity of the American race—using
+the word in a broad sense—is the great difficulty of forming any natural
+divisions in it founded upon physical characters. Thus there is no
+difference throughout the whole continent in the important character of
+the hair, this being always straight and lank, long and abundant on the
+scalp, but sparse elsewhere. The colour of the skin, notwithstanding the
+enormous differences of climate under which many members of the group
+exist, varies but little. It is true that in the features and cranium
+certain special modifications prevail in different districts, but the
+same forms reappear at widely separated parts of the continent. Thus
+skulls almost undistinguishable from one another may be met with from
+Vancouver’s Island, from Peru, and from Patagonia.
+
+Naturalists who have admitted but three primary types of the human
+species have always found a difficulty with the Americans, hesitating
+between placing them with the Mongolian or so-called “yellow” races, or
+elevating them to the rank of a primary group. Cuvier, indeed, does not
+seem to have been able to settle this point to his own satisfaction, and
+leaves it an open question. Although the large majority of Americans have
+in the special form of the nasal bones, leading to the characteristic
+high bridge of the nose of the living face, in the well-developed
+superciliary ridge and retreating forehead, characters which distinguish
+them from the typical Asiatic Mongol, yet in many other respects they
+resemble them so closely that, while still admitting the difficulties
+of the case, we are inclined to include them as aberrant members of the
+Mongolian type.[703] It is, however, quite open to any one adopting the
+Negro, Mongolian, and Caucasian groups as primary divisions to place the
+Americans apart as a fourth.
+
+Now that the high antiquity of man in America—perhaps as high as that
+which he has in Europe—has been discovered, the puzzling problem, from
+which part of the Old World the people of America have sprung, has lost
+its significance. It is, indeed, quite as likely that the people of Asia
+may have been derived from America as the reverse. However this may be,
+the population of America, except at the extreme north, was, before the
+time of Columbus, practically isolated from the rest of the world.
+Such visits as those of the early Norsemen to the coasts of Greenland,
+Labrador, and Nova Scotia, or the occasional accidental stranding of
+a canoe containing survivors of a voyage across the Pacific or the
+Atlantic, can have had little appreciable effect upon the characteristics
+of the people. It is difficult, therefore, to look upon the anomalous and
+special characters of the American people as the effects of crossing, as
+was suggested in the case of the Australians—a consideration which gives
+more weight to the view of treating them as a distinct primary division.
+
+III. The Caucasian, Eurafrican, or white division, includes the two
+groups called by Professor Huxley Xanthochroi and Melanochroi, which,
+though differing in colour of eyes and hair, agree so closely in all
+other anatomical characters, so far, at all events, as has at present
+been demonstrated, that it seems preferable to consider them both as
+modifications of one great type than as primary divisions of the species.
+Whatever their origin may have been, they are now intimately blended,
+though in different proportions, throughout the whole of the region of
+the earth they inhabit; and it is to the rapid extension of both branches
+of this race that the great changes now taking place in the ethnology of
+the world are mainly due.
+
+A. The Xanthochroi, or blonde type, with fair hair, eyes, and complexion,
+chiefly inhabit Northern Europe (Scandinavia, Scotland, and North
+Germany), but, although much mixed with the next group, they also extend
+as far as Northern Africa and Afghanistan. Their mixture with Mongoloid
+people has given rise to the Lapps, Finns, and some of the tribes of
+Northern Siberia.
+
+B. Melanochroi, with black hair and eyes, and skin of almost all shades
+from white to black. They comprise the great majority of the inhabitants
+of Southern Europe, Northern Africa, and South-West Asia, and consist
+mainly of the Aryan, Semitic, and Hamitic families. The Dravidians of
+India, the Veddahs of Ceylon, and probably the Ainos of Japan, and the
+Maoutze of China, also belong to this race, which may have contributed
+something to the mixed character of some tribes of Indo-China and
+the Polynesian Islands, and, as before said, have given at least the
+characters of the hair to the otherwise Negroid inhabitants of Australia.
+In Southern India they are largely mixed with a Negrito element, and in
+Africa, where their habitat becomes coterminous with that of the Negroes,
+numerous cross-races have sprung up between them all along the frontier
+line. The ancient Egyptians were nearly pure Melanochroi, though often
+showing in their features traces of their frequent intermarriages with
+their Ethiopian neighbours to the south. The Copts and fellahs of modern
+Egypt are their little-changed descendants.
+
+In offering this scheme of classification of the varieties of the human
+species, it is not suggested that it is one universally accepted by
+anthropologists, or that it is likely to be final. Whatever care be
+bestowed upon the arrangement of already acquired details, or whatever
+judgment be shown in their due subordination one to another, the
+acquisition of new knowledge may at any time call for a complete or
+partial rearrangement of the system. The difficulties which encompass
+the subject have, indeed, been already indicated, and will be found
+abundantly illustrated in the writings of those authors who have
+specially devoted themselves to its elucidation.
+
+    _Bibliography._—P. Topinard, _Éléments d’Anthropologie
+    Générale_, 1885; A. de Quatrefages, _Histoire Générale
+    des Races Humaines_ (1. _Questions Générales_, 1887; 2.
+    _Classification des Races Humaines_, 1889); Quatrefages and
+    Hamy, _Crania Ethnica_ (1873-1879); D. G. Brinton, _Races and
+    Peoples_, 1890.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+[1] Galton’s _South Africa_, p. 187.
+
+[2] L. F. E. Rousseau, _Anatomie comparée du Système dentaire chez
+l’Homme et chez les principaux Animaux_, 2d ed., 1839; F. Cuvier, _Des
+Dents des Mammifères considérées comme caractères zoologiques_, 1822-25;
+R. Owen, _Odontography_, 1840-45; C. G. Giebel, _Odontographie_, 1855; C.
+S. Tomes, _Manual of Dental Anatomy, Human and Comparative_, 3d ed., 1889.
+
+[3] The lower incisors of some species of Shrews are, however, said to
+become ankylosed to the jaw in adult age.
+
+[4] The teeth of the extinct Dinosaurian reptile _Triceratops_ have two
+distinct roots, placed transversely to the axis of the jaws.
+
+[5] This and other questions concerning the homologies, notation, and
+succession of the teeth of mammals are more fully developed in two
+memoirs by one of the present writers:—“Remarks on the Homologies and
+Notation of the Teeth of the Mammalia,” in the _Journal of Anatomy and
+Physiology_, vol. iii. p. 262, 1869; and “Notes on the First or Milk
+Dentition of the Mammalia,” in the _Trans. Odontological Society of Great
+Britain_, 1871. See also an important memoir by Oldfield Thomas on the
+“Homologies and Succession of the teeth in the Dasyuridæ,” _Phil. Trans._
+1887, pp. 443-462.
+
+[6] By many writers the letters indicating the different kinds of teeth
+are printed in capitals, as _I_, _C_, _P_, and _M_; while very frequently
+the symbol _Pm_ is employed in place of _p_.
+
+[7] According to Mr. G. E. Dobson there are four upper incisors in some
+of the _Soricidæ_.
+
+[8] See for the principal modifications of the skeleton of the class,
+the large and beautifully illustrated _Ostéographie_ of De Blainville,
+1835-54; the section devoted to the subject in Bronn’s _Klassen und
+Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs_, by Giebel, 1874-79; and _An Introduction to
+the Osteology of the Mammalia_, by W. H. Flower, 3d ed., 1885.
+
+[9] This and many of the following figures in this chapter are taken from
+Flower’s _Osteology of the Mammalia_.
+
+[10] For the sake of uniformity, in all the following descriptions of
+the vertebral column, the long axis of the body is supposed to be in the
+horizontal position.
+
+[11] The opinion has recently been expressed by Baur that bone termed
+radiale in Fig. 17 is really a second centrale, and that the radiale is
+represented by a minute bone generally known as the radial sesamoid. The
+mammalian scaphoid is accordingly also regarded as a second centrale. In
+the same communication, Dr. Baur expresses his disbelief in the existence
+of remnants of a prepollex and of a seventh digit in mammals and other
+vertebrates. (See _Anat. Anzeiger_, vol. iv. pp. 49-52, 1889.)
+
+[12] On the Præpollex and Præhallux, etc., _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1889, pp.
+259-262.
+
+[13] Cope and Baur consider that the astragalus corresponds only with the
+intermedium, and that the tibiale may exist as a distinct element.
+
+[14] For further details of these modifications, see Flower’s “Lectures
+on the Comparative Anatomy of the Organs of Digestion of the Mammalia,”
+_Medical Times and Gazette_, Feb.-Dec. 1872.
+
+[15] G. Gulliver, _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1862, p. 91.
+
+[16] The modifications of these bones are fully described by A. Doran,
+“Morphology of the Mammalian _Ossicula auditus_,” _Trans. Linn. Soc._
+ser. 2, vol. i. pp. 371-497, pl. lviii.-lxiv. (1878).
+
+[17] See B. H. Caldwell—“The Embryology of Monotremata and Marsupialia,”
+_Phil. Trans._ for 1887, p. 463.
+
+[18] _Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia_, 1881, p. 468.
+
+[19] “_Studien ueber Entwickelungeschichte der Thiere_,” pt. 4,
+Wiesbaden, 1886.
+
+[20] _Journal of Morphology_, vol. i. p. 373 (1887).
+
+[21] For a full exposition of the present state of knowledge on this
+subject, see the various memoirs of Sir William Turner, also F. M.
+Balfour’s _Treatise on Comparative Embryology_, vol. ii. (1881), and J.
+A. Ryder in _American Naturalist_, vol. xxi. p. 780 (1887).
+
+[22] _Proceedings of the Royal Society of London_, vol. xxviii. p. 395
+(1879).
+
+[23] “The Relations between the Theromorphous Reptiles and the Monotreme
+Mammalia,” _Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement
+of Science_, vol. xxxiii. p. 471 (1885).
+
+[24] “On the Phylogenetic Arrangement of the Sauropsida,” _Journal of
+Morphology_, vol. i. pp. 93-104 (1887).
+
+[25] The names of the groups containing only extinct forms are printed in
+heavier type than those which contain species still existing.
+
+[26] On this subject see A. Murray, _Geographical Distribution of
+Mammals_, 1866; and especially A. R. Wallace, _The Geographical
+Distribution of Animals_, 2 vols., 1876, and _Island Life_, 1881; also A.
+Heilprin, _The Geographical and Geological Distribution of Animals_, 1887.
+
+[27] _Distribution of Animals._
+
+[28] Generally known, as _Hyomoschus_, but first described as an extinct
+form under the above name.
+
+[29] The fore limb from S. Africa described as _Theriodesmus_, which
+appears to be mammalian, and may belong to _Tritylodon_.
+
+[30] The subjects referred to under this heading are mostly described
+and figured in detail in Owen’s “Monograph of the Fossil Mammalia of the
+Mesozoic Formations,” _Palæontographical Society’s Publications_, 1871;
+and in various papers by Marsh, in the _American Journal of Science and
+Arts_, 1878-89. Important contributions to our knowledge of these forms
+have also been made by Professors Cope and Osborn, and the reader should
+especially consult the memoir by the latter writer on the “Structure and
+Affinities of the Mesozoic Mammals,” published in the _Journal of the
+Philadelphia Academy_ (1888), vol. ix.
+
+[31] The whole discussion is contained in the following memoirs: (1)
+H. Falconer, “Description of Two Species of the Fossil Mammalian genus
+_Plagiaulax_, from Purbeck,” _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ vol. xiv.
+1857; (2) R. Owen, art. “Palæontology,” _Encyclopædia Britannica_, 8th
+ed., 1859; (3) H. Falconer, “On the Disputed affinity of the Mammalian
+genus _Plagiaulax_,” _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ vol. xviii. 1862; (4)
+R. Owen, “Monograph of the Fossil Mammalia of the Mesozoic Formation,”
+_Palæontographical Society_, 1871.
+
+[32] Blumenbach, _Voigts Magazin_, vol. ii. p. 205 (1800).
+
+[33] _Proceedings of the Royal Society of London_, vol. xliii. p. 353
+(1888).
+
+[34] _Ibid._ vol. xlvi. p. 126 (1889).
+
+[35] Cuvier, _Tableau Élémentaire d’Hist. Nat._ p. 143 (1798).
+
+[36] Gervais, _Ostéographie des Monotremes_, p. 43 (1877).
+
+[37] For the detailed characters of all the genera and species of
+Marsupials the reader should consult the British Museum _Catalogue of
+Marsupialia and Monotremata_, by Oldfield Thomas, 1888.
+
+[38] Except in _Petaurus (Belideus) breviceps_ (Forbes, _Proc. Zool.
+Soc._ 1881, p. 188).
+
+[39] Including the transitional Austro-Malayan region.
+
+[40] Illiger, _Prod. Syst. Mamm. et Aves_, p. 76 (1811).
+
+[41] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ Ed. 12, vol. i. p. 71 (1766).
+
+[42] Temminck, _Monographies de Mammalogie_, vol. i. p. 60 (1827).
+
+[43] F. Cuvier, _Hist. Nat. des Mammifères_, iv. (1837).
+
+[44] Geoffroy, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ vol. i. p. 106 (1796).
+
+[45] Temminck, _Monographies de Mammalogie_, vol. i. p. 56 (1827).
+
+[46] Thomas, _Ann. Mus. Genov._ sér. 2, vol. iv. p. 503 (1887).
+
+[47] Krefft, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1866, p. 434.
+
+[48] Waterhouse, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1836, p. 69.
+
+[49] Geoffroy, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ vol. iii. p. 249 (1803).
+
+[50] Grey, in _Grey’s Australia_, vol. ii, p. 401 (1841).
+
+[51] Ogilby, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1838, p. 25.
+
+[52] Geoffroy, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. ii. p. 365 (1803).
+
+[53] Owen, _Phil. Trans._ 1872, p. 257.
+
+[54] Gervais and Verraux, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1842, p. 1.
+
+[55] Storr, _Prodromus Meth. Mamm._ p. 33 (1780). Syn. _Phalangista_,
+Geoffroy, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ vol i. p. 106 (1796).
+
+[56] Lesson, _Dict. Class. d’Hist. Nat._ vol. xiii. p. 333 (1828).
+
+[57] Ogilby, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1836, p. 26.
+
+[58] Thomas, _Cat. Marsupials Brit. Mus._ p. 163 (1888).
+
+[59] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1858, p. 109.
+
+[60] Shaw, _Naturalist’s Miscellany_, vol. ii. pl. lx. (1791).
+
+[61] M’Coy, _Ann. Mag. N. H._ (3) xx. p. 287 (1867).
+
+[62] Grey, in _Grey’s Australia_, appendix, vol. ii. p. 407 (1841).
+
+[63] Peters, _Ann. Mus. Genov._ vol. vi. p. 303 (1874).
+
+[64] Desmarest, _Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat._ sér. 2, vol. xxv. p. 405
+(1817).
+
+[65] _Cf._ W. A. Forbes, “Anatomy of the Koala,” _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1881,
+p. 180.
+
+[66] Blainville, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ 1816, p. 116.
+
+[67] Owen, in _Gervais’s Zool. et Pal. françaises_, 1st ed. pt. i. p. 192
+(1849-52).
+
+[68] Ramsay, _Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales_, vol. i. p. 33 (1876).
+
+[69] De Vis, _Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland_, ser. 2, vol. iii. p. 8 (1888).
+
+[70] Desmarest, _Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat._ sér. 1, vol. xxiv. _Table
+Méth._ p. 20 (1804). Syn. _Hypsiprymnus_, Illiger, _Prodromus Syst.
+Mamm._ p. 79 (1811).
+
+[71] Gray, _Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist._ vol. i. p. 584 (1837).
+
+[72] Thomas, _Cat. Marsup. Brit. Mus._ p. 114 (1888).
+
+[73] Garrod, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1875, p. 59.
+
+[74] Thomas, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1886, p. 544.
+
+[75] Schlegel and Müller, _Verh. Nat. Ges. Nederland_, p. 138 (1839-44).
+
+[76] Schlegel and Müller, _Verh. Nat. Ges. Nederland_, p. 130 (1839-44).
+
+[77] Gould, _Monograph of Macropodidæ_, pl. xiii. (1841).
+
+[78] Grey, in _Grey’s Australia_, vol. ii. appendix, p. 402 (1841).
+
+[79] Gray, _Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist._ vol. i. p. 583 (1837).
+
+[80] Shaw, _Naturalist’s Miscellany_, vol. i. pl. xxxiii. (1790).
+
+[81] For the characters of these species and the under-mentioned distinct
+genera, see Owen’s _Extinct Mammals of Australia_ (1877), and Lydekker’s
+_Catalogue of Fossil Mammalia in the British Museum_, pt. v. (1887).
+
+[82] Owen, _Phil. Trans._ 1874, p. 264.
+
+[83] Owen, _op. cit._ p. 788.
+
+[84] Owen, _op. cit._ p. 797.
+
+[85] Owen, in _Mitchell’s Eastern Australia_, 2d ed. vol. ii. p. 362
+(1838).
+
+[86] Owen, _Cat. Mamm. and Aves, Mus. R. Coll. Surgeons_, p. 314 (1845).
+
+[87] The characters of the chief groups of the Eutheria here given are,
+in some measure, a fuller recapitulation of those already detailed in
+Chapter III., pp. 83-88.
+
+[88] The name Paratheria has been suggested for this proposed subclass.
+
+[89] In some few Armadillos the suture between the premaxilla and maxilla
+passes behind the first upper tooth; but in all other known members of
+the order all the teeth are implanted in the maxilla.
+
+[90] See Flower, “On the Mutual Affinities of the Animals composing the
+Order Edentata,” _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_, 1882, p. 358.
+
+[91] An attempt has been made to represent these views by the following
+classification:
+
+  Order EDENTATA.
+    Suborder PILOSA.
+      _Bradypodidæ._
+      _Megatheriidæ._
+      _Myrmecophagidæ._
+    Suborder LORICATA.
+      _Dasypodidæ._
+    Suborder SQUAMATA.
+      _Manidæ._
+    Suborder TUBULIDENTATA.
+      _Orycteropodidæ._
+
+It may be objected to this arrangement that the _present_ divergence
+between the Sloths and Anteaters is hardly sufficiently indicated by
+their association in one suborder.—Flower, “On the Arrangement of the
+Orders and Families of Mammals,” _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1883, p. 178.
+
+[92] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 50 (1766).
+
+[93] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium_, p. 108 (1811).
+
+[94] Burmeister, _Sitzb. Ak. Berlin_, vol. xxviii. p. 613 (1882).
+
+[95] Lydekker, in Nicholson and Lydekker’s _Manual of Palæontology_,
+vol. ii. p. 1299 (1889). Originally described under the preoccupied name
+_Cœlodon_.
+
+[96] Cuvier, _Tableau Élém. d’Hist. Nat. des Animaux_, p. 146 (1798).
+
+[97] An excellent figure of this skeleton, which unfortunately was
+incorrectly articulated, and wanted the greater part of the tail,
+was published by Pander and D’Alton in 1821, and has been frequently
+reproduced in subsequent works.
+
+[98] See E. D. Cape, _Amer. Naturalist_, vol. xxiii. p. 152 (1889).
+
+[99] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 51 (1766).
+
+[100] Professor Cope has recently come to the conclusion that there are
+three species; but further evidence is required in support of this view.
+
+[101] Gray, _Annals of Philosophy_, new series, vol. x. p. 343 (1825).
+
+[102] Gray, _Annals of Philosophy_, new series, vol. x. p. 343 (1825).
+
+[103] Harlan, _Ann. New York Lyceum Nat. Hist._ vol. i. p. 237
+(1824).—Amended from _Chiamyphorus_.
+
+[104] Linn. _Syst. Nat._, 12th ed. vol. i. p. 54 (1766).
+
+[105] Wagler, _Syst. Amphibien_, etc., p. 36 (1830).
+
+[106] F. Cuvier, _Hist. Nat. des Mammifères_ (1822).—_Priodontes._
+
+[107] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium_, p. 111 (1811).
+
+[108] Lesson, _Man. de Mammalogie_, p. 309 (1827); _ex._ F. Cuvier,
+_Tatusie_.
+
+[109] A single imperfect skin, brought from the province of Ceara in
+Brazil, indicates a very remarkable form of Armadillo, named by A.
+Milne-Edwards _Scleropleura brunetti_ (_Ann. Sc. Nat._ xvi. p. 8, 1872).
+The dermal scutes are said to be much less developed than in other
+members of the family, and confined to the sides, all the median portion
+of the back being clothed with a flexible hairy skin. The head is broad
+and short, the ears small and far apart. The tail is long, and almost
+entirely devoid of scutes. The feet are unknown.
+
+[110] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 52 (1766).
+
+[111] _Mammalian Descent_, p. 95.
+
+[112] _Mammalian Descent_, p. 99.
+
+[113] Forsyth-Major, _Comptes Rendus_, vol. cvii. p. 1180 (1888).
+
+[114] Geoffroy, _Décade Philosophique_, 1795 (_teste_ Agassiz).
+
+[115] _Proceedings of the Royal Society_; vol. xlvii. p. 246 (1890).
+
+[116] Storr, _Prodromus Meth. Mamm._ p. 41 (1780).
+
+[117] _Zool. Jahrbuch_, vol. i. p. 1 (1886).
+
+[118] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium_, p. 140 (1811).
+
+[119] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium_, p. 141 (1811).—Amended
+from _Rytina_.
+
+[120] Nordenskiöld, during his voyage in the _Vega_, obtained some
+information from the natives of Behring Island which led him to believe
+that a few individuals may have survived to a much later date, even to
+1854; but this conclusion is disputed by later writers.
+
+[121] Kaup, _Neues Jahrbuch_, 1838, pp. 319 and 536.
+
+[122] This is an important distinction from the Sirenia, but a character
+common to nearly all other mammals. It is doubtful whether there is any
+foundation for the statement that these epiphyses remain ununited for an
+exceptionally long period in the Cetacea.
+
+[123] A character repeated in some of the Seals.
+
+[124] These have been described in detail by Professor Struthers in the
+_Journal of Anatomy and Physiology_, 1881.
+
+[125] The ankylosed mass of cervical vertebræ, on which the genus
+_Palæocetus_ was established, was regarded by its describer as having
+probably come from the Kimeridge Clay, but the mineral condition of the
+specimen points to the Red Crag as the place of origin.
+
+[126] There is much resemblance in the larynx of the Hippopotamus, but
+none in that of the Seal, to the same organ in the Cetacea.
+
+[127] German _Meerschwein_, whence the French _Marsouin_. “Porpoise” is
+said to be derived from “_Porc-poisson_.”
+
+[128] Icel. _hvalr_; Dan. and Swed. _hval_; Anglo-Saxon _hwæl_; Germ.
+_wal_, _walfisch_. The meaning apparently is “roller,” the word being
+closely allied to “wheel” (Skeat).
+
+[129] These were discovered in the Greenland Whale by Geoffroy St.
+Hilaire, whose observations were confirmed and extended to other genera
+by Eschricht. They have been very fully described in _Balænoptera
+rostrata_ by Julin (_Archives de Biologie_, i. 1880).
+
+[130] For the structure of whalebone see Hunter, “Observations on the
+Structure and Economy of Whales,” _Phil. Trans._ 1787; Eschricht and
+Reinhardt, _On the Greenland Right Whale_, English translation by the Ray
+Society, 1866, pp. 67-78; and Sir W. Turner, in _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._
+1870.
+
+[131] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 105 (1766).
+
+[132] Gray, _Suppl. Cat. Seals and Whales in Brit. Mus._ p. 39 (1871).
+
+[133] Cope, _Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad._ 1869, p. 15.
+
+[134] Gray, _Zoology of Erebus and Terror_, p. 16 (1846).
+
+[135] See J. Struthers, “On the Anatomy of _Megaptera longimana_,”
+_Journ. Anatomy and Physiology_, 1887-89.
+
+[136] Lacépède, “Table des Ordres,” _Hist. Nat. des Cétacés_, p. xxxvi.
+(1804).
+
+[137] See P. J. Van Beneden, “Histoire Naturelles des Balénoptères,”
+_Mém. Acad. Belgique_, xli. 1887.
+
+[138] In a recent memoir Professor D’Arcy Thompson has brought forward
+some arguments to show that the Zeuglodonts have no direct affinities
+with the Cetacea, but have on the other hand the strongest possible
+relation with the Pinnipede Carnivora. “On the Systematic position of
+Zeuglodon,” _Studies from the Museum of Zoology, Dundee_, vol. i. No. 9,
+1890.
+
+[139] An appearance in one specimen has been described by C. G. Carus
+as indicating a vertical succession of the teeth, but the evidence upon
+which this rests is by no means satisfactory, and appears to admit of
+another explanation.
+
+[140] A mutilated humerus of _Zeuglodon cetoides_ has given rise to many
+conjectures, appearing to some anatomists to indicate seal-like freedom
+of motion at the elbow-joint, while to others its characters appear to be
+truly Cetacean.
+
+[141] See _Trans. Geol. Soc._ ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 67.
+
+[142] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 107 (1766).
+
+[143] Gray, _Zoology of Erebus and Terror_, p. 22 (1846). Usually spelt
+_Kogia_.
+
+[144] Lacépède, “Table des Ordres,” _Hist. Nat. des Cétacés_, p. xliv.
+(1804).
+
+[145] See the figures in the _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882, pp. 728, 729.
+
+[146] Cuvier, _Ossemens Fossiles_, 2d ed. vol. v. p. 352 (1823).
+
+[147] Gervais, _Ann. Sci. Nat._ ser. 3, vol. xiv. p. 16 (1850). For the
+very complicated synonymy of this genus, see _Trans. Zool. Soc._ vol.
+viii. p. 208.
+
+[148] Duvernoy, _Ann. Sci. Nat.-Zoologie_, sér. 3, vol. xv. p. 41 (1851).
+
+[149] Duvernoy, _op. cit._ p. 61.
+
+[150] Grateloup, _Act. Ac. R. Sci. Bordeaux_, 1840, p. 208.
+
+[151] Wagler, _Syst. Amphib._ etc., p. 35 (1830).
+
+[152] The anatomy of _Platanista_ is fully described by J. Anderson,
+_Zoological Results of Two Expeditions to Western Yunnan_, 1878.
+
+[153] D’Orbigny, _Nouv. Ann. Mus. Paris_, vol. iii. p. 31 (1834).
+
+[154] Gray, _Zoology of Erebus and Terror_, p. 46 (1846).
+
+[155] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 105 (1766).
+
+[156] Lacépède, _Hist. Nat. des Cétacés_, p. xli. (1804).
+
+[157] Cuvier, _Règne Animal_, vol. i. p. 279 (1817).
+
+[158] _Zoology of Erebus and Terror_, p. 30 (1846). The name is
+preoccupied by Lamarck for a genus of Polyzoa (1816).
+
+[159] Gray, _Cat. Cetacea Brit. Mus._ p. 106 (1850).
+
+[160] Gray, _Cat. Seals and Whales in Brit. Mus._ p. 285 (1866).
+
+[161] _Anatomical and Zoological Researches, comprising an Account of the
+Zoological Results of the two Expeditions to Western Yunnan, in 1868 and
+1875_ (1878).
+
+[162] Gray, _Zoology of Erebus and Terror_, p. 33 (1846).
+
+[163] Reinhardt, _Overs. Dan. Sezsk. Forh._ 1862, p. 151.
+
+[164] Lesson, _N. Tab. d. Règne Animal—Mamm._ p. 200 (1842).
+
+[165] Gray, _Zoology of Erebus and Terror_, p. 30 (1846).
+
+[166] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1870, p. 77.
+
+[167] Gray, _Zoology of Erebus and Terror_, p. 35 (1846).
+
+[168] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 108 (1766).
+
+[169] Gervais, _Hist. Nat. des Mammifères_, vol. ii. p. 323 (1855).
+
+[170] Gervais, _Ostéographie des Cétacés_, p. 604 (1880).
+
+[171] Gray, _Zoology of Erebus and Terror_, p. 43 (1846).
+
+[172] Gray, _Cat. Seals and Whales Brit. Mus._ 2d ed. p. 393 (1866).
+
+[173] Since this was in type the discovery of transient rudimentary
+clavicles in the embryo of the Sheep has been announced by Wineza
+(_Morpholog. Jahrb._ xvi. p. 647).
+
+[174] Also known as Diplarthra.
+
+[175] The pollex is present in the manus of the extinct _Cotylops_.
+
+[176] In the table on p. 89 the Peccaries are included in the _Suidæ_.
+
+[177] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 101 (1766).
+
+[178] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 102 (1766).
+
+[179] If from any accidental circumstances these teeth are not constantly
+worn down by friction, they grow into a complete circle, the point
+penetrating the bone of the jaw close to the root of the tooth. The
+natives of the Fiji Islands avail themselves of this circumstance to
+produce one of their most valued ornaments—a circular boar’s tusk: the
+upper canines being extracted, the lower ones are allowed to grow to the
+desired form.
+
+[180] See Garson, _Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond._ 1883, p. 413.
+
+[181] Lesson, _Man. d. Mamm._, p. 337 (1827), “Babirusa.”
+
+[182] Cuvier, _Règne-Animal_, vol. i. p. 236 (1817).
+
+[183] Cuvier, _Règne Animal_, vol. i. p. 237 (1817).
+
+[184] Professor Cope considers that there is a third species, for which
+he has proposed the name _D. angularis_.
+
+[185] This name (Leidy, 1851) is preoccupied by _Orodus_ (Agassiz, 1838).
+
+[186] The stomach of the Camel inhabiting the Arabian desert is commonly
+looked upon as a striking example of specialised structure, adapted or
+modified in direct accordance with a highly specialised mode of life; it
+is therefore very remarkable to find an organ exactly similar, except in
+some unessential details, in the Llamas of the Peruvian Andes and the
+Guanacos of the Pampas. No hypothesis except that of a common origin will
+satisfactorily account for this, and, granting that this view is correct,
+it becomes extremely interesting to find for how long a time two genera
+may be isolated and yet retain such close similarities in parts which in
+other groups appear readily subject to adaptive modifications.
+
+[187] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 90 (1766).
+
+[188] There is much confusion as to the proper use of the names Camel and
+Dromedary. It is now generally accepted that the former is the common
+term for all the members of the genus, and that Dromedary should be
+confined to the lighter and swifter breeds of the one-humped species. One
+of the oldest pictures of the two-humped Camel extant, painted on the
+wall of the Chapter House of Westminster Abbey, has, however, “Dromedary”
+inscribed under it.
+
+[189] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm._ p. 103 (1811).
+
+[190] _Natural History of the Strait of Magellan_, 1871.
+
+[191] Pallas, _Spicilegia Zoologica_, vol. xiii. p. 27 (1779).
+
+[192] Kaup, _Ossemens Fossiles de Darmstadt_, pt. 5, p. 92 (1836). This
+name, which was proposed for a fossil species, antedates _Hyomoschus_,
+Gray, applied to the living form.
+
+[193] For the anatomy of this group see A. H. Garrod, _Proc. Zool. Soc._
+1877, p. 2.
+
+[194] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 91 (1766).
+
+[195] For the anatomy of _Moschus_ see Flower, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1875,
+p. 159; and Garrod, _ibid._ 1877, p. 287.
+
+[196] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1878, p. 889.
+
+[197] De Blainville, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ 1816, p. 74.
+
+[198] Milne-Edwards, _Nouv. Arch. du Muséum_, vol. vii. Bull. p. 93
+(1872).
+
+[199] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 92 (1766).
+
+[200] Hamilton-Smith, in _Griffith’s Animal Kingdom_, vol. v. p. 304
+(1827).
+
+[201] Hamilton-Smith, in _Griffith’s Animal Kingdom_, vol. v. p. 303
+(1827).
+
+[202] Scott, _Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad._ 1885, p. 181.
+
+[203] Hamilton-Smith, in _Griffith’s Animal Kingdom_, vol. v. p. 313
+(1827).
+
+[204] Swinhoe, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1870, p. 90.
+
+[205] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1850, p. 237.
+
+[206] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1850, p. 242.
+
+[207] This accessory column is shown in the figure of the molar of
+_Boselaphus_ on p. 311.
+
+[208] Zimmermann, _Geograph. Geschichte_, vol. ii. p. 125 (1780).
+
+[209] Ord. _Journ. de Physique_, vol. lxxxvii. p. 149 (1818).
+
+[210] Blainville, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ 1816, p. 75.
+
+[211] Lichtenstein, _Berlin Ges. Natuforsch. Freunde Magazin_, vol. vi.
+pp. 152, 165 (1814).
+
+[212] F. E. Blaauw, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1889, p. 2.
+
+[213] Hamilton-Smith, in _Griffith’s Animal Kingdom_, vol. iv. p. 258
+(1827). Taken to include _Grimmia_, _Terphone_, etc., of Gray.
+
+[214] Leach, _Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. xiv. p. 524 (1823).
+
+[215] Hamilton-Smith, in _Griffith’s Animal Kingdom_, vol. iv. p. 269
+(1827).
+
+[216] _Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia_, p. 268.
+
+[217] Sundevall, _Kongl. Vetensk. Akad. Handl._ for 1844, p. 191. Taken
+to include _Calotragus_, _Scopophorus_, _Nesotragus_, _Pediotragus_, and
+_Oreotragus_ of Gray.
+
+[218] See V. Brooke, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1872, pp. 642 and 875.
+
+[219] Gray, _Cat. Ungulate Mamm. Brit. Mus._ p. 90 (1852).
+
+[220] Andrew Smith, _Illustrations of Zoology of South Africa_, No. 12
+(1840), “Kobus.” Is taken to include _Adenota_ and _Onotragus_ of Gray.
+
+[221] De Blainville, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ 1816, p. 75. Syn. _Eleotragus_.
+
+[222] Pallas, _Spicilegia Zoologica_, vol. i. p. 3 (1767).
+
+[223] Sundevall, _Kongl. Vetensk. Akad. Handl._ for 1845, p. 271.
+
+[224] Gray, _List Mamm. Brit. Mus._ p. 160 (1843).
+
+[225] Hodgson, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1834, p. 81.
+
+[226] De Blainville, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ 1816, p. 75. Is taken to
+include _Procapra_ and _Tragops_.
+
+[227] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1873, p. 537. Three species subsequently
+described are here added to the list.
+
+[228] Sundevall, _Kongl. Vetensk. Akad. Handl._ for 1844, p. 196.
+
+[229] De Blainville, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ 1816, p. 75.
+
+[230] Rafinesque, _Anal. Nat._ 1815, p. 56.
+
+[231] De Blainville, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ 1816, p. 75. Syn. _Portax_,
+Hamilton-Smith.
+
+[232] De Blainville, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ 1816, p. 75. Includes
+_Euryceros_, Gray.
+
+[233] Gray, _List. Mamm. Brit. Mus._ p. 155 (1843).
+
+[234] Desmarest, _Mammalogie_, p. 471 (1822).
+
+[235] De Blainville, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ 1816, p. 75.
+
+[236] Hamilton-Smith, in _Griffith’s Animal Kingdom_, vol. v. p. 352
+(1827).
+
+[237] Hamilton-Smith, in _Griffith’s Animal Kingdom_, vol. v. p. 354
+(1827). Amended from “Aplocerus.”
+
+[238] Hodgson, _Journ. As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. xix. p. 65 (1850).
+
+[239] See A. O. Hume, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1887, pp. 483-486.
+
+[240] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 94 (1766).
+
+[241] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1886, p. 314; and 1887, p. 552.
+
+[242] Specimens referred by Dinnik to _C. caucasica_ have been made the
+types of another species—_C. severtzovi_.
+
+[243] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 97 (1766).
+
+[244] There may be a beard on the throat, as in _O. cycloceros_.
+
+[245] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1884, p. 326.
+
+[246] De Blainville, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ 1816, p. 76.
+
+[247] _Zoologist_, September 1877.
+
+[248] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 98 (1766).
+
+[249] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1873, p. 474.
+
+[250] Sir V. Brooke states that this species is distinguished from _B.
+pumilus_ by the absence of a fringe to the ears, but specimens in the
+British Museum show that this is not the case.
+
+[251] _The Extirpation of the American Bison_, 1889.
+
+[252] The late Mr. Alston, _Fauna of Scotland_, “Mammalia” (Glasgow,
+1880), p. 25, considers that the Chillingham cattle are descendants of a
+race which had escaped from domestication.
+
+[253] Wanting in the aberrant _Chalicotherium_.
+
+[254] See W. N. Parker, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 775.
+
+[255] Cuvier, _Tableau Élément. de l’Hist. Nat._ p. 152 (1798); _ex_
+Brisson.
+
+[256] See J. Murie, _Journ. Anat. and Physiol._ vol. vi. p. 131, 1871;
+W. N. Parker. _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 768; and F. E. Beddard, _Proc.
+Zool. Soc._ 1889, p. 252.
+
+[257] The Swiss _P. siderolithicus_ has only one cusp in the last upper
+premolar.
+
+[258] Leidy, _Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad._ 1858, p. 26.
+
+[259] Christol, _Ann. Sci. Indust. Mid. France_, vol. i. p. 180 (1832).
+
+[260] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 100 (1766).
+
+[261] Darwin, _Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication_,
+1868, vol. i. chap. ii.
+
+[262] See _Nature_, 21st August 1884, and _Zool. Garten._ vol. xxviii. p.
+453.
+
+[263] See Sclater, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1884, p. 542.
+
+[264] See Blanford, _Zoology and Geology of Eastern Persia_ (_Journeys of
+the Persian Boundary Commission_), p. 84.
+
+[265] This must not be confounded with the navicular of the tarsus.
+
+[266] Want of space and of the necessary illustrations rendered it
+impossible to give an account of mammalian myology in the earlier
+chapters of this work.
+
+[267] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 104 (1766).
+
+[268] Many authors use Cuvier’s name, _R. indicus_, in preference to
+this, on the ground that there are more than one species with one
+horn, forgetting that the name substituted is equally inconvenient,
+as more than one species live in India. The fact of a specific name
+being applicable to several members of a genus is no objection to its
+restriction to the first to which it was applied; otherwise changes
+in old and well-received names would constantly have to be made in
+consequence of new discoveries.
+
+[269] _Trans. Zool. Soc._ vol. xii.; see also _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1889, p.
+9.
+
+[270] See Beddard and Treves, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1889, p. 9.
+
+[271] For the internal anatomy of _R. sumatrensis_ see Garrod, _Proc.
+Zool. Soc._ 1873, p. 92; and Beddard and Treves, _loc. cit._
+
+[272] Those external points of distinction from _R. simus_ are taken from
+a paper by Sclater in the _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1886, p. 143.
+
+[273] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1881, p. 726.
+
+[274] This name is the earliest, but is preoccupied.
+
+[275] Hermann, _Tab. Affinit. Anim._ p. 115 (1783). It has recently
+been proposed to substitute the earlier name _Procavia_ in lieu of
+_Hyrax_. The anatomy of Hyrax was first described by Pallas (_Spicilegia
+Zoologica_). Besides minor memoirs, two detailed accounts of its
+structure have appeared—one by Brandt, in _Mém. Acad. Nat. Scien. St.
+Pétersbourg_, 7ⁱᵉᵐᵉ sér. vol. xiv. No. 2, 1869; and another by George,
+in _Annales des Sciences Naturelles_, 6ⁱᵉᵐᵉ sér. tom. i. 1874, in which
+references to all the previous literature will be found. The mechanism
+by which the sole of the foot is enabled to adhere to smooth surfaces is
+fully described by G. E. Dobson, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1876, p. 526.
+
+[276] Gray, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ ser. 4. vol. i. p. 48 (1868).
+
+[277] See a paper by J. V. Barboza du Bocage, in the _Jorn. Sci. Phys.
+Nat. Lisboa_ (2), vol. i. p. 186 (1889), where a list of all the known
+species will be found.
+
+[278] These teeth are by some writers classed as canines, as their roots
+are implanted in the maxillæ; but, as in Rodents, they are originally
+developed in the gum covering the premaxillæ, in which bones their
+primitive alveoli are sunk. As growth proceeds, however, firm support
+for such massive and weighty bodies can only be obtained by their roots
+gradually sinking through the premaxillæ into the great and specially
+modified alveolar processes of the maxillæ, but this does not vitiate
+their homology with the incisors of other mammals.
+
+[279] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 48 (1766).
+
+[280] In the Gulf of Cambay,—not the island of the same name in the Red
+Sea.
+
+[281] The word Mammoth was introduced into the languages of Western
+Europe about two centuries ago from the Russian, and is thought by
+Pallas and Nordenskiöld to be of Tartar origin, but others, as Witzen,
+Strahlenburg, and Howorth, have endeavored to prove that it is a
+corruption of the Arabic word _Behemoth_, or great beast.
+
+[282] The best known of these is the etching upon a portion of tusk
+found in the cave of La Madelaine in the Dordogne, figured in Lartet and
+Christy’s _Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ_, and in many other works bearing on the
+subject of the antiquity of man.
+
+[283] Cuvier, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. viii. p. 270 (1806).
+
+[284] This, and the larger number of ridges in the latter, are the only
+absolute distinctions which Falconer could find between _Mastodon_ and
+_Elephas_ (_Palæont. Memoirs_, ii. p. 9), and it is clear that they are
+somewhat arbitrary. The line between the two genera is drawn at this
+point more as a matter of convenience for descriptive purposes than as
+indicating any great natural break in the sequence of modifications of
+the same type.
+
+[285] Also found beyond the extreme north-western frontier of India.
+
+[286] Kaup, _Isis_, vol. xxii. p. 401 (1829).
+
+[287] Leidy, _Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad._ 1872, p 169.
+
+[288] For detailed descriptions and figures of this group, see Marsh,
+“Monograph of the Dinocerata,” _Rep. U.S. Geol. Surv._ vol. x. (1884).
+
+[289] Owen, _Brit. Foss. Mamm. and Birds_, p. 299 (1846).
+
+[290] See G. E. Dobson, _Journ. Anat. Phys._ vol. xvii.
+
+[291] Waterhouse, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1842, p. 124.
+
+[292] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1882, p. 8.
+
+[293] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 86 (1766).
+
+[294] Gray, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ ser. 3, vol. xx. p. 272 (1867).
+
+[295] Hemprich and Ehrenberg, _Symbol. Phys. Mamm._ vol. i. (1832).
+
+[296] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm._ p. 83 (1811).
+
+[297] Some American zoologists have recently proposed to raise a large
+number of the forms usually regarded as local races to the rank of
+species.
+
+[298] Cuvier, _Leçons d’Anatomie Comp._ (1800).
+
+[299] Cuvier, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. x. p. 126 (1825).
+
+[300] O. Thomas, _Journ. As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. lvii. p. 256 (1888).
+
+[301] Schreber, _Säugethiere_, vol. iv. p. 721 (1792).
+
+[302] Rafinesque, _Amer. Monthly Mag._ vol. ii. p. 45 (1817).
+
+[303] F. Cuvier, _Mém. du Muséum_, vol. vi. p. 293 (1822).
+
+[304] Richardson, _Zool. Journ._ vol. iv. p. 334 (1829). Amended.
+
+[305] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 78 (1766).
+
+[306] For a monograph of the _Myoxidæ_, see C. L. Reuvens, _Die Myoxidæ_,
+etc., 4to, Leyden, 1890.
+
+[307] Schreber, _Säugethiere_, vol. iv. p. 824 (1792).
+
+[308] Wagner, _Abh. baier. Akad._ vol. iii. p. 179 (1843).
+
+[309] F. Cuvier, _Mammifères_, 60ᵐᵉ livr. (1845).
+
+[310] Jentink, _Notes Leyd. Mus._ vol. x. p. 41 (1888).
+
+[311] Kaup, _Entwickl. Europ. Thierwelt_, p. 139 (1829).
+
+[312] A. Milne-Edwards, _L’Institut_, vol. xxxv. p. 46 (1867).
+
+[313] _Sminthus_ is referred to the _Dipodidæ_.
+
+[314] Geoffrey, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. vi. p. 81 (1805).
+
+[315] For the anatomy of this animal see B. C. A. Windle, _Proc. Zool.
+Soc._ 1887, p. 53.
+
+[316] O. Thomas, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1889, p. 247.
+
+[317] Blyth, _Proc. As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. xxviii. p. 289 (1859).
+
+[318] Desmarest, _Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat._ vol. xxiv. p. 22 (1804).
+
+[319] Lataste, _Le Nat._ vol. i. p. 314 (1880).
+
+[320] Wagner, _Wiegmann’s Archiv_, 1841, p. 132.
+
+[321] F. Cuvier, _Dents des Mammifères_, p. 168 (1825).
+
+[322] Peters, _Monatsber. Ak. Berlin_, 1875, p. 12.
+
+[323] A. Milne-Edwards, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ sér. 6, vol. xi. p. 9 (1877).
+
+[324] _Nesocia_ was included by Alston in this subfamily.
+
+[325] Waterhouse, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1839, p. 108.
+
+[326] Andrew Smith, _S. African Quart. Journ._ vol. ii. p. 158 (1834).
+
+[327] Peters, _Reise n. Mossambique_, vol. i. p. 162 (1852).
+
+[328] Peters, _Monatsber. Ak. Berlin_, 1874, p. 234.
+
+[329] Cuvier, _Règne Animal_, vol. i. p. 198 (1817).
+
+[330] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1888, p. 133.
+
+[331] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1884, p. 451.
+
+[332] Brandt, _Mém. Acad. Imp. St. Pétersbourg_, sér. 3, iii. p. 428
+(1835).
+
+[333] Say and Ord, _Journ. Acad. Philad._ vol. iv. p. 352 (1825).
+
+[334] Waterhouse, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1837, p. 29.
+
+[335] Coues, _Proc. Acad. Philad._ 1874, p. 184.
+
+[336] Say and Ord, _Journ. Acad. Philad._ vol. iv. p. 346 (1825).
+
+[337] Grandidier, _Rev. and Mag. Zool._ 1869, p. 388.
+
+[338] Peters, _Sitzber. Ges. Nat. Freunde_, 1870, p. 54 (1871).
+
+[339] Günther, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1875, p. 79.
+
+[340] Jentink, _Notes Leyd. Mus._ vol. i. p. 107, note 27 (1879).
+
+[341] Milne-Edwards, _Ann. Sci. Nat._ sér. 6, vol. xx. art. 1, _bis_, p.
+1 (1886).
+
+[342] Merriam, _Fauna of North America_, No. 2, p. 28 (1889).
+
+[343] Lacépède, _Mém. de l’Institut_, vol. iii. p. 495 (1801). Many
+writers employ the earlier name _Microtus_ for the true Voles.
+
+[344] Baird, _Mamm. North America_, pp. xliv. 558 (1857).
+
+[345] Pallas, _Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat._ vol. i. p. 173 (1811).
+
+[346] Wagler, _Isis_, 1832, p. 1220.
+
+[347] Cuvier, _Leçons d’Anatomie Compar._ tab. 1 (1800).
+
+[348] True, _Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus._ vol. vii. p. 170 (1884).
+
+[349] Fischer, _Zoognosia_, vol. iii. p. 72 (1814).
+
+[350] Brants, _Het. Geslact der Muizen_, p. 20 (1827).
+
+[351] O. Thomas. _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1888, p. 130.
+
+[352] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 79 (1766).
+
+[353] Gray, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ vol. x. p. 264 (1842). Amended from
+_Nesokia_.
+
+[354] Gray, Charlesworth’s, _Mag. Nat. Hist._ vol. i. p. 586 (1837). Syn.
+_Pelomys_, Peters (1852).
+
+[355] Peters, _Monatsber. Ak. Berlin_, 1867, p. 343.
+
+[356] O. Thomas, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1888, p. 237.
+
+[357] Lichtenstein, _Darst. neu. Säugethiere_, pt. iv. pl. 29 (1829).
+
+[358] O. Thomas, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ ser. 5, vol. ix. p. 413 (1882).
+
+[359] Geoffroy, _Ann. Sci. Nat._ sér. 2, vol. x. p. 126 (1840). _Acomys._
+
+[360] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1867, p. 599. Amended from _Echimys_.
+
+[361] Milne-Edwards, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ sér. 6, vol. xi. p. 9 (1877).
+
+[362] Waterhouse, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1840, p. 2.
+
+[363] Peters, _Monatsber. Ak. Berlin_, 1846, p. 258.
+
+[364] Güldenstädt, _Nov. Comment. Petrop._ vol. xiv. art. i. p. 409
+(1770).
+
+[365] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1830, p. 95.
+
+[366] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm._ p. 86 (1811).
+
+[367] Illiger, _loc. cit._ p. 87.
+
+[368] O. Thomas, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1890, p. 448 = _Heliophobius_;
+Peters, _Monatsber. Ak. Berlin_, 1846, p. 243.—Preoccupied.
+
+[369] Rüppel, _Mus. Senkenb._ vol. i. Säugeth. p. 99 (1834).
+
+[370] Including the _Saccomyidæ_ of Coues.
+
+[371] Rafinesque, _Amer. Monthly Mag._ vol. ii. p. 45 (1817).
+
+[372] Wied, _Nova Acta Ac. Cæs. Leop.-Car._ vol. xix. pt. i. p. 383
+(1839).
+
+[373] Gray, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ vol. vii. p. 521 (1840).
+
+[374] Wied, _Nova Acta Ac. Cæs. Leop.-Car._ vol. xix. pt. i. p. 369
+(1839).
+
+[375] Desmarest, _Mammalogie_, p. 313 (1820).
+
+[376] Keyserling und Blasius, _Wirbelthiere Europ._ p. 38 (1840).
+
+[377] Coues, _Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv. Terrs._ ser. 2, No. 5, p. 253
+(1873). Syn. _Jaculus_, Wagler.
+
+[378] Gmelin, _Syst. Nat._, vol. i. p. 157 (1788).
+
+[379] F. Cuvier, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1836, p. 141.
+
+[380] Brandt, _Bull. Ac. St. Pétersbourg_, 1844, p. 209.
+
+[381] = _A. jaculus_, Auct.
+
+[382] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm._ p. 81 (1811).
+
+[383] Gray, _Spicilegia Zoologica_, p. 10 (1830).
+
+[384] Blyth, _Journ. As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. xxxiv. p. 294 (1855).
+
+[385] Bennett, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1832, p. 46.
+
+[386] Waterhouse, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1837, p. 30. Amended from _Abrocoma_.
+
+[387] Waterhouse, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1841, p. 91.
+
+[388] De Blainville, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ 1826, p. 62.
+
+[389] Wagler, _ibid._ p. 1219.
+
+[390] Andrew Smith, _S. African Quart. Journ._ vol. ii. p. 2 (1831).
+
+[391] Geoffroy, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. vi. p. 81 (1805).
+
+[392] Desmarest, _Mém. Soc. d’Hist. Nat._ vol. i. p. 44 (1822).
+
+[393] For description and anatomy of this species see Dobson, _Proc.
+Zool. Soc._ 1884, p. 233.
+
+[394] Temminck, _Monographies des Mammifères_, vol. i. p. 245 (1827).
+
+[395] Cuvier, _Ann. Sci. Nat._ sér. 2, vol. vi. p. 347 (1836). Amended.
+
+[396] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm._ p. 90 (1811).
+
+[397] Desmarest, _Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat._ vol. x. p. 45 (1817). Amended
+from _Echimys_.
+
+[398] Wagner, _Wiegmann’s Archiv_, 1845, pt. 2, p. 145.
+
+[399] Geoffroy, _Ann. Sci. Nat._ sér. 2, vol. x. p. 126 (1838).
+
+[400] F. Cuvier, _Mammifères_, 6ᵐᵉ livr. (1829).
+
+[401] Waterhouse, _Nat. Hist. of Mamm._ vol. ii. p. 351 (1848).
+
+[402] F. Cuvier, _Dents des Mammifères_, p. 256 (1825).
+
+[403] F. Cuvier, _Mém. du Muséum_, vol. ix. p. 413 (1822). “Sinéthère.”
+
+[404] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1843, p. 21.
+
+[405] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 76 (1766).
+
+[406] Cuvier, _Règne-Animal_, 2d ed. vol. i. p. 215 (1829). “Atherure.”
+
+[407] Günther, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1876, p. 739.
+
+[408] Bennett, _Gardens, etc. Zool. Soc._ pt. i. p. i. (1829).
+
+[409] Meyer, _Nova Acta Ac. Cæs. Leop.-Car._ vol. xvi. p. 576 (1833).
+
+[410] Brooks, _Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. xvi. p. 102 (1828).
+
+[411] Foster, _Second Rep. Geol. of Ohio_, p. 81 (1838).
+
+[412] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm._ p. 93 (1811).
+
+[413] F. Cuvier, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. x. p. 203 (1807).
+
+[414] Peters, _Monatsber. Ak. Berlin_, 1873, p. 551.
+
+[415] Pallas, _Misc. Zool._ p. 30 (1766); _ex_ Klein.
+
+[416] Desmarest, _Mammalogie_, p. 360 (1822).
+
+[417] Erxleben, _Syst. Règ. Animal_, p. 191 (1777); _ex_ Brisson.
+
+[418] Cuvier, _Tabl. Élément. de l’Hist. Nat._ p. 132 (1798).
+
+[419] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 77 (1766).
+
+[420] From the absence of the Common Hare in Scandinavia it is considered
+probable that the name _L. timidus_ was really applied to the Mountain
+Hare, and some writers accordingly use the name _L. europæus_ for the
+former.
+
+[421] _Variations of Animals and Plants_, 2d ed. vol. i. p. 119.
+
+[422] The Feræ of Linnæus included all the then known species of the
+modern orders Carnivora, Insectivora, and Marsupialia.
+
+[423] The tusks of the Walrus, altogether so aberrant in its dentition,
+are partial exceptions to this statement, but in old individuals the
+pulp-cavity fills up, and they cease to grow.
+
+[424] See Flower, “On the Value of the Characters of the Base of the
+Cranium in the Classification of the Order _Carnivora_,” _Proc. Zool.
+Soc._ 1869, p. 4; Mivart, “On the Classification and Distribution of
+the _Æluroidea_,” _ibid._ 1882, pp. 135 and 459; see also _The Cat, an
+Introduction to the Study of Backboned Animals, especially Mammals_, by
+the same author, 1881.
+
+[425] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 60 (1766).
+
+[426] _The Cat_, pp. 392-426 (1881).
+
+[427] _Fauna of British India_, “Mammalia,” pp. 56-90 (1888).
+
+[428] _Zoology and Geology of Eastern Persia_ (1876).
+
+[429] See Blanford, _Fauna of British India_, “Mammalia,” p. 57 (1883).
+
+[430] _Transactions of the Zoological Society_, vol. i. p. 165 (1835).
+
+[431] _A Hunter’s Wanderings in Africa_, 1881, p. 258.
+
+[432] Mr. Selous, whose opportunities for obtaining evidence upon this
+subject were very large, says that in the region of South Africa,
+between the Zambesi and the Limpopo rivers, he never saw a lion with
+any long hair under the body, and that the manes of the wild lions of
+that district are far inferior in development to those commonly seen in
+menageries in Europe.
+
+[433] _The Lion and the Elephant_, 1873, p. 19.
+
+[434] Hon. W. H. Drummond, _The Large Game and Natural History of South
+and South-East Africa_, 1875, p. 278.
+
+[435] _Fauna of British India_, “Mammalia,” p. 59 (1888).
+
+[436] See W. T. Blanford, _Fauna of British India_, “Mammalia,” p. 69
+(1888).
+
+[437] _Monographs of the Palæontographical Society_, 1872.
+
+[438] Syn. _F. macrocelis_.
+
+[439] Syn. _F. maniculata_ and _caligata_.
+
+[440] Wagler, _Syst. Amphib._ etc. p. 30 (1830).
+
+[441] Bennett, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ vol. i. p. 137 (1833).
+
+[442] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 63 (1766).
+
+[443] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1864, p. 518.
+
+[444] Cuvier, _Règne-Animal_, vol. i. p. 156 (1817).
+
+[445] Horsfield, _Zool. Research. Java_ (1824).—_Prionodontidæ._
+
+[446] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1864, p. 520.
+
+[447] F. Cuvier, _Hist. Nat. des Mammifères_, No. 186 (1821).
+
+[448] See W. T. Blanford, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1885, p. 780.
+
+[449] _Fauna of British India_, “Mammalia,” p. 108 (1888).
+
+[450] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1864, p. 542, _ex_ Petero.
+
+[451] Jourdan, _Comptes Rendus_, vol. v. p. 442 (1837). Amended.
+
+[452] Temminck, _Prospectus de Monographies des Mammifères_, March 1824;
+_Monographies_, vol. i. p. xxi. (1827).
+
+[453] Gray, _List of Mamm. Brit. Mus._ p. 54 (1843).
+
+[454] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1836, p. 88.
+
+[455] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm._ p. 135 (1811).
+
+[456] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1861, p. 308.
+
+[457] Peters, _Mith. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin_, 19th November 1850.
+
+[458] Ogilby, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1833, p. 48.
+
+[459] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1864, p. 573.
+
+[460] F. Cuvier, _Hist. Nat. des Mammifères_, No. 199 (1825).
+
+[461] Desmarest, “Tabl. Méth. Mamm.” in _Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat._ vol.
+xxiv. (1804).
+
+[462] Geoffroy, _Comptes Rendus_, 1837, p. 578.
+
+[463] Geoffroy, _Mag. de Zool._ 1839, pp. 27, 37.
+
+[464] Doyère, _Ann. Sci. Nat._ vol. iv. p. 281 (1835).
+
+[465] Jourdan, _Comptes Rendus_, 1837, p. 422. Amended.
+
+[466] Geoffroy, _Mém. du Muséum_, vol. xi. p. 354 (1824).
+
+[467] For Anatomy of _Proteles_ see Flower, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1869, p.
+474.
+
+[468] Zimmermann, _Specimen Zoologiæ Geographicæ_, p. 365 (1777).
+
+[469] _Fauna of British India_, “Mammalia,” p. 133 (1888).
+
+[470] The anatomical peculiarities of _Hyæna crocuta_ have been fully
+elucidated in a series of papers by Morrison Watson in the _Proceedings
+of the Zoological Society_ for 1877, 1878, 1879, and 1881, in which
+references to previous authors on the subject will be found.
+
+[471] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 56 (1766).
+
+[472] In Domestic Dogs a hallux is frequently developed, though often in
+a rudimentary condition, the phalanges and claw being suspended loosely
+in the skin, without direct connection with the other bones of the foot;
+it is called by dog-fanciers the “dew claw.”
+
+[473] _Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond._, 1880, p. 238. See also Mivart, _Dogs,
+Jackals, Wolves, and Foxes; a Monograph of the Canidæ_ (1890).
+
+[474] _Fauna of British India_, “Mammalia,” pp. 153, 154 (1888).
+
+[475] Brookes, _Griffith’s Animal Kingdom_, vol. v. p. 151 (1827).
+
+[476] Lund, _K. Danks. Vid. Selsk. Afhand._ vol. xi. p. 62 (1845).
+
+[477] Lichtenstein, _Wiegmann’s Archiv._ 1838, vol. i. p. 290.
+
+[478] _Arch. Mus. Lyon._ vol. iii. art. 1, p. 85 (1881).
+
+[479] _Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc._ vol. xviii. p. 452 (1880).
+
+[480] For full details of the Arctoidea see Mivart, _Proc. Zool. Soc._
+1885, p. 340.
+
+[481] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 69 (1766).
+
+[482] Meyer, _Uebersicht d. neu. Zool. Entdeckungen_, etc. p. 155 (1793).
+
+[483] A. Milne-Edwards, _Nouv. Arch. du Muséum_, vol. vii. _Bull._ p. 88
+(1871). Amended from “Ailuropus.”
+
+[484] F. Cuvier, _Hist. Nat. des Mammifères_ (1825). Amended from
+“Ailurus.” For anatomy, see Flower, _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1870, p. 752.
+
+[485] _Fauna of British India_, “Mammalia,” p. 189 (1888).
+
+[486] Storr, _Prodromus Meth. Mamm._ p. 35 (1780).
+
+[487] A corruption of the North American Indian “arrathkune” or
+“arathcone.” The French _raton_ or _raton laveur_, German _Waschbär_, and
+other European names are derived from a curious habit the Raccoon has of
+dipping or washing its food in water before eating it.
+
+[488] Lichtenstein, _Isis_, 1831, p. 512.
+
+[489] Allen, _Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad._ 1876, p. 20.
+
+[490] Storr, _Prodromus Meth. Mamm._ p. 35 (1780).
+
+[491] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium_, p. 127 (1811).
+
+[492] Also in two other species noticed below. One extinct Otter has two
+upper molars.
+
+[493] Erxleben, _Syst. Règn. Animal_, p. 445 (1777).
+
+[494] See Thomas, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1889, p. 190.
+
+[495] The synonymy of this species is not settled, and the adoption of
+the name given here only preliminary.
+
+[496] Gloger, _Nova Acta Ac. Cæs. Leop.-Car._ vol. xiii. pt. 2, p. 511
+(1827): Syn. _Enhydra_; Fleming, _Philosophy of Zoology_, vol. ii. p. 187
+(1822). Preoccupied by _Enhydris_, Merrem, _Tent. Syst. Amphib._ p. 140
+(1820).
+
+[497] Cuvier, “Tabl. de Classif.” in _Leçons d’Anat. Compar._ vol. i.
+(1800).
+
+[498] Gray, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ ser. 2, vol. i. p. 581 (1837).
+
+[499] F. Cuvier, _Hist. Nat. des Mammifères_ (1825).
+
+[500] Possibly the name should be Bálu-soor (Sand-pig).
+
+[501] F. Cuvier, _Hist. Nat. des Mammifères_ (1825).
+
+[502] Storr, _Prodromus Meth. Mamm._ p. 34 (1780).
+
+[503] Waterhouse, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1838, p. 154.
+
+[504] Storr, _Prodromus Meth. Mamm._ p. 34 (1780).
+
+[505] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1831, p. 94.
+
+[506] Garrod, _ibid._ 1879, pl. xxix.
+
+[507] Kaup, _Thierreich_, vol. i. p. 352 (1835).
+
+[508] Bell, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1837, p. 45.
+
+[509] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 66 (1766).
+
+[510] By all old authors of authority, as Ray, Pennant, Shaw, and
+Fleming, the word is written “Martin,” but this form of spelling is
+now generally reserved by way of distinction for the bird. The term
+“Marten-Cat,” often used, is a misnomer.
+
+[511] See Rolleston, “On the Domestic Cats, _Felis domesticus_ and
+_Mustela foina_, of Ancient and Modern Times,” _Journal of Anatomy and
+Physiology_, vol. ii. p. 47, 1868.
+
+[512] O. Thomas, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ ser. 5, vol. xi. p. 370 (1883).
+
+[513] Gervais, _Dict. Univ. d’Hist. Nat._ t. iv. p. 685 (1849).
+
+[514] Storr, _Prodromus Meth. Mamm._ p. 34 (1780).
+
+[515] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1885, p. 497.
+
+[516] Péron, _Voyage aux Terres Australes_, vol. ii. p. 37 note (1816).
+
+[517] “On the structure of Hooker’s Sea-Lion (_Arctocephalus hookeri_),”
+_Trans. Zool. Soc._ vol. xii. p. 369 (1890).
+
+[518] Linn, _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 49 (1766).
+
+[519] The former word is a modification of the Scandinavian _vallross_ or
+_hvalros_ (“whale-horse”), the latter an adaptation of the Russian name
+for the animal.
+
+[520] Nilsson, _Faun. Scandinav._ vol. i. p. 377 (1820).
+
+[521] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 55 (1766).
+
+[522] Fleming, _Philosophy of Zoology_, vol. ii. p. 187 (1822).
+
+[523] For details of these and the other genera see Mivart, _Proc. Zool.
+Soc._ 1885, p. 486, _et seq._
+
+[524] Peters, _Monatsb. K. P. Akad. Wissensch. zu Berlin_, p. 393 (1875),
+substituted for _Stenorhynchus_, F. Cuvier; preoccupied for a genus of
+Crustacea.
+
+[525] Gray, _Zoology of Erebus and Terror_, vol. i. p. 5 (1844).
+
+[526] New name, _Syn. Leptonyx_, Gray, _Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist._
+vol. i. p. 582 (1837); preoccupied by Swainson, 1821.
+
+[527] Gray, _Zoology of Erebus and Terror_, vol. i. p. 7 (1844).
+
+[528] Nilsson, _Faun. Scandinav._ vol. i. p. 382 (1820).
+
+[529] F. Cuvier, _Mém. du Muséum_, vol. xi. p. 200 (1824), “Macrorhine.”
+
+[530] Pallas, _Acta Acad. Sci. Imp. Petropolis_, vol. iv. pt. 1, p. 208
+(1780).
+
+[531] _Ueber die Säugethiergattung Galeopithecus._ _Sv. Ak. Handl._ vol.
+xxi. pt. xi. (1886).
+
+[532] Raffles, _Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. xiii. p. 256 (1822).
+
+[533] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1848, p. 23.
+
+[534] Andrew Smith, _S. African Quart. Journ._ vol. ii. No. 1, p. 64
+(1833).
+
+[535] The above correct formula of the dentition of this family has been
+recently worked out by O. Thomas, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1890, pp. 445, 446.
+
+[536] Peters, _Bericht k. preuss. Ak. Wiss._ 1847, p. 36.
+
+[537] Horsfield and Vigors, _Zool. Journ._ vol. iii. p. 246 (1828).
+
+[538] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 75 (1766).
+
+[539] Originally given incorrectly as _Neurogymnurus_.
+
+[540] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1890, p. 49.
+
+[541] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 73 (1766).
+
+[542] Syn. _S. minutus_.
+
+[543] Blyth, _Journ. As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. xxiv. p. 36 (1855).
+
+[544] Coues, _Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv. Terrs._ vol. iii. p. 646 (1877).
+
+[545] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1837, p. 124.
+
+[546] Wagler, _Isis_, 1832, p. 275.
+
+[547] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1837, p. 124.
+
+[548] Wagler, _Isis_, 1832, p. 275.
+
+[549] Brandt, in _Lehmann’s Reise.-Zool. Anh._ p. 299 (1852).
+
+[550] Milne-Edwards, _Comptes Rendus_, vol lxx. p. 341 (1870).
+
+[551] Anderson, _Journ. As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. xlvi. p. 262 (1877).
+
+[552] Milne-Edwards, _Comptes Rendus_, vol. lxx. p. 341 (1870).
+
+[553] Cuvier, “Tabl. de Classif.” in _Leçons d’Anat. Compar._ vol. i.
+(1800).
+
+[554] Temminck, _Fauna Japonica_, vol. i. p. 22 (1842).
+
+[555] Milne-Edwards, _Arch. du Muséum_, vol. vii. Bull. p. 92 (1872).
+
+[556] Cuvier, “Tabl. de Classif.” in _Leçon d’Anat. Comp._ vol. i. (1800).
+
+[557] Pomel, _Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat._ vol. ix. p. 247 (1848).
+
+[558] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium_. p. 125 (1811).
+
+[559] Milne-Edwards, _N. Arch. du Muséum_, vol. vii. Bull. p. 92 (1872).
+
+[560] Linn, _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. p. 73 (1766).
+
+[561] The following account is taken almost entirely from Dr. Dobson.
+
+[562] Du Chaillu, _Proc. Boston Soc. Hist. Nat._ vol. vii. p. 363 (1860).
+
+[563] Milne-Edwards, _Ann. Sci. Nat._ vol. xv. p. 5 (1872).
+
+[564] Brandt, _Mém. Ac. Imp. St. Pétersbourg_, 1833, vol. ii. p. 459.
+
+[565] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium_, p. 124 (1811).
+
+[566] Mivart, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1871, p. 72.
+
+[567] I. Geoffroy, _Ann. Sci. Nat._ sér. 2, vol. viii. p. 60 (1837).
+
+[568] Thomas, _Journ. Linn. Soc.—Zool._ vol. xvi. p. 319 (1882).
+
+[569] Grandidier, _Rev. and Mag. Zool._ 1870, p. 50.
+
+[570] Lacépède, _Mém. de l’Institut_, vol. iii. p. 493 (1801—read 1799).
+
+[571] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1888, p. 473.
+
+[572] Bennett, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ vol. ii. p. 38 (1835).
+
+[573] Geoffroy, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. xv. p. 90 (1810).—_Ex._ Brisson.
+
+[574] Gray, _List. Spec. Mamm. Brit. Mus._ pp. 37, 38 (1843): Syn.
+_Cynonycteris_.
+
+[575] Jentink, _Notes Leyd. Mus._ vol. i. p. 117 (1879).—Amended.
+
+[576] F. Cuvier, _Dents des Mammifères_, p. 39 (1825).
+
+[577] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium_, p. 118 (1811).
+
+[578] Geoffroy, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. xvi. p. 99 (1810).
+
+[579] O. Thomas, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ ser. 6, vol. i. p. 155 (1888).
+
+[580] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1859, p. 36.
+
+[581] Dobson, _Journ. As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. xlii. p. 204 (1873).
+
+[582] New name: Syn. _Macroglossus_, F. Cuvier, _Dents des Mammifères_,
+p. 40 (1825). Preoccupied by _Macroglossum_, Scopoli, 1777.
+
+[583] Dobson, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1877, p. 119.
+
+[584] O. Thomas, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ ser. 5, vol. xix. p. 417 (1887).
+
+[585] Jentink, _Notes Leyd. Mus._ vol. xi. p. 209 (1889).
+
+[586] New name: Syn. _Megaloglossus_; Pagenstecher, _J. B. Mus. Hamburg_,
+vol. ii. p. 125 (1885). Preoccupied by _Megaglossa_, Rond., 1865.
+
+[587] Geoffroy, _Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat._ vol. xix. p. 383 (1803).
+
+[588] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1834, p. 53. The Bats of this genus are
+usually described as _Phyllorhina_, but this use has been shown to be
+incorrect; see Blanford, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1887, p. 637.
+
+[589] O. Thomas, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ ser. 6, vol. i. p. 156 (1888).
+
+[590] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1847, p. 16.
+
+[591] Dobson, _Journ. As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. xl. p. 455 (1871).
+
+[592] Blyth, _Journ. As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. xvii. p. 251 (1848).
+
+[593] Geoffroy, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. xv. p. 197 (1810).
+
+[594] Geoffroy, _Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat._ vol. xv. p. 501 (1803).
+
+[595] Geoffroy, _Descript. de l’Egypte_, vol. ii. p. 112 (1812).
+
+[596] Keyserling and Blasius, _Wirbelthiere Europ._ p. 55 (1840).
+
+[597] Peters, _Monatsber. Ak. Berlin_, 1859, p. 222.
+
+[598] Leach, _Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. xiii. p. 78 (1822).
+
+[599] Allen, _Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad._ 1862, p. 247.
+
+[600] Keyserling and Blasius, _Wiegmann’s Archiv_, 1839, p. 312.
+
+[601] Peters, _Monatsber. Ak. Berlin_, 1866, p. 672.
+
+[602] Leach, _Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. xiii. p. 71 (1822).
+
+[603] See O. Thomas, _Ann. Mus. Genova_ (2), vol. ix. pp. 84-88 (1890).
+
+[604] Rafinesque, _Journ. de Physique_, vol. lxxxviii. p. 417 (1819).
+
+[605] Rafinesque, _Précis des Decouvértes et Trav. Somiol._ p. 12 (1814).
+
+[606] Gray, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ vol. x. p. 259 (1842).
+
+[607] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 46 (1766).
+
+[608] Gray, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ vol. x. p. 258 (1842), _Kerivoula_.
+
+[609] Gray, _Mag. Zool. Bot._ vol. ii. p. 496 (1838).
+
+[610] Bonaparte, _Fauna Italica_, fasc. xxi. (1837).
+
+[611] Spix, _Sim. and Vesp. Bresil_, p. 61 (1823).
+
+[612] A. Milne-Edwards, _Bull. Soc. Philom._ sér. 7, vol. ii. p. 1 (1878).
+
+[613] Bonaparte, _Faun. Ital._ vol. i. (1832-41): Syn. _Furia_, F.
+Cuvier, _Mém. du Muséum_, vol. xvi. p. 150 (1828). Preoccupied by Linn.
+1766.
+
+[614] Peters, _Monatsber. Ak. Berlin_, 1877, p. 185.
+
+[615] Temminck (Van der Hoeven), _Tijdsch. Nat. Ges._ 1839, p. 22.
+
+[616] Peters, _Monatsber. Ak. Berlin_, 1867, p. 479.
+
+[617] Peters, _loc. cit._ p. 477.
+
+[618] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium_, p. 121 (1811).
+
+[619] Geoffroy, _Descript. de l’Egypte_, vol. ii. p. 126 (1812).
+
+[620] Wied, _Isis_, 1819, p. 1629.
+
+[621] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 88 (1766).
+
+[622] Geoffroy, _Descript. de l’Egypte_, vol. ii. p. 123 (1812).
+
+[623] Horsfield, _Zool. Research Java_ (1824).
+
+[624] Geoffroy, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. vi. p. 154 (1805).
+
+[625] Geoffroy, _Descript. de l’Egypte_, vol. ii. p. 114 (1812).
+
+[626] New name: Syn. _Mystacina_; Gray, _Voyage of the “Sulphur,”_
+“Mamm.” p. 23 (1843). Preoccupied by _Mystacina_, Boie, 1822.
+
+[627] Gray, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist._ vol. iv. p. 4 (1839).
+
+[628] Leach, _Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. xiii. p. 76 (1820-22).—Amended.
+
+[629] Tomes, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1863, p. 81.
+
+[630] New name: Syn. _Macrotus_; Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1843, p. 21.
+Preoccupied by _Macrotis_, Dej. 1833.
+
+[631] New name: Syn. _Macrophyllum_; Gray, _Mag. Zool. Bot._ vol. ii. p.
+489 (1838). Preoccupied by _Macrophylla_, Hope, 1837.
+
+[632] Leach, _Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. xiii. pp. 74, 75 (1822). For the
+references to the other genera see Dobson, _Cat. Chiropt. Brit. Mus._
+
+[633] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1866, p. 113. Syn. _Schizostoma_; Gervais,
+1855. Preoccupied by Broun, 1835.
+
+[634] New name: Syn. _Tylostoma_; Gervais, 1855. Preoccupied by Sharpe,
+1849.
+
+[635] Gervais, Castlenau’s _Exped.-Zool._ p. 43 (1855): Syn. _Carollia_,
+Gray, 1838. Preoccupied by _Carolia_, Cantraine, 1837.
+
+[636] The references to the genera of this and the following division
+will be found in Dobson’s _Catalogue_.
+
+[637] New name: Syn. _Ischnoglossa_, Saussure, 1860. Preoccupied by
+Kraatz, 1856.
+
+[638] Wied, _Beitr. Natgesch. Brasil_, vol. ii. p. 231 (1826).
+
+[639] Spix, _Sim. et Vesp. Brasil_, p. 68 (1823).
+
+[640] For the arguments in favour of placing the Lemurs in a separate
+order see Milne-Edwards, “Observations sur quelques points de
+l’embryologie des Lemuriens et sur les affinités zoologiques de ces
+animaux,” in the _Ann. des Sciences Nat._ October 1871; and P. Gervais,
+“Encephale des Lemures,” in _Journ. de Zoologie_, tom. i. p. 7. For those
+for retaining them among the Primates, see Mivart, “On _Lepilemur_ and
+_Chirogaleus_, and on the Zoological Rank of the Lemuroidea,” in _Proc.
+Zool. Soc._ 1873, p. 484.
+
+[641] Geoffroy, _Mag. Encyclop._ 2d ann. vol. i. p. 46 (1796), “Indri.”
+
+[642] Bennett, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1832, p. 20.
+
+[643] Jourdan, _Mém. de l’Institut_, vol. ii. p. 231 (1834).
+
+[644] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 44 (1766).
+
+[645] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1879, p. 132.
+
+[646] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1870, p. 829.
+
+[647] I. Geoffroy, _Cat. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris_, p. 75 (1851). Amended
+from _Lepilemur_.
+
+[648] _Monatsb. Ak. Berlin_, 1874, p. 690.
+
+[649] Geoffroy, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. xix. p. 171 (1812).
+
+[650] Geoffroy, _Mag. Encyclop._ 2d ann. vol. i. p. 49 (1796).
+
+[651] Geoffroy, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. xix. pp. 162, 163 (1812).
+
+[652] For the anatomy of this genus, see J. L. C. Shroeder van der Kolk
+and W. Vrolik, “Recherches d’Anatomie comparée sur le genre _Stenops_
+d’Illiger,” in _Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde_, Part 1, Amsterdam, 1848-54.
+
+[653] Geoffroy, _Mag. Encyclop._ 2d ann. vol. i. p. 48 (1796).
+
+[654] _Mammalia of British India_, p. 48 (1888).
+
+[655] Bennett, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1839, p. 109.
+
+[656] For the anatomy of _P. potto_, see Van der Hoeven and Van Campen
+(_Ontleedkundige Onderzoek van den Potto van Bosman_, 1859) for _P.
+calabarensis_, Huxley, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1864, p. 314.
+
+[657] Storr, _Prodromus Meth. Mamm._ (1780).
+
+[658] H. Burmeister, _Beiträge zur nähreren Kenntniss der gattung
+Tarsius_, 1846.
+
+[659] Cuvier, “Table de Class.” in _Leçons d’Anat. Comp._ vol. i. (1800).
+
+[660] It was first named _Daubentonia_ by Geoffroy; but this name
+was withdrawn by its author in favour of _Chiromys_, as it had been
+previously given to a genus in the vegetable kingdom. This would not,
+however, constitute preoccupation according to the modern rules of
+nomenclature.
+
+[661] R. Owen, “On the Aye-aye,” in _Trans. Zool. Soc._ 1862, vol. v.
+p. 33; W. Peters, “Ueber die Säugethiergattung _Chiromys_,” in _Abhand.
+Königl. Akad. der Wissenschaften_, Berlin, 1865, p. 79.
+
+[662] One specimen has been seen with only three lower premolars.
+
+[663] Article Ape, _Encyclopædia Britannica_, ninth edition.
+
+[664] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium_, p. 71 (1811).
+
+[665] Geoffroy, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. xix. p. 120 (1812).
+
+[666] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium_, p. 70 (1811).
+
+[667] Geoffroy, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. xix. p. 115 (1812).
+
+[668] Gray, _Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1849, p. 9. Amended from _Ouakaria_: Syn.
+_Brachyurus_; Spix, _Sim. et Vesp. Brasil_, p. 11 (1823). Preoccupied by
+Fischer, 1814.
+
+[669] Geoffroy, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. xix. p. 112 (1812).
+
+[670] Kaup, _Thierreich_, vol i. p. 51 (1835).
+
+[671] Spix, _Sim. et Vesp. Brasil_, p. 25 (1823).
+
+[672] Geoffroy, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. vii. p. 260 (1806).
+
+[673] I. Geoffroy, _Dict. Class._ vol. xv. p. 443 (1829).
+
+[674] Geoffrey, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. xix. p. 106 (1812).
+
+[675] Erxleben, _Syst. Règne Animal_, p. 44 (1777).
+
+[676] Lacépède, “Nouv. tabl. méth.” (1799) in _Mém. de l’Institut_, vol.
+iii. p. 490 1801.
+
+[677] “‘Mandrill’ seems to signify a ‘man-like Ape,’ the word ‘Drill’
+or ‘Dril’ having been anciently employed in England to denote an Ape or
+Baboon. Thus in the fifth edition of Blount’s ‘_Glossographia_, or a
+dictionary interpreting the hard words of whatsoever language now used
+in our refined English tongue ... very useful for all such as desire
+to understand what they read,’ published in 1681, I find ‘Dril, a
+stonecutter’s tool wherewith he bores little holes in marble, etc. Also a
+large overgrown Ape and Baboon, so called.’ ‘Drill’ is used in the same
+sense in Charlton’s _Onomasticon Zoicon_, 1668. The singular etymology of
+the word given by Buffon seems hardly a probable one.”—Huxley’s _Man’s
+Place in Nature_, p. 10, 1863.
+
+[678] I. Geoffroy, _Arch. du Muséum_, vol. ii. p. 576 (1841).
+
+[679] I. Geoffroy, _Voyage de Belanger_, p. 66 (1834).
+
+[680] Lacépède, _Mém. de l’Institut_, vol. iii. p. 450 (1801). Amended.
+
+[681] Geoffroy, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. xix. p. 97 (1812).
+
+[682] Erxleben, _Syst. Règne. Animal_, p. 22 (1777).
+
+[683] Or _Colobinæ_.
+
+[684] Geoffroy, _Ann. du Muséum_, vol. xix. p. 90 (1812).
+
+[685] F. Cuvier, _Hist. Nat. des Mammifères_ (1821), “Semno-pithèque.”
+
+[686] Separated generically by some writers as _Rhinopithecus_.
+
+[687] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium_, p. 69 (1811).
+
+[688] Wagner, _Gelehrte Anzeigen_, vol. viii. No. 38, p. 310 (1839).
+
+[689] Depéret, _Comptes Rendus_, vol. cix. p. 982 (1889); see also _Mém.
+Soc. Géol. France_, “Palæontologie,” vol. i. (1890).
+
+[690] Gervais, _Comptes Rendus_, vol. lxxiv. p. 1217 (1872).
+
+[691] Scimmie Fossili Italiane, _Boll. Comm. Geol._ 1890.
+
+[692] Illiger, _Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium_, p. 67 (1811).
+
+[693] Linn. _Syst. Nat._ 12th ed. vol. i. p. 34 (1766).
+
+[694] A Malay word, signifying “Man of the Woods.”
+
+[695] One skeleton in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons has
+five lumbar vertebræ, and has thus given rise to the statement that the
+number of vertebræ in the Orang is the same as in Man.
+
+[696] I. Geoffroy, _Comptes Rendus_, vol. xxxiv. p. 84 (1852).
+
+[697] De Blainville, _Leçons Orales_ (1839). The Chimpanzees have been
+very generally described under the name of _Troglodytes_, but since this
+name is preoccupied for a genus of birds, it is incumbent to follow the
+strict rule, and adopt the name _Anthropopithecus_, although both the
+present writers have elsewhere expressed the opposite opinion.
+
+[698] Lartet, _Comptes Rendus_, vol. xliii. p. 219 (1856).
+
+[699] _Mém. Soc. Géol. France_, “Palæontologie,” vol. i. Mém. No. 1
+(1890).
+
+[700] _Man’s Place in Nature_, 1863, and _Anatomy of Vertebrated
+Animals_, 1871. See also the more recent investigations of Broca into the
+comparative structure of Man and the higher Apes, published mostly in the
+_Revue d’Anthropologie_.
+
+[701] “On the Classification of the Varieties of the Human Species,” by
+W. H. Flower, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain
+and Ireland_, May 1885.
+
+[702] The Malay of Blumenbach was a strange conglomeration of the then
+little known Australian, Papuan, and true Malay types.
+
+[703] No one can have seen a group of Botocudos from Brazil or of
+natives of Tierra del Fuego without being struck by their markedly
+Mongolian external characteristics.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Aard-Wolf, 540
+
+  Aard-Vark, 211
+
+  Absorbent system, 63
+
+  _Acanthoglossus_, 125
+
+  _Acanthomys_, 476
+
+  _Aceratherium_, 411
+
+  _Achænodon_, 292
+
+  _Achyrodon_, 114
+
+  _Acrobates_, 155
+
+  _Acrotherium_, 440
+
+  _Adapis_, 697
+
+  _Adapisorex_, 634
+
+  _Adapisoricidæ_, 634
+
+  _Adapisoriculus_, 634
+
+  _Addax_, 345
+
+  _Adenota_, 339
+
+  _Adinotherium_, 440
+
+  _Ælurictis_, 524
+
+  _Ælurodon_, 562
+
+  _Æluroidea_, 501
+
+  _Æluropus_, 560
+
+  _Ælurus_, 562
+
+  _Æpyceros_, 341
+
+  _Æpyprymnus_, 164
+
+  _Agabelus_, 260
+
+  Agouti, 488
+
+  _Agriochœrus_, 293
+
+  Ai, 182
+
+  Air-sacs, 68
+
+  _Alactaga_, 480
+
+  Albinism, 10
+
+  _Alcelaphus_, 334
+
+  _Alces_, 326
+
+  Allantois, 77
+
+  _Allodon_, 111
+
+  _Allops_, 413
+
+  Allotheria, 109
+
+  Alpaca, 303
+
+  _Amblotherium_, 114
+
+  Amblypoda, 436
+
+  _Amorphochilus_, 666
+
+  _Amphictis_, 539
+
+  _Amphicyon_, 555
+
+  _Amphidozotherium_, 634
+
+  _Amphilestes_, 114
+
+  _Amphiperatherium_, 135
+
+  _Amphisorex_, 628
+
+  _Amphitherium_, 114
+
+  _Amphitragulus_, 330
+
+  _Amynodon_, 412
+
+  _Anaptomorphus_, 697
+
+  _Anchilophus_, 376
+
+  _Anchippodus_, 441
+
+  _Anchitherium_, 376
+
+  Ancylopoda, 413
+
+  _Ancylotherium_, 413
+
+  _Anoa_, 361
+
+  _Anomaluridæ_, 449
+
+  _Anomalurus_, 449
+
+  _Anoplotheriidæ_, 293
+
+  _Anoplotherium_, 294
+
+  Anteater, 191
+    Scaly, 205
+
+  Antebrachium, 47
+
+  _Antechinomys_, 139
+
+  Antelopes, 334
+
+  _Anthops_, 657
+
+  _Anthorhina_, 674
+
+  _Anthracotheriidæ_, 292
+
+  Anthropoidea, 699
+
+  _Anthropopithecus_, 736
+
+  _Antilocapra_, 333
+
+  _Antilocapridæ_, 333
+
+  _Antilope_, 340
+
+  Antlers, 308
+
+  _Antrozous_, 661
+
+  _Anurosorex_, 626
+
+  Aoudad, 356
+
+  Apar, 199
+
+  Ape, 699
+
+  _Aphelops_, 411
+
+  _Aphelotherium_, 697
+
+  _Archælurus_, 524
+
+  Archæoceti, 246
+
+  _Archæomys_, 484
+
+  _Archizonurus_, 157
+
+  _Arctictis_, 534
+
+  _Arctocebus_, 693
+
+  _Arctocephalus_, 595
+
+  _Arctocyon_, 609
+
+  _Arctocyonidæ_, 609
+
+  _Arctogale_, 533
+
+  Arctoidea, 556
+
+  Arctomyinæ, 454
+
+  _Arctomys_, 454
+
+  _Arctonyx_, 574
+
+  _Arctotherium_, 561
+
+  Argali, 355
+
+  Armadillo, 195
+
+  _Artibeus_, 676
+
+  Artiodactyla, 275
+
+  _Arvicola_, 466
+
+  Arvicolinæ, 465
+
+  Ass, 383
+
+  _Atalapha_, 663
+
+  _Ateles_, 715
+
+  _Atherura_, 487
+
+  _Auchenia_, 298
+
+  _Aulacodus_, 483
+
+  _Aulaxinuus_, 723
+
+  Aurochs, 367
+
+  Australasian region, 102
+
+  _Avahis_, 686
+
+  Axis, 320
+
+  Aye-aye, 695
+
+
+  _Babirusa_, 287
+
+  Baboon, 719
+
+  _Bachitherium_, 307
+
+  Badger, 575
+    American, 576
+    Sand, 575
+
+  _Balæna_, 236
+
+  _Balænidæ_, 234
+
+  _Balænodon_, 251
+
+  Balænoidea, 234
+
+  _Balænoptera_, 242
+
+  _Balænotus_, 240
+
+  Bandicoot, 141
+
+  Banteng, 365
+
+  _Bassaricyon_, 566
+
+  _Bassaris_, 566
+
+  Bats, 641
+
+  _Bathyergus_, 478
+
+  _Bdeogale_, 537
+
+  Bear, 558
+
+  Beaver, 458
+
+  Beisa, 343
+
+  Beluga, 262
+
+  _Berardius_, 256
+
+  _Bettongia_, 163
+
+  Bharal, 356
+
+  _Bibos_, 360
+
+  Bighorn, 355
+
+  Binturong, 534
+
+  Bison, 362
+
+  Black-Fish, 269
+
+  Bladder, 69
+
+  _Blarina_, 624
+
+  _Blastomeryx_, 330
+
+  Blaubok, 343
+
+  Blessbok, 335
+
+  Blood, 63
+
+  _Bolodon_, 111
+
+  _Boncia_, 653
+
+  Bontebok, 334
+
+  Bosch-Vark, 286
+
+  _Boselaphus_, 345
+
+  _Bothriolabis_, 291
+
+  Bottlenose, 253, 270
+
+  _Bovidæ_, 334
+
+  Brachium, 47
+
+  _Brachyphylla_, 675
+
+  _Brachytarsomys_, 465
+
+  _Brachyurus_, 712
+
+  _Bradypodidæ_, 179
+
+  _Bradypus_, 181
+
+  Brain, 69
+
+  _Bramatherium_, 333
+
+  Brocket, 330
+
+  _Brontotherium_, 413
+
+  Bruta, 176
+
+  _Bubalus_, 361
+
+  _Budorcas_, 351
+
+  Buffalo, 361
+
+  Bush-dog, 553
+
+
+  Cachalot, 249
+
+  _Cadurcotherium_, 412
+
+  Cæcum, 59
+
+  _Cælogenys_, 489
+
+  _Cænopithecus_, 696
+
+  _Cænotheriidæ_, 294
+
+  _Cænotherium_, 294
+
+  _Callinycteris_, 655
+
+  _Callithrix_, 713
+
+  _Callophoca_, 606
+
+  _Calomys_, 463
+
+  _Caloprymnus_, 164
+
+  _Calotragus_, 339
+
+  Camel, 296
+
+  _Camelidæ_, 295
+
+  _Camelus_, 296
+
+  _Canidæ_, 544
+
+  _Canis_, 546
+
+  _Capra_, 352
+
+  _Capreolus_, 327
+
+  _Capromys_, 482
+
+  Capybara, 491
+
+  Caracal, 518
+
+  _Cardiatherium_, 491
+
+  _Cardiomys_, 491
+
+  _Cariacus_, 329
+
+  Caribou, 324
+
+  Carnivora, 496
+
+  _Carollia_, 674
+
+  _Carponycteris_, 654
+
+  Carpus, 48
+
+  _Carterodon_, 484
+
+  _Castor_, 457
+
+  _Castoridæ_, 457
+
+  _Castoroididæ_, 488
+
+  _Castoroides_, 488
+
+  Cat, 517
+
+  _Cavia_, 489
+
+  _Caviidæ_, 489
+
+  Cavy, 490
+
+  _Cayluxotherium_, 621
+
+  _Cebidæ_, 711
+
+  _Cebochœrus_, 292
+
+  _Cebus_, 717
+
+  Cement, 15
+
+  _Centetes_, 637
+
+  _Centetidæ_, 637
+
+  _Centurio_, 676
+
+  _Cephalogale_, 562
+
+  _Cephalophus_, 338
+
+  _Cephalorhynchus_, 266
+
+  _Cephalotes_, 653
+
+  _Cercocebus_, 723
+
+  _Cercoleptes_, 567
+
+  _Cercomys_, 483
+
+  _Cercopithecidæ_, 718
+
+  _Cercopithecus_, 724
+
+  _Cerivoula_, 664
+
+  _Cervalces_, 327
+
+  _Cervicapra_, 340
+
+  _Cervidæ_, 313
+
+  _Cervinæ_, 316
+
+  _Cervulus_, 316
+
+  _Cervus_, 319
+
+  _Cetacea_, 225
+
+  _Cetotherium_, 245
+
+  _Chænohyus_, 291
+
+  _Chætomys_, 486
+
+  _Chalcochloris_, 639
+
+  _Chalicomys_, 458
+
+  _Chalicotheriidæ_, 413
+
+  _Chalicotherium_, 413
+
+  _Chalinolobus_, 662
+
+  Chamois, 349
+
+  _Champsodelphis_, 259
+
+  Cheeta, 523
+
+  Chevrotain, 305
+    Water, 306
+
+  _Chilonycteris_, 672
+
+  _Chimarrogale_, 626
+
+  Chimpanzee, 736
+
+  _Chinchilla_, 487
+
+  _Chinchillidæ_, 487
+
+  _Chirogaleus_, 689
+
+  _Chiromeles_, 669
+
+  _Chiromyidæ_, 694
+
+  _Chiromys_, 695
+
+  _Chironectes_, 134
+
+  Chiroptera, 641
+
+  Chiru, 341
+
+  _Chiruromys_, 476
+
+  _Chlamydophorinæ_, 196
+
+  _Chlamydophorus_, 196
+
+  _Chlamydotherium_, 201
+
+  _Chœronycteris_, 674
+
+  _Chœropotamidæ_, 292
+
+  _Chœropotamus_, 292
+
+  _Chœropsis_, 280
+
+  _Chœropus_, 143
+
+  _Cholœpus_, 182
+
+  Chorion, 77
+
+  _Chrysochloridæ_, 638
+
+  _Chrysochloris_, 639
+
+  _Chrysothrix_, 714
+
+  _Cimoliomys_, 113
+
+  Circulation, 63
+
+  Civet, 526
+    Palm, 532
+
+  Classification, 84, 88
+
+  _Claviglis_, 460
+
+  Claws, 12
+
+  Coati, 566
+
+  _Cobus_, 339
+
+  _Cœlodon_, 184
+
+  _Cœlops_, 658
+
+  _Cogia_, 250
+
+  _Coleüra_, 667
+
+  _Colobus_, 727
+
+  Colour, 8
+
+  _Comphotherium_, 621
+
+  Condylarthra, 438
+
+  _Condylura_, 630
+
+  _Conepatus_, 574
+
+  _Connochætes_, 336
+
+  _Contracavia_, 491
+
+  _Coryphodon_, 437
+
+  _Coryphodontidæ_, 438
+
+  Cotylophora, 307
+
+  _Cotylopidæ_, 293
+
+  _Cotylops_, 293
+
+  Coypu, 482
+
+  Cranium, 35
+
+  _Crassitherium_, 223
+
+  Creodonta, 606
+
+  _Cricetodipus_, 479
+
+  _Cricetodon_, 464
+
+  _Cricetomys_, 477
+
+  _Cricetus_, 463
+
+  _Criotherium_, 349
+
+  _Crocidura_, 626
+
+  _Crossarchus_, 537
+
+  _Crossopus_, 625
+
+  Crusta Petrosa, 15
+
+  _Cryptophractus_, 201
+
+  _Cryptopithecus_, 699
+
+  _Cryptoprocta_, 525
+
+  _Ctenacodon_, 112
+
+  _Ctenodactylus_, 481
+
+  _Ctenomys_, 482
+
+  _Cuniculus_, 470
+
+  _Cuscus_, 149
+
+  _Cyclopidius_, 293
+
+  _Cycloturus_, 193
+
+  _Cynælurus_, 523
+
+  _Cynictis_, 537
+
+  _Cynocephalus_, 719
+
+  _Cynodictis_, 555
+
+  _Cynogale_, 534
+
+  _Cynohyænodon_, 608
+
+  Cynoidea, 544
+
+  _Cynomys_, 455
+
+  _Cynonycteris_, 652
+
+  _Cynopithecus_, 722
+
+  _Cynopterus_, 653
+
+  _Cyon_, 551
+
+  _Cystophora_, 605
+
+
+  _Dacrytherium_, 294
+
+  _Dactylomys_, 483
+
+  _Dactylopsila_, 152
+
+  _Damalis_, 351
+
+  _Daphœnus_, 555
+
+  _Dasymys_, 462
+
+  _Dasypodidæ_, 194
+
+  _Dasypodinæ_, 197
+
+  _Dasypotherium_, 201
+
+  _Dasyprocta_, 488
+
+  _Dasyproctidæ_, 488
+
+  _Dasypus_, 197
+
+  _Dasyuridæ_, 136
+
+  _Dasyurus_, 138
+
+  _Daubentonia_, 695
+
+  Deer, 317, 319
+
+  _Delphinapterus_, 262
+
+  _Delphinidæ_, 260
+
+  Delphinoidea, 247
+
+  _Delphinus_, 271
+
+  _Dendrohyrax_, 418
+
+  _Dendrolagus_, 165
+
+  _Dendromys_, 463
+
+  Dental system, 13
+
+  Dentine, 14
+
+  _Deomys_, 473
+
+  Dermoptera, 614
+
+  Desman, 629
+
+  _Desmodus_, 677
+
+  _Desmotylus_, 223
+
+  Diaphragm, 67
+
+  _Diceratherium_, 411
+
+  _Dichobunus_, 294
+
+  _Dichodon_, 294
+
+  _Dichodontidæ_, 294
+
+  _Diclidurus_, 668
+
+  _Dicolpomys_, 484
+
+  _Dicotyles_, 289
+
+  _Dicotylidæ_, 289
+
+  Didelphia, 128
+
+  _Didelphyidæ_, 133
+
+  _Didelphys_, 134
+
+  _Didymictis_, 539
+
+  Digestive system, 53
+
+  _Dinictis_, 523
+
+  _Dinoceras_, 437
+
+  _Dinocyon_, 556
+
+  _Dinomyidæ_, 489
+
+  _Dinomys_, 489
+
+  _Dinotheriidæ_, 435
+
+  _Dinotherium_, 435
+
+  _Dinoziphius_, 251
+
+  _Diobroticus_, 458
+
+  _Dioplotherium_, 223
+
+  _Diphylla_, 678
+
+  Diphyodont, 20
+
+  Diplarthra, 275
+
+  _Diplomesodon_, 626
+
+  _Dipodidæ_, 479
+
+  _Dipodomys_, 479
+
+  _Dipodops_, 479
+
+  _Diprotodon_, 171
+
+  Diprotodontia, 144
+
+  _Diprotodontidæ_, 171
+
+  _Dipus_, 480
+
+  _Distœchurus_, 155
+
+  _Dœdicurus_, 203
+
+  Dog, 551
+
+  _Dolichophyllum_, 673
+
+  _Dolichopithecus_, 728
+
+  _Dolichotis_, 490
+
+  Dolphin, 270
+
+  _Dorcatherium_, 306
+
+  _Dorcopsis_, 166
+
+  Dormouse, 459
+
+  Douroucouli, 714
+
+  _Dremotherium_, 330
+
+  _Dromatherium_, 113
+
+  _Dromicia_, 154
+
+  _Dryolestes_, 114
+
+  _Dryopithecus_, 738
+
+  Duck-bill, 120
+
+  Ductless glands, 65
+
+  Dugong, 221
+
+  Duikerbok, 338
+
+  Duplicidentata, 491
+
+
+  _Echidna_, 125
+
+  _Echidnidæ_, 124
+
+  _Echinogale_, 634
+
+  _Echinomys_, 483
+
+  _Echinothrix_, 477
+
+  Edentata, 176
+
+  Effodientia, 178
+
+  Eland, 348
+
+  _Elaphodus_, 318
+
+  _Elasmognathus_, 371
+
+  _Elasmotherium_, 411
+
+  _Eleotragus_, 340
+
+  Elephant, 424
+
+  _Elephantidæ_, 423
+
+  _Elephas_, 424
+
+  _Eleutherocercus_, 203
+
+  _Eliomys_, 459
+
+  _Eliurus_, 465
+
+  Elk, 326
+
+  _Ellobius_, 472
+
+  _Elotherium_, 292
+
+  _Emballonura_, 667
+
+  _Emballonuridæ_, 666
+
+  Enamel, 15
+
+  _Enhydra_, 570
+
+  _Enhydriodon_, 570
+
+  _Enhydrocyon_, 562
+
+  Entomophaga, 178
+
+  _Eohippus_, 374
+
+  _Eomys_, 464
+
+  _Eonycteris_, 654
+
+  _Eotherium_, 224
+
+  _Epiblema_, 488
+
+  Epiglottis, 67
+
+  _Epihippus_, 374
+
+  _Epomophorus_, 650
+
+  _Eporeodon_, 293
+
+  _Equidæ_, 376
+
+  _Equus_, 381
+
+  _Erethizon_, 484
+
+  _Ericulus_, 638
+
+  _Erinaceidæ_, 619
+
+  _Erinaceus_, 620
+
+  _Eriodes_, 715
+
+  Ermine, 590
+
+  _Eschatius_, 303
+
+  Ethiopian region, 98
+
+  _Eucastor_, 458
+
+  _Eucetus_, 251
+
+  _Eupetaurus_, 454
+
+  _Eupleres_, 538
+
+  _Euryceros_, 346
+
+  _Euryurus_, 203
+
+  _Eusmilus_, 524
+
+  _Eutatus_, 201
+
+  Eutheria, 173
+
+  _Evotomys_, 467
+
+  Eye, 72
+
+
+  Fallow Deer, 323
+
+  _Felidæ_, 502
+
+  _Felis_, 502
+
+  _Felsinotherium_, 223
+
+  Fennec, 553
+
+  _Fennecus_, 553
+
+  _Feresia_, 270
+
+  _Fiber_, 470
+
+  Flying Fox, 651
+    Lemur, 615
+    Squirrel, 453
+
+  Foot, 52
+
+  _Fossa_, 527
+
+  Foussa, 525
+
+  Fox, 552
+
+  Fox-Bat, 651
+
+  _Furia_, 666
+
+  _Furipterus_, 666
+
+
+  _Galago_, 690
+
+  _Galeopithecidæ_, 614
+
+  _Galeopithecus_, 614
+
+  _Galera_, 579
+
+  _Galictis_, 579
+
+  _Galidea_, 538
+
+  _Galidictis_, 538
+
+  Gaur, 365
+
+  Gayal, 365
+
+  _Gazella_, 341
+
+  _Gelocus_, 294
+
+  Gemsbok, 343
+
+  Genet, 528
+
+  _Genetta_, 528
+
+  _Geogale_, 635
+
+  Geographical distribution, 93
+
+  Geological distribution, 107
+
+  _Geomyidæ_, 478
+
+  _Geomys_, 478
+
+  _Georychus_, 478
+
+  Gerbillinæ, 462
+
+  _Gerbillus_, 462
+
+  Gibbon, 728
+
+  _Giraffa_, 331
+
+  _Giraffidæ_, 330
+
+  Glands, 12
+
+  _Glauconycteris_, 662
+
+  _Globicephalus_, 268
+
+  _Glossonycteris_, 674
+
+  Glossophaga, 674
+
+  Glutton, 591
+
+  _Glyptodon_, 203
+
+  _Glyptodontidæ_, 202
+
+  Gnu, 336
+
+  _Golunda_, 476
+
+  Goat, 352
+
+  Gopher, 478
+
+  Goral, 351
+
+  _Gorilla_, 734
+
+  Grampus, 267
+
+  _Grampus_, 270
+
+  _Graphiurus_, 459
+
+  Greenland Whale, 236
+
+  _Grimmia_, 338
+
+  _Grisonia_, 579
+
+  Ground Sloth, 184
+
+  _Gryphoca_, 606
+
+  _Grypotherium_, 189
+
+  Guanaco, 301
+
+  Guib, 347
+
+  Guinea-Pig, 490
+
+  _Gulo_, 591
+
+  _Gymnobelideus_, 154
+
+  _Gymnoptychus_, 454
+
+  _Gymnura_, 619
+
+
+  _Habrocoma_, 482
+
+  _Habrothrix_, 464
+
+  Hair, 7
+
+  _Halichœrus_, 601
+
+  _Halicore_, 220
+
+  _Halicoridæ_, 220
+
+  _Halitheriidæ_, 222
+
+  _Halitherium_, 222
+
+  _Hallomys_, 465
+
+  Hamster, 463
+
+  _Hapale_, 710
+
+  _Hapalemur_, 689
+
+  _Hapalidæ_, 709
+
+  _Hapalotis_, 476
+
+  _Haploceros_, 351
+
+  _Haplodon_, 457
+
+  _Haplodontidæ_, 457
+
+  Hare, 492
+
+  _Harpyia_, 653
+
+  _Harpyiocephalus_, 663
+
+  Harte-beest, 335
+
+  Hearing, 73
+
+  Heart, 63
+
+  Hedgehog, 620
+
+  _Helicophora_, 340
+
+  _Helictis_, 578
+
+  _Heliophobius_, 478
+
+  _Helladotherium_, 333
+
+  _Helogale_, 537
+
+  _Hemiauchenia_, 303
+
+  _Hemicentetes_, 637
+
+  _Hemiderma_, 674
+
+  _Hemigale_, 533
+
+  _Hemigalidea_, 538
+
+  _Hemitragus_, 354
+
+  _Herpestes_, 535
+
+  _Herpetocetus_, 245
+
+  _Herpetotherium_, 135
+
+  _Heterocephalus_, 478
+
+  _Heterocetus_, 245
+
+  Heterodont, 23
+
+  _Heterohyrax_, 418
+
+  _Heteromys_, 479
+
+  _Hipparion_, 380
+
+  _Hippodactylus_, 381
+
+  _Hippohyus_, 291
+
+  _Hippopotamidæ_, 278
+
+  _Hippopotamus_, 278
+
+  _Hipposiderus_, 657
+
+  _Hippotigris_, 384
+
+  _Hippotragus_, 343
+
+  _Holochilus_, 464
+
+  _Holomeniscus_, 303
+
+  _Homalodontotherium_, 412, 414
+
+  _Hominidæ_, 740
+
+  _Homo_, 739
+
+  Homodont, 22
+
+  Hoofs, 12
+
+  Hoolock, 729
+
+  _Hoplocetus_, 251
+
+  _Hoplophoneus_, 524
+
+  _Hoplophorus_, 202
+
+  Horns, 310
+
+  Horse, 382
+
+  Hunting dog, 553
+
+  _Hyæna_, 540
+
+  _Hyænarctus_, 561
+
+  _Hyænidæ_, 540
+
+  _Hyænocyon_, 562
+
+  _Hyænodon_, 608
+
+  _Hyænodontidæ_, 608
+
+  _Hydaspitherium_, 333
+
+  _Hydrochœrus_, 490
+
+  Hydromyinæ, 461
+
+  _Hydromys_, 461
+
+  _Hydropotes_, 328
+
+  _Hylobates_, 728
+
+  _Hylomys_, 619
+
+  Hyoid, 39
+
+  _Hyomoschus_, 306
+
+  _Hyopotamus_, 292
+
+  _Hyopsodus_, 698
+
+  _Hyotherium_, 291
+
+  _Hypertragulus_, 307
+
+  _Hypogeomys_, 465
+
+  _Hypsiprymnodon_, 162
+
+  _Hypsiprymnodontinæ_, 162
+
+  _Hypsiprymnopsis_, 111
+
+  _Hypsiprymnus_, 163
+
+  _Hyrachyus_, 373
+
+  _Hyracidæ_, 415
+
+  _Hyracodon_, 412
+
+  _Hyracodontotherium_, 439
+
+  Hyracoidea, 415
+
+  _Hyracotherium_, 373
+
+  _Hyrax_, 417
+
+  _Hystricidæ_, 484
+
+  Hystricomorpha, 480
+
+  _Hystrix_, 486
+
+
+  Ibex, 353
+
+  Ichneumon, 535
+
+  _Icticyon_, 553
+
+  _Ictitherium_, 539
+
+  _Ictonyx_, 579
+
+  _Ictops_, 640
+
+  _Indris_, 684
+
+  _Indrodon_, 699
+
+  _Inia_, 259
+
+  Insectivora, 610
+
+  Intestine, 59
+
+  _Inuus_, 723
+
+  _Ischnoglossa_, 674
+
+  _Isectolophus_, 374
+
+  _Issiodoromys_, 491
+
+  Ivory, 14
+
+  _Ixacanthus_, 259
+
+
+  Jackal, 550
+
+  Jaguar, 521
+
+  Jerboa, 480
+
+
+  Kangaroo, 159
+
+  _Kerivoula_ = _Cerivoula_
+
+  Kidney, 69
+
+  Killer, 267
+
+  Kinkajou, 567
+
+  Koala, 156
+
+  _Koalemus_, 157
+
+  _Kobus_ = _Cobus_
+
+  _Kogia_ = _Cogia_
+
+  Kudu, 348
+
+  Kusimanse, 538
+
+
+  _Lagenorhynchus_, 270
+
+  _Lagidium_, 488
+
+  _Lagomyidæ_, 491
+
+  _Lagomys_, 491
+
+  _Lagorchestes_, 166
+
+  _Lagostomus_, 488
+
+  _Lagostrophus_, 165
+
+  _Lagothrix_, 716
+
+  _Lambdotheriidæ_, 413
+
+  _Lambdotherium_, 413
+
+  Langur, 727
+
+  _Lantanotherium_, 618
+
+  Larynx, 67
+
+  _Lasionycteris_, 661
+
+  _Latax_, 570
+
+  Leg, 51
+
+  Lemming, 467
+
+  _Lemur_, 687
+
+  _Lemuridæ_, 683
+
+  Lemuroidea, 682
+
+  Leopard, 514
+
+  _Lepidolemur_, 689
+
+  _Leporidæ_, 492
+
+  _Leptictidæ_, 640
+
+  _Leptictis_, 640
+
+  _Leptobos_, 367
+
+  _Leptomeryx_, 307
+
+  _Leptonycteris_, 674
+
+  _Leptonyx_, 605
+
+  _Leptotragulus_, 304
+
+  _Lepus_, 492
+
+  _Lestodon_, 189
+
+  _Leucocyon_, 553
+
+  _Limnosyops_, 413
+
+  Linsang, 530
+
+  Lion, 504
+
+  _Liotomus_, 113
+
+  _Listriodon_, 291
+
+  Liver, 60
+
+  Llama, 299, 302
+
+  _Lobodon_, 605
+
+  _Loncheres_, 483
+
+  _Lonchoglossa_, 674
+
+  _Lonchorhina_, 673
+
+  _Lophiodon_, 373
+
+  _Lophiodontidæ_, 373
+
+  _Lophiomeryx_, 294
+
+  _Lophiomyidæ_, 460
+
+  _Lophiomys_, 460
+
+  _Lophiotherium_, 374
+
+  _Lophocetus_, 259
+
+  _Lophostoma_, 673
+
+  Loricata, 179
+
+  _Loris_, 692
+
+  _Loxolophodon_, 437
+
+  Lungs, 68
+
+  _Lutra_, 567
+
+  _Lycalopex_, 552
+
+  _Lycaon_, 553
+
+  Lymphatics, 65
+
+  _Lyncodon_, 590
+
+  Lynx, 518
+
+
+  _Macacus_, 722
+
+  _Machærodus_, 524
+
+  _Macrauchenia_, 414
+
+  _Macraucheniidæ_, 414
+
+  _Macroglossus_, 654
+
+  _Macrophyllum_, 673
+
+  _Macropodidæ_, 158
+
+  _Macropodinæ_, 164
+
+  _Macropus_, 167
+
+  _Macrorhinus_, 606
+
+  _Macroscelides_, 618
+
+  _Macroscelididæ_, 618
+
+  _Macrotherium_, 413
+
+  _Macrotus_, 673
+
+  _Malacomys_, 462
+
+  Mammary glands, 75
+
+  Mammoth, 428
+
+  Man, 739
+
+  Manatee, 215
+
+  _Manatidæ_, 215
+
+  _Manatus_, 215
+
+  Mandrill, 719
+
+  _Manidæ_, 204
+
+  _Manis_, 204
+
+  Manus, 48
+
+  Maral, 322
+
+  Markhoor, 354
+
+  Marmoset, 709
+
+  Marmot, 454
+    Prairie, 456
+
+  Marsupialia, 128
+
+  Marten, 580
+
+  _Martes_, 580
+
+  _Mastacomys_, 476
+
+  _Mastodon_, 431
+
+  Megachiroptera, 650
+
+  _Megaderma_, 658
+
+  _Megaloglossus_, 655
+
+  _Megamys_, 488
+
+  _Megaptera_, 241
+
+  _Megatheriidæ_, 183
+
+  _Megatherium_, 185
+
+  Melanism, 9
+
+  _Meles_, 575
+
+  _Mellivora_, 576
+
+  _Melonycteris_, 654
+
+  _Melursus_, 560
+
+  _Menacodon_, 115
+
+  _Meniscoëssus_, 113
+
+  _Meniscomys_, 454
+
+  _Meniscotherium_, 439
+
+  _Menodus_, 413
+
+  _Mephitis_, 572
+
+  _Merychippus_, 380
+
+  _Merycochœrus_, 293
+
+  _Mesodectes_, 640
+
+  _Mesohippus_, 376
+
+  _Mesomys_, 483
+
+  _Mesonychidæ_, 609
+
+  _Mesonyx_, 609
+
+  _Mesopithecus_, 727
+
+  _Mesoplodon_, 254
+
+  _Mesotaria_, 606
+
+  _Mesotherium_, 440
+
+  Mesozoic mammals, 108
+
+  Metacarpus, 49
+
+  _Metamynodon_, 412
+
+  Metatheria, 128
+
+  _Metriotherium_, 294
+
+  _Miacidæ_, 539
+
+  _Miacis_, 539
+
+  _Microcavia_, 491
+
+  _Microcebus_, 690
+
+  _Microchœrus_, 696
+
+  _Microchiroptera_, 655
+
+  Microconodon, 113
+
+  _Microgale_, 638
+
+  _Microlestes_, 111
+
+  _Micromeryx_, 330
+
+  _Micronycteris_, 673
+
+  _Microsorex_, 624
+
+  _Microsyops_, 698
+
+  _Microtus_, 466
+
+  _Midas_, 710
+
+  Milk-teeth, 20
+
+  _Mimon_, 674
+
+  _Miniopterus_, 664
+
+  Mink, 586
+
+  _Miohippus_, 376
+
+  _Miosiren_, 223
+
+  _Mixodectes_, 699
+
+  Mole, 630
+    Golden, 639
+    Star-nosed, 630
+
+  Mole-Rat, 477
+
+  _Molossus_, 670
+
+  _Monachus_, 604
+
+  _Monatherium_, 606
+
+  Monkey, 699
+
+  Monodelphia, 173
+
+  _Monodon_, 260
+
+  _Monophylla_, 674
+
+  Monophyodont, 20
+
+  Moose, 326
+
+  _Morenia_, 484
+
+  _Mormops_, 672
+
+  _Moropus_, 413
+
+  _Morotherium_, 413
+
+  Morse, 597
+
+  _Moschinæ_, 314
+
+  _Moschus_, 314
+
+  Moufflon, 356
+
+  Mouse, 475
+
+  Mouth, 54
+
+  Mulita, 201
+
+  Multituberculata, 109
+
+  Mungoose, 535
+
+  Muntjac, 316
+
+  _Muridæ_, 461
+
+  _Mus_, 473
+
+  _Muscardinus_, 460
+
+  Musk Deer, 314
+    Ox, 358
+    Rat, 470, 626
+
+  Musquash, 470
+
+  _Mustela_, 579
+
+  _Mustelidæ_, 567
+
+  _Mycetes_, 711
+
+  _Mydaus_, 575
+
+  _Mylodon_, 189
+
+  _Myodes_, 467
+
+  _Myogale_, 628
+
+  _Myolagus_, 492
+
+  Myomorpha, 459
+
+  _Myopotamus_, 482
+
+  _Myoscalops_, 478
+
+  _Myosorex_, 625
+
+  _Myoxidæ_, 459
+
+  _Myoxus_, 459
+
+  _Myrmecobiinæ_, 140
+
+  _Myrmecobius_, 140
+
+  _Myrmecophaga_, 190
+
+  _Myrmecophagidæ_, 190
+
+  _Mysarachne_, 634
+
+  _Mystacina_, 671
+
+  Mystacoceti, 234
+
+  _Mystacops_, 671
+
+  _Mystromys_, 462
+
+  _Myxocebus_, 689
+
+  _Myxopoda_, 665
+
+
+  Nails, 12
+
+  Nakong, 346
+
+  _Nandinia_, 534
+
+  _Nanotragus_, 339
+
+  Nares, 66
+
+  Narwhal, 261
+
+  _Nasalis_, 725
+
+  _Nasua_, 566
+
+  _Natalus_, 664
+
+  Nearctic region, 102
+
+  _Necrogymnurus_, 621
+
+  _Necrolemur_, 696
+
+  _Necromantis_, 679
+
+  _Nectogale_, 627
+
+  _Nectomys_, 464
+
+  _Nemorhædus_, 350
+
+  _Neobalæna_, 241
+
+  _Neofiber_, 472
+
+  _Neomeris_, 266
+
+  _Neoplagiaulax_, 113
+
+  _Neosorex_, 624
+
+  _Neotoma_, 464
+
+  _Neotragus_, 338
+
+  Neotropical region, 103
+
+  Nerves, 71
+
+  _Nesocerodon_, 491
+
+  _Nesocia_, 475
+
+  _Nesodon_, 439
+
+  _Nesomys_, 465
+
+  _Nesonycteris_, 655
+
+  _Nesotragus_, 339
+
+  _Neurotrichus_, 629
+
+  Nilghai, 345
+
+  _Nimravus_, 524
+
+  _Noctilio_, 668
+
+  Nostrils, 66
+
+  _Notharctus_, 698
+
+  _Nothropus_, 183
+
+  _Nothrotherium_, 184
+
+  _Notiosorex_, 624
+
+  _Notopteris_, 654
+
+  _Nototheriidæ_, 172
+
+  _Nototherium_, 171
+
+  _Nyctereutes_, 552
+
+  _Nycteridæ_, 658
+
+  _Nycteris_, 659
+
+  _Nycticebus_, 691
+
+  _Nycticejus_, 662
+
+  _Nyctilestes_, 665
+
+  _Nyctinomus_, 670
+
+  _Nyctipithecus_, 714
+
+  _Nyctitherium_, 665
+
+  _Nyctophilus_, 661
+
+
+  Ocelot, 521
+
+  _Ochetodon_, 464
+
+  _Octodon_, 481
+
+  _Octodontidæ_, 480
+
+  _Odobænus_, 597
+
+  Odontoceti, 247
+
+  _Ogmorhinus_, 605
+
+  _Ommatophoca_, 605
+
+  _Onotragus_, 339
+
+  _Onychogale_, 166
+
+  _Onychomys_, 463
+
+  Opossum, 133
+
+  Orang, 731
+
+  _Orca_, 267
+
+  _Orcella_, 267
+
+  _Oreas_, 348
+
+  _Oreodon_, 293
+
+  _Oreopithecus_, 728
+
+  _Oreotragus_, 339
+
+  Oriental region, 100
+
+  Ornithodelphia, 117
+
+  _Ornithorhynchidæ_, 119
+
+  _Ornithorhynchus_, 119
+
+  _Orohippus_, 374
+
+  _Orotherium_, 374
+
+  _Orthaspidotherium_, 634
+
+  _Orthomys_, 484
+
+  _Orycteropodidæ_, 208
+
+  _Orycteropus_, 208
+
+  _Oryx_, 343
+
+  _Oryzomys_, 463
+
+  _Oryzorictes_, 638
+
+  _Otaria_, 593
+
+  _Otariidæ_, 593
+
+  _Otocyon_, 554
+
+  _Otomys_, 462
+
+  _Otonycteris_, 661
+
+  _Otopterus_, 673
+
+  Otter, 568
+    Sea, 571
+
+  Ounce, 517
+
+  Ovaries, 75
+
+  _Ovibos_, 357
+
+  Oviduct, 75
+
+  _Ovis_, 354
+
+  Oxen, 360
+
+  _Oxhyæna_, 608
+
+  _Oxymycterus_, 464
+
+
+  Paca, 489
+
+  _Pachyacanthus_, 224
+
+  Pachydermata, 87
+
+  _Pachynolophus_, 374
+
+  _Pachyuromys_, 462
+
+  _Paciculus_, 465
+
+  Palæarctic region, 97
+
+  _Palæocastor_, 458
+
+  _Palæocetus_, 245
+
+  _Palæoerinaceus_, 621
+
+  _Palæolemur_, 697
+
+  _Palæomanis_, 208
+
+  _Palæomeryx_, 330
+
+  _Palæonycteris_, 657
+
+  _Palæophoca_, 606
+
+  _Palæopontoporia_, 259
+
+  _Palæoprionodon_, 539
+
+  _Palæoreas_, 348
+
+  _Palæoryx_, 344
+
+  _Palæospalax_, 629
+
+  _Palæosyops_, 413
+
+  _Palæotapirus_, 373
+
+  _Palæotheriidæ_, 375
+
+  _Palæotherium_, 375
+
+  _Palæotragoceros_, 349
+
+  _Palauchenia_, 303
+
+  _Palhyæna_, 544
+
+  Palla, 341
+
+  Palm-Civet, 532
+
+  _Paloplotherium_, 375
+
+  _Palorchestes_, 170
+
+  Panda, 562
+
+  Pangolin, 205
+
+  _Panochthus_, 203
+
+  Panther, 514
+
+  _Pantholops_, 341
+
+  _Paradoxurus_, 532
+
+  _Paramys_, 457
+
+  _Parasorex_, 618
+
+  Peccary, 289
+
+  Pecora, 307
+
+  _Pectinator_, 481
+
+  _Pedetes_, 480
+
+  _Pediotragus_, 339
+
+  _Pelea_, 339
+
+  _Pellegrinia_, 484
+
+  Pelvis, 50
+
+  _Pelycodus_, 699
+
+  _Peragale_, 143
+
+  _Peralestes_, 115
+
+  _Peramelidæ_, 141
+
+  _Perameles_, 142
+
+  _Peratherium_, 135
+
+  _Periptychus_, 439
+
+  Perissodactyla, 368
+
+  _Perodicticus_, 693
+
+  _Perognathus_, 479
+
+  Pes, 52
+
+  _Petauroides_, 152
+
+  _Petaurus_, 153
+
+  _Petrodromus_, 618
+
+  _Petrogale_, 167
+
+  _Petromys_, 482
+
+  _Phacochœrus_, 288
+
+  _Phalanger_, 149
+
+  _Phalangeridæ_, 147
+
+  _Phalangerinæ_, 149
+
+  Phalanges, 49
+
+  _Phalangista_, 149
+
+  _Phascolarctinæ_, 155
+
+  _Phascolarctus_, 156
+
+  _Phascologale_, 139
+
+  _Phascolomyidæ_, 144
+
+  _Phascolomys_, 145
+
+  _Phascolonus_, 146
+
+  _Phascolotherium_, 114
+
+  _Phenacodus_, 439
+
+  _Phenacomys_, 466
+
+  Phlœomyinæ, 462
+
+  _Phlœomys_, 462
+
+  _Phloramys_, 484
+
+  _Phoca_, 601
+
+  _Phocæna_, 263
+
+  _Phocanella_, 606
+
+  _Phocidæ_, 600
+
+  _Phylloderma_, 674
+
+  _Phyllonycteris_, 674
+
+  Phyllophaga, 178
+
+  _Phyllorhina_, 657
+
+  _Phyllostoma_, 674
+
+  _Phyllostomatidæ_, 672
+
+  _Physeter_, 248
+
+  _Physeteridæ_, 247
+
+  _Physeterinæ_, 248
+
+  _Physeterula_, 251
+
+  _Physetodon_, 251
+
+  _Physodon_, 251
+
+  Pica, 492
+
+  Pichiciago, 196
+
+  Pig, 282
+
+  Pilosa, 179
+
+  Pinnipedia, 592
+
+  _Pithanotomys_, 484
+
+  _Pithechirus_, 477
+
+  _Pithecia_, 712
+
+  Placenta, 75
+
+  _Plagiaulacidæ_, 113
+
+  _Plagiaulax_, 111
+
+  _Plagiodon_, 483
+
+  _Platacanthomyinæ_, 461
+
+  _Platacanthomys_, 462
+
+  _Platanista_, 258
+
+  _Platanistidæ_, 257
+
+  _Platycercomys_, 480
+
+  _Platygonus_, 291
+
+  _Platyonyx_, 188
+
+  _Platyphoca_, 606
+
+  _Platypus_, 120
+
+  _Plecotus_, 660
+
+  _Plesiadapis_, 698
+
+  _Plesiarctomys_, 457
+
+  _Plesictis_, 590
+
+  _Plesiocetus_, 245
+
+  Plesiometacarpalia, 316
+
+  _Plesiosorex_, 634
+
+  _Plesispermophilus_, 457
+
+  _Pleuraspidotherium_, 634
+
+  _Pleurolichus_, 479
+
+  _Plexochœrus_, 491
+
+  _Pliauchenia_, 304
+
+  _Pliolagostomus_, 488
+
+  _Pliolophus_, 374
+
+  _Pliopithecus_, 731
+
+  _Poëbrotherium_, 304
+
+  _Pœcilogale_, 590
+
+  _Pœcilophoca_, 605
+
+  _Poëphagus_, 360
+
+  _Pogonodon_, 524
+
+  _Poiana_, 531
+
+  Polecat, 587
+
+  _Polymastodon_, 113
+
+  Polyprotodontia, 133
+
+  _Pontistes_, 259
+
+  _Pontoporia_, 259
+
+  Porcupine, 486
+    Tree, 485
+
+  Porpoise, 263
+
+  _Potamarchus_, 488
+
+  _Potamochœrus_, 286
+
+  _Potamogale_, 635
+
+  _Potamogalidæ_, 634
+
+  _Potamophilus_, 534
+
+  _Potamotherium_, 570
+
+  _Potoroinæ_, 162
+
+  Potoroo, 163
+
+  _Potorous_, 163
+
+  Pouched-Rat, 478
+
+  _Praopus_, 201
+
+  Prehallux, 49
+
+  Prepollex, 49
+
+  Primates, 680
+
+  _Priodon_, 198
+
+  _Prionodon_, 530
+
+  _Priscodelphinus_, 259
+
+  _Proælurus_, 523
+
+  Proboscidea, 418
+
+  _Probubalus_, 361
+
+  _Procamelus_, 304
+
+  _Procapra_, 341
+
+  _Procavia_, 417
+
+  _Procoptodon_, 170
+
+  _Procyon_, 564
+
+  _Procyonidæ_, 562
+
+  _Prodelphinus_, 271
+
+  _Prodremotherium_, 307
+
+  _Proechidna_, 126
+
+  _Prohalicore_, 223
+
+  _Prohyæna_, 562
+
+  _Prolagostomus_, 488
+
+  _Promegatherium_, 189
+
+  _Promylodon_, 190
+
+  Prong-buck, 333
+
+  _Prophoca_, 606
+
+  _Propithecus_, 684
+
+  _Prorastomatidæ_, 224
+
+  _Prorastomus_, 224
+
+  _Protechinomys_, 484
+
+  _Proteleidæ_, 539
+
+  _Proteles_, 539
+
+  _Proterotheriidæ_, 414
+
+  _Proterotherium_, 414
+
+  _Protoadapis_, 698
+
+  _Protohippus_, 380
+
+  _Protolabis_, 304
+
+  _Protoreodon_, 293
+
+  Prototheria, 117
+
+  _Protoxodon_, 440
+
+  _Protragelaphus_, 349
+
+  _Protragoceros_, 349
+
+  _Proviverra_, 608
+
+  _Proviverridæ_, 608
+
+  _Prox_, 317
+
+  _Pseudælurus_, 523
+
+  _Pseudalopex_, 552
+
+  _Pseudochirus_, 151
+
+  _Pseudois_, 355
+
+  _Pseudorca_, 268
+
+  _Pseudorhinolophus_, 657
+
+  _Pseudosciurus_, 454
+
+  _Psittacotherium_, 442
+
+  _Pteralopex_, 654
+
+  _Pterodon_, 608
+
+  _Pteromys_, 453
+
+  _Pteropodidæ_, 650
+
+  _Pteropus_, 651
+
+  _Ptilocercus_, 618
+
+  _Ptilodus_, 113
+
+  _Pudua_, 330
+
+  Puma, 520
+
+  _Putorius_, 585
+
+
+  Quagga, 384
+
+
+  Rabbit, 494
+    Bandicoot, 143
+
+  Raccoon, 565
+
+  _Rangifer_, 324
+
+  Rasse, 527
+
+  Rat, 474
+
+  Ratel, 576
+
+  Rat-Kangaroo, 163
+
+  Red Deer, 322
+
+  Rehbok, 339
+
+  Reitbok, 349
+
+  Reproductive organs, 74
+
+  Respiratory system, 63
+
+  _Rhabdosteus_, 259
+
+  _Rhachianectes_, 241
+
+  _Rhinoceros_, 402
+
+  _Rhinocerotidæ_, 402
+
+  _Rhinogale_, 537
+
+  _Rhinolophidæ_, 656
+
+  _Rhinolophus_, 656
+
+  _Rhinonycteris_, 658
+
+  _Rhinophylla_, 674
+
+  _Rhinopithecus_, 726
+
+  _Rhinopoma_, 669
+
+  _Rhipidomys_, 463
+
+  _Rhithrodon_, 464
+
+  _Rhithrosciurus_, 452
+
+  _Rhizomys_, 477
+
+  _Rhizoprion_, 257
+
+  _Rhogeëssa_, 661
+
+  _Rhynchocyon_, 618
+
+  _Rhynchonycteris_, 667
+
+  _Rhytina_, 221
+
+  _Rhytinidæ_, 221
+
+  Ribs, 44
+
+  River-Hog, 286
+
+  Rock-Wallaby, 167
+
+  Rodentia, 443
+
+  Roe, 327
+
+  Rorqual, 242
+
+  _Rosmarus_, 597
+
+  Ruminants, 307
+
+  _Rupicapra_, 349
+
+  _Rytiodus_, 223
+
+
+  Sable, 584
+
+  _Saccomys_, 479
+
+  _Saccopteryx_, 667
+
+  _Saccostomus_, 477
+
+  Sacrum, 43
+
+  _Saiga_, 341
+
+  Saki, 712
+
+  Salivary glands, 55
+
+  Sambur, 320
+
+  _Samotherium_, 333
+
+  Sapajou, 717
+
+  _Sarcophilus_, 137
+
+  _Scaldicetus_, 251
+
+  Scales, 11
+
+  _Scalops_, 630
+
+  _Scapanus_, 630
+
+  _Scapteromys_, 464
+
+  _Scaptochirus_, 633
+
+  _Scaptonyx_, 630
+
+  _Scelidotherium_, 188
+
+  _Schizodelphis_, 259
+
+  _Schizodon_, 482
+
+  _Schizostoma_, 673
+
+  _Sciuravus_, 457
+
+  _Sciuridæ_, 450
+
+  _Sciurodon_, 454
+
+  _Sciuroides_, 454
+
+  Sciuromorpha, 448
+
+  _Sciuropterus_, 453
+
+  _Sciurus_, 450
+
+  _Scopophorus_, 339
+
+  _Scotophilus_, 662
+
+  _Scotozous_, 661
+
+  Sea-Leopard, 605
+
+  Sea-otter, 571
+
+  Seal, 600
+    Eared, 594
+
+  _Selenacodon_, 113
+
+  _Semnopithecus_, 726
+
+  Sense organs, 69
+
+  Serow, 351
+
+  Sheep, 354
+
+  Shoulder-girdle, 46
+
+  Shrew, 622
+    Tree, 617
+    Water, 625
+
+  Siamang, 728
+
+  _Siamanga_, 728
+
+  Sight, 72
+
+  _Sigmodon_, 464
+
+  _Simia_, 731
+
+  _Simiidæ_, 728
+
+  _Simocyon_, 562
+
+  Simplicidentata, 448
+
+  _Siphneus_, 472
+
+  Sirenia, 212
+
+  _Sivatherium_, 322
+
+  Skeleton, 33
+
+  Skull, 34
+
+  Skunk, 572
+
+  Sloth, 180
+
+  Sloth, Ground, 184
+
+  Smell, 72
+
+  _Sminthopsis_, 139
+
+  _Sminthus_, 479
+
+  _Solenodon_, 636
+
+  _Solenodontidæ_, 635
+
+  _Sorex_, 622
+
+  _Soricidæ_, 621
+
+  _Soriculus_, 624
+
+  _Sotalia_, 272
+
+  Souslik, 456
+
+  _Spalacidæ_, 477
+
+  _Spalacopus_, 482
+
+  _Spalacotherium_, 115
+
+  _Spalax_, 477
+
+  _Spaniotherium_, 294
+
+  _Spermophilus_, 456
+
+  Sperm Whale, 249
+
+  Spider Monkey, 715
+
+  _Spilogale_, 574
+
+  Spiny Anteater, 124
+
+  Spleen, 65
+
+  _Squalodon_, 257
+
+  _Squalodontidæ_, 257
+
+  Squamata, 179
+
+  Squirrel, 451
+
+  _Stegodon_, 427
+
+  _Steneofiber_, 458
+
+  _Steno_, 271
+
+  _Stenoderma_, 676
+
+  _Stenoplesictis_, 539
+
+  _Stenops_, 691
+
+  _Stenorhynchus_, 605
+
+  _Stereognathus_, 110
+
+  Sternum, 44
+
+  _Sthenurus_, 170
+
+  Stoat, 590
+
+  Stomach, 57
+
+  _Strepsiceros_, 347
+
+  _Sturnira_, 676
+
+  _Stylacodon_, 114
+
+  _Stylinodon_, 442
+
+  _Styloceros_, 317
+
+  _Stylodon_, 114
+
+  _Stypolophus_, 608
+
+  Subungulata, 414
+
+  _Suidæ_, 281
+
+  Suina, 278
+
+  _Suricata_, 538
+
+  _Sus_, 281
+
+  _Syllophodus_, 484
+
+  _Symborodon_, 413
+
+  _Synaptomys_, 467
+
+  _Synetheres_, 485
+
+  _Synotus_, 661
+
+  _Systemodon_, 374
+
+
+  Takin, 351
+
+  _Talpa_, 630
+
+  _Talpidæ_, 628
+
+  _Tamandua_, 192
+
+  _Tamias_, 452
+
+  _Taphozous_, 667
+
+  Tapir, 371
+
+  _Tapiridæ_, 370
+
+  _Tapirulus_, 294
+
+  _Tapirus_, 370
+
+  Tardigrada, 178
+
+  _Tarsiidæ_, 694
+
+  _Tarsipedinæ_, 148
+
+  _Tarsipes_, 148
+
+  _Tarsius_, 694
+
+  Taste, 72
+
+  Tatouay, 198
+
+  _Tatusia_, 200
+
+  _Tatusiinæ_, 200
+
+  _Taxidea_, 576
+
+  Tayra, 579
+
+  Teetee, 713
+
+  Teeth, 13
+
+  Tegument, 7
+
+  Teledu, 575
+
+  Telemetacarpalia, 323
+
+  _Temnocyon_, 555
+
+  Tenrec, 637
+
+  _Terphone_, 338
+
+  Tertiary mammals, 115
+
+  _Tetraceros_, 338
+
+  _Tetraconodon_, 292
+
+  _Tetracus_, 634
+
+  _Tetrastylus_, 488
+
+  _Theridomyidæ_, 484
+
+  _Theridomys_, 484
+
+  _Theropithecus_, 722
+
+  Thigh, 51
+
+  _Thomomys_, 478
+
+  _Thoracophorus_, 203
+
+  Thylacine, 137
+
+  _Thylacinus_, 136
+
+  _Thylacoleo_, 157
+
+  Thymus gland, 66
+
+  Thyroid body, 66
+
+  _Thyroptera_, 665
+
+  Tiger, 511
+
+  Tillodontia, 441
+
+  _Tillotherium_, 441
+
+  _Tinoceras_, 437
+
+  _Titanomys_, 492
+
+  _Titanotheriidæ_, 413
+
+  _Titanotherium_, 413
+
+  _Tolypeutes_, 199
+
+  _Tomitherium_, 698
+
+  _Toxodon_, 439
+
+  Toxodontia, 439
+
+  Touch, 72
+
+  Trachea, 67
+
+  _Trachyops_, 674
+
+  _Trachytherium_, 224
+
+  _Tragelaphus_, 346
+
+  _Tragoceros_, 349
+
+  _Tragops_, 341
+
+  _Tragulidæ_, 305
+
+  Tragulina, 305
+
+  _Tragulus_, 305
+
+  _Trechomys_, 484
+
+  _Triacanthodon_, 113
+
+  _Triænops_, 658
+
+  _Trichechidæ_, 596
+
+  _Trichechus_, 597
+
+  _Trichosurus_, 150
+
+  _Trichys_, 487
+
+  _Triclis_, 162
+
+  _Triconodon_, 113
+
+  _Trilodon_, 484
+
+  Trituberculism, 30
+
+  _Tritylodon_, 111
+
+  _Trochictis_, 570
+
+  _Troglodytes_, 736
+
+  _Trogontherium_, 458
+
+  _Trygenycteris_, 655
+
+  Tubulidentata, 179
+
+  _Tupaia_, 617
+
+  _Tupaiidæ_, 617
+
+  _Tursiops_, 271
+
+  Tylopoda, 295
+
+  _Tylostoma_, 674
+
+  _Typhlomys_, 477
+
+  _Typotherium_, 440
+
+
+  _Uacaria_, 712
+
+  Uakari, 712
+
+  _Uintatheriidæ_, 437
+
+  _Uintatherium_, 436
+
+  Umbilical vesicle, 77
+
+  Unau, 183
+
+  Ungulata, 273
+
+  Urinary organs, 69
+
+  _Urocyon_, 553
+
+  _Uromys_, 476
+
+  _Uropsilus_, 629
+
+  _Urotrichus_, 629
+
+  _Ursidæ_, 557
+
+  _Ursus_, 557
+
+  Urus, 367
+
+  Uses of mammals, 4
+
+  Uterus, 75
+
+
+  Vampyre, 676
+
+  _Vampyrus_, 673
+
+  Vertebræ, 39
+
+  _Vesperimus_, 463
+
+  _Vespertiliavus_, 666
+
+  _Vespertilio_, 663
+
+  _Vespertilionidæ_, 660
+
+  _Vesperugo_, 661
+
+  Vicugna, 300
+
+  Viscacha, 488
+
+  _Vishnutherium_, 332
+
+  _Viverra_, 526
+
+  _Viverricula_, 527
+
+  _Viverridæ_, 525
+
+  Vole, 465
+
+  _Vulpes_, 552
+
+  Vulpine Phalanger, 150
+
+
+  Wallaby, 169
+
+  Walrus, 597
+
+  Wapiti, 322
+
+  Wart-Hog, 288
+
+  Weasel, 589
+
+  Whale, 225
+
+  White Whale, 262
+
+  Wolf, 548
+
+  Wolverene, 591
+
+  Wombat, 145
+
+
+  _Xantharpyia_, 652
+
+  _Xenurus_, 198
+
+  _Xeromys_, 461
+
+  _Xerus_, 452
+
+  _Xiphodon_, 294
+
+
+  Yak, 364
+
+  Yapock, 134
+
+  Yolk-sac, 77
+
+
+  _Zapus_, 480
+
+  Zebra, 385
+
+  _Zeuglodon_, 246
+
+  _Zeuglodontidæ_, 246
+
+  _Ziphiinæ_, 251
+
+  _Ziphius_, 254
+
+  Zoological regions, 96
+
+
+THE END
+
+_Printed by R. & R. CLARK, Edinburgh_
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75947 ***
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+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75947 ***</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_i"></a>[i]</span></p>
+
+<h1><span class="smaller">AN INTRODUCTION<br>
+<span class="smaller">TO THE</span></span><br>
+STUDY OF MAMMALS</h1>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ii"></a>[ii]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iii"></a>[iii]</span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage larger">AN INTRODUCTION<br>
+<span class="smaller">TO THE STUDY OF</span><br>
+<span class="larger gesperrt">MAMMALS</span><br>
+LIVING AND EXTINCT</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage smaller">BY</p>
+
+<p class="center">WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER<br>
+<span class="smaller">C.B., F.R.S., D.C.L., LL.D., P.Z.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., &amp;c.<br>
+DIRECTOR OF THE NATURAL HISTORY DEPARTMENTS, BRITISH MUSEUM</span></p>
+
+<p class="center smaller">AND</p>
+
+<p class="center">RICHARD LYDEKKER<br>
+<span class="smaller">B.A., F.G.S., F.Z.S., &amp;c.</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter titlepage illowp100" id="opossum" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/opossum.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p>THE WOOLLY OPOSSUM</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p class="titlepage">LONDON: ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK<br>
+<span class="smaller">MDCCCXCI</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iv"></a>[iv]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_v"></a>[v]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the greatest difficulties experienced by all who undertake a
+work of this nature, not professing to be an exhaustive treatise
+on the subject with which it deals, is to determine the amount
+of detail desirable to be introduced to meet the requirements of
+the ordinary student, without rendering it too bulky or costly
+for general use. The experience of those who endeavour to profit
+by the book can alone decide how far the authors have succeeded
+in this respect. It will be observed that in many instances certain
+better-known or more interesting members of the class have been
+described at considerable length, while it has been necessary to
+treat others with much greater brevity.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the references to the literature of the various
+groups treated of, it has been the endeavour of the authors to
+make a selection of such memoirs and works as are likely to prove
+most valuable to the student for the amount of original information
+which they contain, and more especially of those giving
+full bibliographical data up to the time of their publication, the
+repetition of which has been considered unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p>In a few instances new generic terms have been introduced to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vi"></a>[vi]</span>
+replace some which were already occupied; these have been proposed
+by Mr. Lydekker, and should be quoted as his.</p>
+
+<p>The work is based largely upon the article “Mammalia,” together
+with forty shorter articles, written by the senior of the two
+authors for the ninth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. The
+account of the orders Rodentia, Insectivora, and Chiroptera contributed
+to the article “Mammalia” by Dr. G. E. Dobson, F.R.S.,
+as well as the articles “Mole,” “Shrew,” and “Vampyre,” by the
+same writer, the articles “Marmot,” “Mouse,” “Opossum,” “Phalanger,”
+“Rat,” “Squirrel,” “Stoat,” “Vole,” and others, by Mr.
+Oldfield Thomas, and likewise the article “Ape,” by Dr. St. G.
+Mivart, F.R.S., have also been made use of to a greater or less
+extent. The best thanks of the authors are due to these three
+gentlemen for freely permitting the incorporation of their own
+work in the present volume.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Lydekker undertook the task of arranging the various
+articles in their proper sequence, selecting from these such portions
+as seemed suitable, filling up the gaps, and adding new matter
+where necessary; a large amount of this new matter treating of the
+extinct forms, and also of the group Artiodactyla.</p>
+
+<p>The subsequent revision, both before being sent to the printers,
+and also when passing through the press, has been made by both
+authors, who are thus jointly responsible for the whole work.</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations are to a great extent those prepared for the
+various articles in the Encyclopædia, but many have been added—some
+drawn expressly for the work, and some borrowed from
+other publications. For most of the latter the authors take this
+opportunity of expressing their thanks to the Publication Committee<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii"></a>[vii]</span>
+of the Zoological Society of London, as well as to the
+individual writers in whose works they first appeared.</p>
+
+<p>The authors have further much pleasure in acknowledging the
+ready and obliging way in which Mr. Oldfield Thomas has,
+throughout the progress of the work, placed his extensive knowledge
+of the group of animals of which it treats at their disposal.</p>
+
+<p class="mt2"><span class="smcap">London</span>, <i>March</i> 1891.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii"></a>[viii]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Corrigenda"><span class="smcap">Corrigenda.</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_280">Page 280</a>, <i>for</i> Chæropsis <i>read</i> Chœropsis.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_292">Page 292</a>, <i>for</i> Chæropotamidæ and Chæropotamus <i>read</i> Chœropotamidæ and
+Chœropotamus.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Page_590">Page 590</a>, <i>for</i> Pæcilogale <i>read</i> Pœcilogale.</p>
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<p class="center"><b>Transcriber’s Note:</b> The corrections have been applied.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix"></a>[ix]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<table class="contents">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"></td>
+    <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER I</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Introductory Remarks</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1">Use of term mammals, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; Characters of mammals, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>; Development
+    of young, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>; Size of mammals, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>; Uses and products
+    of mammals, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER II</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">General Anatomical Characters</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">7</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">I.</td>
+    <td>Tegumentary Structures</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1">Hair, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; Colour, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>; Scales, etc., <a href="#Page_11">11</a>; Nails, claws, and
+    hoofs, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>; Odour-secreting glands, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">II.</td>
+    <td>Dental System</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1">Teeth, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>; Structure of teeth, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>; Development of teeth,
+    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>; Forms of teeth, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>; Succession of teeth, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>; Arrangement,
+    homologies, and notation of teeth, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>; Dental formulæ, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;
+    Modifications of teeth in relation to function, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; Taxonomy,
+    <a href="#Page_30">30</a>; Trituberculism, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">III.</td>
+    <td>The Skeleton</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1">Definition, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>; Axial skeleton, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>; Skull, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>; Vertebral
+    column, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>; Cervical vertebræ, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>; Dorsal vertebræ, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;
+    Lumbar vertebræ, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>; Sacral vertebræ, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>; Caudal vertebræ,
+    <a href="#Page_43">43</a>; Sternum, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; Ribs, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>; Appendicular skeleton, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;
+    Anterior limb, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>; Shoulder-girdle, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>; Brachium and Antebrachium,
+    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>; Manus, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; Carpus, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>; Metacarpus and Phalanges,
+    <a href="#Page_49">49</a>; Posterior limb, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>; Pelvic girdle, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>; Thigh and
+    Leg, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>; Pes, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">IV.</td>
+    <td>The Digestive System</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1">General considerations, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>; Mouth, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>; Salivary glands,
+    <a href="#Page_55">55</a>; Stomach, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>; Intestinal canal, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>; Liver, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">V.</td>
+    <td>Circulatory, Absorbent, Respiratory, and Urinary Systems</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1">Blood, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>; Heart, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>; Lymphatic vessels, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; Ductless
+    glands, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; Nostrils, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>; Trachea, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>; Larynx, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>; Diaphragm,
+    <a href="#Page_67">67</a>; Lungs, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>; Air-sacs, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>; Urinary Organs, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>; Bladder, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_x"></a>[x]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">VI.</td>
+    <td>Nervous System and Organs of Sense</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1">Brain, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>; Nerves, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>; Sense of touch, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>; Taste and
+    smell, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>; Sight, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>; Hearing, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">VII.</td>
+    <td>Reproductive Organs</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1">Testes, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; Penis, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; Ovaries and oviduct, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>; Mammary
+    glands, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>; Secondary sexual characters, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>; Placenta, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER III</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Origin and Classification of the Mammalia</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">82</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1">Origin, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>; Classification, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>; Table of orders and
+    families, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER IV</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Geographical and Geological Distribution</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">93</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">I.</td>
+    <td>Geographical Distribution</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1">Zoological regions, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>; Palæarctic region, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>; Ethiopian
+    region, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>; Oriental region, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>; Celebes, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>; Nearctic region,
+    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>; Neotropical region, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>; Aquatic mammals, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">II.</td>
+    <td>Geological Distribution</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1">Sequence of strata, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>; Mesozoic mammals, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>; Multituberculata,
+    <a href="#Page_109">109</a>; Polyprotodont types, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>; Tertiary mammals,
+    <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER V</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Subclass Prototheria or Ornithodelphia</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">117</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1">General characters, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Ornithorhynchidæ</span>,
+    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>; <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Echidnidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;
+    <i>Echidna</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>; <i>Proechidna</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>; Fossil species, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VI</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Subclass Metatheria Or Didelphia</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">128</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1">General characters, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>; Distribution, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>; Classification,
+    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Polyprotodontia</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Didelphyidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>; <i>Chironectes</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>; <i>Didelphys</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dasyuridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Dasyurinæ, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;
+    <i>Thylacinus</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>; <i>Sarcophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>; <i>Dasyurus</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>; <i>Phascologale</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_139">139</a>; <i>Sminthopsis</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>; <i>Antechinomys</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>; <i>Subfamily</i>
+    Myrmecobiinæ, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>; <i>Myrmecobius</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Peramelidæ</span>,
+    <a href="#Page_141">141</a>; <i>Perameles</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>; <i>Peragale</i>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>; <i>Chœropus</i>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xi"></a>[xi]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Diprotodontia</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Phascolomyidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>; <i>Phascolomys</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>; <i>Phascolonus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Phalangeridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Tarsipedinæ,
+    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>; <i>Tarsipes</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Phalangerinæ, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>; <i>Phalanger</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_149">149</a>; <i>Trichosurus</i>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>; <i>Pseudochirus</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>; <i>Petauroides</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;
+    <i>Dactylopsila</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>; <i>Petaurus</i>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>; <i>Gymnobelideus</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;
+    <i>Dromicia</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>; <i>Distœchurus</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>; <i>Acrobates</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>; <i>Subfamily</i>
+    Phascolarctinæ, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>; <i>Phascolarctus</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>. <span class="smcap">Extinct Phalangeroids</span>,
+    <a href="#Page_157">157</a>; <i>Thylacoleo</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Macropodidæ</span>,
+    <a href="#Page_158">158</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Hypsiprymnodontinæ, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>; <i>Hypsiprymnodon</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_162">162</a>; <i>Triclis</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Potoroinæ, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>; <i>Potorous</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;
+    <i>Bettongia</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>; <i>Caloprymnus</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>; <i>Æpyprymnus</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>; <i>Subfamily</i>
+    Macropodinæ, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>; <i>Lagostrophus</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>; <i>Dendrolagus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>; <i>Dorcopsis</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>; <i>Lagorchestes</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>; <i>Onychogale</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;
+    <i>Petrogale</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>; <i>Macropus</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>. <span class="smcap">Extinct
+    Families</span>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; <i>Diprotodon</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; <i>Nototherium</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VII</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Subclass Eutheria and the Order Edentata</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">173</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1">General characters and classification of Eutheria, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Order Edentata</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Bradypodidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>; <i>Bradypus</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>; <i>Cholœpus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_182">182</a>; <i>Nothropus</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Megatheriidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>; <i>Megatherium</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_185">185</a>; <i>Scelidotherium</i> and <i>Mylodon</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>; <i>Promegatherium</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Myrmecophagidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>; <i>Myrmecophaga</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>; <i>Tamandua</i>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>; <i>Cycloturus</i>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dasypodidæ</span>,
+    <a href="#Page_194">194</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Chlamydophorinæ, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>; <i>Chlamydophorus</i>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;
+    <i>Subfamily</i> Dasypodinæ, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>; <i>Dasypus</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>; <i>Xenurus</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;
+    <i>Priodon</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>; <i>Tolypeutes</i>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Tatusiinæ, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;
+    <i>Tatusia</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Glyptodontidæ</span>,
+    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Manidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>; <i>Manis</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>; <i>Palæomanis</i>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.
+    <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Orycteropodidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>; <i>Orycteropus</i>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>. Bibliography,
+    <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VIII</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Orders Sirenia and Cetacea</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">212</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Order Sirenia</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Manatidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>; <i>Manatus</i>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Halicoridæ</span>,
+    <a href="#Page_220">220</a>; <i>Halicore</i>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Rhytinidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;
+    <i>Rhytina</i>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>. <span class="smcap">Extinct Sirenians</span>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>; <i>Halitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;
+    Other forms, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>. Bibliography, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Order Cetacea</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Mystacoceti</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Balænidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>; <i>Balæna</i>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>; <i>Neobalæna</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;
+    <i>Rhachianectes</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>; <i>Megaptera</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>; <i>Balænoptera</i>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>; Extinct
+    genera, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xii"></a>[xii]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Archæoceti</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Zeuglodontidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>; <i>Zeuglodon</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Odontoceti</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Physeteridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Physeterinæ, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;
+    <i>Physeter</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>; <i>Cogia</i>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>; Extinct physeteroids, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>; <i>Subfamily</i>
+    Ziphiinæ, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>; <i>Hyperoödon</i>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>; <i>Ziphius</i>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>; <i>Mesoplodon</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>; <i>Berardius</i>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>; <i>Choneziphius</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>. <i>Family</i>
+    <span class="smcap">Squalodontidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>; <i>Squalodon</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Platanistidæ</span>,
+    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>; <i>Platanista</i>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>; <i>Inia</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>; <i>Pontoporia</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>; Fossil forms,
+    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Delphinidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>; <i>Monodon</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>; <i>Delphinapterus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_262">262</a>; <i>Phocæna</i>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>; <i>Cephalorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>; <i>Orcella</i>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>; Orca,
+    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>; <i>Pseudorca</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>; <i>Globicephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>; <i>Grampus</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;
+    <i>Feresia</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>; <i>Lagenorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>; <i>Delphinus</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>; <i>Tursiops</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>; <i>Prodelphinus</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>; <i>Steno</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>; <i>Sotalia</i>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>. Bibliography,
+    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER IX</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Order Ungulata</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">273</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Ungulata Vera</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Artiodactyla</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><span class="smcap">Suina</span>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hippopotamidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>; <i>Hippopotamus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Suidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>; <i>Sus</i>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>; <i>Babirusa</i>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>; <i>Phacochœrus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_288">288</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dicotylidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>; <i>Dicotyles</i>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;
+    <i>Hyotherium</i>, etc., <a href="#Page_291">291</a>. <span class="smcap">Extinct Transitional Artiodactyles</span>,
+    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>; Chœropotamidæ, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>; Anthracotheriidæ, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>; <i>Merycopotamus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>; Cotylopidæ, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>; Anoplotheriidæ, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>; Cænotheriidæ,
+    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>; Dichodontidæ, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>. <span class="smcap">Tylopoda</span>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>. <i>Family</i>
+    <span class="smcap">Camelidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>; <i>Camelus</i>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>; <i>Auchenia</i>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>; Extinct
+    Cameloids, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>. <span class="smcap">Tragulina</span>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Tragulidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+    <i>Tragulus</i>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>; <i>Dorcatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>; Extinct Traguloids, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.
+    <span class="smcap">Pecora</span>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>; Antlers, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>; Horns, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>; Teeth, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>; Stomach,
+    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Cervidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Moschinæ, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;
+    <i>Moschus</i>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>; <i>Subfamily</i> Cervinæ, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>; Plesiometacarpalia,
+    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>; <i>Cervulus</i>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>; <i>Elaphodus</i>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>; <i>Cervus</i>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>; Telemetacarpalia,
+    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>; <i>Rangifer</i>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>; <i>Alces</i>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>; <i>Cervalces</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;
+    <i>Capreolus</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>; <i>Hydropotes</i>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>; <i>Cariacus</i>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>; <i>Pudua</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;
+    Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Giraffidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>; <i>Giraffa</i>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;
+    Allied extinct types, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Antilocapridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;
+    <i>Antilocapra</i>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Bovidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>; <i>Alcelaphus</i>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;
+    <i>Connochætes</i>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>; <i>Cephalophus</i>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; <i>Tetraceros</i>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; <i>Neotragus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_338">338</a>; <i>Nanotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; <i>Pelea</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; <i>Cobus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>; <i>Cervicapra</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_340">340</a>; <i>Antilope</i>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>; <i>Æpyceros</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>; <i>Saiga</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;
+    <i>Pantholops</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>; <i>Gazella</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>; <i>Hippotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>; <i>Oryx</i>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;
+    <i>Addax</i>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>; <i>Boselaphus</i>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>; <i>Tragelaphus</i>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>; <i>Strepsiceros</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_347">347</a>; <i>Oreas</i>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>; Extinct types, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>; <i>Rupicapra</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>; <i>Nemorhædus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>; <i>Haploceros</i>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>; <i>Budorcas</i>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>; <i>Capra</i>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;
+    <i>Ovis</i>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>; <i>Ovibos</i>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>; <i>Bos</i>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiii"></a>[xiii]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Perissodactyla</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_368">368</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Tapiridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>; <i>Tapirus</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>; <i>Palæotapirus</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.
+    <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Lophiodontidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Palæotheriidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.
+    <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Equidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>; <i>Protohippus</i>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>; <i>Hipparion</i>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;
+    <i>Equus</i>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Rhinocerotidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>; <i>Rhinoceros</i>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;
+    Extinct types, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>. <i>Families</i> <span class="smcap">Lambdotheriidæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Chalicotheriidæ</span>,
+    and <span class="smcap">Titanotheriidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Macraucheniidæ</span>,
+    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Proterotheriidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Subungulata</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_414">414</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Hyracoidea</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_415">415</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hyracidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>; <i>Hyrax</i>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>; <i>Dendrohyrax</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Proboscidea</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_418">418</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Elephantidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>; <i>Elephas</i>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>; <i>Mastodon</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.
+    <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dinotheriidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>; <i>Dinotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Amblypoda</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_436">436</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Uintatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>; <i>Coryphodon</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Condylarthra</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_438">438</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Toxodontia</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_439">439</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Nesodon</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>; <i>Toxodon</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>; <i>Typotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Group</i> <span class="smcap">Tillodontia</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_441">441</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1">Bibliography of Ungulates</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_442">442</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER X</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Order Rodentia</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">443</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Simplicidentata</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_448">448</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Sciuromorpha</span>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Anomaluridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>;
+    <i>Anomalurus</i>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Sciuridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>; <i>Sciurus</i>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>;
+    <i>Rhithrosciurus</i>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>; <i>Xerus</i>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>; <i>Tamias</i>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>; <i>Pteromys</i> and
+    <i>Sciuropterus</i>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>; <i>Eupetaurus</i>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>;
+    <i>Arctomys</i>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>; <i>Cynomys</i>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>; <i>Spermophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>; Extinct
+    genera, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Haplodontidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>; <i>Haplodon</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.
+    <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Castoridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>; <i>Castor</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>. <i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Myomorpha</span>,
+    <a href="#Page_459">459</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Myoxidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>; <i>Myoxus</i>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>; <i>Eliomys</i>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>;
+    <i>Graphiurus</i>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>; <i>Claviglis</i>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>; <i>Muscardinus</i>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>. <i>Family</i>
+    <span class="smcap">Lophiomyidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>; <i>Lophiomys</i>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Muridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;
+    <i>Hydromys</i>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>; <i>Xeromys</i>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>; <i>Platacanthomys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>; <i>Gerbillus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>; <i>Pachyuromys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>; <i>Mystromys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>; <i>Otomys</i> and <i>Dasymys</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>; <i>Malacomys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>; <i>Phlœomys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>; <i>Dendromys</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>;
+    <i>Cricetus</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>; <i>Holochilus</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>; <i>Sigmodon</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>; <i>Rhithrodon</i>
+    and <i>Ochetodon</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>; <i>Neotoma</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>; <i>Hypogeomys</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>; <i>Nesomys</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>; <i>Brachytarsomys</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>; <i>Hallomys</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>; <i>Eliurus</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>;
+    <i>Phenacomys</i>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>; <i>Arvicola</i>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>; <i>Synaptomys</i>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>; <i>Myodes</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_467">467</a>; <i>Cuniculus</i>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>; <i>Fiber</i>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>; <i>Neofiber</i>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>; <i>Ellobius</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiv"></a>[xiv]</span>
+    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>; <i>Siphneus</i>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>; <i>Deomys</i>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>; <i>Mus</i>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>; <i>Nesocia</i>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>;
+    <i>Golunda</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>; <i>Uromys</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>; <i>Chiruromys</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>; <i>Hapalotis</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>; <i>Mastacomys</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>; <i>Acanthomys</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>; <i>Echinothrix</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>;
+    <i>Typhlomys</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>; <i>Cricetomys</i> and <i>Saccostomus</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>; <i>Pithechirus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_477">477</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Spalacidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>; <i>Spalax</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>; <i>Rhizomys</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>;
+    <i>Bathyergus</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>; <i>Georychus</i> and <i>Myoscalops</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>; <i>Heterocephalus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_478">478</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Geomyidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>; <i>Geomys</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>;
+    <i>Thomomys</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>; <i>Dipodomys</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>; <i>Perognathus</i> and <i>Heteromys</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_479">479</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dipodidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>; <i>Sminthus</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>; <i>Zapus</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;
+    <i>Dipus</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>; <i>Alactaga</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>; <i>Platycercomys</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>; <i>Pedetes</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.
+    <i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Hystricomorpha</span>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Octodontidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.
+    <i>Ctenodactylus</i>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>; <i>Pectinator</i>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>; <i>Octodon</i>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>; <i>Habrocoma</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>; <i>Schizodon</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>; <i>Ctenomys</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>; <i>Spalacopus</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>;
+    <i>Petromys</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>; <i>Myopotamus</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>; <i>Capromys</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>; <i>Aulacodus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>; <i>Plagiodon</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>; <i>Loncheres</i> and <i>Echinomys</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>; <i>Mesomys</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>; <i>Dactylomys</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>; <i>Cercomys</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>; <i>Carterodon</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>;
+    Fossil forms, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Theridomyidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>. <i>Family</i>
+    <span class="smcap">Hystricidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>; <i>Erethizon</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>; <i>Synetheres</i>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>; <i>Chætomys</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>; <i>Hystrix</i>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>; <i>Atherura</i>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>; <i>Trichys</i>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>. <i>Family</i>
+    <span class="smcap">Chinchillidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>; <i>Chinchilla</i>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>; <i>Lagidium</i> and <i>Lagostomus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Castoroididæ</span>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;
+    <i>Castoroides</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dasyproctidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>; <i>Dasyprocta</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>; <i>Cælogenys</i>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dinomyidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>; <i>Dinomys</i>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.
+    <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Caviidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>; <i>Cavia</i>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>; <i>Dolichotis</i>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>; <i>Hydrochœrus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Duplicidentata</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_491">491</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Lagomyidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>; <i>Lagomys</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Leporidæ</span>,
+    <a href="#Page_492">492</a>; <i>Lepus</i>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER XI</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Order Carnivora</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">496</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Carnivora Vera</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_497">497</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Æluroidea</span>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Felidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>; <i>Felis</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_502">502</a>; <i>Cynælurus</i>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_523">523</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Viverridæ</span>,
+    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>; <i>Cryptoprocta</i>, <a href="#Page_525">525</a>; <i>Viverra</i>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a>; <i>Fossa</i>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a>;
+    <i>Genetta</i>, <a href="#Page_528">528</a>; <i>Prionodon</i>, <a href="#Page_530">530</a>; <i>Poiana</i>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>; <i>Paradoxurus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>; <i>Arctogale</i>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>; <i>Hemigale</i>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a>; <i>Arctictis</i>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>; <i>Nandinia</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>; <i>Cynogale</i>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a>; <i>Herpestes</i>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a>; <i>Helogale</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>; <i>Bdeogale</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_537">537</a>; <i>Cynictis</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>; <i>Rhinogale</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>; <i>Crossarchus</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a>; <i>Suricata</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>; <i>Galidictis</i>, <i>Galidea</i>, and <i>Hemigalidea</i>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a>; <i>Eupleres</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Proteleidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a>; <i>Proteles</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hyænidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_540">540</a>; <i>Hyæna</i>, <a href="#Page_540">540</a>. <i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Cynoidea</span>,
+    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Canidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>; <i>Canis</i>, <a href="#Page_546">546</a>; <i>Lycaon</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a>; <i>Icticyon</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>; <i>Otocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_555">555</a>. <i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Arctoidea</span>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.
+    <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Ursidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>; <i>Ursus</i>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a>; <i>Melursus</i>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a>; <i>Æluropus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_561">561</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Procyonidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>;
+    <i>Ælurus</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a>; <i>Procyon</i>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a>; <i>Bassaris</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>; <i>Bassaricyon</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>;
+    <i>Nasua</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a>; <i>Cercoleptes</i>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Mustelidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>;
+    <i>Lutra</i>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>; Extinct Otters, <a href="#Page_570">570</a>; <i>Latax</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a>; <i>Mephitis</i>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a>;
+    <i>Conepatus</i>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a>; <i>Arctonyx</i>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a>; <i>Mydaus</i>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>; <i>Meles</i>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a>;
+    <i>Taxidea</i>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>; <i>Mellivora</i>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a>; <i>Helictis</i>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a>; <i>Ictonyx</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>;
+    <i>Galictis</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>; <i>Mustela</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a>; Extinct Mustelines, <a href="#Page_590">590</a>; <i>Pœcilogale</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_590">590</a>; <i>Lyncodon</i>, <a href="#Page_590">590</a>; <i>Gulo</i>, <a href="#Page_591">591</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xv"></a>[xv]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Pinnipedia</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_592">592</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Otariidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a>; <i>Otaria</i>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Trichechidæ</span>,
+    <a href="#Page_596">596</a>; <i>Trichechus</i>, <a href="#Page_597">597</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Phocidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_600">600</a>;
+    <i>Halichœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_601">601</a>; <i>Phoca</i>, <a href="#Page_601">601</a>; <i>Monachus</i>, <a href="#Page_604">604</a>; <i>Ogmorhinus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_605">605</a>; <i>Lobodon</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a>; <i>Pœcilophoca</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a>; <i>Ommatophoca</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a>;
+    <i>Cystophora</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a>; <i>Macrorhinus</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>; Extinct seals, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Creodonta</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_606">606</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Hyænodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a>; <i>Proviverridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a>; <i>Arctocyonidæ</i> and
+    <i>Mesonychidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_609">609</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER XII</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Order Insectivora</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">610</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Dermoptera</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_614">614</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Galeopithecidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_614">614</a>; <i>Galeopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_614">614</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Insectivora Vera</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_616">616</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Tupaiidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a>; <i>Tupaia</i>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a>; <i>Ptilocercus</i>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a>; Extinct
+    genera, <a href="#Page_618">618</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Macroscelididæ</span>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a>; <i>Macroscelides</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_618">618</a>; <i>Rhynchocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Erinaceidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_619">619</a>;
+    <i>Gymnura</i>, <a href="#Page_619">619</a>; <i>Erinaceus</i>, <a href="#Page_620">620</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_621">621</a>; <i>Family</i>
+    <span class="smcap">Soricidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a>; <i>Sorex</i>, <a href="#Page_622">622</a>; <i>Soriculus</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a>; <i>Notiosorex</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a>;
+    <i>Blarina</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a>; <i>Crossopus</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>; <i>Myosorex</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a>; <i>Crocidura</i>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a>;
+    <i>Diplomesodon</i>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a>; <i>Anurosorex</i>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a>; <i>Chimarrogale</i>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a>; <i>Nectogale</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_627">627</a>; Fossil Soricidæ, <a href="#Page_627">627</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Talpidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_628">628</a>;
+    <i>Myogale</i>, <a href="#Page_628">628</a>; <i>Urotrichus</i>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a>; <i>Uropsilus</i>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a>; <i>Scalops</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>;
+    <i>Scapanus</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>; <i>Condylura</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>; <i>Scaptonyx</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>; <i>Talpa</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a>;
+    Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_634">634</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Adapisoricidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a>. <i>Family</i>
+    <span class="smcap">Potamogalidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a>; <i>Potamogale</i>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a>; <i>Geogale</i>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a>. <i>Family</i>
+    <span class="smcap">Solenodontidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a>; <i>Solenodon</i>, <a href="#Page_636">636</a>; <i>Centetes</i>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a>; <i>Hemicentetes</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_637">637</a>; <i>Ericulus</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a>; <i>Microgale</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a>; <i>Oryzorictes</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a>;
+    <i>Chrysochloris</i>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a>. <span class="smcap">Extinct Types</span>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>. Bibliography, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER XIII</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Order Chiroptera</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">641</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Megachiroptera</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_650">650</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Pteropodidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_650">650</a>; <i>Epomophorus</i>, <a href="#Page_650">650</a>; <i>Pteropus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_651">651</a>; <i>Xantharpyia</i>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a>; <i>Boncia</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a>; <i>Cynopterus</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a>;
+    <i>Harpyia</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a>; <i>Cephalotes</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a>; <i>Pteralopex</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a>; <i>Notopteris</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_654">654</a>; <i>Eonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a>; <i>Carponycteris</i> and <i>Melonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a>;
+    <i>Nesonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a>; <i>Callinycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a>; <i>Trygenycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xvi"></a>[xvi]</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Microchiroptera</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_655">655</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Vespertilionina</span>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Rhinolophidæ</span>,
+    <a href="#Page_656">656</a>; <i>Rhinolophus</i>, <a href="#Page_656">656</a>; <i>Hipposiderus</i>, <a href="#Page_657">657</a>; <i>Anthops</i>, <a href="#Page_657">657</a>;
+    <i>Rhinonycteris</i> and <i>Triænops</i>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a>; <i>Cœlops</i>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a>; <i>Megaderma</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_658">658</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Vespertilionidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_660">660</a>; <i>Plecotus</i>, <a href="#Page_660">660</a>; <i>Synotus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_661">661</a>; <i>Otonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a>; <i>Nyctophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a>; <i>Antrozous</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a>;
+    <i>Vesperugo</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a>; <i>Chalinolobus</i>, <a href="#Page_662">662</a>; <i>Scotophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_662">662</a>; <i>Nycticejus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_663">663</a>; <i>Atalapha</i>, <a href="#Page_663">663</a>; <i>Harpyiocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_663">663</a>; <i>Vespertilio</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_663">663</a>; <i>Cerivoula</i>, <a href="#Page_664">664</a>; <i>Natalus</i>, <a href="#Page_664">664</a>; <i>Miniopterus</i>, <a href="#Page_664">664</a>; <i>Thyroptera</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_665">665</a>; <i>Myxopoda</i>, <a href="#Page_665">665</a>; Fossil Vespertilionidæ, <a href="#Page_665">665</a>.
+    <i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Emballonurina</span>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Emballonuridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a>;
+    <i>Furipterus</i> and <i>Antorphochilus</i>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a>; <i>Emballonura</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a>; <i>Coleüra</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_667">667</a>; <i>Rhynchonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a>; <i>Saccopteryx</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a>; <i>Taphozous</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a>;
+    <i>Diclidurus</i>, <a href="#Page_668">668</a>; <i>Noctilio</i>, <a href="#Page_668">668</a>; <i>Rhinopoma</i>, <a href="#Page_669">669</a>; <i>Chiromeles</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_669">669</a>; <i>Molossus</i>, <a href="#Page_670">670</a>; <i>Nyctinomus</i>, <a href="#Page_670">670</a>; <i>Mystacops</i>, <a href="#Page_671">671</a>. <i>Family</i>
+    <span class="smcap">Phyllostomatidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a>; <i>Chilonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a>; <i>Mormops</i>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a>;
+    <i>Lonchorhina</i>, <i>Otopterus</i> and <i>Dolichophyllum</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a>; <i>Vampyrus</i>,
+    etc., <a href="#Page_673">673</a>; <i>Desmodus</i>, <a href="#Page_677">677</a>; <i>Diphylla</i>, <a href="#Page_678">678</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER XIV</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Order Primates</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">680</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Lemuroidea</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_682">682</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Lemuridæ</span>, <a href="#Page_683">683</a>; <i>Indris</i>, <a href="#Page_684">684</a>; <i>Propithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_684">684</a>;
+    <i>Avahis</i>, <a href="#Page_686">686</a>; <i>Lemur</i>, <a href="#Page_687">687</a>; <i>Hapalemur</i>, <a href="#Page_689">689</a>; <i>Lepidolemur</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_689">689</a>; <i>Chirogaleus</i>, <a href="#Page_689">689</a>; <i>Galago</i>, <a href="#Page_690">690</a>; <i>Nycticebus</i>, <a href="#Page_691">691</a>; <i>Loris</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_692">692</a>; <i>Perodicticus</i>, <a href="#Page_693">693</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Tarsiidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a>; <i>Tarsius</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_694">694</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Chiromyidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a>; <i>Chiromys</i>, <a href="#Page_695">695</a>. <span class="smcap">Extinct
+    Lemuroids</span>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Anthropoidea</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#Page_699">699</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr"></td>
+    <td class="td1"><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hapalidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_709">709</a>; <i>Hapale</i>, <a href="#Page_710">710</a>; <i>Midas</i>, <a href="#Page_710">710</a>. <i>Family</i>
+    <span class="smcap">Cebidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a>; <i>Mycetes</i>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a>; <i>Pithecia</i>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a>; <i>Uacaria</i>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a>;
+    <i>Callithrix</i>, <a href="#Page_713">713</a>; <i>Chrysothrix</i>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a>; <i>Nyctipithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a>; <i>Ateles</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_715">715</a>; <i>Eriodes</i>, <a href="#Page_715">715</a>; <i>Lagothrix</i>, <a href="#Page_716">716</a>; <i>Cebus</i>, <a href="#Page_717">717</a>. <i>Family</i>
+    <span class="smcap">Cercopithecidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_718">718</a>; <i>Cynocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_719">719</a>; <i>Theropithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_722">722</a>;
+    <i>Cynopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_722">722</a>; <i>Macacus</i>, <a href="#Page_722">722</a>; <i>Cercocebus</i>, <a href="#Page_723">723</a>; <i>Cercopithecus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_724">724</a>; <i>Nasalis</i>, <a href="#Page_725">725</a>; <i>Semnopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_726">726</a>; <i>Colobus</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_727">727</a>; Extinct genera, <a href="#Page_727">727</a>. <i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Simiidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_728">728</a>; <i>Hylobates</i>,
+    <a href="#Page_728">728</a>; <i>Simia</i>, <a href="#Page_731">731</a>; <i>Gorilla</i>, <a href="#Page_734">734</a>; <i>Anthropopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_736">736</a>. <i>Family</i>
+    <span class="smcap">Hominidæ</span>, <a href="#Page_739">739</a>; <i>Homo</i>, <a href="#Page_740">740</a>. Classification of the varieties of
+    Man, <a href="#Page_743">743</a>.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[1]</span></p>
+
+<h1><span class="smaller">AN INTRODUCTION<br>
+<span class="smaller">TO</span></span><br>
+THE STUDY OF MAMMALS<br>
+<span class="smaller">LIVING AND EXTINCT</span></h1>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I<br>
+<span class="smaller"><i>INTRODUCTORY REMARKS</i></span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Mammalia (French, <i>Mammifères</i>; German, <i>Säugethiere</i>) is the name
+invented by Linnæus (from the Latin <i>mamma</i>), and now commonly
+used by zoologists, for one of the five great classes of vertebrated
+animals, which, though the best known and undoubtedly the most
+important group of the animal kingdom, has never received any
+generally accepted vernacular designation in our language. The
+unity of structure of the animals composing this class, and their
+definite demarcation from other vertebrates, were not recognised
+until comparatively modern times, and hence no word was thought
+of to designate what zoologists now term a mammal. The nearest
+equivalents in common use are “beast” and “quadruped,” both of
+which, however, cover a different ground, since they are often used
+to include the larger four-footed reptiles, and to exclude certain undoubted
+mammals, as Man, Bats, and Whales.</p>
+
+<p>The limits of the class as now understood by zoologists are
+perfectly well defined, and, although certain forms still existing on
+the earth (but not those mentioned above as excluded by the popular
+idea) are of exceedingly aberrant structure, and exhibit several well-marked
+characters connecting them with the lower vertebrated
+groups, common consent retains them in the class with which the
+great proportion of their characters ally them, and hitherto no
+traces of any species showing still more divergent or transitional
+characters have been discovered. There is thus an interval, not
+bridged over by any known forms, between mammals and other<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span>
+vertebrates; although recent discoveries have shown evidence of a
+more or less marked affinity between the most generalised mammals
+and a peculiar group of extinct reptiles known as the Anomodontia
+(or Theromora), which are themselves nearly related to the equally
+extinct Labyrinthodont amphibians of the Palæozoic and Mesozoic
+epochs.</p>
+
+<p>In the gradual order of evolution of living beings, mammals,
+taken altogether, are certainly the highest in organisation, as, with
+the possible exception of birds, they were the last to appear on
+the earth’s surface. But, as in speaking of all other large and
+greatly differentiated groups, this expression must not be understood
+in too limited a sense. The tendency to gradual perfection for
+their particular station in life, which all groups manifest, leads
+to various lines of specialisation, or divergence from the common
+or general type, which may or may not take the direction of
+elevation. A too complex and sensitive condition of organisation
+may in some circumstances of life be disadvantageous, and modification
+may then take place in a retrograde direction. Thus in
+mammals, as in other classes, there are low as well as high forms,
+but by any tests that can be applied—especially those based on
+the state of development of the central nervous system—it will
+be seen that the average exceeds that of any other class; that
+the class contains many species far excelling those of any other
+in perfection of structure, and especially one form which is unquestionably
+the culminating point yet arrived at amongst organised
+beings.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the time of the first appearance of mammals
+upon the earth, the geological record is provokingly imperfect. At
+the commencement of the Tertiary period they were abundant, and
+already modified into most of the leading types at present existing.
+It was at one time thought that they first came into being at this
+date, but the discovery of more or less fragmentary remains of
+numerous and generally small species has revealed the existence of
+some forms of the class at various periods throughout almost the
+whole of the age of the deposition of the Secondary or Mesozoic
+rocks. This subject will be reverted to later on.</p>
+
+<p>It hardly need be said that mammals are vertebrated animals,
+and possess all the characteristics common to the members of that
+division of the animal kingdom. They are separated from the
+<i>Ichthyopsida</i> (fishes and amphibians), and agree with the <i>Sauropsida</i>
+(reptiles and birds), in the possession during their development of
+an amnion and allantois, and in never having external branchiæ or
+gills. They differ from reptiles and resemble birds in being warm-blooded,
+and having a heart with four cavities and a complete
+double circulation. They differ from both birds and reptiles in the
+red corpuscles of the blood being non-nucleated and, with very few<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span>
+exceptions, circular in outline; in the lungs being freely suspended
+in a thoracic cavity, separated from the abdomen by a complete
+muscular partition—the diaphragm—which is the principal agent
+in inflating the lungs in respiration; in having but one aortic arch,
+which curves over the left bronchus; in the skin being more or less
+clothed with hair; in the greater perfection of the commissural
+system of the cerebral hemispheres, which has either a complete
+corpus callosum, or an incomplete one associated with a very
+large anterior commissure; in having no syrinx or inferior vocal
+organ, but a complete larynx at the upper end of the trachea;
+in having a mandible of which each ramus (except in very early
+developmental conditions) consists of a single bone on each side,
+articulating to the squamosal without the intervention of a quadrate
+bone; in having a pair of laterally placed occipital condyles
+instead of one median one; and in the very obvious character of
+the female being provided with mammary glands, by the secretion
+of which the young (usually produced alive, although in the lowest
+forms by means of externally hatched eggs) are nourished for some
+time after birth.</p>
+
+<p>In common with all vertebrated animals, mammals never have
+more than two pairs of limbs; as the larger number live ordinarily
+on the surface of the earth, in the great majority of the class
+both pairs are well-developed and functional, and adapted for terrestrial
+progression. Mammals are, however, by no means limited to
+this situation. Thus some species spend the greater part of their
+lives beneath the surface, their fore limbs being specially modified
+for burrowing; others, again, are habitually arboreal, their limbs
+being fitted for climbing or hanging to boughs of trees; some are
+as aerial as birds, the fore limbs being developed into wings of a
+special character; while in others which are as aquatic as fishes,
+the limbs assume the form of fins or paddles. In many of the
+latter the hinder extremities are either completely suppressed, or
+present only in a rudimentary state. In no known mammal are
+the fore limbs absent.</p>
+
+<p>The hinder extremity of the axis of the body is usually prolonged
+into a tail, which may be a mere pendent appendage, or may be
+modified to perform various functions, as grasping boughs in
+climbing, or even gathering food, in the case of the prehensile-tailed
+Monkeys and Opossums, swimming in the Cetacea, and acting
+as a flap to drive away troublesome insects from the skin in the
+Ungulata.</p>
+
+<p>The state of development of the young at the time of birth
+varies greatly in the different groups. Thus among the Marsupials
+where there is no connection during intra-uterine life between the
+circulatory systems of the parent and the fœtus, the young are
+born in an exceedingly imperfectly developed condition. For their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span>
+protection the mother, in a large number of cases, has a special
+pouch enclosing the mammæ, into which the young are transferred
+at birth, and in which they remain till they are well developed.
+Among the higher, or Placental types, however, where a connection
+exists between the maternal and fœtal circulations previous to birth,
+the young are always born in a much more highly developed state
+than among the Marsupials, although we meet with great variations
+in this respect. In those forms which habitually live in holes, like
+many Rodents, the young are always very helpless at birth; and
+the same is also true of many of the Carnivora, which are well able
+to defend their young from attack. In the great order of
+Ungulate, or Hoofed Mammals, where in the majority of cases
+defence from foes depends upon fleetness of foot, or upon huge
+corporeal bulk, the young are born in a very highly developed
+condition, and are able almost at once to run by the side of the
+parent. This state of relative maturity at birth reaches its highest
+development in the Cetacea, where it is evidently associated with
+the peculiar conditions under which these animals pass their
+existence. In the Primates, however, we again find the young
+produced in a more or less helpless condition, and requiring a long
+period before they attain their full development, this being more
+especially the case with those higher forms which approximate in
+structure to man.</p>
+
+<p>In point of size mammals vary to a greater extent than the
+existing members of any one class of animals, and include the
+largest living inhabitants of the earth. The extremes of size are
+marked on the one hand by the whale known as Sibbald’s Rorqual,
+which attains a length of eighty feet and a weight of nearly as many
+tons, and on the other by the Pigmy-Shrew and the minute Harvest-mouse,
+which can climb a stem of wheat.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the living creatures inhabiting our globe, mammals are by
+far the most important in their economic uses, since, in addition to
+being the only animals capable of labour for human benefit, they
+furnish the greater portion of the animal food of many races of man,
+and likewise a large amount of their clothing. In these respects
+the Ungulates hold the first place.</p>
+
+<p>As regards employment for labour, with the exception of the
+Dogs used for sleighing by the Esquimaux, and those which among
+some European nations draw light carts, all the mammals in general
+use are Ungulates. Of the first importance are the Horses and
+Asses, which are employed as beasts of draught or burden over
+nearly the whole globe. Among many nations, however, cattle, as
+represented by the true Oxen, the Buffalos, and the Yaks of Tibet,
+occupy a still more important position, while in the highlands of
+Tibet, Sheep are largely used for carrying burdens. In other regions,
+again, the place of the Horse and the Ass is taken by the Camels,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span>
+which are peculiarly fitted for traversing parched and arid deserts,
+while in the Andes we find the Llamas serving the same office.
+In Lapland and other parts of the northern regions the Reindeer is
+the main agent employed in draught. Lastly, we must not omit
+to mention the Indian Elephant, which, from its vast strength, is so
+useful in transport through the wilder parts of its native country.</p>
+
+<p>As regards food, we again find the Ungulates, and more
+especially the Artiodactyle division, taking the foremost place; and
+in this connection we have only to mention, among animals kept
+in a domestic condition, Swine, Cattle, Sheep, and Goats—the three
+latter affording not only their flesh, but also milk and its resulting
+cheese and butter. To many races, however, Mares and Camels are
+the chief milk producers, while the Laps make use of the milk of
+the Reindeer. The Rodents, as represented by Hares and Rabbits,
+occupy a minor position as furnishers of food.</p>
+
+<p>In relation to clothing, the Ungulates are likewise of paramount
+importance, as exemplified by the wool of the Sheep, which is so
+valuable on account of its peculiar property of felting. Furs,
+however, are mostly yielded by mammals of other orders, among
+which the Fur-seals are perhaps the most important at the present
+day. Many other Carnivores yield valuable furs, among which may
+be mentioned Bears, Foxes, Raccoons, Skunks, Minks, Otters, and
+Ermines. Of less importance are certain Rodents, such as the
+Squirrels, Rabbits, Hares, etc., while the hair of the Beaver was
+formerly much sought after for the manufacture of hats. Returning
+to the Ungulates, we may notice the importance of horse-hair, the
+employment of camel’s hair for brushes, and the many uses of the
+bristles of the pig. Some of the Monkeys yield fur which has
+been extensively used. Leather, again, is almost exclusively
+supplied by mammals, and mainly by the Ungulates.</p>
+
+<p>Three other important products, namely horn, buck’s-horn, and
+ivory, are likewise obtained solely from the same great order.
+Horn, as we shall notice in the sequel, is the sheath covering the
+bony horn-cores of the Oxen, while buck’s-horn is the commercial
+term applied to the antlers of the Deer, which are largely used for
+knife-handles and other purposes. True ivory is the product of
+the two species of Elephant; but other kinds of ivory are obtained
+from the teeth of the Sperm Whale and the tusks of the Walrus and
+Hippopotamus, the latter kind having been extensively employed
+some years ago for artificial teeth. For many purposes the place of
+ivory is taken by bone, this being mostly obtained from Ungulates.
+The bones of Camels are of an especially firm texture and good
+colour, and are largely employed in India for inlaying. Other
+important uses of bones are in the form of bone-dust as manure,
+and also as a source of phosphoric acid. The horns of the African
+Rhinoceros and the hide of the Hippopotamus are occasionally<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span>
+manufactured into small canes or whips. Horns and hoofs are also
+largely employed in the manufacture of glue.</p>
+
+<p>Formerly the so-called whalebone, or more properly baleen,
+was much used, especially to form the ribs of umbrellas and in
+stiffening ladies’ apparel, but the gradual destruction of the Right
+Whales, its only source of supply, has largely restricted its use of
+late years.</p>
+
+<p>The Cetacea are also of great economical importance from the
+abundance of oil yielded by the thick layer of blubber underlying
+the skin. Large quantities of valuable oil are also furnished by
+the Walrus and the Seals. Spermaceti, which was at one time
+extensively used in the manufacture of candles, is obtained from a
+large cavity in the head of the Sperm Whale or Cachalot, and also
+from the <i>Hyperoödon</i> or Bottle-nosed Whale.</p>
+
+<p>The nature of ambergris, a peculiar substance found floating on
+the surface of the sea and employed in perfumery, was long a
+matter of controversy; but it appears to be an intestinal concretion
+of the Sperm Whale. Other substances of more importance to the
+perfumer are musk, the product of the Musk-Deer of the Himalaya,
+and civet, which is obtained from the so-called Civet Cat and other
+allied Carnivores. A secretion of the Beaver has also been used in
+perfumery and in medicine.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II<br>
+<span class="smaller">GENERAL ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<h3>I. TEGUMENTARY STRUCTURES</h3>
+
+<p><i>Hair.</i>—The external surface of the greater number of members of
+the class is thickly clothed with a peculiarly modified form of
+epidermis, commonly called hair. This consists of hard, elongated,
+slender, cylindrical or tapering, filiform, unbranched masses of
+epidermic material, growing from a short papilla sunk at the
+bottom of a follicle in the derm or true skin. Such hairs upon
+different parts of the same animal, or upon different animals, assume
+various forms, and are of various sizes and degrees of rigidity,—as
+seen in the delicate soft velvety fur of the Mole, the stiff bristles
+of the Pig, and the spines of the Hedgehog and Porcupine,
+all modifications of the same structures. Each hair is composed
+usually of a cellular pithy internal portion, containing much air,
+and a denser or more horny cortical part. In some animals, as
+Deer, the substance of the hair is almost entirely composed of the
+medullary or cellular substance, and it is consequently very easily
+broken; in others the horny part prevails almost exclusively, as in
+the bristles of the Wild Boar. In the Three-toed Sloth (<i>Bradypus</i>)
+the hairs have a central horny axis and a pithy exterior. Though
+generally nearly smooth, or but slightly scaly, the surface of some
+hairs is strongly imbricated, notably so in some Bats; while in the
+Two-toed Sloth (<i>Cholœpus</i>) the hairs are longitudinally grooved or
+fluted. Though usually more or less cylindrical or circular in
+section, hairs are often elliptical or flattened, as in the curly-haired
+races of men, the terminal portion of the hair of Moles and Shrews,
+and conspicuously in the spines of the Rodents <i>Xerus</i> and <i>Platacanthomys</i>.
+Hair having a property of mutual cohesion or “felting,”
+which depends upon a roughened scaly surface and a tendency to
+curl, as in domestic Sheep (in which animal this property has been
+especially cultivated by selective breeding), is called “wool.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span></p>
+
+<p>In a large number of mammals hairs of one kind only are
+scattered pretty evenly over the surface; but in many there are two
+kinds, one longer, stiffer, and alone appearing on the surface, and
+the other shorter, finer, and softer, constituting the under fur,
+analogous to the down of birds. This under fur, or <i>pashm</i> as it is
+called by the natives of Kashmir, is especially abundant in the
+mammals inhabiting the cold plateau of Tibet and the adjacent
+regions. In many cases hairs of a different character from those of
+the general surface grow in special regions, forming ridges or tufts
+on the median dorsal or ventral surface or elsewhere. The tail is
+very often completed in this way by variously disposed elongated
+hairs. The margins of the eyelids are almost always furnished with
+a special row of stiffish hairs, called <i>cilia</i> or eyelashes; and in most
+mammals specially modified hairs, constituting the <i>vibrissæ</i> or
+whiskers, and endowed, through the abundant nerve supply of their
+basal papillæ, with special tactile powers, grow from the lips and
+cheeks. In some mammals the hairy covering is partial and limited
+to particular regions; in others, as the Hippopotamus and the Sirenia,
+though scattered over the whole surface, it is extremely short and
+scanty; but in none is it reduced to so great an extent as in the
+Cetacea, in which it is limited to a few small bristles confined to the
+neighbourhood of the lips and nostrils, and often only present in
+the young or even fœtal condition.</p>
+
+<p>Some kinds of hairs, as those of the mane and tail of the Horse,
+appear to persist throughout the lifetime of the animal; but more
+generally, as in the case of the body hair of the same animal, they
+are shed and renewed periodically, generally annually. Many
+mammals have a longer hairy coat in winter, which is shed as
+summer comes on; and some few, which inhabit countries covered
+in winter with snow, as the Arctic Fox, Variable Hare, and Ermine,
+undergo a complete change of colour in the two seasons, being
+white in winter, and gray or brown in summer. The several species
+of Cape Mole (<i>Chrysochloris</i>), the Desmans or Water Moles (<i>Myogale</i>),
+and <i>Potamogale velox</i>, are remarkable as being the only mammals
+whose hair reflects those iridescent tints so common in the feathers
+of tropical birds.</p>
+
+<p>The principal and most obvious purpose of the hairy covering is
+to protect the skin against external influences, especially cold and
+damp. Its function in the hairless Cetacea is supplied by the
+specially modified and thickened layer of adipose tissue beneath the
+skin, called “blubber.”</p>
+
+<p><i>Colour.</i>—From the consideration of hair we are easily led to
+that of colour. As a general rule, bright and primary colours are
+absent in the class; but among the Baboons we find brilliant patches
+of scarlet or blue on some of the bare portions of the body, and one
+of the South American Monkeys (<i>Brachyurus</i>) has its whole face of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span>
+a bright crimson. The most general colours are various shades of
+gray, brown, and tawny, with a frequent tendency to whiteness of
+the ventral surface of the body; but among the Squirrels, and more
+especially those provided with a parachute for flying, we find brilliant
+russets, passing into orange and red. Dark brown or black is also
+not very uncommon, as in the Bears and the Sable Antelope of
+South Africa. Entirely white mammals are rare, and mostly
+characteristic of the polar regions, or of countries having a long
+and snowy winter. An entirely white Bat (<i>Diclidurus albus</i>) occurs,
+however, in South America. In the large majority of mammals
+that exhibit a varied coloration, the upper and most exposed parts
+of the surface present the richest and darkest colours, the under
+parts being pale or often quite white. The Ratels, Gluttons, <i>Ælurus</i>,
+Hamsters, and some others are exceptions to this rule. A large
+number of mammals having a ground colour of gray, tawny, or dun
+are marked by stripes or spots, which are generally of a darker hue
+than the ground colour, as in many Carnivora, but more rarely are
+lighter, as in the Fallow and Axis Deer and several species of Antelope.
+These stripes very generally run transversely to the axis of the
+body, as in the Tasmanian Thylacine, the Tiger, and the Zebra; but
+they may be longitudinal, as in several of the Civet family. There has
+been considerable discussion as to whether the striped or the spotted
+is the more primitive type of coloration; but no very conclusive
+arguments have been brought forward in favour of either view. It
+is, however, manifest that in several groups of mammals there is a
+tendency to lose the spots, and more rarely the stripes, and to
+assume a uniform colour. Thus the young of nearly all the species
+of Deer are spotted, whereas the adults of only the Fallow and
+Axis Deer are so marked. The same is true of most of the Pigs;
+and the young of the Malayan and American Tapirs are marked
+by light-coloured stripes and spots on a dark ground. In like
+manner the young of the Lion and the Puma exhibit distinct spots
+which disappear with advancing age. In most of our domestic
+horses of various shades of bay and brown we may detect “dappling”
+on the under hair when the outer coat has been removed, which
+is not apparent on the surface of the latter. Many varieties of
+the Ass and the Horse also exhibit a tendency to the presence of
+stripes on the legs, which would seem to indicate a descent from a
+striped Zebra-like type.</p>
+
+<p>A peculiar feature, which is, however, common to many other
+groups of animals, is the tendency to what is known as melanism,
+or the production of black or dark individuals or races of particular
+species, due to an excess of pigment in the skin and hair. Thus we
+may have black Leopards and Jaguars, black Wolves, and black
+Rabbits.</p>
+
+<p>The opposite to melanism, and of more frequent occurrence, is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span>
+albinism—a condition in which the pigment or colouring matter
+usually present in the tissues constituting the external coverings of
+the body, and which gives them their characteristic hue, is absent.
+When it occurs the hair is of an opaque white, the claws, hoofs, etc., of
+a pale horn-colour, and the skin and eyes pink, in consequence of the
+colour of the blood which circulates through them being no longer
+concealed by the stronger hues of the pigments. An animal in this
+condition is called an <i>albino</i>. In complete albinism there is a total
+absence of pigment throughout the system. This condition occurs
+occasionally as an individual peculiarity among wild animals of
+many kinds; but it has never been perpetuated among them in distinct
+races or species. The disadvantage of absence of pigment
+in the eye, causing a certain amount of intolerance of light, is
+probably sufficient to account for this. Several races of true
+albinos, as White Ferrets, Rabbits, Rats, and Mice, have, however,
+been established under the protection of man, and in them this abnormal
+condition is propagated from generation to generation.</p>
+
+<p>Partial albinism—a condition in which the absence of pigment
+is limited to portions of the surface, or, at all events, does not extend
+to the eyes—is much more common as an individual variation both
+in domestic and in wild animals. It is possible that the artificial
+conditions incident to domestication increase the tendency to its
+occurrence; but, whether this be so or not, it certainly becomes
+perpetuated more frequently among domesticated than among wild
+animals. This may be accounted for partly by its proving of no
+disadvantage to them, and partly by the frequent selection by man
+of animals of such colour in preference to others. The result is that
+there is no completely domestic animal of which white races do not
+exist. On the other hand, to most wild animals even partial
+albinism seems to be a disadvantage in the struggle for existence,
+since, except in the case of species inhabiting lands continually
+covered with snow, it renders them more conspicuous objects both
+to their enemies and their prey, and hence it is rarely perpetuated.
+In northern regions, however, a large proportion of species are
+regularly and normally of a white colour, either, as the Polar Bear,
+all the year through, or, as the Ermine or Stoat, Arctic Fox, and
+Alpine Hare, during the winter season. The coloration in these
+cases is obviously protective, as it is also to a great extent in many
+other instances throughout the class.</p>
+
+<p>Among conspicuously coloured mammals, it has been observed
+that the vertical black and tawny stripes of the Tiger harmonise so
+well with the brown and green grasses of its native jungle as to
+render the animal almost invisible when lying among them; while
+the dappled hide of the Giraffe is said to agree equally well
+with the chequered splashes of light and shade in the clumps of tall
+mimosas among which it feeds. The uniformly tawny hue of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span>
+Lion accords well with the prevailing tint of its native desert; and
+any one who has seen an Elephant or Buffalo in the deep shades of
+an Indian forest will realise how perfectly adapted is their dull,
+slaty colour to concealment in such a spot. The dun colour of the
+Wild Ass of India is equally well suited to the sandy deserts of
+Kutch; it is also stated that the brilliant stripes of the Zebras of
+Africa are arranged in such proportion as exactly to match the pale
+tint which arid ground possesses when seen by moonlight.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> The
+most remarkable instance of protective coloration is, however, to be
+found in the Sloths of South America, in which the coarse gray
+hairs so closely resemble a mass of lichenous growth that it is
+almost impossible to distinguish these animals when at rest from
+the gnarled and lichen-clad boughs from which they suspend themselves.
+This resemblance is increased by the fact that the hairs
+actually develop a growth of lichens upon themselves. That the
+sombre coloration of these animals has been produced to harmonise
+with their present surroundings seems to be evident by the circumstance
+that when the long hair is plucked off the under fur is seen
+to present a bold alternation of black and yellow stripes, which
+may probably be regarded as the original primitive coloration of
+this group.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scales, etc.</i>—True scales, or flat imbricated plates of horny
+material, covering the greater part of the body, so frequently
+occurring in reptiles, are found only in one family of mammals, the
+<i>Manidæ</i> or Pangolins; but these are also associated with hairs
+growing from the intervals between the scales, or on the parts of
+the skin not covered by them. Similarly, imbricated epidermic
+productions form the covering of the under surface of the tail of
+the flying Rodents of the genus <i>Anomalurus</i>; and flat scutes, with
+the edges in apposition, and not overlaid, clothe both surfaces of
+the tail of the Beaver, Rats, and others of the same order, and also
+of some Insectivores and Marsupials. The Armadillos alone have
+an ossified exoskeleton, composed of plates of true bony tissue,
+developed in the derm or corium, and covered with scutes of horny
+epidermis. Other epidermic appendages are the horns of Ruminants
+and Rhinoceroses,—the former being elongated, tapering, hollow
+caps of hardened epidermis of fibrillated structure, fitting on and
+growing from conical projections of the frontal bone, and always
+arranged in pairs, while the latter are of similar structure, but
+solid and without any internal bony support, and (in all existing
+species) situated in the median line. Callosities, or bare patches
+covered with hardened and thickened epidermis, are found covering
+the pads under the soles of the feet and undersurfaces of the
+toes of nearly all mammals, upon the ischial tuberosities of many
+Apes, the sternum of Camels, on the inner side of the limbs of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span>
+<i>Equidæ</i>, the grasping under surface of the tail of the prehensile-tailed
+Monkeys, etc. The greater part of the skin of both species of
+one-horned Asiatic Rhinoceros is immensely thickened and stiffened
+by increase of the tissue both of the derm and epiderm, constituting
+the well-known jointed “armour-plated” hide of those
+animals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nails, Claws, and Hoofs.</i>—With very few exceptions, the terminal
+extremities of the digits of both limbs are more or less protected or
+armed by epidermic plates or sheaths, constituting the various forms
+of nails, claws, or hoofs. These are wanting in the Cetacea alone.
+A perforated spur, with a special secreting gland in connection with
+it, is found attached to the hind leg of the males of the three genera
+of Monotremata, <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, <i>Proechidna</i>, and <i>Echidna</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Odour-secreting Glands.</i>—Besides the universally distributed
+sebaceous glands connected with the pilose system, most mammals
+have special glands situated in modified portions of the integument,
+often involuted to form a shallow recess or a deep sac with a narrow
+opening, situated in various parts of the surface of the body, and
+secreting odorous substances, by the aid of which individuals
+appear to recognise one another, and probably affording the principal
+means by which wild animals are able to become aware of
+the presence of other members of the species, even at great distances.
+Although the commencement of the modifications of
+portions of the external covering for the formation of special
+secretions may be at present difficult to understand, the principle
+of natural selection will readily explain how such organs become
+fixed and gradually increase in development in any species, especially
+as there would probably be a corresponding modification and
+increased sensibility of the olfactory organs. Such individuals as
+by the intensity and peculiarity of their scent had greater power of
+attracting the opposite sex would certainly be those most likely to
+leave descendants to inherit and in their turn propagate the modification.</p>
+
+<p>To this group of structures belong the suborbital gland or
+“crumen” of Antelopes and Deer, the frontal gland of the Muntjac
+and of Bats of the genus <i>Hipposiderus</i>, the submental gland of the
+Chevrotains and of <i>Taphozous</i> and some other Bats, the post-auditory
+follicle of the Chamois, the temporal gland of the Elephant, the
+lateral glands of the Musk-Shrew, the dorsal gland of the Peccary,
+the inguinal glands of Antelopes, the preputial glands of the Musk-Deer
+and Beaver (already alluded to in connection with the use
+made of their powerfully odorous secretion in medicine and perfumery)
+and also of the Swine and Hare, the anal glands of Carnivora,
+the perineal gland of the Civet (also of commercial value), the
+caudal glands of the Fox and Goat, the gland on the humeral
+membrane of Bats of the genus <i>Saccopteryx</i>, the post-digital gland of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span>
+the Rhinoceros, the interdigital glands of the Sheep and many
+Ruminants, and numerous others. In some of these cases the
+glands are peculiar to, or more largely developed in, the male; in
+others they are found equally developed in both sexes.</p>
+
+<h3>II. DENTAL SYSTEM</h3>
+
+<p>The dental system of mammals may be considered rather
+more in detail than space permits for some other portions of their
+structure, not only on account of the important part it plays in the
+economy of the animals of this class, but also for its interest to
+zoologists as an aid in the classification and identification of species.
+Owing to the imperishable nature of their tissues, teeth are
+preserved for an indefinite time, and in the case of extinct
+species frequently offer the only indications available from which
+to derive an idea of the characters, affinities, and habits of the
+animals to which they once belonged. Hence even their smallest
+modifications have received great attention from comparative
+anatomists, and they have formed the subject of many special
+monographs.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>Teeth are present in nearly all mammals, and are applied
+to various purposes. They are, however, mainly subservient
+to the function of alimentation, being used either in procuring
+food, by seizing and killing living prey or gathering and biting
+off portions of vegetable material, and more indirectly in tearing
+or cutting through the hard protective coverings of food substances,
+as the husks and shells of nuts, or in pounding, crushing,
+or otherwise mechanically dividing the solid materials before
+swallowing, so as to prepare them for digestion in the stomach.
+Certain teeth are also in many animals most efficient weapons of
+offence and defence, and for this purpose alone, quite irrespective
+of subserviency to the digestive process, are they developed in the
+male sex of many herbivorous animals, in the females of which
+they are absent or rudimentary.</p>
+
+<p>Teeth belong essentially to the tegumentary or dermal system
+of organs, and, as is well seen in the lower vertebrates, pass by
+almost insensible gradations into the hardened spines and scutes
+formed upon the integument covering the outer surface of the
+body; but in mammals they are more specialised in structure and
+limited in locality. In this class they are developed only in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span>
+gums or fibro-mucous membrane covering the alveolar borders of
+the upper and lower jaws, or, in other words, the premaxillary
+and maxillary bones and the mandible. In the process of development,
+for the purpose of giving them that support which is needful
+for the performance of their functions, they almost always become
+implanted in the bone,—the osseous tissue growing up and moulding
+itself around the lengthening root of the tooth, so that
+ultimately they become apparently parts of the skeleton. In no
+mammal, however, does ankylosis or bony union between the
+tooth and jaw normally take place, as in many fishes and reptiles,—a
+vascular layer of connective tissue, the alveolo-dental membrane,
+always intervening.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> The presence of two or more roots,
+frequently met with in the cheek-teeth of mammals, implanted in
+corresponding distinct sockets of the jaw, is now peculiar to animals
+of this class.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Structure.</i>—The greater number of mammalian teeth when fully
+formed are not simple and homogeneous in structure, but are composed
+of several distinct tissues, which are enumerated below.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>pulp</i>, a soft substance, consisting of a very delicate
+gelatinous connective tissue, in which numerous cells are imbedded,
+and abundantly supplied with blood-vessels and nerves, constitutes
+the central axis of all the basal part of the tooth, and affords the
+means by which the vitality of the whole is preserved. The
+nerves which pass into the pulp and endow the tooth with
+sensibility are branches of the fifth pair of cranial nerves. The
+pulp occupies a larger relative space, and performs a more important
+purpose, in the young growing tooth than afterwards, as by the
+calcification and conversion of its outer layers the principal hard
+constituent of the tooth, the dentine, is formed. In teeth which
+have ceased to grow the pulp occupies a comparatively small space,
+which in the dried tooth is called the pulp-cavity. This communicates
+with the external surface of the tooth by a small aperture at
+the apex of the root, through which the branches of the blood-vessels
+and nerves, by which the tooth receives its nutrition and
+sensitiveness, pass in to be distributed in the pulp. In growing
+teeth the pulp-cavity is widely open, while in advanced age it often
+becomes obliterated, and the pulp itself entirely converted into
+bone-like material.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>dentine</i> or <i>ivory</i> forms the principal constituent of the
+greater number of teeth. When developed in its most characteristic
+form, it is a very hard but elastic substance, white, with a
+yellowish tinge, and slightly translucent. It consists of an organic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span>
+matrix, something like, but not identical with, that of bone, richly
+impregnated with calcareous salts (chiefly calcium phosphate), these
+constituting in a fresh human tooth 72 per cent of its weight.
+When subjected to microscopical examination it is seen to be everywhere
+permeated by nearly parallel branching tubes which run,
+in a slightly curving or wavy manner, in a general direction from
+the centre towards the free surface of the tooth. These tubes communicate
+by open mouths with the pulp-cavity, and usually terminate
+near the periphery of the dentine by closed ends or loops,
+though in Marsupials and certain other mammals they penetrate
+into the enamel. They are occupied in the living tooth by soft
+gelatinous fibrils connected with the cells of the pulp. A variety
+of dentine, permeated by canals containing blood-vessels, met with
+commonly in fishes and in some few mammals, as the <i>Megatherium</i>, is
+called vaso-dentine. Other modifications of this tissue occasionally
+met with are called osteodentine and secondary dentine,—the
+latter being a dentine of irregular structure which often fills up the
+pulp-cavity of old animals.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>enamel</i> constitutes a thin investing layer, complete or
+partial, of the outer or exposed and working surface of the dentine
+of the crown of the teeth of most mammals. This is the hardest
+tissue met with in the animal body, containing from 95 to 97 per
+cent of mineral substances (chiefly calcium phosphate and some
+carbonate, with traces of fluoride). Its ultimate structure consists
+of prismatic fibres, placed generally with their long axes at right
+angles to the free surface of the tooth. Enamel is easily distinguished
+from dentine with the naked eye by its clear, bluish-white,
+translucent appearance.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>cement</i> or <i>crusta petrosa</i> is always the most externally placed
+of the hard tissues of which teeth are composed, as will be understood
+when the mode of development of these organs is considered.
+It is often only found as a thin layer upon the surface of the root;
+but sometimes, as in the complex-crowned molar teeth of the Horse
+and Elephant, it is a structure which plays a very important part,
+covering and filling in the interstices between the folds of the
+enamel. In appearance, histological structure, and chemical composition
+it is closely allied to osseous tissue, containing lacunæ and
+canaliculi, though only when it is of considerable thickness are
+Haversian canals present in it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Development.</i>—The two principal constituents of the teeth, the
+dentine and the enamel, are developed from the two layers of the
+mucous membrane of the jaw—the dentine from the deeper or vascular,
+the enamel from the superficial or epithelial layer. The latter
+dips down into the substance of the gum, and forms the enamel-organ
+or germ, the first rudiment of the future tooth, which is constantly
+present even in those animals in which the enamel is not found as a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span>
+constituent of the perfectly-formed tooth. Below the mass of epithelial
+cells thus embedded in the substance of the gum, and remaining
+connected by a narrow neck of similar structure with the epithelium
+of the surface, a portion of the vascular areolar tissue becomes
+gradually separated and defined from that which surrounds it, and
+assumes a distinct form, which is that of the crown of the future
+tooth,—a single cone in the case of simple teeth, or with two or
+more eminences in the complex forms. This is called the dental
+papilla or dentine germ, and by the gradual conversion of its tissue
+into dentine the bulk of the future tooth is formed, the uncalcified
+central portion remaining as the pulp. The conversion of the
+papilla into hard tissue commences at the outer surface of the apex,
+and gradually proceeds downwards and inwards, so that the form of
+the papilla exactly determines the form of the future dentine, and
+no alteration either in shape or size of this portion of the tooth,
+when once calcified, can take place by addition to its outer surface.
+In the meanwhile, calcification of a portion of the cells of the enamel-organ,
+which adapts itself like a cap round the top of the dentinal
+papilla, and has assumed a somewhat complex structure, results in
+the formation of the enamel-coating of the crown of the tooth.
+While these changes are taking place the tissues immediately surrounding
+the tooth-germ become condensed and differentiated into
+a capsule, which appears to grow up from the base of the dental
+papilla, and encloses both this and the enamel-germ, constituting
+the follicle or tooth-sac. By the ossification of the inner layer of
+this follicle the cement is formed. This substance, therefore, unlike
+the dentine, increases from within outwards, and its growth may
+accordingly be the cause of considerable modification of form and
+enlargement, especially of the roots, of certain teeth, as those of
+Seals and some Cetacea. The delicate homogeneous layer coating the
+enamel surface of newly-formed teeth, in which cement is not found
+in the adult state, and known as Nasmyth’s membrane, is considered
+by Tomes as probably a film of this substance, too thin to exhibit
+its characteristic structure, though by others it is believed to be
+derived from the external layer of the enamel-organ. The homology
+of the teeth with the dermal appendages, hairs, scales, and claws,
+has already been alluded to, and it will now be seen that in both cases
+two of the primary embryonic layers are concerned in their development—the
+mesoblast and epiblast—although in very different proportions
+respectively. Thus in the hair or nail the part derived from
+the epiblast forms the principal bulk of the organ, the mesoblast
+only constituting the papilla or matrix. But in the tooth the epiblastic
+portion is limited to the enamel, and is always of relatively
+small bulk and often absent, while the dentine (the principal constituent
+of the tooth) and the cement are formed from the mesoblast.</p>
+
+<p>When more than one set of teeth occur in mammals, those of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span>
+the second set are developed in a precisely similar manner to the
+first, but the enamel-germ, instead of being derived directly from an
+independent part of the oral epithelium, is formed from a budding
+out of the neck of the germ of the tooth succeeded. In the case of
+the true molars, which have no predecessors, the germ of the first
+has an independent origin, but that of the others is derived from the
+neck of the germ of the tooth preceding it in the series. The
+foundations of the permanent teeth are thus laid as it were almost
+simultaneously with those of their predecessors, although they
+remain in many cases for years before they are developed into
+functional activity.</p>
+
+<p>Although the commencement of their formation takes place
+at an early period of embryonic life, teeth are in nearly all mammals
+still concealed beneath the gum at the time of birth. The
+period of eruption, or “cutting” of the teeth as it is called, that is,
+their piercing through and rising above the surface of the mucous
+membrane, varies much in different species. In some, as Seals, the
+whole series of teeth appears almost simultaneously; but more often
+there are considerable intervals between the appearance of the
+individual teeth, the front ones usually coming into place first, and
+those at the back of the mouth at a later period.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forms of Teeth.</i>—The simplest form of tooth may be exemplified
+on a large scale by the tusk of the Elephant (<a href="#figure001">Fig. 1</a>, I.) It is a
+hard mass almost entirely composed of dentine, of a conical shape
+at first, but during growth becoming more and more cylindrical or
+uniform in width. The enamel-covering, present on the apex in
+its earliest condition, soon disappears, but a thin layer of cement
+covers the circumference of the tooth throughout life. In section
+it will be seen that the basal portion is hollow, and contains a large
+conical pulp, as broad at the base as the tooth itself, and deeply
+imbedded in the bottom of a recess, or socket, in the maxillary
+bone. This pulp continues to grow during the lifetime of the
+animal, and at the same time is converted at its surface into dentine.
+The tooth therefore continually elongates, but the use to which the
+animal subjects it in its natural state causes the apex to wear away,
+at a rate generally proportionate to the growth at the base, otherwise
+it would become of inconvenient length and weight. Such
+teeth of indefinite growth are said to be “rootless,” or to have
+“persistent pulps.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp40" id="figure001" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure001.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—Diagrammatic Sections of various forms of
+Teeth. I. Incisor or tusk of Elephant, with pulp-cavity
+persistently open at base. II. Human incisor
+during development, with root imperfectly formed,
+and pulp-cavity widely open at base. III. Completely
+formed human incisor, with pulp-cavity contracted to
+a small aperture at the end of the root. IV. Human
+molar, with broad crown and two roots. V. Molar of
+the Ox, with the enamel covering the crown deeply
+folded, and the depressions filled up with cement. The
+surface is worn by use; otherwise the enamel coating
+would be continuous at the top of the ridges. In all
+the figures the enamel is black, the pulp white, the
+dentine represented by horizontal lines, and the cement
+by dots.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>One of the corresponding front teeth of man (<a href="#figure002">Fig. 2</a>, II. and III.)
+may be taken as an example of a very different condition. After its
+crown is fully formed by calcification of the germ, the pulp, though
+continuing to elongate, begins to contract in diameter; a neck or
+slight constriction is formed; and the remainder of the pulp is converted
+into the root (often, but incorrectly, called “fang”), a tapering
+conical process imbedded in the alveolar cavity of the bone, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span>
+having at its extremity a minute perforation, through which the
+vessels and nerves required to maintain the vitality of the tooth enter
+the pulp-cavity, which is
+very different from the
+widely open cavity at
+the base of the growing
+tooth. When the crown
+of the tooth is broad and
+complex in character, instead
+of having a single root,
+it may be supported by
+two or more roots, each of
+which is implanted in a
+distinct alveolar recess or
+socket, and to the apex of
+which a branch of the common
+pulp-cavity is continued
+(<a href="#figure001">Fig. 1</a>, IV.) Such teeth are
+called “rooted teeth.” When
+they have once attained their
+position in the jaw, with the
+neck a little way above the
+level of the free margin of
+the alveolus, and embraced
+by the gum or tough fibrovascular
+membrane covering
+the alveolar border, and having
+the root fully formed,
+they can never increase in
+length or alter their position;
+if they appear to do
+so in old age, it being only
+in consequence of absorption
+and retrocession of the surrounding
+alveolar margins.
+If, as often happens, their
+surface wears away in mastication,
+it is never renewed.
+The open cavity at the base
+of the imperfectly developed
+tooth (<a href="#figure001">Fig. 1</a>, II.) causes it
+to resemble the persistent
+condition of the rootless
+tooth. The latter is therefore a more primitive condition, the
+formation of the root being a completion of the process of tooth
+development. Functionally it is, however, difficult to say that the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span>
+one is a higher form than the other, since they both serve important
+and different purposes in the animal economy.</p>
+
+<p>As is almost always the case in nature, intermediate conditions
+between these two forms of teeth are met with. Thus some teeth,
+as the molars of the Horse, and of many Rodents, are for a time
+rootless, and have growing pulps producing very long crowns with
+parallel sides, the summits of which may be in use and beginning
+to wear away while the bases are still growing; but ultimately the
+pulp contracts, forms a neck and distinct roots, and ceases to grow.
+The canine tusks of the Musk Deer and of the Walrus have
+persistent pulps, and are open at their base until the animal is of
+advanced age, when they close, and the pulp ceases to be renewed.
+The same sometimes happens in the tusks of very old Boars.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest form of the crown of a tooth is that of a cone;
+but this may be variously modified. Thus it may be flattened, with its
+edges sharp and cutting, and pointed at the apex, as in the laterally
+compressed premolars of most Carnivora; or it may be chisel- or
+awl-shaped, with a straight truncated edge, as in the human incisors;
+or it may be broad, with a flat or rounded upper surface. Very
+often there is a more or less prominent ridge encircling the whole or
+part of the base of the crown just above the neck, called the cingulum,
+which serves as a protection to the edge of the gum in masticating,
+and is most developed in flesh-eating and insectivorous
+animals, in which the gums are liable to be injured by splinters of
+bone or other hard fragments of their food. The form of the
+crown is frequently rendered complex by the development upon its
+surface of elevations or tubercules called cusps or cones, or by
+ridges usually transverse, but sometimes variously curved or folded.
+When the crown is broad and the ridges are greatly developed, as
+in the molars of the Elephant, Horse, and Ox (<a href="#figure001">Fig. 1</a>, V.), the interspaces
+between them are filled with cement, which supports them
+and makes a solid compact mass of the whole tooth. When such a
+tooth wears away at the surface by friction against the opposed
+tooth of the other jaw, the different density of the layers of
+the substances of which it is composed—enamel, dentine, and
+cement—arranged in characteristic patterns, causes them to wear
+unequally, the hard enamel ridges projecting beyond the others,
+and thus giving rise to a grinding surface of great mechanical
+advantage.</p>
+
+<p><i>Succession.</i>—The dentition of all mammals consists of a definite
+set of teeth, almost always of constant and determinate number,
+form, and situation, and, with few exceptions, persisting in a
+functional condition throughout the natural term of the animal’s
+life. In many species these are the only teeth which the animal
+ever possesses,—the set which is first formed being permanent, or, if
+accidentally lost, or decaying in extreme old age, not being replaced<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span>
+by others. These animals are called Monophyodont. But in the
+larger number of mammals, certain of the teeth are preceded by
+others, which may be only of a very transient, rudimentary, and
+functionless character (being in the Seals, for example, shed either
+before or within a few days after birth), or may be considerably
+developed, and functionally occupy the place of the permanent teeth
+for a somewhat lengthened period, during the growth and development
+of the latter and of the jaws. In all cases these teeth
+disappear (by the absorption of their roots and shedding of the
+crowns) before the frame of the animal has acquired complete
+maturity, as evidenced by the coalescence of the epiphyses of the
+osseous system. As these teeth are, as a general rule, present
+during the period in which the animal is nourished by the milk of
+the mother, the name of “milk-teeth” (French <i>dents de lait</i>,
+German <i>milchzähne</i>) has been commonly accorded to them, although
+it must be understood that the epoch of their presence is by no
+means necessarily synchronous with that of lactation. Animals
+possessing such teeth are called Diphyodont. No mammal is known
+to have more than two sets of teeth; and the definite and orderly
+replacement of certain members of the series is a process of quite a
+different nature from the indefinite succession which takes place in
+all the teeth continuously throughout the lifetime of the lower
+vertebrates.</p>
+
+<p>When the milk-teeth are well developed, and continue in place
+during the greater part of the animal’s growth, as is especially the
+case with the Ungulata, and, though to a less degree, with the
+Primates and Carnivora, their use is obvious, since taken all together
+they form structurally a complete epitome on a small scale of the
+more numerous and larger permanent set (see <a href="#figure003">Fig. 3</a>), and, consequently,
+are able to perform the same functions, while time is
+allowed for the gradual maturation of the latter, and especially
+while the jaws of the growing animal are acquiring the size and
+strength sufficient to support the permanent teeth. Those animals,
+therefore, that have a well-developed and tolerably persistent set of
+milk-teeth may be considered to be in a higher state of development,
+as regards their dentition, than those that have the milk-teeth
+absent or rudimentary.</p>
+
+<p>It is a very general rule that individual teeth of the milk and
+permanent set have a close relationship to one another, being
+originally formed, as mentioned above, in exceedingly near proximity,
+and with, at all events so far as the enamel-germ is concerned, a
+direct connection. Moreover, since the latter ultimately come to
+occupy the position in the alveolar border temporarily held by the
+former, they are spoken of respectively as the predecessors or successors
+of each other. But it must be understood that milk-teeth
+may be present which have no successors in the permanent series,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span>
+and, what is far more general, permanent teeth may have no predecessors
+in the milk series.</p>
+
+<p>The complete series of permanent teeth of most mammals forms
+a complex machine, with its several parts adapted for different
+functions,—the most obvious structural modification for this purpose
+being an increased complexity of the individual components of the
+series from the anterior towards the posterior extremity of such
+series. Since, as has just been said, the complete series of the milk
+teeth often presents structurally and functionally a similar machine,
+but composed of fewer individual members, and the anterior of which
+are as simple, and the posterior as complex as those occupying
+corresponding positions in the permanent series,—and since the
+milk-teeth are only developed in relation to the anterior or lateral,
+never to the most posterior of the permanent series,—it follows
+that the hinder milk-teeth are usually more complex than the teeth
+of which they are the predecessors in the permanent series, and
+represent functionally, not their immediate successors, but those
+more posterior permanent teeth which have no direct predecessors.
+This character is clearly seen in those animals in which the various
+members of the molar series are well differentiated from each other
+in form, as the Carnivora, and also in Man.</p>
+
+<p>In animals which have two sets of teeth the number of those
+of the permanent series which are preceded by milk-teeth varies
+greatly, being sometimes, as in Marsupials and some Rodents, as
+few as one on each side of each jaw, and sometimes including the
+larger portion of the series.</p>
+
+<p>Although there are difficulties in some cases in arriving at a
+satisfactory solution of the question, it is, on the whole, safest to
+assume that when only one set of teeth is present, this corresponds
+to the permanent teeth of the Diphyodonts. When this one set
+is completely developed, and remains in use throughout the
+animal’s life, there can be no question on this subject. When, on
+the other hand, the teeth are rudimentary and transient, as in the
+Whalebone Whales, it is possible to consider them as representing
+the milk series; but there are weighty reasons in favour of the
+opposite conclusion.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Arrangement, Homologies, and Notation of Teeth.</i>—The teeth of
+the two sides of the jaws are always alike in number and character,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span>
+except in cases of accidental or abnormal variation, and in the one
+remarkable instance of constant deviation from bilateral symmetry
+among mammals, the tusks of the Narwhal (<i>Monodon</i>), in which
+the left is of immense size, and the right rudimentary. In certain
+mammals, such as the Dolphins and some Armadillos, which
+have a very large series of similar teeth, not always constant in
+number in different individuals, there may be differences in the two
+sides; but, apart from these, in describing the dentition of any
+mammal, it is quite sufficient to give the number and characters
+of the teeth of one side only. Since the teeth of the upper and the
+lower jaws work against each other in masticating, there is a general
+correspondence or harmony between them, the projections of one
+series, when the mouth is closed, fitting into corresponding depressions
+of the other. There is also a general resemblance in the number,
+characters, and mode of succession of both series, so that, although
+individual teeth of the upper and lower jaws may not be in any
+strict sense of the term homologous parts, there is a great convenience
+in applying the same descriptive terms to the one as are
+used for the other.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure002" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure002.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—Upper and Lower Teeth of one side of the Mouth of a Dolphin (<i>Lagenorhynchus</i>) as an
+example of the homodont type of dentition. The bone covering the outer side of the roots of
+the teeth has been removed to show their simple character.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The simplest dentition as a whole is that of many species of
+Dolphin (<a href="#figure002">Fig. 2</a>), in which the crowns are single-pointed, slightly
+curved cones, and the roots also single and tapering, and all alike in
+form from the anterior to the posterior end of the series, though it
+may be with some slight difference in size, those at the two extremities
+of the series being rather smaller than the others. Such a dentition
+is called Homodont, and in the case cited, as the teeth are never
+changed, it is also Monophyodont. Such teeth are adapted only
+for catching slippery living prey, as fish.</p>
+
+<p>In a very large number of mammals the teeth of different
+parts of the series are more or less differentiated in character,
+and have different functions to perform. The front teeth are
+simple and one-rooted, and are adapted for cutting and seizing.
+They are called “incisors.” The back- or cheek-teeth have broader
+and more complex crowns, tuberculated or ridged, and are supported<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span>
+on two or more roots. They crush or grind the food, and
+are hence called “molars.” Many animals have, between these
+two sets, a tooth at each corner of the mouth, longer and more
+pointed than the others, adapted for tearing or stabbing, or for
+fixing struggling prey. From the conspicuous development of
+such teeth in the Carnivora, especially the Dogs, they have received
+the name of “canines.” A dentition with its component parts so
+differently formed that these distinctive terms are applicable to
+them is called Heterodont. In most cases, though by no means
+invariably, animals with Heterodont dentition are also Diphyodont.</p>
+
+<p>This general arrangement is extremely obvious in a considerable
+number of mammals; and closer examination shows that, under
+very great modification in detail, there is a remarkable uniformity
+of essential characters in the dentition of a large number of
+members of the class belonging to different orders and not otherwise
+closely allied; so much so indeed that it has been possible (chiefly
+through the researches of Sir Richard Owen) to formulate a common
+plan of dentition from which the others have been derived by the
+alteration of some and suppression of other members of the series,
+and occasionally, but very rarely, by addition. The records of
+palæontology fully confirm this view, as by tracing back many
+groups now widely separated in dental characters we find a
+gradual approximation to a common type. In this generalised form
+of mammalian dentition (which is best exemplified in the genera
+<i>Anoplotherium</i> and <i>Homalodontotherium</i>) the entire number of teeth
+present is 44, or 11 above and 11 below on each side. Those of
+each jaw are placed in continuous series without intervals between
+them; and, although the anterior teeth are simple and single-rooted,
+and the posterior teeth complex and with several roots,
+the transition between the two kinds is gradual.</p>
+
+<p>In dividing and grouping such teeth for the purpose of description
+and comparison, more definite characters are required than
+those derived merely from form or function. The first step towards
+a classification has been made by the observation that the upper
+jaw is composed of two bones, the premaxilla and the maxilla,
+and that the suture between these bones separates the three
+anterior teeth from the others. These three teeth, then, which are
+implanted by their roots in the premaxilla, form a distinct group,
+to which the name of “incisor” is applied. This distinction is,
+however, not so important as it appears at first sight, for, as
+mentioned when speaking of the development of the teeth, their
+connection with the bone is only of a secondary nature, and, although
+it happens conveniently for our purpose that in the great majority
+of cases the segmentation of the bone coincides with the interspace
+between the third and fourth tooth of the series, still, when it does
+not happen to do so, as in the case of the Mole, we must not give<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span>
+too much weight to this fact, if it contravenes other reasons for
+determining the homologies of the teeth. The eight remaining
+teeth of the upper jaw offer a natural division, inasmuch as the
+posterior three never have milk-predecessors; and, although some
+of the anterior teeth may be in the same case, the particular one
+preceding these three always has such a predecessor. These three
+then are grouped apart as the “molars,” or, since some of the teeth
+in front of them often have a molariform character, “true molars.”
+Of the five teeth between the incisors and molars the most anterior,
+or that which is usually situated close behind the premaxillary
+suture, almost always, as soon as any departure takes place from
+the simplest and most homogeneous type, assumes a lengthened
+and pointed form, and is the tooth so developed as to constitute
+the “canine” or “laniary” tooth of the Carnivora, the tusk of the
+Boar, etc. It is customary therefore to call this tooth, whatever
+its size or form, the “canine.” The remaining four are the “premolars”
+or “false molars.” This system of nomenclature has been
+objected to as being artificial, and in many cases not descriptive,
+the distinction between premolars and canine especially being
+sometimes not obvious; but the terms are now in such general use,
+and are so practically convenient—especially if, as it is best to do
+in all such cases, we forget their original signification and treat
+them as arbitrary signs—that it is not likely they will be superseded
+by any that have been proposed as substitutes for them.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the lower teeth the difficulties are greater,
+owing to the absence of any suture corresponding to that which
+defines the incisors above; but since the number of the teeth is
+the same, the corresponding teeth are preceded by milk-teeth, and
+in the large majority of cases it is the fourth tooth of the series
+which is modified in the same way as the canine (or fourth tooth)
+of the upper jaw, it is quite reasonable to adopt the same divisions
+as with the upper series, and to call the first three, which are
+implanted in the part of the mandible opposite to the premaxilla,
+the incisors, the next the canine, the next four the premolars, and
+the last three the molars. It may be observed that when the
+mouth is closed, especially when the opposed surfaces of the teeth
+present an irregular outline, the corresponding upper and lower
+teeth are not exactly opposite, otherwise the two series could not
+fit into one another; but as a rule the points of the lower teeth
+shut into the interspaces in front of the corresponding teeth of the
+upper jaw. This is seen very distinctly in the canine teeth of the
+Carnivora, and is a useful guide in determining the homologies of
+the teeth of the two jaws. Objections have certainly been made
+to this view, because, in certain rare cases, the tooth which, according
+to it, would be called the lower canine has the form and
+function of an incisor (as in Ruminants and Lemurs), and on the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span>
+other hand (as in <i>Cotylops</i>, an extinct Ungulate from North America)
+the tooth that would thus be determined as the first premolar has
+the form of a canine; but it should not be forgotten that, as in all
+such cases, definitions derived from form and function alone are
+quite as open to objection as those derived from position and
+relation to surrounding parts, or still more so.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dental formulæ.</i>—For the sake of brevity the complete dentition,
+arranged according to these principles, is often described by the
+following formula, the numbers above the line representing the
+teeth of the upper, those below the line those of the lower jaw:—incisors
+³⁻³⁄₃₋₃, canines ¹⁻¹⁄₁₋₁, premolars ⁴⁻⁴⁄₄₋₄, molars ³⁻³⁄₃₋₃ = ¹¹⁻¹¹⁄₁₁₋₁₁;
+total 44. Since, however, initial letters may be substituted for
+the names of each group, and it is quite unnecessary to give more
+than the numbers of the teeth on one side of the mouth, the
+formula may be conveniently abbreviated into—</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃ = ¹¹⁄₁₁; total 44.</p>
+
+<p>The individual teeth of each group are always enumerated from
+before backwards, and by such a formula as the following—</p>
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc"><i>i</i> 1, <i>i</i> 2, <i>i</i> 3, <i>c</i>, <i>p</i> 1,
+    <i>p</i> 2, <i>p</i> 3, <i>p</i> 4, <i>m</i> 1, <i>m</i> 2, <i>m</i> 3</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr class="bt">
+    <td class="tdc"><i>i</i> 1, <i>i</i> 2, <i>i</i> 3, <i>c</i>, <i>p</i> 1,
+    <i>p</i> 2, <i>p</i> 3, <i>p</i> 4, <i>m</i> 1, <i>m</i> 2, <i>m</i> 3</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noindent">or more briefly—</p>
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="tdr valign"><i>i</i></td>
+    <td class="tdc">1,2,3&nbsp;</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="tdr valign"><i>c</i></td>
+    <td class="tdc">1&nbsp;</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="tdr valign"><i>p</i></td>
+    <td class="tdc">1,2,3,4&nbsp;</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="tdr valign"><i>m</i></td>
+    <td class="tdc">1,2,3</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="valign">.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr class="bt">
+    <td class="tdc">1,2,3,</td>
+    <td class="tdc">1,</td>
+    <td class="tdc">1,2,3,4,</td>
+    <td class="tdc">1,2,3</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noindent">A special numerical designation is thus given by which each one
+can be indicated. In mentioning any single tooth, such a sign as
+<i>m¹</i>⁄ will mean the first upper molar, ⁄<i>m₁</i> the first lower molar, and so on.
+The use of such signs saves much time and space in description.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>It was part of the view of the founder of this system of dental
+notation that, at least throughout the group of mammals whose
+dentition is derived from this general type, each tooth has its
+strict homologue in all species, and that in those cases in which
+fewer than the typical number are present (as in all existing
+mammals except the genera <i>Sus</i>, <i>Gymnura</i>, <i>Talpa</i>, and <i>Myogale</i>), the
+teeth that are missing can be accurately defined. According to
+this view, when the number of incisors falls short of three it is
+assumed that the absent ones are missing from the outer and
+posterior end of the series. Thus, when there is but one incisor
+present, it is <i>i</i> 1; when two, they are <i>i</i> 1 and <i>i</i> 2. Furthermore,
+when the premolars and the molars are below their typical
+number, the absent teeth are missing from the fore part of the
+premolar series, and from the back part of the molar series. If
+this were invariably so, the labours of those who describe teeth<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span>
+would be greatly simplified; but there are so many exceptions that
+a close scrutiny into the situation, relations, and development of a
+tooth is required before its nature can be determined, and in some
+cases the evidence at our disposal is scarcely sufficient for the
+purpose. In other instances, however, as among the Polyprotodont
+Marsupials, we have decisive evidence to show that the missing
+premolar teeth are not those at the extremity of the series.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure003" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure003.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—Milk and Permanent Dentition of Upper (I.) and Lower (II.) Jaw of the Dog (<i>Canis
+familiaris</i>), with the symbols by which the different teeth are commonly designated. The third
+upper molar (<i>m.</i>3) is the only tooth wanting in this animal to complete the typical heterodont
+mammalian dentition.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The milk-dentition is expressed by a similar formula, <i>d</i>
+for deciduous or <i>m</i> for milk being commonly prefixed to the
+letter expressive of the nature of the tooth. Since the three
+molars, and almost invariably the first premolar of the permanent
+series, have no predecessors, the typical milk-dentition would be
+expressed as follows—<i>di</i> ³⁄₃, <i>dc</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>dm</i> ³⁄₃, = ⁷⁄₇, total 28. In a few
+Ungulates, however, such as the Hyrax and Tapir, and in some
+instances the Rhinoceros and the extinct <i>Palæotherium</i>, the whole of
+the four premolars are preceded by milk-teeth; when we have the
+fullest development of cheek-teeth in the whole of the Eutheria. The
+teeth which precede the premolars of the permanent series are all
+called molars in the milk-dentition, although as a general rule, in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span>
+form and function they represent in a condensed form the whole
+premolar and molar series of the adult. When there is a marked
+difference between the premolars and molars of the permanent
+dentition, the first milk-molar resembles a premolar, while the last
+has the characters of the posterior true molar.</p>
+
+<p>The dentition of all the members of the orders Primates,
+Carnivora, Insectivora, Chiroptera, and Ungulata can clearly be
+derived from the above-described generalised type. The same
+may be said of the Rodents, and even the Proboscidea, though
+at least in the existing members of the order with greater modification.
+It is also apparent in certain extinct Cetacea, as
+<i>Zeuglodon</i> and <i>Squalodon</i>, but it is difficult to find any traces of
+it in existing Cetacea, Sirenia, or any of the so-called Edentata.
+All the Marsupials, different as they are in their general structure
+and mode of life, and variously modified as is their dentition,
+present in this system of organs some deep-lying common characters
+which show their unity of origin. The generalised type to which
+their dentition can be reduced presents considerable resemblance
+to that of the placental mammals, yet differing in details. It is
+markedly heterodont, and susceptible of division into incisors,
+canines, premolars, and molars upon the same principles. The
+whole number is, however, not limited to forty-four. The incisors
+may be as numerous as five on each side above, and they are
+almost always different in number in the upper and the lower jaw.
+The premolars and molars are commonly seven, as in the placental
+mammals, but their arrangement is reversed, as there are four
+true molars and three premolars.</p>
+
+<p>The larger number of incisive and molar teeth among the
+Marsupials suggests that their additional teeth have disappeared
+in the Eutheria,<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> and Mr. O. Thomas has endeavoured to construct
+a generalised dental formula from which both the Marsupial and
+Eutherian modifications may have been derived by the suppression
+of particular teeth. Thus the hypothetical formula <i>i</i> ¹<sup>,</sup>²<sup>,</sup>³<sup>,</sup>⁴<sup>,</sup>⁵⁄₁<sub>,</sub>₂<sub>,</sub>₃<sub>,</sub>₄<sub>,</sub>₅,
+<i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹<sup>,</sup>²<sup>,</sup>³<sup>,</sup>⁴⁄₁<sub>,</sub>₂<sub>,</sub>₃<sub>,</sub>₄, <i>m</i> ¹<sup>,</sup>²<sup>,</sup>³<sup>,</sup>⁴<sup>,</sup>⁵⁄₁<sub>,</sub>₂<sub>,</sub>₃<sub>,</sub>₄<sub>,</sub>₅, by the loss of the fifth lower incisor,
+and of the second premolars (which we know to be those which
+disappear in the Marsupials) and the fifth molars, will give
+<i>i</i> ¹<sup>,</sup>²<sup>,</sup>³<sup>,</sup>⁴<sup>,</sup>⁵⁄₁<sub>,</sub>₂<sub>,</sub>₃<sub>,</sub>₄<sub>,</sub>₀, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹<sup>,</sup>⁰<sup>,</sup>³<sup>,</sup>⁴⁄₁<sub>,</sub>₀<sub>,</sub>₃<sub>,</sub>₄, <i>m</i> ¹<sup>,</sup>²<sup>,</sup>³<sup>,</sup>⁴⁄₁<sub>,</sub>₂<sub>,</sub>₃<sub>,</sub>₄; or the formula of the
+Opossum (<i>Didelphys</i>), usually written <i>i</i> ⁵⁄₄, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄. Again,
+in the same formula the loss of the fourth and fifth incisors in
+both jaws, and also of the fourth molars, gives us <i>i</i> ¹<sup>,</sup>²<sup>,</sup>³<sup>,</sup>⁰<sup>,</sup>⁰⁄₁<sub>,</sub>₂<sub>,</sub>₃<sub>,</sub>₀<sub>,</sub>₀, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁,
+<i>p</i> ¹<sup>,</sup>²<sup>,</sup>³<sup>,</sup>⁴⁄₁<sub>,</sub>₂<sub>,</sub>₃<sub>,</sub>₄, <i>m</i> ¹<sup>,</sup>²<sup>,</sup>³⁄₁<sub>,</sub>₂<sub>,</sub>₃, or the formula of a typical Eutherian, like the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span>
+Pig, which we generally write as <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. Such a
+generalised formula will admit of modification into that of all
+existing, and a large number of fossil Marsupials, but it is possible
+that some of the Mesozoic types may have had more than four
+premolars, although there is no absolutely decisive evidence that
+such was the case. The presence of seven or eight true molars in
+some Mesozoic forms merely entails the addition of two or three
+additional figures to the ideal generalised formula.</p>
+
+<p>The milk-dentition of all known Marsupials, existing or extinct,
+is (if not entirely absent) limited to a single tooth on either side of
+each jaw, this being the predecessor of the last permanent premolar.
+And if the view that the milk-dentition is an additional series
+grafted upon the original permanent series be correct, it is evident
+that we have in this single replacement the first stage of this
+additional development.</p>
+
+<p>In very few mammals are teeth entirely absent. Even in the
+Whalebone Whales their germs are formed in the same manner
+and at the same period of life as in other mammals, and even
+become partially calcified, but they never rise above the gums,
+and completely disappear before the birth of the animal. In some
+species of the order Edentata, the true Anteaters and the Pangolins,
+no traces of teeth have been found at any age. The adult
+Monotremata are likewise devoid of teeth of the same structure
+as those of ordinary mammals; but well-developed molars occur in
+the young <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, although no traces of teeth have hitherto
+been detected in <i>Echidna</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Modifications of the Teeth in Relation to their Functions.</i>—The
+principal functional modifications noticed in the dentition of
+mammalia may be roughly grouped as piscivorous, carnivorous,
+insectivorous, omnivorous, and herbivorous, each having, of course,
+numerous variations and transitional conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The essential characters of a piscivorous dentition are best
+exemplified in the Dolphins, and also (as modifications of the
+carnivorous type) in the Seals. This type consists of an elongated,
+rather narrow mouth, wide gape, with numerous subequal, conical,
+sharp-pointed, recurved teeth, adapted simply to rapidly seize, but
+not to divide or masticate, active, slippery, but not powerful prey.
+All animals which feed on fish as a rule swallow and digest them
+entire, a process which the structure of prey of this nature, especially
+the intimate interblending of delicate, sharp-pointed bones with the
+muscles, renders very advantageous, and for which the above-described
+type of dentition is best adapted.</p>
+
+<p>The carnivorous type of dentition is shown in its most specialised
+development among existing mammals in the <i>Felidæ</i>. The function
+being here to seize and kill struggling animals, often of large size
+and great muscular power, the canines are immensely developed,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span>
+trenchant, and piercing, and are situated wide apart, so as to give
+the firmest hold when fixed in the victim’s body. The jaws are as
+short as is consistent with the free action of the canines, so that no
+power may be lost. The incisors are very small, so as not to
+interfere with the penetrating action of the canines, and the
+crowns of the molar series are reduced to scissor-like blades, with
+which to pare off the soft tissues from the large bones, or to divide
+into small pieces the less dense portions of the bones for the sake of
+nutriment afforded by the blood and marrow they contain. The
+gradual modification between this and the two following types will
+be noticed in their appropriate places.</p>
+
+<p>In the most typical insectivorous animals, as the Hedgehogs
+and Shrews, the central incisors are elongated, pointed, and project
+forwards, those of the upper and lower jaw meeting like the blades
+of a pair of forceps, so as readily to secure small active prey, quick
+to elude capture, but powerless to resist when once seized. The
+crowns of the molars are covered with numerous sharp edges and
+points, which, working against each other, rapidly cut up the hard-cased
+insects into little pieces fit for swallowing and digestion.</p>
+
+<p>The omnivorous type, especially that adapted for the consumption
+of soft vegetable substances, such as fruits of various
+kinds, may be exemplified in the dentition of Man, of most
+Monkeys, and of the less modified Pigs. The incisors are moderate,
+subequal, and cutting. If the canines are enlarged, it is usually
+for other purposes than those connected with food, and only in the
+male sex. The molars have their crowns broad, flattened, and
+elevated into rounded tubercles. The name <i>Bunodont</i>, or hillock-toothed,
+has been proposed for molars of this type, and will
+frequently be found convenient.</p>
+
+<p>In the most typically herbivorous forms of dentition, as seen in the
+Horse and Kangaroo, the incisors are well developed, trenchant, and
+adapted for cutting off the herbage on which the animals feed; the
+canines are rudimentary or suppressed; the molars are large, with
+broad crowns, which in the simplest forms have strong transverse
+ridges, but may become variously complicated in the higher degrees
+of modification which this type of tooth assumes.</p>
+
+<p>Various forms of teeth of this type will be noticed among the
+Ungulates and Rodents.</p>
+
+<p>The natural groups of mammals, or those which in our present
+state of knowledge we have reason to believe are truly related to
+each other, may each contain examples of more than one of these
+modifications. Thus the Primates have both omnivorous and
+insectivorous forms. The Carnivora show piscivorous, carnivorous,
+insectivorous, and omnivorous modifications of their common type
+of dentition. The Ungulata and the Rodentia have among them
+the omnivorous and various modifications, both simple and complex,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span>
+of the herbivorous type. The Marsupialia exhibit examples of
+all forms, except the purely piscivorous. Other orders, more
+restricted in number or in habits, as the Proboscidea and Cetacea,
+naturally do not show so great a variety in the dental structure of
+their members.</p>
+
+<p><i>Taxonomy.</i>—In considering the taxonomic value to be assigned to
+the modifications of teeth of mammals, two principles, often
+opposed to each other, which have been at work in producing these
+modifications, must be held in view:—(1) the type, or ancestral
+form, as we generally now call it, characteristic of each group,
+which in most mammals is itself derived from the still more
+generalised type described above; and (2) variations which have
+taken place from this type, generally in accordance with special
+functions which the teeth are called upon to fulfil in particular
+cases. These variations are sometimes so great as completely to
+mask the primitive type, and in this way the dentition of many
+animals of widely different origin has come to present a remarkable
+superficial resemblance, as in the case of the Wombat (a Marsupial),
+the Aye-Aye (a Lemur), and the Rodents, or as in the case of the
+Thylacine and the Dog. In all these examples indications may
+generally be found of the true nature of the case by examining the
+earlier conditions of dentition; for the characters of the milk-teeth
+or the presence of rudimentary or deciduous members of the
+permanent set will generally indicate the route by which the
+specialised dentition of the adult has been derived. It is perhaps
+owing to the importance of the dental armature to the well-being
+of the animal in procuring its sustenance, and preserving its life
+from the attacks of enemies, that great changes appear to have
+taken place so readily, and with such comparative rapidity, in the
+forms of these organs—changes often accompanied with but little
+modification in the general structure of the animal. Of this
+proposition the Aye-Aye (<i>Chiromys</i>) among Lemurs, the Walrus
+among Seals, and the Narwhal among Dolphins form striking
+examples; since in all these forms the superficial characters of their
+dentition would entirely separate them from the animals with which
+all other evidence (even including the mode of development of their
+teeth) proves their close affinity.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp94" id="figure004" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure004.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—Molar teeth of Mesozoic Mammals (enlarged). Triconodont type—1, <i>Dromatherium</i>;
+2, <i>Microconodon</i>; 3, <i>Amphilestes</i>; 4, <i>Phascolotherium</i>; 5, <i>Triconodon</i>. Tritubercular type—6, 7,
+<i>Spalacotherium</i>; 10, <i>Asthenodon</i>. Tubercular sectorial type—8, <i>Amphitherium</i>; 9, <i>Peramus</i>; 11-13,
+<i>Amblotherium</i>; 14 (?) <i>Amblotherium</i>. <i>pr</i>, Protocone; <i>hy</i>, hypocone; <i>pa</i>, paracone; <i>me</i>,
+metacone, in the upper teeth; and protoconid, hypoconid, paraconid, and metaconid in the
+lower. 6 and 15 are upper molars, and the rest lower molars. (After Osborn.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Trituberculism.</i>—Recent researches, and more especially those of
+Professors Cope and Osborn, tend to show that almost all of the
+extremely different forms of tooth-structure found among Mammals
+may be traced to one common type, in which the crown of each
+tooth carried three cusps, and hence termed the <i>tritubercular</i> type;
+these three cusps being arranged in a triangle, with the apex
+directed inwardly in the upper teeth (<a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a>, ₆), and outwardly in
+the lower ones (<a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a>, ₇). It is further probable that this
+tritubercular type was itself derived from a type of dentition in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span>
+which the teeth were in the form of almost a quite simple cone;
+such a presumably primitive type of dentition—being apparently
+retained among some existing Edentates, like the Armadillos, while
+it is possible that we should regard the dentition of the existing
+Cetacea (<a href="#figure002">Fig. 2</a>) as a reversion to the same primitive type. None of
+the Mesozoic mammals at present known exhibit this simple
+conical type of teeth, although we have an approximation to it in
+the extremely generalised genus <i>Dromatherium</i>. Starting then
+from this presumed simple cone it appears that the teeth of <i>Dromatherium</i>
+(<a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a>, ₁) present the first stage towards trituberculism, the
+crown of each tooth having one main cone, with minute lateral
+cusps, and the root being grooved. In the next or true Triconodont
+stage (<a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a>, ₃₋₅) the crown has become elongated antero-posteriorly,
+and consists of one central and two lateral cones or
+cusps, while the root is divided. From this the transition is easy to
+the tritubercular type, in which the three cusps, instead of being<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span>
+placed in a line, are arranged in a triangle; the upper teeth (<a href="#figure004">Fig.
+4</a>, ₆) having one inner and two outer cusps, while the reverse
+condition obtains in those of the lower jaw (<a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a>, ₇). These
+three cusps of the simple tritubercular tooth are collectively designated
+as the primitive triangle; in the upper tooth the inner cusp
+is termed the protocone, the antero-external one the paracone, and
+the postero-external the metacone; the corresponding cusps of the
+lower tooth being named protoconid, paraconid, and metaconid—the
+protoconid being here on the outer side of the crown.</p>
+
+<p>It is thus apparent that in the first, or haplodont type, as well
+as in the triconodont type, the upper and lower molars are alike;
+while in the simple tritubercular type they have a similar pattern,
+but with the arrangement of the cusps reversed. This simple
+tritubercular type occurs in the Mesozoic genus <i>Spalacotherium</i>
+(<a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a>, ₆ and ₇), and apparently in the existing <i>Chrysochloris</i>; but
+in the majority of tritubercular forms, while this primitive triangle
+forms the main portion of the crown, other secondary cusps are
+added, the homologies of which in the upper and lower teeth are
+somewhat doubtful. At the same time that we have the addition
+of these secondary cusps we also find trituberculism differentiating
+into a secodont and a bunodont series, according as to whether the
+dentition becomes of a cutting or a crushing type.</p>
+
+<p>Thus in the lower molars (<a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a>, ₈ and ₉) we very frequently
+find the three cusps of the primitive triangle elevated and connected
+by cross crests, while there is an additional low posterior heel or
+talon, which may be termed the hypoconid. This tubercular-sectorial
+sub-type, as it is termed, is found in the lower molars of
+many Polyprotodont Marsupials and Insectivores, and it also occurs
+in the lower carnassial teeth of the true Carnivora. The presence
+of two cusps (inner and
+outer) to the talon converts
+this modification
+into a quinquetubercular
+form; while, by the suppression
+of one of the
+three primitive cusps, it
+develops into the quadritubercular
+type of the
+bunodont series.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure005" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure005.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—Diagram of two upper and two lower left
+quadritubercular molars in mutual apposition. The cusps
+and ridges of the upper molars in double lines, and those
+of the lower in black lines. The lower molars are looked
+at from below, as if transparent. <i>pr</i>, Protocone; <i>hy</i>, hypocone;
+<i>pa</i>, paracone; <i>me</i>, metacone; <i>ml</i>, protoconule; <i>pl</i>,
+metaconule; <i>prd</i>, protoconid; <i>hyd</i>, hypoconid; <i>pad</i>, paraconid;
+<i>med</i>, metaconid; <i>end</i>, entoconid. (After Osborn.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the upper molars
+the primitive triangle in
+the secodont series may
+remain purely tricuspid;
+but the addition of intermediate
+cusps, both in the secodont and bunodont series, may give
+rise to a quinquetubercular type; these intermediate cusps being
+respectively designated as the protoconule and metaconule (<a href="#figure005">Fig. 5</a>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span>
+<i>ml</i>, <i>pl</i>). Finally, in the bunodont series, the addition of a postero-internal
+cusp (<a href="#figure005">Fig. 5</a>, <i>hy</i>), termed the hypocone, forms the sextubercular
+molar.</p>
+
+<p>The following table exhibits, in a collective form, the names
+and relations of all the above-mentioned cusps, and the letters by
+which they are indicated in the figures:—</p>
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <th colspan="5"><span class="smcap">Upper Molars.</span></th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Antero-internal cusp</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>protocone</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>pr</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Postero <span class="ditto">”</span> or 6th cusp</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>hypocone</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>hy</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Antero-external cusp</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>paracone</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>pa</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Postero <span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>metacone</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>me</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Anterior intermediate cusp</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>protoconule</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>ml</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Posterior <span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>metaconule</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>pl</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <th colspan="5"><span class="smcap">Lower Molars.</span></th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Antero-external cusp</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>protoconid</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>prd</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Postero <span class="ditto">”</span> <span class="ditto">”</span></td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>hypoconid</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>hyd</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Antero-internal or 5th cusp</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>paraconid</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>pad</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Intermediate (or in quadritubercular<br>molars antero-internal) cusp</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>metaconid</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>med</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Postero-internal cusp</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>entaconid</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>end</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The common occurrence of trituberculism in the mammals of
+the earlier geological epochs is, as remarked by Osborn, very
+significant of the uniformity of molar origin. Thus, among the
+Mesozoic mammals (with the exception of the group known as
+Multituberculata, in which the molars are constructed on a different
+type), trituberculism occurs in the great majority of the genera;
+while out of 82 species, belonging to five different suborders from
+the Lowest or Puerco Eocene of the United States, all but four
+exhibit this feature; and the same holds good for the mammals of
+the corresponding European horizon. At the present day trituberculism
+persists in the Lemuroidea, Insectivora, Carnivora, and Marsupialia.
+In the Carnivora there is a tendency to lose the metaconid,
+while in the bunodont molars of the Ungulata it is the
+paraconid that disappears.</p>
+
+<h3>III. THE SKELETON.</h3>
+
+<p><i>Definition.</i>—The skeleton is a system of hard parts, forming a
+framework which supports and protects the softer organs and
+tissues of the body. It consists of dense fibrous and cartilaginous
+tissues, portions of which remain through life in this state, but the
+greater part is transformed during the growth of the animal into
+bone or osseous tissue. This is characterised by a peculiar<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span>
+histological structure and chemical composition, being formed
+mainly of a gelatinous basis, strongly impregnated with salts of
+calcium, chiefly phosphate, and disposed in a definite manner, containing
+numerous minute nucleated spaces or cavities called lacunæ,
+connected together by delicate channels or canaliculi, which radiate
+in all directions from the sides of the lacunæ. Parts composed of
+bone are, next to the teeth, the most imperishable of all the organs
+of the body, often retaining their exact form and internal structure
+for ages after every trace of all other portions of the organisation
+has completely disappeared, and thus, in the case of extinct animals,
+affording the only means of attaining a knowledge of their characters
+and affinities.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the Armadillos and their extinct allies alone is there an
+ossified exoskeleton, or bony covering developed in the skin. In
+all other mammals the skeleton is completely internal. It may be
+described as consisting of an axial portion belonging to the head
+and trunk, and an appendicular portion belonging to the limbs.
+There are also certain bones called splanchnic, being developed
+within the substance of some of the viscera. Such are the <i>os cordis</i>
+and <i>os penis</i> found in some mammals.</p>
+
+<p>It is characteristic of all the larger bones of the mammalia that
+their ossification takes its origin from several distinct centres. One
+near the middle of the bone, and spreading throughout its greater
+portion, constitutes the <i>diaphysis</i>, or “shaft,” in the case of the long
+bones. Others near the extremities, or in projecting parts, form
+the <i>epiphyses</i>, which remain distinct during growth, but ultimately
+coalesce with the rest of the bone.</p>
+
+<p><i>Axial skeleton.</i>—The axial skeleton consists of the skull, the
+vertebral column (prolonged at the posterior extremity into the
+tail), the sternum, and the ribs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Skull.</i>—In the <i>skull</i> of adult mammals, all the bones, except the
+lower jaw, the auditory ossicles, and the bones of the hyoid arch,
+are immovably articulated together, their edges being in close contact,
+and often interlocking by means of fine denticulations projecting
+from one bone and fitting into corresponding depressions of the
+other; they are also held together by the investing periosteum, or
+fibrous membrane, which passes directly from one to the other,
+and permits no motion, beyond perhaps a slight yielding to external
+pressure. In old animals there is a great tendency for the different
+bones to become actually united by the extension of ossification
+from one to the other, with consequent obliteration of the sutures.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span>
+The cranium, thus formed of numerous originally independent
+ossifications, which may retain throughout life more or less of their
+individuality, or be all fused together, according to the species, the
+age, or even individual peculiarity, consists of a brain-case, or bony
+capsule for enclosing and protecting the brain, and a face for the
+support of the organs of sight, smell, and taste, and of those concerned
+in seizing and masticating the food. The brain-case articulates
+directly with the anterior cervical vertebra, by means of a pair
+of oval eminences, called condyles, placed on each side of the large
+median foramen which transmits the spinal cord. It consists of a
+basal axis, continuous serially with the axes or centra of the
+vertebræ, and of an arch above, roofing over and enclosing the
+cavity which contains the cephalic portion of the central nervous
+system (see <a href="#figure006">Fig. 6</a>). The base with its arch is composed of three
+segments placed one before the other, each of which is comparable
+to a vertebra with a greatly expanded neural arch. The hinder or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span>
+occipital segment consists of the basioccipital, exoccipital, and
+supraoccipital bones; the middle segment of the basisphenoid, alisphenoid,
+and parietal bones; and the anterior segment of the
+presphenoid, orbitosphenoid, and frontal bones. The axis is
+continued forwards into the mesethmoid, or septum of the nose,
+around which the bones of the face are arranged in a manner
+so extremely modified for their special purposes that anatomists
+who have attempted to trace their serial homologies with the more
+simple portions of the axial skeleton have arrived at very diverse
+interpretations. The characteristic form and structure of the face
+of mammals is mainly dependent upon the size and shape of (1) the
+orbits, a pair of cup-shaped cavities for containing the eyeball and
+its muscles, which may be directed forwards or laterally, placed
+near together or wide apart, and may be completely or only partially
+encircled by bone; (2) the nasal fossæ, or cavities on each side of
+the median nasal septum, forming the passage for the air to pass
+between the external and the internal nares, and containing in their
+upper part the organ of smell; (3) the zygomatic arch, a bridge of
+bone for the purpose of muscular attachment, which extends from
+the side of the face to the skull, overarching the temporal fossa;
+(4) the roof of the mouth, with its alveolar margin for the implantation
+of the upper teeth. The face is completed by the mandible, or
+lower jaw, consisting of two lateral rami, articulated by a hinge
+joint with the squamosal (a cranial bone interposed between the
+posterior and penultimate segment of the brain-case, where also the
+bony capsule of the organ of hearing is placed), each being composed
+of a single solid piece of bone, and the two united together in the
+middle line in front, at the symphysis,—which union may be permanently
+ligamentous or become completely ossified. Into the
+upper border of the mandibular rami the lower teeth are implanted.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure006" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure006.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>—Longitudinal and vertical section of the skull of a Dog (<i>Canis familiaris</i>), with
+mandible and hyoid arch. <i>an</i>, Anterior narial aperture; <i>MT</i>, maxillo-turbinal bone; <i>ET</i>, ethmo-turbinal;
+<i>Na</i>, nasal; <i>ME</i>, ossified portion of the mesethmoid; <i>CE</i>, cribriform plate of the
+ethmo-turbinal; <i>Fr</i>, frontal; <i>Pa</i>, parietal; <i>IP</i>, interparietal; <i>SO</i>, supraoccipital; <i>ExO</i>, exoccipital;
+<i>BO</i>, basioccipital; <i>Per</i>, periotic; <i>BS</i>, basisphenoid; <i>Pt</i>, pterygoid; <i>AS</i>, alisphenoid;
+<i>OS</i>, orbitosphenoid; <i>PS</i>, presphenoid; <i>PI</i>, palatine; <i>VO</i>, vomer; <i>Mx</i>, maxilla;
+<i>PMx</i>, premaxilla; <i>sh</i>, stylohyal; <i>eh</i>, epihyal; <i>ch</i>, ceratohyal; <i>bh</i>, basihyal; <i>th</i>, thyrohyal;
+<i>s</i>, symphysis of mandible; <i>cp</i>, coronoid process; <i>cd</i>, condyle; <i>a</i>, angle; <i>id</i>, inferior dental
+canal. The mandible is displaced downwards, to show its entire form; the * indicates the
+part of the cranium to which the condyle is articulated.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In addition to the bones already mentioned as entering into the
+formation of the cranium, there are many others, the most important
+of which may be briefly noticed. The anterior extremity of the
+skull is formed by the premaxillæ (<a href="#figure006">Figs. 6, 7</a>, <i>PMx</i>), which carry the
+incisors; behind them are the maxillæ, in which all the remaining
+upper teeth are implanted. Both the premaxillæ and maxillæ meet
+in a median suture on the palate, where they form a floor to the nasal
+passage; this floor being continued backwards by the plate-like palatines,
+at the hinder extremity of which the posterior nares are usually
+situated. In a few instances, however, as in certain Edentates and
+Cetaceans, the small pair of bones forming the posterior continuation
+of the lateral borders of the palatines, and known as the pterygoids
+(<a href="#figure006">Fig. 6</a>, <i>Pt</i>), likewise meet in the middle line below the nasal passage,
+and thus cause the aperture of the posterior nares to be situated
+near the occiput. On the upper, or frontal aspect of the cranium the
+paired nasals roof over the nasal passage and fill the interval left<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span>
+between the premaxilla and maxilla of either side. Behind the nasals
+and maxillæ, the anterior part of the brain-case is formed by the
+large paired frontals (<a href="#figure006">Figs. 6, 7</a>, <i>Fr</i>), behind which are the parietals,
+which may be of still
+larger size, and form
+the greater part of
+the brain-case. A
+median interparietal
+ossification (<a href="#figure006">Fig. 6</a>,
+<i>IP</i>) may divide the
+parietals posteriorly,
+and is itself articulated
+with the supraoccipital,
+to the lateral
+borders of which
+the parietals are also
+joined. The squamosal
+(<a href="#figure007">Fig. 7</a>, <i>Sq</i>) forms
+the lateral wall of
+the hinder part of
+the brain-case, and
+articulates superiorly with the parietal, and posteriorly with the
+exoccipital. The glenoid cavity (<a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>), for the reception of the
+articular condyle of the mandible, is formed by the inferior portion
+of the squamosal, at the point where it gives off the zygomatic
+process to form the hinder portion of the zygomatic arch. The
+middle portion of that arch is formed by the jugal, or malar bone
+(<a href="#figure007">Fig. 7</a>, <i>Ma</i>), which articulates posteriorly with the zygomatic process
+of the squamosal, and anteriorly with the maxilla. The jugal (as
+in <a href="#figure007">Fig. 7</a>) may also articulate with a small bone situated on the
+anterior border of the orbit known as the lachrymal. It is important
+to observe that the zygomatic or temporal arch is a
+squamoso-maxillary one, and that an arcade thus composed is found
+elsewhere only among the extinct Anomodont reptiles, which have
+already been mentioned as showing signs of mammalian affinity.
+The relative position occupied by the orbito- and alisphenoid is
+sufficiently indicated in <a href="#figure007">Fig. 7</a>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure007" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure007.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>—Side view of skull of Cape Jumping Hare (<i>Pedetes
+caffer</i>). × ⅗ <i>PMx</i>, Premaxilla; <i>Mx</i>, maxilla, <i>Ma</i>, jugal or
+malar; <i>Fr</i>, frontal; <i>L</i>, lachrymal; <i>Pa</i>, parietal; <i>Na</i>, nasal;
+<i>Sq</i>, squamosal; <i>Ty</i>, tympanic; <i>ExO</i>, exoccipital; <i>AS</i>, alisphenoid;
+<i>OS</i>, orbitosphenoid; <i>Per</i>, mastoid bulla.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Wedged in between the squamosal and the bones of the occipital
+and basisphenoidal region are the bones connected with the organ
+of hearing, known as the periotic and tympanic. The position of
+the periotic, which encloses the labyrinth or essential organ of
+hearing, is shown in <a href="#figure006">Fig. 6</a>. The periotic is divided into a very
+dense antero-internal moiety known as the petrosal, and a postero-external
+or mastoid portion (<a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>), which appears on the outer wall
+of the brain-case. The tympanic is produced horizontally outwards
+to form the external auditory meatus or tube of the ear, while the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span>
+inner and under surface is frequently dilated into a shell-like
+auditory bulla (<a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>). The small bones of the internal ear known
+as the malleus, incus, and stapes are contained in the membranous
+<i>tympanic cavity</i>,
+which is situated in
+a space left among
+this group of bones.
+Further mention of
+these bones is made
+below under the
+head of the sense
+organs.</p>
+
+<p>In the Carnivora
+and some other
+groups the foramina
+on the base of
+the skull for the
+passage of blood-vessels
+and nerves
+are of considerable
+taxonomic importance.
+The position
+of the more important
+of these
+foramina is indicated
+in <a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>;
+but for details the
+reader may refer to
+the work on the
+<i>Osteology of the Mammalia</i>
+already mentioned.
+Attention
+may, however, be
+particularly directed
+to the so-called
+alisphenoid
+canal, the position
+of which is shown
+in <a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>, since this is a feature of some importance in the classification
+of the Carnivora. This canal is a short channel running horizontally
+forward from near the foramen ovale through the alisphenoid,
+and opening anteriorly with the foramen rotundum; it is traversed
+by the external carotid artery.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp50" id="figure008" style="max-width: 29.6875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure008.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>—The right half of the hinder part of the base of the
+cranium of the Wolf (<i>Canis lupus</i>). <i>c</i>, Condyloid foramen; <i>l</i>, foramen
+lacerum posticum; <i>car</i>, carotid canal; <i>e</i>, eustachian canal;
+<i>o</i>, foramen ovale; <i>a</i>, posterior, and <i>a′</i>, anterior aperture of alisphenoid
+canal; <i>P</i>, paroccipital process of exoccipital; <i>m</i>, mastoid
+process of periotic; <i>am</i>, external auditory meatus; <i>g</i>, glenoid foramen,
+below which is the glenoid cavity for the condyle of the mandible.
+(Flower, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, 1869, p. 25.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Only in those species, as Man and the smaller kinds of the
+Primates and some other orders, in which the brain holds a large
+relative proportion to the rest of the body, does the external form<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span>
+of the skull receive much impress from the real shape of the cavity
+containing the brain. The size and form of the mouth, and the
+modifications of the jaws for the support of teeth of various shape
+and number, the ridges and crests on the cranium for the attachment
+of the muscles necessary to put this apparatus in motion, and outgrowths
+of bone for the enlargement of the external surface required
+for the support of sense organs or of weapons, such as horns or
+antlers (which outgrowths, to prevent undue increase of weight, are
+filled with cells containing air), cause the principal variations in the
+general configuration of the skull. These variations are, however,
+only characteristically developed in perfectly adult animals, and are
+in many cases more strongly marked in the male than the female
+sex. Throughout all the later stages of growth up to maturity the
+size and form of the brain-case remain comparatively stationary,
+while the accessory parts of the skull rapidly increase and assume
+their distinctive development characteristic of the species.</p>
+
+<p>The hyoidean apparatus in mammals (<a href="#figure006">Fig. 6</a>) supports the tongue
+and larynx, and consists of an inferior median portion termed the
+basihyal, from which two pairs of half arches, or cornua, extend upwards
+and outwards. The anterior is the more important, being
+connected with the periotic bone of the cranium. It may be almost
+entirely ligamentous, but more often has several ossifications, the
+largest of which is usually the stylohyal. The posterior cornu
+(thyrohyal) is united at its extremity with the thyroid cartilage of
+the larynx, which it suspends in position. The median portion,
+or basihyal, is sometimes, as in the Howling Monkeys, enormously
+enlarged and hollowed, admitting into its cavity an air-sac connected
+with the organ of voice.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp68" id="figure009" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure009.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>—Anterior surface of Human
+thoracic vertebra (fourth). <i>c</i>, Body or
+centrum; <i>nc</i>, neural canal; <i>p</i>, pedicle,
+and <i>l</i>, lamina of the arch; <i>t</i>, transverse
+process; <i>az</i>, anterior zygapophysis.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Vertebral Column.</i>—The <i>vertebral column</i> consists of a series of
+distinct bones called vertebræ, arranged in close connection with
+each other along the dorsal side of the neck and trunk, and in the
+median line.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> It is generally prolonged posteriorly beyond the
+trunk, to form the axial support of the appendage called the tail.
+Anteriorly it is articulated with the occipital region of the skull.
+The number of distinct bones composing the vertebral column
+varies greatly among the Mammalia, the main variation being
+due to the degree of elongation of the tail. Apart from this, in
+most mammals the number is not far from thirty, though it may
+fall as low as twenty-six (as in some Bats), or rise as high as
+forty (<i>Hyrax</i> and <i>Cholœpus</i>). The different vertebræ, with some
+exceptions, remain through life quite distinct from each other,
+though closely connected by means of fibrous structures which
+allow of a certain, but limited, amount of motion between them.
+The exceptions are the following:—(1) near the posterior part<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span>
+of the trunk, in nearly all mammals which possess completely
+developed hinder limbs, two or more vertebræ become ankylosed
+together to form the “sacrum,” or portion of the vertebral column
+to which the pelvic girdle is attached; (2) in some species of
+Whales and Armadillos there are constant ossific unions of certain
+vertebræ of the cervical region.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp68" id="figure010" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure010.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—Side view of the first lumbar
+vertebra of a Dog (<i>Canis familiaris</i>).
+<i>s</i>, Spinous process; <i>az</i>, anterior zygapophysis;
+<i>pz</i>, posterior zygapophysis; <i>m</i>,
+metapophysis; <i>a</i>, anapophysis; <i>t</i>, transverse
+process.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Although the vertebræ of different regions of the column of the
+same animal or of different animals present great diversities of
+form, yet there is a certain general resemblance among them, or a
+common plan on which they are constructed, which is more or less
+modified by alteration of form or proportions, or by the addition or
+suppression of parts to fit them to fulfil their special purpose in the
+economy. An ordinary or typical vertebra consists, in the first
+place, of a solid piece of bone, termed the body or centrum (<a href="#figure009">Fig.
+9</a>, <i>c</i>), of the form of a disk or short cylinder. The bodies of contiguous
+vertebræ are connected together by a very dense, tough, and
+elastic material called the “intervertebral substance,” of peculiar and
+complex arrangement. This substance forms the main, and in some
+cases the only, union between the vertebræ. Its elasticity provides
+for the vertebræ always returning to their normal relation to each
+other and to the column generally, when they have been disturbed
+therefrom by muscular action. A process (<i>p</i>) arises on each side
+from the dorsal surface of the body. These processes, meeting in
+the middle line above, form an arch, surmounting a space or short
+canal (<i>nc</i>). Since it contains the posterior prolongation of the
+great cerebro-spinal nervous axis, or spinal cord, this space is called
+the neural canal, and the arch the neural arch, in contradistinction
+to another arch on the ventral surface of the body of the vertebræ,
+called the hæmal arch. The latter is, however, never formed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span>
+in mammals by any part of the vertebra itself, but by certain
+distinct bones placed more or less in apposition to it, namely the
+ribs in the thoracic, and the “chevron bones” in the caudal region.
+In most cases the arch of one vertebra is articulated with that of
+the next by distinct surfaces with synovial joints, placed one on
+each side, called “zygapophyses” (<i>az</i>, <i>pz</i>), but these are often entirely
+wanting when flexibility is more needed than strength, as in the
+greater part of the caudal region of long-tailed animals. In addition
+to the body and the arch, there are certain projecting parts called
+processes, chiefly serving for the attachment of the numerous
+muscles which move the vertebral column. Of these two are single
+and median, viz. the spinous process, neural spine, or neurapophysis
+(<i>s</i>), arising from the middle of the upper part of the arch, and the
+hypapophysis from the under surface of the body. The latter, however,
+is as frequently absent as the former is constant. The other
+processes are paired and lateral. They are the transverse processes
+(<i>t</i>), of which there may be two, an upper and a lower, in which case
+the former is called, in the language of Owen (to whom we are
+indebted for the terminology of the parts of vertebræ in common
+use), “diapophysis,” and the latter “parapophysis.” Other processes
+less constantly present are called respectively “metapophyses” (<i>m</i>)
+and “anapophyses” (<i>a</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The vertebral column is divided for convenience of description
+into five regions—the cervical, thoracic or dorsal, lumbar, sacral, and
+caudal. This division is useful, especially as it is not entirely
+arbitrary, and in most cases is capable of ready definition; but at
+the contiguous extremities of the regions the characters of the
+vertebræ of one are apt to blend into
+those of the next region, either normally
+or as peculiarities of individual skeletons.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp62" id="figure011" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure011.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—Anterior surface of
+sixth cervical vertebra of Dog.
+<i>s</i>, Spinous process; <i>az</i>, anterior
+zygapophysis; <i>v</i>, vertebrarterial
+canal; <i>t</i>, transverse process; <i>t′</i>, its
+inferior lamella.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Cervical Vertebræ.</i>—The <i>cervical</i> region
+constitutes the most anterior portion of
+the column, or that which joins the
+cranium. The vertebræ which belong to
+it are either entirely destitute of movable
+ribs, or if they have any these are small,
+and do not join the sternum. As a general
+rule they have a considerable perforation
+through the base of the transverse process
+(the vertebrarterial canal, <a href="#figure011">Fig. 11</a>, <i>v</i>); or,
+as it is sometimes described, they have
+two transverse processes, superior and
+inferior, which meet at their extremities
+to enclose a canal. This, however, rarely
+applies to the last vertebra of the region, in which only the upper
+transverse process is usually developed. The transverse process,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span>
+moreover, very often sends down near its extremity a more or
+less compressed plate (inferior lamella), which, being considered
+serially homologous with the ribs of the thoracic vertebræ (though
+not developed autogenously), is often called the “costal” or
+“pleurapophysial” plate. This is usually largest on the sixth, and
+altogether wanting on the seventh vertebra. The first and second
+cervical vertebræ, called respectively “atlas” and “axis,” are
+specially modified for the function of supporting and permitting
+the free movements of the head. They are not united together
+by the intervertebral substance, but connected only by ordinary
+ligaments and synovial joints.</p>
+
+<p>The cervical region in mammals presents the remarkable
+peculiarity that, whatever the length or flexibility of the neck, the
+number of vertebræ is the same, viz. seven, with the exception of
+the Manatee and Hoffman’s Two-toed Sloth (<i>Cholœpus hoffmanni</i>),
+which both have but six, and the Three-toed Sloth (<i>Bradypus
+tridactylus</i>), which has nine, though in this case the last two usually
+support movable ribs, which are not sufficiently developed to reach
+the sternum.</p>
+
+<p>According to Parker there may occasionally be eight cervicals
+in the Pangolins (<i>Manis</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Dorsal Vertebræ.</i>—The <i>dorsal</i> (or, as it would be more correctly
+termed, <i>thoracic</i>) region consists of the vertebræ succeeding those
+of the neck, which have ribs movably articulated to them. These
+ribs arch round the thorax—the anterior one, and usually the
+greater number of those that follow, being attached below to the
+sternum.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lumbar Vertebræ.</i>—The <i>lumbar</i> region consists of those vertebræ
+of the trunk in front of the sacrum which bear no movable ribs.
+It may happen that, as the ribs decrease in size posteriorly (the
+last being sometimes more or less rudimentary), the step from the
+thoracic to the lumbar region may be gradual and rather undetermined
+in a given species; but most commonly this is not the
+case, and the distinction is as well defined here as in any other
+region. As a general rule there is a certain relation between the
+number of the thoracic and lumbar vertebræ, the whole number
+being tolerably constant in a given group of animals, and any
+increase of the one being at the expense of the other. Thus in all
+known Artiodactyle Ungulata there are 19 dorso-lumbar vertebræ;
+but these may consist of 12 dorsal and 7 lumbar vertebræ, or 13
+dorsal and 6 lumbar, or 14 dorsal and 5 lumbar. The smallest
+number of dorso-lumbar vertebræ in mammals occurs in some
+Armadillos, which have but 14. The number found in Man,
+the higher Apes, and most Bats, viz. 17, is exceptionally low;
+19 prevails in the Artiodactyla, nearly all Marsupials, and very
+many Rodents; 20 or 21 in Carnivora and most Insectivora;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span>
+and 23 in Perissodactyla. The highest and quite exceptional
+numbers are in the Two-toed Sloth (<i>Cholœpus</i>) 27, and the Hyrax
+30. The prevailing number of rib-bearing vertebræ is 12 or 13,
+any variation being generally in excess of these numbers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sacral Vertebræ.</i>—The <i>sacral</i> region offers more difficulties of
+definition. Taking the human “os sacrum” as a guide for
+comparison, it is generally defined as consisting of those vertebræ
+between the lumbar and caudal regions which are ankylosed
+together to form a single bone. It happens, however, that the
+number of such vertebræ varies in different individuals of the
+same or nearly allied species, especially as age advances, when a
+certain number of the tail vertebræ generally become incorporated
+with the true sacrum. Other suggested tests—as those vertebræ
+which have a distinct additional (pleurapophysial) centre of ossification
+between the body and the ilium, those to which the ilium is
+directly articulated, or those in front of the insertion of the ischiosacral
+ligaments—being equally unsatisfactory or unpractical, the
+old one of ankylosis, as it is found to prevail in the average
+condition of adults in each species, is used in the enumeration of
+the vertebræ in the following pages. The Cetacea, having no iliac
+bones, have no part of the vertebral column modified into a
+sacrum.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp62" id="figure012" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure012.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>—Anterior surface of fourth
+caudal vertebræ of Porpoise (<i>Phocæna communis</i>).
+<i>s</i>, Spinous process; <i>m</i>, metapophysis;
+<i>t</i>, transverse process; <i>h</i>, chevron bone.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Caudal Vertebræ.</i>—The <i>caudal</i> vertebræ are those placed behind
+the sacrum, and terminating the vertebral column. They vary
+in number greatly—being reduced to 5, 4, or even 3, in a most
+rudimentary condition, in Man
+and in some Apes and Bats, and
+being numerous and powerfully
+developed, with strong and complex
+processes, in many mammals,
+especially among the Edentata,
+Cetacea, and Marsupialia. The
+highest known number, 46, is
+possessed by the African Long-tailed
+Pangolin. Connected with
+the under surface of the caudal
+vertebræ of many mammals which
+have the tail well developed are
+certain bones formed more or less
+like an inverted arch, called chevron
+bones, or by the French <i>os en
+V</i>. These are always situated
+nearly opposite to an intervertebral
+space, and are generally articulated
+both to the vertebra in front and the vertebra behind, but
+sometimes chiefly or entirely either to one or the other.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span></p>
+
+<p>In some of the Anomodont Reptiles and Labyrinthodont
+Amphibians these chevrons are attached to the intercentra—or
+imperfect disks alternating with the true centra—which suggests
+that they are primarily intercentral elements which have been transferred
+to the edges of the centra by the disappearance of the intercentra.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sternum.</i>—The <i>sternum</i> of mammals is a bone, or generally a
+series of bones, placed longitudinally in the mesial line, on the
+inferior or ventral aspect of the thorax, and connected on each side
+with the vertebral column by a series
+of more or less ossified bars called
+“ribs.” It is present in all mammals,
+but varies much in character in the
+different groups. It usually consists
+of a series of distinct segments placed
+one before the other, the anterior
+being called the presternum or “manubrium
+sterni” of human anatomy, and
+the posterior the xiphisternum, or
+xiphoid or ensiform process, while the
+intermediate segments, whatever their
+number, constitute the mesosternum
+or “body.” In the Whalebone Whales
+the presternum alone is developed, and
+but a single pair of ribs is attached
+to it.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp41" id="figure013" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure013.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—Human sternum and
+sternal ribs. <i>ps</i>, Presternum; <i>ms</i>,
+mesosternum; <i>xs</i>, xiphisternum; <i>c</i>,
+point of attachment of clavicle; 1 to
+10, the cartilaginous sternal ribs.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Ribs.</i>—The <i>ribs</i> form a series of
+long, narrow, and more or less flattened
+bones, extending laterally from the
+sides of the vertebral column, curving
+downwards towards the median line
+of the body below, and mostly joining
+the sides of the sternum. The posterior
+ribs, however, do not directly articulate
+with that bone, but are either attached by their extremities to
+the edges of each rib in front of them, and thus only indirectly
+join the sternum, or else they are quite free below, meeting no part
+of the skeleton. These differences have given rise to the division
+into “true” and “false” ribs (by no means good expressions), signifying
+those that join the sternum directly and those that do not;
+and of the latter, those that are free below, are called “floating”
+ribs. The portion of each rib nearest the vertebral column and
+that nearest the sternum differ in their characters, the latter being
+usually but imperfectly ossified, or remaining permanently cartilaginous.
+These are called “costal cartilages,” or when ossified
+“sternal ribs.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp75" id="figure014" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure014.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—Sternum and strongly ossified sternal ribs
+of Great Armadillo (<i>Priodon gigas</i>). <i>ps</i>, Presternum;
+<i>xs</i>, xiphisternum.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the anterior part of the thorax the vertebral extremity of
+each rib is divided into two parts, “head” or “capitulum,” and
+“tubercle”; the former is attached to the side of the body of the
+vertebra, the latter to its
+transverse process; the
+former attachment corresponds
+to the interspace
+between the vertebræ, the
+head of the rib commonly
+articulating partly with
+the hinder edge of the
+body of the vertebra antecedent
+to that which bears
+its tubercle. Hence the
+body of the last cervical
+vertebra usually supports
+part of the head of the first
+rib. In the posterior part
+of the series the capitular
+and tubercular attachments
+commonly coalesce,
+and the rib is attached
+solely to its corresponding
+vertebra. The number of pairs of ribs is of course the same as that
+of the thoracic vertebræ.</p>
+
+<p>The circumstance that in some of the Anomodont reptiles and
+Labyrinthodonts the capitula of the ribs articulate with the intercentral
+elements of the vertebral column has suggested, as in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span>
+instance of the chevron bones, that the intercentral capitular articulation
+of the ribs of mammals is a feature directly inherited
+from those extinct types by the gradual disappearance of the
+intercentra.</p>
+
+<p><i>Appendicular Skeleton.</i>—The appendicular portion of the framework
+consists, when completely developed, of two pairs of limbs,
+anterior and posterior (<a href="#figure015">Fig. 15</a>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure015" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure015.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—Skeleton of Lion (<i>Felis leo</i>).
+<i>cd</i>, Caudal vertebræ; <i>cp</i>, carpus; <i>cr</i>, coracoid
+process of scapula, <i>cv</i>, cervical vertebræ; <i>d</i>, dorsal
+vertebræ; <i>fb</i>, fibula; <i>fm</i>, femur; <i>h</i>, humerus;
+<i>il</i>, ilium; <i>isch</i>, ischium; <i>l</i>, lumbar vertebræ;
+<i>m</i>, metatarsus; <i>mc</i>, metacarpus; <i>p</i>, patella;
+<i>pb</i>, pubis; <i>ph</i>, phalanges; <i>pv</i>, pelvis; <i>r</i>,
+radius; <i>s</i>, sacral vertebræ; <i>sc</i>, scapula; <i>sk</i>, skull;
+<i>tb</i>, tibia; <i>ts</i>, tarsus; <i>u</i>, ulna; <i>zy</i>, zygomatic
+arch.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Anterior Limb.</i>—The anterior limb is present and fully developed
+in all mammals, being composed of a shoulder girdle and three segments
+belonging to the limb proper; viz. the upper arm or brachium,
+the forearm or antebrachium, and the hand or manus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Shoulder-girdle.</i>—The <i>shoulder</i> or <i>pectoral girdle</i> in the large majority
+of mammals is in a rudimentary or rather modified condition, compared
+with that in which it exists in other vertebrates. In the Monotremata
+(<i>Ornithorhynchus</i> and <i>Echidna</i>) alone is the ventral portion, or
+coracoid, complete and articulated with the sternum below, as in the
+Sauropsida; and in this group alone do we find an anterior ventral
+element, apparently corresponding with the pre-coracoid of the Anomodont
+reptiles, although generally known as the epi-coracoid. In all
+other mammals the coracoid, though ossified from a distinct centre,
+forms only a process, sometimes a scarcely distinct tubercle, projecting
+from the anterior border of the glenoid cavity of the scapula. The
+last-named cavity, which in the Monotremes is formed jointly by
+the scapula and coracoid, receives the head of the humerus, or
+arm-bone. The scapula is always well developed, and generally
+broad and flat (whence its vernacular name “blade bone”), with a
+ridge called the “spine” on its outer surface, which usually ends in
+a free curved process, the “acromion.” As the scapula affords
+attachment to many of the muscles which act upon the anterior
+limb, its form and the development of its processes are greatly
+modified according to the uses to which the member is put. Thus it
+is most reduced and simple in character in those animals whose limbs
+are mere organs of support, as the Ungulates; and most complex
+when the limbs are also used for grasping, climbing, or digging.
+The development or absence of the clavicle or “collar-bone,” an
+accessory bar which connects the sternum with the scapula and
+steadies the shoulder-joint, has a somewhat similar relation, though
+its complete absence in the Bears shows that this is not an invariable
+rule. A complete clavicle is found in Man and all the Primates, in
+Chiroptera, all Insectivora (except <i>Potamogale</i>), in many Rodents, in
+most Edentates, and in all Marsupials, except <i>Perameles</i>. More or
+less rudimentary clavicles (generally suspended freely in the muscles)
+are found in the Cat, Dog, and most Carnivora, <i>Myrmecophaga</i>, and
+some Rodents. Clavicles are altogether absent in most of the <i>Ursidæ</i>,
+all the Pinnipedia, <i>Manis</i> among Edentates, the Cetacea, Sirenia,
+Ungulates, and some Rodents.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Monotremes are peculiar in possessing a T-shaped
+interclavicle like that of many reptiles, lying upon the sternum,
+and articulating superiorly with the clavicles.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brachium and Antebrachium.</i>—The proximal segment of the
+anterior or pectoral limb proper contains a single bone, the humerus,
+and the second segment two bones, the radius and the ulna, placed
+side by side, and articulating with the humerus at their proximal,
+and with the carpus at their distal extremity (<a href="#figure015">Fig. 15</a>). In their
+primitive and unmodified condition these bones may be considered as
+placed one on each border of the limb, the radius being preaxial or
+anterior, and the ulna postaxial or posterior, when the distal or free
+end of the limb is directed outwards, or away from the trunk. This
+is their position in the earliest embryonic condition, and is best
+illustrated among adult mammals in the Cetacea, where the two
+bones are fixed side by side and parallel to each other. In the
+greater number of mammals the bones assume a very modified and
+adaptive position, usually crossing each other in the forearm, the
+radius in front of the ulna, so that the preaxial bone (radius),
+though external (in the ordinary position of the limb) at the upper
+end, is internal at the lower end; and the hand, being mainly fixed
+to the radius, also has its preaxial border internal. In the large
+majority of mammals the bones are fixed in this position, but in
+some few, as in Man, a free movement of crossing and uncrossing—or
+pronation and supination, as it is termed—is allowed between
+them, so that they can be placed in their primitive parallel condition,
+when the hand (which moves with the radius)
+is said to be supine, or they may be crossed,
+when the hand is said to be prone.</p>
+
+<p>The humerus frequently has a foramen
+piercing the inner border of the distal
+extremity, known as the entepicondylar
+foramen, which corresponds with a similar
+one found in the Anomodont reptiles. The
+hollow in the head of the ulna for the reception
+of the head of the humerus is known
+as the greater sigmoid cavity, and that for
+the head of the radius as the lesser sigmoid
+cavity (<a href="#figure016">Fig. 16</a>). The term olecranon is
+applied to that process of the ulna which
+forms the prominence of the elbow.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp50" id="figure016" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure016.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>—Outer aspect of
+the proximal extremity of the
+right ulna of a Bear (<i>Ursus</i>).
+<i>a</i>, Anterior tubercle; <i>ol</i>,
+olecranon; <i>b</i>, greater sigmoid
+cavity; <i>c</i>, lesser do.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In most mammals walking on four limbs,
+in which the hand is permanently prone, the
+ulna is much reduced in size, and the radius
+increased, especially at the upper end; so
+that the articular surface of the latter, instead of being confined to
+the external side of the trochlea of the humerus, extends all across<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span>
+its anterior surface, and the two bones, instead of being external
+and internal, are anterior and posterior. In many hoofed or Ungulate
+mammals, and in Bats, the ulna is reduced to little more than
+its upper articular extremity, and firmly ankylosed to the radius—stability
+of these parts being more essential than mobility.</p>
+
+<p><i>Manus.</i>—The terminal segment of the anterior limb is the hand
+or manus. Its skeleton consists of three divisions: (1) the
+“carpus,” a group of small, more or less rounded or angular bones
+with flattened surfaces applied to one another, and, though articulating
+by synovial joints, having scarcely any motion between
+them; (2) the “metacarpus,” a series of elongated bones placed side
+by side, with their proximal ends articulating by almost immovable
+joints with the carpus; (3) the “phalanges” or bones of the digits,
+usually three in number to each, articulating to one another by freely
+movable hinge-joints, the first being connected in like manner to
+the distal end of the metacarpal bone to which it corresponds.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp46" id="figure017" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure017.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>—Dorsal surface of the
+right manus of a Water Tortoise
+(<i>Chelydra serpentina</i>). After Gegenbaur.
+U, Ulna; R, radius; <i>u</i>,
+ulnare; <i>i</i>, intermedium; <i>r</i>, radiale;
+<i>c</i>, centrale; 1-5, the five bones of
+the distal row of the carpus; <i>m¹</i>-<i>m⁵</i>,
+the five metacarpals.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Carpus.</i>—To understand thoroughly the arrangement of the
+bones of the carpus in mammals, it is necessary to study their
+condition in some of the lower vertebrates. <a href="#figure017">Fig. 17</a> represents
+the manus in one of its fullest and at the same time most
+generalised forms, as seen in one of the
+Water Tortoises (<i>Chelydra serpentina</i>). The
+carpus consists of two principal rows of
+bones. The upper or proximal row contains
+three bones, to which Gegenbaur
+has applied the terms <i>radiale</i> (<i>r</i>), <i>intermedium</i>
+(<i>i</i>), and <i>ulnare</i> (<i>u</i>), the first being
+on the radial or preaxial side of the limb.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
+The lower or distal row contains five
+bones, called <i>carpale</i> 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5
+respectively, commencing on the radial
+side. Between these two rows, in the
+middle of the carpus, is a single bone,
+the <i>centrale</i> (<i>c</i>). In this very symmetrical
+carpus it will be observed that the <i>radiale</i>
+supports on its distal side two bones,
+<i>carpale</i> 1 and 2; the <i>intermedium</i> is in a
+line with the <i>centrale</i> and <i>carpale</i> 3, which
+together form a median axis of the hand,
+while the <i>ulnare</i> has also two bones articulating
+with its distal end, viz. <i>carpale</i> 4
+and 5. Each of the carpals of the distal
+row supports a metacarpal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the carpus of the Mammalia there are usually two additional
+bones developed in the tendons of the flexor muscles, one on each
+side of the carpus, which may be called the radial and ulnar
+sesamoid bones; the latter, which is the more constant and generally
+larger, is commonly known as the pisiform bone. The fourth and
+fifth carpals of the distal row are always united into a single bone,
+and the centrale is very often absent. As a general rule all the
+other bones are present and distinct, though it not unfrequently
+happens that two may have coalesced to form a single bone, or
+one or more may be altogether suppressed.</p>
+
+<p>The following table shows the principal names in use for the
+various carpal bones,—those in the second column being the terms
+generally employed by English anatomists:—</p>
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Radiale</i></td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>Scaphoid</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>Naviculare</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Intermedium</i></td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>Lunar</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>Semilunare</i>, <i>Lunatum</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Ulnare</i></td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>Cuneiform</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>Triquetrum</i>, <i>Pyramidale</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Centrale</i></td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>Central</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>Intermedium</i> (Cuvier).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Carpale</i> 1</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>Trapezium</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>Multangulum majus</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Carpale</i> 2</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>Trapezoid</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>Multangulum minus</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Carpale</i> 3</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>Magnum</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>Capitatum</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>Carpale</i> 4</td>
+    <td>}</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="tdc valign">=</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="valign">Uneiform</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="tdc valign">=</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="valign"><i>Hamatum</i>, <i>Uncinatum</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>Carpale</i> 5</td>
+    <td>}</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The radial and ulnar sesamoids are regarded by Bardeleben<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> as
+the rudiments of a prepollex and a postminimus digit; the primitive
+number of digits being thus supposed to have been seven. These
+bones have been observed in all orders of mammals having five
+complete digits. Occasionally, as in <i>Pedetes caffer</i>, the so-called
+prepollex consists of two bones, of which the distal one bears a
+distinct nail-like horny covering. In <i>Bathyergus maritimus</i> the
+pisiform, or postminimus, is likewise double; the two elements
+being regarded by their describer as representing the carpal and
+metacarpal of the presumed seventh digit.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly in the posterior limb the tibial sesamoid, and a fibular
+ossification corresponding to the pisiform, are regarded as representing
+a prehallux and a postminimus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Metacarpus and Phalanges.</i>—The metacarpal bones, with the
+digits which they support, are never more than five in number, and
+are described numerically—first, second, etc., counting from the
+radial towards the ulnar side. The digits are also sometimes named
+(1) the pollex, (2) index, (3) medius, (4) annularis, (5) minimus.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span>
+One or more may be in a rudimentary condition, or altogether
+suppressed. If one is absent, it is most commonly the first.
+Excepting the Cetacea, no mammals have more than three phalanges
+to each digit, but they may occasionally have fewer by suppression
+or ankylosis. The first or radial digit is an exception to the usual
+rule, one of its parts being constantly absent, since, while each of the
+other digits has commonly a metacarpal and three phalanges, it has
+only three bones altogether; whether the missing one is a metacarpal
+or one of the phalanges is a subject which has occasioned
+much discussion, and has not yet been satisfactorily decided. The
+terminal phalanges of the digits are usually specially modified to
+support the nail, claw, or hoof, and are called “ungual phalanges.”
+In walking, some mammals (as the Bears) apply the whole of the
+lower surface of the carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges to the
+ground; to these the term “plantigrade” is applied. Many others
+(as nearly all the existing Ungulata) only rest on the last one or two
+phalanges of the toes, the first phalanx and the metacarpals being
+vertical and in a line with the forearm. These are called “digitigrade.”
+Intermediate conditions exist between these two forms, to
+which the terms “phalangigrade” (as the Camel) and “subplantigrade”
+(as in most Carnivora), are applied. When the weight is
+borne entirely on the distal surface of the ungual phalanx, and the
+horny structures growing around it, as in the Horse, the mode of
+progression is called “unguligrade.”</p>
+
+<p>In the Chiroptera the digits are enormously elongated, and
+support a cutaneous expansion constituting the organ of flight. In
+the Cetacea the manus is formed into a paddle, being covered by
+continuous integument, which conceals all trace of division into
+separate digits, and shows no sign of nails or claws. In the Sloths
+the manus is long and very narrow, habitually curved, and terminating
+in two or three pointed curved claws in close apposition with
+each other, and incapable, in fact, of being divaricated; so that it is
+reduced to the condition of a hook, by which the animal suspends
+itself to the boughs of the trees among which it lives. These are
+only examples of the endless modifications to which the distal
+extremity of the limb is subjected in adaptation to the various
+purposes to which it is applied.</p>
+
+<p><i>Posterior Limb.</i>—The posterior limb is constructed upon a plan
+very similar to that of the anterior extremity. It consists of a
+pelvic girdle and three segments belonging to the limb proper, viz.
+the thigh, the leg, and the foot or pes (<a href="#figure015">Fig. 15</a>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Pelvic Girdle.</i>—The pelvic girdle is present in some form in all
+mammals, though in the Cetacea and the Sirenia it is in an exceedingly
+rudimentary condition. In all mammals except those belonging
+to the two orders just named, each lateral half of the pelvic
+girdle consists essentially, like the corresponding part of the anterior<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span>
+limb, of a flattened rod of bone crossing the long axis of the trunk,
+having an upper or dorsal and a lower or ventral end. The upper
+end diverges from that of the opposite side, but the lower end
+approaches, and, in most cases, meets it, forming a symphysis,
+without the intervention of any bone corresponding to the sternum.
+The pelvic girdle differs from the shoulder girdle in being firmly
+articulated to the vertebral column, thus giving greater power to
+the hinder limb in its function of supporting and propelling the
+body. Like the shoulder girdle, it bears on its outer side, near
+the middle, a cup-shaped articular cavity (“acetabulum”), into
+which the proximal end of the first bone of the limb proper is
+received. Each lateral half of the girdle is called the “os
+innominatum,” or innominate bone, and consists originally of three
+bones which unite at the acetabulum. The “ilium” or upper bone
+is that which articulates with the sacral vertebræ. Of the two
+lower bones the anterior or “pubis” unites with its fellow of
+the other side at the symphysis; the posterior is the “ischium.”
+These lower elements form two bars of bone, united above and
+below, but leaving a space between them in the middle, filled only
+by membrane, and called the “thyroid” or “obturator” foramen.
+The whole circle of bone formed by the two innominate bones
+and the sacrum is called the pelvis. In the Monotremata
+and Marsupialia, a pair of thin, flat, elongated ossifications
+called epipubic or marsupial bones are attached to the fore part
+of the pubis, and project forward into the muscular wall of the
+abdomen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thigh and Leg.</i>—The first segment of the limb proper has one
+bone, the femur, corresponding with the humerus of the anterior
+limb. The second segment has two bones, the tibia and fibula, corresponding
+with the radius and ulna. These bones always lie in their
+primitive unmodified position, parallel to each other, the tibia on
+the preaxial and the fibula on the postaxial side, and are never
+either permanently crossed or capable of any considerable amount
+of rotation, as in the corresponding bones of the fore limb. In the
+ordinary walking position the tibia is internal, and the fibula external.
+In many mammals the fibula is in a more or less rudimentary
+condition, and it often ankyloses with the tibia at one or
+both extremities. The patella or “knee-cap,” which is found in an
+ossified condition in all mammals, with the exception of some of
+the Marsupialia, is a large sesamoid bone developed in the tendon
+of the extensor muscles of the thigh, where the tendon passes over
+the front of the knee-joint, to which it serves as a protection.
+There are frequently smaller ossicles, one or two in number, situated
+behind the femoral condyles, called “fabellæ.” The processes for
+the attachment of muscles near the upper end of the femur are
+termed trochanters; and the third trochanter, found on the hinder<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span>
+aspect of the shaft of this bone in many forms is of considerable
+taxonomic importance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pes.</i>—The terminal segment of the hind limb is the foot or pes.
+Its skeleton presents in many particulars a close resemblance to that
+of the manus, being divisible into three parts: (1) a group of
+short, more or less rounded or square bones, constituting the
+tarsus; (2) a series of long bones placed side by side, forming the
+metatarsus; and (3) the phalanges of the digits or toes.</p>
+
+<p>The bones of the tarsus of many of the lower Vertebrata closely
+resemble both in number and arrangement those of the carpus, as
+shown in <a href="#figure017">Fig. 17</a>. They have been described in their most generalised
+condition by Gegenbaur under the names expressed in the first
+column of the following table. The names in the second column are
+those by which they are generally known to English anatomists,
+while in the third column some synonyms occasionally employed
+are added.</p>
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>Tibiale (?)</i></td>
+    <td>}</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="tdc valign">=</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="valign">Astragalus<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="tdc valign">=</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="valign"><i>Talus</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>Intermedium</i></td>
+    <td>}</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Fibulare</i></td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>Calcaneum</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>Os calcis</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Centrale</i></td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>Navicular</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>Scaphoideum</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Tarsale</i> 1</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>Internal cuneiform</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>Entocuneiforme</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Tarsale</i> 2</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>Middle cuneiform</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>Mesacuneiforme</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2"><i>Tarsale</i> 3</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td>External cuneiform</td>
+    <td class="tdc">=</td>
+    <td><i>Ectocuneiforme</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>Tarsale</i> 4</td>
+    <td>}</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="tdc valign">=</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="valign">Cuboid.</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="valign"></td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="valign"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>Tarsale</i> 5</td>
+    <td>}</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The bones of the tarsus of mammals present fewer diversities of
+number and arrangement than those of the carpus. The proximal
+row (see <a href="#figure018">Fig. 18</a>) always consists of two bones, namely the astragalus
+(<i>a</i>), which probably represents the coalesced scaphoid and lunar
+of the hand, and the calcaneum (<i>c</i>). The former is placed more to
+the dorsal side of the foot than the latter, and almost exclusively
+furnishes the tarsal part of the tibio-tarsal or ankle-joint. The calcaneum,
+placed more to the ventral or “plantar” side of the foot, is
+elongated backwards to form a more or less prominent tuberosity,
+the “tuber calcis,” to which the tendon of the great extensor muscles
+of the foot is attached. The navicular bone (<i>n</i>) is interposed between
+the proximal and distal row on the inner or tibial side of the foot,
+but on the outer side the bones of the two rows come into contact.
+The distal row, when complete, consists of four bones, which, beginning
+on the inner side, are the three cuneiform bones, internal
+(<i>c¹</i>), middle (<i>c²</i>), and external (<i>c³</i>), articulated to the distal surface
+of the navicular, and the cuboid (<i>cb</i>), articulated with the calcaneum.
+Of these the middle cuneiform is usually the smallest in animals<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span>
+in which all five digits are developed; but when the hallux is
+wanting the internal cuneiform may be rudimentary or altogether
+absent. The three cuneiform bones support
+respectively the first, second, and third
+metatarsals, and the cuboid supports the
+fourth and fifth; they thus exactly correspond
+with the four bones of the distal row
+of the carpus.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp35" id="figure018" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure018.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>—Bones of the right
+Human foot. <i>T</i>, Tarsus; <i>M</i>,
+metatarsus; <i>Ph</i>, phalanges, <i>c</i>,
+calcaneum; <i>a</i>, astragalus; <i>cb</i>,
+cuboid; <i>n</i>, navicular; <i>c¹</i>, internal
+cuneiform; <i>c²</i>, middle cuneiform;
+<i>c³</i>, external cuneiform. The
+digits are indicated by Roman
+numerals, counting from the
+tibial to the fibular side.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In addition to these constant tarsal
+bones, there may be supplemental or
+sesamoid bones: one situated near the
+middle of the tibial side of the tarsus,
+largely developed in many Carnivora and
+Rodentia; another, less frequent, on the
+fibular side; and a third, often developed
+in the tendons of the plantar surface of
+the tarsus, is especially large in Armadillos.
+There is also usually a pair of sesamoid
+bones on the plantar aspect of each metatarso-phalangeal
+articulation. In the young
+of the carnivorous genus <i>Crytoprocta</i> there
+may be a second centrale, which usually
+coalesces with the ectocuneiform.</p>
+
+<p>The metatarsal bones never exceed five
+in number, and the phalanges follow the
+same numerical rule as in the manus, never
+exceeding three in each digit. Moreover,
+the first digit, counting from the tibial side,
+or hallux, resembles the pollex of the hand
+in always having one segment less than
+the other digits. As the function of the
+hind foot is more restricted than that of the hand the modifications
+of its structure are less striking. In the Cetacea and the
+Sirenia it is entirely wanting, though in some existing members of
+the first-named order rudiments of the bones of both the first and
+second segments of the limb have been detected, and a femur is
+present in the Miocene Sirenian <i>Halitherium</i>.</p>
+
+<h3>IV. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.</h3>
+
+<p><i>General Considerations.</i>—The search after the purpose which
+every modification of structure subserves in the economy is always
+full of interest, and, if conducted with due caution and sufficient
+knowledge of all the attendant circumstances, may lead to important
+generalisations. It must always be borne in mind, however, that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span>
+adaptation to its special function is not the only cause of the
+particular form or structure of an organ, but that this form, having
+in all probability been arrived at by the successive and gradual
+modification of some other different form from which it is now to a
+greater or less degree removed, has other factors besides use to be
+taken into account. In no case is this principle so well seen as in
+that of the organs of digestion. These may be considered as
+machines which have to operate upon alimentary substances in very
+different conditions of mechanical and chemical combination, and to
+reduce them in every case to the same or precisely similar
+materials; and we might well imagine that the apparatus required
+to produce flesh and blood out of coarse fibrous vegetable substances
+would be different from that which had to produce exactly the
+same results out of ready-made flesh or blood; and in a very broad
+sense we find that this is so. Thus, if we take a large number of
+carnivorous animals, belonging to different fundamental types, and
+a large number of herbivorous animals, and strike a kind of average
+of each, we shall find that there is, pervading the first group, a
+general style, if we may use the expression, of the alimentary organs,
+different from that of the others. That is to say, there is a specially
+carnivorous and a specially herbivorous modification of these parts.
+But, if function were the only element which has guided such
+modification, it might be inferred that, as one form must be supposed
+to be best adapted in its relation to a particular kind of diet, that
+form would be found in all the animals consuming such diet. But
+this is far from being the case. Thus the Horse and the Ox, for
+instance—two animals whose food in the natural state is precisely
+similar—are most different as regards the structure of their alimentary
+canal, and the processes involved in the preparation of that
+food. Again, the Seal and the Porpoise, both purely fish-eaters,
+which seize, swallow, and digest precisely the same kind of prey, in
+precisely the same manner, have a totally different arrangement of the
+alimentary canal. If the Seal’s stomach is adapted in the best conceivable
+manner for the purpose it has to fulfil, why is not the Porpoise’s
+stomach an exact facsimile of it, and <i>vice versâ</i>? We can only answer
+that the Seal and Porpoise belong to different natural groups of
+animals, formed either on different primitive types, or descended
+from differently constructed ancestors. On this principle only can
+we account for the fact that, whereas, owing to the comparatively
+small variety of the different alimentary substances met with in
+nature, few modifications would appear necessary in the organs of
+digestion, there is really endless variety in the parts devoted to
+this purpose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mouth.</i>—The digestive apparatus of mammals, as in other vertebrates,
+consists mainly of a tube with an aperture placed at or
+near either extremity of the body,—the oral and the anal orifice,—and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span>
+furnished with muscular walls, the fibres of which are so
+arranged as by their regular alternate contraction and relaxation to
+drive onwards the contents of the tube from the first to the second
+of these apertures. The anterior or commencing portion of this
+tube and the parts around it are greatly and variously modified in
+relation to the functions assigned to them of selecting and seizing
+the food, and preparing it by various mechanical and chemical
+processes for the true digestion which it has afterwards to undergo
+before it can be assimilated into the system. For this end the tube
+is dilated into a chamber or cavity called the mouth, bordered
+externally by the lips, which are usually muscular and prehensile,
+and supported by a movable framework carrying the teeth; the
+structure and modifications of which have been already described.
+The roof of the mouth is formed by the palate, terminating behind
+by a muscular, contractile arch, having in Man and some few other
+species a median projection called the uvula, beneath which the
+mouth communicates with the pharynx. The anterior part of the
+palate is composed of mucous membrane tightly stretched over the
+flat or slightly concave bony lamina separating the mouth from
+the nasal passages, and is generally raised into a series of transverse
+ridges, which sometimes, as in Ruminants, attain a considerable
+development. In the floor of the mouth, between the
+rami of the mandible, and supported behind by the hyoidean
+apparatus, lies the tongue; an organ the free surface of which,
+especially in its posterior part, is devoted to the sense of taste, but
+which also, by its great mobility (being composed almost entirely
+of muscular fibres), performs important mechanical functions
+connected with masticating and procuring food. Its modifications
+of form in different mammals are very numerous. Between the
+long, extensile, vermiform tongue of the Anteaters, which is
+essential to the peculiar mode of feeding of those animals, and the
+short, sessile, and almost functionless tongue of the Porpoise, every
+intermediate condition is found. Whatever the form, the upper
+surface is always covered with numerous fine papillæ, in which
+the terminal filaments of the gustatory nerve are distributed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Salivary Glands.</i>—The fluid known as the saliva is secreted by
+an extensive and complex system of glands discharging into the
+cavity of the mouth (buccal cavity), the position and relation of
+some of which are exhibited in the woodcut on the next page
+(<a href="#figure019">Fig. 19</a>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="figure019" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure019.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>—Salivary Glands of the Genet. <i>A</i>, Right side of the head dissected; <i>p</i>, parotid
+gland; <i>d</i>, Steno’s duct; <i>sm</i>, submaxillary gland, traversed by the jugular veins (<i>jv</i>); <i>o</i>, aperture
+of Steno’s duct. <i>B</i>, Part of the head with the lip drawn up to show (<i>st.d</i>) aperture of
+Steno’s duct; <i>z.gl</i>, zygomatic gland; <i>o</i>, aperture of do.; <i>z</i>, zygomatic arch (Mivart, <i>Proc.
+Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 504.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This apparatus consists of small glands embedded in the mucous
+membrane or submucous tissue lining the cavity of the mouth,
+which are of two kinds (the follicular and the racemose), and of
+others in which the secreting structure is aggregated in distinct
+masses removed some distance from the cavity; other tissues besides
+the lining membrane being usually interposed, and pouring their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span>
+secretion into the cavity by a distinct tube or duct, which traverses
+the mucous membrane. To the latter alone the name of “salivary
+glands” is ordinarily appropriated, although the distinction
+between them and the smaller racemose glands is only one of
+convenience for descriptive purposes, their structure being more or
+less nearly identical; and, since the fluids secreted by all become
+mixed in the month, their functions are, at all events in great part,
+common. Under the name of salivary glands are commonly
+included—(1) the “parotid” (<i>p</i>), situated very superficially on the
+side of the head, below or around the cartilaginous external
+auditory meatus, and the secretion of which enters the mouth by
+a duct (often called Steno’s or Stenson’s) which crosses the masseter
+muscle and opens into the upper and back part of the cheek
+(<a href="#figure019">Fig. 19</a>); and (2) the “submaxillary” (<i>sm</i>), situated in the neck,
+near or below the angle of the mandible, and sending a long duct<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span>
+(Wharton’s) forwards to open on the forepart of the floor of the
+cavity of the mouth, below the apex of the tongue. These are the
+most largely developed and constant of the salivary glands, being
+met with in various degrees of development in almost all animals
+of the class. Next in constancy are (3) “the sublingual,” closely
+associated with the last-named, at all events in the locality in which
+the secretion is poured out; and (4) the “zygomatic” (<i>z.gl</i>), found
+only in some animals in the cheek, just under cover of the anterior
+part of the zygomatic arch, its duct entering the buccal cavity near
+that of the parotid.</p>
+
+<p>The most obvious function common to the secretion of these
+various glands, and to that of the smaller ones placed in the mucous
+membrane of the lips, the cheeks, the tongue, the palate, and fauces,
+is the mechanical one of moistening and softening the food, to
+enable it the more readily to be tasted, masticated, and swallowed,
+though each kind of gland may contribute in different manner
+and different degree to perform this function. The saliva is,
+moreover, of the greatest importance in the first stage or introduction
+to the digestive process, as it dissolves or makes a watery
+extract of all soluble substances in the food, and so prepares them
+to be further acted on by the more potent digestive fluids met with
+subsequently in their progress through the alimentary canal. In
+addition to these functions it seems now well established by experiment
+that saliva serves in Man and many animals to aid directly
+in the digestive process, particularly by its power of inducing the
+saccharine transformation of amylaceous substances. As a general
+rule, in mammals the parotid saliva is more watery in its
+composition, while that of the submaxillaries, and still more the
+sublingual, contains more solid elements and is more viscid;—so
+much so that some anatomists consider the latter, together with the
+small racemose glands of the cheeks, lips, and tongue, as mucous
+glands, retaining the name of salivary only for the parotid. These
+peculiar properties are sometimes illustrated in a remarkable
+degree, as, for example, the great secretion of excessively viscid
+saliva which lubricates the tongue of the Anteaters and Armadillos,
+associated with enormously developed submaxillary glands; while,
+on the other hand, the parotids are of great size in those animals
+which habitually masticate dry and fibrous food.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stomach.</i>—After the preparation which the aliment has undergone
+in the mouth,—the extent of which varies immensely in
+different forms, being reduced almost to nothing in such animals as
+the Seals and Cetaceans, which, to use the familiar expression,
+“bolt” their food entire, and most fully carried out in the Ruminants,
+which “chew the cud,”—it is swallowed, and carried along
+the œsophagus by the action of its muscular coats into the stomach.
+In the greater number of mammals this organ is a simple saccular<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span>
+dilatation of the alimentary canal, as in <a href="#figure020">Figs. 20, 21</a>, but in others
+it undergoes remarkable modifications and complexities. The lining
+of the stomach is thickly beset with tubular glands, which are
+generally considered to belong to two different forms, recognisable
+by their structure, and different in their function—the most
+numerous and important secreting the gastric juice (the active
+agent in stomachic digestion), and hence called “peptic” glands,
+while the others are concerned only in the elaboration of mucus.
+The relative distribution of these glands in different regions of the
+walls of the stomach varies greatly in different animals, and in
+many species there are large tracts of the mucous membrane which
+do not secrete a fluid having the properties of gastric juice, but
+often constitute more or less distinct cavities devoted to storing
+and perhaps softening or otherwise preparing the food for digestion.
+Sometimes there is a great aggregation of glands forming distinct
+thickened patches of the stomach wall, as in the Beaver and Koala,
+or even collected in pyriform pouches with a common narrow
+opening into the cavity, as in the Manatee and the curious African
+Rodent <i>Lophiomys</i>. The action of the gastric fluid is mainly
+exerted upon the nitrogenous elements of the food, which it
+dissolves and modifies so as to render them capable of undergoing
+absorption, effected partly by the blood-vessels of the stomach,
+although the greater part, passes through the pylorus, an aperture
+surrounded by a circular muscular valve, into the intestinal canal.
+Here it comes in contact with the secretion of a vast number of
+small glands called the crypts of Lieberkuhn, somewhat similar
+to those of the stomach; and also of several special glands of a
+different character, namely, the small racemose, duodenal, or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span>
+Brunner’s glands, the pancreas, and the liver; the position of the
+ducts of the two latter organs being indicated in <a href="#figure020">Fig. 20</a>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure020" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure020.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>—Stomach and pancreas of the Genet. Posterior or dorsal surface, <i>œ</i>, Œsophagus;
+<i>s</i>, pancreas; <i>pd</i>, pancreatic duct; <i>bd</i>, biliary duct from the liver. (From Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool.
+Soc.</i> 1882, p. 305.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Intestinal Canal.</i>—The intestinal canal varies greatly in relative
+length and capacity in different animals, and it also offers manifold
+peculiarities of form, being sometimes a simple cylindrical tube of
+nearly uniform calibre throughout, but more often subject to alterations
+of form and capacity in different portions of its course,—the
+most characteristic and constant being the division into an upper
+and narrower, and lower and wider portion, called respectively the
+small and the large intestine, the former being divided quite arbitrarily
+and artificially into duodenum, jejunum,
+and ileum, and the latter into colon and
+rectum. One of the most striking peculiarities
+of this part of the alimentary canal is
+the frequent presence of a diverticulum or
+blind pouch, the <i>caput cæcum coli</i>, as it was
+first called, a name generally abbreviated into
+“cæcum,” situated at the junction of the
+large and the small intestine, a structure presenting
+an immense variety of development,
+from the smallest bulging of a portion of the
+side wall of the tube to a huge and complex
+sac, greatly exceeding in capacity the whole
+of the remainder of the alimentary canal. It
+is only in herbivorous animals that the cæcum
+is developed to this great extent, and among
+these there is a curious complementary relationship
+between the size and complexity
+of this organ and that of the stomach.
+Where the latter is simple the cæcum is
+generally the largest, and <i>vice versâ</i>. Both the
+cæcum and colon are often sacculated, a disposition
+caused by the arrangement of the
+longitudinal bands of muscular tissue in their
+walls; but the small intestine is always smooth and simple-walled
+externally, though its lining membrane often exhibits various
+contrivances for increasing the absorbing surface without adding to
+the general bulk of the organ, such as the numerous small villi by
+which it is everywhere beset, and the more obvious transverse,
+longitudinal, or reticulating folds projecting into the interior, met
+with in many animals, of which the “valvulæ conniventes” of Man
+form well-known examples.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp40" id="figure021" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure021.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>—Diagrammatic
+plan of the general arrangement
+of the alimentary canal
+in a typical Mammal. <i>o</i>,
+Œsophagus; <i>st</i>, stomach; <i>p</i>,
+pylorus; <i>s</i>, <i>s</i>, small intestine;
+(abbreviated); <i>c</i>, cæcum; <i>l</i>, <i>l</i>,
+large intestine or colon, ending
+in <i>r</i>, the rectum.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Besides the crypts of Lieberkuhn found throughout the intestinal
+canal, and the glands of Brunner confined to the duodenum,
+there are other structures in the mucous membrane, about the
+nature of which there is still much uncertainty, called “solitary” and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span>
+“agminated” glands; the latter being more commonly known by the
+name of “Peyer’s patches.” These were formerly supposed to be
+secretory organs, which discharged some kind of fluid into the
+intestine, but are now more generally considered to belong to that
+group of structures of somewhat mysterious function of which the
+lymphatic and lacteal glands are members. The solitary glands are
+found scattered irregularly throughout the whole intestinal tract;
+the agminated, on the other hand, are always confined to the small
+intestine, and are most abundant in its lower part. They are
+subject to great variation in number and in size, and even
+in different individuals of the same species, and also differ in
+character at different periods of life, becoming atrophied in old
+age.</p>
+
+<p><i>Liver.</i>—The distinct glands situated outside the walls of the
+intestinal canal, but which pour their secretion into it, are the
+pancreas and the liver. The latter is the more important on
+account of its size, if not on account of the direct action of its
+secretion in the digestive process. This large gland, so complex in
+structure and function, is well developed in all mammals, and its
+secreting tube, the bile-duct, always opens into the duodenum, or
+that portion of the canal which immediately succeeds the stomach.
+It is situated on the right side of the abdomen in contact with the
+diaphragm and the stomach, but varies greatly in relative size, and
+also in form, in different groups of mammals. In most mammals a
+gall-bladder, consisting of a pyriform diverticulum from the bile-duct,
+is present, but in many this appendage is wanting, and it is
+difficult to find the rationale of its presence or absence in relation
+to use or any other circumstance in the animal economy.</p>
+
+<p>The descriptions of the livers of various animals to be met
+with in treatises or memoirs on comparative anatomy are very
+difficult to understand for want of a uniform system of nomenclature.
+The difficulty usually met with arises from the circumstance
+that this organ is divided sometimes, as in Man, Ruminants, and
+the Cetacea, into two main lobes, which have been always called
+respectively right and left, and in other cases, as in the lower
+Monkeys, Carnivora, Insectivora, and several other orders, into a
+larger number of lobes. Among the latter the primary division usually
+appears at first sight tripartite, the whole organ consisting of a
+middle, called “cystic” or “suspensory” lobe, and two lateral lobes,
+called respectively right and left lobes. This introduces confusion
+in describing livers by the same terms throughout the whole series
+of mammals, since the right and left lobes of the Monkey or Dog,
+for instance, do not correspond with parts designated by the same
+names in Man and the Sheep. There are, moreover, conditions
+where neither the bipartite nor the tripartite system of nomenclature
+will answer, so that we should have considerable difficulty in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span>
+describing them without some more general system. In order to
+arrive at such a system it appears desirable to consider the liver in
+all cases as primarily divided by the umbilical vein (see <a href="#figure022">Fig. 22</a>, <i>u</i>)
+into two segments, right and left. This corresponds with its
+development and with the condition characteristic of the organ in
+the inferior classes of vertebrates. The situation of this division
+can almost always be recognised in adult animals by the persistence
+of some traces of the umbilical vein in the form of the round
+ligament, and by the position of the suspensory ligament.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp92" id="figure022" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure022.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>—Diagrammatic plan of the inferior surface of a multilobed liver of a Mammal.
+The posterior or attached border is uppermost. <i>u</i>, Umbilical vein of the fœtus, represented by
+the round ligament in the adult, lying in the umbilical fissure; <i>dv</i>, the ductus venosus; <i>vc</i>,
+the inferior vena cava; <i>p</i>, the vena portæ entering the transverse fissure; <i>llf</i>, the left lateral
+fissure; <i>rlf</i>, the right lateral fissure; <i>cf</i>, the cystic fissure; <i>ll</i>, the left lateral lobe; <i>lc</i>, the left
+central lobe; <i>rc</i>, the right central lobe; <i>rl</i>, the right lateral lobe; <i>s</i>, the Spigelian lobe; <i>c</i>, the
+caudate lobe; <i>g</i>, the gall-bladder.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>When the two main parts into which the liver is thus divided
+are entire, as in Man, the Ruminants, and Cetacea, they may be
+spoken of as the right and left lobes; when fissured, as the right
+and left segments of the liver, reserving the term lobe for the subdivisions.
+This will involve no ambiguity, for the terms right and
+left lobe will no longer be used for divisions of the more complex
+form of liver. In the large majority of mammals each segment is
+further divided by a fissure, more or less deep, extending from
+the free towards the attached border, which are called right and
+left lateral fissures (<a href="#figure022">Fig. 22</a>, <i>rlf</i> and <i>llf</i>). When these are more
+deeply cut than the umbilical fissure (<i>u</i>), the organ has that
+tripartite or trefoil-like form just spoken of, but it is easily seen
+that it is really divided into four regions or lobes, those included
+between the lateral fissures being the right and left central (<i>rc</i> and
+<i>lc</i>) separated by the umbilical fissure, and those beyond the lateral
+fissures on each side being the right and left lateral lobes (<i>rl</i> and <i>ll</i>).<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span>
+The essentially bipartite character of the organ and its uniformity
+of construction throughout the class are thus not lost sight of, even
+in the most complex forms. The left segment of the liver is rarely
+complicated to any further extent, except in some cases by minor
+or secondary fissures marking off small lobules, generally inconstant
+and irregular, and never worthy of any special designation. On
+the other hand, the right segment is usually more complex. The
+gall-bladder, when present, is always attached to the under surface
+of the right central lobe, sometimes merely applied to it, in other
+cases deeply embedded in its substance. In many instances the
+fossa in which it is sunk is continued to the free margin of the
+liver as an indent, or even a tolerably deep fissure (<i>cf</i>). The
+portal fissure (<i>p</i>), through which the portal vein and hepatic artery
+enter and the bile-duct emerges from the liver, crosses the right
+central lobe transversely, near the attached border of the liver.
+The right lateral lobe always has the great vena cava (<i>vc</i>) either
+grooving its surface or tunnelling through its substance near the
+inner or left end of its attached border; and a prolongation of this
+lobe to the left, between the vein and the portal fissure, sometimes
+forming a mere flat track of hepatic substance, but more often
+a prominent tongue-shaped process, is the so-called “Spigelian lobe”
+(<i>s</i>). From the under surface, of the right lateral lobe a portion is
+generally partially detached by a fissure, and called the “caudate
+lobe” (<i>c</i>). In Man this lobe is almost obsolete, but in most
+mammals it is of considerable magnitude, and has very constant
+and characteristic relations. It is connected by an isthmus at the
+left (narrowest or attached) end to the Spigelian lobe, behind which
+isthmus the vena cava is always in relation to it, channelling
+through or grooving its surface. It generally has a pointed apex,
+and is deeply hollowed to receive the right kidney, to the upper
+and inner side of which it is applied.</p>
+
+<p>Considerations derived from the comparatively small and simple
+condition of the liver of the Ungulata, compared with its large
+size and complex form in the Carnivora, have led to the perhaps
+too hasty generalisation that the first type is related to a herbivorous
+and the latter to a carnivorous diet. The exceptions to such a
+proposition are very numerous. The fact of the great difference
+between the liver of the Cetacea and that of the Seals cannot
+be accounted for by difference of habits of life, though it perhaps
+may be by difference of origin.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span></p>
+
+<h3>V. CIRCULATORY, ABSORBENT, RESPIRATORY, AND URINARY SYSTEMS.</h3>
+
+<p><i>Blood.</i>—The blood of mammals is always red, and during the
+life of the animal hot, having a nearly uniform temperature,
+varying within a few degrees on each side of 100° Fahr. The
+corpuscles are, as usual in the vertebrates, of two kinds: (1)
+colourless, spheroidal, nucleated, and exhibiting amœboid movements;
+while (2) the more numerous, on which depends the
+characteristic hue of the fluid in which they are suspended, are
+coloured, non-nucleated, flattened, slightly biconcave discs, with
+circular outline in all known species except the Camels and Llamas,
+where they have the elliptical form characteristic of the red
+corpuscles of nearly all the other vertebrates, though adhering to
+the mammalian type in the absence of nucleus and relatively small
+size. As a rule they are smaller as well as more numerous than in
+other classes, but vary considerably in size in different species, and
+not always in relation to the magnitude of the animal; a Mouse,
+for instance, having as large corpuscles as a Horse. Within the
+limits of any natural group there is, however, very often some such
+relation, the largest corpuscles being found among the large species
+and the smallest corpuscles among the small species of the group,
+but even to this generalisation there are many exceptions. The
+transverse diameter of the red corpuscles in Man averages ¹⁄₃₂₀₀ of
+an inch, which is exceptionally large, and only exceeded by the
+Elephant (¹⁄₂₇₄₅), and by some Cetacea and Edentata. They are
+also generally large in Apes, Rodents, and the Monotremata, and
+small in the Artiodactyles, least of all in the Chevrotains (<i>Tragulus</i>),
+being in <i>T. javanicus</i> and <i>meminna</i> not more than ¹⁄₁₂₃₂₅.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Heart.</i>—The heart of mammals consists of four distinct cavities,
+two auricles and two ventricles. Usually the ventricular portion is
+externally of conical form, with a simple apex, but in the Sirenia it
+is broad and flattened, and a deep notch separates the apical portion
+of each ventricle. A tendency to this form is seen in the Cetacea
+and the Seals. It is characteristic of mammals alone among vertebrates
+that the right auriculo-ventricular valve is tendinous like the
+left, consisting of flaps held in their place by fibrous ends (<i>chordæ
+tendiniæ</i>) and arising from projections of the muscular walls of
+the ventricular cavity (<i>musculi papillares</i>). In the Monotremata a
+transition between this condition and the simple muscular flap of
+the Sauropsida is observed. In most of the larger Ungulates a distinct
+but rather irregular ossification (<i>os cordis</i>) is developed in the
+central tendinous portion of the base of the heart.</p>
+
+<p><i>Blood-vessels.</i>—The orifices of the aorta and pulmonary artery are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span>
+each guarded by three semilunar valves. The aorta is single, and
+arches over the left bronchial tube. After supplying the tissues of
+the heart itself with blood by means of the coronary arteries, it
+gives off large vessels (“carotid”) to the head and (“brachial”) to the
+anterior extremities. The mode in which these vessels arise from
+the aorta varies much in different mammals, and the study of their
+disposition affords some guide to classification. In nearly all cases
+the right brachial and carotid have a common origin (called the
+“innominate artery” in anthropotomy). The other two vessels
+may come off from this, as is the rule in Ungulates, the common
+trunk constituting the “anterior aorta” of veterinary anatomy; or
+they may be detached in various degrees, both arising separately
+from the aorta, as in Man, or the left carotid from the innominate
+and the left brachial from the aorta, a very common arrangement;
+or the last two from a common second or left innominate, as in
+some Bats and Insectivores. The aorta, after giving off the intercostal
+arteries, passes through the diaphragm into the abdomen, and,
+after supplying the viscera of that cavity by means of the gastric,
+hepatic, splenic, mesenteric, renal, and spermatic vessels, gives off
+in the lumbar region a large branch (iliac) to each of the hinder
+extremities, which also supplies the pelvic viscera, and is continued
+onwards in the middle line, greatly diminished in size, along the
+under surface of the tail as the caudal artery. In certain mammals,
+arterial plexuses, called <i>retia mirabilia</i>, formed by the breaking up
+of the vessel into an immense number of small trunks, which may
+run in a straight course parallel to one another (as in the limbs of
+Sloths and Slow Lemurs), or form a closely packed network, as in
+the intracranial plexuses of Ruminants, or a sponge-like mass of
+convoluted vessels, as in the intercostals of Cetaceans, are
+peculiarities of the vascular system the meaning of which is
+not in all cases clearly understood. In the Cetacea they are obviously
+receptacles for containing a large quantity of oxygenated
+blood available during the prolonged immersion, with consequent
+absence of respiration, to which these animals are subject.</p>
+
+<p>The vessels returning the blood to the heart from the head and
+upper extremities usually unite, as in Man, to form the single <i>vena
+cava superior</i> or precaval vein, but in some Insectivores, Chiroptera,
+and Rodents, in the Elephant, and all Marsupials and Monotremes,
+the two superior caval veins enter the right auricle without uniting,
+as in birds. In Seals and some other diving mammals there is a
+large venous sinus or dilatation of the inferior vena cava immediately
+below the diaphragm. In the Cetacea the purpose of this is supplied
+by the immense abdominal venous plexuses. As a rule the veins
+of mammals are furnished with valves, but these are said to be
+altogether wanting in the Cetacea, and in the superior and inferior
+cava, subclavian and iliac veins, the veins of the liver (both portal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span>
+and hepatic), heart, lungs, kidneys, brain, and spinal cord of other
+mammals. Many of the veins within the cranium are included in
+spaces formed by the separation of the laminæ of the dura mater,
+and do not admit of being dilated beyond a certain size; these are
+termed sinuses. The portal circulation in mammals is limited to
+the liver, the portal vein being formed by the superior and inferior
+mesenteric, the splenic, the gastro-epiploic, and the pancreatic veins.
+The kidney is supplied solely by arterial blood, and its veins empty
+their contents only into the inferior cava.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lymphatic Vessels.</i>—The <i>absorbent</i> or <i>lymphatic</i> system of vessels is
+very fully developed in the Mammalia. Its ramifications extend
+through all the soft tissues of the body, and convey a colourless
+fluid called lymph, containing nucleated corpuscles, and also,
+during the process of digestion, the chyle, a milky fluid taken up
+by the lymphatics (here called lacteals) of the small intestine, and
+pour them into the general vascular system, where they mix with
+the venous blood. The lymphatic vessels of the hinder extremities,
+as well as those from the intestinal canal, unite in the abdomen to
+form the “thoracic duct,” the hinder end or commencement of
+which has a dilatation called the <i>receptaculum chyli</i>. This duct,
+which is of irregular size and sometimes double, often dividing and
+uniting again in its course, or even becoming plexiform, passes forwards
+close to the bodies of the thoracic vertebræ, and empties itself,
+by an orifice guarded by a valve, into the great left brachio-cephalic
+vein, having previously received the lymphatics from the thorax and
+the left side of the head and left anterior extremity. The lymphatics
+from the right side of the head and right anterior limb usually
+enter by a small distinct trunk into the corresponding part of the
+right brachio-cephalic vein. The duct, and also the principal lymphatic
+vessels, are provided with valves.</p>
+
+<p>Lymphatic glands, rarely met with in the Sauropsida, are usually
+present in mammals, both in the general and in the lacteal system;
+the latter being called “mesenteric glands.” They are round or oval
+masses, situated upon the course of the vessels, which break up in
+them and assume a plexiform arrangement, and then reunite
+as they emerge. No structures corresponding to the pulsating
+“lymphatic hearts” of the lower vertebrates have been met with in
+mammals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ductless Glands.</i>—Associated with the vascular and lymphatic
+systems are certain bodies (the functions of which are not properly
+understood), usually, on account of their general appearance,
+grouped together under the name of “ductless glands.” The
+largest of these is the “spleen,” which is single, and always
+placed in mammals in relation to the fundus or left end of the
+stomach, to which it is attached by a fold of peritoneum. It is dark-coloured
+and spongy in substance, and has a depression or “hilus”<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span>
+on one side, into which the splenic artery, a branch of the cœliac
+axis of the abdominal aorta, enters, and from which the vein joining
+the portal system emerges. The spleen varies much in size and form
+in different mammals, being relatively very small in the Cetacea.
+It is sometimes almost spherical, but more often flattened, oval,
+triangular, or elongated, and occasionally, as in Monotremes and
+most Marsupials, triradiate. The “suprarenal bodies” or “adrenals”
+are two in number, each situated either in contact with, or at a
+short distance in front of the anterior extremity of the kidney.
+They are abundantly supplied with nerves, and are much larger relatively
+in early than in adult life. The “thyroid bodies,” of which
+there are generally two, though in Man and some other species
+they are connected by an isthmus passing across the middle line,
+are constant in mammals, though only met with in a rudimentary
+condition, if at all, in other vertebrates. They are situated in the
+neck, in contact with the sides of the anterior extremity of the
+trachea. The “thymus” lies in the anterior part of the thorax,
+between the sternum and the great vessels at the base of the heart,
+and differs from the thyroid in being median and single, and having
+a central cavity. It attains its greatest development during the
+period in which the animal is nourished by its mother’s milk, and
+then it diminishes, and generally disappears before full growth is
+attained.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nostrils.</i>—Mammals breathe occasionally through the mouth,
+but usually, and in many cases exclusively, through the nostrils or
+<i>nares</i>. Those are apertures, always paired (except in the toothed
+Cetacea, where they unite to form a single external opening), and
+situated at the fore part of the face, generally at or beneath the
+end of the muzzle, a median prominence above the mouth. This is
+sometimes elongated to form a proboscis, to the extremity of which
+the nostrils are carried, and which attains its maximum of development
+in the Elephant. In the Cetacea the nostrils are situated at
+a considerable distance behind the anterior end of the face, upon
+the highest part of the head, and are called “blowholes,” from the
+peculiar mode of respiration of those animals. The nostrils are
+kept open by means of cartilages surrounding their aperture,
+which many animals have the power of moving so as to cause
+partial dilatation or contraction. In diving animals, as Seals and
+Cetacea, they can be completely closed at will so as to prevent the
+entrance of water when beneath the surface. The passage to which
+the nostrils lead is in most mammals filled by a more or less
+complex sieve-like apparatus, formed of the convoluted turbinal
+bones and cartilages, over which a moist, vascular, ciliated mucous
+membrane is spread, which intercepts particles of dust, and also
+aids in warming the inspired air before it reaches the lungs. In
+the Proboscidea, in which these functions are performed by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span>
+the walls of the long tubular proboscis, this apparatus is entirely
+wanting.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trachea.</i>—The narial passages have the organ of smell situated
+in their upper part, and communicate posteriorly with the
+pharynx, and through the glottis with the “trachea” or windpipe,
+a tube by which the air is conveyed to and from the lungs. The
+permanent patency of the trachea during the varied movements of
+the neck is provided for by its walls being stiffened by a series of
+cartilaginous rings or hoops, which in most mammals are incomplete
+behind. Having entered the thorax, the trachea bifurcates into the
+two bronchi, one of which enters, and, dividing dichotomously,
+ramifies through each lung. In some of the Cetacea and
+Artiodactyla a third bronchus is given off from the lower
+part of the trachea, above its bifurcation and enters the right
+lung.</p>
+
+<p><i>Larynx.</i>—The upper end of the trachea is modified into the
+organ of voice or “larynx,” the air passing through which to and
+from the lungs is made use of to set the edges of the “vocal cords,”
+or fibrous bands stretched one on each side of the tube, into vibration.
+The larynx is composed of several cartilages, such as the
+“thyroid,” the “cricoid,” and the “arytenoid” which are moved
+upon one another by muscles, and suspended from the hyoidean arch.
+By alteration of the relative position of these cartilages the cords
+can be tightened or relaxed, approximated or divaricated, as
+required to modulate the tone and volume of the voice. A median
+tongue-shaped fibro-cartilage at the top of the larynx, the “epiglottis,”
+protects the “glottis,” or aperture by which the larynx communicates
+with the pharynx, from the entry of particles of food during
+deglutition. The form of the larynx and development of the vocal
+cords present many variations in different members of the class,
+the greatest modification from the ordinary type being met with in
+the Cetacea, where the arytenoid cartilages and epiglottis are united
+in a tubular manner, so as to project into the nasal passage, and,
+being grasped by the muscular posterior margin of the palate, provide
+a direct channel of communication from the lungs to the
+external surface. An approach to this condition is met with in the
+Hippopotamus and some other Ungulates; it is indeed so general
+as an abnormality, that Howes suggests that an internarial epiglottis
+may have been a primitive feature common throughout the
+class. Nearly all mammals have a voice, although sometimes it is
+only exercised at seasons of sexual excitement. Some Marsupials
+and Edentates appear to be quite mute. In no mammal is there
+an inferior larynx, or “syrinx,” as in birds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diaphragm.</i>—The thoracic cavity of mammals differs from that
+of the Sauropsida in being completely separated from the abdomen
+by a muscular partition, the “diaphragm,” attached to the vertebral<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span>
+column, the ribs, and the sternum. This is much arched, with the
+convexity towards the thorax, so that when its fibres contract and
+it is flattened the cavity of the thorax is increased, and when they
+are relaxed the cavity is diminished.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lungs.</i>—The lungs are suspended freely in the thorax, one on
+each side of the heart, being attached only by the root, which
+consists of the bronchus or air-tube and pulmonary arteries and
+veins by which the blood is passed backwards and forwards between
+the heart and the lungs. The remaining part of the surface of
+each lung is covered by serous membrane, the “pleura”; and whatever
+the state of distension or contraction of the chest-wall, is
+accurately in contact with it. Inspiration is effected by the contraction
+of the diaphragm and by the intercostal and other muscles
+elevating or bringing forward the ribs, and thus throwing the
+sternum farther away from the vertebral column. As the surface
+of the lung must follow the chest-wall, the organ itself is expanded,
+and air rushes in through the trachea to fill all the minute cells in
+which the ultimate ramifications of the bronchi terminate. In
+ordinary expiration very little muscular power is expended, the
+elasticity of the lungs and surrounding parts being sufficient to
+cause a state of contraction and thus drive out at least a portion of
+the air contained in the cells, when the muscular stimulus is withdrawn.
+The lungs are sometimes simple externally, as in the
+Sirenia (where they are greatly elongated) and the Cetacea, but are
+more often divided by deep fissures into one or more lobes. The
+right lung is usually larger and more subdivided than the left. It
+often has a small distinct lobe behind, wanting on the left side, and
+hence called <i>lobulus azygos</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Air-sacs.</i>—Most mammals have in connection with the air passages
+certain diverticuli or pouches containing air, the use of which is
+not always easy to divine. The numerous air sinuses situated
+between the outer and inner tables of the bones of the head,
+represented in Man by the antrum of Highmore and the frontal and
+sphenoidal sinuses, and attaining their maximum of development
+in the Indian Elephant, are obviously for the mechanical purpose
+of allowing expansion of the osseous surface without increase of
+weight. They are connected with the nasal passages. The Eustachian
+tubes pass from the back of the pharynx to the cavity of the
+tympanum, into which and the mastoid cells they allow air to pass.
+In the <i>Equidæ</i> there are large post-pharyngeal air-sacs in connection
+with them. The Dolphins have an exceedingly complicated system
+of air-sacs in connection with the nasal passages just within the
+nostrils, and the Tapirs, Rhinoceroses, and Horses have blind sacs
+in the same situation. In the males of some Seals (<i>Cystophora</i> and
+<i>Macrorhinus</i>) large pouches, which the animal can inflate with air,
+and which are not developed in the young animal or the female,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span>
+arise from the upper part of the nasal passages, and lie immediately
+under the skin of the face. These appear analogous, although not
+in the same situation, to the gular pouch of the male Bustard.
+The larynx frequently has membranous pouches in connection
+with it, into which air passes. These may be lateral and opening
+just above the vocal cords, when they constitute the <i>sacculi laryngis</i>,
+found in a rudimentary state in Man, and attaining an enormous
+development, so as to reach to the shoulders and axillæ, in some
+of the Anthropoid Apes; or they may be median, opening in
+front either above or below the thyroid and cricoid cartilages, as in
+the Howling and other Monkeys, and also in the Whalebone
+Whales and Great Anteater.</p>
+
+<p><i>Urinary Organs.</i>—The kidneys of mammals are more compact
+and definite in form than in other vertebrates, being usually more
+or less oval, with an indent on the side turned towards the middle
+line, from and into which the vessels and ducts pass. They are
+distinctly divided into a cortical secretory portion, composed
+mainly of convoluted tubes, and containing the so-called Malpighian
+bodies; and a medullary excreting portion, formed of straight tubes
+converging towards a papilla, embraced by the commencement of
+the ureter or duct of the organ. The kidneys of some mammals,
+as most Monkeys, Carnivores, Rodents, etc., are simple, with a
+single papilla into which all the renal tubuli enter. In others, as
+Man, there are many pyramids of the medullary portion, each with
+its papilla, opening into a division (calyx) of the upper end of the
+ureter. Such kidneys, either in the embryonic condition only, or
+throughout life, are lobulated on the surface. In some cases, as in
+Bears, Seals, and especially the Cetacea, the lobulation is carried
+further, the whole organ being composed of a mass of renules,
+loosely united by connective tissue, and with separate ducts, which
+soon join to form the common ureter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bladder.</i>—In all mammals except the Monotremes the ureters
+terminate by slit-like valvular openings in the urinary bladder.
+This receptacle when filled discharges its contents through the
+single median urethra, which in the male is almost invariably
+included in the penis, and in the females of some species of Rodents,
+Insectivores, and Lemurs has a similar relation to the clitoris. In
+the Monotremes, though the bladder is present, the ureters do not
+enter into it, but join the urino-genital canal some distance below
+it, with the orifice of the genital duct intervening.</p>
+
+<h3>VI. NERVOUS SYSTEM AND ORGANS OF SENSE.</h3>
+
+<p><i>Brain.</i>—The brain of mammals shows a higher condition of
+organisation than that of other vertebrates. The cerebral hemispheres<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span>
+have a greater preponderance compared with other parts,
+especially to the so-called optic lobes, or corpora quadrigemina,
+which are completely concealed by them. The commissural system
+of the hemispheres is much more complex, both fornix and corpus
+callosum being present in some form; and when the latter is
+rudimentary, as in Marsupials and Monotremes, its deficiency is
+made up for by the great size of the anterior commissure. The
+lateral lobes of the cerebellum, wanting in lower vertebrates, are
+well developed and connected by a transverse commissure, the pons
+Varolii. The whole brain, owing especially to the size of the
+cerebral hemispheres, is considerably larger relatively to the bulk
+of the animal than in other classes, but it must be recollected that
+the size of its brain depends upon many circumstances besides the
+degree of intelligence which an animal possesses, although this is
+certainly one. Man’s brain is many times larger than that of all
+other known mammals of equal bulk, and even three times as large
+as that of the most nearly allied Ape. Equal bulk of body is here
+mentioned, because, in drawing any conclusions from the size of
+the brain compared with that of the entire animal, it is always
+necessary to take into consideration the fact that in every natural
+group of closely allied animals the larger species have much smaller
+brains relatively to their general size than the smaller species, so
+that, in making any effective comparison among animals belonging
+to different groups, species of the same size must be selected. It
+may be true that the brain of a Mouse is, as compared with the
+size of its body, larger than that of a Man, but, if it were possible
+to reduce an animal having the general organisation of a Man to the
+size of a Mouse, its brain would doubtless be very many times larger;
+and conversely, as shown by the rapid diminution of the relative
+size of the brain in all the large members of the Rodent order, a
+Mouse magnified to the size of a Man would, if the general rule
+were observed, have a brain exceedingly inferior in volume. Although
+the brain of the large species of Whales is, as commonly
+stated, the smallest in proportion to the bulk of the animal of any
+mammal, this does not invalidate the general proposition that the
+Cetacea have very large brains compared with terrestrial mammals,
+like the Ungulata, or even the aquatic Sirenia, as may be proved
+by placing the brain of a Dolphin by the side of that of a Sheep, a
+Pig, or a Manatee of equal general weight. It is only because the
+universally observed difference between the slower ratio of increase
+of the brain compared with that of the body becomes so enormous
+in these immense creatures that they are accredited with small
+brains.</p>
+
+<p>The presence or absence of “sulci” or fissures on the surface
+of the hemisphere, dividing it into “convolutions” or “gyri,” and
+thus increasing the superficies of the cortical gray matter, as well<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span>
+as allowing the pia mater with its nutrient blood-vessels to penetrate
+into the cerebral substance, follow somewhat similar rules.
+The sulci are related partly to the high or low condition of organisation
+of the species, but also in a great degree to the size of the
+cerebral hemispheres. In
+very small species of all
+groups, even the Primates,
+they are absent, and in the
+largest species of groups so
+low in the scale as the Marsupials
+and Edentates they
+are found. They reach their
+maximum of development in
+the Cetacea.</p>
+
+<p>The accompanying woodcut
+(<a href="#figure023">Fig. 23</a>) shows the principal
+parts of a mammalian
+brain, as seen from the
+superior, lateral, and inner
+surfaces. The sylvian fissure
+(<i>sf</i>) is one of the most constant
+of the sulci found in
+the hemispheres.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp50" id="figure023" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure023.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>—Brain of the Genet (<i>Genetta tigrina</i>). A,
+From above; B, from the right side; C, inner surface
+of right hemisphere; <i>cc</i>, corpus callosum;
+<i>c.m.s</i>, calloso-marginal sulcus; <i>c</i>, notch representing
+central sulcus of other forms; <i>d</i>, depression on
+superior lateral gyrus of hemisphere; <i>hg</i>, hippocampal
+gyrus; <i>i</i>, inferior lateral gyrus of hemisphere;
+<i>m</i>, middle lateral gyrus of do.; <i>s</i>, superior
+lateral gyrus of do.; <i>os</i>, supraorbital sulcus of do.;
+<i>sf</i>, sylvian fissure of do.; <i>ol</i>, olfactory lobes. The
+deeply convoluted part behind the cerebral hemisphere
+is the cerebellum, below which lies the
+medulla oblongata, or commencement of the spinal
+cord. (Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 516.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The researches of Palæontologists,
+founded upon
+studies of casts of the interior
+of the cranial cavity
+of extinct forms, have shown
+that, in many natural groups
+of mammals, if not in all,
+the brain has increased in
+size, and also in complexity
+of surface foldings, with the
+advance of time,—indicating
+in this, as in so many other
+respects, a gradual progress
+from a lower to a higher type
+of development.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nerves.</i>—The twelve pairs of cranial nerves generally recognised
+in vertebrates are usually all found in mammals, though the
+olfactory nerves are excessively rudimentary, if not altogether
+absent, in the Toothed Whales. The spinal cord, or continuation
+of the central nervous axis, lies in the canal formed by the neural
+arches of the vertebræ, and gives off the compound double-rooted
+nerves of the trunk and the extremities, corresponding in number
+to the vertebræ, through the interspaces between which they pass<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span>
+out to their destination. The cord is somewhat enlarged at the two
+points where it gives off the great nerves to the anterior and the
+posterior extremities, which, from their interlacements soon after
+their origin, are called respectively the brachial and lumbar plexuses.
+The ganglionic or sympathetic portion of the nervous system is well
+developed, and presents few modifications.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sense of Touch.</i>—The sense of touch is situated in the skin
+generally, but is most acute in certain regions more or less
+specialised for the purpose by the presence of tactile papillæ, such
+as portions of the face, especially the lips and end of the snout, and
+the extremities of the limbs when these are used for other purposes
+than mere progression, and the under surface of the end of the tail
+in some Monkeys. The “vibrissæ” or long stiff bristles situated
+on the face of many mammals are rendered extremely sensitive to
+touch by the abundant supply of branches from the fifth nerve to
+their basal papillæ. In Bats the extended wing membranes, and
+probably also the large ears and the folds and prominences of skin
+about the face of some species, are so sensitive as to receive
+impressions even from the different degrees of resistance of the air,
+and so enable the animals to avoid coming in contact with obstacles
+to their nocturnal flight.</p>
+
+<p><i>Taste and Smell.</i>—The organs of the other special senses are
+confined to the head. Taste is situated in the papillæ scattered on
+the dorsal surface of the tongue. The organ of smell is present in
+all mammals except the Toothed Whales. It consists of a ramification
+of the olfactory nerves over a plicated, moist, mucous
+membrane, supported by folded plates of bone, placed on each side
+of the septum nasi in the roof, or often in a partially distinct upper
+chamber, of the nasal passage, so arranged that, of the air passing
+into the lungs in inspiration, some comes in contact with it, causing
+the perception of any odorous particles with which it may be
+charged. Many mammals possess intense powers of smelling
+certain odours which others are quite unable to appreciate, and the
+influence which this sense exercises over the well-being of many
+species is very great, especially in indicating the proximity of others
+of the same kind, and giving warning of the approach of enemies.
+The development and modification of the sense of smell is probably
+associated with that of the odorous secretion of the cutaneous
+glands.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sight.</i>—The organ of sight is quite rudimentary, and even
+concealed beneath the integument, in some burrowing Rodents and
+Insectivores, and is most imperfectly developed in the <i>Platanista</i>, or
+Freshwater Dolphin of the rivers of India. In all other mammals
+the eyeball has the structure characteristic of the organ in the
+higher Vertebrata, consisting of parts through which the rays of
+light are admitted, regulated, and concentrated upon the sensitive<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span>
+expansion of the optic nerve lining the posterior part of the ball.
+A portion of the fibrovascular and highly pigmented layer, the
+choroid, which is interposed between the retina and the outer
+sclerotic coat, is in many mammals modified into a brilliantly-coloured
+light-reflecting surface, the <i>tapetum lucidum</i>. There is
+never a pecten or marsupium like that of the Sauropsida, nor is
+the sclerotic ever supported by a ring of flattened ossicles, as is so
+frequently the case in the lower vertebrated classes. The eyeball
+is moved in various directions by a series of muscles—the four
+straight, two oblique, and, except in the higher Primates, a posterior
+retractor muscle called choanoid. The superior oblique muscle
+passes through a tendinous pulley fastened to the roof of the orbit,
+which is a feature not found beyond the limits of the mammalian
+class. The eye is protected by the lids, generally distinctly separated
+into an upper and a lower movable flap, which, when closed, meet
+over the front of the eye in a more or less nearly horizontal line:
+but sometimes, as in the Sirenia, the lids are not distinct, and the
+aperture is circular, closing to a point. In almost all mammals
+below the Primates, except the Cetacea, a “nictitating membrane”
+or third eyelid is placed at the inner corner of the eyeball, and
+works horizontally across the front of the ball within the true lids.
+Its action is instantaneous, being apparently for the purpose of
+cleaning the front of the transparent cornea;—a function unnecessary
+in animals whose eyes are habitually bathed in water, and which
+in Man and his nearest allies is performed by winking the true
+eyelids. Except in Cetacea the surface of the eye is kept moist by
+the secretion of the lachrymal gland, placed under the upper lid at
+its outer side, and the lids are lubricated by the Harderian and
+Meibornian glands, the former being situated at the inner side of
+the orbit, and especially related to the nictitating membrane, the
+latter in the lining membrane of the lids.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hearing.</i>—The organ of hearing is inclosed in a bony capsule
+(periotic) situated in the side of the head, intercalated between the
+posterior (occipital) and the penultimate (parietal) segment of the
+skull. It has, in common with other vertebrates, three semicircular
+canals and a vestibule, but the cochlea is more fully developed than
+in the Sauropsida, and, except in the Monotremes, spirally convoluted.
+The tympanic cavity is often dilated below, forming a
+smooth rounded prominence on the base of the skull, the auditory
+bulla (<a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>). The three principal ossicles, the “malleus,” “incus,”
+and “stapes,” are always present, but variable in characters. In
+the Sirenia, Cetacea, and Seals they are massive in form, being in
+the first-named order of larger size than in any other mammals. In
+the Cetacea the malleus is ankylosed to the tympanic; but in other
+mammals it is connected only with the membrana tympani. The
+stapes in the lower orders—Edentates, Marsupials, and Monotremes—has<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span>
+a great tendency to assume the columnar form of the
+corresponding bone in Sauropsida, its two rami entirely or partially
+coalescing.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> The tympanic membrane (drum of the ear) forms the
+outer wall of the cavity. In the fœtal state it is level with the
+external surface of the skull, and remains so permanently in a few
+mammals as the American Monkeys; but commonly, by the growth
+of the squamosal bone, it becomes deeply buried at the bottom of a
+bony tube (<i>meatus auditorus externus</i>), which is continued to the surface
+of the skin in a fibrous or fibro-cartilaginous form. In Whales,
+owing to the thickness of the subcutaneous adipose tissue, this
+meatus is of great length, and is also extremely narrow. In most
+aquatic and burrowing animals it opens upon the surface by a simple
+aperture, but in the large majority of the class there is a projecting
+fold of skin, strengthened by fibro-cartilages, called the pinna,
+auricle, or “external ear,” of very variable size and shape, generally
+movably articulated on the skull, and provided with muscles to
+vary its position; this pinna helping to collect and direct the vibrations
+of sound into the meatus.</p>
+
+<h3>VII. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS.</h3>
+
+<p><i>Testes.</i>—In the male the testes retain nearly their primitive or
+internal position throughout life in the Monotremata, Sirenia,
+Cetacea, most Edentata, Hyracoidea, Proboscidea, and Seals,
+but, in other groups they either periodically (as in Rodentia,
+Insectivora, and Chiroptera) or permanently pass out of the
+abdominal cavity through the inguinal canal, forming a projection
+beneath the skin of the perineum, or becoming suspended in a
+distinct pouch of integument called the scrotum. All the Marsupials
+have a pedunculated scrotum, the position of which differs from
+that of other mammals, being in front of, instead of behind, the
+preputial orifice. As regards the presence, absence, or comparative
+size and number of the accessory generative glands—prostate, vesicular,
+and Cowper’s glands, as they are called—there is much
+variation in different groups of mammals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Penis.</i>—The penis is almost always completely developed,
+consisting of two corpora cavernosa attached to the ischial bones,
+and of a median corpus spongiosum enclosing the urethra, and
+forming the glans at the distal portion of the organ. In Marsupials,
+Monotremes, and the Sloths and Anteaters, the corpora cavernosa
+are not attached directly to the ischia, and in the last-named the
+penis is otherwise of a very rudimentary character, the corpus<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span>
+spongiosum not being present. In many Marsupials the glans penis
+is bifurcated. In most Primates, Carnivora, Rodentia, Insectivora,
+and Chiroptera, but in no other orders, an <i>os penis</i> is present.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ovaries and Oviduct.</i>—In the female, the ovaries permanently retain
+their original abdominal position, or only descend a short distance
+into the pelvis. They are of comparatively smaller size than in
+other vertebrates, have a definite flattened oval form, and are
+enclosed in a more or less firm “tunica albiginea.” The oviduct
+has a trumpet-like, and usually fimbriated abdominal aperture, and
+is more or less differentiated into three portions:—(1) a contracted
+upper part, called in Man and the higher mammals the “Fallopian
+tube”; (2) an expanded part with muscular walls, in which the
+ovum undergoes the changes by which it is developed into the
+fœtus, called the “uterus”; (3) a canal, the “vagina,” separated
+from the last by a valvular aperture, and terminating in the urino-genital
+canal, or common urinal and genital passage, which in
+higher mammals is so short as scarcely to be distinct from the vagina.
+The complete distinction of the oviducts of the two sides throughout
+their whole length, found in all lower vertebrates, only occurs
+in this class in Monotremes; a prevailing mammalian characteristic
+being their more or less perfect coalescence in the middle line to form
+a single median canal. In the Marsupials this union only includes
+the lower part of the vagina; but in most Placentals it extends to the
+whole vagina and a certain portion of the uterus, which cavity is
+then described as “bicornuate.” In the higher mammals, as in
+Man, and also in some of the Edentates, the whole of the uterus is
+single, the contracted upper portion of the oviducts or Fallopian
+tubes, as they are then called, entering its upper lateral angles by
+small apertures. In certain lower forms the urino-genital canal
+opens with the termination of the rectum into a common cloaca,
+as in other vertebrates; but it is characteristic of the majority
+of the class that the two orifices are more or less distinct externally.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mammary Glands.</i>—Mammary glands secreting the milk by
+which the young are nourished during the first portion of their
+existence after birth, are present in both sexes in all mammals,
+though usually only functional in the female. In the Monotremes
+alone their orifices are mere scattered pores in the skin, but in all
+other forms they are situated upon the end of conical elevations,
+called mammillæ, or teats, which, taken into the mouth of the
+young animal, facilitate the process of sucking. These are always
+placed in pairs upon some part of the ventral surface of the body,
+but vary greatly in number and position in different groups. In
+the Cetacea, where the prolonged action of sucking would be incompatible
+with their subaqueous life, the ducts of the glands are
+dilated into large reservoirs from which the contents are injected<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span>
+into the mouth of the young animal by the action of a compressor
+muscle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Secondary Sexual Characters.</i>—Secondary sexual characters, or
+modifications of structure peculiar to one sex, but not directly
+related to the reproductive function, are very general in mammals.
+They almost always consist of the acquisition or perfection of some
+character by the male as it attains maturity, which is not found in
+the female or the young in either sex. In a large number of cases
+these clearly relate to the combats in which the males of many
+species engage for the possession of the females during the breeding
+season; others are apparently ornamental, and of many it is still
+difficult to apprehend the meaning. Many suggestions on this
+subject will, however, be found in the chapters devoted to it in
+Darwin’s work on <i>The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex</i>,
+where most of the best-known instances are collected. Superiority
+of size and strength in the male of many species is a well-marked
+secondary sexual character related to the purpose indicated
+above, being probably perpetuated by the survivors or victors in
+combats transmitting to their descendants those qualities which
+gave them advantages over others of their kind. To the same
+category belong the great development of the canine teeth of the
+males of many species which do not use these organs in procuring
+their food, as the Apes, Swine, Musk and some other Deer, the tusk
+of the male Narwhal, the antlers of Deer, which are present in most
+cases only in the males, and the usual superiority in size and
+strength of the horns of the <i>Bovidæ</i>. Other secondary sexual
+characters, the use of which is not so obvious, or which may only
+relate to ornament, are the presence of masses or tufts of long hair
+on different parts of the body, as the mane of the male Lion and
+Bison, the beards of some Ruminants and Bats (as <i>Taphozous melanopogon</i>),
+Monkeys, and of Man, and all the variations of coloration
+in the sexes, in which, as a general rule, the adult male is darker
+and more vividly coloured than the female. Here may also be
+mentioned the presence or the greater development of odoriferous
+glands in the male, as in the Musk Deer, and the remarkable
+perforated spur with its glands and duct, so like the poison-tooth
+of the venomous serpents, found in the males of both <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>
+and <i>Echidna</i>, the use of which is at present unknown.</p>
+
+<p><i>Placenta.</i>—The development of the mammalian ovum, and the
+changes which the various tissues and organs of the body undergo
+in the process of growth, are too intricate subjects to be explained
+without entering into details incompatible with the limits of this
+work, especially as they scarcely differ, excepting in their later
+stages, from those of other vertebrates, upon which, owing to the
+greater facilities these present for examination and study, the
+subject has been more fully worked out. There are, however,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span>
+some points which require notice, as peculiar to the mammalian
+class, and as affording at least some hints upon the difficult subject
+of the affinities and classification of the members of the group.</p>
+
+<p>The nourishment of the fœtus during intra-uterine life takes
+place through the medium of certain structures, partly belonging
+to the fœtus itself and partly belonging to the inner parietes of the
+uterus of the parent. These in their complete form constitute the
+complex organ called the “placenta,” serving as the medium of
+communication between the mother and fœtus, and in which the
+physiological processes that are concerned in the nutrition of the
+latter take place; but as we shall see, though a placenta, in the
+usual acceptation of the term, is peculiar to the mammalian class, it is
+not in all of its members that one is developed. The structures to
+which we shall have especially to refer are the outer tunic of the
+ovum, to which, however formed, the term “chorion” is commonly
+applied, and two sac-like organs connected with the body-cavity of
+the embryo, both formed from the splanchnic mesoblast, lined by a
+layer of the hypoblast. These are the “umbilical vesicle” or “yolk-sac”
+and the “allantois.”</p>
+
+<p>The umbilical vesicle is a thin membrane enclosing the yolk,
+which by the doubling in of the ventral walls of the embryo becomes
+gradually formed into a distinct sac external to the body, with a
+pedicle (the omphalo-enteric duct) by which for a time a communication
+is maintained between its cavity and the intestinal canal. In
+the walls of this sac blood-vessels (omphalo-meseraic or vitelline)
+are developed in connection with the vascular system of the embryo,
+through which, either by their contact with the outer surface of the
+walls of the ovum, or by the absorption through them of the
+contents of the yolk-sac, the nutrition of the embryo in the lower
+vertebrates chiefly takes place. In mammals the umbilical vesicle
+plays a comparatively subordinate part in the nourishment
+of the fœtus, its function being generally superseded by the
+allantois.</p>
+
+<p>The last-named sac commences at a very early period as a
+diverticulum from the hinder end of the alimentary tract of the
+embryo. Its proximal portion afterwards becomes the urinary
+bladder, the contracted part between this and the cavity of the
+allantois proper constituting the urachus, which passes out of the
+body of the fœtus at the umbilicus together with the vitelline duct.
+The mesoblastic tissue of the walls of the allantois soon becomes
+vascular; its arteries are supplied with fœtal blood by the two
+hypogastric branches of the iliacs, or main divisions of the abdominal
+aorta, and the blood is returned by venous trunks uniting to
+form the single umbilical vein which runs to the under surface of
+the liver, where, part of it joining the portal vein and part entering
+the vena cava directly, it is brought to the heart. These are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span>
+the vessels which, with their surrounding membranes, constitute
+the umbilical cord—the medium of communication between
+the fœtus and the placenta, when that organ is fully developed.</p>
+
+<p>The egg membranes of the Monotremes present many points of
+agreement with those of the ovum of the Marsupials,<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> and differ
+from those of the Placental types. Thus Monotremes and Marsupials
+agree in having a vitelline membrane, which appears between
+the young ovum and the follicular epithelium, persisting in the
+one case until the time of hatching, and in the other till a late
+uterine stage. There are also several other common features fully
+described in Mr. Caldwell’s memoir, but which cannot be detailed
+in this work.</p>
+
+<p>In the Marsupialia the observations made many years ago by
+Sir R. Owen upon the development of the Kangaroo have been
+confirmed by those of Dr. H. C. Chapman,<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> while Dr. Selenka,<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> and
+Professor H. F. Osborn<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> have contributed important evidence as to the
+structure and relations of the fœtal membranes of the Opossums
+and others. It thus appears that up to the period of the very
+premature birth of these animals the outer covering of the ovum,
+or false chorion, is free from persistent villi, and not adherent
+to the epithelium of the uterine walls; for, although fitting into
+the folds of the latter, it is perfectly and readily separable in its
+entire extent from them. The umbilical vesicle or yolk-sac is large,
+vascular, and adherent to a considerable portion of the false chorion
+or subzonal membrane, while the allantois is relatively small, and
+although the usual blood-vessels can be traced into it, it does not
+appear to contract any connection with the false chorion, and, therefore,
+much less with the walls of the uterus, of such a nature as to
+constitute a placenta. In some forms, however, such as the
+Opossums, the umbilical vesicle or yolk-sac develops temporary
+villi, which unite with the subzonal membrane, or false chorion, to
+form a disc-like area closely attached to the cells covering the
+utricular glands of the uterine epithelium, and thus forming a
+so-called <i>yolk-sac placenta</i>. The function of this organ is considered
+to be the transmission of the secretions of the utricular glands to
+the embryo by means of the umbilical vesicle; the function of the
+allantois being either respiratory or the absorption of the fluid
+secreted in the uterine cavity by the utricular glands.</p>
+
+<p>While in the uterus the nourishment of the fœtus seems, therefore,
+to be derived from the umbilical vesicle, as in reptiles and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span>
+birds, rather than from the uterine walls by means of the allantoic
+vessels, as in the higher mammals. The latter vessels, in fact, play
+even a much less important part in the development of these
+animals, not only than in the placental mammals, but even than in
+the Sauropsida, for they can scarcely have the respiratory function
+assigned to them in that group: pulmonary respiration and the
+lacteal secretion of the mother very early superseding all other
+methods of providing the due supply, both of oxygen and of food
+required for the development and growth of the young animal.
+In this sense the Marsupials may be looked upon as the most
+typically “mammalian” of the whole class. In no other group do
+the milk-secreting glands play such an important part in providing
+for the continuity of the race.</p>
+
+<p>In the third primary division of the Mammalia, the so-called
+Placentalia, the umbilical vesicle generally does not quite unite
+with the chorion, and disappears as development proceeds, so that
+no trace of it can be seen in the membranes of an advanced
+embryo; but it may persist until the end of the intra-uterine life
+as a distinct sac in the umbilical cord, or lying between the
+allantois and amnion. The disappearance or persistence of the
+umbilical vesicle does not, according to our present knowledge,
+appear to be correlated with a higher or lower general grade of development,
+as might be presupposed. It is stated to have been
+found in Man even up to the end of intra-uterine life, and also in
+the Carnivora, while in the Ungulata and Cetacea it disappears at
+an earlier age. In many, if not all, of the Rodentia, Insectivora,
+and Chiroptera, it plays a more important part, becoming adherent
+to a considerable part of the inner surface of the chorion, to which
+it conveys blood-vessels, although villi do not appear to be developed
+from the surface of this part, as they are on the portion of the
+chorion supplied by the allantoic vessels. These orders thus
+present to a certain extent a transitional condition from the Marsupials,
+although essentially different, in possessing the structures
+next to be described.</p>
+
+<p>The special characteristic of the whole of the placental mammals
+constituting the majority of the class, is that the allantois and its
+vessels become intimately blended with a smaller or greater part of
+the parietes of the ovum, forming a structure on the outer surface of
+which villi are developed, and which, penetrating into corresponding
+cavities of the “decidua,” or soft, vascular, hypertrophied lining
+membrane of the uterus, constitutes the placenta. This organ may
+be regarded, as Sir William Turner says, both in its function and in
+the relative arrangement of its constituent textures, as a specially
+modified secreting gland, the ducts of which are represented by the
+extremities of the blood-vessels of the fœtal system. The passage
+of material from the maternal to the fœtal-system of vessels is not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[80]</span>
+a simple percolation or diffusion through their walls, but is occasioned
+by the action of a layer of cells derived from the maternal
+or uterine structures, and interposed between the blood-vessels of
+the maternal part of the placenta and those of the villi covering
+the chorion, in which the embryonic vessels ramify.</p>
+
+<p>The numerous modifications in the details of the structure of
+this organ relate to augmenting the absorbing capacity of the vessels
+of the chorion, and are brought about either by increasing the complexity
+of the fœtal villi and maternal crypts over a limited area,
+or by increasing the area of the part of the chorion covered by the
+placental villi, or by various combinations of the two methods.</p>
+
+<p>The first class of variations has given rise to a distinction into
+two principal kinds of placenta: (1) simple or non-deciduate, and
+(2) deciduate. In the former the fœtal villi are received into corresponding
+depressions of the maternal surface, from which at the
+period of parturition they are simply withdrawn. In the second,
+or more complex form, the relation is more intimate, a layer of
+greater or less thickness of the lining membrane of the uterus,
+called “decidua,” becoming so intimately blended with the chorion
+as to form part of the placenta proper, or that structure which is
+cast off as a solid body at parturition. In other words, in the one
+case the line of separation between the placenta and uterus at birth
+takes place at the junction of the fœtal and maternal structures, in
+the other through the latter, so that a portion of them, often of considerable
+thickness, and containing highly organised structures, is
+cast off with the former. It was once thought that the distinction
+between these two forms of placentation is so important as to constitute
+a sufficiently valid basis for a primary division of the placental
+mammals into two groups. It has, however, been shown
+that the distinction is one rather of degree than of kind, as intermediate
+conditions may exist, and it is probable that in different
+primary groups the simpler, non-deciduate form may have become
+developed independently into one or other of the more complex
+kinds.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from its intimate structure, the placenta may be met with
+of very varied general form. It may consist of villi scattered more
+or less regularly over the greater part of the surface of the chorion,
+the two extremities or poles being usually more or less bare. This
+form is called the “diffused placenta.” It is probably a primitive
+condition, from which most of the others are derived, although its
+existence must presuppose the absence of the umbilical vesicle as a
+constituent of the chorionic wall. It is found at present in the
+Manis among Edentates, the Cetacea, the Perissodactyle Ungulates,
+and the Camels, Pigs, and Chevrotains among the Artiodactyles.
+Such placentæ are always non-deciduate. Recent observations by
+Sir W. Turner on the placentation of the Dugong show that the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[81]</span>
+Sirenia present the peculiarity of having a zonary placenta, which is
+either entirely or in great part non-deciduate, and is, therefore,
+transitional between the diffused and the true zonary type.</p>
+
+<p>In the true Ruminants or Pecora, among the Artiodactyle
+Ungulates, the villi are aggregated in masses called cotyledons,
+with bare spaces between. Such a placentation is called “polycotyledonary.”
+In another modification the villi are collected in a
+more or less broad band encircling the chorion, leaving a very large
+portion of the two poles bare, constituting the “zonary placenta,”
+characteristic of the Carnivora, and also occurring in the Elephant,
+Hyrax, and Orycteropus. The fact of the form of the placenta of
+these three last-named animals agreeing together, and with that of
+the Carnivora, does not, however, necessitate the ascription of
+zoological affinities, as the same ultimate form may have been
+attained by different processes of development.</p>
+
+<p>In another form one pole only of the chorion is non-vascular,
+the placenta assuming a dome or bell shape, as in the Lemurs and
+the Sloths. The transition from this, by the gradual restriction of
+the vascular area, is easy to the oval or discoidal form of placenta
+of the Anteaters, Armadillos, and higher Primates. The discoidal
+placenta of the Rodents, Insectivores, and Chiroptera, though showing
+so much superficial resemblance to that of the last-named order
+as to have led to the inclusion of all these forms in one primary
+group, is now known to be developed in another manner, not by the
+concentration of villi from a diffused to a limited area, but by
+retaining the area to which it was originally restricted in consequence
+of the large surface of the chorion occupied, as before
+mentioned, by the umbilical vesicle. To compensate for the smallness
+of area, the complex or deciduate structure has been developed.
+Among some Rodents there is evidence to show that the discoidal
+placenta has been derived from a zonary one, of which distinct
+vestiges have been detected in the Mouse. We may conclude
+that, although the characters and arrangement of the fœtal structures
+may not have that extreme importance which has been attributed
+to them by some zoologists, they will form, especially when more
+completely understood, valuable aids in the study of the natural
+affinities and evolution of the Mammalia.<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[82]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III<br>
+<span class="smaller">ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAMMALIA</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Origin.</i>—Although, as stated in the first chapter, the mammalian
+class, as at present known either by existing or extinct forms, is
+completely isolated from all other groups of the animal kingdom,
+yet it is impossible to refrain from speculating as to its origin and
+nearest affinities. In arranging the classes of vertebrates in a linear
+series it is customary to place them in the following order—Pisces,
+Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia,—an order which probably
+indicates the relative degree of elevation to which the most
+highly developed members of each class has attained. Such
+an arrangement appears to express the true relationship of the first
+four classes to one another, but it is quite clear that the Mammalia
+have no sort of affinity with the Aves. Writing in 1879, Professor
+Huxley<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> came to the conclusion that, in looking among vertebrates
+for the progenitors of the Mammalia, we must pass over all known
+forms of birds and reptiles, and go straight down to the Amphibia.
+In addition to the characters derived from the conformation of the
+pelvis upon which the argument was primarily based, the following
+reasons were given for this conclusion: “The Amphibia are the
+only air-breathing Vertebrata which, like mammals, have a dicondylian
+skull. It is only in them that the articular element of the
+mandibular arch remains cartilaginous, while the quadrate ossification
+is small, and the squamosal extends down over it to the osseous
+elements of the mandible, thus affording an easy transition to the
+mammalian condition of those parts. The pectoral arch [girdle] of
+the Monotremes is as much amphibian as it is sauropsidian; the
+carpus and the tarsus of all Sauropsida, except the Chelonia, are
+modified away from the Urodele type, while those of the mammal
+are directly reducible to it. Finally, the fact that in all Sauropsida
+it is a right aortic arch which is the main conduit of arterial blood
+leaving the heart, while in mammals it is a left aortic arch which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[83]</span>
+performs this office, is a great stumbling-block in the way of the
+derivation of the Mammalia from any of the Sauropsida. But, if
+we suppose the earliest forms of both the Mammalia and the Sauropsida
+to have had a common Amphibian origin, there is no difficulty
+in the supposition that, from the first, it was a left aortic arch in
+the one series, and the corresponding right aortic arch in the other,
+which became the predominant feeder of the arterial system.”
+Subsequently Professor E. D. Cope<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> in a suggestive paper called
+attention to the remarkable resemblances to the Monotremes presented
+by the skeleton of that group of early secondary reptiles
+which he then designated the Theromorpha, but which may be
+included in the Anomodontia of Sir R. Owen, and came to the
+conclusion that in that group we have the true ancestors of the
+Mammalia. This conclusion was, however, disputed by Dr. Baur,<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>
+who considered that the Anomodontia were too specialised to have
+been the actual progenitors of the Mammalia, and that they should
+rather be regarded as a divergent branch of the stem which had given
+origin to the Mammalia. Since that date observations made on
+the structure of the South African Anomodonts have shown such
+an intimate connection between that group and the Labyrinthodont
+Amphibians, that there can be no hesitation in regarding the one
+as the direct descendant of the other; and we may probably regard
+the Mammalia as having originated from the same ancestral stock
+at the time the Amphibian type was passing into the Reptilian.
+From this point of view, some of the mammalian features found in
+the more specialised Anomodonts may probably be regarded as
+having been acquired during a parallel line of development.</p>
+
+<p>Both the Anomodontia and the Mammalia differ from the
+Amphibians in the loss of the splint-like parasphenoid which
+underlies the basisphenoid axis of the skull, and by the ossification
+of that axis; but while the former have become monocondylic by
+the participation of the basioccipital in the support of the cranium,
+the latter retain the Amphibian dicondylic plan. The skull of the
+Anomodonts presents mammalian resemblances not found in any
+other Reptiles, this being especially noticeable in the region of the
+squamosal; and it is only in this group and mammals that the
+temporal or zygomatic arch is a squamoso-maxillary one (see <a href="#Page_37">p.
+37</a>). The resemblance between the pectoral and pelvic girdles
+of the Anomodonts and those of the Monotreme Mammals is
+noticed under the head of the latter, where reference is also made
+to the similarity in the structure of the humerus in the two groups.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[84]</span>
+The pes of the Amphibia and Anomodontia agree in having a
+distinct intermedium, tibiale, fibulare, and centrale, whereas in
+other Reptiles these bones are not generally distinct; in Mammals
+the intermedium, fibulare, and centrale are distinct, and according
+to Cope’s interpretation there may be a distinct tibiale.</p>
+
+<p><i>Classification.</i>—In the present condition of the world, mammals
+have become so broken up into distinct groups by the extinction of
+intermediate forms, that a systematic classification is perfectly
+practicable. Most of the associations of species, which we call
+“orders,” and even the “suborders” and “families,” are natural
+groups. In isolating, defining, and naming them, we are really
+dealing with facts of nature of a totally different order from the
+artificial and fanciful divisions formed in the infancy of zoological
+science.</p>
+
+<p>When, however, we pass to the extinct world, all is changed.
+In many cases the boundaries of our groups become enlarged until
+they touch those of others. New forms are discovered which
+cannot be placed within any of the existing divisions. As the
+horizon of our vision is thus expanded, the principles upon which a
+scheme of classification is constructed must be altogether changed.
+Our present divisions and terminology are no longer sufficient for
+the purpose; and some other method will have to be invented to
+show the complex relationships existing between different animal
+forms when viewed as a whole. The present time, pre-eminently
+distinguished by the rapidly changing and advancing knowledge of
+extinct forms, is scarcely one in which this can be done with any
+satisfactory result; so that all attempts to form a classification
+embracing even the already known extinct species must be only
+of a provisional and temporary nature.</p>
+
+<p>In systematic descriptions in books, in lists, and catalogues, and
+in arranging collections, the objects dealt with must be placed in a
+single linear series. But by no means whatever can such a series
+be made to coincide with natural affinities. The artificial character
+of such an arrangement, the constant violation of all true relationships,
+are the more painfully evident the greater the knowledge of
+the real structure and affinities. But the necessity is obvious; and
+all that can be done is to make such an arrangement as little as
+possible discordant with facts.</p>
+
+<p>The following table contains a list of the orders, suborders, and
+families of existing mammals as recognised by the authors, and placed
+in the order in which they will be treated of in this work. The
+more important of the groups containing only extinct forms are
+added in a different type, being interpolated, as near as may be,
+among those that appear to be their existing relatives.</p>
+
+<p>A few explanatory remarks upon the mutual relations of some
+of the principal groups mentioned in the table may be useful here,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[85]</span>
+but the subject will be more fully developed in treating separately
+of each division.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most certain and fundamental points in the classification
+of the Mammalia is, that all the animals now composing the
+class can be grouped primarily into three natural divisions, which,
+presenting very marked differential characters, and having no existing,
+or yet certainly demonstrated extinct, intermediate, or transitional
+forms, may be considered as subclasses of equal value, taxonomically
+speaking, though very different in the numbers and
+importance of the animals at present composing them. These three
+groups are often called by the names originally proposed for them
+by Blainville—(1) <i>Ornithodelphia</i>, (2) <i>Didelphia</i>, (3) <i>Monodelphia</i>—the
+first being equivalent to the order <i>Monotremata</i>, the second
+to the <i>Marsupialia</i>, and the third including all the remaining
+members of the class. Although actual palæontological proof is
+wanting, there is much reason to believe that each of these, as now
+existing, are survivors of distinct branches to which the earliest
+forms of mammals have successively given rise, and for which
+hypothetical branches Professor Huxley has proposed the names of
+<i>Prototheria</i>, <i>Metatheria</i>, and <i>Eutheria</i>, names which, being far less
+open to objection than those of Blainville, are here used as equivalents
+of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>The only known existing <span class="smcap">Prototheria</span>, although agreeing in
+many important characters, evidently represent two very divergent
+stocks, perhaps as far removed as are the members of some of the
+accepted orders of the Eutheria. It would, however, be merely
+encumbering zoological science with new names to give them any
+other than the ordinarily known family designations of <i>Ornithorhynchidæ</i>
+and <i>Echidnidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly with regard to the <span class="smcap">Metatheria</span>, although the great
+diversity in external form, in anatomical characters, and in mode of
+life of the various animals of this section might lead to their
+division into groups equivalent to the orders of the Eutheria, we do
+not think it advisable to depart from the usual custom of treating
+them all as forming one order, called Marsupialia, the limits of
+which are equivalent to those of the subclass. The characters of the
+six families which compose the group are extremely well marked
+and easily defined; and since they form a regular gradation between
+two extreme types, they can be satisfactorily arranged in a serial
+order. A marked distinction in the dentition enables us to divide
+them into primary groups or suborders.</p>
+
+<p>The remaining mammals are included in the <span class="smcap">Eutheria</span>, <span class="smcap">Placentalia</span>,
+or <span class="smcap">Monodelphia</span>. Their affinities with one another are so
+complex that it is impossible to arrange them serially with any
+regard to natural affinities. Indeed each order is now so isolated
+that it is almost impossible to say what its affinities are; and none<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[86]</span>
+of the hitherto proposed associations of the orders into larger groups
+stand the test of critical investigation. All serial arrangements of
+the orders are therefore perfectly arbitrary; and although it would
+be of very great convenience for reference in books and museums
+if some general sequence, such as that here proposed, were generally
+adopted, such a result can scarcely be expected, since equally good
+reasons might be given for almost any other combination of the
+various elements of which the series is composed. In fact, we have
+already seen reason to depart in some respects from that used in the
+“Encyclopædia.”</p>
+
+<p>The Edentata, Sirenia, and Cetacea stand apart from all the
+rest in the fact that their dentition does not conform to the general
+heterodont, diphyodont type to which that of all other Eutheria
+can be reduced, and which is such a close bond of union between
+them. In all three orders, however, some indications may be traced
+of relationship, however distant, with the general type.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the Edentata, reasons will be given for believing
+that both the Sloths and Anteaters are nearly related, and that the
+Armadillos, though much modified, belong to the same stock, but
+that the Pangolins and the Aard-varks represent very isolated
+forms.</p>
+
+<p>There is no difficulty about the limits of the order Sirenia, comprising
+aquatic, vegetable-eating animals, with complete absence of
+hind limbs, and low cerebral organisation, represented in our present
+state of knowledge only by two existing genera, <i>Halicore</i> and <i>Manatus</i>,
+and a few extinct forms, which, though approaching a more
+generalised mammalian type, show no special characters allying
+them to any of the other orders. The few facts as yet collected
+relating to the former history of the Sirenia leave us as much in
+the dark as to the origin and affinities of this peculiar group of
+animals as we were when we only knew the living members.
+They lend no countenance to their association with the Cetacea;
+and, on the other hand, their supposed affinity with the Ungulata
+receives no very material support from them.</p>
+
+<p>Another equally well-marked and equally isolated, though far
+more numerously represented and diversified order, is that of the
+Cetacea, placed simply for convenience next to the Sirenia; with
+which, except in their fish-like adaptation to aquatic life, they have
+little in common. The old association of these orders in one group
+can only be maintained either in ignorance of their structure or
+in an avowedly artificial system. Among the existing members of
+the order, there are two very distinct types, the toothed Whales or
+Odontoceti, and the Baleen Whales or Mystacoceti, which present
+as many marked distinguishing structural characters as are found
+between many other divisions of the Mammalia usually reckoned
+as orders. Since the extinct Zeuglodonts, so far as their characters<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[87]</span>
+are known, do not fall into either of these groups, but are in some
+respects annectant forms, we have placed them provisionally, at
+least, in a third group by themselves, named Archæoceti. There
+is nothing known at present to connect the Cetacea with any
+other order of Mammals; but it is quite as likely that they are
+offsets of a primitive Ungulate as of a Carnivorous type, or perhaps
+of a still more generalised mammalian stock.</p>
+
+<p>The remaining Eutherian mammals are clearly united by the
+characters of their teeth, being all heterodont and diphyodont, with
+their dental system reducible to a common formula.</p>
+
+<p>Although older views of the relationship of Ungulate mammals
+expressed by the terms <i>Pachydermata</i>, <i>Ruminantia</i>, and so forth, still
+linger in some corners of zoological literature, no single point in
+zoological classification can be considered so firmly established as the
+distinction between the Perissodactyle and Artiodactyle Ungulates;
+both being in the existing fauna of the world perfectly natural
+and distinctly circumscribed groups. The breaking-up of the latter
+into four equivalent sections, the Pecora, Tylopoda, Tragulina, and
+Suina, is equally in accordance with all known facts. Less certain,
+however, is the association of the Proboscidea and the Hyracoidea
+with the true Ungulates. By many zoologists they are each,
+although containing so very few existing species, made into distinct
+orders; and much is to be said in favour of this view. The
+discovery, however, of a vast number of extinct species of Ungulates
+which cannot be brought under the definition of either Perissodactyla
+or Artiodactyla, and yet are evidently allied to both, and
+to a certain extent bridge over the interval between them and the
+isolated groups just mentioned, make it necessary either to introduce
+a number of new and ill-defined ordinal divisions, or so to
+widen the scope of the original order as to embrace them all,
+considering the Elephants and the Hyraces as representing suborders
+equivalent to the great Perissodactyle and Artiodactyle groups.
+It is the latter alternative that we have adopted.</p>
+
+<p>The Rodentia, although generally presenting a low grade of
+development, are a very specialised and distinct group. The
+position here assigned to them would accord with apparent relationships
+with the Ungulates, through the Elephant on the one hand
+and the extinct <i>Typotherium</i> on the other.</p>
+
+<p>In the present state of the fauna of the earth, the Carnivora
+form a very distinct order, though naturally subdivided into two
+groups, the members of the one being more typical, while those of
+the other (the <i>Pinnipedia</i>) are aberrant, having the whole of their
+organisation specially modified for living habitually in the water.</p>
+
+<p>The Insectivora comprise various lowly organised and generalised
+forms, exhibiting considerable divergence of character, and apparently
+connected through transitional extinct species with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[88]</span>
+Carnivora. As no other order can claim the family <i>Galeopithecidæ</i>,
+it is placed here, but rather for convenience than for any other
+consideration, since it has but little if any relationship with any of
+the other members. Its isolated position is indicated by assigning
+it a distinct subordinal rank.</p>
+
+<p>The Chiroptera have always been placed near the Insectivora;
+but they are really a highly specialised group, as much isolated
+from all other mammals by the modification of their anterior limbs
+in adaptation to aerial locomotion, as the Cetacea and the Sirenia,
+by the absence of hind limbs, are specially adapted for an aquatic
+life.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, the Primates, which in any natural system must be
+placed at the head of the series, are divisible into two very distinct
+groups—one containing the various forms of Lemurs (Lemuroidea),
+and the other the Monkeys and Man (Anthropoidea). Whether
+the Lemuroidea should form part of the Primates (according to the
+traditional view), or a distinct order altogether removed from it,
+is as yet an undetermined question, for both sides of which there
+is much to be said. There can, however, be no doubt that the
+Anthropoidea form a perfectly natural group, presenting a series
+of tolerably regular gradations from the Marmosets (<i>Hapale</i>) to
+Man. Certain breaks in the series, however, enable us to divide
+it into five distinct families:—<i>Hapalidæ</i> or Marmosets: <i>Cebidæ</i> or
+American Monkeys, with three premolar teeth on each side of each
+jaw; <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>, containing the majority of Old-world Monkeys;
+<i>Simiidæ</i>, consisting of the genera <i>Hylobates</i>, <i>Simia</i>, <i>Gorilla</i>, and
+<i>Anthropopithecus</i>, the true Man-like Apes; and, lastly, <i>Hominidæ</i>,
+containing the genus <i>Homo</i> alone.</p>
+
+<ul>
+  <li>Subclass I. <span class="smcap">Prototheria.</span>
+    <ul>
+      <li>Order i. <span class="smcap">Monotremata</span>—Monotremes.
+        <ul>
+          <li>Fam. 1. <i>Ornithorhynchidæ</i>—Duck-bill.</li>
+          <li class="pad2">2. <i>Echidnidæ</i>—Spiny Anteater.</li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </li>
+  <li>Group. <b>MULTITUBERCULATA.</b><a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>
+    <ul>
+      <li>Fam. 1. <b>Plagiaulacidæ</b>—Plagiaulax.</li>
+      <li class="pad2">2. <b>Polymastodontidæ</b>—Polymastodon.</li>
+      <li class="pad2">3. <b>Tritylodontidæ</b>—Tritylodon.</li>
+    </ul>
+  </li>
+  <li>Subclass II. <span class="smcap">Metatheria.</span>
+    <ul>
+      <li>Order ii. <span class="smcap">Marsupialia</span>—Marsupials.
+        <ul>
+          <li>Suborder 1. <span class="smcap">Polyprotodontia</span>—Polyprotodonts.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[89]</span>
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam. 1. <b>Dromatheriidæ</b>—Dromatherium.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">2. <b>Amphitheriidæ</b>—Amphitherium, etc.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">3. <b>Spalacotheriidæ</b>—Spalacotherium.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">4. <b>Tritylodontidæ</b>—Tritylodon.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">5. <i>Didelphyidæ</i>—Opossums.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">6. <i>Dasyuridæ</i>—Thylacine and Dasyures.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">7. <i>Peramelidæ</i>—Bandicoots.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+          <li>Suborder 2. <span class="smcap">Diprotodontia</span>—Diprotodonts.
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam. 8. <i>Phascolomyidæ</i>—Wombats.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">9. <i>Phalangeridæ</i>—Phalangers.</li>
+              <li class="pad1">10. <b>Diprotodontidæ</b>—Diprotodon.</li>
+              <li class="pad1">11. <b>Nototheriidæ</b>—Notothere.</li>
+              <li class="pad1">12. <i>Macropodidæ</i>—Kangaroos.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </li>
+  <li>Subclass III. <span class="smcap">Eutheria.</span>
+    <ul>
+      <li>Order iii. <span class="smcap">Edentata</span>—Edentates.
+        <ul>
+          <li>Fam. 1. <i>Bradypodidæ</i>—Sloths.</li>
+          <li class="pad2">2. <b>Megatheriidæ</b>—Ground Sloths.</li>
+          <li class="pad2">3. <i>Myrmecophagidæ</i>—Anteaters.</li>
+          <li class="pad2">4. <i>Dasypodidæ</i>—Armadillos.</li>
+          <li class="pad2">5. <b>Glyptodontidæ</b>—Glyptodonts.</li>
+          <li class="pad2">6. <i>Manidæ</i>—Pangolins.</li>
+          <li class="pad2">7. <i>Orycteropodidæ</i>—Aard-varks.</li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+      <li>Order iv. <span class="smcap">Sirenia</span>—Sirenians.
+        <ul>
+          <li>Fam. 1. <i>Manatidæ</i>—Manatees.</li>
+          <li class="pad2">2. <b>Rhytinidæ</b>—Rhytina.</li>
+          <li class="pad2">3. <i>Halicoridæ</i>—Dugongs.</li>
+          <li class="pad2">4. <b>Halitheriidæ</b>—Halithere.</li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+      <li>Order v. <span class="smcap">Cetacea</span>—Cetaceans.
+        <ul>
+          <li>Suborder 1. <span class="smcap">Mystacoceti</span>—Baleen Whales.
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam. 1. <i>Balænidæ</i>—Greenland Whale, etc.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+          <li>Suborder 2. <b>ARCHÆOCETI.</b>
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam. 2. <b>Zeuglodontidæ</b>—Zeuglodonts.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+          <li>Suborder 3. <span class="smcap">Odontoceti</span>—Toothed Whales.
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam. 3. <i>Physeteridæ</i>—Sperm Whale.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">4. <i>Platanistidæ</i>—Freshwater Dolphins.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">5. <i>Delphinidæ</i>—Dolphins, Porpoises, etc.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+      <li>Order vi. <span class="smcap">Ungulata</span>—Hoofed Mammals.
+        <ul>
+          <li>Suborder 1. <span class="smcap">Artiodactyla</span>—Artiodactyles.
+            <ul>
+              <li>Section A. <span class="smcap">Suina</span>—Pig-like Artiodactyles.
+                <ul>
+                  <li>Fam 1. <i>Hippopotamidæ</i>—Hippopotamus.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[90]</span></li>
+                  <li class="pad2">2. <i>Suidæ</i>—Pigs and Peccaries.</li>
+                  <li class="pad2">Annectant types.</li>
+                  <li class="pad1">{ 3. <b>Chœropotamidæ</b>—Chœropotamus.</li>
+                  <li class="pad1">{ 4. <b>Anthracotheriidæ</b>—Anthracothere.</li>
+                  <li class="pad1">{ 5. <b>Merycopotamidæ</b>—Merycopotamus.</li>
+                  <li class="pad1">{ 6. <b>Cotylopidæ</b>—Oreodonts.</li>
+                  <li class="pad1">{ 7. <b>Anoplotheriidæ</b>—Anoplothere.</li>
+                  <li class="pad1">{ 8. <b>Dichodontidæ</b>—Dichodon.</li>
+                </ul>
+              </li>
+              <li>Section B. <span class="smcap">Tragulina</span>—Chevrotains.
+                <ul>
+                  <li class="pad2">9. <i>Tragulidæ</i>—Chevrotains.</li>
+                </ul>
+              </li>
+              <li>Section C. <span class="smcap">Tylopoda</span>—Camels.
+                <ul>
+                  <li class="pad1">10. <i>Camelidæ</i>—Camels and Llamas.</li>
+                  <li class="pad1">11. <b>Poebrotheriidæ</b>—Poëbrotherium.</li>
+                </ul>
+              </li>
+              <li>Section D. <span class="smcap">Pecora</span>—True Ruminants.
+                <ul>
+                  <li class="pad1">12. <i>Cervidæ</i>—Deer.</li>
+                  <li class="pad1">13. <i>Giraffidæ</i>—Giraffe.</li>
+                  <li class="pad1">14. <i>Antilocapridæ</i>—Prong-buck.</li>
+                  <li class="pad1">15. <i>Bovidæ</i>—Sheep, Cattle, etc.</li>
+                </ul>
+              </li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+          <li>Suborder 2. <span class="smcap">Perissodactyla</span>—Perissodactyles.
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam. 16. <i>Tapiridæ</i>—Tapirs.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">17. <b>Lophiodontidæ</b>—Lophiodonts.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">18. <b>Palæotheriidæ</b>—Palæotheres.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">19. <i>Equidæ</i>—Horses.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">20. <i>Rhinocerotidæ</i>—Rhinoceroses.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">21. <b>Lambdotheriidæ</b>—Palæosyops.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">22. <b>Chalicotheriidæ</b>—Chalicothere.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">23. <b>Titanotheriidæ</b>—Titanothere.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">24. <b>Macraucheniidæ</b>—Macrauchenia.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+          <li>Suborder 3. <b>TOXODONTIA</b>—Toxodonts.
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam. 25. <b>Toxodontidæ</b>—Toxodon.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">26. <b>Typotheriidæ</b>—Typothere.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+          <li>Suborder 4. <b>CONDYLARTHRA.</b>
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam. 27. <b>Periptychidæ</b>—Periptychus.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">28. <b>Phenacodontidæ</b>—Phenacodus.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">29. <b>Meniscotheriidæ</b>—Meniscothere.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+          <li>Suborder 5. <span class="smcap">Hyracoidea</span>—Hyraces.
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam. 30. <i>Hyracidæ</i>—Hyrax.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+          <li>Suborder 6. <b>AMBLYPODA.</b>
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam. 31. <b>Pantolambdidæ</b>—Pantolambda.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">32. <b>Coryphodontidæ</b>—Coryphodon.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">33. <b>Uintatheriidæ</b>—Uintathere.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+          <li>Suborder 7. <span class="smcap">Proboscidea</span>—Proboscideans.
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam. 34. <b>Dinotheriidæ</b>—Dinothere.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[91]</span></li>
+              <li class="pad2">35. <i>Elephantidæ</i>—Elephants.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+      <li>Group. <b>TILLODONTIA</b>—Tillodonts.
+        <ul>
+          <li>Fam. <b>Anchippodontidæ</b>—Anchippodus.</li>
+          <li class="pad2"><b>Calamodontidæ</b>—Calamodon.</li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+      <li>Order vii. <span class="smcap">Rodentia</span>—Rodents.
+        <ul>
+          <li>Suborder 1. <span class="smcap">Simplicidentata.</span>
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam.  1. <i>Anomaluridæ</i>—Anomalurus.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">2. <i>Sciuridæ</i>—Squirrels and Marmots.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">3. <i>Haplodontidæ</i>—Haplodon.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">4. <b>Ischyromyidæ</b>—Ischyromys.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">5. <i>Castoridæ</i>—Beavers.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">6. <i>Myoxidæ</i>—Dormice.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">7. <i>Lophiomyidæ</i>—Lophiomys.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">8. <i>Muridæ</i>—Rats, Mice, and Voles.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">9. <i>Spalacidæ</i>—Mole-rats.</li>
+              <li class="pad1">10. <i>Geomyidæ</i>—Pouched Rats.</li>
+              <li class="pad1">11. <i>Dipodidæ</i>—Jerboas.</li>
+              <li class="pad1">12. <b>Theridomyidæ</b>—Theridomys.</li>
+              <li class="pad1">13. <i>Octodontidæ</i>—Spiny Mice.</li>
+              <li class="pad1">14. <b>Castoroididæ</b>—Castoroides.</li>
+              <li class="pad1">15. <i>Hystricidæ</i>—Porcupines.</li>
+              <li class="pad1">16. <i>Chinchillidæ</i>—Chinchillas.</li>
+              <li class="pad1">17. <i>Dinomyidæ</i>—Dinomys.</li>
+              <li class="pad1">18. <i>Caviidæ</i>—Cavies.</li>
+              <li class="pad1">19. <i>Dasyproctidæ</i>—Agouties.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+          <li>Suborder 2. <span class="smcap">Duplicidentata.</span>
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam. 20. <i>Lagomyidæ</i>—Picas.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">21. <i>Leporidæ</i>—Hares and Rabbits.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+      <li>Order viii. <span class="smcap">Carnivora</span>—Carnivores.
+        <ul>
+          <li>Suborder 1. <span class="smcap">Carnivora Vera</span>—Fissipedes.
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam.  1. <i>Felidæ</i>—Cats.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">2. <i>Hyænidæ</i>—Hyænas.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">3. <i>Proteleidæ</i>—Earth-wolf.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">4. <i>Viverridæ</i>—Civets and Ichneumons.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">5. <i>Canidæ</i>—Wolves and Foxes.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">6. <i>Ursidæ</i>—Bears.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">7. <i>Mustelidæ</i>—Weasels and Otters.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">8. <i>Procyonidæ</i>—Raccoons and Cat-bear.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+          <li>Suborder 2. <span class="smcap">Pinnipedia</span>—Pinnipedes.
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam.  9. <i>Otariidæ</i>—Eared Seals.</li>
+              <li class="pad1">10. <i>Trichechidæ</i>—Walrus.</li>
+              <li class="pad1">11. <i>Phocidæ</i>—Seals.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+          <li>Suborder 3. <b>CREODONTA</b>—Creodonts.
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam. 12. <b>Hyænodontidæ</b>—Hyænodon.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">13. <b>Proviverridæ</b>—Proviverra.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">14. <b>Arctocyonidæ</b>—Arctocyon.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[92]</span></li>
+              <li class="pad2">15. <b>Mesonychidæ</b>—Mesonyx.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+      <li>Order ix. <span class="smcap">Insectivora</span>—Insectivores.
+        <ul>
+          <li>Suborder 1. <span class="smcap">Insectivora Vera.</span>
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam.  1. <i>Tupaiidæ</i>—Tupaias.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">2. <i>Macroscelididæ</i>—Elephant-Shrews.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">3. <i>Erinaceidæ</i>—Hedgehogs.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">4. <i>Soricidæ</i>—Shrews.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">5. <i>Talpidæ</i>—Moles.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">6. <i>Potamogalidæ</i>—Potamogale.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">7. <i>Solenodontidæ</i>—Solenodon.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">8. <i>Centetidæ</i>—Centetes.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">9. <i>Chrysochloridæ</i>—Golden Moles.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+          <li>Suborder 2. <span class="smcap">Dermoptera.</span>
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam. 10. <i>Galeopithecidæ</i>—Galeopithecus.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+      <li>Order x. <span class="smcap">Chiroptera</span>—Bats.
+        <ul>
+          <li>Suborder 1. <span class="smcap">Megachiroptera</span>—Frugivorous Bats.
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam. 1. <i>Pteropodidæ</i>—Flying Foxes.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+          <li>Suborder 2. <span class="smcap">Microchiroptera</span>—Insectivorous Bats.
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam. 2. <i>Vespertilionidæ</i>—Common Bats.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">3. <i>Nycteridæ</i>—Nycteris.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">4. <i>Rhinolophidæ</i>—Leaf-nosed Bats.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">5. <i>Emballonuridæ</i>—Emballonura.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">6. <i>Phyllostomatidæ</i>—Vampyres.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+      <li>Order xi. <span class="smcap">Primates.</span>
+        <ul>
+          <li>Suborder 1. <span class="smcap">Lemuroidea</span>—Lemuroids.
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam. 1. <b>Hyopsodontidæ</b>—Hyopsodus.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">2. <i>Chiromyidæ</i>—Aye-Aye.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">3. <i>Tarsiidæ</i>—Tarsier.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">4. <i>Lemuridæ</i>—Lemurs.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+          <li>Suborder 2. <span class="smcap">Anthropoidea</span>—Anthropoids.
+            <ul>
+              <li>Fam. 5. <i>Hapalidæ</i>—Marmosets.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">6. <i>Cebidæ</i>—American Monkeys.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">7. <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>—Old World Monkeys.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">8. <i>Simiidæ</i>—Gibbons and Man-like Apes.</li>
+              <li class="pad2">9. <i>Hominidæ</i>—Man.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>The distinctive character of these subclasses and orders, with an
+account of their subdivisions and the principal forms contained in
+each, will be given in subsequent chapters.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[93]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV<br>
+<span class="smaller">GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<h3>I. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></h3>
+
+<p>In considering the present distribution of mammals over the
+globe, we may, in the first place, direct our attention to terrestrial
+or land types, reserving the consideration of aerial types, like the
+Bats, and aquatic forms, as exemplified by the Cetaceans, Sirenians,
+and Seals, to separate sections.</p>
+
+<p>Among terrestrial forms each species has a certain definite area
+of distribution in space, which may be of very wide extent, or may
+be confined to a restricted region. This distributional area is,
+however, always connected, or continuous; that is to say, that
+although we may have a single species inhabiting two continents,
+like the Lion in Asia and Africa, or dwelling both on a continent
+and adjacent continental islands, like the Javan Rhinoceros of India,
+Java, and Borneo, yet we shall always find that such areas, if not
+still connected, show evident signs of having been so connected
+in comparatively late geological epochs; and we never find
+instances of the same species inhabiting totally disconnected areas,
+such as India and South America. As examples of mammals
+with a wide distribution we may mention the Lion and the
+Leopard, which are now found throughout Africa, and also occur
+in India, as well as in the intervening areas of Arabia and Persia.
+In the case of the former species, palæontology further teaches us
+that its distribution in the last geological epoch was even more
+extensive, since we have good evidence to show that it formerly
+ranged over the greater part of Europe, including the British Isles.
+The Jackal affords another well-known instance of a species common<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[94]</span>
+to India and Africa. The American Puma, again, may be cited as
+an example of a mammal having a very wide range in latitude,
+since it is found from Patagonia in the south to Canada in the
+north. As instances of wide range in the opposite direction we
+have only to mention the Reindeer and the Elk or Moose, found
+in the northern regions of both the Old and New Worlds, which
+are only separated from one another by the narrow channel of
+Behring Strait.</p>
+
+<p>Of mammals with extremely restricted distributional areas, we
+may mention many of the Insectivora, such as the Desman of the
+Pyrenees, and some of the Madagascar types of this order, the
+Lemurs from the same island, some of the species of Marmots, the
+remarkable bear-like <i>Æluropus</i> of Eastern Tibet, one species of Zebra,
+and other Ungulates from Africa.</p>
+
+<p>The distribution of a genus (except of course when the genus is
+represented only by a single form) is very generally more extensive
+than that of a species; and this may be markedly the case
+when there are only some two or three species in a genus. In
+genera, moreover, we meet with what is known as discontinuous
+distribution, that is, where the distributional area of one or
+more species is totally separated from that of others. The best
+instance of this occurs in the case of the Tapirs, where we find
+one species inhabiting the Malayan Peninsula, and no others
+anywhere in the world, with the exception of South America. The
+explanation of such an apparently anomalous feature in distribution
+is to be found in the past history of the globe, which shows us that
+Tapirs once existed in China, Europe, and North America, and,
+therefore, indicates that the existing isolated species are the sole
+survivors of a group once spread over a large portion of the earth’s
+surface. In regard to generic distribution it must, however, be
+mentioned that this depends to a great extent on the limits which
+we are disposed to assign to genera themselves.</p>
+
+<p>As the distributional area of a genus generally exceeds that of
+a species, so that of a family, or group of genera, is larger than that
+of a single genus; and similarly the distribution of an order, or
+assemblage of families, usually occupies a larger area than that of
+a single family. Thus, for instance, the genus <i>Thylacinus</i>, represented
+only by the so-called Tasmanian Wolf or Thylacine, is
+now entirely restricted to Tasmania; but the family <i>Dasyuridæ</i>, to
+which that genus belongs, ranges all over Australia, while the order
+Marsupialia, which includes the <i>Dasyuridæ</i>, is found both in Australia
+and America, and in past epochs was probably spread over
+the entire globe.</p>
+
+<p>A remarkable feature in connection with the distribution of the
+terrestrial Mammalia is the circumstance that, with the exception of
+certain species introduced by human agency, and small forms which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[95]</span>
+can easily have been transported on floating timber or other similar
+means, they are totally absent from what are known as oceanic
+islands—that is islands arising from great depths in the ocean,
+mainly composed of coral or volcanic rocks, and showing no signs
+of having ever been connected with the existing continents, or the
+larger and so-called continental islands. The obvious explanation
+of this feature is, that from their total isolation these islands
+have never been able to receive a mammalian fauna from the
+great continental areas on which mammalian life was probably
+first developed.</p>
+
+<p>As an intermediate step between these islands which are
+practically void of mammalian life and the continents which teem
+with such a variety of forms, are certain larger islands and portions
+of continents containing a mammalian fauna more or less markedly
+distinct from that of the whole of the other regions of the globe.
+The best instance of this is Australia, which, with the exception of
+one dog—the Dingo—and certain <i>Muridæ</i> and Bats, has no mammals
+except Monotremes and Marsupials. The latter are, moreover, perfectly
+distinct from those of America, which, if we exclude the islands
+in the neighbourhood of Australia, is the only other region which now
+possesses any Marsupials at all. Here also we have a ready and full
+explanation which accords with all the facts; since it is evident
+that Australia has been isolated from the Asiatic continent from
+some very remote geological epoch, at which period it is probable
+that Monotremes and Marsupials were the dominant if not the sole
+representatives of the Mammalia then existing. Consequently
+Australia has never been able to receive an influx of the Eutherian
+orders, which have probably swept away all the Marsupials except
+the small American Opossums from the rest of the globe. Again,
+the large island of Madagascar, which has a fauna of an African type,
+but still very markedly different from that of the mainland, may
+be considered to have been connected with the latter at a time
+when the Eutheria had become the dominant forms, but has been
+separated for a sufficiently long period to have enabled a large
+number of its species and genera to have become distinct from those
+of the adjacent continent. Similarly, there is evidence to show
+that South America was probably cut off for a considerable period
+from the northern half of the American continent, in consequence
+of which its lowly organised fauna of Edentates were enabled to
+attain such a remarkable development in the later geological
+periods.</p>
+
+<p>In contrast to the mammalian fauna of islands of the preceding
+type is, or rather was, that of the British Islands, which in the
+early historic and prehistoric periods was identical with that of
+the Continent. This leads to the inference that at a comparatively
+late epoch there was a direct land communication between Britain<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[96]</span>
+and the Continent, which is shown by geological evidence to have
+actually been the case.</p>
+
+<p>The above instances are sufficient to show what an important
+influence the date of separation of islands from the adjacent
+continents has had upon their existing mammalian fauna, and how
+largely the present distribution of mammalian life is bound up with
+the past history of our globe. We must, however, not omit to
+mention another very important agency of past times which has
+likewise had great influence on the present distribution of the
+various faunas of the northern hemisphere. This is the so-called
+glacial epoch, which took place immediately before the establishment
+of the present condition of things, and appears to have been
+the cause of the extinction of many of the larger mammalian types
+which formerly inhabited Europe, and whose retreat to the warmer
+regions of the south was apparently cut off by the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p><i>Zoological Regions.</i>—Zoologists are now generally agreed in dividing
+the land surfaces of the globe into a number of zoological regions or
+provinces, characterised by a more or less distinctly marked general
+<i>facies</i> of their fauna as a whole. Some of these regions are much more
+distinctly defined than the others; and in the majority of cases
+there is a kind of neutral ground or No-man’s-land at the junction
+between any two of these regions. It must also be remembered
+that in the Old World proper as we go back in time we find a
+gradual assimilation in the mammalian faunas of the different
+regions, indicating that originally there was one large fauna of
+a generally similar type occupying the greater portion of this
+area. Thus we find that Hippopotami, Giraffes, Kudus, Elands,
+and other types of Antelopes now restricted to Africa, formerly
+extended to Europe and India, while there is also evidence to show
+that the group of large anthropoid Apes, now found only in Africa
+and the Bornean region, were likewise spread over a large part of
+the south-western half of the Old World. Moreover, while at the
+present day there is a marked connection between the mammals of
+the northern regions of both the Old and New Worlds, in the
+Tertiary period it appears that the fauna of the whole of North
+America was much more nearly allied to that of the central regions
+of the Old World than is now the case. Thus in the Tertiary
+rocks of America we meet with remains of what we are accustomed
+to regard as such essentially Old World genera as Horses and
+Rhinoceroses. On the other hand there are no traces in America
+of the existence at any period of Apes, Giraffes, Hippopotami, or
+Hyænas, while that continent has yielded evidence of groups of
+Ungulates totally unrepresented in the eastern hemisphere.</p>
+
+<p>The chief zoological regions of the globe, proposed by Mr. Sclater
+in 1857, and now recognised by the majority of authorities, are
+six in number, and are named as follows. Firstly, the Palæarctic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[97]</span>
+region, embracing the whole of Europe, Persia, Northern Arabia,
+and all of Asia northward of the line of the Himalaya proper,
+Japan, that part of Africa lying northward of the Sahara Desert,
+and the oceanic islands of the North Atlantic. Secondly, the
+Ethiopian region, which comprises all Africa lying to the south
+of the Sahara, the southern part of Arabia, Madagascar, and the
+Mascarene Islands. Thirdly, the Oriental or Indian region, which
+is taken to include India south of the Himalaya, and to the
+north-west as far as Beluchistan, the Malay peninsula, southern
+China, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Philippines. Fourthly,
+the Australasian region, which is usually defined as being bounded
+to the north-west by the deep sea channel lying between Borneo and
+Celebes known as Wallace’s line, and is taken to include Celebes,
+Lumbok, New Guinea, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and the
+host of oceanic islands in the South Pacific. Several writers, however,
+prefer to regard Celebes and some of the adjacent islands as
+representing a transitional Austro-Malayan region. Fifthly, the
+Nearctic region, comprising Greenland and North America as far
+south as the north of Mexico. And sixthly, the Neotropical
+region, which embraces the remaining portion of the American
+continent and the West Indies.</p>
+
+<p>Various minor modifications of this scheme have been proposed.
+Thus some writers are disposed to raise India to the rank of a
+distinct primary region, while others propose the same for New
+Zealand. The Palæarctic and Nearctic regions have a large number
+of common types, more especially among the mammals, and Dr. A.
+Heilprin<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> has expressed his opinion that they should be regarded
+as a single primary region under the name of the Holarctic. The
+same writer would also separate the South Pacific Islands as constituting
+a Polynesian region.</p>
+
+<p>Minor divisions or sub-regions have also been marked out, but it
+will be unnecessary to indicate their limits in the present work.
+We may, however, mention the Mediterranean sub-region of the
+Palæarctic, which includes the peninsular portion of southern
+Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor, Persia, Afghanistan, Beluchistan,
+and Northern Arabia, as a good instance of the transition from one
+region to another, since its fauna has a mingling of Palæarctic,
+Ethiopian, and Oriental types, the former being, however, the
+predominant ones.</p>
+
+<p>Of the chief mammalian types characteristic of these various
+regions only a brief sketch can be given in this work.</p>
+
+<p><i>Palæarctic Region.</i>—The Palæarctic region is of enormous extent,
+and includes countries varying greatly in their flora, climate, and
+elevation. Thus it embraces the Arctic plains of Siberia, the warm
+regions of Italy, Southern France, and Northern Africa, the forest-clad<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[98]</span>
+slopes of the outer Himalaya, and the lofty arid plains of Turkestan
+and Tibet, scorched by a burning sun in summer and chilled by
+a still more terrible cold in winter. Its extreme limits in the west
+are marked by the Canaries and Azores, and in the east by distant
+Japan; and yet throughout this vast expanse we find a great uniformity
+of life, as exemplified by the large number of British genera
+which occur also in Japan. The mammals which are on the whole
+the most characteristic of this region are the Sheep and Goats, forming
+a section of the great family of <i>Bovidæ</i>; nearly all the species of which
+are Palæarctic, although we meet with one Goat (<i>Capra</i>) in the
+Nilgherries of Southern India, and a Sheep (<i>Ovis</i>) in the Nearctic
+region. The Musk Ox (<i>Ovibos</i>) is characteristic of the Palæarctic
+and Nearctic regions. At least one species of Camel is characteristic
+of this region, and it is not improbable that the second may also
+have originated in it. There are a few characteristic types of
+Antelopes, such as the Alpine Chamois (<i>Rupicapra</i>), the Saiga of
+Tartary, and the Chiru (<i>Pantholops</i>) of Tibet, each of which is
+represented by only a single species: and we miss the host of
+Antelopes so characteristic of the Ethiopian region. Deer (<i>Cervus</i>)
+are abundant, although by no means confined to this region; and
+the Musk Deer (<i>Moschus</i>), the sole representative of the subfamily
+<i>Moschinæ</i>, is exclusively Palæarctic. Monkeys, as a rule, are absent,
+although we meet with one species of <i>Macacus</i> in Northern
+Africa and at Gibraltar, and some other types on the southern
+border of Tibet. The Moles (<i>Talpa</i>) are mainly Palæarctic,
+although one species enters Northern India, while the Desmans
+(<i>Myogale</i>) of the Pyrenees and Southern Russia are unknown
+beyond the limits of this region. The Water-shrew (<i>Nectogale</i>) is
+likewise a peculiar eastern Palæarctic type. Among the Rodents,
+the Picas or Tailless Hares (<i>Lagomys</i>) and the Dormice (<i>Myoxus</i>)
+are essentially Palæarctic forms, only one species of each being found
+beyond the limits of the region, and the one extra-Palæarctic species
+of <i>Lagomys</i> occurring in the cognate Nearctic region. The Mice and
+Rats are represented by the typical genus <i>Mus</i> and other types,
+and Hares (<i>Lepus</i>) and one species of Squirrel (<i>Sciurus</i>) are common.
+The Carnivora include two species of Bears (<i>Ursus</i>), Wolves and
+Foxes (<i>Canis</i>), a Lynx and a few species of Cats (<i>Felis</i>), as well as
+numerous weasels (<i>Mustela</i>), and some other types.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ethiopian Region.</i>—The Ethiopian region is of great interest to
+the student of mammals, since it is inhabited by a number of forms
+remarkable for their large size. A considerable portion of the area
+consists of desert, especially in the north; but there is also a wide
+extent of grassy plains (veltd), as well as vast tracts of equatorial
+forests of great density. Perhaps the most striking feature in the
+Ethiopian fauna is the number of Ungulates, both of the Artiodactyle
+and Perissodactyle sections. In the former section we have<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[99]</span>
+the Giraffes (<i>Giraffa</i>) represented by one species, which is the type
+of a family, and is unknown elsewhere. Equally characteristic are
+the Hippopotami, which likewise form the type of a family, while
+the Pigs are represented by the Wart-hogs (<i>Phacochœrus</i>) and the
+River-hogs, forming an aberrant group of the genus <i>Sus</i>. The Oxen
+(<i>Bos</i>) are represented by Buffaloes, but there are no species of true
+Oxen or Bison. The Antelopes attain an extraordinary development,
+the number of species being estimated at from eighty to ninety,
+which are referred to a large number of genera, although several of
+these are more or less ill-defined. Most of these genera are peculiar
+to this region, but the Gazelles (<i>Gazella</i>) are also found in the desert
+regions of other parts of the Old World, and <i>Oryx</i> ranges into Arabia
+and Persia. In contrast to this abundance of Antelopes is the total
+absence of the Deer family, or <i>Cervidæ</i>, which are so characteristic
+of the Palæarctic and Oriental regions. The Chevrotains or
+<i>Tragulidæ</i> are, however, represented by <i>Dorcatherium</i>.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> In the
+Perissodactyle section we may notice the presence of two species
+of <i>Rhinoceros</i>, both furnished with two horns, and distinguished from
+those of the Oriental region by the absence of incisor and canine
+teeth. The Horse family (<i>Equidæ</i>) is also represented by several
+species, and includes the peculiar group of Zebras, characterised
+by their beautifully striped skins. Of other Ungulates the Elephants,
+which, like the Rhinoceroses, are now peculiar to the
+Ethiopian and Oriental regions, have one species, which is widely
+different from its Indian congener. The Hyraces are mainly
+characteristic of this region, although one species occurs in Syria
+and Palestine. The Carnivora include some forms like the Lion,
+Leopard, and Jackal, common to the Oriental region, but likewise
+include certain peculiar types like the Earth-wolf (<i>Proteles</i>), which
+may be regarded as the type of a distinct family, and two species
+Hyænas, which are referred by some authorities to a distinct genus
+(<i>Crocuta</i>). There is also the Hunting dog (<i>Lycaon</i>), and the peculiar
+group of Foxes known as the Fennecs, together with <i>Otocyon</i>. Bears,
+Wolves, and true Foxes are absent; but Civets, etc., are abundant,
+although not characteristic of the region. The Primates yield several
+very characteristic types, such as the Gorilla and the Chimpanzee
+(<i>Anthropopithecus</i>) among the <i>Simiidæ</i>, which, with the exception of
+the Orangs of Borneo, are the only existing large man-like Apes,
+and the group of Dog-faced Baboons (<i>Cynocephalus</i>) in the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>.
+The genus <i>Colobus</i> is also a group of the latter family,
+absolutely characteristic of the region. Lemurs, again, occur on
+the continent of Africa, but the great development of this group
+is in the adjacent island of Madagascar, where several peculiar
+genera occur, and where the larger Carnivora and Ungulata are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[100]</span>
+absent. These peculiarities of the fauna of Madagascar apparently
+point, as previously mentioned, to its separation from the mainland
+before the latter was overrun by the larger types, and at a time
+when its chief mammals were Lemurs and Insectivores. There
+are two genera of Edentates, the Pangolins (<i>Manis</i>), and the Aard-vark
+(<i>Orycteropus</i>), the latter being peculiar.</p>
+
+<p>Although the foregoing groups of mammals are now so
+characteristic of the Ethiopian region, it cannot be too strongly
+insisted that their restriction to this region is, so to speak, merely
+a feature of the present day, and that at a late geological epoch
+nearly all the peculiar genera were represented in India, and many
+of them also in Europe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oriental Region.</i>—The third or Oriental region is likewise of very
+considerable extent, and is the only one, in addition to the Ethiopian,
+which is the home of huge Ungulates, like Elephants and
+Rhinoceroses, and the large man-like Apes. A large proportion of
+this extensive area is occupied by tropical and subtropical forests
+and swamps; these being especially abundant in Burma, Southern
+China, Siam, and the southern ridges of the Himalaya, collectively
+constituting the Indo-Chinese sub-region, and also in the Indo-Malayan
+sub-region of the Malay peninsula and adjacent islands.
+In the third or Indian sub-region, comprising peninsular India, with
+the exception of the Carnatic, there are large tracts of open country,
+including some of the hottest regions in the world, parts of which
+form plains more or less covered with vegetation during the cooler
+and rainy seasons, while others are barren rocky table-lands, as in
+the Deccan, or arid deserts like those of parts of the Punjab and
+Sind. Finally, in the fourth or Cingalese sub-region, represented
+by the Carnatic and the island of Ceylon, we find vast areas of
+luxuriant forest and jungle. In the north-western desert area of
+the Indian sub-region the fauna includes a mixture of Palæarctic and
+Ethiopian forms, with those characteristic of the Oriental region.</p>
+
+<p>Among the chief features of the mammalian fauna of this
+region we may notice the absence of Hippopotami and Giraffes, the
+greatly diminished number of Antelopes, as compared with those
+of Africa, and the abundance of Deer and true Pigs. The Antelopes
+comprise the two peculiar genera <i>Boselaphus</i> (Nilghai) and the
+typical <i>Antilope</i> (Black-buck), each of which is represented by only
+a single species, while the Deer belong to the so-called Rusine
+group, which is markedly different from that to which the
+Palæarctic Red Deer belongs. True Chevrotains (<i>Tragulus</i>) are
+peculiar to this region. The Oxen include the true Buffalo,
+differing in many respects from the African species of the same
+group, and also certain species of true Oxen, such as the Gaour and
+Banting, belonging to the Bibovine group, which is confined to this
+region. In the Perissodactyla Horses (<i>Equus</i>) are represented<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[101]</span>
+only by a single species in the desert area of the Indian sub-region,
+while the two species of <i>Rhinoceros</i> differ from those of Africa
+in being furnished with canines and incisors. The Malayan
+Tapir is the only Old World species of its genus. The Indian
+Elephant differs, moreover, so markedly from its African ally that
+some writers regard the two as types of distinct genera. The
+Carnivora include the Lion, Leopard, Jackal, and Hunting-Leopard,
+which are common to Africa; but the Tiger is very characteristic
+of this region, although extending northwards into the Palæarctic.
+Civets are abundant, comprising some peculiar genera, of which it
+will suffice to mention the well known <i>Paradoxurus</i>. Wolves closely
+allied to the Palæarctic species occur in Northern India, and there
+are also Foxes related to the typical species. The Dog-like animals
+which hunt in packs, and are separated by some writers from <i>Canis</i>
+under the name of <i>Cyon</i>, occur in the present and the Palæarctic
+region. The striped Hyæna is the Indian representative of its genus.
+Ratels are common to this and the Ethiopian region, and constitute
+the genus <i>Mellivora</i>. The most striking feature in the Carnivorous
+fauna of this region, as distinguished from the Ethiopian, is, however,
+the presence of Bears, some of which belong to the typical genus
+<i>Ursus</i>, while one species is usually generically separated under the
+name of <i>Melursus</i>. Among the Rodents we may especially notice
+the abundance of the <i>Muridæ</i> and <i>Sciuridæ</i>. In the former family
+we have numbers of true Mice (<i>Mus</i>), and also the peculiar genus
+<i>Nesocia</i> (Bandicoot-Rat), while in the latter both the true Squirrels
+(<i>Sciurus</i>) and the Flying-Squirrels (<i>Pteromys</i>) attain great development.
+The genus (<i>Pteromys</i>) is, indeed, mainly characteristic of this
+region, although in Kashmir and Japan it enters the Palæarctic.
+The Bats are very numerous, being represented by all the families,
+with the exception of the <i>Phyllostomatidæ</i>, or Vampyres, of South
+America. Among the Insectivora the genera <i>Tupaia</i> and <i>Galeopithecus</i>
+(Flying Lemur) are peculiar to this region, although not
+found in India. Finally, in the Primates we have the genera
+<i>Macacus</i> and <i>Semnopithecus</i> very abundantly represented, although
+both also enter the Palæarctic region; but the Anthropoid types
+are confined to the south-eastern half of the region, and include the
+Orangs (<i>Simia</i>) of Borneo, and the smaller long-armed Gibbons
+(<i>Hylobates</i>), which are abundant in the Malay peninsula, both
+genera not being found beyond this region. The Lemurs are much
+less abundant than in the Ethiopian region, but they include the
+peculiar Tarsier of Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes (Austro-Malayan
+region), which differs so markedly in dentition and structure of
+the feet from all other forms that it has been made the type of
+a separate family. The Edentates, so poorly represented in the
+Old World, include only Pangolins (<i>Manis</i>), which, as we have
+already seen, also occur in the Ethiopian region.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[102]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Australasian Region.</i>—With the fourth or Australasian region we
+come to a mammalian fauna so peculiar that we have no difficulty
+whatever in defining it from all the other regions of the globe,
+although it should be observed that in the Austro-Malayan islands
+we have a partial mingling of the Australasian and Malayan faunas.
+If we exclude Celebes from this region we find that, with the
+exception of a Pig in New Guinea, of the Dingo in Australia, of
+numerous Mice and Rats (<i>Muridæ</i>), and Bats, there are no Eutherian
+mammals throughout the area. The mammals of this region are
+restricted to the Australian mainland, the island of Tasmania, New
+Guinea, and the Aru islands, the whole area of New Zealand
+having been totally devoid of mammalian life until introduced by
+man. The whole of the Monotremata, constituting the subclass
+Prototheria, and all the Marsupials, exclusive of the few outlying
+forms ranging into the transitional Austro-Malayan area, and with
+the exception of the American family of the Opossums (<i>Didelphyidæ</i>),
+are absolutely confined to this region.</p>
+
+<p><i>Celebes.</i>—The mammals of Celebes—the typical representative
+of the Austro-Malayan transitional region or sub-region—include the
+peculiar Ape known as <i>Cynopithecus</i>, <i>Tarsius</i> (also Oriental), the
+Anoa, and the single species of <i>Babirusa</i>. Several other types of
+placental mammals are found in this transitional area, while the
+Marsupials are represented by <i>Phalanger</i> and <i>Petaurus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nearctic Region.</i>—The two remaining regions we have to consider
+are comprised in the New World. The first of these is the
+Nearctic, which, as already mentioned, has a fauna showing such a
+strongly marked relationship to that of the Palæarctic region, that
+it has been proposed to unite the two regions. Among types
+common to these two regions we may mention closely allied species
+of true Deer (<i>Cervus</i>) as exemplified by the Red Deer and the
+Wapiti; the allied Bisons of the two regions; the Reindeer and Elk
+common to both; as well as nearly related, and in some cases
+identical, species of Cats, Lynxes, Bears, Wolves, Foxes, Beavers,
+Squirrels, Marmots, and Hares. The Glutton or Wolverene, and the
+Musk Ox is also common to the Arctic portions of the two regions.
+The Ungulates are very poorly represented, but we have, in addition
+to the forms already mentioned, one species of the Palæarctic genus
+<i>Ovis</i>, namely the Bighorn, and the Prong-buck (<i>Antilocapra</i>), which
+is quite peculiar. There are, however, no Perissodactyla. The
+Raccoons and Coatis (<i>Procyonidæ</i>) constitute a family represented out
+of the New World only by the aberrant Cat-Bear (<i>Ælurus</i>) of Nipal.
+The characteristic American feline known as the Puma extends over
+this region; but there are no Edentates, and the Marsupials are
+represented only by a single species of Opossum. Rodents are extremely
+numerous, and comprise several characteristic types, which
+alone would tell us what part of the globe we were visiting. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[103]</span>
+most distinctive are the Pouched Rats (<i>Geomyidæ</i>), and the Beaver-like
+rodents known as the <i>Haplodontidæ</i>. True Rats and Mice (<i>Mus</i>),
+which are represented throughout the Old World, are totally wanting
+in the New, where they are replaced by the Vesper-mice, which may
+be included in the European genus <i>Cricetus</i>, although often separated
+as <i>Hesperomys</i>. This feature alone would seem to justify the distinction
+of the Nearctic from the Palæarctic region. The Musquash
+(<i>Fiber</i>) is a genus of Nearctic rodents unknown in the Old World.
+Among other characteristic genera we may mention, in the Carnivora,
+the Skunk (<i>Mephitis</i>) and the American Badger (<i>Taxidea</i>). Primates
+are absent from the entire region.</p>
+
+<p><i>Neotropical Region.</i>—The last of the six main regions is the
+Neotropical, including Mexico, South America, and the West Indies.
+A very large extent of this area is occupied by forests, which are
+described as being denser and more luxuriant than those of any
+other part of the globe. Alternating with these forest areas are
+the vast grassy plains known in different regions as llanos, savannas,
+and pampas. The back-bone of the region is formed by the great
+chain of the Andes. Next to the Australasian, this region is
+perhaps better characterised by its mammalian fauna than any of
+the others. Commencing with the Ungulates, we find a total
+absence of Antelopes, Sheep, and Oxen, and also of all Perissodactyles
+except Tapirs. Deer are, however, represented, although by
+peculiar forms (<i>Cariacus</i>) unknown beyond the New World. The
+Peccaries (<i>Dicotyles</i>), which are often made the type of a distinct
+family, take the place of the Old World Pigs, while the Llamas and
+Alpacas (<i>Auchenia</i>) are the substitutes for the Palæarctic Camels.
+The Carnivora include several Cats (<i>Felis</i>), among which the Puma
+and the Jaguar are the most noticeable; and there are also Raccoons,
+Coatis, Foxes, and one species of Bear. Insectivora are totally
+wanting; but the Bats are characterised by the presence of the
+Vampyres (<i>Phyllostomatidæ</i>), which are almost restricted to this
+region. The Rodents likewise include three families unknown
+elsewhere, namely the Chinchillas and Viscacha (<i>Chinchillidæ</i>), the
+Agouties (<i>Dasyproctidæ</i>), and the Cavies (<i>Caviidæ</i>); while a large
+number of the <i>Octodontidæ</i> are Neotropical, all the other forms
+being Ethiopian. In the Primates, again, we have all the forms
+quite peculiar to this region, and constituting two families, viz. the
+<i>Cebidæ</i> or Prehensile-tailed Monkeys, and the <i>Hapalidæ</i>, or Marmosets,
+both of which differ decidedly in their dentition, as well
+as in other features, from the Old World Monkeys. Lemuroids
+are unknown. Perhaps, however, the mammals which may be
+considered as most characteristic of the Nearctic region are the
+numerous Edentates, which form three families, mostly confined to
+it. These comprise the <i>Bradypodidæ</i> or Sloths, which solely
+inhabit the forest region; the <i>Myrmecophagidæ</i> or Anteaters; and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[104]</span>
+the <i>Dasypodidæ</i> or Armadillos, of which one species has crept
+northward as far as Texas. Almost equally characteristic are the
+numerous Opossums, the majority of which belong to the genus
+<i>Didelphys</i>. Finally, it should be observed that the West Indies are
+distinguished from the rest of the region by the absence of Primates,
+Carnivora, and Edentates.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aquatic Mammals.</i>—Many mammals grouped for the present
+purpose as terrestrial pass a great portion of their lives in brooks,
+lakes, or rivers, and, being dependent upon such waters for obtaining
+their subsistence, are necessarily confined to their vicinity;
+but the truly aquatic mammals, or those living constantly in the
+water, and unable to move their quarters from place to place by
+land, are the orders Cetacea and Sirenia, with which may also be
+grouped the Seals, forming the Pinniped division of the order
+Carnivora.</p>
+
+<p>For the marine Cetacea, animals mostly of large size and
+endowed with powers of rapid locomotion, there are obviously no
+barriers to universal distribution over the surface of the earth
+covered by sea, except such as are interposed by uncongenial
+temperature or absence of suitable food. Nevertheless it was
+thought some years ago that the fact of a Whale or a Dolphin
+occurring in a sea distant from that in which it had usually been
+found was sufficient justification for considering it as a distinct
+species and imposing a new name upon it. There are now,
+however, so many cases known in which Cetaceans from the
+northern and southern seas, from the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans,
+present absolutely no distinguishing external or anatomical characters
+upon which specific determination can be based that the
+opposite view is gaining ground; and, since some species are undoubtedly
+very widely distributed, being in fact almost cosmopolitan,
+there seems little reason why many others should not be included in
+the same category. The evidence is satisfactory enough in those
+instances in which the intermediate regions are inhabited by the same
+forms;—the cases of “continuous areas” of distribution. In those in
+which the areas of distribution are apparently discontinuous, there
+may be more room for doubt; but it must not be forgotten that the
+negative evidence is here of much less value than in the case of
+land animals, since the existence of Cetaceans in any particular part
+of the ocean may be easily overlooked. The great Sperm Whale
+(<i>Physeter macrocephalus</i>) is known to be almost cosmopolitan, inhabiting
+or passing through all the tropical and temperate seas,
+although not found near either pole. At least three of the well-known
+species of Rorqual (<i>Balænoptera</i>) of the British coasts are
+represented in the North Pacific, on the South American shores,
+and near New Zealand, by species so closely allied that it is difficult
+to point out any valid distinctive characters, though it may perhaps<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[105]</span>
+be desirable to wait for a more exhaustive examination of a large
+series of individuals before absolutely pronouncing them to be
+specifically identical. There is nothing yet known by which we can
+separate the “Humpback Whales” (<i>Megaptera</i>) of Greenland, the
+Cape of Good Hope, and Japan. The same may be said of the
+common Dolphin of the European seas (<i>Delphinus delphis</i>) and the
+so-called <i>D. bairdi</i> of the North Pacific and <i>D. forsteri</i> of the
+Australian seas. The Pilot Whale (<i>Globicephalus melas</i>) and the
+<i>Pseudorca</i> of the North Atlantic and of New Zealand are also,
+so far as present knowledge enables us to judge, respectively alike.
+Many other similar cases might be given. Captain Maury collected
+much valuable evidence about the distribution of the larger Cetacea,
+and, finding Right Whales (<i>Balæna</i>) common in both northern and
+southern temperate seas, and absent in the intermediate region, laid
+down the axiom that “the torrid zone is to the Right Whale as a sea
+of fire, through which he cannot pass.” Hence all cetologists have
+assumed that the Right Whale of the North Atlantic (<i>B. biscayensis</i>),
+that of the South Seas (<i>B. australis</i>), and that of the North Pacific (<i>B.
+japonica</i>), are necessarily distinct species. The anatomical structure
+and external appearance of all are, however, so far as yet known,
+marvellously alike, and, unless some distinguishing characters can
+be pointed out, it seems scarcely justifiable to separate them from
+geographical position alone; as, though the tropical seas may be
+usually avoided by them, it does not seem impossible, or even
+improbable, that some individuals of animals of such size and rapid
+powers of swimming may have at some time traversed so small a
+space of ocean as that which divides the present habitual localities
+of these supposed distinct species. If identity or diversity of
+structural characters is not to be allowed as a test of species in
+these cases, as it is usually admitted to be in others, the study of
+their geographical distribution becomes an impossibility.</p>
+
+<p>Although many species are thus apparently of such wide distribution,
+others are certainly restricted; thus the Arctic Right
+Whale (<i>Balæna mysticetus</i>) has been conclusively shown to be limited
+in its range to the region of the northern circumpolar ice, and no
+corresponding species has been met with in the southern hemisphere.
+In this case, not only temperature, but also the peculiarity of its
+mode of feeding, may be the cause. The Narwhal and the Beluga
+have a very similar distribution, though the latter occasionally
+ranges farther south. The common Hyperoödon is restricted to
+the North Atlantic, never entering, so far as is yet known, the
+tropical seas. Other species are exclusively tropical or austral in
+their range. One of the true Whalebone Whales (<i>Neobalæna
+marginata</i>) has only been met with hitherto in the seas round
+Australia and New Zealand; and a large Ziphioid (<i>Berardius
+arnouxi</i>) only near the last-named islands.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[106]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Cetacea are not limited to the ocean, or even to salt water,
+some entering large rivers for considerable distances, and others
+being exclusively fluviatile. One species of <i>Platanista</i> is extensively
+distributed throughout nearly the whole of the river systems of the
+Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Indus, ascending as high as there is
+water enough to swim in, but apparently never passing out to sea.
+The individuals inhabiting the Indus and the Ganges must therefore
+have been for long ages isolated without developing any definite
+distinguishing anatomical characters; for those by which the supposed
+<i>P. indi</i> was formerly separated from <i>P. gangetica</i> have been
+shown by Anderson to be of no constant value. <i>Orcella fluminalis</i>
+appears to be limited to the Irawaddy river, and at least two distinct
+species of Dolphin belonging to different genera are found in the
+waters of the upper Amazon. A <i>Neomeris</i> has been found in the
+great Chinese river, the Yang-tsi-Kiang, nearly a thousand miles
+from the sea. It is remarkable, however, that none of the great
+lakes or inland seas of the world are, according to our present
+knowledge, inhabited by Cetaceans. A regular seasonal migration
+has been observed in many of the oceanic Cetacea, especially those
+inhabiting the North Atlantic, but further observations upon this
+subject are still much needed.</p>
+
+<p>The great difference in the manner of life of the Sirenia, as
+compared with that of the Cetacea, causes a corresponding difference
+in their geographical distribution. Slow in their movements, and
+feeding exclusively upon vegetable substances, water-grasses, or fuci,
+the Sirenia are confined to rivers, estuaries, or coasts where these
+grow, and are not denizens of the open sea, although of course there
+is a possibility of accidental transport by the assistance of oceanic
+currents across considerable distances. Of the three genera existing
+within historic times, one (<i>Manatus</i>) is exclusively confined to
+the shores of the tropical Atlantic and the rivers entering into it,
+individuals scarcely specifically distinguishable being found both on
+the American and the African side of the ocean. The Dugong
+(<i>Halicore</i>) is distributed in different colonies, at present isolated,
+throughout the Indian Ocean from Arabia to North Australia.
+The <i>Rhytina</i> or Northern Sea-Cow was, for some time before its
+extinction, limited to a single island in the extreme north of the
+Pacific Ocean.</p>
+
+<p>The Pinnipeds, although capable of traversing long reaches of
+ocean, are less truly aquatic than the last two groups, always
+resorting to the land or to extensive ice-floes for the purpose of
+breeding. The geographical range of the various species is generally
+more or less restricted, usually according to climate, as they are
+mostly inhabitants either of the Arctic or Antarctic seas and adjacent
+temperate regions, very few being found within the tropics. For this
+reason the northern and the southern species are for the most part<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[107]</span>
+quite distinct. In fact, the only known exception is the case of a
+colony of the Sea-Elephant (<i>Macrorhinus leoninus</i>), the general range
+of which is in the southern hemisphere, inhabiting the coast of
+California. Even in this case a different specific name has been
+given to the northern form; but the characters by which it is
+distinguished are not of great importance, and probably, except for
+the abnormal geographical distribution, would never have been
+noticed. The most remarkable circumstance connected with the
+distribution of the Pinnipeds is the presence of members of the
+suborder in the three isolated great lakes or inland seas of Central
+Asia—the Caspian, Aral, and Baikal; these forms, notwithstanding
+their long isolation, having varied but slightly from species now
+inhabiting the Polar Seas.</p>
+
+<h3>II. GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION.</h3>
+
+<p><i>Geological Sequence.</i>—In order to understand the geological
+distribution, or in other words the distribution in time of mammals,
+it is necessary to be acquainted with the chief divisions, or time-periods,
+of the strata constituting the crust of the globe. These are
+shown in the following table, which commences with the uppermost
+or most recent beds and ends with the lowest and oldest.</p>
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">I.</td>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Cainozoic or Tertiary</span>—</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdr">1.</td>
+    <td>Pleistocene—River alluvia, etc.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdr">2.</td>
+    <td>Pliocene—Suffolk Crag.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdr">3.</td>
+    <td>Miocene—Hempstead Beds of Hampshire.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdr">4.</td>
+    <td>Eocene—Paris Gypsum and London Clay.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">II.</td>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Mesozoic or Secondary</span>—</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdr">1.</td>
+    <td>Cretaceous—Chalk, Greensands, etc.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdr">2.</td>
+    <td>Jurassic—Oolites and Lias.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdr">3.</td>
+    <td>Triassic—Red Marls, Dolomites, etc.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">III.</td>
+    <td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Palæozoic or Primary</span>—</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdr">1.</td>
+    <td>Permian—Beds overlying the Coal.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdr">2.</td>
+    <td>Carboniferous—Coal-measures, etc.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdr">3.</td>
+    <td>Devonian—Old Red Sandstone.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdr">4.</td>
+    <td>Silurian—Wenlock Limestone, etc.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdr">5.</td>
+    <td>Cambrian—Llanberis Slate, etc.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdr">6.</td>
+    <td>Archæan—Gneiss and other schists.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The names in the first column indicate the primary divisions or
+life-periods, while those in the second column are the great systems,
+each of which is again divided into minor groups, the popular
+names of a few of these minor groups being given in the third
+column. There are at present no means of arriving at any satisfactory
+conclusion as to the absolute length of time indicated by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[108]</span>
+either the primary or secondary divisions; but there is little doubt
+that the whole of the Tertiary period is only equal to a fraction of
+the Mesozoic as regards its duration, while it is probable that
+the duration of the Mesozoic epoch was largely exceeded by that
+of the Palæozoic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mesozoic Mammals.</i>—The earliest date at which mammals are at
+present known is in the upper part of the Triassic period, which
+forms the base of the great Mesozoic epoch; and from this date they
+are represented more or less abundantly in various horizons of the
+Jurassic and Cretaceous.</p>
+
+<p>The very rapid advances in our knowledge of these forms which
+have been made in the last few years, especially in consequence of
+the explorations of rich fossiliferous beds in North America, have
+not only completely changed the present aspect of the science, but
+give such promise for the future, that any sketch which we may
+now attempt of this branch of the subject can only be regarded
+as representing a transient phase of knowledge. It will be well,
+however, to gather together in this place the leading facts now
+ascertained with regard to the most ancient forms, as, owing to the
+uncertainty of their relationship with any of the existing orders,
+they will be most conveniently treated of separately, while the
+ascertained facts relating to the geological history of the forms
+more nearly allied to those now living will be more appropriately
+described under the account of the different groups into which the
+class may now be divided.</p>
+
+<p>The remains of mammals which existed anterior to the Tertiary
+period hitherto discovered nearly all belong to creatures of very
+small size, many of the largest scarcely exceeding the common Polecat
+or Squirrel. Some are known only by a few isolated teeth,
+others by nearly complete sets of these organs, and the majority by
+more or less nearly perfect specimens of the rami of the lower jaw.
+It is a very curious circumstance that this part of the skeleton
+alone has been preserved in such a large number of instances.
+Only very rarely has a nearly complete cranium been found; and
+there is no satisfactory evidence of the structure of the vertebral
+column of any single individual, and only one known case of a complete
+limb.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> The species already described from European strata
+are numerous, although the number of genera and species has lately
+been reduced. Of these by far the greater number have been found
+at a single spot near Swanage in Dorsetshire, in a bed of calcareous
+mud only forty feet long, ten feet wide, and averaging five inches in
+depth. The marvellous results obtained by the exploration by Mr.
+S. H. Beckles of this small fragment of the earth’s surface show by
+what accidents, as it were, our knowledge of the past history of life<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>[109]</span>
+has been gained, and what may still remain in store where little
+thought of at present. A bed, apparently equally rich, has been
+discovered in the Jurassic of Wyoming, North America, the contents
+of which have been made known by Professor Marsh, while another
+fertile source of these remains occurs in the Laramie beds of the
+Upper Cretaceous of the United States.<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
+
+<p>The whole of the Mesozoic mammals at present known may be
+divided into two great groups, the one characterised by a type of
+dentition more or less clearly resembling that found among the
+existing Polyprotodont Marsupials, while the other presents an
+altogether peculiar modification, recalling in some respects that of
+the Diprotodont Marsupials, although differing so decidedly as to
+show that the owners of this form of dentition cannot be included
+in that group.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure024" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure024.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>—Frontal and oral aspects of the cranium of <i>Tritylodon longævus</i>; from the Karoo
+system of Basuto-land, South Africa. ⅔ natural size. (After Owen.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Multituberculata.</i>—The name Multituberculata has been proposed
+for the group exhibiting the type of dentition last mentioned, and
+is generally adopted, although the term Allotheria has been also
+suggested. The essential characteristic of the dentition of this group
+is the presence of a single scalpriform incisor on each side of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[110]</span>
+lower jaw (<a href="#figure025">Fig. 25</a>) and of one larger incisor, and in some instances
+of one or two smaller ones in each premaxilla (<a href="#figure024">Fig. 24</a>). These
+incisors are separated by an interval or diastema from the first of
+the premolars. The true molars, and in some instances the premolars
+(<a href="#figure024">Fig. 24</a>), are
+characterised by having
+longitudinal rows of
+tubercles separated by
+one or more grooves;
+there being either two
+or three of these rows
+in the upper molars of
+those forms in which
+these teeth are known,
+while there are, at least
+usually, only two in
+those of the lower jaw. In other cases the premolars are of a
+secant type, with a highly convex cutting-edge, and usually either
+serrated or obliquely grooved (<a href="#figure025">Figs. 25, 26</a>). From a certain
+resemblance between these secant premolars and those of some of
+the smaller <i>Macropodidæ</i> it was at one time considered that we had
+in these mammals representatives of Diprotodont Marsupials. The
+great difference in the structure of the molar teeth of these forms,
+coupled with the circumstance that when the number of upper
+incisors is reduced below three it is the second in place of the first
+which becomes enlarged and opposed to the incisor of the lower
+jaw, seems to prevent the acceptation of this view. Moreover, in
+their peculiar structure the molars seem, on the whole, to make a
+nearer approximation to the teeth of <i>Ornithorhynchus</i> than to any
+other known mammal; and it has accordingly been suggested that
+the Multituberculata may really represent an order of Prototheria.
+Some support is afforded to this suggestion by certain fragmentary
+bones from the Cretaceous of the United States, which are regarded<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[111]</span>
+by Marsh as parts of a coracoid and interclavicle. The peculiar
+character of the whole dentition of these forms indicates that if
+they are really Prototherians they cannot be regarded as primitive
+and ancestral types.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure025" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure025.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>—The right ramus of the mandible of <i>Plagiaulax
+beklesi</i>; from the Purbeck of Swanage. Twice natural size.
+<i>i</i>, Incisor; <i>m</i>, molar; <i>b</i>, coronoid process; <i>c</i>, condyle. (After
+Owen.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It would be beyond the scope of the present work to describe
+in detail, or even to mention the names of all the members of
+this group, and it will therefore suffice to refer to a few of the
+principal types. Of the forms with tubercular premolars the best
+known is the genus <i>Tritylodon</i> (<a href="#figure024">Fig. 24</a>), which occurs typically
+in beds of Lower Mesozoic in South Africa, but is also known from
+the Trias of Stuttgart. In the Stonesfield Slate, near Oxford,
+which belongs to the lower part of the Jurassic system, and is
+separated from the Trias by the intervening Lias, a fragmentary jaw
+with three teeth (<a href="#figure027">Fig. 27</a>) appears to indicate an allied type, the
+teeth having three longitudinal ridges separated by grooves. In
+the Purbeck beds of Dorsetshire, forming the top of the Jurassic
+system, we find another member of this group, which has been
+described as <i>Bolodon</i>, closely allied to which is <i>Allodon</i> of the
+Upper Jurassic of the United States.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure026" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure026.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>—The imperfect right ramus of the
+mandible of <i>Plagiaulax minor</i>; from Swanage.
+Four times natural size. <i>p</i>, Premolars; <i>m</i>,
+molars. (After Lyall.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The first discovery of the remains of Mesozoic mammals was
+made in the Keuper or Upper Trias of the Rhætian Alps in
+Bavaria. In 1847 Professor Pleininger of Stuttgart, while sifting
+some sand from the Keuper of Diegerloch and Steinenbronn,
+found, among an immense mass of teeth, scales, and unrecognisable
+fragments of skeletons of fish and saurians, two minute
+teeth, each with well-defined, enamelled, tuberculated crowns
+and distinct roots, plainly showing their mammalian character.
+These were considered by their discoverer to indicate a predaceous
+and carnivorous animal of very small size, to which he gave the name
+of <i>Microlestes antiquus</i>. Subsequently Mr. C. Moore discovered in a
+bone bed of Rhætic (topmost Trias) age, filling a fissure in the
+Mountain Limestone at Holwell, near Frome in Somersetshire,
+various isolated teeth with their crowns much worn, but apparently
+including both upper and lower molars and a canine, which are
+assigned by Sir R. Owen to Pleininger’s genus <i>Microlestes</i>, and
+described specifically as <i>M. moorei</i>. Under the name of <i>Hypsiprymnopsis
+rhæticus</i>, Professor Boyd Dawkins described a single tooth
+with two roots discovered in the Rhætic Marlstone at Watchet in
+Somersetshire. Sir R. Owen referred the latter tooth to <i>Microlestes</i>,
+and if its describer is right in regarding it as a much worn premolar
+of the type of those of <i>Plagiaulax</i> (<a href="#figure025">Fig. 25</a>) there would be evidence
+that <i>Microlestes</i> was closely allied to the latter, from the molars
+of which those of <i>Microlestes</i> are scarcely distinguishable.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure027" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure027.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>—<i>Stereognathus oölithicus</i>. Fragment
+of jaw with three teeth (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>), in
+matrix; from the Stonesfield Slate. Natural
+size. (After Owen.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Plagiaulax</i>, of the Dorsetshire Purbeck (<a href="#figure024">Figs. 24, 25</a>), is at once
+distinguished from <i>Tritylodon</i> by its secant premolars, which, as already
+mentioned, recall those of some of the <i>Macropodidæ</i>, although readily<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[112]</span>
+distinguished by the convexity of the cutting edge and their oblique
+grooving. This remarkable and highly specialised type has been the
+occasion of one of the most interesting discussions on the inferences
+which may be drawn as to the affinities and habits of an otherwise
+unknown animal from the structure of a small portion of its organisation
+which occurs in the annals of natural history—a discussion
+carried on with great ability, ingenuity, and wealth of illustration
+on both sides. Dr. Falconer maintained that it was more nearly
+allied to the Rat-Kangaroo (<i>Potorous</i> or <i>Hypsiprymnus</i>) than to any
+other existing form, and that, as it is known that these animals
+feed upon grass and roots, “it may be inferred of <i>Plagiaulax</i> that
+the species were herbivorous or frugivorous. I can see nothing in
+the character of their teeth,” he adds, “to indicate that they were
+either insectivorous or omnivorous.” Sir R. Owen, on the other
+hand, from the same materials came to the conclusion that “the
+physiological deductions from the above-described characteristics of
+the lower jaw and teeth of <i>Plagiaulax</i> are that it was a carnivorous
+Marsupial. It probably found its prey in the contemporary small
+insectivorous mammals and Lizards, supposing no herbivorous form
+like <i>Stereognathus</i> to have co-existed during the Upper Oolitic
+period.”</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible here to give at any length the arguments by
+which these opposing views are respectively supported, but it may
+be indicated that the first-mentioned is strongly countenanced by
+the consideration of the following facts: (1) all existing Marsupials
+may be divided, so far as their dentition is concerned, into two
+groups—(<i>a</i>) those which have a pair of large more or less procumbent
+incisors close to the symphysis of the lower jaw, and rudimentary
+or no canines (diprotodont dentition), and (<i>b</i>) those which have
+numerous small incisors and large pointed canines (polyprotodont
+dentition); (2) the vast majority of the former group are purely
+vegetable feeders, and almost all of the latter are carnivorous or
+insectivorous; and (3) <i>Plagiaulax</i>, so far as its structure is known,
+shows an analogy with the former group; and, as we have no sure
+basis for inferences as to the habits of an unknown animal, but the
+knowledge of the habits of such as are known, we have no grounds
+for supposing that its habits differed from those forms having an
+analogous type of dental structure.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+<p>Allied types, such as <i>Ctenacodon</i>, are also met with in the Upper<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[113]</span>
+Jurassic of North America; and the <i>Plagiaulacidæ</i> also persisted
+into the lower part of the Eocene division of the Tertiary period;
+<i>Neoplagiaulax</i> being a Tertiary form common to Europe and the
+United States, while <i>Liotomus</i> and <i>Ptilodus</i> are at present known
+only from the latter country.</p>
+
+<p>The present group is also represented in the upper Cretaceous
+of the United States by <i>Selenacodon</i> (<i>Meniscoëssus</i> in part), <i>Cimoliomys</i>,
+etc. <i>Polymastodon</i>, of the Lowest or Puerco Eocene of New Mexico
+is the largest known form, and is characterised by the presence
+of only one premolar and the elongated molars. The angle of
+the mandible is inflected after the Marsupial fashion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polyprotodont Types.</i>—The second type of mammalian dentition
+found in the Mesozoic period resembles that occurring among
+recent Polyprotodont Marsupials—that is to say there are at
+least three lower incisors, the canines are well developed, and the
+premolars and molars are cuspidate, the number of the latter reaching
+in some cases to seven or eight. There has been much discussion
+as to the taxonomic position of these forms, and while the
+majority of writers admit the Marsupial affinities of at least a
+moiety, it has been contended that others indicate distinct ordinal
+groups more or less closely allied to the Insectivora. At present,
+however, there is no decisive evidence to support such a view.
+Important proof of the Marsupial affinity of one of these forms is
+afforded by the replacement of the teeth, which appears to be of the
+same nature as in the existing Marsupials, that is to say, the last
+premolar alone is preceded by a milk-tooth.</p>
+
+<p>The most generalised forms appear to be <i>Dromatherium</i> and
+<i>Microconodon</i>, from Lower Mesozoic beds in the United States, of
+which enlarged views of the teeth are given in <a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a> (1, 2), <a href="#figure004">p.
+31</a>. Professor Osborn points out the extremely simple character of
+these teeth, and it is quite possible that these forms may prove
+to be <i>Prototheria</i>. There are three premolars and seven molars in
+the lower jaw of <i>Dromatherium</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure028" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure028.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>—Reversed view of the
+left ramus of the mandible of
+<i>Triconodon mordax</i>; from the
+Purbeck of Swanage. Natural
+size. (After Owen.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A common form in the Purbeck of Dorsetshire is <i>Triconodon</i>
+(<i>Triacanthodon</i>), in which the formula of the lower teeth is <i>i</i> 3, <i>c</i> 1,
+<i>p</i> 4, <i>m</i> 3-4. A lower jaw is shown in
+<a href="#figure028">Fig. 28</a>, and an enlarged view of a molar
+tooth in <a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a> (5). The molar teeth consist
+of three flattened cones placed in the
+same antero-posterior line, those of the
+upper and lower jaw being alike. <i>Priacodon</i>,
+of the Jurassic of the United States,
+is probably inseparable from <i>Triconodon</i>.
+In the genus <i>Phascolotherium</i> (<a href="#figure029">Fig. 29</a>) of
+the Lower Jurassic Stonesfield Slate, the lower teeth may be
+classified as <i>i</i> 4, <i>c</i> 1, <i>p</i> 3, <i>m</i> 4, the premolars and molars being<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>[114]</span>
+much alike. The molars approximate to the type of those of
+<i>Triconodon</i>, but the anterior and posterior cones are relatively
+smaller. Like that of the last-named genus, the mandible of
+<i>Phascolotherium</i> is remarkable for the extremely low position of
+its articular condyle. In <i>Amphilestes</i> (<a href="#figure030">Fig. 30</a>) of the Stonesfield
+Slate the molars appear to be of the same general type as those
+of <i>Phascolotherium</i>, but are more numerous, although their exact
+number cannot be determined. A somewhat different type
+of lower molar is displayed by the genus <i>Amblotherium</i>, of the
+Dorsetshire Purbeck, to which <i>Amphitherium</i> of the Stonesfield Slate
+was probably allied. This type of tooth is shown in <a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a> (8, 9,
+12) <a href="#figure004">p. 31</a>, and, as there stated, represents that modification of the
+tritubercular type known as the tubercular sectorial. The three
+primitive tritubercular cusps form what is known as the blade of
+the tooth, behind which
+there is the talon or
+hypocone. A similar
+form of molar occurs
+in the existing Opossums
+and Bandicoots.
+The number of lower
+teeth in <i>Amblotherium</i>
+is <i>i</i> 4, <i>c</i> 1, <i>p</i> 4, <i>m</i>
+7-8. Numerous allied
+types, such as <i>Achyrodon</i>
+and <i>Dryolestes</i> occur in the Upper Jurassic of Europe or the
+United States, while from only one side of the jaw being exposed
+in each case so-called genera like <i>Stylodon</i> and <i>Stylacodon</i> have been
+formed upon specimens showing the opposite side to that which
+is exposed in the types of <i>Amblotherium</i> and <i>Amphitherium</i>. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>[115]</span>
+only parallel among existing forms to the excessive number of
+molar teeth found in these Mesozoic genera occurs in the Marsupial
+genus <i>Myrmecobius</i>, of which a description is given in a
+succeeding chapter. Jaws more or less closely resembling those
+described under the names mentioned above are also found in
+the uppermost Cretaceous of the United States. A feature common
+to these Mesozoic mammals and <i>Myrmecobius</i> and some other
+existing forms is the presence of a narrow channel on the inner
+side of the mandibular ramus known as the mylohyoid groove
+(<a href="#figure029">Fig. 29</a>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure029" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure029.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—Inner view of the right ramus of the
+mandible of <i>Phascolotherium bucklandi</i>; from the Stonesfield Slate.
+The outline shows the natural size. <i>i</i>, Incisors (one missing);
+<i>c</i>, canine; <i>p</i>, premolars; <i>m</i>, molars. The mylohyoid
+groove is seen near the lower border. (After Owen.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure030" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure030.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>—Reversed inner view of the left ramus of the
+mandible of <i>Amphilestes broderipi</i>; from the Stonesfield
+Slate. Twice natural size. The restoration of the anterior
+teeth is conjectural, and the condyle is placed too high.
+(After Owen.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The last type of molar dentition occurring among the Mesozoic
+Mammalia is that found in the
+lower jaws (<a href="#figure031">Fig. 31</a>), upon which
+the genus <i>Spalacotherium</i> was
+established, the upper jaws,
+described as <i>Peralestes</i>, being
+apparently referable to the same
+animal. Upper and lower teeth
+of this form are represented in
+<a href="#figure004">Fig. 4</a> (6, 7), <a href="#figure004">p. 31</a>, where they are described as typical examples
+of the tritubercular type of molars, the upper teeth having one
+inner and two outer cusps, and the reverse condition obtaining in
+the lower ones. This type of molar presents a marked resemblance
+to that found in the existing Insectivorous genus <i>Chrysochloris</i>; the
+number of lower teeth in <i>Spalacotherium</i> is, however, <i>i</i> 3, <i>c</i> 1,
+<i>p</i> + <i>m</i> 10, by which it is widely distinguished from all the Insectivora.
+<i>Menacodon</i>, of the Upper Jurassic of the United States,
+appears to be allied to <i>Spalacotherium</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure031" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure031.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>—Part of the left ramus of the mandible,
+viewed from the outer side, of <i>Spalacotherium
+tricuspidens</i>; from the Purbeck of
+Swanage. Twice natural size. (After Owen.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Tertiary Mammals.</i>—The more important types of Tertiary
+mammals will, as already mentioned, be noticed under the heads
+of the groups to which they are severally allied; but a few general
+remarks on this subject may be advantageously recorded in this chapter.
+In the first place, it may be observed that the comparatively
+scanty evidence of mammalian life hitherto yielded by the Cretaceous,
+coupled with the number and variety of forms approximating to
+the existing groups found even in the lowest Tertiary, indicates a
+great imperfection of the geological record. At present, indeed,
+we have no decisive evidence of the existence of any members of
+the Eutherian subclass previously to the Tertiary; but it can hardly
+be doubted that in some part of the world they had made their
+appearance before that epoch. The Eutherian mammals of the
+lowest Eocene, both in Europe and the United States, are of an
+extremely generalised type; and although many of them approximate
+to existing groups, they show such a combination of characters, now
+restricted to individual groups, as to indicate that several of the
+various orders into which the subclass is now divided were at that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>[116]</span>
+period very intimately connected. A marked feature of these
+early Eutherians is the prevalency of trituberculism in the dentition,
+not less noteworthy being the frequent occurrence of pentadactylism
+in the feet, while many of the individual bones were devoid of the
+grooves and ridges found in those of later types. By the time
+that we reach the upper division of the Eocene period, such as the
+horizon of the well-known gypsum of the Paris basin, nearly all the
+chief groups of mammals had become clearly differentiated from
+one another, although their representatives were usually more
+generalised than their existing allies. From this date to the later
+geological periods there is a gradual approximation to the types of
+mammalian life existing at the present day.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the features of trituberculism and pentadactylism
+so characteristic of the oldest known Eutherians, we may notice
+some other points in connection with the earlier types. Thus the
+older Tertiary mammals, as we have already stated, had relatively
+smaller and simpler brains than the later types, so that a gradual
+evolution in this respect may be traced from the Eocene to the
+Pleistocene. Again, there is a great tendency among the Eocene
+forms to a retention of the typical Eutherian dental formula noticed
+on page 25, and also to the absence of an interval, or diastema, in
+the dental series. Concomitantly with this feature we may notice
+the short crowns and simpler structure of the molar teeth of the
+earlier Ungulates as compared with those of to-day, of which details
+will be given in a later chapter. Another instance of the more
+generalised characters of the earlier mammals is afforded by the
+absence or slight development of horns, antlers, and tusks among
+the Ungulata. Thus the earlier Rhinoceroses were hornless, and
+the Deer either without antlers or with antlers of a very simple
+kind, while the male Swine were not furnished with the formidable
+tusks of the existing Wild Boars. Finally, all, or nearly all of the
+mammals, from the lowest Eocene of Rheims present the peculiarity
+of having a vertical perforation in the astragalus.</p>
+
+<p>The intimate connection existing during the Middle Tertiary
+between many families of mammals now widely distinguished from
+one another may be more conveniently noted when we come to the
+consideration of the families in question.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>[117]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE SUBCLASS PROTOTHERIA OR ORNITHODELPHIA</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><i>General Characters.</i>—The characters of the Prototheria can at
+present only be deduced from the two existing families, since
+hitherto no extinct animals which can be referred with certainty
+to other divisions of this remarkable and well-characterised group
+have been discovered. These two isolated forms, in many respects
+widely dissimilar, yet having numerous common characters which
+unite them together and distinguish them from the rest of the
+Mammalia, are the <i>Ornithorhynchidæ</i> and the <i>Echidnidæ</i>, both restricted
+in their geographical range to the Australian region of the
+globe. Taken altogether they represent the lowest type of evolution
+of the mammalian class, and most of the characters in which they
+differ from the other two subclasses tend to connect them with the
+inferior vertebrates, the Sauropsida and Amphibia; for, though
+the name Ornithodelphia owes its origin to the resemblance of the
+structure of the female reproductive organs to those of birds, there
+is nothing especially bird-like about them.</p>
+
+<p>Their principal distinctive characters are these. The brain has
+a very large anterior commissure, and a very small corpus callosum,
+agreeing exactly in this respect with the Marsupials. The cerebral
+hemispheres, in <i>Echidna</i> at least, are well developed and convoluted
+on the surface. The auditory ossicles present a low grade of development,
+the malleus being very large, the incus small, and the
+stapes columelliform. The coracoid bone is complete, and articulates
+with the sternum, and there is a pre-coracoid (epi-coracoid) in
+advance of the coracoid, while there is also a large “interclavicle”
+or episternum in front of the sternum, and connecting it with the
+clavicles. There are also “epipubic” bones. The oviducts (not
+differentiated into uterine and Fallopian portions) are completely
+distinct, and open, as in oviparous vertebrates, separately into a
+cloacal chamber, and there is no distinct vagina. The testes of
+the male are abdominal in position throughout life, and the vasa<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>[118]</span>
+deferentia open into the cloaca, not into a distinct urethral passage.
+The penis, attached to the ventral wall of the cloaca, is perforated
+by a canal in the greater part of its length, and not merely grooved,
+as in reptiles and those birds which have such an organ. The
+canal is open at the base and brought only temporarily in contact
+with the termination of the vasa deferentia, so as to form a seminal
+urethra when required; but it never transmits the urinary secretion.
+This condition is a distinct advance on that of the Sauropsida in
+the direction of the more complex development of these parts in
+most of the other Mammalia. The ureters do not open into the
+bladder, but behind it into the dorsal wall of the genito-urinary
+passage. The mammary glands have no distinct nipple, but pour
+out their secretion through numerous apertures situated in a cup-shaped
+depression of the abdominal skin, forming a mammary
+marsupium, especially developed in the females during lactation.
+It should be mentioned that, according to the observations of Professor
+Gegenbaur, the mammary glands of the Monotremes are the
+simplest found in the entire class. The region of the glands is,
+indeed, distinguished from the rest of the abdomen merely by its
+thicker layers of muscles. The glands themselves are closely connected
+with the hair-follicles, and belong to the sudoriparous type,
+whereas the glands of all other mammals are of sebaceous origin.</p>
+
+<p>The young are produced from eggs laid by the female parent,
+which are meroblastic, like those of birds; that is to say only a
+portion of the yolk segments and forms the embryo, the remainder
+serving for the nourishment of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>The above are the principal distinguishing characters of the
+group, and apply not only to the subclass, but of course equally to
+the one order Monotremata, in which the two existing genera are
+included. In addition to these more important characters, the
+following minor features may also be mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The scapula differs from that of all other mammals in that the
+ridge corresponding to the spine of other forms is situated on the
+anterior border instead of in the middle of the outer or dorsal surface.
+The humerus is much expanded at its two extremities, and has a very
+prominent deltoid crest, and a well-marked entepicondylar foramen.</p>
+
+<p>The dorso-thoracic vertebræ are nineteen in number, and have
+no terminal epiphyses to their bodies. The transverse processes of
+the cervical vertebræ are of autogenous formation, and remain
+suturally connected with the remainder of the vertebra until the
+animal is full-grown. Though in this respect they present an
+approximation to the Sauropsida (Reptiles and Birds), they differ
+from these classes, inasmuch as there is not a gradual transition from
+these autogenous transverse processes of the neck (or cervical ribs,
+as they may be considered) into the thoracic ribs, for in the seventh
+vertebra the costal element is much smaller than in the others,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>[119]</span>
+indicative of a very marked separation of neck from thorax, not
+seen in the existing Sauropsida. The upper ends of the ribs
+are attached to the sides of the bodies of the dorsal vertebræ
+only, and not to the transverse processes. The sternal ribs are
+well ossified, and there are distinct partly ossified intermediate ribs.
+The cerebral cavity, unlike that of the lower Marsupials or the
+Reptiles, is large and hemispherical, flattened below and arched
+above, and about as broad as long. The cribriform plate of the
+ethmoid is nearly horizontal. The cranial walls are very thin, and
+smoothly rounded externally, and the sutures become completely
+obliterated in adult skulls, as in Birds. The broad occipital region
+slopes upwards and forwards, and the face is produced into a long
+and depressed rostrum. The bony palate is prolonged backwards,
+so that the posterior nares are nearly on a level with the glenoid
+fossæ. The mandible is without distinct ascending ramus; the
+coronoid process and angle are rudimentary, and the two halves are
+loosely connected at the symphysis. The fibula has a broad,
+flattened process, projecting upwards from its upper extremity
+above the articulation, like an olecranon. In the male there is an
+additional, flat, curved ossicle on the hinder and tibial side of the
+plantar aspect of the tarsus, articulating chiefly to the tibia, which
+supports in the adult a sharp-pointed perforated horny spur, with which
+is connected the duct of a gland situated beneath the skin of the back
+of the thigh, the function of which is not yet clearly understood. (A
+rudimentary spur is found in the young female <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, but
+this disappears when the animal becomes adult.) The stomach is
+subglobular and simple; the alimentary canal has no ileo-cæcal valve,
+or marked distinction between large and small intestine, but has a
+small, slender vermiform cæcum with glandular walls. The liver
+is divided into the usual number of lobes characteristic of the
+Mammalia, and is provided with a gall-bladder.</p>
+
+<p>In the presence of three distinct bones developed from cartilage
+in the shoulder-girdle (viz. scapula, coracoid, and pre- or epi-coracoid)
+the Monotremes agree with the Anomodont reptiles (see <a href="#Page_83">p. 83</a>),
+and with no other representatives of that class. The pre-coracoid
+of the Anomodonts is, however, distinguished by extending upwards
+to articulate with the acromial process of the scapula. The
+Monotreme humerus is, moreover, strikingly like the corresponding
+bone of many of the Anomodonts and of some of the allied
+Labyrinthodont Amphibians.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Ornithorhynchidæ</span>.</h3>
+
+<p><i>Ornithorhynchus.</i><a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>—Cerebral hemispheres smooth. Premaxillæ
+and mandible expanded anteriorly and supporting a horny beak<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>[120]</span>
+something like that of a duck, bordered by a naked and very sensitive
+membranous expansion. The place of teeth in the adult is supplied
+functionally by horny structures, elongated, narrow, and sharp-edged,
+along the anterior part of the sides of the mouth, and broad,
+flat-topped or molariform behind. Functional molar teeth present
+in the young and adolescent condition. Legs short, fitted for
+swimming; feet webbed, each with five well-developed toes armed
+with large claws, beyond which in the fore feet the interdigital
+membrane is extended. Vertebræ: C 7, D 17, L 2, S 2, Ca 21.
+Acetabulum not perforated. Tongue not extensile. Mucous membrane
+of small intestine covered with delicate, close-set transverse
+folds or ridges. Tail rather short, broad, and depressed. Eyes
+very small. Fur close and soft.</p>
+
+<p>The Duck-billed Platypus (<i>Platypus anatinus</i>) was the name
+assigned to one of the most remarkable of known animals by
+Shaw, who had the good fortune to introduce it to the notice
+of the scientific world in the <i>Naturalist’s Miscellany</i> (vol. x., 1799).
+In the following year it was independently described by Blumenbach
+(<i>Voigts Magazin</i>, ii. p. 205) under the name of <i>Ornithorhynchus
+paradoxus</i>. Shaw’s generic name, although having priority to that
+of Blumenbach, could not be retained, as it had been used at
+a still earlier time (1793) by Herbst for a genus of Coleoptera.
+<i>Ornithorhynchus</i> is therefore now universally adopted as the scientific
+designation, although Duck-billed Platypus or Duck-bill may
+be conveniently retained as a vernacular appellation. By the
+colonists it is called “Water-Mole,” but it need scarcely be said,
+its affinities with the true moles are of the slightest and most
+superficial description. Until the last few years the early stages
+of the development of the young were not fully known. It had,
+indeed, been repeatedly affirmed, in some cases by persons who
+have had actual opportunities of observation, that the Platypus lays
+eggs; but these statements were generally received with scepticism
+and even denial. This much-vexed question was, however, settled
+by the researches of Mr. W. H. Caldwell in 1884, who found that
+these animals, although undoubtedly mammals throughout the
+greater part of their structure, are oviparous, laying eggs, which in
+the manner of their development bear a close resemblance to the
+development of those of the Reptilia. Two eggs are produced at
+a time, each measuring about three-fourths of an inch in its long,
+and half an inch in its short, axis, and enclosed in a strong, flexible,
+white shell.</p>
+
+<p>The Platypus is pretty generally distributed in situations
+suitable to its aquatic habits throughout the island of Tasmania
+and the southern and eastern portions of Australia. Slight variations
+in the colouring and size of different individuals have given rise to
+the idea that more than one species may exist; but all naturalists<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>[121]</span>
+who have had the opportunity of investigating this question by the
+aid of a good series of specimens have come to the conclusion that
+there is but one, and no traces of any extinct allied forms have yet
+been discovered.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="figure032" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure032.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>—Platypus or Duck-bill (<i>Ornithorhynchus anatinus</i>). From Gould’s <i>Mammals of
+Australia</i>.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The length of the animal when full grown is from eighteen to
+twenty inches from the extremity of the beak to the end of the tail,
+the male being slightly larger than the female. The fur is short,
+dense, and rather soft to the touch, and composed of an extremely
+fine and close under-fur, and of longer hairs projecting beyond
+this, each of which is very slender at the base, and expanded,
+flattened, and glossy towards the free end. The general colour is
+deep brown, but paler on the under parts. The tail is short, broad,
+and depressed, and covered with coarse hairs, which in old animals
+generally become worn off from the under surface. The eyes are
+small and brown. There is no projecting pinna or ear-conch. The
+mouth, as is well known, bears a striking resemblance to the bill of
+a Duck. It is covered with a naked skin, a strong fold of which
+projects outwards around its base. The nostrils are situated near
+the extremity of the upper surface. There are no true teeth in the
+adult, but their purposes are served by horny prominences, or
+cornules, two on either side of each jaw—those in the front, narrow,
+longitudinal, sharp-edged ridges, and those behind broad, flattened,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>[122]</span>
+and molariform. The upper surface of the lateral edges of the
+mandible has also a number of parallel fine transverse ridges, like
+those on the bill of a Duck. Until 1888 it was thought that true
+teeth were totally wanting throughout the life of this animal; but in
+the spring of that year Mr. E. B. Poulton<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> announced the discovery
+in an embryo of teeth which were regarded as quite functionless. In
+the following year, however, Mr. O. Thomas<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> was fortunate enough
+to find some young skulls with functional teeth <i>in situ</i>, and was thus
+enabled to give a detailed account of their structure and of their
+relations to the cornules. From those specimens it appears that
+the teeth are functional for a considerable part of the life of the
+animal, cutting the gum in the usual manner, and, after being worn
+down by friction with food and sand, are shed from the mouth
+in the same manner as are the milk-teeth of other mammals. The
+cornules are developed from the epithelium of the mouth under and
+around the teeth, and the hollows found in the middle of them are
+the vestiges of the alveoli from which the teeth have been shed.
+One of the skulls showed on either side, both above and below, two
+completely calcified teeth; but in another example there were three
+teeth on either side of the lower jaw. According to Mr. Thomas’s
+account, “the teeth themselves are broad, flat, and low-crowned.
+The upper ones have each two high, conical, internal cusps, from
+which minute ridges run downwards and outwards to the outer
+borders of the crowns, where the edge is peculiarly crenulate rather
+than cuspidate, in the ordinary sense of the word. On the whole,
+the anterior and posterior upper teeth are essentially similar to one
+another, except that the former are narrower, and their outer edges
+are less markedly crenulated. In the lower jaw there is a greater
+difference between the two. The anterior is triangular in outline,
+its longest side is placed antero-externally, and its anterior and
+postero-external angles have each a high pointed cusp, ridged on
+its internal aspect, while the posterior and internal borders are
+indistinctly crenulated. The posterior tooth is broadly quadrangular
+in outline, with a projecting antero-internal angle. As in the corresponding
+tooth above, there are two cusps on one side, and a series
+of crenulations on the other, but they are of course reversed, the
+cusps being external and the crenulations internal. The cusps are
+high, and connected with transverse ridges running across towards
+the internal border.”</p>
+
+<p>In trying to find any teeth like those of the Duck-bill among
+other known mammals Mr. Thomas considers, as was first suggested
+by Professor Cope, that those of the Mesozoic Multituberculata (<a href="#Page_109">p. 109</a>)
+make the nearest approximation. He adds, however, that “it must
+be insisted that the resemblance between the Multituberculate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>[123]</span>
+and the Ornithorhynchus teeth is of the most general character,
+and that the two are certainly widely separated generically, even if
+we do admit that they appear to possess a relationship nearer to
+each other than to any other known groups of mammals.”</p>
+
+<p>Reverting to the description of the Duck-bill, we find that in
+the cheeks are tolerably capacious pouches, which appear to be used
+as receptacles for food. The limbs are strong and very short, each
+with five well-developed toes provided with strong claws. In the
+fore feet the web not only fills the interspaces between the toes, but
+extends considerably beyond the ends of the long, broad, and somewhat
+flattened nails, giving great expanse to the foot when used for
+swimming, though capable of being folded back on the palm when
+the animal is burrowing or walking on the land. On the hind foot
+the nails are long, curved, and pointed, and the web extends only
+to their base. On the heel of the male is a strong, curved, sharply
+pointed, movable horny spur, directed upwards and backwards,
+attached by its expanded base to the accessory bone of the tarsus.
+This spur, which attains the length of nearly an inch, is traversed
+by a minute canal, terminating in a fine longitudinal slit near
+the point, and connected at its base with the duct of a large gland
+situated at the back part of the thigh. The whole apparatus is so
+exactly similar in structure to the poison-gland and tooth of a
+venomous snake as to suggest a similar function, but evidence that
+the Platypus ever employs its spur as an offensive weapon has, at
+all events until lately, been wanting. A case is, however, related
+by Mr. Spicer in the <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania
+for 1876</i> (p. 162), of a captured Platypus inflicting a severe wound by
+a powerful lateral and inward movement of the hind legs, which wound
+was followed by symptoms of active local poisoning. It is not improbable
+that both the inclination to use the weapon and the activity of the
+secretion of the gland may be limited to the breeding season, and
+that their purpose may be, like that of the antlers of deer and
+many similar organs, for combat among the males. In the young
+female the spur is present in a rudimentary condition, but it disappears
+in the adult of that sex.</p>
+
+<p>The Platypus is aquatic in its habits, passing most of its time in
+the water or close to the margin of lakes and streams, swimming
+and diving with the greatest ease, and forming for the purpose of
+sleeping and breeding deep burrows in the banks, which generally
+have two orifices—one just above the water level, concealed among
+long grasses and leaves, and the other below the surface. The
+passage at first runs obliquely upwards in the bank, sometimes to
+a distance of as much as fifty feet, and expands at its termination
+into a cavity, the floor of which is lined with dried grass and
+leaves, and in which the eggs are laid and the young brought up.
+The food consists of aquatic insects, small crustaceans, and worms,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>[124]</span>
+which are caught under water, the sand and small stones at the
+bottom being turned over with the bill. The creatures appear
+at first to deposit what they have thus collected in their cheek
+pouches, and when these are filled they rise to the surface and
+quietly triturate their meal with the horny plates before swallowing
+it. Swimming is effected chiefly by the action of the
+broad forepaws, the hind feet and tail taking little share in
+locomotion in the water. When asleep they roll themselves into
+a ball, as shown in the figure. In their native haunts they are
+extremely timid and wary, and very difficult to approach, being
+rarely seen out of their burrows in the daytime. Mr. A. B.
+Crowther, who has supplemented the often quoted observations
+of Dr. Bennett upon the habits of these animals in confinement,
+says, “They soon become very tame in captivity; in a few days
+the young ones appeared to recognise a call, swimming rapidly
+to the hand paddling the water; and it is curious to see their
+attempts to procure a worm enclosed in the hand, which they
+greedily take when offered to them. I have noticed that they
+appear to be able to smell whether or not a worm is contained in
+the closed hand to which they swim; for they desisted from their
+efforts if an empty fist was offered.” When irritated they utter a
+soft low growl, resembling that of a puppy.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Echidnidæ</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>Cerebral hemispheres larger and well convoluted. Facial portion
+of skull produced into a long, tapering, tubular rostrum, at the
+end of which the anterior nares are situated. Rami of mandible
+slender, styliform. Opening of mouth small, and placed below the
+extremity of the rostrum. No teeth or laterally placed horny plates,
+though the palate and tongue are furnished with spines. Tongue
+very long, vermiform, slender, and protractile. Lining membrane
+of small intestine villous, but without transverse folds. Feet not
+webbed, but with long strong claws fitted for scratching and
+burrowing. The hinder feet with the ends of the toes turned
+outwards and backwards in the ordinary position of the animal
+when on the ground. Tail very short. Acetabulum with a large
+perforation, as in Birds. Calcaneal spur and gland of the male
+much smaller than in <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>. Fur intermixed with strong,
+sharp-pointed spines. Terrestrial and fossorial in habits, feeding
+exclusively on ants, and recalling in the structure of the mouth and
+various other parts, relating to their peculiar mode of life the true
+Anteaters of the order Edentata.</p>
+
+<p>The Echidnas or Spiny Anteaters constitute a family which
+appears in some respects to be less specialised than the <i>Ornithorhynchidæ</i>.
+According to Mr. O. Thomas, all the living forms may<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>[125]</span>
+be included in two species, which, with some hesitation, are referred
+to two genera—<i>Echidna</i> and <i>Proechidna</i> (<i>Acanthoglossus</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Echidna.</i><a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a>—In <i>Echidna</i> there are five toes, all of which are
+provided with claws, those of the fore foot being broad, slightly
+curved, and directed forwards, while the posterior ones are slender,
+more curved, and inclined outwardly. The beak is about as long
+as the rest of the head, and either nearly straight, or slightly curved
+upwards, while the palate is comparatively wide, and but slightly
+vaulted. The number of the vertebræ is C 7, D 16, L 3, S 3, Ca 12.
+The one existing representative of the genus (<i>E. aculeata</i>) occurs in
+New Guinea, Tasmania, and Australia.</p>
+
+<p>So much variation is displayed by this animal, that it has been
+divided into several species, but the latest researches tend to show
+that these variations cannot be regarded as indicating more than
+races, of which there are three well-marked types.</p>
+
+<p>The first race, or variety, has been termed the Port Moresby
+Echidna, and is only known from that Papuan locality. It is
+distinguished from the typical form by its smaller size, by the
+shorter spines on the back, which admit of the fur being seen, and
+by the more spinous covering of the head, belly, and limbs, as well
+as by the lighter skull and relatively larger beak.</p>
+
+<p>The typical variety is confined to the Australian mainland, and
+is of medium size. The spines of the back are very long and stout,
+often reaching a length of two inches, and almost completely concealing
+the hair. The colour of these spines varies from yellow at
+the roots to black at the tips, but some may be altogether yellow.
+The hair of the back is black or dark brown in colour, but it may
+be occasionally absent, or in the region of the loins may exceed the
+spines in length. The limbs and under surface of the body are
+covered with dark brown hair, thinly interspersed with short spines;
+and the hair of the face is of the same general hue as that of the
+body. The skull has a slender rostrum and a flat and narrow
+brain-case.</p>
+
+<p>In the third or Tasmanian race, which is confined to Tasmania,
+the average size is somewhat larger than in the typical form. The
+most characteristic feature is, however, the shortness of the spines
+of the back, which in the greater part of that region are almost or
+quite concealed by the hairs. The hairs of the back are dark
+brown, those of the under surface and sides of the head being
+generally rather paler. There is often a white spot on the chest.
+Very frequently there is a difference in the proportionate lengths
+of the hinder claws from those of the typical race. In the skull
+the beak is comparatively short and stout, and the brain-case large
+and wide.</p>
+
+<p>Echidnas are usually found in rocky districts, and more especially<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>[126]</span>
+in the mountains. In a wild state they live mainly on ants. Specimens
+have been brought to this country and kept in the Zoological
+Society’s Gardens; and in captivity they will readily eat eggs, and
+bread-and-milk. They are able, however, to endure long fasts, an
+individual having been known to go without food for upwards of a
+month.</p>
+
+<p>These animals seem to be mainly of nocturnal habits, and if
+brought out during the daytime appear to be sluggish and stupid,
+crouching to the ground with the head between the legs, and thus
+presenting a mass of spines to an enemy. They burrow rapidly in
+soft ground, sinking directly downwards, and not going head forwards.
+A specimen placed on a large chest of earth containing
+plants reached the bottom in less than two minutes; and it is said
+that the muzzle assists in the work of burrowing.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure033" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure033.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>—The Three-toed Echidna (<i>Proechidna bruijnii</i>). From Gervais.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Proechidna.</i><a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>—The one known representative of the genus
+<i>Proechidna</i> (<a href="#figure033">Fig. 33</a>) attains dimensions about equal to those of
+the largest race of <i>Echidna aculeata</i>. The skull is less depressed
+than in the latter, with the anterior portion of the palate very
+concave, and the deflected beak nearly twice the length of the
+remainder of the skull. As a rule, there are only three claws to
+each foot; but the first and fifth digits are represented by several
+phalanges, and one instance is known where there are five complete
+claws on the anterior and four on the posterior feet. There are
+two more vertebræ in the dorsal and lumbar region than in
+<i>Echidna</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The head and body are covered with a thick coat of hair,
+among which there are a number of short spines in the region of
+the back, which are much less numerous than in the typical race of
+the last species. The colour of the fur is generally dark brown or
+black, but the head may be almost white; and the spines are
+usually entirely white, although in certain cases they may be brown
+at the root.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>[127]</span></p>
+
+<p>This species is known only from New Guinea, the recorded
+specimens being from the north-western regions of that country. It
+inhabits rocky ground, and dwells chiefly in the mountains, the
+specimens which were first described having been obtained at an
+elevation of about 3500 feet above the sea level. The Papuans capture
+it by digging trenches in the ground to a depth of about a yard, by
+which means they generally come upon its runs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fossil Species.</i>—Remains of a species of Echidna of very much
+larger size than the existing forms have been obtained from the
+cave-deposits of New South Wales, which appear to be of Pleistocene
+age. This species was named <i>Echidna oweni</i> by the late Mr.
+Krefft, but was subsequently called <i>E. ramsayi</i> by Sir R. Owen.
+In referring this species to the genus <i>Echidna</i>, that term must be
+regarded as including <i>Proechidna</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>[128]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE SUBCLASS METATHERIA OR DIDELPHIA</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><i>General Characters.</i>—The Metatheria or Didelphia are represented at
+present by numerous species, presenting great diversities of general
+appearance, structure, and habits, although all united by many
+essential anatomical and physiological characters, which, taken
+altogether, give them an intermediate position between the Prototheria
+and the Eutheria.</p>
+
+<p>Although the striking differences in external form, in many
+anatomical characters, and in mode of life of various animals of this
+section might lead to their division into groups equivalent to the
+orders of the Eutheria, it is more convenient on the whole to adhere
+to the usual custom of treating them all as forming one order called
+<span class="smcap">Marsupialia</span>,<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> the limits of which are therefore equivalent to that
+of the subclass. The more essentially distinctive characters are as
+follows.</p>
+
+<p>In the structure of the brain and the presence of epipubic bones
+they agree with the Prototheria, while in the structure of the ear-bones
+and the shoulder-girdle and the presence of teats on the
+mammary glands they resemble the Eutheria, the reproductive
+organs belonging to neither one nor the other type, but having a
+special character representing an intermediate grade of development.
+The ureters open into the base of the bladder. The
+oviducts are differentiated into uterine and Fallopian portions, and
+open into a long and distinct vagina, quite separate from the cystic
+urethra. The penis is large, but its crura are not directly attached
+to the ischia. The spongy body has a large bifurcated bulb. The
+young are born in an exceedingly rudimentary condition, and are
+never nourished by means of an allantoic placenta, but are transferred
+to the nipple of the mother, to which they remain firmly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>[129]</span>
+attached for a considerable time, nourished by the milk injected
+into the mouth by compression of the muscle covering the
+mammary gland. They are therefore the most typically mammalian
+of the whole class. The nipples are nearly always concealed
+in a fold of the abdominal integument or “pouch” (marsupium)
+which serves to support and protect the young in their early
+helpless condition.</p>
+
+<p>Entering more fully into the characters of the subclass, which
+are also those of the order Marsupialia, it may be observed that the
+brain is generally small in proportion to the size of the animal, and
+the surface-folding of the cerebral hemispheres, though well marked
+in the larger species, is never very complex in character, and is
+absent in the medium-sized and smaller species. The arrangement
+of the folding of the inner wall of the cerebrum differs essentially
+from that of all known Eutheria, the hippocampal fissure being
+continued forward above the corpus callosum, which is of very
+small size. The anterior commissure is, on the other hand, greatly
+developed.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure034" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure034.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>—Teeth of upper jaw of Opossum (<i>Didelphys marsupialis</i>),
+all of which are unchanged, except the last premolar,
+the place of which is occupied in the young animal by a molariform
+tooth, represented in the figure below the line of the other
+teeth.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The teeth are always divisible, according to their position and
+form, into incisors, canines, premolars, and molars; but they vary
+much in number and character in the different families. Except in
+the genus <i>Phascolomys</i>, the number of incisors in the upper and
+lower jaws is never equal. The true molars are very generally four
+in number on either side of each jaw. The chief peculiarity in the
+dentition lies, however, in the mode of succession. Thus there is no
+vertical displacement and succession of the teeth, except in the case
+of a single tooth on either side of each jaw, which is always the
+hindermost of the premolar series, and is preceded by a tooth
+having more or less of the characters of a true molar (see <a href="#figure034">Fig. 34</a>);
+this deciduous tooth
+being the only one
+comparable to the
+“milk-teeth” of the
+diphyodont Eutheria.
+In some
+cases (as in <i>Potorous</i>)
+this tooth retains
+its place and
+function until the
+animal has nearly,
+if not quite, attained
+its full stature, and
+is not shed and replaced by its successor until after all the other
+teeth of the permanent series, including the posterior molars, are
+fully in place and use. In others, as the Thylacine, it is very
+rudimentary in form and size, being shed or absorbed before any<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>[130]</span>
+of the other teeth have cut the gum, and therefore quite functionless.
+It must further be noted that there are some Marsupials,
+as the Wombat, <i>Myrmecobius</i>, and the Dasyures, in which no such
+milk-tooth, even in a rudimentary state, has yet been discovered,
+possibly in some cases from want of materials for observation at
+the right stage of development.</p>
+
+<p>Epipubic or marsupial bones are present in both sexes of nearly
+all species. In one genus alone, <i>Thylacinus</i>, they are not ossified.
+The number of dorso-lumbar vertebræ is always nineteen, although
+there are some apparent exceptions caused by the last lumbar being
+modified into a sacral vertebra. The number of pairs of ribs is
+nearly always thirteen. The tympanic bone remains permanently
+distinct. The carotid canal perforates the basisphenoid. The
+lachrymal foramen is situated upon or external to the anterior margin
+of the orbit, and there are generally large vacuities in the bony
+palate. The angle of the mandible is (except in <i>Tarsipes</i>) more or
+less inflected. The hyoid bones have always a peculiar form,
+consisting of a small, more or less lozenge-shaped basihyal, broad
+ceratohyals, with the remainder of the anterior arch usually
+unossified, and stout, somewhat compressed thyrohyals. There are
+two anterior venæ cavæ,<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> into each of which a “vena azygos”
+enters. In the male the testes are always contained in a scrotum,
+which is suspended by a narrow pedicle to the abdomen in front of
+the penis. The vasa deferentia open into a complete and continuous
+urethra, which is also the passage by which the urine escapes from
+the bladder, and is perfectly distinct from the passage for the fæces,
+although the anus and the termination of the urethro-sexual canal
+are embraced by the same sphincter muscle. The glans is often
+bifurcated anteriorly. In the female the oviducts never unite to
+form a common cavity or uterus, but open separately into the
+vagina, which at least for part of its course is double. The
+mammæ vary much in number, but are always abdominal in
+position, having long teats, and in most of the species are more
+or less enclosed in a fold of the integument forming a pouch
+or marsupium, though in some this is entirely wanting, and the
+newly-born, blind, naked, and helpless young, attached by their
+mouths to the teat, are merely concealed and protected by the
+hairy covering of the mother’s abdomen. In this stage of their
+existence they are fed by milk injected into their stomach by the
+contraction of the muscles covering the mammary gland, the
+respiratory organs being modified temporarily, much as they are
+permanently in the Cetacea—the elongated upper part of the
+larynx projecting into the posterior nares, and so maintaining a free
+communication between the lungs and the external surface<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>[131]</span>
+independently of the mouth and gullet, thus averting the danger of
+suffocation while the milk is passing down the latter passage.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="figure035" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure035.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>—Front view of skull of <i>Sarcophilus ursinus</i>, showing polyprotodont and carnivorous
+dentition (<i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> vol xxiv. p. 313).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Distribution.</i>—The existing species of Marsupials are, with the
+exception of one family (the <i>Didelphyidæ</i>), limited in geographical
+distribution to the Australasian region,<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> forming the chief
+mammalian fauna of Australia,
+New Guinea, and some of the
+adjacent islands. The <i>Didelphyidæ</i>
+are almost purely Neotropical,
+one or two species
+ranging northwards into the
+Nearctic region. Fossil remains
+of members of this
+family have also been found in
+Europe and America in strata
+of the Eocene and early Miocene
+periods; and it is probable
+that at least many of the polyprotodont
+Mesozoic mammals
+noticed in Chapter IV. are
+referable to the Marsupialia.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="figure036" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure036.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>—Front view of skull of Koala (<i>Phascolarctus
+cinereus</i>), showing diprotodont and
+herbivorous dentition (<i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i>
+vol. xxiv. p. 313).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Classification.</i>—In dividing
+the Marsupials into minor
+groups, it may be observed
+that one of the most obvious
+distinctive characters among
+them is derived from the form and arrangement of the teeth.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>[132]</span>
+In certain species, as the Opossums, Dasyures, and Thylacine,
+the incisors are numerous, small, and subequal in size, and the
+canines large, as in the typical placental Carnivores (<a href="#figure035">Fig. 35</a>).
+To these the term “polyprotodont” is applied, and they are all
+more or less carnivorous in their habits. In others the central
+incisors are very prominent, and the lateral incisors and canines
+absent or subordinate in function (<a href="#figure036">Fig. 36</a>). These are called
+“diprotodont,” and they are all wholly or in great part vegetable
+feeders. In one group of these, the Wombats, there are but two
+incisors above and the same number below; but all the others, including
+the Kangaroos, Koalas, and Phalangers, have two functional
+incisors below and as many as six above, three on each side, but
+of these the first or central pair is the most fully developed.</p>
+
+<p>Some hesitation has frequently been expressed as to whether the
+Polyprotodont and Diprotodont types are entitled to constitute
+distinct primary groups, owing to the presence of syndactylism
+among the <i>Peramelidæ</i> in the former, as well as in the latter; but if
+Mr. O. Thomas is right in regarding this feature as acquired
+independently in the two groups we may safely adopt such a
+division. Taking various combinations into consideration, the
+existing Marsupials readily group themselves into six very natural
+families, the leading characters of which may be summarised as
+follows:—</p>
+
+<p><i>Order</i> <span class="smcap">Marsupialia</span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>A.</i> <span class="smcap">Polyprotodontia.</span>—Incisors numerous, small, subequal. Canines
+larger than the incisors. Molars with sharp cusps.</p>
+
+<p>α. Incisors ⁵⁄₄. Hind feet with the four outer toes subequal,
+distinct, and a well-developed opposable hallux. <i>Didelphyidæ.</i></p>
+
+<p>β. Incisors ⁴⁄₃. Hind feet with four outer toes distinct. Hallux
+small or rudimentary, rarely opposable. <i>Dasyuridæ.</i></p>
+
+<p>γ. Incisors ⁴⁻⁵⁄₃. Hind feet long and narrow. Fourth toe
+larger than the others. Hallux rudimentary or absent.
+Second and third toes very slender, and united in a
+common integument (syndactylous). <i>Peramelidæ.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>B.</i> <span class="smcap">Diprotodontia.</span>—Incisors not exceeding ³⁄₃, usually ³⁄₁ but occasionally
+¹⁄₁. Central (first) upper and lower incisors large and
+cutting. Upper canines generally, and lower invariably, absent
+or small. Molars with bluntly tuberculated or transversely
+ridged crowns.</p>
+
+<p>α. Teeth with persistent pulps. Incisors ¹⁄₁, large, scalpriform,
+with enamel on the outer surface only. No canines.
+Hind feet with four subequal outer toes, partially
+syndactylous, and with rudimentary hallux. <i>Phascolomyidæ.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>[133]</span></p>
+
+<p>β. Teeth rooted. Three upper incisors and a canine. Hind
+limbs not disproportionately large. Feet syndactylous,
+broad, with four subequal outer toes, and a large
+opposable hallux. <i>Phalangeridæ.</i></p>
+
+<p>γ. Teeth rooted. Three upper incisors, and frequently a
+canine. Hind limbs disproportionately large, with
+syndactylous feet as in <i>Peramelidæ</i>. <i>Macropodidæ.</i></p>
+
+<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Polyprotodontia</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>The leading characters of this group are given in the foregoing
+schedule. This group is the only one represented at the present
+day, and so far as we know also in past epochs, beyond the confines
+of the Australasian region and adjacent islands.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Didelphyidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁵⁄₄, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄; total 50. Incisors very small
+and pointed. Canines large. Premolars with compressed pointed
+crowns. Molars with numerous sharp cusps. The last premolar
+preceded by a deciduous multicuspidate milk-molar, which remains in
+place until the animal is nearly adult (<a href="#figure034">Fig. 34</a>). Limbs of moderate
+development, each with five complete and distinct toes, all of which
+are provided with short, compressed,
+curved, sharp claws of nearly equal
+size, except the first toe of the hind
+foot or hallux (<a href="#figure037">Fig. 37</a>), which is large,
+widely separable from the others, to
+which it is opposed in climbing, and
+terminates in a dilated rounded extremity,
+without a nail. Tail generally
+long, partially naked and prehensile.
+Stomach simple. Cæcum of
+small or moderate size. Pouch generally
+absent, sometimes represented by
+two lateral folds of the abdominal
+integument, partially covering the
+teats, rarely complete. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 13, L 6, S 2, C 19-35.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp53" id="figure037" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure037.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>—Skeleton of the right hind
+foot of the Virginian Opossum (<i>Didelphys
+marsupialis</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The <i>Didelphyidæ</i>, or true Opossums,
+differ from all other existing
+Marsupials in their habitat, being
+peculiar to the American continent.
+They are mostly carnivorous or insectivorous in their diet, and
+arboreal in habits.</p>
+
+<p>Opossums occur throughout the greater part of the American<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134"></a>[134]</span>
+continent, ranging from the United States to Patagonia, the greater
+number of species being found in the warmer regions. In South
+America the opossums take the place of the Eutherian Insectivora,
+and the sharp cusps on their teeth are admirably adapted for crushing
+the insects on which they mainly subsist.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chironectes.</i><a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>—The family comprises two genera only, namely
+<i>Didelphys</i>, containing all the species, with the exception of the curious
+Yapock, which forms by itself the genus <i>Chironectes</i> and is distinguished
+from all other Opossums by its webbed feet, non-tuberculated
+soles, and peculiar coloration. Its ground colour is light gray, with
+four or five sharply-contrasted brown bands passing across its head
+and back, and thus giving it a very peculiar mottled appearance.
+It is almost wholly aquatic in its habits, living on small fish,
+crustaceans, and water insects. Its range extends from Guatemala
+to southern Brazil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Didelphys.</i><a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>—The type genus <i>Didelphys</i> is a very large one, containing,
+according to Mr. O. Thomas, twenty-three existing species.
+It may be divided into five groups, or subgenera, all of which have
+received distinct names. The typical group is represented only by
+the common or Virginian Opossum (<i>D. marsupialis</i>), of which the
+numerous varieties have received separate specific names. This
+species is of large size, with a long, scaly, prehensile tail, and long
+bristle-like hairs mingled with the fur. The pouch is complete.
+It ranges over all temperate North America, and is also found in
+central and tropical South America, where it is commonly known
+as the Crab-eating Opossum. This animal is extremely common,
+being even found living in the towns, where it acts as a scavenger
+by night, retiring for shelter by day upon the roofs of the houses or
+into the sewers. The female produces in the spring from six to
+sixteen young ones, which are placed in her pouch immediately
+after birth, and remain there until able to take care of themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The second or <i>Metachirine</i> group includes three species found
+all over the tropical parts of the New World. They are of medium
+size, with short close fur, very long, scaly, and naked tails, and
+less developed ridges on their skulls than in the type species. As
+a rule there is no pouch adapted to carry the young, which
+commonly ride on their mother’s back, holding on by winding
+their prehensile tails round hers. The <i>Philanderine</i> group is
+closely allied to the preceding, but is readily distinguished by the
+woolly hair, and the brown streak down the middle of the face.
+The Woolly Opossum (<i>D. lanigera</i>), which is represented in the
+accompanying woodcut (<a href="#figure038">Fig. 38</a>) carrying its young in the fashion
+mentioned above, is one of the two species of this group. In the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135"></a>[135]</span>
+fourth or <i>Micoureine</i> group the numerous species are all smaller
+than in the preceding groups, and have short and close hair, and
+no dark streak down the face. The best known species is the
+Murine Opossum (<i>D. murina</i>), little larger than a House-Mouse,
+and of a bright red colour, which is found as far north as central
+Mexico, and extends thence right down to the south of Brazil. The
+last or <i>Peramyne</i> group contains several extremely shrew-like
+species, of very small size, with short, hairy, and usually non-prehensile
+tails, not half the length of the trunk, and with wholly
+unridged skulls. The most striking member of the group is the
+Three-striped Opossum (<i>D. americana</i>), from Brazil, which is of a
+reddish-gray colour, with three clearly-defined deep-black bands
+down its back, very much as in some of the striped mice of
+Africa.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure038" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure038.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>—The Woolly Opossum (<i>Didelphys lanigera</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The numerous fossil species of Opossum found in the Upper
+Eocene and Lower Miocene of Europe are of especial interest from a
+distributional point of view, since they indicate how the Opossums of
+America may have been connected with the Australian Marsupials.
+These forms were originally referred to <i>Didelphys</i>, but have been
+subsequently described as <i>Peratherium</i> and <i>Amphiperatherium</i>. The
+characters of the molar teeth on which these genera are based do
+not appear to be sufficiently important to justify their separation
+from <i>Didelphys</i>. Allied forms occur in the Tertiaries of North
+America, which were originally described under the name of <i>Herpetotherium</i>,
+but have been subsequently referred to <i>Peratherium</i>.
+Remains of many of the existing species of Opossum are found in
+a fossil condition in the Pleistocene cave-deposits of Brazil.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136"></a>[136]</span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dasyuridæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> and <i>m</i> numerous, variable. Incisors small;
+canines well developed; molars with pointed cusps. Limbs equal.
+Fore feet with five subequal toes terminating in claws. Hind feet
+with the four outer toes well developed, and distinct from each
+other and bearing claws; the first (or hallux) clawless, generally
+rudimentary, sometimes entirely wanting. Stomach simple. No
+cæcum. Predatory carnivorous or insectivorous animals, inhabitants
+of Australia, Tasmania, and the southern parts of New Guinea
+and some of the adjacent islands. The aberrant genus <i>Myrmecobius</i>,
+though clearly a member of this family, is so sharply distinguished
+from all the others as to render a division into two subfamilies
+necessary.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="figure039" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure039.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>—The Thylacine (<i>Thylacinus cynocephalus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Dasyurinæ</b>.—This comprises the more typical <i>Dasyuridæ</i>,
+in which the premolars and molars never exceed the normal
+number of seven on either side of each jaw, and in which the tongue
+is not specially extensile.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thylacinus.</i><a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄ = 46. Incisors small,
+vertical, the outer one in the upper jaw larger than the others.
+Summits of the lower incisors, before they are worn, with a deep
+transverse groove dividing them into an anterior and a posterior cusp.
+Canines long, strong, and conical. Premolars separated from one
+another by intervals, with compressed crowns, increasing in size
+from before backwards. True molars in general characters resembling<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137"></a>[137]</span>
+those of <i>Dasyurus</i>, but of more simple form, the cusps
+being not so distinct nor sharply pointed. Milk-molar very small,
+and shed before the animal leaves the mother’s pouch. Humerus
+with an entepicondylar foramen. General form very Dog-like.
+Head elongated. Muzzle pointed. Ears moderate, erect, triangular.
+Fur short and closely applied to the skin. Tail of moderate length,
+thick at the base and tapering towards the apex, clothed with short
+hair. Hallux (including the metacarpal bone) wanting. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 13, L 6, S 2, C 23. Marsupial bones represented only by
+small unossified fibro-cartilages.</p>
+
+<p>The only known existing species of this genus, <i>T. cynocephalus</i>
+(<a href="#figure039">Fig. 39</a>), though smaller than a common Wolf, is the largest predaceous
+Marsupial at present living. It is now entirely confined to the
+island of Tasmania, although fragments of bones and teeth found in
+caves afford evidence that a closely allied species once inhabited the
+Australian mainland. The general colour of the Thylacine is
+grayish brown, but it has a series of transverse black bands on the
+hinder part of the back and loins, whence the name of “Tiger”
+frequently applied to it by the colonists. It is also called “Wolf,”
+and sometimes, though less appropriately, “Hyæna.” Owing to
+the havoc it commits among the sheepfolds, it has been nearly
+exterminated in all the more settled parts of Tasmania, but still
+finds shelter in the almost impenetrable rocky glens of the more
+mountainous regions of the island. The female produces four
+young at a time. The pouch opens backwardly, and there are four
+mammæ. The figure of the skull exhibits the peculiar Dog-like
+form so characteristic of the genus.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure040" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure040.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>—Right lateral aspect of the skull of the Thylacine.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Sarcophilus.</i><a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄. Upper incisors nearly
+equal, and placed vertically, the first not differentiated from the
+rest. Premolars rounded and closely crowded between the canine
+and molars, with broad crowns; molars broad and heavy, the last
+one without a distinct hind talon. Form thick and powerful;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138"></a>[138]</span>
+head disproportionately large for the body; muzzle short and
+broad; ears broad and rounded; tail of moderate length, and
+evenly hairy. Hallux wanting; soles of feet naked, without defined
+pads. Humerus with entepicondylar foramen.</p>
+
+<p>This genus is now represented only by a single species
+(<i>S. ursinus</i>) found in Tasmania, where, from its ferocious and destructive
+habits, it is commonly known under the name of the “Devil.”
+A front view of the skull is shown in <a href="#figure035">Fig. 35</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The prevailing colour of this animal is black, and the size about
+equal to that of an English Badger; its habits are fossorial, and it
+is very destructive to sheep. On account of the similarity in the
+number of its teeth this genus has been generally included in the
+next one, but in the structure of the teeth it is much nearer to
+<i>Thylacinus</i>. An extinct species is found in the Pleistocene deposits
+of the mainland of Australia.</p>
+
+<p>It may be observed that the two premolars missing from the
+typical series of four in this and the next genus are the second and
+the fourth; the fourth milk-molar being likewise absent. In
+<i>Thylacinus</i> and other Polyprotodonts with three premolars it is the
+second that is missing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dasyurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄; total 42. Upper
+incisors nearly equal, and placed vertically; first slightly longer,
+narrower, and separated from the rest. Lower incisors sloping
+forwards and upwards. Canines large and sharply pointed. Premolars
+with compressed and sharp-pointed crowns, and slightly
+developed anterior and posterior accessory basal cusps. True
+molars with numerous sharp-pointed cusps. In the upper jaw the
+first three with crowns having a triangular oral surface, the fourth
+small, simple, narrow, and placed transversely. In the lower jaw
+the molars more compressed, with longer cusps; the fourth not
+notably smaller than the others. Form viverrine. Ears long and
+narrow, prominent, and obtusely pointed. Hallux rudimentary, or
+absent; its metatarsal bone always present. Tail long and well
+clothed with hair. Humerus without an entepicondylar foramen.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 2, C 18-20.</p>
+
+<p>The Dasyures are small Civet-like animals with a gray or brown
+pellage profusely spotted with white; they are mostly inhabitants
+of the Australian continent and Tasmania, where in the economy of
+nature they take the place of the smaller predaceous Carnivora, the
+Cats, Civets, and Weasels of other parts of the world. They hide
+themselves in the daytime in holes among rocks or in hollow trees,
+but prowl about at night in search of the small living mammals
+and birds which constitute their prey. The species are not numerous,
+and include <i>D. maculatus</i>, about the size of a common Cat,
+inhabiting Tasmania and the southern part of Australia; <i>D. viverrinus</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139"></a>[139]</span>
+Tasmania and Victoria; <i>D. geoffroyi</i>, nearly all Australia;
+<i>D. hallucatus</i>, North Australia; <i>D. albopunctatus</i>, New Guinea.</p>
+
+<p>Remains referred to <i>D. viverrinus</i> occur in the Australian Pleistocene
+deposits.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phascologale.</i><a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a>—This genus comprises a considerable number of
+small Marsupials, none of them exceeding a common Rat in size,
+differing from the Dasyures in possessing an additional premolar—the
+dentition being <i>i</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄; total 46,—and having
+the teeth generally developed upon an insectivorous rather than a
+carnivorous pattern, the upper middle incisors being larger and
+inclined forwards, the canines relatively smaller, and the molars
+with broad crowns, armed with prickly tubercles. The muzzle is
+pointed. Ears moderately rounded and nearly naked. Feet broad
+and short. Fore feet with five subequal toes, having compressed,
+slightly curved, pointed claws. Hind feet with the four outer toes
+subequal, having claws similar to those in the fore feet; the hallux
+always distinct and partially opposable, though small and nailless.
+Tail long, very variable in its covering, being either bushy, crested,
+or nearly naked. Pouch represented merely by a few folds of skin.
+Mammæ varying from four to ten in number. The food of these
+animals is almost entirely insects; some species pursuing their prey
+among the branches of trees, while others are purely terrestrial.
+They are found throughout Australia, and also in New Guinea and
+the Aru and some of the adjacent islands.</p>
+
+<p><i>P. cristicaudata</i>, a species with a thick compressed tail ornamented
+upon its apical half with a crest of black hair, differs from the
+others by the very reduced size of the fourth premolar in the upper,
+and its complete absence in the lower jaw, thus forming an interesting
+transition in dentition towards <i>Dasyurus</i>. It constitutes the
+genus <i>Chætocercus</i> of Krefft, but is included by Mr. O. Thomas in
+<i>Phascologale</i>, the frequent absence of the fourth lower premolar in
+<i>P. thorbeckiana</i> indicating that the total absence of this tooth in the
+known specimens of this species cannot be regarded as of generic
+importance. All the members of this and the two following genera
+can be at once distinguished from <i>Dasyurus</i> by the absence of white
+spots on the fur.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sminthopsis.</i><a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a>—The genus <i>Sminthopsis</i> includes several small
+species allied to <i>Phascologale</i> but characterised by the narrowness
+of the hind foot, and by the soles of the feet being either granulated
+or hairy, instead of naked.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antechinomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a>—The last genus of the <i>Dasyurinæ</i> is <i>Antechinomys</i>,
+represented only by <i>A. laniger</i> of Queensland and New South Wales.
+This elegant little mouse-like creature, which has large oval ears and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140"></a>[140]</span>
+a long tail with the terminal part bushy, is distinguished from
+<i>Sminthopsis</i> by the absence of the hallux and the great elongation
+of the limbs. The tympanic bullæ of the skull are also unusually
+large, with the mastoid portion much swollen. A full account of
+the habits and anatomy of this animal, which appears to be of very
+rare occurrence, is given in the <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1880, p. 454.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Myrmecobiinæ</b>.—Molars and premolars exceeding
+the normal number of seven on each side. Tongue, long cylindrical,
+and extensile.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="figure041" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure041.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>—<i>Myrmecobius fasciatus.</i> From Gould.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Myrmecobius.</i><a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁵⁄₅ or ⁶⁄₆; total 52 or 56,
+being the largest number of teeth in any existing Marsupial. The
+distinction between the molars and premolars is founded not on
+a knowledge of the succession of the teeth, but on their form. The
+teeth are all small and (except the four posterior inferior molars)
+separated from each other by an interval. Head elongated, but
+broad behind. Muzzle long and pointed. Ears of moderate size,
+ovate, and rather pointed. Fore feet with five toes, all having
+strong, pointed, compressed claws, the second, third, and fourth
+nearly equal, the fifth somewhat, and the first considerably, shorter.
+Hind feet with no trace of hallux externally, but the metatarsal bone<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141"></a>[141]</span>
+present. Tail long, clothed with long hairs. Fur rather harsh and
+bristly. Female without any pouch, the young when attached to
+the nipples being concealed only by the long hair of the abdomen.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 3, C 23. A gland on the under
+surface of the body just in advance of the sternum.</p>
+
+<p>Of this singular genus but one species is known, <i>M. fasciatus</i>
+(<a href="#figure041">Fig. 41</a>), found in western and southern Australia. It is about the
+size of an English squirrel, to which animal its long bushy tail
+gives it some resemblance; but it lives entirely on the ground,
+especially in sterile, sandy districts, feeding on ants. Its prevailing
+colour is chestnut red, but the hinder part of the back
+is elegantly marked with broad, white, transverse bands on a dark
+ground.</p>
+
+<p>The special interest of this form lies in its apparent relationship
+to those Mesozoic mammals which possess a large number of true
+molars (see <a href="#Page_114">p. 114</a>); and it is suggested by Thomas that it may
+eventually be found advisable to include some of the latter in the
+present subfamily.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Peramelidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁴⁻⁵⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄; total 46 or 48. Upper incisors
+small, with short broad crowns. Lower incisors moderate, narrow,
+proclivous. Canines well developed. Premolars compressed,
+pointed. Molars with quadrate tuberculated crowns. Fourth premolar
+preceded by a small molariform tooth, which remains in place
+until the animal is nearly full grown. Fore feet with two or
+three of the middle toes of nearly equal size, and provided
+with strong, sharp, slightly curved claws; the other toes rudimentary.
+Hind feet long and narrow; the hallux rudimentary
+or absent; the second and third toes very slender, and united in a
+common integument; the fourth very large, with a stout elongated
+conical claw; the fifth smaller than the fourth (see <a href="#figure043">Fig. 43</a>). The
+ungual phalanges of the large toes of both feet cleft at their extremities
+(as in <i>Manis</i> among the Edentata, but in no other
+Marsupials). Head elongated. Muzzle long, narrow, and pointed.
+Stomach simple. Cæcum of moderate size. Pouch complete,
+opening backwards. Alone among Marsupials they have no clavicles.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Peramelidæ</i> form a very distinct family, in some respects
+intermediate between the sarcophagous <i>Dasyuridæ</i> and the
+phytophagous <i>Macropodidæ</i>. In dentition they resemble the former,
+but they agree with the latter in the peculiar structure of the hind
+feet. In the construction of the fore feet they differ from all other
+Marsupials.</p>
+
+<p>The Bandicoots, as these Marsupials are popularly termed, are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142"></a>[142]</span>
+of fossorial habits, and subsist either on an insectivorous or omnivorous
+diet. It has been generally considered that their syndactylous
+feet indicate direct affinity with the Diprotodonts, but owing
+to the essentially Polyprotodont character of the organisation—which
+extends even to their carpal and tarsal bones—Thomas
+dissents from this view, and concludes that their syndactylism is an
+independently acquired character, and that they are really a direct
+offshoot from the <i>Dasyuridæ</i>. Some individuals are remarkable for
+the presence of a longitudinal groove in the root of the canines, by
+which feature they approximate to some of the Mesozoic Polyprotodont
+forms. They may be divided into three genera.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp92" id="figure042" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure042.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>—<i>Perameles gunni.</i> From Gould.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Perameles.</i><a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a>—Anterior and posterior extremities not differing
+greatly in development. Fore feet with the three middle toes well
+developed, the third slightly larger than the second, the fourth
+somewhat shorter, provided with long, strong, slightly curved,
+pointed claws. First and fifth toes very short and without claws.
+Hind feet with hallux of one or two phalanges, forming a distinct
+tubercle visible externally; the second and third toes very slender,
+of equal length, joined as far as the ungual phalanges, but with
+distinct claws; the fifth intermediate in length between these and
+the largely developed fourth toe. Ears of moderate or small size,
+ovate, pointed. Tail rather short, clothed with short adpressed
+hairs. Fur short and harsh. Vertebræ; C 7, D 13, L 6, S 1, C 17.
+Skull long and narrow, with the bulla single, and its mastoid portion
+not inflated.</p>
+
+<p>The animals of this genus are all small, and live entirely on the
+ground, making nests composed of dried leaves, grass, and sticks in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143"></a>[143]</span>
+hollow places. They are rather mixed feeders; but insects, worms,
+roots, and bulbs constitute their ordinary diet. The various species
+are widely distributed over Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and
+several of the adjacent islands, as Aru, Kei, and New Ireland. The
+best known are—<i>P. gunni</i> (<a href="#figure042">Fig. 42</a>), <i>bougainvillei</i>, <i>nasuta</i>, <i>obesula</i>, and
+<i>macrura</i> from Australia, and <i>P. doreyana</i>, <i>raffrayana</i>, and <i>longicaudata</i>
+from New Guinea.</p>
+
+<p>Remains apparently referable to existing species are found in
+the cave-deposits of New South Wales.</p>
+
+<p><i>Peragale.</i><a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a>—Molar teeth curved, typically with longer crowns
+and shorter roots than in the last. Hinder extremities proportionally
+longer, and hallux without claw. Muzzle much elongated and
+narrow. Fur soft and silky. Ears very large, long, and pointed.
+Tail long, its apical half clothed on the dorsal surface with long
+hairs which form a crest. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 2, C 23.
+Skull distinguished from that of <i>Perameles</i> by the large size and
+double structure of the auditory bulla, of which the mastoid portion
+is inflated. There is also an abrupt contraction of the muzzle at
+the third premolar.</p>
+
+<p>The type species of Rabbit-Bandicoot (<i>P. lagotis</i>), as these
+animals are called, is found in Western Australia, and also occurs
+fossil in the cave-deposits of New South Wales. It is the largest
+member of the family, being about the size of the common Rabbit,
+to which animal it bears sufficient superficial resemblance to have
+acquired the name of “Native Rabbit” from the colonists. It
+burrows in the ground, but in other respects resembles the true
+Bandicoots in its habits.</p>
+
+<p>The smaller <i>P. leucura</i> has short-crowned molars, with distinct
+cusps, which are almost obsolete in the type species.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp22" id="figure043" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure043.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>—Skeleton
+of right hind
+foot of <i>Chœropus
+castanotis</i>. <i>c</i>, Calcaneum;
+<i>a</i>, astragalus;
+<i>cb</i>, cuboid;
+<i>n</i>, navicular; <i>c³</i>,
+ectocuneiform; II
+and III, the conjoined
+second and
+third digits; IV,
+the large and only
+functional digit;
+V, the rudimentary
+fifth digit.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Chœropus.</i><a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a>—Dentition generally resembling that of <i>Perameles</i>,
+but the canines are less developed, and in the upper jaw two-rooted.
+Limbs very slender; posterior nearly twice the length of the anterior.
+Fore feet with the functional toes reduced to two, the second and
+third, of equal length, with closely united metacarpals and short,
+sharp, slightly curved, compressed claws. First toe represented by
+a minute rudiment of a metacarpal bone; the fourth by a metacarpal
+and two small phalanges without a claw, and not reaching the
+middle of the metacarpal of the third; fifth entirely absent. Hind
+foot (<a href="#figure043">Fig. 43</a>) long and narrow, mainly composed of the strongly
+developed fourth toe, terminating in a conical pointed nail, with a
+strong pad behind it; the hallux absent or represented by a rudimentary
+metatarsal; the remaining toes completely developed, and
+with claws, but exceedingly slender; the united second and third
+reaching a little way beyond the metatarso-phalangeal articulation of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144"></a>[144]</span>
+the fourth; the fifth somewhat shorter. Tail not quite so long as
+the body, and covered with short hairs forming a slight crest. Ears
+large and pointed, and folded down when the animal
+is at rest. Fur soft and loose. Vertebræ: C 7, D
+13, L 6, S 1, C 20. Skull short and wide, with a
+small and single bulla, and a contraction of the
+muzzle at the third premolar.</p>
+
+<p>The only known species of this genus (<a href="#figure044">Fig. 44</a>),
+chiefly remarkable for the singular construction of
+its limbs, is an animal about the size of a small
+Rat, found in the interior of the Australian continent.
+Its general habits and food appear to resemble those
+of the other <i>Peramelidæ</i>. It was first described as
+<i>C. ecaudatus</i> by Ogilby from a mutilated specimen,
+but the specific name was afterwards changed, as being
+inappropriate, by Gray to <i>castanotis</i>.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Diprotodontia</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>For the leading characters of this group, see
+<a href="#Page_132">page 132</a>.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Phascolomyidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Dentition: <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>i</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄ = 24. All the teeth
+with persistent pulps. The incisors large, scalpriform,
+with enamel only on the front surface, as in the
+Rodentia. The molars strongly curved, forming from
+the base to the summit about a quarter of a circle,
+the concavity being directed outwards in the upper
+and inwards in the lower teeth. The first of the
+series, or premolar, appears to have no milk-predecessor,
+and is single-lobed; the other four composed
+of two lobes, each subtriangular in section. Limbs
+equal, stout, and short. Fore feet with five distinct toes, each
+furnished with a long, strong, and slightly curved nail, the first and
+fifth considerably shorter than the other three. Hind feet with a very
+short nailless hallux, the second, third, and fourth toes partially
+united by integument, of nearly equal length, the fifth distinct
+and rather shorter; all four provided with long and curved nails.
+In the skeleton of the foot, the second and third toes are distinctly
+more slender than the fourth, showing a slight tendency towards
+the peculiar character so marked in the next two families. Tail
+rudimentary. Stomach simple, provided with a special gland
+situated near the cardiac orifice. Cæcum very short, wide, and with
+a peculiar vermiform appendage. Pouch present. The auditory
+bullæ of the skull are imperfect, open behind, with their anterior<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145"></a>[145]</span>
+wall formed by a descending process of the squamosal, instead of the
+alisphenoid. Masseteric fossa of mandible with a perforation and
+a deep pit.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="figure044" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure044.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>—<i>Chœropus castanotis.</i> From Gould.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Phascolomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a>—The existing Wombats (<a href="#figure045">Fig. 45</a>) comprise three<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146"></a>[146]</span>
+species, all of which are included in the one genus <i>Phascolomys</i>,
+and all of which date from the Pleistocene.</p>
+
+<p>In the typical group we find the following characters. Fur
+rough and coarse. Ears short and rounded. Muffle naked. Postorbital
+process of the frontal bone obsolete. Ribs fifteen pairs.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 4, S 4, C 10-12. The Wombat of Tasmania
+and the islands of Bass’s Straits (<i>P. ursinus</i>) and the closely
+similar but larger animal of the southern portion of the mainland of
+Australia (<i>P. mitchelli</i>) belong to this group.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure045" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure045.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>—Common Wombat (<i>Phascolomys ursinus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the second group the characters are as follows. Fur smooth
+and silky. Ears large and more pointed. Muffle hairy. Frontal
+region of skull broader than in the other group, with well-marked
+postorbital processes. Ribs thirteen. Vertebræ: C 7, D
+13, L 6, S 4, C 15-16. One species, <i>P. latifrons</i>, the Hairy-nosed
+Wombat of Southern Australia.</p>
+
+<p>In their general form and actions the Wombats resemble small
+bears, having a somewhat similar shuffling manner of walking, but
+they are still shorter in the legs, and have broader, flatter backs than
+bears. They live entirely on the ground, or in burrows or holes
+among rocks, never climbing trees, and feed entirely on grass,
+roots, and other vegetable substances. They sleep during the day,
+and wander forth at night in search of food, and are shy and
+gentle in their habits generally, though they can bite strongly when
+provoked. The only noise the common wombat makes is a low
+kind of hissing, but the Hairy-nosed Wombat is said to emit a short
+quick grunt when annoyed. The prevailing colour of the last-named
+species, as well as of <i>P. ursinus</i> of Tasmania, is a brownish
+gray. The large wombat of the mainland is very variable in colour,
+some individuals being found of a pale yellowish brown, others
+dark gray, and some quite black. The length of head and body is
+about three feet.</p>
+
+<p>It is noteworthy that <i>P. mitchelli</i> was first described from the
+evidence of fossil remains, the living form subsequently described as
+<i>P. platyrhinus</i> being found to be indistinguishable. Other extinct
+species occur in the Pleistocene of Australia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phascolonus.</i><a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a>—Remains of a large extinct Wombat, which must
+have nearly equalled the dimensions of a Tapir, occur in the
+Pleistocene of Queensland, and have been described as <i>Phascolonus</i>.
+It is probable that the expanded and flattened upper incisors from
+the same deposits upon the evidence of which the presumed genus
+<i>Sceparnodon</i> was founded, are likewise referable to the same form.
+The characters of both the upper and lower incisors distinguish
+<i>Phascolonus</i> from <i>Phascolomys</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147"></a>[147]</span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Phalangeridæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Dentition extremely variable, owing to the presence of minute
+rudimental teeth not constant in the same species, or even in the
+two sides of the jaws of the same individual; exclusive, however, of
+<i>Tarsipes</i>, the formula <i>i</i> ³⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁻³⁄₀₋₂, <i>m</i> ³⁻⁴⁄₃₋₄ represents fairly the
+general condition of the functional teeth. First incisors long and
+stout; the lower pair very large and pointed, but without the scissor-like
+action found in the existing <i>Macropodidæ</i>; second and third
+lower incisors minute and probably functionless. Fourth premolar
+generally secant; milk-molar generally minute and deciduous at an
+early period. Molars either with sharp cutting-crests or bluntly
+tuberculate; fourth sometimes absent. Mandible without pit, and
+at most a very minute perforation in the masseteric fossa. Limbs
+subequal. Fore feet with five distinct, subequal toes, furnished with
+claws. Hind feet short and broad, with five well developed toes; the
+hallux large, nailless and opposable; the second and third slender,
+and united by a common integument as far as the claws. Tail
+generally long, and frequently more or less prehensile. Stomach
+simple. Cæcum present (except in <i>Tarsipes</i>), and usually large.
+Pouch complete. Animals of small or moderate size and arboreal
+habits, usually feeding on a vegetable or mixed diet, inhabiting
+Australia and the Papuan Islands.</p>
+
+<p>The homologies of the lower functionless teeth between the first
+incisor and fourth premolar are very difficult to determine, but
+it is probable that one represents a canine only when the largest
+known number is present; this tooth, according to Mr. Thomas,
+being the first to disappear.</p>
+
+<p>Phalangers are small woolly-coated animals, with long, powerful,
+and often prehensile tails, large claws, and, as in the American
+opossums, with opposable nailless great toes. Their expression
+seems in the day to be dull and sleepy, but by night they
+appear to decidedly greater advantage. They live mostly upon
+fruit, leaves, and blossoms, although some few feed habitually upon
+insects, and all relish, when in confinement, an occasional bird
+or other small animal. Several of the Phalangers possess flying
+membranes stretched between their fore and hind limbs (<a href="#figure048">Fig. 48</a>),
+by the help of which they can make long and sustained leaps
+through the air, like the Flying Squirrels, but it is interesting to
+notice that the possession of these flying membranes does not seem
+to be any indication of special affinity, the characters of the skull
+and teeth sharply dividing the flying forms, and uniting them with
+other species of the non-flying groups. Their skulls (<a href="#figure047">Fig. 47</a>)
+are as a rule broad and flattened, with the posterior part swollen<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148"></a>[148]</span>
+out laterally, owing to the numerous air-cells situated in the
+substance of the squamosal.</p>
+
+<p>The Phalangers are interesting from an historical point of
+view, since the Gray Cuscus (<i>Phalanger orientalis</i>) was the first of
+the Marsupials of the eastern hemisphere brought to the notice of
+Europeans, having been described in a work published at Leyden
+in 1611, from an account of a specimen seen at Amboyna during
+the third expedition of Admiral Van der Hagen.</p>
+
+<p>The present family corresponds to the <i>Dasyuridæ</i> among the
+Polyprotodonts as presenting, on the whole, the most generalised
+types of the suborder. The existing forms may be divided into
+three subfamilies.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Tarsipedinæ</b>.—Cheek-teeth almost rudimentary and
+variable in number. Tongue long, slender, pointed, and very extensile.
+Tail long. Cæcum absent.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="figure046" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure046.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>—<i>Tarsipes rostratus.</i> From Gould.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Tarsipes.</i><a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a>—So named from some supposed resemblance of its
+foot to that of the Lemurine genus <i>Tarsius</i>; but it must be remarked
+that it has none of the peculiar elongation of the calcaneum and
+navicular so characteristic of that genus. Head with elongated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149"></a>[149]</span>
+and slender muzzle. Mouth-opening small. The two lower
+incisors are long, very slender, sharp-pointed, and horizontally
+placed. All the other teeth are simple, conical, minute, and placed
+at considerable and irregular intervals apart in the jaws, the number
+appearing to vary in different individuals and even on different
+sides of the same individual. The formula, in a specimen in the
+Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, is <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> and <i>m</i> ³⁄₂ on
+one side, and ⁴⁄₃ on the other; total 20. Rami of the mandible
+extremely slender, nearly straight, and without coronoid process or
+inflected angle. Fore feet with five well-developed toes, furnished
+with small, flat, scale-like nails, not reaching to the extremity of
+the digits. Hind feet rather long and slender compared with those
+of the <i>Phalangerinæ</i>, having a well-developed opposable and nailless
+hallux; second and third digits syndactylous, with sharp compressed
+curved claws; the fourth and fifth free, and with small flat nails.
+Ears of moderate size and rounded. Tail longer than the body and
+head, scantily clothed with short hairs, prehensile. Vertebræ: C 7,
+D 13, L 5, S 3, C 24.</p>
+
+<p>Of this singular genus but one species, <i>T. rostratus</i> (<a href="#figure046">Fig. 46</a>), is
+known, about the size of a common Mouse. It inhabits Western
+Australia, lives in trees and bushes, uses its tail in climbing, and
+feeds on honey, which it procures by inserting its long tongue into
+the blossoms of <i>Melaleucæ</i>, etc. One kept in confinement by Mr.
+Gould was also observed to eat flies.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Phalangerinæ</b>.—Teeth normal. One or more
+rudimentary teeth between the upper canine and fourth premolar,
+and between the first lower incisor and fourth premolar. Tongue
+of ordinary structure. No cheek-pouches. Stomach and ascending
+colon simple. Cæcum long, simple. Tail well-developed, generally
+prehensile.</p>
+
+<p>A numerous group of animals, varying from the size of a mouse
+to that of a large cat, arboreal in their habits, and abundantly
+distributed throughout the Australian region. The members of
+this group are the typical representatives of the family, and are
+commonly known to the colonists as Opossums.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phalanger.</i><a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a>—The typical genus <i>Phalanger</i> (<i>Cuscus</i>) presents the
+following characters. No flying membrane; size large or medium,
+and build stout and clumsy; fur thick and woolly. Ears short
+or medium, hairy externally, and in some cases also internally.
+Toes of fore feet subequal, their relative lengths in the order 4, 3,
+5, 2, 1. Claws long, stout, and curved. Soles of feet naked and
+striated, with large ill-defined pads. Tail stout and markedly
+prehensile, with the proximal half furred like the body, and the
+terminal portion entirely naked. Four mammæ. Skull (<a href="#figure047">Fig. 47</a>)<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150"></a>[150]</span>
+stout and strong, with large vacuities in the hinder half of the
+palate, and the auditory bullæ thick and inflated. Dentition usually
+<i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄. First upper incisor with nearly circular section,
+or only slightly flattened
+in front; canine
+more or less
+closely approximated
+to third incisor
+(which is very small),
+and situated partly
+in front of the suture
+between the premaxilla
+and maxilla.
+Fourth premolar
+large, secant, and
+placed obliquely to
+line of molars.
+Molars four-cusped,
+with the inner cusps
+of the upper ones
+crescentoid, and imperfect transverse ridges connecting each pair
+of cusps.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp95" id="figure047" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure047.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>—Left lateral view of skull of Gray Cuscus (<i>Phalanger
+orientalis</i>). After Peters.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Cuscuses are curious sleepy-looking animals, inhabiting the
+various islands of the East Indian Archipelago as far west as Celebes,
+and being the only Marsupials found west of New Guinea. As
+already noted, it was a member of this genus, the Gray Cuscus
+(<i>P. orientalis</i>), a native of Amboyna, Timor, and the neighbouring
+islands, which was the first Australasian Marsupial known to European
+naturalists. There are altogether five species known, all of about
+the size of a large cat; their habits resemble those of other Phalangers,
+except that they are said to be somewhat more carnivorous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trichosurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a>—The members of the genus <i>Trichosurus</i> are of
+relatively large size, and are distinguished from <i>Phalanger</i> by the
+following characters. Ears more or less hairy behind. Relative
+lengths of toes of fore feet in the order 4, 3, 2, 5, 1. Hair on the
+soles of the hind feet beneath the heel, but not elsewhere. Tail
+thick, not tapering, covered with bushy hair up to the extreme tip,
+which is naked, but with a naked strip on the inferior surface in
+the distal third or half. A gland on the chest. Dentition usually
+<i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄. Upper incisors of nearly uniform length, the
+first much flattened in front. Canine situated some distance behind
+the third upper incisor, which it scarcely exceeds in size. Last
+premolar and molars very similar to those of <i>Phalanger</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The true Phalangers comprise two species, of which the best
+known is the Vulpine Phalanger (<i>T. vulpecula</i>), so common in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151"></a>[151]</span>
+zoological gardens, where, however, it is seldom seen, owing to
+its nocturnal habits. It is of about the size and general build of
+a small fox, whence its name. In the typical variety the colour
+is gray, with a yellowish white belly, white ears, and a black tail.
+This variety is a native of the greater part of the continent of
+Australia, but is replaced in Tasmania by the closely allied Brown
+Phalanger (<i>var. fuliginosa</i>). Its habits are very similar to those of
+the Yellow-bellied Flying-Phalanger (<i>Petaurus australis</i>) described
+below, except that it is unable to take the flying leaps of that animal.
+Like all the other phalangers, its flesh is freely eaten both by the
+natives and the lower class of settlers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pseudochirus.</i><a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a>—The genus <i>Pseudochirus</i> agrees with the preceding
+in the absence of a flying membrane, and presents the
+following leading characters. Size large or medium. Fur comparatively
+short and woolly. Ears medium or short, hairy
+behind, although seldom closely furred over all this aspect.
+Claws medium. Fore toes subequal, the first two distinctly
+opposable to the other three. Soles of feet naked, with large,
+striated, round pads, and hair beneath the heels. Tail tapering,
+markedly prehensile, with its distal third and the whole of the
+under surface short-haired; tip naked underneath for a short
+distance. Four mammæ. No gland on chest. Skull with larger
+nasals than in the preceding genera; the posterior part of the
+palate in most cases fully ossified, and the auditory bullæ generally
+somewhat inflated. Dentition (at most) <i>i</i> ²⁻³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ⁰⁻¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄.
+Upper teeth nearly uniform in length, but the first incisor distinctly
+longer than second. Upper premolars variable. Molars with both
+inner and outer cusps distinctly crescentoid, and recalling those
+of the Selenodont Artiodactyle Ungulates.</p>
+
+<p><i>Range.</i>—Tasmania, Australia, and New Guinea.</p>
+
+<p>There are about ten species of this genus known, of which the
+commonest is Cook’s Ring-tailed Phalanger (<i>Pseudochirus peregrinus</i>),
+an animal discovered by Captain Cook during his first voyage, at
+Endeavour river, North Queensland.</p>
+
+<p>The complex and sub-selenodont character of the molars of this
+and the following genus readily distinguish them from the more
+typical Phalangers, and show an approximation to the type of
+dentition prevailing in <i>Phascolarctus</i>; according, however, to Mr.
+O. Thomas, a tendency towards the same structure is observable
+in unworn molars of young Cuscuses. The genus may be divided
+into three groups, of which the first, as typified by the common <i>P.
+peregrinus</i>, is restricted to Australia and Tasmania, while the third,
+as represented by <i>P. canescens</i>, is only found in New Guinea. <i>P.
+albertisi</i> may be taken as the type of the second group, which is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a>[152]</span>
+represented by that species in New Guinea, and by <i>P. archeri</i> in
+Queensland. With the exception of <i>P. peregrinus</i>, the species have
+a more or less restricted range. Remains of <i>Pseudochirus</i>, probably
+referable to existing species, are found in the cave-deposits of New
+South Wales.</p>
+
+<p><i>Petauroides.</i><a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a>—With the genus <i>Petauroides</i>, containing only the
+single species <i>P. volans</i>, we come to the first of the Flying-Phalangers,
+characterised by the possession of a living membrane along the flanks.
+The characters of this genus are as follows. Size large. Fur very
+long and silky. Ears large and oval, thickly furred on the back,
+but naked internally. Flying-membrane reaching from wrist to
+ankle, but very narrow along the sides of the forearm and lower
+leg. Fore toes subequal, their relative lengths in the order 4, 3, 5,
+2, 1. Claws long, curved, and sharp. Tail long, cylindrical, and
+bushy, except near its tip, where it is naked and prehensile. Skull
+short and broad, with the nasals short, and not extending nearly as
+far forwards as the premaxillæ. Large vacuities in hinder part of
+palate. Auditory bullæ inflated and smooth. Dentition usually
+<i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄. General characters of teeth very similar to those
+of <i>Pseudochirus</i>, but the first upper incisor scarcely longer than the
+second.</p>
+
+<p>The single species is found in Australia, from Queensland to
+Victoria, and is commonly known as the Taguan Flying-Phalanger.
+The structure of the skull and teeth indicates close affinity with
+<i>Pseudochirus</i>, although the external form is widely different in the
+two genera. This Phalanger seems, indeed, to be, so to speak, a
+very specialised <i>Pseudochirus</i>, in which the teeth have become
+somewhat further diminished and the flying membrane has been
+developed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dactylopsila.</i><a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a>—The genus <i>Dactylopsila</i> is one of the forms without
+any trace of a flying membrane, its characters being as follows.
+Size medium. Body striped black and white. Ears oval, nearly
+naked at the ends. Fore toes of very unequal length, the fourth
+being enormously elongated; fourth and fifth toes of pes also
+markedly elongated. Claws long, moderately curved. Tail long,
+cylindrical, and evenly bushy, with the extremity more or less
+naked below. Skull narrow, but with the zygomatic arches greatly
+expanded; palate fully ossified. Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ³⁄₂, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄.
+Upper incisors very large, the third being directed horizontally
+forwards; canine small and approximated to the third incisor, which
+it resembles. The fourth premolar of moderate size, with its longer
+axis placed obliquely. First lower incisor longer than in any other
+genus. Molars oblong, with four cusps.</p>
+
+<p>The typical <i>D. trivirgata</i>, or Striped Phalanger, inhabits the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153"></a>[153]</span>
+Papuan and North Australian sub-region; a second species (<i>D.
+palpator</i>), characterised by the still greater elongation of the fourth
+finger, occurring in South New Guinea. These animals are said
+to be of insectivorous habits, the elongated fourth finger, as in the
+analogous instance of the Lemuroid genus <i>Chiromys</i>, being apparently
+specially adapted for extracting insects and larvæ from their
+hiding places.</p>
+
+<p><i>Petaurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a>—Size medium or small. Fur very soft and silky.
+A broad flying membrane extending from the outer side of the fifth
+digit of the manus to the ankle. Fore toes usually increasing
+regularly in length from the first to the fifth, but in some of the
+smaller species the fourth is the longest. Claws strong, sharp, and
+much curved. Tail long, evenly bushy to the extremity. Glands
+on the chest and between the ears. Skull short and wide, with
+the nasals expanded posteriorly, and usually two small palatal
+vacuities near the second molars. Auditory bullæ inflated, and
+variable in size. Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄. First upper incisors
+very large, and taller than canine. Molars with square crowns
+rounded at the angles, and four cusps, except in the last, which is
+triangular.</p>
+
+<p>This genus, which ranges from New Ireland to South Australia,
+but is not found in Tasmania, contains three species, the largest of
+which is the Yellow-bellied Flying-Phalanger (<i>P. australis</i>), whose
+habits are recorded by Mr. Gould as follows. “This animal is
+common in all the brushes of New South Wales, particularly those
+which stretch along the coast from Port Philip to Moreton Bay.
+In these vast forests trees of one kind or another are perpetually
+flowering, and thus offer a never-failing supply of the blossoms
+upon which it feeds; the flowers of the various kinds of gums,
+some of which are of great magnitude, are the principal favourites.
+Like the rest of the genus, it is nocturnal in its habits, dwelling in
+holes and in the spouts of the larger branches during the day, and
+displaying the greatest activity at night while running over the
+small leafy branches, frequently even to their very extremities, in
+search of insects and the honey of the newly-opened blossoms. Its
+structure being ill adapted for terrestrial habits, it seldom descends
+to the ground except for the purpose of passing to a tree too distant
+to be reached by flight. When chased, or forced to flight it
+ascends to the highest branch and performs the most enormous
+leaps, sweeping from tree to tree with wonderful address; a slight
+elevation gives its body an impetus which, with the expansion of
+its membrane, enables it to pass to a considerable distance, always
+ascending a little at the extremity of the leap; by this ascent the
+animal is prevented from receiving the shock which it would otherwise
+sustain.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154"></a>[154]</span></p>
+
+<p>A second species, <i>P. sciureus</i>, in some ways one of the most
+beautiful of all mammals, has been chosen for the accompanying
+woodcut.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gymnobelideus.</i><a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a>—Like <i>Petaurus</i> in every respect, but without
+any trace of a flying membrane, and with the fifth digit of the
+manus slightly shorter than the third. This genus is represented
+only by <i>G. leadbeateri</i> of Victoria, and according to Mr. Thomas,
+may be regarded as the primitive form from which the specialised
+<i>Petaurus</i> has been developed.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="figure048" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure048.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>—Squirrel Flying-Phalanger (<i>Petaurus sciureus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Dromicia.</i><a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a>—Size small, and general appearance dormouse-like.
+Ears large and thin, almost naked, and without internal
+or basal tufts. No flying membrane. Digits of normal proportions,
+the relative lengths of those of the manus in the order
+3, 4, 2, 5, 1; fore claws rudimentary, hind ones long and sharp.
+Tail mouse-like, cylindrical, furry at base, the remainder scaly,
+with fine hairs, except at the tip, which is naked and prehensile.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155"></a>[155]</span>
+Skull short and broad, with the hinder part of the palate incomplete,
+and the auditory bullæ large, much inflated, and transparent.
+Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁻⁴⁄₃₋₄. First upper incisor spatulate,
+and much longer than either of the others. Canine large,
+placed at some distance behind the third incisor. Molars (except the
+last) with evenly rounded crowns, carrying four small smooth cusps.</p>
+
+<p>This genus, which occurs in New Guinea, Western Australia, and
+Tasmania, is represented by four species. It seems to be intermediate
+between <i>Petaurus</i> and <i>Acrobates</i>, and it has apparently had
+to yield place to those more highly organised types in regions where
+they have come in contact with one another.</p>
+
+<p><i>Distœchurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a>—Size small. Ears rather short, thinly covered
+with hair, but with small tufts at the base. No flying membrane.
+Digits of normal proportions, without expanded terminal pads.
+Claws curved and sharp. Tail, skull, and dentition as in <i>Acrobates</i>,
+with the exception that the fourth premolar is small in the upper,
+and absent in the lower jaw.</p>
+
+<p>The one species of Feather-tailed Phalanger (<i>D. pennatus</i>) is
+found in New Guinea.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acrobates.</i><a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a>—Size very small. Ears moderate, thinly covered
+with hair, but with small tufts round the base and on the internal
+prominences. A narrow flying membrane, fringed with long hairs,
+running from the elbow to the flank, and from the latter to the
+knee. Four mammæ. Digits furnished with expanded and striated
+terminal pads, the relative length of those of the manus being in the
+order 4, 3, 5, 2, 1. Claws sharp, although somewhat concealed by
+the terminal pads. Tail short-haired above and below, with a broad
+fringe on either side. Skull short, wide, and depressed. Posterior
+portion of palate very imperfectly ossified; anterior palatal vacuities
+almost confined to the maxillæ. Auditory bullæ low, rounded, and
+but slightly prominent. Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. Teeth sharp,
+and of an insectivorous type. Upper canine long, and approximated
+to third incisor. The three upper premolars large, functional, and
+taller than the molars. Molars small and rounded, with smooth
+unridged cusps.</p>
+
+<p>There is only one species in this genus, the beautiful little
+Pigmy Flying-Phalanger (<i>A. pygmæus</i>), not so big as a Mouse, which
+is found in Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria, and feeds
+on the honey it abstracts from flowers, and on insects. Its agility
+and powers of leaping are exceedingly great, and it is said by
+Mr. Gould to make a most charming little pet.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Phascolarctinæ</b>.—Teeth large, normal; no rudimentary
+premolars before the last upper premolar, or any teeth<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156"></a>[156]</span>
+between the first lower incisor and fourth premolar. Tongue
+of ordinary structure. Distinct cheek-pouches. Stomach with a
+special gland near the cardiac orifice. Cæcum very long, and (with
+the upper portion of the colon) dilated and provided with numerous
+longitudinal folds of mucous membrane. In many anatomical
+characters, especially the possession of a special gastric gland, this
+group resembles the <i>Phascolomyidæ</i>.<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp53" id="figure049" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure049.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>—Skeleton of right hind foot of Koala
+(<i>Phascolarctus cinereus</i>), showing the stout opposable
+hallux, followed by two slender toes,
+which in the living animal are enclosed as far
+as the nails in a common integument.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Phascolarctus.</i><a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄; total 30. Upper
+incisors crowded together, cylindroidal, the first much larger than
+the others, with a bevelled cutting edge (<a href="#figure036">Fig. 36</a>). Canine very
+small; a considerable interval between it and the premolar, which
+is as long from before backwards but not so broad as the true
+molars, and has a cutting edge, with a smaller parallel inner ridge.
+The molars slightly diminishing in size from the first to the fourth,
+with square crowns, each bearing four pyramidal cusps, with curved
+ridges radiating from them, and having a structure very similar to
+these of <i>Pseudochirus</i>. The lower incisors are semiproclivous, compressed
+and tapering, bevelled at the ends. Premolars and molars
+in continuous series, as in the upper jaw. Milk-tooth very minute,
+and almost functionless. Fore feet with the two inner toes slightly
+separated from and opposable to the remaining three, all with strong,
+curved, and much compressed
+claws. Hind foot (<a href="#figure049">Fig. 49</a>) with
+the hallux placed very far back,
+large and broad, the second and
+third (united) toes considerably
+smaller than the other two; the
+fourth the largest. No external
+tail. Fur dense and woolly.
+Ears of moderate size, thickly
+clothed with long hairs. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 11, L 8, S 2, C 8.
+Ribs eleven pairs, a rare exception
+to the usual number (13)
+in the Marsupialia.</p>
+
+<p>There is but one species,
+the Koala or Native Bear of
+the Australian colonists (<i>P. cinereus</i>),
+an animal of comparatively
+large size and heavy
+build (<a href="#figure050">Fig. 50</a>), found in the
+south-eastern parts of the Australian
+continent. It is about two feet in length, and of an ash-gray
+colour, an excellent climber, and residing generally in lofty<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157"></a>[157]</span>
+<i>Eucalyptus</i> trees, on the buds and tender shoots of which it feeds,
+though occasionally descending to the ground in the night.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Extinct Phalangeroids.</span></h4>
+
+<p>Numerous imperfect remains recently described by De Vis are
+regarded as indicating large extinct types of <i>Phalangeridæ</i>, but
+further evidence is required before all these determinations can be
+definitely accepted. Thus part of an upper jaw is provisionally
+referred to a large species of <i>Pseudochirus</i>, while part of a scapula
+is made the type of a genus <i>Archizonurus</i> which appears to be
+allied to the former. Another fragmentary scapula is considered to
+indicate a large <i>Phalanger</i>. Finally, part of a fibula, described under
+the name of <i>Koalemus</i> is regarded as affording evidence of the
+former existence of a large ancestral form allied to the Koala, and
+it is suggested that an upper jaw with teeth may belong to the
+same or an allied type.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure050" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure050.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span>—The Koala (<i>Phascolarctus cinereus</i>). From Sclater, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1880, p. 355.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Thylacoleo.</i><a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a>—Dentition of adult: <i>i</i> ³⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 28.
+First upper incisor much larger than the others; canine and first
+two premolars rudimentary. In the lower jaw the two small
+anterior premolars are functionless, and often deciduous; posterior
+premolars of both jaws formed on the same type as those of <i>Potorous</i>,
+but relatively much larger; true molars rudimentary, tubercular.
+One species, <i>T. carnifex</i>. This animal presents a most anomalous<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158"></a>[158]</span>
+condition of dentition, the functional teeth being reduced to one
+pair of large cutting incisors situated close to the median line, and
+one great, trenchant, compressed premolar, on each side above and
+below. It was first
+described as a carnivorous
+Marsupial,
+and named, in accordance
+with its
+presumed habits,
+“as one of the fellest
+and most destructive
+of predatory
+beasts”; but,
+as its affinities are
+certainly with the
+<i>Phalangeridæ</i> and
+<i>Macropodidæ</i>, and
+its dentition completely
+unlike that
+of any known predaceous
+animal, this
+view has been called
+in question.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="figure051" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure051.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>—Front view of skull of <i>Thylacoleo carnifex</i>, restored.
+¹⁄₃ natural size. From <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> vol. xxiv. p. 312.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The dentition is
+nearer to that of the
+existing <i>Phalangeridæ</i> than to that of the <i>Macropodidæ</i>, and the
+genus may be provisionally regarded as the type of a distinct
+subfamily of the former.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Macropodidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Dentition <i>i</i> ³⁄₁, <i>c</i> ⁰⁻¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄. Incisors sharp and cutting,
+those of the lower jaw frequently having a scissor-like action
+against one another; upper canine, if present, small. Penultimate
+premolar shed with the fourth milk-molar, which is molariform and
+long persistent. Molars wide, and either transversely ridged or
+bluntly tuberculate. Premolars and molars moving forwards in the
+skull as the age of the animal increases, this being most marked in
+the larger species. Masseteric fossa of mandible hollowed out
+below into a deep cavity walled in externally by a plate of bone,
+and communicating with the inferior dental canal by a large
+foramen. Hind limbs usually larger than the anterior ones, and
+progression generally saltatorial. Fore feet with five digits; hind
+feet syndactylous, the fourth digit being very large and strongly
+clawed; hallux usually absent. Tail generally long and hairy,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159"></a>[159]</span>
+occasionally prehensile; stomach sacculated. Pouch large and
+opening forwards.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp18" id="figure052" style="max-width: 6.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure052.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>—Skeleton
+of right hind foot of
+Kangaroo.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The <i>Macropodidæ</i> or Kangaroos, taken as a whole, form a very
+well-marked family, easily distinguished from the other members of
+the suborder by their general conformation, and
+by peculiarities in the structure of their limbs,
+teeth, and other organs. They vary in size from
+that of a sheep down to a small rabbit. The
+head, especially in the larger species, is small,
+compared with the rest of the body, and tapers
+forward to the muzzle. The shoulders and fore
+limbs are feebly developed, and the hind limbs
+usually of disproportionate strength and magnitude,
+which gives them a peculiarly awkward appearance
+when moving about on all fours, as they occasionally
+do when feeding. Rapid progression is, however,
+performed only by the powerful hind limbs,
+the animal covering the ground by a series of
+immense bounds, during which the fore part of the
+body is inclined forwards, and balanced by the
+long, strong, and tapering tail, which is carried
+horizontally backwards. When not moving they
+often assume a perfectly upright position, the tail
+aiding the two hind legs to form a sort of supporting
+tripod, and the front limbs dangling by the
+side of the chest. This position gives full scope
+for the senses of sight, hearing, and smell to warn
+of the approach of enemies, from which these
+animals save themselves by their bounding flight.
+The fore paws have live distinct digits, each armed
+with a strong curved claw.</p>
+
+<p>The hind foot (<a href="#figure052">Fig. 52</a>), as being a typical
+example of the syndactylous modification, may be
+noticed in some detail. It is extremely long and
+narrow, and (with only one exception) without any
+hallux or great toe. It consists mainly of one very large and strong
+toe, corresponding to the fourth of the human or other typically
+developed foot, ending in a strong, curved, and pointed claw.
+Close to the outer side of this lies a smaller fifth digit, and to the
+inner side two excessively slender toes (the second and third),
+bound together almost to the extremity in a common integument.
+The two little claws of these toes, projecting together from the
+skin, may be of use in scratching and cleaning the fur of the
+animal, but the toes themselves must have quite lost all connexion
+with the functions of support or progression.</p>
+
+<p>The dentition of the Kangaroos, functionally considered,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160"></a>[160]</span>
+consists of sharp-edged incisors, most fully developed near the
+median line of the mouth, for the purpose of cropping the various
+kinds of herbage on which they feed, and ridged and tuberculated
+molars for crushing it, there being no tusks or canines for offensive
+or defensive purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The number of vertebræ is—in the cervical region 7, dorsal 13,
+lumbar 6, sacral 2, caudal varying according to the length of the
+tail, but generally from 21 to 25. In the fore limb the clavicle
+and the radius and ulna are well developed, allowing of considerable
+freedom of motion of the hand. The pelvis has large epipubic or
+“marsupial” bones. The femur is short, and the tibia and fibula
+are of great length, as is the foot, the whole of which is applied to
+the ground when the animal is at rest in the upright position.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp88" id="figure053" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure053.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>—The Great Gray Kangaroo (<i>Macropus giganteus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The stomach is of large size, and very complex, its walls being
+puckered up by longitudinal muscular bands into a great number of
+sacculi, like those of the human colon. The alimentary canal is
+long, and the cæcum well developed. All the species have a
+marsupium or pouch formed by a fold of the skin of the abdomen,
+covering the mammary glands with their four nipples. In this
+pouch the young are placed as soon as they are born; there their
+growth and development proceeds; and to it they resort temporarily
+for the purpose of shelter, concealment, or transport, for some
+time after they are able to run and jump about the ground and
+feed upon the same herbage which forms the nourishment of the
+parent. During the early period of their sojourn in the pouch,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161"></a>[161]</span>
+the blind, naked, helpless young creatures (which in the Great
+Kangaroo [<a href="#figure053">Fig. 53</a>] scarcely exceed an inch in length) are attached
+by their mouths to the nipples of the mother, and are fed by
+milk injected into their stomach by the contraction of the muscle
+covering the mammary gland.</p>
+
+<p>The Kangaroos are all vegetable feeders, browsing on grass and
+various kinds of herbage, the smaller species also eating roots.
+They are naturally timid, inoffensive creatures; but the larger ones
+when hard pressed will turn and defend themselves, sometimes
+killing a dog by grasping it in their fore paws, and inflicting
+terrible wounds with the sharp claws of their powerful hind legs,
+sustaining themselves meanwhile upon the tail. A few aberrant
+forms are arboreal. The great majority are inhabitants of Australia
+and Tasmania, forming one of the most prominent and characteristic
+features of the fauna of these lands, and in the scenery of the
+country, as well as the economy of nature, performing the part of
+the deer and antelopes of other parts of the world, which are
+entirely wanting in Australia. Kangaroos were very important
+sources of food-supply to the natives, and are hunted by the colonists,
+both for sport and with a view to their destruction, on account
+of the damage they naturally do in consuming the grass, now
+required for feeding cattle and sheep. Notwithstanding this, they
+have in some districts increased in numbers, owing to the suppression
+of their former enemies, the aborigines and the Dingo or
+native dog. A few species are found in New Guinea and the
+adjacent islands, which belong, in the zoological sense, to the
+Australian region.</p>
+
+<p>Before noticing the various generic types of the <i>Macropodidæ</i>, a
+few words are necessary in respect of the tooth-change, and we may
+here quote the observations of Mr. O. Thomas on this subject.
+“The full dentition of the members of this family consists, in the
+upper jaw, first of three incisors, then of a small canine (often,
+however, suppressed, as in <a href="#figure055">Fig. 55</a>), and then of six cheek-teeth,
+of which the second in the series is the only one which has a milk
+or deciduous predecessor, and is therefore the one to be regarded
+as the last premolar of the typical mammalian dentition. The
+special characteristics that render the development and succession of
+the teeth in the <i>Macropodidæ</i>, and especially in the genus <i>Macropus</i>,
+so puzzling to systematic zoologists, are: firstly, a general progression
+forwards in the jaw of the whole tooth-row, comparable to
+that found elsewhere only in the Elephants and some Sirenians;
+and, secondly, the fact that before the tooth-change the first tooth
+of the series (<i>p</i> 3) and the single milk-tooth (<i>dm</i> 4) placed next to
+it, both of which fall out at the change, are respectively so very
+similar in shape and size to the first and second teeth of the
+permanent series, viz. the permanent premolar (<i>p</i> 4) and the first<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162"></a>[162]</span>
+molar (<i>m</i> 1), as to be most naturally mistaken for, or compared with,
+them in specific descriptions.... The necessary knowledge as to
+the stage of dentition in which any skull may be, can often be
+gained only by cutting open the bone either above and behind the
+first tooth of the series to see if the true permanent <i>p</i> 4 be still
+buried there (in which case, of course, that first tooth is only <i>p</i> 3),
+or behind the last visible molar to see if there be yet another tooth
+behind it, showing it to be <i>m</i> 3 and not <i>m</i> 4. The first plan is,
+as a rule, the better, since <i>p</i> 4 is generally by far the most
+important tooth for diagnostic purposes, and its characters have,
+therefore, in any case to be taken into account.”</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Macropodidæ</i> are divided into three well-marked sections:
+(1) the true Kangaroos (<i>Macropodinæ</i>); (2) a group consisting of
+smaller animals, commonly called Rat Kangaroos, or (improperly)
+“Kangaroo Rats,” or sometimes Potoroos; and (3) the <i>Hypsiprymnodontinæ</i>,
+now represented only by a single species.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Hypsiprymnodontinæ</b>.—Size very small. Claws
+small, feeble, and subequal. Hind feet with an opposable hallux.
+Tail naked and scaly. The fourth premolar twisted obliquely outwards,
+as in <i>Phalanger</i>. Other teeth as in the <i>Potoroinæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This subfamily is now represented only by the genus <i>Hypsiprymnodon</i>,<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a>
+which is a form of great interest, as showing a structure
+of foot connecting that of the Kangaroos with that of the Phalangers.
+The single known species, <i>H. moschatus</i>, was described by
+Ramsay from specimens discovered in north-east Australia. It
+was described almost simultaneously by Owen under the name of
+<i>Pleopus nudicaudatus</i>. From the resemblance in the structure of the
+foot and the obliquity of the premolars to the Phalangers Mr.
+Thomas has some hesitation as to which family should receive this
+genus, but the macropine characters of the mandible preponderate
+in favour of the <i>Macropodidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Triclis.</i><a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a>—A lower jaw of a much larger form from the Pleistocene
+deposits of Australia apparently indicates another member of
+this subfamily, having the outwardly directed and grooved premolar
+characteristic of <i>Hypsiprymnodon</i>. It differs, however, from
+that genus, and also from all other known <i>Macropodidæ</i>, in having
+a small tooth between the incisor and fourth premolar, which
+apparently represents a canine, or perhaps an anterior premolar.
+This form indicates, therefore, a closer connexion between the
+<i>Phalangeridæ</i> and <i>Macropodidæ</i> than any other.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Potoroinæ</b>.—The second section or subfamily, the
+<i>Potoroinæ</i>, have the first upper incisor narrow, curved, and much
+exceeding the others in length (<a href="#figure054">Fig. 54</a>). Upper canines always
+persistent, flattened, blunt, and slightly curved. Premolars of both<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163"></a>[163]</span>
+jaws always having large, simple, compressed crowns, with a nearly
+straight or slightly concave free cutting edge, both outer and inner
+surfaces usually marked by a series of parallel, vertical grooves and
+ridges, these teeth being either set in the same line with the
+molars, or slightly bent outwards. Molars with quadrate crowns,
+having a blunt, conical cusp at each corner, the fourth notably
+smaller than the third, sometimes rudimentary, and appearing early.
+Fore feet narrow; three middle toes considerably exceeding the
+first and fifth in length; their claws long, compressed, and but
+slightly curved. Hind feet as in <i>Macropus</i>. Tail long and hairy,
+sometimes partially prehensile, being used for carrying bundles of
+grass with which these animals build their nests.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure054" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure054.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>—Skull and teeth of Rat Kangaroo (<i>Bettongia lesueuiri</i>). <i>c</i>, Upper canine.
+The other letters as in <a href="#figure051">Fig. 51</a>.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Potoroos or Rat Kangaroos are all small animals, none of
+them exceeding a common rabbit in size. They inhabit Australia
+and Tasmania, are nocturnal, and feed on the leaves of various
+kinds of grasses and other plants, as well as roots and bulbs, which
+they dig up with their fore paws. Nine species are known, presenting
+a considerable range of diversity in minor characters, and
+admitting of being grouped in four principal sections, which may
+be allowed the rank of genera. These are:</p>
+
+<p><i>Potorous.</i><a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a>—Head long and slender. Auditory bullæ somewhat
+inflated. Ridges on premolars few and perpendicular.
+Large palatine foramina. Tarsus short. Muffle naked. Three
+species, viz. <i>P. tridactylus</i>, <i>P. gilberti</i>, and <i>P. platyops</i>; the last two
+being confined to West Australia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bettongia.</i><a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a>—Head comparatively short and broad. Ears short
+and rounded. Auditory bullæ generally much inflated. Large
+palatine foramina. Tarsus long. Ridges on premolars numerous<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164"></a>[164]</span>
+and oblique. Tail more or less prehensile, thickly haired, and
+the hairs on the upper surface longer than those on the lower, and
+forming a crest. Muffle naked. Four species, viz. <i>B. penicillata</i>,
+<i>B. cuniculus</i>, <i>B. gaimardi</i>, <i>B. lesueuiri</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caloprymnus.</i><a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a>—Muffle naked, as in <i>Bettongia</i>, but the edge of the
+hairy part less emarginate backwards in the middle line. Ears
+short, rounded, and hairy. Auditory bullæ much inflated, and of
+large size. Nasals larger and wider behind than in the other
+genera. Very long anterior palatine foramina. Limbs as in
+<i>Bettongia</i>. Tail thin, cylindrical, evenly coated with short hair,
+without trace of a crest. Skull broad and flat, with a remarkably
+short and conical muzzle. The sole representative of this genus is
+<i>C. campestris</i> of South Australia, originally referred to <i>Bettongia</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure055" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure055.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span>—Skull and Teeth of the Red-necked Wallaby (<i>Macropus ruficollis</i>). <i>i¹</i>, <i>i²</i>, <i>i³</i>, First,
+second, and third upper incisors; <i>pm</i>, fourth or posterior premolar (the penultimate or third
+having been already shed); <i>m¹</i>, <i>m²</i>, <i>m³</i>, <i>m⁴</i>, the four true molars. The last, not fully developed,
+is nearly concealed by the ascending ramus of the jaw.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Æpyprymnus.</i><a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a>—Head short and broad. Auditory bullæ not
+inflated. No palatine foramina. Tarsus long. Muffle partially
+hairy. Tail evenly hairy, not crested above. Molars oblong, less
+distinctly quadritubercular, and not decreasing so much in size posteriorly
+as in the other genera. Represented only by <i>Æ. rufescens</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of <i>Æ. rufescens</i> occur in the Pleistocene cave-deposits
+of New South Wales.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Macropodinæ</b>.—This subfamily includes the largest
+forms. The cutting edges of the upper incisors are nearly level, or
+the first pair but slightly longer than the others (<a href="#figure055">Fig. 55</a>). The
+canines are rudimentary and often wanting. The premolars are
+usually not longer (from before backwards) than the true molars<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165"></a>[165]</span>
+and less compressed than in the last subfamily; they are placed
+in precisely the same line with the molars. The crowns of the
+molars always have two prominent transverse ridges; and these
+teeth increase in size from before backwards, the fourth molar
+appearing very late. The fore limbs are small, with subequal toes
+armed with strong, moderately long, curved claws. Hind limbs
+very long and strongly made. Head small, with more or less
+elongated muzzle. Ears generally rather long and ovate.</p>
+
+<p>Upwards of forty-four existing species of this group have been
+described, and many attempts have been made to subdivide them into
+smaller groups or genera for the convenience of arrangement and
+description, but these have generally been based upon such trivial
+characters that it is preferable to speak of many of them as sections
+of the genus <i>Macropus</i>, reserving generic rank only to forms somewhat
+aberrant in structure. According to this arrangement the
+genera will be as follows:</p>
+
+<p><i>Lagostrophus.</i><a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a>—Represented only by the Banded Wallaby
+(<i>L. fasciatus</i>) of Western Australia, which presents the following
+distinctive features. Size small. Muffle naked. Hind feet covered
+with long bristly hairs, concealing the claws. Lower part of back
+marked by dark cross-bands. Skull with a narrow pointed muzzle
+and inflated auditory bullæ; symphysis of mandible firmly united.
+No canine. Upper incisive series meeting at a sharp angle, and
+diverging but slightly behind. First incisor smaller in section than
+either of the others and scarcely longer, bluntly pointed; second
+with a flattened oral surface; third smaller, similarly flattened, but
+with a groove on oral surface forming a notch at its postero-external
+angle. Fourth premolar short, with a distinct inner ledge.
+Molars as in <i>Macropus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dendrolagus.</i><a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a>—General proportions of limbs and body normal
+and unlike those of other members of the family. Muffle broad and
+only partly naked. Fur on nape, and sometimes on back, directed
+forwards. Fore limbs nearly as large as the hind; hind feet with
+the syndactylous second and third digits relatively large; claws of
+fourth and fifth hind digits curved like those of the manus. Tail
+very long, and thickly furred. Skull stout, with a short and wide
+muzzle; the posterior part of the palate fully ossified, and the
+auditory bullæ not inflated. A small canine. Fourth premolar
+large, but much shorter antero-posteriorly than in the next genus;
+molars as in the latter.</p>
+
+<p>This genus includes four species of Tree-Kangaroos, three of
+which occur in New Guinea, while <i>D. lumholtzi</i> is found in North
+Queensland. They differ greatly from all the other forms in being
+chiefly arboreal in their habits, climbing with facility among the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166"></a>[166]</span>
+branches of large trees, and feeding on the bark, leaves, and fruit.
+They are confined to the tropical forests of the regions mentioned;
+and it would appear that we must regard their resemblance in the
+proportions of the limbs and habits to the Phalangers as having
+been independently acquired.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dorcopsis.</i><a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a>—Hind limbs relatively less large than in <i>Macropus</i>.
+Muffle large, broad, and naked. Ears small. Fur on nape directed
+wholly or partially forwards. Hind claws not concealed by hair.
+Tail with a nearly naked tip. Skull long and narrow, with the
+auditory bullæ not inflated. A well-developed canine. First upper
+incisor somewhat short; second and third nearly equal, notched
+externally. Fourth premolar greatly elongated antero-posteriorly,
+its length generally exceeding the united lengths of the first and
+second molars; a distinct inner ledge, and vertical grooves on both
+sides. Molars low and rounded, with the median longitudinal
+bridge between the ridges almost or quite aborted, and the talon in
+front of the first transverse ridge very narrow, and not extending
+to the inner side. The two series of cheek-teeth parallel, or nearly
+so, instead of converging at the extremities.</p>
+
+<p>Three species of this genus are known, all of which are from
+New Guinea; the type being <i>D. muelleri</i>. In the characters of the
+dentition, the forward inclination of the fur on the nape, and other
+points, this genus is allied to <i>Dendrolagus</i>; but <i>Dorcopsis macleayi</i>
+connects the other species with <i>Macropus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lagorchestes.</i><a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a>—Muffle entirely or partially covered with hair.
+Fourth hind digit with a long claw, not concealed by hair. Tail
+rather short, evenly furred, without a spur. Skull with short
+muzzle and diastema, and inflated auditory bulla. Canine present,
+sometimes very small. Fourth premolar large, not constricted in
+the middle, with a continuous inner ledge.</p>
+
+<p>This genus includes the Hare-Kangaroos, a group of small
+hare-like animals, great leapers and swift runners, which mostly
+affect the open grassy ridges, particularly those of a stony character,
+sleeping in forms or seats like the common hare. Their limbs are
+comparatively small, their claws sharp and slender, and their muffle
+is clothed with velvet-like hairs. Three species—<i>M. leporoides</i>, <i>M.
+hirsutus</i>, <i>M. conspicillatus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The range extends over the whole of Australia, but does not
+embrace Tasmania.</p>
+
+<p><i>Onychogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a>—Muffle hairy. Fourth hind claw long, narrow,
+compressed, and sharp. Tail long and tapering, covered with short
+hair, and furnished at the tip with a horny spur. Skull nearly as in
+<i>Macropus</i>, with the auditory bullæ more or less inflated. Canine<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167"></a>[167]</span>
+small or wanting. Upper incisors small, decreasing in size from first
+to third. Fourth premolar small, hour-glass shaped, and without
+inner ledge. Molars as in <i>Macropus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This genus contains three species, having the same distribution
+as <i>Lagorchestes</i>. Mr. O. Thomas observes: “The spur-tailed Wallabies
+form a natural little group, distinguished both by the shape of the
+incisors and the peculiar horny excrescence at the tip of the tail.
+The latter character is altogether unique among Marsupials, and is
+only found among other mammals in the Lion, which occasionally
+has a somewhat similar horny spur at the end of its tail. In the
+case of the Wallabies it is difficult to conceive what can be the
+use of this spur; and observations on the living animal are much
+needed with regard to this interesting point.”</p>
+
+<p><i>Petrogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a>—Muffle naked. Fur of nape directed backwards.
+Claw of fourth hind digit very short. Tail long, cylindrical, thinner
+than in <i>Macropus</i>, and thickly haired and pencilled at the extremity.
+Skull as in the smaller species of <i>Macropus</i>, with large posterior
+palatal vacuities, and the bullæ sometimes inflated. No canine.
+Upper incisors small, the third resembling that of <i>Macropus</i>. Fourth
+premolar large and stout, as in some of the Wallabies, with a continuous
+inner ledge, and two or three indistinct vertical ridges
+externally. Molars as in the Wallabies.</p>
+
+<p>This genus is represented by six species, of which <i>P. penicillata</i>
+is a well-known example, ranging over the whole of the mainland of
+Australia. The Rock-Wallabies, as its members may be called, are
+very closely allied to some of the true Wallabies; and some hesitation
+may be expressed as to the advisability of accepting their generic
+separation from <i>Macropus</i>. They inhabit rocky regions, making
+their retreats in caverns and crevices, leaping with surprising agility
+from one narrow ledge to another, and browsing upon the scanty
+herbage that the neighbourhood of such situations affords. The
+species are <i>P. xanthopus</i>, <i>P. penicillata</i>, <i>P. lateralis</i>, <i>P. concinna</i>, <i>P.
+brachyotis</i>, <i>P. inornata</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of <i>P. penicillata</i> are found in a fossil state in the
+Pleistocene cave-deposits of New South Wales.</p>
+
+<p><i>Macropus.</i><a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a>—Muffle generally completely naked. Ears large.
+Fur on nape (with an occasional exception in two species) directed
+backwards. Claw of fourth hind digit very long. Tail thick,
+tapering, and evenly furred. Four mammæ. Skull (<a href="#figure055">Fig. 55</a>) long,
+smooth, and rounded; the nasals expanded behind; generally large
+palatal vacuities; and the auditory bullæ not inflated. Canine
+minute, and shed at an early period. Incisor series forming an
+open curve; the first the tallest, and the third nearly always the
+longest antero-posteriorly, and generally with an infolding of enamel<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168"></a>[168]</span>
+near its postero-external angle. Fourth upper premolar with a
+secant edge, and an inner basal ledge or tubercle; corresponding
+lower tooth secant; both maybe longer or shorter than first molar.
+Molars (except very occasionally) with a distinct longitudinal bridge
+connecting transverse ridges. Lower incisors long and scalpriform,
+with inner secant edges opposable, owing to the loose articulation of
+the mandibular symphysis.</p>
+
+<p>This genus includes the true Kangaroos and Wallabies, the size
+of the individual existing species varying from that of a Rabbit
+to that of a Man. There are no less than twenty-three existing
+species, which may be divided into three groups, as well as many
+extinct ones. The genus is found in Australia and New Guinea,
+as well as in the eastern half of the Austro-Malayan transitional
+region.</p>
+
+<p>The first group, or true Kangaroos, comprises the largest
+existing forms, which are generally of a uniform and sombre colour.</p>
+
+<p>The skull is of a large and massive type, with the palate more
+or less well ossified posteriorly, while the molars frequently have
+a median longitudinal bridge connecting the first transverse ridge
+with the anterior talon, and no antero-external bridge between the
+same ridge and talon. The history of the discovery of the typical
+representative of this group, as being of considerable interest, may
+be given at some length. When Captain Cook, during his first
+memorable voyage of discovery, was detained for the purpose of
+refitting his ship at Endeavour river on the north-east coast of
+Australia, a strange-looking animal, entirely unknown to them, was
+frequently seen by the ship’s company; and it is recorded in the
+annals of the voyage that, on the 14th of July 1770, “Mr. Gore,
+who went out this day with his gun, had the good fortune to kill
+one of the animals which had been so much the subject of our
+speculation, ... and which is called by the natives kanguroo,” a
+name which, though it does not appear to be now known to any of
+the aboriginal tribes of the country, has been adopted for this
+animal in all European languages, with only slight modifications of
+spelling. With the exception of a passing glimpse in the beginning
+of the same century by the Dutch traveller Bruyn of some living
+examples of an allied species, this was the first introduction to the
+civilised world of any member of a group of animals now so
+familiar. The affinities of the species, skins of which were brought
+home by Captain Cook and subsequent voyagers, were recognised
+by Schreber as nearer to the American opossums (then the only
+known Marsupials) than to any other mammals with which zoologists
+were acquainted, and consequently it was placed by him, in his
+great work on the Mammalia, then in the course of publication, in the
+genus <i>Didelphys</i>, with <i>gigantea</i> for a specific designation,—the latter
+having been bestowed upon it by Zimmermann under the impression<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169"></a>[169]</span>
+that it was a huge species of jerboa. Soon afterwards (1791) Dr.
+Shaw very properly formed a new genus for its reception, which
+he named <i>Macropus</i>, in allusion to the peculiar length of its hind
+foot. By the name thus formed, <i>Macropus giganteus</i>, this kind of
+Kangaroo has ever since been known in zoological literature. It is
+the common Gray Kangaroo, called “boomer,” “forrester,” or “old
+man” by the colonists, and frequents the open grassy plains of the
+greater part of eastern Australia and Tasmania; a figure being
+given in the woodcut on <a href="#figure053">p. 160</a>. The muffle is partly covered
+with hair, and the fourth premolar very short. Several varieties
+are known.</p>
+
+<p>A sub-group, distinguished from the above by the naked
+muffle, includes some very large and handsome species, which principally
+dwell in rocky mountain ranges, as <i>M. rufus</i>, the great Red
+Kangaroo, <i>M. antilopinus</i>, and <i>M. robustus</i>. The fourth premolar is
+of large or medium size in these forms. Remains of <i>M. giganteus</i>
+occur fossil in the Pleistocene of Australia, where we also find the
+allied extinct <i>M. titan</i>, which attains somewhat larger dimensions.
+<i>M. robustus</i> also dates from the same geological epoch, where it was
+accompanied by two allied types known as <i>M. altus</i> and <i>M. cooperi</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The second group includes the larger Wallabies, which are
+smaller than the true Kangaroos, with a brighter and more
+variegated coloration. The palate is generally more incomplete
+than in the typical group; and in the molars the anterior talon is
+connected with the first transverse ridge by an external instead of
+a median longitudinal bridge. The members of this group are
+frequenters of forests and dense impenetrable brushes and scrubs,
+and hence are often called Brush Kangaroos, though a native name,
+“Wallaby,” is now generally applied to them. There are several
+species, of which <i>M. ruficollis</i>, <i>M. ualabatus</i>, <i>M. parryi</i>, and <i>M. agilis</i>
+are the best known.</p>
+
+<p><i>M. ualabatus</i> and <i>M. parryi</i> are found fossil in the Pleistocene
+deposits of Australia. In those beds we also meet with remains of
+several very large extinct species, which appear to be allied to those
+Wallabies in which the fourth premolar is large and elongated, all
+of them agreeing with the Wallabies in the absence of the median
+bridge between the first ridge and talon of the molars. These fossil
+forms comprise <i>M. brehus</i>, in which the skull was probably about
+one foot in length, and <i>M. rœchus</i>, and <i>M. anak</i>, which were of somewhat
+inferior dimensions. In the last-named species the length of
+the fourth upper premolar is equal to that of the first and half of
+the second molar.<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p>
+
+<p>The third and last group of the genus includes the small<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170"></a>[170]</span>
+Wallabies, which are small and lightly-built animals, in some
+instances not larger than a Rabbit. Their muffles are always naked,
+and in the skull the anterior palatine foramina are small and the
+posterior vacuities very large, while the posterior expansion of the
+nasals is very marked. The third upper incisor is smaller than in
+the last group. This group extends farther into the tropics than
+either of the others, being found in the New Britain and Aru
+islands, as well as in New Guinea. <i>M. brachyurus</i> is remarkable for
+its comparatively short and slender tail and small ears. The earliest
+known species of Kangaroo, referred to before, <i>M. bruni</i>, belongs to
+this section. Several examples were seen by Bruyn in 1711 living
+in captivity in the garden of the Dutch governor of Batavia, and
+described and figured in the account of his travels (<i>Reizen over
+Moskovie</i>, etc.) under the name of “Filander.” It was quite lost
+sight of, and its name even transferred by S. Müller to another
+species (<i>Dorcopsis muelleri</i>), until rediscovered in 1865 by Rosenberg,
+who sent a series of specimens to the Leyden Museum from the
+islands of Aru and Great Key, thus determining its true habitat.
+<i>M. thetidis</i> is a well-known Australian representative of this
+group.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct genera.</i>—In addition to the fossil forms already mentioned
+which can be referred to existing genera, there are others from the
+Australian Pleistocene indicating extinct generic types of <i>Macropodidæ</i>,
+to which brief reference may now be made. The first of these
+is <i>Sthenurus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> represented by a single large species (<i>S. atlas</i>), and
+characterised by the presence of a complete inner lobe to the fourth
+upper premolar, and of an outer one in the opposing lower tooth,
+so that these teeth present a flat and oval grinding surface when
+worn. The median longitudinal bridge connecting the transverse
+ridges of the molars is very imperfect; and in the upper molars
+there is no bridge between the first ridge and talon. In <i>Procoptodon</i><a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a>
+the premolars resemble those of <i>Sthenurus</i>, but the molars are
+elongated, and usually have their enamel thrown into numerous
+vertical foldings. The most distinctive feature is, however, the
+complete ankylosis of the mandibular symphysis; the mandibular
+rami being deep, and the diastema in the dental series short. The
+lower incisors are nearly cylindrical, and the palate has large
+vacuities. Three species are known. The largest representation of
+the whole family is the type of the genus <i>Palorchestes</i><a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> (<i>P. azael</i>), in
+which the length of the skull is estimated at sixteen inches. It is
+distinguished from <i>Procoptodon</i> by the longer mandibular symphysis
+and diastema, and the spatulate lower incisors. The true molars
+have no distinct anterior talon, and are not grooved, while the
+palate was fully ossified.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171"></a>[171]</span></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Extinct Families.</span></h4>
+
+<p>Here may be noticed two genera of extinct Marsupials, the remains
+of which have been found in the Pleistocene deposits of Australia,
+which agree with the <i>Macropodidæ</i> and the <i>Phalangeridæ</i> in having
+³⁄₁ incisors, those of the lower jaw being very large and proclivous.
+As the whole of their structure, especially that of the hind feet, is
+not yet known, their precise affinities cannot be determined.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diprotodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₁, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₄; total 28. The first
+upper incisor very large and scalpriform (<a href="#figure056">Fig. 56</a>). True molars
+with prominent transverse ridges, as in <i>Macropus</i>, but wanting
+the longitudinal connecting bridge. Anterior and posterior limbs
+less disproportionate than in the Kangaroos. Humerus elongated,
+and differing from that of nearly all Marsupials in the absence of an
+entepicondylar foramen. The palate is fully ossified, and there is
+no pit or perforation in the masseteric fossa of the mandible. <i>D.
+australis</i> is the largest known Marsupial, being fully equal in bulk
+to a Rhinoceros. It may be regarded as the type of a family—<i>Diprotodontidæ</i>—having
+affinity on the one hand with the Phalangers
+and on the other with the Kangaroos.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure056" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure056.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span>—Left lateral aspect of the skull of <i>Diprotodon australis</i>; from the Pleistocene of
+Australia. ⅒ natural size. <i>i</i>, Incisors; <i>p</i>, premolar; <i>m</i>, molars. (After Owen.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Nototherium.</i><a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a>—Represented by a species of somewhat smaller
+size than the type of <i>Diprotodon</i>, with a shorter skull, in which the
+zygomatic arches are very wide and the nasals curiously expanded
+at their extremities. The mandibular symphysis is ankylosed;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172"></a>[172]</span>
+and, as in <i>Diprotodon</i>, there appears to have been no tooth-change.
+The humerus probably referable to <i>Nototherium</i> is of a short and
+widely expanded type, with a large entepicondylar foramen, and
+coming nearer to that of the Wombat than to that of any other
+existing form. The <i>Nototheriidæ</i> may apparently be regarded as a
+distinct family connecting the <i>Diprotodontidæ</i> with the <i>Phascolomyidæ</i>
+and <i>Phalangeridæ</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<p><i>Bibliography of Marsupialia.</i>—G. R. Waterhouse, <i>Nat. Hist. of the Mammalia</i>,
+vol. i. “Marsupiata,” 1846; J. Gould, <i>Mammals of Australia</i>, 1863; R. Owen,
+article “Marsupialia,” in <i>Cyclop. of Anatomy and Physiology</i>, and various
+memoirs “On Extinct Mammals of Australia” in <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>;
+W. H. Flower, “On the Development and Succession of the Teeth in the Marsupialia,”
+<i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1867; O. Thomas, “On the Homologies and Succession
+of the Teeth in the Dasyuridæ,” <i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1887; and “Catalogue of Marsupialia
+and Monotremata in the British Museum,” 1888.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173"></a>[173]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE SUBCLASS EUTHERIA AND THE ORDER EDENTATA</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The whole of the remaining groups of mammals are included in a
+single subclass, known by the names Eutheria, Monodelphia, or
+Placentalia.<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> The one distinctive feature they have in common
+(from which the last-mentioned name is derived) is the presence of
+an allantoic placenta by means of which the fœtus is nourished within
+the uterus of the mother. Throughout the entire subclass, as a general
+rule, the urino-genital organs open quite independently of the rectum;
+the corpus callosum of the brain is well developed; the mandible does
+not show a marked inflection of its angle; and distinct epipubic
+bones are not attached to the anterior margin of the pubic symphysis.
+In those cases where there is a heterodont and diphyodont dentition
+the dental formula can be reduced to some modification of the one
+given on <a href="#Page_25">p. 25</a>, there being only one known genus where four
+true molars occur, and even that not invariably. As in the
+Metatheria, the coracoid is reduced to a mere appendage of the
+scapula, and the acetabular cavity of the pelvis is imperforate.
+While the survivors of the other subclasses have probably been
+for a long time in a stationary condition, these have, as there is
+already good evidence to show throughout all the Tertiary
+geological age, and by inference for some time before, been multiplying
+in numbers and variations of form, and attaining higher
+stages of development and specialisation in various directions.
+They consequently exhibit far greater diversity of external or
+adaptive modification than is met with in either of the other subclasses,—some
+being fitted to live as exclusively in the water as
+fishes, and others to emulate the aerial flight of birds.</p>
+
+<p>To facilitate the study of the different component members
+of this large group, it is usual to separate them into certain<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174"></a>[174]</span>
+divisions which are called “orders.” In the main zoologists
+are now of accord as to the general number and limits of these
+divisions among the existing forms, but the affinities and relationships
+of the orders to one another are far from being understood, and
+there are very many extinct forms already discovered which do not
+fit at all satisfactorily into any of the orders as commonly defined.</p>
+
+<p>Commencing with the most easily distinguished, we may first
+separate a group called Edentata, composed of several very distinct
+forms, the Sloths, Anteaters, and Armadillos, which under great
+modifications of characters of limbs and digestive organs, as well as
+habits of life, have just enough in common to make it probable that
+they are the very specialised survivors of an ancient group, most
+of the members of which are extinct, although the researches of
+palæontology have not yet revealed them to us. The characters of
+their cerebral, dental, and in many cases of their reproductive organs
+show an inferior grade of organisation to that of the generality of
+the subclass. The next order, about the limits of which there is no
+difficulty, is the Sirenia,—aquatic vegetable-eating animals, with
+complete absence of hind limbs, and low cerebral organisation,—represented
+in our present state of knowledge by but two existing
+genera, the Dugongs and Manatees, and by a few extinct forms,
+which, though approaching a more generalised mammalian type,
+show no special characters allying them to any of the other orders.
+Another equally well-marked and equally isolated, though far more
+numerously represented and diversified order, is that of the Cetacea,
+composed of the various forms of Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises.
+In aquatic habits, external fish-like form, and absence of hind limbs,
+they resemble the last, though in all other characters they are
+as widely removed as are any two orders among the Eutheria.</p>
+
+<p>All the remaining orders are more nearly allied together, the
+steps by which they have become modified from one general
+type being in most cases not difficult to realise. Their dentition
+especially, however diversified in detail, always responds to the
+formula already alluded to, and, although the existing forms are
+broken up into groups in most cases easy of definition, the discoveries
+already made in palæontology have in great measure filled up the
+gaps between them.</p>
+
+<p>Very isolated among existing Eutheria are the two species of
+Elephant constituting the group called Proboscidea. These, however,
+are now known to be the survivors of a large series of similar animals,
+Mammoths, Mastodons, and Dinotheres, which as we pass backwards
+in time gradually assume a more ordinary or generalised type; and
+the interval which was lately supposed to exist between even these
+and the rest of the class is partially bridged over by the discovery
+in American Eocene and early Miocene formations of the gigantic
+Dinocerata, evidently offshoots of the great group of hoofed animals,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175"></a>[175]</span>
+or Ungulata, represented in the actual fauna by the Horses,
+Rhinoceroses, Tapirs, Swine, and Ruminants. Almost as isolated
+as the Proboscidea among existing mammals are the few small
+species constituting the family <i>Hyracidæ</i>, and in their case palæontology
+affords no help at present, and therefore, pending further discoveries,
+it has been thought advisable in most recent systems to
+give them the honour of an order to themselves, under the name of
+Hyracoidea. But the number of extinct forms already known allied
+to the Ungulata, though not coming under the definition of either
+of the two groups (Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla) under which all
+existing species range themselves, is so great that either many new
+orders must be made for their reception or the definition of the old
+order Ungulata so far extended as to receive them all, in which
+case both Proboscidea and Hyracoidea may be included within it.
+Again, the Rodentia or gnawing animals—Rabbits, Rats, Squirrels,
+Porcupines, Beavers, etc.—are, if we look only at the present state
+of the class, most isolated. No one can doubt what is meant by a
+Rodent animal, or have any difficulty about defining it clearly, at
+least by its dental characters; yet our definitions break down before
+the extinct South American <i>Typotherium</i>, half Rodent and half
+Ungulate, which leads by an easy transition to the still more truly
+Ungulate <i>Toxodon</i>, for the reception of which a distinct order
+(Toxodontia) has been proposed. It has also been suggested that
+the Rodents are connected by some of the extinct Tillodontia (or
+Tæniodontia) with the Edentates. The Insectivora and the
+Carnivora again are at present quite distinct orders, but they merge
+into one another through fossil forms, and are especially connected
+by the large group of primitive Carnivora, so abundantly represented
+in the Eocene deposits both of America and Europe, to which
+Cope has given the name of Creodonta. The Carnivora also appear
+to have been closely connected with the primitive Ungulates as represented
+by the extinct group called Condylarthra. In another
+direction the step from the Insectivores to the Lemurs is not great,
+and in past times the transition was probably complete. The Bats
+or Chiroptera are allied to the Insectivora in all characters except the
+extraordinary modification of their anterior extremities into wings;
+but this, like the want of the hind limbs in the Cetacea and Sirenia,
+makes such a clear distinction between them and all other mammals
+that, in the absence of any knowledge of any completely intermediate
+or transitional forms, they can be perfectly separated, and
+constitute as well-defined an order as any in the class. We have,
+however, an inkling of the mode in which the Insectivora were
+modified into Chiroptera shown us by the so-called Flying Lemur
+(<i>Galeopithecus</i>). Finally, we have the important and well-characterised
+group called Primates, including all the Monkeys and Man;
+and the question is not yet solved as to how and through what<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176"></a>[176]</span>
+forms this is linked on to the other groups. It is commonly assumed
+that the Lemurs are nothing more than inferior Primates, but the
+interval between them in the actual fauna of the world is very great,
+and our knowledge of numerous extinct types recently discovered
+in America, said to be intermediate in characters, is not yet
+sufficient to enable us to form a definite opinion upon the subject.</p>
+
+<p>The Edentata may be taken first as standing in some respects
+apart from all the others; and the Primates must be placed at the
+head of the series. The position of the others is quite arbitrary, as
+none of the hitherto proposed associations of the orders into larger
+groups stand the test of critical investigation, and palæontological
+researches have already gone far to show that they are all modifications
+of a common heterodont, diphyodont, pentadactylate form.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Order</i> <span class="smcap">Edentata</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>The name assigned to this group (which some zoologists think
+ought rather to be ranked as a subclass<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> than an order) by Cuvier
+is often objected to as inappropriate—for although some of the
+members are edentulous, others have very numerous teeth—and the
+Linnæan name Bruta is occasionally substituted. But that term is
+quite as objectionable, especially since the group to which Linnæus
+applied it is by no means equivalent to the order as now understood,
+as the names of the genera contained in it, viz. <i>Elephas</i>, <i>Trichechus</i>,
+<i>Bradypus</i>, <i>Myrmecophaga</i>, <i>Manis</i> and <i>Dasypus</i>, indicate. It contained,
+in fact, all the animals then known which are comprised in the
+modern groups of Proboscidea, Sirenia and Edentata together with
+the Walrus, one of the Carnivora. If retained at all, it should
+rather belong to the Proboscidea, as <i>Elephas</i> stands first in the
+list of genera in the <i>Systema Naturæ</i>. Cuvier’s order included the
+<i>Ornithorhynchus</i> and <i>Echidna</i>, the structure of which was then imperfectly
+known, and which are now by common consent removed
+to an altogether different section of the class; but otherwise its
+limits are those now adopted. The name Edentata is so generally
+used, and its meaning so well understood, that it would be undesirable
+to change it now; in fact similar reasons might be assigned
+for ceasing to use nearly all the other current ordinal designations,
+for it might be equally well objected that all Carnivora are not
+flesheaters, many of the Marsupialia have not pouches, and so
+forth.</p>
+
+<p>If the teeth are not always absent, they invariably exhibit
+certain imperfections, which are indeed almost the only common
+characters binding together the various extinct and existing members
+of the order. These are—that they are homodont and, with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177"></a>[177]</span>
+remarkable exceptions of <i>Tatusia</i> and <i>Orycteropus</i>, monophyodont;
+they are never rooted, but have persistent pulps; except in some
+fossil forms, they are always deficient in one of the constituents
+which enter into the formation of the complete mammalian
+tooth, the enamel; and, at least among living forms, are never
+present either in the upper or lower jaw in the fore part of
+the mouth, the situation occupied by the incisors of other
+mammals.<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p>
+
+<p>The peculiar nature of the dentition in the aberrant <i>Orycteropus</i>
+will be noticed under the heading of that genus. As a rule, the
+coracoid process of the scapula of the Edentates is more developed
+than in other Eutheria.</p>
+
+<p>The degree of development of the brain varies considerably in
+the different families, the
+hemispheres being in some
+cases almost or quite smooth
+(<a href="#figure057">Fig. 57</a>), with a small corpus
+callosum, and large anterior
+commissure; while in other
+instances the hemispheres
+are convoluted, and the
+corpus callosum is larger.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure057" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure057.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>—Upper surface of the brain of the Broad-banded
+Armadillo (<i>Xenurus unicinctus</i>). The large
+olfactory lobes are seen at the anterior extremity
+(left of figure); the hemispheres have only three
+sulci. (From Garrod, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1878, p. 230).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>There is so great a difference
+in structure and habits
+between some of the existing
+animals assigned to this order
+that, beyond the negative
+characters just mentioned,
+there seems little to connect
+them. The Sloths and Anteaters, for instance, in mode of life,
+general conformation of limbs, structure of digestive organs, etc.,
+appear at first sight almost as widely separated as any mammals.
+Palæontology has, however, thrown great light upon their relations,
+and proved their real affinities. Perfectly intermediate forms have
+been discovered in the great Ground Sloths of America, which have
+the dentition and general form of the head of the Sloths, combined with
+the limbs and trunk of the Anteaters. It is, indeed, highly probable
+that the existing members of this order are very much differentiated
+representatives of a large group, the greater number of which are
+now extinct, and have become so without ever attaining a high
+grade of organisation. The great diversity of structure in the
+existing families, the high degree of specialisation to which many
+have attained, the paucity of species and even of individuals, their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178"></a>[178]</span>
+limited area of distribution, and their small size compared with
+known ancestral forms, all show that this is an ancient and a waning
+group, the members of which seem still to hold their own either by
+the remoteness and seclusion of their dwelling-places, by their
+remarkable adaptation of structure to special conditions of life, or
+by aid of the peculiar defensive armature with which they are
+invested. Their former history can, however, only be thus surmised,
+rather than read, at present; for, though we have ample evidence
+of the abundance and superior magnitude of certain forms in the
+most recent or Pleistocene geological age, yet we have at present
+no definite evidence as to their origin, or relationship to other
+orders of mammals.</p>
+
+<p>The existing members of the order readily group themselves
+into five distinct families, the limits of which are perfectly clear.
+These are (1) <i>Bradypodidæ</i>, or Sloths; (2) <i>Myrmecophagidæ</i>, or Anteaters;
+(3) <i>Dasypodidæ</i>, or Armadillos; (4) <i>Manidæ</i>, Pangolins or
+Scaly Anteaters; and (5) <i>Orycteropodidæ</i>, Aard-varks or African
+Anteaters. The geographical distribution of these families coincides
+with their structural distinction, the first three being inhabitants of
+the New and the last two of the Old World. It has been usual to
+arrange these families into two large groups or suborders: (1) the
+Phyllophaga, leaf-eaters, also called Tardigrada, containing the
+<i>Bradypodidæ</i> alone; and (2) the Entomophaga, insect-eaters, or
+Vermilingua, containing all the other families, from which sometimes
+the <i>Orycteropodidæ</i> are separated as a third suborder under
+the name of Effodientia, or Tubulidentata. Such an arrangement
+is, however, an artificial one, founded on superficial resemblance.
+The bonds which unite the <i>Manidæ</i> to the <i>Myrmecophagidæ</i> are
+mainly to be found in the structure of the mouth, especially the
+extensile character of the tongue, the great development of the submaxillary
+glands, and the absence of teeth. These characters are
+exactly analogous to those found in the Echidna among Monotremes,
+the Woodpeckers among Birds, and the Chameleon among Reptiles,—the
+fact probably being that in countries where Termites and
+similar insects flourish various distinct forms of vertebrates have
+become modified in special relation to this abundance of nutritious
+food, which could only be made available by a peculiar structure of
+the alimentary organs. A close study of the more essential
+portions of the anatomy of these animals<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> leads to the belief
+that all the American Edentates at present known, however diversified
+in form and habits, belong to a common stock. Thus the
+<i>Bradypodidæ</i>, <i>Megatheriidæ</i>, and <i>Myrmecophagidæ</i> are certainly allied,
+the modifications seen in the existing families relating only to food
+and manner of life. The ancestral forms may have been omnivorous,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179"></a>[179]</span>
+and gradually separated into the purely vegetable and
+purely animal feeders; from the former are developed the modern
+Sloths, from the latter the Anteaters. The Armadillos (<i>Dasypodidæ</i>)
+are another modification of the same type, retaining some
+generalised characters, as those of the alimentary organs, but in
+other respects, as in their defensive armature, remarkably specialised.
+The two Old World families <i>Manidæ</i> and <i>Orycteropodidæ</i> are
+so essentially distinct, both from the American families and from
+each other, that it may even be considered doubtful whether they
+are derived from the same primary branch of mammals, or whether
+they may not be offsets of some other branch, the remaining
+members of which have been lost to knowledge. Further remarks on
+this point are recorded under the description of the <i>Orycteropodidæ</i>.<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a></p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Bradypodidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Externally clothed with long, coarse, crisp hair. Head short
+and rounded. External ears inconspicuous. Teeth ⁵⁄₄ in each jaw,
+subcylindrical, of persistent growth, consisting of a central axis of
+vaso-dentine, with a thin investment of hard dentine, and a thick
+outer coating of cement; without (so far as is yet known) any succession.
+Clavicles present. Fore limbs greatly longer than the
+hind limbs. All the extremities terminating in narrow, curved
+feet; the digits never exceeding three in number, encased for
+nearly their whole length in a common integument, and armed
+with long strong claws. Tail rudimentary. Stomach complex. No
+cæcum. Uterus simple and globular. Placenta deciduate, dome-like,
+composed of an aggregation of numerous discoidal lobes. Strictly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180"></a>[180]</span>
+arboreal in habits, vegetable feeders, and limited geographically to
+the forest regions of South and Central America.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp79" id="figure058" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure058.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span>—Two-toed Sloth (<i>Cholœpus hoffmanni</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Sloths, as the animals of this family are called on account
+of the habitual sluggishness of their movements, are the most strictly
+arboreal of all mammals, living entirely among the branches of
+trees, usually hanging under them, with their backs downwards
+(<a href="#figure058">Fig. 58</a>), and clinging to them with the simple hook-like organs to
+which the terminations of all their limbs are reduced. When they
+are obliged from any cause to descend to the ground, which they
+rarely, if ever, do voluntarily, their limbs, owing to their unequal
+length and the peculiar conformation of the feet—which allows
+the animals to rest only on the outer edge—are most inefficient
+for terrestrial progression, and they crawl along a level surface
+with considerable difficulty. Though generally slow and inactive,
+even when in their natural haunts, Sloths can on occasions travel
+with considerable rapidity along the branches; and, as they do not
+leap, like most other arboreal creatures, they avail themselves of
+the swaying of the boughs by the wind to pass from tree to tree.
+They feed entirely on leaves and young shoots and fruits, which
+they gather in their mouth, the fore limbs aiding in dragging
+boughs within reach, but not being used like hands, as they are by
+monkeys, squirrels, etc. When sleeping they roll themselves up in
+a ball, and, owing to the dry shaggy character of their hair, are
+very inconspicuous among the mosses and lichens with which the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181"></a>[181]</span>
+trees of their native forests abound; the concealment thus afforded
+being heightened in some species by the peculiar greenish tint
+of the outer covering—very uncommon in mammals. This is not
+due to the colour of the hair itself, but to the presence upon its
+surface of an alga, the lodgment of which is facilitated by the fluted
+or rough surface of the exterior of the hair, and the growth of which
+is promoted by the dampness of the atmosphere in the gloomy
+tropical forests, as it soon disappears from the hair of animals kept
+in captivity in England. Sloths are nocturnal, silent, inoffensive, and
+solitary animals, and usually produce but one young at birth. They
+appear to show an almost reptilian tenacity of life, surviving the
+most severe injuries and large doses of poisons, and exhibiting
+longer persistence of irritability of muscular tissue after death than
+other mammals.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Bradypodidæ</i>, as well as in the <i>Myrmecophagidæ</i>, the
+testes are placed close to each other, lying on the rectum between
+it and the bladder; the penis is quite rudimentary, consisting
+of a pair of small corpora cavernosa, not directly attached by their
+crura to the rami of the ischia, and having a glans scarcely larger
+than that of the clitoris of most mammals, and, as in birds and
+reptiles, without any true corpus spongiosum. In the females of
+both families the uterus is simple and globular; and the vagina, at
+least in the virgin state, is divided into two channels by a strong
+median partition. The deciduate placenta of <i>Cholœpus</i> is composed
+of a number of lobes aggregated into a dome-like mass; and it
+does not appear that the placenta of the Anteaters departs in any
+important characters from this type. According to the late Professor
+W. K. Parker, the embryos of the Sloths, Anteaters, and
+Pangolins have the stapes of the middle ear in the form of a rod,
+thus showing affinities with a very primitive type of mammalian
+organisation.</p>
+
+<p>The Sloths were all included in the Linnæan genus <i>Bradypus</i>,
+but Illiger very properly separated the species with but two claws
+on the fore feet, under the name of <i>Cholœpus</i>, leaving <i>Bradypus</i>
+for those with three.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bradypus.</i><a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a>—Three-toed Sloths. Teeth usually ⁵⁄₄ on each side;
+no tooth projecting greatly beyond the others; the first in the
+upper jaw much smaller than any of the rest; the first in the
+lower jaw broad and compressed; the grinding surfaces of all much
+cupped. Vertebræ: C 9, D and L 20 (of which 15 to 17 bear ribs),
+S 6, C 11. All the known species present the remarkable peculiarity
+of possessing nine cervical vertebræ, <i>i.e.</i> nine vertebræ
+in front of the one which bears the first thoracic rib (or first
+rib connected with the sternum, and corresponding in its general
+relations with the first rib of other mammals); but the ninth,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182"></a>[182]</span>
+and sometimes the eighth, bears a pair of short movable ribs.
+The arms or fore limbs are considerably longer than the hind
+legs. The bones of the fore arm are complete, free, and capable of
+pronation and supination. The hand is long, very narrow, habitually
+curved, and terminates in three pointed curved claws, in
+close apposition with each other. The claws are, in fact, incapable of
+being divaricated, so that the hand is reduced to the condition of a
+triple hook, fit only for the function of suspension from the boughs
+of trees. The foot closely resembles the hand in its general structure
+and mode of use; the sole being habitually turned inwards, so
+that it cannot be applied to the ground in walking. The tongue is
+short and soft, and the stomach large and complex, bearing some
+resemblance to that of the ruminating Ungulates. The windpipe
+or trachea has the remarkable peculiarity among mammals—not
+unfrequent among birds and reptiles—of being folded on itself
+before it reaches the lungs. The mammæ are two, and pectoral in
+position.</p>
+
+<p>“Ai” is the common name given in books to the Three-toed
+Sloths. They were all comprised by Linnæus under the species
+<i>Bradypus tridactylus</i>. More recently Dr. Gray described as many
+as eleven species, ranged in two genera, <i>Bradypus</i> and <i>Arctopithecus</i>;
+but the distinctions which he assigned both to species and genera do
+not bear close examination. Some are covered uniformly with a
+gray or grayish-brown coat; others have a dark collar of elongated
+hairs around the shoulders (<i>B. torquatus</i>); some have the hair of
+the face very much shorter than that of the rest of the head and
+neck; and others have a remarkable-looking patch of soft short hair
+on the back between the shoulders, consisting, when best marked,
+of a median stripe of glossy black, bordered on each side by bright
+orange, yellow, or white. There are also structural differences in
+the skulls, as in the amount of inflation of the pterygoid bones,
+which indicate real differences of species; but the materials in our
+museums are not yet sufficient to correlate these with external
+characters and geographical distribution. The habits of all are
+apparently alike. They are natives of Guiana, Brazil, and Peru,
+and one if not two species (<i>B. infuscatus</i> and <i>B. castaneiceps</i>) extend
+north of the Isthmus of Panama as far as Nicaragua. Of the
+former of these Dr. Seeman says that, though generally silent,
+a specimen in captivity uttered a shrill sound like a monkey
+when forcibly pulled away from the tree to which it was
+holding.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cholœpus.</i><a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a>—Teeth ⁵⁄₄; the most anterior in both jaws separated
+by an interval from the others, very large, caniniform, wearing
+to a sharp, bevelled edge against the opposing tooth, the upper
+shutting in front of the lower when the mouth is closed (<a href="#figure059">Fig. 59</a>),<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183"></a>[183]</span>
+unlike the true canines of heterodont mammals. Vertebræ: C 6
+or 7, D 23-24, L 3, S 7-8, C 4-6. One species (<i>C. didactylus</i>) has
+the ordinary number of vertebræ in the neck; but an otherwise
+closely allied form (<i>C. hoffmanni</i>) has but six. The tail is very
+rudimentary. The hand generally resembles that of <i>Bradypus</i>; but
+there are only two functional digits with claws—those answering
+to the second and third of the typical pentadactylate manus. The
+structure of the hind limb generally resembles that of <i>Bradypus</i>,
+the appellation “two-toed” referring only to the anterior limb,
+for in the foot the
+three middle toes
+are functionally
+developed and of
+nearly equal size.
+<i>C. didactylus</i>, which
+has been longest
+known, is commonly
+called by
+the native name
+of <i>Unau</i>. It inhabits
+the forests
+of Brazil. <i>C. hoffmanni</i>
+(<a href="#figure058">Fig. 58</a>)
+has a more northern
+geographical
+range, extending
+from Ecuador through Panama to Costa Rica. Its voice, which
+is seldom heard, is like the bleat of a sheep, and if the animal is
+seized it snorts violently. Both species are very variable in
+external coloration.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure059" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure059.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>—Skull of Two-toed Sloth (<i>Cholœpus didactylus</i>). From
+<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1871, p. 432.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Nothropus.</i><a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a>—The only fossil form which has been referred to
+this family is indicated by a lower jaw, described by Dr. Burmeister,
+from the Pleistocene of Argentina, which appears to have belonged
+to an animal of about double the dimensions of <i>Cholœpus didactylus</i>.
+Professor Cope states, however, that this jaw really belongs to a
+Glyptodont; while it is referred by Dr. Ameghino to the next
+family.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Megatheriidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp83" id="figure060" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure060.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span>—Section of upper molar teeth of <i>Megatherium americanum</i>. × ⅓.
+<i>p</i>, pulp-cavity; the other letters explained in the text. (After Owen.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The members of this family are all extinct. Their characters,
+so far as is known from the well-preserved remains of many species
+found abundantly in deposits of Pleistocene age in both North and
+South America, were intermediate between those of the existing
+<i>Bradypodidæ</i> and the <i>Myrmecophagidæ</i>, combining the head and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184"></a>[184]</span>
+dentition of the former with the structure of the vertebral column,
+limbs, and tail of the latter. Almost all the known species are of
+comparatively gigantic size, the smallest, <i>Nothrotherium escrivanense</i>,
+exceeding the largest existing Anteater, and the Megatherium
+being larger than a Rhinoceros. The femur has no third trochanter,
+and the odontoid process of the axis vertebra has a peculiar facet
+on the ventral surface. The dentition is usually ⁵⁄₄ on each side, as
+in the Sloths, but ⁴⁄₃ in <i>Nothrotherium</i>.<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> This genus, and in a still
+more marked degree <i>Megatherium</i>, differ from all the others in the
+details of the structure of the teeth. They are very deeply
+implanted, of prismatic form (quadrate in transverse section), and
+the component tissues—hard dentine (<a href="#figure060">Fig. 60</a>, <i>d</i>), softer vaso-dentine
+(<i>v</i>), and cement (<i>c</i>)—are so arranged that, as the tooth wears, the
+surface always presents a pair of transverse ridges, thus producing
+a triturating apparatus comparable to the “bilophodont” molar of
+<i>Dinotherium</i>, <i>Tapirus</i>, <i>Manatus</i>, <i>Macropus</i>, and others, though produced
+in a different manner. In all the other genera the teeth are
+more or less cylindrical, though sometimes laterally compressed or
+even longitudinally grooved on the sides, and on the grinding
+surface the prominent ridge of hard dentine follows the external
+contour, and is surrounded only by a thin layer of cement, as
+in the existing Sloths. The Ground Sloths, as the members<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185"></a>[185]</span>
+of this family may be conveniently designated, agree with the
+Sloths and Anteaters, and thereby differ from all other mammals,
+in that the coracoid process of the scapula and the coracoidal
+border of the same unite over the coraco-scapular notch,
+which is thus converted into a foramen. Large clavicles are
+present.</p>
+
+<p><i>Megatherium.</i><a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a>—The typical genus <i>Megatherium</i>, as being the
+longest known representative of the family, may be noticed in some
+detail. A nearly complete skeleton, found on the banks of the
+River Luxan, near Buenos Ayres, and sent in 1789 to the Royal
+Museum at Madrid, long remained the principal if not the only
+source of information with regard to the species to which it belonged,
+and furnished the materials for many descriptions, notably that of
+Cuvier, who determined its affinities with the Sloths.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> In 1832 an
+important collection of bones of the Megatherium was discovered
+near the Rio Salado, and secured for the Museum of the College
+of Surgeons of England; and these, with another collection found
+at Luxan in 1837, and now in the British Museum, supplied the
+materials for the complete description of the skeleton published
+by Sir R. Owen in 1861. Other skeletons have subsequently been
+received by several of the Continental museums, as Milan and Paris,
+and also by those in South America; and consequently our knowledge
+of the organisation of the Megatherium, so far as it can be
+deduced from the bones and teeth, is as complete as that of any
+other animal, recent or extinct.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure061" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure061.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>—Oral surface of mandible of <i>Megatherium americanum</i>.
+<i>a</i>, Condyle; <i>b</i>, masseteric process; <i>c</i>, angle; <i>d</i>, symphysis. (After Owen.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The remains hitherto spoken of are all referred to one species,
+<i>Megatherium americanum</i> of Blumenbach (<i>M. cuvieri</i> of Desmarest),
+and are all from the newest or Pleistocene geological formations of
+the Argentine Republic and Paraguay, or the lands forming the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186"></a>[186]</span>
+basin of the Rio de la Plata. Dr. Leidy has described, from similar
+formations in Georgia and South Carolina, bones of a closely allied
+species, about one-fourth smaller, which he has named <i>M. mirabile</i>.
+Three other South American species have been described; but <i>M.
+laurillardi</i>, of Lund, founded upon remains found in Brazil, has
+been made the type of the genus <i>Ocnopus</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure062" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure062.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>—Skeleton of <i>Megatherium</i>, from the specimen in the Museum of the Royal College
+of Surgeons. × ¹⁄₂₅.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The following description will apply especially to the best-known
+South American form, <i>Megatherium americanum</i>. In size it exceeded
+any existing land animal except the elephant, to which it was
+inferior only in consequence of the comparative shortness of its
+limbs; for in length and bulk of body it was its equal, if not
+superior. The full length of a mounted skeleton (<a href="#figure062">Fig. 62</a>), from
+the fore part of the head to the end of the tail, is 18 feet, of which
+the tail occupies 5 feet. The head, which is small for the size of
+the animal, presents a general resemblance to that of the Sloth;
+the anterior part of the mouth is, however, more elongated, and the
+jugal bone, though branched posteriorly in the same way as that of
+the Sloth, meets the zygomatic process of the squamosal, thus
+completing the arch. The lower jaw has the middle part of its
+horizontal ramus curiously deepened, so as to admit of implantation
+of the very long-rooted teeth, the peculiar structure
+of which has been already described. A skull recently discovered
+shows that, instead of the wide gap between the extremity of
+the nasals and the premaxillæ exhibited in <a href="#figure062">Fig. 62</a>, there was
+a prenasal bone, towards which a process extended upwards and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187"></a>[187]</span>
+backwards from the extremity of the upper surface of the premaxillæ.</p>
+
+<p>The vertebral column consists of seven cervical, sixteen dorsal,
+three lumbar, five sacral, and eighteen caudal vertebræ. The
+spinous processes are much better developed than in the Sloths,
+and are all directed backwards, there being no reversing of the
+inclination near the posterior end of the dorsal series, as in most
+active-bodied mammals. In the lumbar region, the accessory zygapophyses,
+rudimentary in Sloths, are fully developed, as in the
+Anteaters.</p>
+
+<p>The tail is large, and its basal vertebræ have strong lateral and
+spinous processes and chevron bones, indicating great muscular
+development. The scapula resembles that of the Sloths in the
+union of the acromion with the coracoid, and in the bridging over
+of the suprascapular notch. The clavicle is complete and very
+large, much resembling that of man on a large scale. The fore
+limbs are longer than the hind limbs. The humerus has no entepicondylar
+foramen. The radius and ulna are both well developed,
+and have a considerable amount of freedom of movement. The
+hand is singularly modified. The pollex is represented only by a
+rudimentary metacarpal, but the next three digits are large, and
+terminate in phalanges adapted for the support of immense claws,
+the middle one being especially large. The outer or fifth digit has
+no claw, and it may be considered as certain that the weight of the
+foot was, in standing and walking, chiefly thrown upon this one,
+which was protected by a callous pad below, as in the existing
+great Anteater, while the other toes were curved inwards towards
+the palm, and only came in contact with the ground by their outer
+surfaces. The mechanical arrangements by which the weight of the
+body was thrown entirely upon the outer side of the foot are very
+curious, and are fully described in Owen’s memoir. The pelvis is
+remarkably wide, even more so than that of the Elephant, but it is
+formed on the same principle as in the Sloths. The femur is
+extremely broad and flattened; the tibia and fibula are short and
+strong, and united together at each end. The hind foot, contrary
+to the usual rule in the Edentata, is even more singularly modified
+than the hand. Thus the ankle-joint is formed upon a peculiar
+plan, quite unlike that of the Sloths, or of any other mammal, except
+the Megatherium’s nearest allies; and the calcaneum projects nearly
+as far backwards as the fore part of the foot does forwards. There
+is no trace of great toe or hallux, or of its corresponding cuneiform
+bone; the second toe is rudimentary; while the third has an enormous
+ungual phalanx, which, as in those of the hand, is remarkable
+for the immense development of the bony sheath reflected from
+its proximal end around the base of the claw. The two outer toes
+have large and very peculiarly-shaped metatarsals, but only small<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188"></a>[188]</span>
+phalanges, and no claws. The creature probably walked upon the
+outer edge of the sole, so that the great falcate claw of the third
+toe did not come into contact with the ground, and so was kept in
+a state of sharpness ready for use. The foot was therefore formed
+upon quite a different principle from that of the Anteaters or
+Sloths, though somewhat like the latter in having two of the toes
+aborted.</p>
+
+<p>Taking all the various points of its structure together, they
+clearly indicate affinities both with the existing Sloths and with
+the Anteaters, the skull and teeth more resembling those of the
+former, and the vertebral column and limbs the latter. It is also
+not difficult to infer the food and habits of this enormous creature.
+That it was a leaf-eater there can be little doubt; but the greater
+size and more complex structure of its teeth might have enabled it
+to crush the smaller branches as well as the leaves and succulent
+shoots which form the food of the existing Sloths. It is, however,
+very improbable that it climbed into the branches of the trees like
+its diminutive congeners, and it is far more likely that it obtained
+its subsistence by tearing them down with the great hook-like claws
+of its powerful prehensile fore limbs, being easily enabled to reach
+them by raising itself up upon the massive tripod formed by the
+two hind feet, firmly fixed to the ground by the one huge falcate
+claw, and the stout, muscular tail. The whole conformation of
+the hinder part of the animal is strongly suggestive of such an
+action. There can also be little doubt but that all its movements
+were as slow and deliberate as those of its modern representatives.</p>
+
+<p>An idea at one time prevailed that the Megatherium was
+covered externally with a coat of bony armour like that of the
+Armadillos; but this originated in dermal plates belonging to the
+Glyptodon having been accidentally associated with bones of the
+Megatherium. Similar plates, on a smaller scale, have indeed been
+found in connection with the skeleton of the Mylodon, but never
+yet with the Megatherium, which we may therefore imagine with
+a covering of coarse hair like that of its nearest living allies, the
+Sloths and Anteaters.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scelidotherium</i>, <i>Mylodon</i>, etc.—Of the more important remaining
+genera of this family a briefer notice will suffice. <i>Scelidotherium</i> (in
+which <i>Platyonyx</i> may be included) comprises several species of
+considerably smaller dimensions than the Megatherium, and is in
+some respects intermediate between that genus and <i>Mylodon</i>. The
+teeth have an oval cross-section, like those of the Sloths, while the
+skull, in which the length of the nasals is subject to great variation
+in the different species, approximates more or less closely to that
+of the <i>Myrmecophagidæ</i>. The humerus generally has an entepicondylar
+foramen; and the form and relations of the bones of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189"></a>[189]</span>
+the feet differ considerably from those obtaining in the type genus.
+<i>S. leptocephalum</i>, the type of the genus, occurs in Patagonia and
+Argentina but
+other species are
+found in Brazil
+and Chili. The
+genus <i>Mylodon</i>, in
+its widest sense,
+may be taken to
+include a number
+of comparatively
+large Edentates,
+some of which have
+been described
+under the names of
+<i>Grypotherium</i>, <i>Lestodon</i>,
+and <i>Pseudolestodon</i>.
+The teeth
+of the upper jaw
+are generally of an
+oval or subtriangular
+section; and in
+the more typical forms the first and second teeth are separated
+by a short interval, the former being horizontally worn. In
+other species, however, like <i>M. (Lestodon) armatus</i>, there is a
+considerable space between the first and second teeth, and the
+first is worn obliquely. The skull is exceedingly like that of
+the Sloths in general contour; and there is not the descending
+process at the angle of the mandible found in <i>Megatherium</i>.
+The humerus has no entepicondylar foramen. The species
+represented in <a href="#figure063">Fig. 63</a> is from the Pleistocene of South America;
+but the type of the genus is <i>M. harlani</i>, from beds of corresponding
+age in Kentucky. The Patagonian <i>M. (Grypotherium)
+darwini</i> is a remarkable form, characterised by the presence of a
+bony arch connecting the premaxillæ with the nasals, of which, as
+already mentioned, there is an incomplete development in
+<i>Megatherium</i>. <i>Megalonyx</i>, from the Pleistocene of Kentucky, differs
+from <i>Mylodon</i> by the long interval between the first and second
+teeth, and also by the presence of an entepicondylar foramen in
+the humerus. <i>Nothrotherium</i> is a smaller form, occurring in the
+deposits of the Brazilian caves, of which the dental features have
+been already mentioned. The osteological characters of these and
+other allied genera have been fully described in the works of
+Cuvier, Owen, Burmeister, Leidy, Ameghino, Gervais, Reinhardt,
+and others.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="figure063" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure063.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>—Skeleton of <i>Mylodon robustus</i> (Pleistocene, South
+America). From Owen.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Promegatherium.</i>—Two genera from the infra-Pampean beds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190"></a>[190]</span>
+of Argentina, described as <i>Promegatherium</i> and <i>Promylodon</i>, are
+respectively distinguished from <i>Megatherium</i> and <i>Mylodon</i> by
+the presence of bands of enamel on the teeth, which points
+to the descent of the Edentates from mammals with enamelled
+teeth.</p>
+
+<p>The Tertiary North American forms described as <i>Moropus</i> and
+<i>Morotherium</i>,<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> and originally regarded as Edentates, would appear to
+be aberrant Ungulates.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Myrmecophagidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Externally clothed with hair. No teeth. Head elongated.
+Mouth tubular, with a small terminal aperture, through which the
+long, vermiform tongue, covered with the viscid secretion of the
+enormous submaxillary glands, is rapidly protruded in feeding, and
+withdrawn again with the adhering particles of aliment, which are
+then sucked into the pharynx. Clavicles rudimentary. In the
+manus, the third toe is greatly developed, and has a long falcate
+claw, the others are reduced or suppressed. The pes has four or
+five subequal digits with claws. Posterior dorsal and lumbar
+vertebræ, with additional interlocking zygapophyses. Tail long,
+sometimes prehensile. Uterus simple. Placenta dome-like or
+discoidal. Brain fairly convoluted, and with a large corpus callosum
+and anterior commissure. The animals of this family are
+the “Anteaters” <i>par excellence</i>. They feed exclusively on animal
+substances, mostly insects. One species is terrestrial, the others
+arboreal; none burrow in the ground. They are all inhabitants of
+the Neotropical region.</p>
+
+<p>The reproductive organs, as noticed on <a href="#Page_181">p. 181</a>, are of the
+same general type as in the <i>Bradypodidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Myrmecophaga.</i><a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a>—Skull greatly elongated and narrow, its upper
+surface smooth and cylindriform. Anteriorly the face is produced
+into a long, tubular rostrum, rounded above and flattened below,
+with terminal nares, and composed of the mesethmoid ossified
+for more than half its length, the vomer, the maxillæ, and the long
+and narrow nasal bones, the premaxillæ being extremely short and
+confined to the margin of the anterior nares. The zygomatic arch
+is incomplete, the styliform jugal only articulating with the maxilla
+in front, and not reaching to the very short zygomatic process of
+the squamosal. The lachrymal foramen is in front of the margin of
+the orbit. There are no postorbital processes to the frontals, or any
+other demarcation between the orbits and the temporal fossæ. Palate
+extremely elongated, and produced backwards as far as the level of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191"></a>[191]</span>
+the external auditory meatus by the meeting in the middle line of
+the largely developed pterygoids. The glenoid fossa a shallow oval
+facet, with its long diameter from before backwards. Mandible very
+long and slender with an exceedingly short symphysis, no distinct
+coronoid process, and a slightly elevated, elongated, flattened, condylar
+articular surface. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15-16, L 3-2, S 6, C 31.
+Clavicles rudimentary. In the manus the first digit is very
+slender, the second also slender, with compressed phalanges of nearly
+equal length. The third digit is immensely developed; though its
+proximal phalanx is extremely short, its ungual phalanx is so long
+that the entire length of the digit exceeds that of the second. The
+fourth has a long and rather slender metacarpal, and three
+phalanges diminishing in size, the ungual phalanx being very
+small. The fifth has the metacarpal nearly as long, but not so
+stout, as the fourth, and followed by two small phalanges, the last
+rudimentary and conical. Claws are developed upon all but the fifth.
+In walking the toes are kept strongly flexed, and have their points
+turned upwards and inwards, the weight being supported upon a
+callous pad over the end of the fifth digit, and by the dorsal surfaces
+of the third and fourth digits. The hind feet are short and
+rather broad, with five subequal claws, the fourth the longest, the
+first shortest; the whole sole is placed on the ground in walking.
+Body rather compressed, clothed with long, coarse hair. Tail
+about as long as the body, and covered with very long hair; not
+prehensile. Ears small, oval, erect. Eyes very small. Stomach
+consisting of a subglobular, thin-walled, cardiac portion, and a
+muscular pyloric gizzard with dense epithelial lining. No ileo-colic
+valve, and a short wide ill-defined cæcum. Mammæ two,
+pectoral.</p>
+
+<p>There is one species,<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> <i>M. jubata</i>, the Great Anteater, or Ant
+Bear (<a href="#figure064">Fig. 64</a>), measuring 4 feet in length without the tail, and
+upwards of 2 feet in height at the shoulder. Its prevailing colour
+is gray, with a broad black band, bordered with white, commencing
+on the chest, and passing obliquely over the shoulder, diminishing
+gradually in breadth as it approaches the loins, where it ends in a
+point. It is extensively distributed in the tropical parts of South
+and Central America, frequenting low swampy savannas along the
+banks of rivers, and the depths of the humid forests, but is nowhere
+abundant. Its food consists mainly of termites, to obtain which it
+opens their nests with its powerful sharp anterior claws, and as the
+insects swarm to the damaged part of their dwelling, it draws them
+into its mouth by means of its long, flexible, rapidly-moving tongue
+covered with glutinous saliva. The Great Anteater is quite terrestrial
+in its habits, being never known to climb trees, nor does it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192"></a>[192]</span>
+burrow underground like the Armadillos. Though generally an
+inoffensive animal, when attacked it can defend itself vigorously and
+effectively with its sabre-like anterior claws. The female bears but
+a single young at a birth.</p>
+
+<p>The union of the pterygoids in the middle line to prolong the
+narial passage is a character found elsewhere among existing mammals
+only in the next genus, in one Armadillo (<i>Tatusia</i>), and in
+certain Cetacea. The contrast in length between the skull of the
+Great Anteater and that of the Sloth is, as Professor Parker observes,
+very marked indeed; the one being relatively the longest and the
+other almost the shortest in the whole class. The small size and
+incomplete development of the jugal bone in the zygomatic arch
+affords another striking contrast to the Sloths (<a href="#figure059">Fig. 59</a>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure064" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure064.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>—The Great Anteater (<i>Myrmecophaga jubata</i>). (From Sclater, <i>List of Animals in
+Zoological Society’s Gardens</i>, 1883, p. 190.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Tamandua.</i><a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a>—This genus closely resembles the last in anatomical
+structure, but the head is much less elongated, the fur is short and
+bristly, the tail tapering, prehensile, with the under side throughout
+and the whole of the terminal portion naked and scaly. The
+stomach is similar to that of <i>Myrmecophaga</i>, but with the muscular
+pyloric gizzard not quite so strongly developed. There is a distinct
+ileo-colic valve and a short globular cæcum. The fore foot has a very
+large claw on the third toe, moderate-sized claws on the second and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193"></a>[193]</span>
+fourth, a very minute one on the first, and none on the fifth, which
+is entirely concealed within the skin. The hind foot has five
+subequal claws. Vertebræ: C 7, D 17, L 2, S 5, C 37. There are
+very rudimentary clavicles.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure065" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure065.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span>—Tamandua Anteater (<i>Tamandua tetradactyla</i>). From <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1871, pl. xliii.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Tamandua (<a href="#figure065">Fig. 65</a>) is much smaller than the Great
+Anteater, and differs essentially from it in its habits, being mainly
+arboreal. It is an inhabitant of the dense primeval forests of
+South and Central America. As different individuals vary much
+in their coloration, it is possible that there may be more than one
+species. The usual colour is yellowish-white, with a broad black
+lateral band, covering nearly the whole of the side of the body.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp90" id="figure066" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure066.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span>—Cæca of the Two-toed Anteater
+(<i>Cycloturus didactylus</i>). <i>i</i>, Ileum; <i>c</i>, colon.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Cycloturus.</i><a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a>—The skull is much shorter even than in <i>Tamandua</i>,
+and is arched considerably in the longitudinal direction. It differs
+from that of the other members of the family mainly in the long
+canal for the posterior nares not being closed by bone below, as
+the greater part of the palatines and the pterygoids do not meet in
+the middle line. The mandible has a prominent, narrow, recurved
+coronoid, and a well-developed angular process; it is strongly decurved
+in front. Vertebræ: C 7, D 16, L 2, S 4, C 40. Ribs
+remarkably broad and flat. Clavicles well developed. Manus
+remarkably modified, the third digit being greatly developed at the
+expense of all the others, and having a stout short metacarpal and
+but two phalanges, of which the most distal is large, compressed,
+pointed, and much curved, and bears a very strong hook-like claw.
+The second digit has the same number of phalanges, and bears a
+claw, but is very much more slender than the third. The fourth
+is represented only by the metacarpal and one nailless phalanx,
+the first and fifth only by very rudimentary metacarpals. The pes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194"></a>[194]</span>
+is also completely modified into a climbing organ. The hallux is
+rudimentary, consisting of a metatarsal and one phalanx, concealed
+beneath the skin; but the other four toes are subequal and much
+curved, with long pointed compressed claws. The tuber calcanei is
+directed towards the plantar surface, and parallel with it and
+extending to about double its length is a greatly elongated sesamoid
+ossicle. These together support a prominent calcarine cushion, to
+which the nails are opposed in climbing. Stomach pyriform, with
+muscular walls, but no distinct gizzard-like portion, as in the
+foregoing genera. Commencement
+of the colon provided with
+two small cæca (<a href="#figure066">Fig. 66</a>), resembling
+those of many birds, narrow
+at the base, and rather dilated
+at their terminal blind ends, and
+communicating with the general
+cavity by very minute apertures.
+Tail longer than the body, tapering,
+bare on the under surface,
+and very prehensile. Fur soft
+and silky.</p>
+
+<p>This genus has also but one
+species certainly known, the Little or Two-toed Anteater (<i>C. didactylus</i>),
+an animal not larger than a Rat, of a general yellowish-colour,
+and exclusively arboreal in its habits. It is a native of
+the hottest parts of South and Central America.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dasypodidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>The greater part of the skin strongly ossified. On the back
+and sides the union of numerous quadrate or polygonal scutes forms
+a hard shield, usually consisting of an anterior (scapular) and
+posterior (pelvic) solid portion (which overhang on each side the
+parts of the body they respectively cover, forming chambers into
+which the limbs are withdrawn), and a variable number of rings
+between, connected by soft flexible skin so as to allow of curvature
+of the body. The top of the head has also a similar shield
+(cephalic), and the tail is usually encased in bony rings or plates.
+The outer or exposed surfaces of the limbs are protected by irregular
+bony scutes, not united at their margins; but the skin of the inner
+surface of the limbs and under side of the body is soft, and more or
+less clothed with hair. Hairs also in many species project through
+apertures between the bony scutes of the back. The ossified
+dermal scutes are everywhere covered by a layer of horny epidermis.
+Teeth numerous, simple, of persistent growth, and usually<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195"></a>[195]</span>
+monophyodont, but in one genus (<i>Tatusia</i>) a succession of teeth has
+been observed. Zygomatic arch of skull complete. Cervical vertebræ
+with extremely short, broad, and depressed bodies. The atlas free,
+but the second and third, and often several of the others, ankylosed
+together both by their bodies and arches. Lumbar vertebræ
+with accessory zygomatic processes, and very large metapophyses,
+supporting the bony carapace. Clavicles well developed. A third
+trochanter on the femur. Tibia and fibula ankylosed at their distal
+extremities. Fore feet with strongly developed, curved claws,
+adapted for digging and scratching—three, four, or five in number.
+Hind feet plantigrade, with five toes, all provided with nails.
+Tongue long, pointed, and extensile, though to a less degree than
+in the Anteaters. Submaxillary glands largely developed. Stomach
+simple. Uterus simple. Placenta discoidal, deciduate. The brain
+is generally characterised by the large size of the olfactory lobes
+(<a href="#figure057">Fig. 57</a>), and the slight development of sulci on the hemispheres;
+the sylvian fissure being represented only by a very open
+and shallow angle. From the earliest stage of development the
+stapes is stirrup-shaped, thus showing a nearer affinity to the higher
+mammals than is presented by the Sloths.</p>
+
+<p>The animals of this family are commonly called Armadillos,
+a word of Spanish origin, having reference to their armour-like
+covering. The existing species are all of small or moderate size.
+They are mostly, though not universally, nocturnal in their
+habits, and are all omnivorous, feeding on roots, insects, worms,
+reptiles, and carrion. Armadillos are harmless and inoffensive
+creatures, offering no resistance when caught, their principal means of
+escape from their enemies being the extraordinary rapidity with which
+they can burrow in the ground, and the tenacity with which they retain
+their hold in their subterranean retreats. Notwithstanding the
+shortness of their limbs they can run with great rapidity. Most of
+the species are esteemed good eating by the natives of the countries
+in which they live. They are all inhabitants of the open plains or
+the forests of the tropical and temperate parts of South America,
+with the exception of one species (<i>Tatusia novemcincta</i>), which
+ranges as far north as Texas. Of the existing genera, <i>Chlamydophorus</i>
+stands apart from the rest in the formation of its external
+covering; but in all other respects <i>Tatusia</i> is the most aberrant
+form, exhibiting a peculiar type of structure of the fore feet, which
+in all the others show modifications, though in very varying degrees,
+of a single and different type.</p>
+
+<p>The reproductive organs of the <i>Dasypodidæ</i> differ from those of
+the Sloths and Armadillos in the presence of a largely developed
+copulating organ in the male, and of a simple vagina of corresponding
+length in the female. The testes are still abdominal, although
+not in the same position; and the penis still wants both the glans<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196"></a>[196]</span>
+and bulb. The uterus is nearly or quite as simple as in the Sloths
+and Anteaters; and there is no reason to believe that the placentation
+is essentially different from that obtaining in the other groups.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Chlamydophorinæ</b>.—In most anatomical characters,
+especially the structure of the fore foot, this little group resembles
+the <i>Dasypodinæ</i>; but it differs remarkably from all other known
+Armadillos, living or extinct, in the peculiar modification of the
+dermal armour.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chlamydophorus.</i><a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a>—Teeth ⁸⁄₈₋₉, subcylindrical, somewhat compressed,
+moderate in size, smaller at each end (especially in front)
+than at the middle of the series. Skull broad and rounded behind,
+pointed in front. Muzzle subcylindrical and depressed. A conspicuous
+rounded, rough prominence on the frontal bone, just before
+each orbit. Tympanic prolonged into a tubular auditory meatus,
+curving upwards round the base of the zygoma. Vertebræ: C 7,
+D 11, L 3, S 10, C 15. Upper part of head and trunk covered with
+four-sided horny plates (with very small thin ossifications beneath),
+forming a shield, free, and overhanging the sides of the trunk, and
+attached only along the middle line of the back. The plates are
+arranged in a series of distinct transverse bands, about twenty in
+number between the occiput and the posterior truncated end, and
+not divided into solid thoracic and pelvic shields with movable
+bands between. The hinder end of the body is abruptly truncated
+and covered by a vertically-placed, strong, solid, bony shield, of an
+oval (transversely extended) form, covered by thin epidermic plates.
+This shield is firmly ankylosed by five bony processes to the hinder
+part of the pelvis. Through a notch in the middle of its lower
+border the tail passes out. The latter is rather short, cylindrical
+in its proximal half, and expanded and depressed or spatulate in
+its terminal portion, and covered with horny plates. The dorsal
+surfaces of the fore and hind feet are also covered with horny
+plates. The remainder of the limbs and under surface and sides
+of the body beneath the overlapping lateral parts of the dorsal
+shield are clothed with rather long, very soft, silky hair. Eyes and
+ears very small, and concealed by the hair. Extremities short.
+Feet large, each with five well-developed claws, those on the fore
+feet very long, stout, and subcompressed, the structure of the digits
+being essentially the same as those of <i>Xenurus</i> and <i>Priodon</i>. Nipples
+two, pectoral. Visceral anatomy closely resembling that of <i>Dasypus</i>,
+the cæcum being broad, short, and bifid.</p>
+
+<p>The Pichiciago (<i>C. truncatus</i>), a small burrowing animal, about
+5 inches long, inhabits the sandy plains of the western part of the
+Argentine Republic, especially the vicinity of Mendoza. Its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197"></a>[197]</span>
+horny covering is of a pinkish colour, and its silky hair snow
+white. It is rare, and its habits are but little known. A second
+species, <i>C. retusa</i>, from Bolivia, has been described by Burmeister.
+It is of rather larger size, and has the dorsal shield attached to the
+skin of the back as far as its edge, instead of only along the median
+line.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Dasypodinæ</b>.—Fore feet usually with all five digits
+developed and with nails, though the first and fifth may be
+suppressed. The first and second long and slender, with the
+normal number and relative length of phalanges. The others stout,
+with short broad metacarpals, and the phalanges greatly reduced
+in length and generally in number by coalescence. The ungual
+phalanx of the third very large, that of the others gradually
+diminishing to the fifth. <i>Dasypus</i>, as now restricted, has the
+most normal form of manus, but the modifications so markedly
+developed in all the others (and culminating in <i>Tolypeutes</i>) are foreshadowed,
+as it were, in it. Ears wide apart. Mammæ one pair,
+pectoral.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dasypus.</i><a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a>—Teeth ⁹⁄₁₀ or ⁸⁄₉, of which the anterior in the upper
+jaw is usually implanted in the premaxillary bone. The series of
+teeth extends posteriorly some distance behind the anterior root of
+the zygoma, almost level with the hinder edge of the palate. They
+are large, subcylindrical, slightly compressed, diminishing in size
+towards each end of the series; the anterior two in the mandible
+much smaller, and more compressed than the others. Cranial
+portion of the skull broad and depressed. Facial portion triangular,
+broad in front and much depressed. Auditory bulla completely
+ossified, perforated on the inner side by the carotid canal, and
+continued externally into an elongated bony meatus auditorius, with
+its aperture directed upwards and backwards. (In all the remaining
+genera of <i>Dasypodinæ</i> the tympanic bone is a mere half ring,
+loosely attached to the cranium.) Mandible with a high ascending
+ramus, broad transversely-placed condyle, and high slender coronoid
+process. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11-12, L 3, S 8, C 17-19. Head broad
+and flat above. Muzzle obtusely pointed. Ears of moderate size or
+rather small, placed laterally, far apart. Body broad and depressed.
+Carapace with six or seven movable bands between the scapular
+and pelvic shields, each plate, or scute, being marked by a regular
+ellipse formed of widely separated punctures. Tail shorter than
+the body, tapering, covered with plates forming distinct rings near
+the base. Fore feet with five toes; the first much more slender
+than the others, and with a smaller ungual phalanx and nail; the
+second, though the longest, also slender. The third, fourth, and
+fifth gradually diminishing in length, all armed with very strong,
+slightly curved, compressed claws, sloping away from an elevated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198"></a>[198]</span>
+rounded inner border to a sharp, outer, and inferior edge. The
+hind foot rather short, with all five toes armed with stout,
+compressed, slightly curved, obtusely pointed claws—the third the
+longest, the second nearly equal to it, the fourth the next, the first
+and fifth shorter, and nearly equal.</p>
+
+<p>To this genus belongs one of the best known-species of the
+group, the Six-banded Armadillo or Encoubert (<i>D. sexcinctus</i>) of
+Brazil and Paraguay. A very similar species, <i>D. villosus</i>, the Hairy
+Armadillo, replaces it south of the Rio Plata. There are also two
+very small species—<i>D. vellerosus</i>, from the Argentine Republic and
+North Patagonia, and <i>D. minutus</i> from La Plata. The latter differs
+from the other three in having no tooth implanted in the premaxillary
+bone. Remains apparently referable to <i>D. villosus</i> occur
+in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Brazil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Xenurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a>—Teeth ⁹⁄₉ or ⁸⁄₈, of moderate size and subcylindrical.
+The most posterior placed a little way behind the anterior root of the
+zygoma, but far from the hinder margin of the palate. Cranium
+somewhat elongated, much constricted behind the orbits, and
+immediately in front of the constriction considerably dilated.
+Mandible slender; coronoid process very small and sharp-pointed,
+sometimes obsolete. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12-13, L 3, S 10, C 18.
+Head broad behind. Ears rather large and rounded, wide apart.
+Movable bands of carapace 12-13; the scutes being marked by an
+obscurely granular sculpture. Tail considerably shorter than the
+body, slender, and covered with nearly naked skin, with but a few
+small, scattered, dermal bony plates, chiefly on the under surface
+and near the apex. On the fore feet the first and second toes are
+long and slender, with small claws and the normal number of
+phalanges; the other toes have but two phalanges; the third has
+an immense falcate claw; the fourth and fifth similar but smaller
+claws. The hind feet are comparatively small, with five toes, bearing
+small, triangular, blunt nails; the third longest, the first shortest.
+The best known species of this genus, the Tatouay or Cabasson, <i>X.
+unicinctus</i>, is, after <i>Priodon gigas</i>, the largest of the group. It is
+found, though not abundantly, in Surinam, Brazil, and Paraguay,
+its remains occurring in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Brazil.
+Others, <i>X. hispidus</i> and <i>lugubris</i>, have been described, but little is as
+yet known of them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Priodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a>—Teeth variable in number, and generally differing on
+the two sides of each jaw, usually from 20 to 25 on each side
+above and below, so that as many as 100 may be present altogether;
+but as life advances the anterior teeth fall out, and all
+traces of their alveoli disappear. The series extends as far back as
+the hinder edge of the anterior root of the zygoma. The teeth are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199"></a>[199]</span>
+all very small; those in the anterior half of each series being strongly
+compressed, with flat sides and a straight free edge; the posterior
+ones are more nearly cylindrical, with flat truncated, free surfaces.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 3, S 10, C 23. Head small, elongated,
+conical. Ears moderate, ovate. Carapace with 12-13 movable
+bands. Tail nearly equal to the body in length, gradually tapering,
+closely covered with quadrangular scales, arranged in a quincunx
+pattern. Fore feet with five toes, formed on the same plan as those
+of <i>Xenurus</i>, but with the claw of the third of still greater size, and
+that of each of the others, especially the fifth, proportionately reduced.
+Hind foot short and rounded, with five very short toes, with short,
+broad, flat, obtuse nails. The only known species, the Great
+Armadillo (<i>P. gigas</i>), is by far the largest of existing members of the
+family, measuring rather more than 3 feet from the tip of the nose
+to the root of the tail, the tail being about 20 inches long. It
+inhabits the forests of Surinam and Brazil. The powerful falcate
+claws of its fore feet enable it to dig with great facility. Its food
+consists chiefly of termites and other insects, but it is said to attack
+and uproot newly-made graves for the purpose of devouring the
+flesh of the bodies contained in them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tolypeutes.</i><a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a>—Teeth ⁹⁄₉ or ⁸⁄₉, rather large in proportion to the size
+of the skull, the hinder end of the series reaching nearly to the
+posterior margin of the palate. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11, L 3, S 12,
+C 13. Ears placed low on the sides of the head, rather large,
+broadly ovate. Carapace with its scapular and pelvic shields very
+free at the sides of the body, forming large chambers into which the
+limbs can be readily withdrawn. Only three movable bands;
+sculpture of scutes in the form of subconcentrically arranged
+granules. Tail short, conical, covered with large bony tubercles.
+The fore feet formed on the same type as in the last genus, but the
+peculiarities carried out to a still greater extent. The claw of the
+third toe is very long and falcate, the first and fifth greatly reduced
+and sometimes wanting. On the hind foot the three middle toes
+have broad, flat, subequal nails, forming together a kind of tripartite
+hoof; the first and fifth much shorter, with more compressed
+nails.</p>
+
+<p>The Armadillos of this genus have the power of rolling themselves
+up into a perfect ball, the shield on the top of the head and
+the tuberculated dorsal surface of the tail exactly fitting into and
+filling up the apertures left by the notches at either end of the
+carapace. This appears to be their usual means of defence when
+frightened or surprised, as they do not burrow like the other
+species. They run very quickly, with a very peculiar gait, only
+the tips of the claws of the fore feet touching the ground. Three
+species are described:—<i>T. tricinctus</i>, the Apar; <i>T. conurus</i>, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200"></a>[200]</span>
+Matico; and <i>T. muriei</i>. Remains apparently referable to <i>T. conurus</i>
+are of not uncommon occurrence in the Brazilian cavern-deposits.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Tatusiinæ</b>.—This group contains but one genus,
+<i>Tatusia</i>.<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> Teeth ⁸⁄₈ or ⁷⁄₇, very small subcylindrical. The first and
+second subcompressed, the last considerably smaller than the others.
+They present the remarkable peculiarity (elsewhere found among
+Edentates, so far as is yet known, only in <i>Orycteropus</i>) of all being,
+with the exception of the last, preceded by two-rooted milk teeth,
+which are not changed until the animal has nearly attained its full
+size. Vertebræ: C 7, D 9-11, L 5, S 8, C 20-27. Head narrow,
+with a long, narrow, subcylindrical, obliquely-truncated snout;
+pterygoids meeting in the middle line below the nasal passage. Ears
+rather large, ovate, and erect, placed close together on the occiput.
+Carapace with seven to nine distinct movable bands; sculpture on
+scutes consisting of pits arranged in a V-shape. Body generally
+elongated and narrow. Tail moderate or long, gradually tapering;
+its dermal scutes forming very distinct rings for the greater part of
+its length. Fore feet with four visible toes, and a concealed clawless
+rudiment of the fifth. Claws all long, slightly curved, and very
+slender, the third and fourth subequal and alike, the first and fourth
+much shorter. Hind feet with five toes, all armed with strong,
+slightly curved, conical, obtusely-pointed nails. The third longest,
+then the second and fourth; the first and fifth much shorter than
+the others.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure067" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure067.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span>—The Peba Armadillo (<i>Tatusia novemcincta</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This genus differs from all the other Armadillos in having a pair
+of inguinal mammæ, in addition to the usual pectoral pair, and in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201"></a>[201]</span>
+producing a large number (four to ten) of young at a birth, all the
+others having usually but one or two.</p>
+
+<p>The Peba Armadillo, <i>T. novemcincta</i> (<a href="#figure067">Fig. 67</a>), is a well-known
+species, having an extensive range from Texas to Paraguay. It is
+replaced in the more southern regions of South America by a smaller
+species, with shorter tail, the Mulita (<i>T. hybrida</i>), so called from the
+resemblance of its head and ears to those of a mule. <i>T. kappleri</i> is
+a large species from Surinam.</p>
+
+<p>A rare Armadillo from Peru described under the names of <i>Cryptophractus
+pilosus</i> and <i>Praopus hirsutus</i>, but which evidently belongs to
+<i>Tatusia</i>, is of some interest owing to the thick coat of hair with
+which it is covered. This animal appears to be closely allied to
+<i>T. novemcincta</i>, from which it mainly differs by having the whole of
+the carapace covered with a thick coating of light brown, fine, but
+rather stiff hair, about an inch and a half in length. Similar hair
+is found on the cheeks, the proximal portions of the limbs, and
+(although less abundantly and shorter) on the under surface of the
+body. The cephalic shield, snout, feet, and the tail, with the
+exception of the root, are bare. The coating of hair on the back
+and sides completely conceals the carapace, except near the margin
+of the scapular region; but by separating the hairs the bands and
+scutes are rendered visible.<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Brazil have been found
+remains of <i>T. novemcincta</i>, and also of <i>T. punctata</i>, which appears to
+be an extinct form nearly allied to <i>T. kappleri</i>, but of somewhat
+larger size.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct genera.</i>—In addition to remains referable to existing
+genera, the above-mentioned deposits have also yielded evidence
+of the former existence of extinct generic types of Armadillos,
+some of which attained very large dimensions. Of these <i>Eutatus</i>
+was a large form distinguished from all existing genera by the
+circumstance that the whole of the carapace was composed of movable
+bands, which were thirty-three in number. <i>Dasypotherium</i>
+was a still larger form, furnished with eight teeth, of which the
+second seems to have been larger than the others; this genus is
+regarded as connecting the modern Armadillos with the next one.
+The gigantic <i>Chlamydotherium</i>, the scutes of which are common in
+the Brazilian caves, is considered to have been as large as a
+Rhinoceros; the carapace has several movable bands, but the teeth<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202"></a>[202]</span>
+approximate in structure to those of the next family, so that the
+genus tends to connect the Armadillos with the Glyptodonts.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Glyptodontidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp25" id="figure068" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure068.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>—Tooth of <i>Glyptodon</i>
+from the side, and
+from the grinding surface.
+(After Owen.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Brazil, but still more
+abundantly in the fluviatile deposits which cover the country in the
+neighbourhood of Buenos Ayres, are found the remains of some of the
+most remarkable forms of mammals yet discovered, the Glyptodonts,
+which may be regarded as forming a separate
+extinct family. They differ from the existing
+<i>Dasypodidæ</i> in their large size, and in having the
+carapace composed of a solid piece (formed by
+the union of a multitude of bony dermal scutes)
+without any movable rings, and in usually having
+also a ventral piece or plastron. The facial
+portion of the skull is very short. A long
+process of the maxillary bone descends from
+the anterior part of the zygomatic arch. The
+ascending ramus of the mandible is remarkably
+high. The teeth are ⁸⁄₈ in the known species,
+all much alike, having two deep grooves or
+flutings on each side, so as to divide them into
+three nearly distinct lobes (<a href="#figure068">Fig. 68</a>). The vertebral
+column is almost entirely ankylosed into
+a solid tube, and there is a complex joint at the
+base of the neck, to allow of the head being
+retracted within the carapace. The limbs are
+very strong, and the feet short and broad,
+resembling externally those of an elephant or
+tortoise. This family is mainly characteristic
+of the southern half of the American continent,
+but some species of the type genus ranged into
+Texas and Mexico. Many species of the family
+have been described and figured, especially by
+Burmeister (in the <i>Annales del Museo publico de
+Buenos Aires</i>), among which the following may
+be noticed. <i>Hoplophorus</i> is characterised by the sculptured and
+frequently thin scutes of the carapace, those of the periphery being
+flat, and not raised into prominences. The caudal sheath has
+several overlapping movable rings at the base, and ends in a long
+subcylindrical terminal tube similar to the one represented with the
+carapace of <i>Glyptodon</i> in <a href="#figure069">Fig. 69</a>, which in all probability really belongs
+to the genus under consideration. Each foot has four complete
+digits, and the humerus has an entepicondylar foramen. Most of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203"></a>[203]</span>
+species are of medium size. Part of a caudal tube from Uruguay
+described as <i>Eleutherocercus</i> indicates, however, a much larger allied
+form, in which the tail appears to have had a number of stout bristles
+protruding from the joints between the scutes. <i>Panochthus</i> comprises
+very large Glyptodonts, distinguished by the great thickness
+of the scutes of the carapace, which are ornamented with tubercles.
+The termination of the caudal sheath forms a tube bearing large
+radiated tubercles. <i>Euryurus</i> is distinguished by the radiate
+sculpture of the scutes of the carapace. <i>Dœdicurus</i>, of which one
+species was about twelve feet in length, also has a rugose
+sculpture on the carapace; but the termination of the caudal tube is
+expanded into a club-like shape, flattened from above downwards,
+and covered with tubercles mingled with a few large radiate discs,
+which, as in <i>Panochthus</i>, probably carried horny spines in the living
+condition. The typical genus <i>Glyptodon</i> has each scute of the
+carapace ornamented with a rosette-like sculpture, the peripheral
+scutes being raised into conical prominences (<a href="#figure069">Fig. 69</a>). The caudal
+sheath, instead of being like the one represented in the figure, was
+entirely composed of a series of movable rings, ornamented with
+large tubercles. The manus had five digits, and the pes four; and
+there was an entepicondylar foramen to the humerus. A species of
+this genus, which attained very large dimensions, was made the
+type of <i>Schistopleurum</i>, on the supposition that the tail of <i>Glyptodon</i>
+was of the type represented in <a href="#figure069">Fig. 69</a>. The genus <i>Thoracophorus</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204"></a>[204]</span>
+of the Pleistocene of South America, as well as <i>Carioderma</i>, of the
+Pliocene of Texas, differ from all the preceding in having the scutes
+of the carapace in the form of disconnected nodules. Glyptodonts
+also occur in South American beds of earlier age than the Pleistocene,
+some of these forms having enamel bands on the teeth. “Why such
+a form as the Glyptodon should have failed to keep his ground is,”
+as the late Professor W. K. Parker remarks, “a great mystery;
+nature seems to have built him, as Rome was built, for eternity.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="figure069" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure069.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>—<i>Glyptodon clavipes</i> (Pleistocene, South America). From Owen. The tail is incorrectly
+restored, and it is probable that the figured portion belongs to <i>Hoplophorus</i>. The left lower
+corner shows an upper and a lower view of the skull, and the right a section of the caudal
+sheath.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Manidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Covered externally (except the under surface of the body and
+inside of the limbs) with large imbricated horny scales, and
+scattered hairs growing in the intervals. No teeth. Tongue long,
+vermiform, and protractile. No accessory articular processes to
+the lumbar vertebræ, but the anterior zygapophyses largely developed
+and deeply concave, completely embracing the semicylindrical
+surfaces of the posterior zygapophyses. Limbs short, with five
+complete digits on each foot. Scaphoid and lunar bones of carpus
+united. Uterus bicornuate. Placenta diffused and non-deciduate.
+All the existing forms belong to the Ethiopian and Oriental regions
+of the Old World. The absence of additional articular processes to
+the lumbar vertebræ is a character in which this and the following
+family differ from all the preceding forms.</p>
+
+<p><i>Manis.</i><a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a>—Skull somewhat of the form of an elongated cone, with
+the small end turned forwards; very smooth and free from crests
+and ridges. No distinction between the orbits and temporal fossæ.
+The zygomatic arch usually incomplete, owing to the absence of
+the jugal bone. No distinct lachrymal bone. Palate long and
+narrow. The pterygoids extend backwards as far as the tympanics,
+but do not meet in the middle line below. Tympanic ankylosed to
+the surrounding bones, and more or less bullate, but not produced
+into a tubular auditory meatus. Rami of mandible very slender
+and straight, without any angle or coronoid process. From near
+the anterior extremity of the upper edge a sharp, conical, tooth-like
+process projects upwards and outwards. No clavicles. No third
+trochanter to the femur. Ungual phalanges bifid at their terminations.
+Caudal vertebræ with very long, strong transverse
+processes and numerous chevron bones. Tongue long, vermiform,
+flattened towards the tip; its retractor or sterno-glossal muscles
+arising from the hinder extremity of the immensely prolonged
+ensiform cartilage of the sternum. Stomach with thick lining
+membrane and muscular walls, and a special gland near the
+middle of the great curvature, consisting of a mass of complex<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205"></a>[205]</span>
+secreting follicles, the ducts of which terminate in a common
+orifice. No cæcum. A gall-bladder. Head small, depressed,
+narrow, pointed in front, with a very small mouth-opening.
+Eyes and pinna of ear very small. Body elongated, narrow.
+Tail more or less elongated, convex above, flat underneath. The
+whole of the upper surface of the head, the upper surface and sides
+of the body, the whole of the tail, and the outer sides of the extremities
+covered with large, overlapping, horny scales, but usually
+with a few stiff hairs growing between and projecting beyond
+them. The sides and under surface of the head, the under surface
+of the body, and the inner sides of the limbs without scales, but with
+a rather scanty covering of hair. Limbs short. In walking the
+dorsal surface and outer sides of the phalanges of the two outer
+digits of the front feet alone rest on the ground, the points of the
+nails turning upwards and inwards. The third toe the longest,
+with a powerful compressed curved claw; the second and fourth
+with similar but smaller claws, that of the pollex often almost
+rudimentary. Hind feet plantigrade, with the hallux very short,
+and the four other toes subequal, with moderate, curved, subcompressed
+nails.</p>
+
+<p>The reproductive organs of <i>Manis</i> are of a totally different
+type from those of the families already noticed. The testes lie
+in the inguinal canal; and the penis is external and well developed.
+The uterus is truly bicornuate, the vagina not divided, and the
+placenta diffused and non-deciduate. All the organs and fœtal
+membranes are, indeed, formed very much on the plan of those
+of the Ungulates, without any trace of the special peculiarities
+obtaining in the typical American Edentates.</p>
+
+<p>The animals of this genus, which includes all the existing forms,
+are called Pangolins or Scaly Anteaters, and are all of small or
+moderate size, terrestrial and burrowing, and feed mainly on termites.
+Several of them can climb trees. Their length varies from 1 to 5
+feet. They can roll themselves up in a ball when in danger. Their
+peculiar elongated form, short limbs, long, gradually-tapering tail,
+and scaly covering give them on a superficial inspection more the
+appearance of reptiles than of mammals. The species are not
+numerous, and may be divided into two groups distinguished by a
+few not very important external characters; these groups also coinciding
+with the present geographical distribution of the genus.
+These two groups, according to Mr. O. Thomas, may be distinguished
+as follows.</p>
+
+<p>The Asiatic pangolins are characterised by having the central
+series of body-scales continued quite to the extreme end of the tail,
+by having many isolated hairs growing up between the scales of the
+back, and by their small external ears. They all have a small
+naked spot beneath the tip of the tail, which is said to be of service<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206"></a>[206]</span>
+as an organ of touch. There are three species, viz. <i>Manis javanica</i>,
+ranging from Burma, through Malacca and Java, to Borneo; <i>M.
+aurita</i>, found in China, Formosa, and Nipal; and the common Indian
+Pangolin, <i>M. pentadactyla</i>, distributed over the whole of India and
+Ceylon. The African species have the central series of scales
+suddenly interrupted and breaking into two at a point about 2 or 3
+inches from the tip of the tail; they have no hair between the
+scales, and no external ear-conch. The following are the four species
+belonging to this
+group:—the
+Long-tailed Pangolin
+(<i>M. macrura</i>),
+which has
+a tail nearly twice
+as long as its
+body, and containing
+as many
+as forty-nine
+caudal vertebræ,
+being the largest
+number known
+among mammals;
+the White-bellied
+Pangolin (<i>M. tricuspis</i>),
+<a href="#figure070">Fig. 70</a>,
+closely allied to
+the last, but with
+longer and tricuspid
+scales, and
+white belly hairs.
+These two, like
+the Indian species, have a naked spot beneath the tail tip, a character
+probably correlated with the power of climbing, and they
+are, moreover, peculiar in having the outer sides of their fore legs
+clothed with hair, all the other species being scaly there as elsewhere.
+Lastly, the Short-tailed and the Giant Pangolins (<i>M.
+temmincki</i> and <i>gigantea</i>), both of which have their tails covered
+entirely with scales, and evidently never take to arboreal habits.
+All the four species of the second group are found in the West
+African region, one only, <i>M. temmincki</i>, extending also into south
+and eastern equatorial Africa.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp70" id="figure070" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure070.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>—The White-bellied Pangolin (<i>Manis tricuspis</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>According to Professor W. K. Parker,<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> who remarks upon the
+peculiarly aberrant nature of the group, the horny scales of the
+Pangolins really consist of cemented hairs. This writer states that
+“in the early embryo lozenge-shaped tracts of skin are seen all over<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207"></a>[207]</span>
+its body, with lines of thinner cuticle between. Under the microscope,
+sections of these thicker tracts show that they are composed
+of fine hairs, cemented together by a copious growth of epidermic
+cells; here and there larger hairs are seen, but these fail to reach
+the surface, turning again towards the inside, like nails driven into
+wood that is too hard for their points.”</p>
+
+<p>The same author also observes<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> that there are occasional instances
+of the presence of eight cervical vertebræ in the Pangolins—a
+feature which has been considered to indicate some former
+genetic connection between this family and the Sloths.</p>
+
+<p>The following account of the habits of <i>Manis tricuspis</i> is given by
+Mr. L. Fraser in his <i>Zoologia Typica</i>:—</p>
+
+<p>“During my short residence at Fernando Po I succeeded in
+procuring two living specimens of this animal. The individuals,
+judging from the bones, were evidently not adult; the largest
+measured 30 inches in length, of which the head and body were
+12 inches and the tail 18 inches. I kept them alive for about a
+week at Fernando Po, and allowed them the range of a room, where
+they fed upon a small black ant, which is very abundant and troublesome
+in the houses and elsewhere. Even when first procured they
+displayed little or no fear, but continued to climb about the room
+without noticing my occasional entrance. They would climb up
+the somewhat roughly hewn square posts which supported the
+building with great facility, and upon reaching the ceiling would
+return head foremost; sometimes they would roll themselves up
+into a ball and throw themselves down, and apparently without
+experiencing any inconvenience from the fall, which was in a
+measure broken upon reaching the ground by the semi-yielding
+scales, which were thrown into an erect position by the curve of
+the body of the animal. In climbing, the tail, with its strongly
+pointed scales beneath, was used to assist the feet; and the grasp
+of the hind feet, assisted by the tail, was so powerful that the
+animal would throw the body back (when on the post) into a
+horizontal position, and sway itself to and fro, apparently taking
+pleasure in this kind of exercise. It always slept with the body
+rolled up; and when in this position in a corner of the building,
+owing to the position and strength of the scales, and the power of
+the limbs combined, I found it impossible to remove the animal
+against its will, the points of the scales being inserted into every
+little notch and hollow of the surrounding objects. The eyes are
+very dark hazel, and very prominent. The colonial name for this
+species of <i>Manis</i> is ‘Attadillo,’ and it is called by the Boobies,
+the natives of the island, ‘Gahlah.’ The flesh is said to be
+exceedingly good eating, and is in great request among the
+natives.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208"></a>[208]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Indian species is said to live in pairs, and to give birth to
+one or two young at a time in the spring. Their burrow reaches a
+depth of some twelve feet, and terminates in a large chamber, which
+may be as much as six feet in diameter. A faint hiss appears to be
+the only sound emitted by these animals.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of a large species of <i>Manis</i>, which are indistinguishable
+from the corresponding bones of the existing West African <i>M.
+gigantea</i>, are found fossil in cave-deposits in the Karnul district of
+Madras. This is one among several instances of the close connection
+between the Pleistocene and Pliocene mammalian fauna of India with
+the existing African fauna.</p>
+
+<p><i>Palæomanis.</i><a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a>—The lower Pliocene deposits of the Isle of
+Samos, in the Turkish Archipelago, have yielded remains of a
+Pangolin fully three times the dimensions of <i>M. gigantea</i>, upon the
+evidence of which the genus <i>Palæomanis</i> has been established.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Orycteropodidæ</span></h4>
+
+<p>External surface scantily covered with bristle-like hairs. Teeth
+numerous, apparently heterodont, diphyodont, and of peculiar and
+complex structure, being traversed by a number of parallel vertical
+pulp-canals. Lumbar vertebræ with no accessory zygapophyses.
+Femur with a third trochanter. Fore feet without pollex, but all
+the other digits well developed, with strong moderate-sized nails,
+suited to digging, the plantar surfaces of which rest on the ground
+in walking. Hind feet with five subequal toes. Mouth elongated
+and tubular. Tongue subvermiform. Uterus bicornuate. Placenta
+broadly zonular. Feeding on animal substances. Terrestrial and
+fossorial in habits. Now mainly limited to the Ethiopian region.</p>
+
+<p><i>Orycteropus.</i><a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a>—The total number of permanent teeth appears to
+be from eight to ten in each side of the upper, and eight in the
+lower jaw; but they are never all in place at one time, as the
+small interior teeth are shed before the series is completed behind.
+In the adult they number usually five on each side above and below,
+of which the first two are simple and compressed, the next two
+larger and longitudinally grooved at the sides, the most posterior
+simple and cylindrical. The last three in either jaw having no
+milk-predecessors, may be regarded as true molars. The structure
+of all these teeth is quite peculiar among mammals, though
+resembling that of some fishes. Their summits are rounded before
+they are worn; their bases do not taper to a root, but are evenly
+truncated and continually growing. Each tooth is made up of an
+aggregation of parallel dental systems, having a slender pulp-cavity<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209"></a>[209]</span>
+in the centre, from which the dentinal tubes radiate outwards, and
+being closely packed together each system assumes a polygonal
+outline as seen in transverse section. The small anterior teeth have
+milk-predecessors which are fully noticed below. Skull moderately
+elongated. The facial portion subcylindrical and slightly tapering.
+The zygoma complete and slender. The palate ends posteriorly in
+the thickened transverse border of the palatines, and is not
+continued back by the pterygoids. The tympanic is annular, and
+not ankylosed to the surrounding bones. The mandible is slender
+anteriorly, but rises high posteriorly, with a slender recurved
+coronoid, and an ascending pointed process on the hinder edge
+below the condyle, which is small, oval, and looks as much forwards
+as upwards. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 8, S 6, C 27. The large
+number of lumbar vertebræ is peculiar among Edentates. Tongue
+less vermiform than in <i>Myrmecophaga</i>, being thick and fleshy at the
+base, and gradually tapering to the apex. The salivary apparatus
+is developed much in the same manner as in that genus, but the
+duct of the submaxillary gland has no reservoir. The stomach
+consists of a large subglobular cardiac portion, with a very thick,
+soft, and corrugated lining membrane, and a smaller muscular,
+pyloric part, with a comparatively thin and smooth lining. There
+is a very distinct ileo-cæcal valve, and a considerable-sized cæcum;
+also a gall-bladder. Head elongated, with a tubular snout, terminal
+nostrils, and small mouth-opening. Ears large, pointed, erect.
+Tail nearly as long as the body, cylindrical, very thick at the base,
+tapering to the extremity.</p>
+
+<p>The reproductive organs and placentation of <i>Orycteropus</i> are
+formed upon a principle unknown in the more typical Edentates,
+or, in combination, in any other mammals. Thus the testes, in the
+one described example, were inguinal, but appeared to descend, at
+all events temporarily, into a scrotum; but the penis is scarcely
+larger than that of the Great Anteater. The uterus is still more
+fully bicornuate than in <i>Manis</i>, with its two lateral chambers
+opening separately into the vagina, as in certain Rodents. The
+placenta is broadly zonary, but it is not known whether it is
+deciduate or not. It might readily be derived from the diffused
+placenta of <i>Manis</i> by the abortion of the fœtal villi at the two poles
+of the ovum.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Orycteropodidæ</i> have long been regarded as widely different
+from other Edentates, their presumed affinity with the <i>Manidæ</i>
+being more or less problematical; but the discovery recently made
+by Mr. O. Thomas<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> that they have a milk-dentition still further
+emphasises their aberrant nature. According to this observer, it
+appears that there are normally no less than seven milk-teeth in the
+upper jaw, the hindmost of which is far larger than the others,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210"></a>[210]</span>
+having a rudimentary crown, and a distinct anterior and posterior
+root. The other milk-teeth are styliform, the four anterior ones
+being very minute, and separated from one another by equal
+intervals; the foremost of all is situated immediately behind the
+premaxillo-maxillary suture. In the mandible only four milk-teeth
+have hitherto been detected, of which the hindmost has the
+comparatively complex form found in the corresponding upper tooth.
+None of these milk-teeth appear, however, to cut the gum, so that
+the whole set is entirely functionless. Under the microscope these
+milk-teeth show signs of possessing a commencement of the
+remarkable histological structure found in the permanent teeth.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Thomas remarks that since “the three large posterior teeth
+of <i>Orycteropus</i>, already distinguished by their more molariform shape,
+do not have milk-predecessors, while all the small teeth anterior to
+them do, and in addition the last milk-tooth is markedly different
+from those in front of it, we ought apparently no longer to look
+upon this animal as an homodont, but instead to consider it as an
+originally heterodont form in which the incisors and canines have
+been suppressed to allow free play to the mobile vermiform tongue.</p>
+
+<p>“But important as a knowledge of the presence of a milk-dentition
+in <i>Orycteropus</i> is, it does not at present render any easier
+the difficult questions as to the phylogeny and systematic position
+of that animal. Although called an Edentate, it has always been
+recognised as possessing many characters exceedingly different from
+those of the typical American members of the order. It has in fact
+been placed with them rather on account of the inconvenience of
+forming a special order for its reception than because of its real
+relationship to them. Now, as they are either altogether toothless,
+or else homodont and monophyodont (apart from the remarkable
+exception of <i>Tatusia</i>), it seems more than ever incorrect to unite
+with them the solitary member of the Tubulidentata, toothed,
+heterodont, and diphyodont, and differing from them in addition by
+its placentation, the anatomy of its reproductive organs, the minute
+structure of its teeth, and the general characters of its skeleton.</p>
+
+<p>“But if <i>Orycteropus</i> is not genetically a near relation of the
+Edentates, we are wholly in the dark as to what other mammals it
+is allied to, and I think it would be premature to hazard a guess on
+the subject. Whether even it has any special connection with
+<i>Manis</i> is a point about which there is the greatest doubt, and unfortunately
+we are as yet absolutely without any palæontological
+knowledge of the extinct allies of either. <i>Macrotherium</i> even,
+usually supposed from the structure of its phalangeal bones, to be
+related to <i>Manis</i>, has lately proved to have the teeth and vertebræ
+of a perissodactyle Ungulate, and one could not dare to suggest
+that ancestors of <i>Manis</i>, or <i>Orycteropus</i> were to be sought in that
+direction. Lastly, as the numerous fossil American Edentates do<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211"></a>[211]</span>
+not show the slightest tendency to an approximation towards the
+Old World forms, we are furnished with an additional reason for
+insisting on the radical distinctness of the latter, whose phylogeny
+must therefore for the present remain one of the many unsolved
+zoological problems.”</p>
+
+<p>The Aard-Varks (Earth-Pigs) as these creatures are commonly
+termed, from the name bestowed on them by the Dutch Boers of
+the Cape, are of nocturnal habits, sleeping during the day in their
+burrows, which are usually found in the neighbourhood of the tall
+hills or mounds made by termites. Indeed, wherever these hills are
+abundant it is stated there is a good chance of finding an Aard-Vark,
+the food of these animals consisting almost exclusively of termites
+and ants.</p>
+
+<p>Two existing species are recognised, namely the Cape Aard-Vark
+(<i>O. afra</i>) from South Africa, and another (<i>O. æthiopicus</i>) from the
+north-eastern parts of Africa, ranging into Egypt. An extinct
+species has been described from the Lower Pliocene of the Isle
+of Samos, in the Turkish Archipelago, differing from the existing
+forms by the larger proportionate size of the lateral metatarsals.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<p><i>Bibliography of Edentata.</i>—No general work on the order has been published
+since that of Rapp (<i>Anat. Untersuchungen über die Edentaten</i>, 2d ed. 1852).
+Among numerous memoirs on special groups the following may be cited:—<i>Myrmecophagidæ</i>:—R.
+Owen, “Anatomy of Great Anteater,” <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i>
+vol. iv.; G. Pouchet, <i>Mém. sur le Grand Fourmilier</i>, 1874; W. A. Forbes,
+“Anat. of Great Anteater,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 287. <i>Megatheriidæ</i>:—R.
+Owen, <i>Extinct Gigantic Sloth (Mylodon Robustus)</i>, 1842; Id., “On the Megatherium,”
+<i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1851-56; J. Leidy, “Extinct Sloth-tribe of North
+America,” <i>Smithsonian Contrib. to Knowledge</i>, vii. 1855; H. Burmeister,
+<i>Description de la République Argentine</i>, t. iii. Mammifères, 1879,—which contains
+full references to various memoirs by Owen, Gervais, Reinhardt, and others.
+<i>Glyptodontidæ</i>:—Owen, <i>Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Mus. Roy. Coll. Surgeons</i>,
+1845; T. H. Huxley, “Osteol. of Glyptodon,” <i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1865; H. Burmeister,
+<i>Annales del Museo Publico de Buenos Aires</i>, and <i>Descript. de la République
+Argentine</i>, 1879; H. Gervais and F. Ameghino, <i>Les Mammifères Fossiles de
+l’Amérique Méridionale</i>, Paris, 1880,—which also contains a list of all the
+S. American Edentates described at that date. <i>Dasypodidæ</i>:—J. Murie, “Anatomy
+of <i>Tolypeutes</i>,” <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xxx. 1874; A. H. Garrod, <i>Proc.
+Zool. Soc.</i> 1878. For Placentation of Edentates see W. Turner, <i>Trans. Roy. Soc.
+Edin.</i> xxvii. (1873) p. 72, and <i>Journ. Anat. and Physiol.</i> vols. viii. and x.; A.
+Milne-Edwards, <i>Ann. Sciences Nat.</i> [6] viii. p. 1; and for brain, P. Gervais,
+“Formes cérébrales des Edentés,” <i>Nouv. Arch. du Muséum</i>, tom. v.; W. Turner,
+<i>Jour. Anatomy</i>, i. 313 (1867). For the dentition of <i>Orycteropus</i> see O. Thomas,
+“A Milk Dentition in <i>Orycteropus</i>,” <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> vol. xlvii. p. 246 (1890).
+Fuller observations on the mutual relations of the various families are given by
+W. H. Flower, “On the Mutual Affinities of the Animals composing the Order
+Edentata,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 358.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212"></a>[212]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE ORDERS SIRENIA AND CETACEA</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<h3><i>Order</i> <span class="smcap">Sirenia</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>The purely aquatic habits and fish-like form of the animals of this
+order caused them to be formerly confounded with the Cetacea,
+but a more intimate knowledge of their structure has shown that
+they really belong to a widely different type of the mammalian
+class.</p>
+
+<p>The head is rounded and not disproportionate in size as compared
+with the trunk, from which it is scarcely separated by any
+externally visible constriction or neck. Nostrils valvular, separate,
+and placed above the fore part of the obtuse truncated muzzle.
+Eyes very small, with imperfectly formed eyelids, capable, however,
+of contraction, and with a well-developed nictitating membrane.
+Ear without any pinna. Mouth of small or moderate size, with
+tumid lips beset with stiff bristles. General form of the body
+depressed, fusiform. No dorsal fin. Tail flattened and horizontally
+expanded. Fore limbs paddle-shaped, the digits being enveloped
+in a common cutaneous covering, on which rudiments of nails are
+sometimes present. No trace of hind limbs in existing forms. External
+surface covered with a tough, finely wrinkled, or very
+rugose skin, naked, or with fine hairs sparsely scattered over it.</p>
+
+<p>The skeleton is remarkable for the massiveness and density of
+most of the bones of which it is composed, especially the skull and
+ribs, which must add to the specific gravity of these slow-moving
+animals, and aid in keeping them to the bottom of the shallow
+waters in which they dwell, while feeding on aquatic vegetables.
+The skull presents many peculiarities, among which may be indicated
+the large size and backward position of the anterior narial aperture,
+a further modification of that met with in the Tapirs among Ungulates,
+and presenting some approach to that so characteristic of the
+Cetacea. The nasal bones are generally absent in the recent forms,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213"></a>[213]</span>
+or are only found in a most rudimentary condition, attached to the
+edge of the frontals, far away from the middle line; but in some at
+least of the extinct species these bones, though small in size, are
+normal in situation and relations. In very few other respects does the
+skull present any resemblance to that of the Cetacea. In the spinal
+column of existing forms none of the vertebræ are united together
+to form a sacrum, and the flat ends of the bodies do not ossify
+separately, so as to form disc-like epiphyses in the young state, as
+in nearly all other mammals; traces of epiphyses have, however,
+been recently detected in <i>Manatus</i>, and they were fully developed in
+<i>Halitherium</i> and other fossil forms. The anterior caudal vertebræ
+have well-developed chevron bones. In one genus (<i>Manatus</i>) there
+are only six cervical vertebræ. There are no clavicles. The humerus
+has a small but distinct trochlear articulation at the elbow-joint.
+The two bones of the forearm are about equally developed, and
+generally ankylosed together at both extremities. The carpus is
+short and broad, and the digits five in number, with moderately
+elongated and flattened phalanges, which are never increased in
+number beyond the limit usual in the Mammalia. The pelvis is
+extremely rudimentary, consisting of a pair of bones suspended at
+some distance from the vertebral column. In no existing species
+is there any trace of a hind limb, but in the extinct <i>Halitherium</i>
+an acetabular depression and rudimentary femur have been discovered.</p>
+
+<p>Two kinds of teeth, incisors and molars, separated by a wide
+interval, are generally present. The former may be developed into
+tusks in the upper jaw, or may be quite rudimentary. The molars
+vary much in character. In one genus (<i>Rhytina</i>) no teeth of any
+kind are present, at least in the adult. Some fossil forms show a
+more decidedly heterodont dentition, while <i>Halitherium</i> has milk-teeth,
+of which no traces have been observed in the recent genera.
+In all recent types the anterior part of the palate, and a corresponding
+surface on the prolonged symphysis of the lower jaw, are
+covered with rough horny plates of peculiar structure, which doubtless
+assist in mastication. The tongue is small and fixed in position,
+with a surface resembling that of the plates just spoken of. The
+salivary glands are largely developed. The stomach is compound,
+being divided by a valvular constriction into two principal cavities,
+the first of which is provided with a singular glandular pouch near
+the cardiac end, and the second usually with a pair of elongated,
+conical, cæcal sacs or diverticula. The intestinal canal is long, and
+has very muscular walls. There is a cæcum, either simple, conical,
+and with extremely thick walls, as in <i>Halicore</i>, or bifid, as in <i>Manatus</i>.
+The heart is broad and flat, with its apex deeply cleft between the
+ventricles. The principal arteries form very extensive and complex
+retia mirabilia. The lungs are remarkably long and narrow, as,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214"></a>[214]</span>
+owing to the very oblique position of the diaphragm, the thoracic
+cavity extends far back over the abdomen. The epiglottis and
+arytenoid cartilages of the larynx do not form a tubular prolongation
+as in the Cetacea, so that the epiglottis is not intranarial.
+The brain is of comparatively small size, and the convolutions on
+the surface of the cerebrum are few and shallow. The kidneys are
+simple. The testes abdominal. The uterus is bicornuate. The
+placenta (in the Dugong) is non-deciduate and zonary. The umbilical
+vesicle disappears early. The mammæ are two, and pectoral,
+or rather postaxillary in position.</p>
+
+<p>The Sirenia pass their whole life in the water, being denizens of
+shallow bays, estuaries, lagoons, and large rivers, but, unlike the
+Cetacea, are not met with in the high seas, far away from the shore.
+Their food consists entirely of aquatic plants, either marine algæ or
+freshwater grasses, upon which they browse beneath the surface, as
+the terrestrial herbivorous mammals do upon the green pastures on
+shore. They are generally gregarious, slow and inactive in their
+movements, mild, inoffensive, and apparently unintelligent in disposition.
+Though occasionally found stranded by the tide or waves,
+there is no satisfactory evidence that they voluntarily leave the water
+to bask or feed on the shore. The habit of the Dugong of raising
+its round head out of the water, and carrying its young under the
+fore fin, seems to have given rise, among the imaginative early
+voyagers in the Indian Ocean, to the legendary beings, half human
+and half fish, in allusion to which the name Sirenia was bestowed by
+Illiger on the order, though certainly the face of a Dugong, when
+closely inspected, does not bear the slightest resemblance to that of
+the mermaid of romance. The species now existing are very few,
+and there is reason to believe that the time is not far distant when
+they will all become extinct. One species, <i>Rhytina stelleri</i>, of the
+North Pacific, was totally exterminated through the agency of man
+during the last century; and the others, being valuable for their
+flesh as food, for their hides, and especially for the oil obtained from
+the thick layer of fat which lies immediately beneath their skin,
+rapidly diminish in numbers as civilised populations occupy the
+regions forming their natural habitat. The surviving species are
+confined to the tropical regions of the shores of both sides of the
+Atlantic and the great rivers which empty themselves into that
+ocean, and to the coasts of the Indian Ocean from the Red Sea to
+North Australia. In the Miocene and early Pliocene epoch
+Sirenians abounded in the seas of Europe, and their remains
+have been found in deposits of corresponding periods in North
+America. Evidence has also been discovered of the existence
+of an animal of this group in the seas at the bottom of which
+the Eocene nummulitic limestone mountain ranges of Egypt were
+deposited.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215"></a>[215]</span></p>
+
+<p>The existing genera present such well-marked distinguishing
+characters that it is on the whole convenient to place them in
+separate families, although, as in so many similar cases, our knowledge
+of the extinct forms, imperfect as it is, goes far to bridge over
+the distinction between them.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Manatidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>The characters of this and the two following families may be
+conveniently included under the heading of the single genus by which
+they are respectively represented.</p>
+
+<p><i>Manatus.</i><a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a>—Incisors ²⁄₂, rudimentary, concealed beneath the horny
+oral plates, and disappearing before maturity. Molars ¹¹⁄₁₁, but
+rarely more than ⁶⁄₆ present at one time, the anterior teeth falling
+before the posterior come into use; similar in characters from
+beginning to end of the series; with square, enamelled crowns, the
+grinding surface raised into tuberculated transverse ridges. The
+upper teeth with two ridges and three roots, the lower teeth with
+an additional (posterior) ridge, or talon, and two roots. The cervical
+vertebræ present the remarkable anomaly of being reduced to
+six in number, the usual vertebral formula being C 6, D 17, L 2,
+and C 23-25. Rostrum of the skull, formed by the union of the
+premaxillæ in front of the anterior narial aperture, shorter than the
+length of the aperture and scarcely deflected from the basicranial
+axis; premaxillæ and mandibular symphysis not markedly deflected
+(<a href="#figure072">Fig. 72</a>). Tail entire, rounded, or shovel-shaped. Rudimentary
+nails on the fore limbs. Cæcum bifid. Habitat the shores of,
+and the great rivers which empty themselves into, the Atlantic
+within the tropics. These animals are rather fluviatile than marine,
+ascending large rivers almost to their sources.</p>
+
+<p>The Manatee may be selected for a somewhat full description,
+as being one of the best known representatives of this very remarkable
+order.</p>
+
+<p>The name <i>Manati</i> was apparently first applied to this animal by
+the early Spanish colonists of the West Indies, in allusion to the
+hand-like use which it frequently makes of its fore limbs; by English
+writers from the time of Dampier (who gives a good account of its
+habits) downwards it has been generally spelt “Manatee.” It was
+placed by Linnæus in his heterogeneous genus <i>Trichechus</i>, but Storr’s
+name <i>Manatus</i> is now generally accepted for it by zoologists. The
+question of the specific distinction of the African and American
+Manatees will be treated of further on, but it will be chiefly to the
+latter and better known form that the following description applies.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure071" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure071.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>—American Manatee (<i>Manatus americanus</i>), from life. <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1881, p. 457.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The size of the Manatee has been much exaggerated, but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216"></a>[216]</span>
+there is no trustworthy evidence of its attaining a greater length
+than 8 feet. Its general external form may be seen in <a href="#figure071">Fig. 71</a>,
+taken from a living example in the Brighton Aquarium. The
+body is somewhat fish-like, but depressed and ending posteriorly in
+a broad, flat, shovel-like, horizontal tail, with rounded edges. The
+head is of moderate size, oblong, with a blunt, truncated muzzle,
+and divided from the body by a very slight constriction or neck.
+The fore limbs are flattened oval paddles, placed rather low on the
+sides of the body, and showing externally no signs of division into
+fingers, but with a tolerably free motion at the shoulder, elbow,
+and wrist joints, and with three diminutive flat nails near their
+extremities. No traces of hind limbs are discernible either externally
+or internally; and there is no dorsal fin. The mouth is very
+peculiar, the tumid upper lip being cleft in the middle line into two
+lobes, each of which is separately movable, as will be described in
+speaking of its manner of feeding. The nostrils are two semilunar
+valve-like slits, at the apex of the muzzle. The eyes are very
+minute, placed at the sides of the head, and with a nearly circular
+aperture with wrinkled margins. The external ear is a minute
+orifice situated behind the eye, without any trace of pinna. The
+skin generally is of a dark grayish colour, not smooth and glistening,
+like that of the Cetacea, but finely wrinkled. At a little distance
+it appears naked, but a close inspection, at all events in young
+animals, shows a scanty covering of very delicate hairs, and both
+upper and under lips are well supplied with short stiff bristles.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure072" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure072.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>—Skull of African Manatee (<i>Manatus senegalensis</i>). ⅕ natural size.
+From Mus. Roy. Coll. Surgeons.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The general form of the skull is seen in <a href="#figure072">Fig. 72</a>. The cerebral
+cavity is rather small as compared with the size of the animal,
+and of oblong form; its roof is formed of the parietal bones as
+in ordinary mammals. The squamosal has an extremely large
+and massive zygomatic process, which joins the largely developed
+jugal bone in front. The orbit is small, but prominent and
+nearly surrounded by bone. The anterior nares taken together
+form a lozenge-shaped aperture, which looks upwards and extends<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217"></a>[217]</span>
+backwards considerably behind the orbits. Their sides are formed
+by the ascending processes of the premaxillæ below, and by the
+supraorbital processes of the frontals above, no traces of nasals
+being found in most skulls, though these bones are occasionally
+present in a most rudimentary condition, attached to the edges
+of the frontals, far away from the middle line, in a position
+quite unique among the Mammalia. In front of the narial aperture
+the face is prolonged into a narrow rostrum, formed by
+the premaxillæ, supported below and at the sides by the maxillæ.
+The under surface of this is very rugose, and in life covered by a
+horny plate. The rami of the mandible are firmly united together
+at the symphysis, which is compressed laterally, slightly deflected,
+and has a rugose upper surface; to this another horny plate is
+attached, which, with that of the upper jaw, functionally supplies the
+place of teeth in the anterior part of the mouth. In the young
+state there are rudimentary teeth concealed beneath these horny
+plates, which never penetrate through them, and must therefore be
+quite functionless, and altogether disappear before the animal is full-grown.
+There is besides on each side of the hinder part of both
+upper and lower jaws, a parallel row of molar teeth, similar in
+characters from the beginning to the end of the series, with square
+enamelled crowns raised into tuberculated transverse ridges; something
+like those of the Tapir and Kangaroo. The upper teeth have
+two ridges and three roots; the lower teeth have an additional
+posterior small ridge or talon, and but two roots. These teeth
+succeed each other from before backwards, as in the Proboscidea,
+those at the front of the mouth being worn out and shed before
+those at the back are fully developed. There are altogether about
+eleven on either side of each jaw, but rarely more than six are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218"></a>[218]</span>
+present at one time. The brain is remarkably simple in structure,
+its hemispheres exhibiting none of the richness of convolution so
+characteristic of the Cetacea. The mammary glands of the female
+are situated just behind and to the inner side of the origin of
+the pectoral limb. The red corpuscles of the blood are among
+the largest of those of any members of the class, averaging in
+diameter, according to Gulliver, ¹⁄₂₄₀₀ of an inch.</p>
+
+<p>Manatees pass the whole of their life in the water, inhabiting
+bays, lagoons, estuaries, and large rivers; but the open sea, so congenial
+to the Cetacea, is quite unsuited to their peculiar mode of
+life. As a general rule they prefer shallow water, in which, when
+not feeding, they lie near the bottom, supporting themselves on the
+extremity of the tail, or slowly moving about by the assistance of
+the fore limbs, the tips of which are just allowed to touch the
+ground, and only raising the top of the head above the surface for
+the purpose of breathing at intervals of two or three minutes. In
+deeper water they often float, with the body much arched, the
+rounded back close to the surface, and the head, limbs, and tail
+hanging downwards. The air in the lungs obviously assists them
+to maintain this position, acting in the same manner as that in the
+air-sac of fishes. Their food consists exclusively of aquatic plants,
+on which they browse beneath the water. They are extremely
+slow and inactive in their movements, and perfectly harmless and
+inoffensive. Frequent attempts have been made to keep specimens
+alive in captivity, and sometimes with considerable success, one
+having lived in the Brighton Aquarium for upwards of sixteen
+months. It was fed chiefly on lettuce and endive, but would also
+eat leaves of the dandelion, sow-thistle, cabbage, turnip, and carrot.
+From this and other captive specimens some interesting observations
+upon the mode of life of the animal have been made. One of these
+is the free use it makes of its fore limbs. From the shoulder-joint,
+they can be moved in all directions, and the elbow and wrist permit
+of free extension and flexion. In feeding these creatures push the
+food towards their mouths by means of one of the hands, or both
+used simultaneously, and any one who has seen these members thus
+employed can readily believe the stories of their carrying their
+young about under their arms. Still more interesting and quite
+unique among mammals is the action of the peculiar lateral pads
+formed by the divided upper lip, thus described by the late Professor
+Garrod: “These pads have the power of transversely
+approaching towards and receding from one another simultaneously
+(see <a href="#figure073">Fig. 73</a>, A and B). When the animal is on the point of seizing
+(say) a leaf of lettuce, the pads are diverged transversely in such a
+way as to make a median gap of considerable breadth. Directly
+the leaf is within grasp the lip-pads are approximated, the leaf is
+firmly seized between their contiguous bristly surfaces, and then<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219"></a>[219]</span>
+drawn inwards by a backward movement of the lower margin of
+the lip as a whole.” The animal is thus enabled by the unaided
+means of the upper lip to introduce food placed before it without
+the assistance of the comparatively insignificant lower lip, the action
+greatly recalling to the observer that of the mouth of the silkworm
+and other caterpillars, in which the mandibles diverge and converge
+laterally during mastication. When out of water the Manatee is
+an extremely helpless animal; and, although statements are frequently
+met with in books of its voluntarily leaving the water for
+the purpose of basking or feeding on shore, all trustworthy observations
+of those acquainted with it, either in a state of nature
+or in captivity, indicate that it has not the power of doing so.
+None of the specimens in confinement have been observed to emit
+any sound.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure073" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure073.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>—Front view of head of American Manatee, showing the eyes, nostrils, and mouth.
+A, With the lobes of the upper lip divaricated; B, with the lip contracted. From Murie,
+<i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. xi.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Manatees, though much less numerous than formerly, are still
+occasionally found in creeks, lagoons, and estuaries in some of the
+West India Islands, and at various spots on the Atlantic coast of
+America from Florida as far south as about 20° S. lat., and in the
+great rivers of Brazil, almost as high as their sources. They are
+also met with in similar situations on the opposite African coast,
+from about 16° N. to 10° S. lat., and as far into the interior as
+Lake Tchad. Their range may even extend, if native reports
+obtained by Schweinfurth are correctly interpreted, to the river
+Keebaly, 27° E. long.</p>
+
+<p>A considerable number of specific names have been applied to
+the existing Manatees, but according to the researches of Dr.
+Hartlaub<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> they may be reduced to three species, distinguished from
+one another, among other features, by the characters of the skull,
+and more especially the relations of the nasals to the adjacent<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220"></a>[220]</span>
+bones. Of these the American Manatee may be known as <i>M.
+americanus</i>, although it has been described under the names of
+<i>M. latirostris</i>, and <i>M. australis</i>. The African Manatee (<i>M. senegalensis</i>)
+differs from the American species in the following cranial characters:
+the anterior part of the rostrum is shorter, shallower, and altogether
+smaller; the orbit is smaller; the zygomatic process is more deep
+and massive; the jugal bone is deeper from above downwards; the
+upper margin of the anterior nares is narrower and with a smooth
+and rounded, instead of a thin and serrated, edge; the upper surface
+of the frontal is flat, instead of concave; the foramen magnum and
+occipital condyles are narrower from side to side, and the symphysis
+of the mandible is smaller and shallower.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, <i>M. inunguis</i> is a fluviatile species confined to the
+Amazon and Orinoco, which has been but recently fully brought
+under the notice of zoologists.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Halicoridæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p><i>Halicore.</i><a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a>—In the upper jaw a pair of large, nearly straight, tusk-like
+incisors, directed downwards and forwards, partially coated
+with enamel. In the male they have persistent pulps, and bevelled
+cutting edges, which project a short distance from the mouth, but
+in the female, though they remain through life in the alveolar
+cavity, they are not exserted, and, the pulp-cavity being filled with
+osteodentine, they soon cease to grow (as in the female Narwhal).
+In the young there is also a second small deciduous incisor on
+each side above. At this age there are also beneath the horny plate
+which covers the anterior portion of the mandible four pairs of
+slender conical teeth lodged in wide alveolar depressions; these
+become absorbed before the animal reaches maturity. The molars
+are usually ⁵⁄₅, sometimes ⁶⁄₆, altogether, but not all in place at once,
+as the first falls before the last rises above the gum; they are more
+or less nearly cylindrical in section (except the last, which is compressed
+and grooved laterally), without distinction into crown and
+root, increasing in size from before backwards, with persistent pulps
+and no enamel. The summits of the crowns are tuberculated before
+wearing, afterwards flattened or slightly concave. Skull with rostrum
+formed by the union of the premaxillæ in front of the narial
+aperture, longer than the aperture itself, bending downwards at a
+right angle with the basicranial axis, and enclosing the sockets
+of the large incisor tusks. Anterior part of the lower jaw bent
+down in a corresponding manner. Vertebræ: C 7, D 18-19, L and
+C 30. Tail broadly notched in the middle line, and with two
+pointed lateral lobes. No nails on the fore limbs. Cæcum single.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221"></a>[221]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Dugongs are more distinctly marine in their habits than the
+Manatees, feeding chiefly on sea-water algæ. They inhabit the
+shallow bays and creeks of the Red Sea, east coast of Africa,
+Ceylon, islands of the Bay of Bengal and the Indo-Malayan
+Archipelago (including the Philippines), and the north coast of
+Australia, ranging from Barrow Reefs on the west to Moreton Bay
+on the east. Although the distinctive characters are not very
+obvious, they have been divided into three species, according
+to the localities which they respectively inhabit:—<i>H. tabernaculi</i>
+from the Red Sea, <i>H. dugong</i> from the Indian seas, and <i>H. australis</i>
+from Australia. The last-named has lately been the object of a
+regular “fishery,” chiefly on account of its oil, which is peculiarly
+clear, limpid, and free from disagreeable smell, and is said to have
+the same medicinal properties as cod-liver oil. Although often stated
+in books to attain the length of 20 feet when adult, there does
+not appear to be any evidence from actual specimens in museums
+that Dugongs ever reach half that size, 8 feet being the common
+length of adult animals.</p>
+
+<p>The placentation of this genus has been recently described by
+Sir W. Turner, who first indicated its zonary form.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Rhytinidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p><i>Rhytina.</i><a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a>—No teeth, their place being supplied functionally by
+the dense, strongly-ridged, horny oral plates. Premaxillary rostrum
+about as long as the anterior narial aperture, and moderately
+deflected. Vertebræ: C 7, D 19, L and C 34-37. Head very small
+in proportion to the body. Tail with two lateral pointed lobes.
+Pectoral limbs small and truncated. Skin naked and covered with
+a very thick, hard, rugged, bark-like epidermis. Stomach without
+cæcal appendages to the pyloric cavity. Cæcum simple.</p>
+
+<p>Only one species of this genus is known, <i>R. stelleri</i>, the Northern
+Sea-cow, by far the largest animal of the order, attaining the length
+of 20 to 25 feet. It was formerly an inhabitant of the shores of
+two small islands in the North Pacific, Behring and the adjacent
+Copper Island, on the former of which it was discovered by the
+ill-fated navigator whose name the island bears, when, with his
+accomplished companion, the German naturalist Steller, he was
+wrecked upon it in 1741. Twenty-seven years afterwards (1768),
+as is commonly supposed, the last of the race was killed,<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> and its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222"></a>[222]</span>
+very existence would have been unknown to science but for the
+interesting account of its anatomy and habits left by Steller, and
+the few more or less imperfect skeletons which have recently rewarded
+the researches carried on in the frozen soil of the islands
+around which it dwelt. There is no evidence at present of its
+having inhabited any other coasts than those of the islands just
+named, although it can hardly be supposed that its range was
+always so restricted. When first discovered it was extremely
+numerous in the shallow bays round Behring Island, finding
+abundant nutriment in the large laminariæ growing in the sea.
+Its extirpation is entirely due to the Russian hunters and traders
+who followed upon the track of the explorers, and, upon Steller’s
+suggestion, lived upon the flesh of the great Sea-cows. Its
+restricted distribution, large size, inactive habits, fearlessness of
+man, and even its affectionate disposition towards its own kind
+when wounded or in distress, all contributed to accelerate its final
+extinction.</p>
+
+<p>According to Steller’s account, the Rhytina had a skin of a dark
+brown colour, sometimes spotted or streaked with white. The fore
+limb was covered with short brush-like hairs.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Extinct</i> <span class="smcap">Sirenians</span>.</h4>
+
+<p><i>Halitherium.</i><a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a>—The Miocene and early Pliocene seas of Europe
+abounded in Sirenians, to which the generic name of <i>Halitherium</i>
+was given by Kaup, but which have also received other names.
+They had large tusk-like incisors in the upper jaw, as in the
+existing Dugongs, though not so greatly developed. Their molar
+teeth were ⁵⁄₅ or ⁶⁄₆, anteriorly simple and single-rooted, posteriorly
+those above with three and those below with two roots, and with
+enamelled and tuberculated or ridged crowns, in all which respects
+they more resemble those of the Manatee than of the Dugong.
+The anterior molars were deciduous; and there is evidence of the
+presence of milk-teeth. Germs of inferior incisors were also
+present. Some species at least had nasal bones, short, broad,
+but normal in position, whereas in all the existing genera these
+bones are quite rudimentary. Another and still more important
+evidence of conformity to the general mammalian type is the
+better development of the pelvic bone, and the presence of a small
+styliform femur articulated to the acetabulum, although no traces
+of any other part of the limb have been discovered. These ancient
+Sirenians, which may be regarded as representing a distinct family—<i>Halitheriidæ</i>—were
+thus, in dental, cranial, and other osteological
+characters, less specialised than are either of the existing species,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223"></a>[223]</span>
+and if the intermediate links could be discovered might well be
+looked upon as the ancestral forms from which the latter have been
+derived, but at present the transitional conditions have not been
+detected. So far as is yet known, when changes in the physical
+conditions of the European seas rendered them unfitted to be the
+habitation of Sirenians, the <i>Halitherium</i> type still prevailed. If the
+existing Dugongs and Manatees are descended from it, their evolution
+must have taken place during the Pliocene and Pleistocene
+epochs, the one in seas to the east, the other to the west of the
+African continent, which has long formed a barrier to their intercommunication.
+<i>Halitherium</i> remains have been found in many
+parts of Germany, especially near Darmstadt, also in France, Italy,
+Belgium, Malta, etc.
+Until a few years ago
+none were known from
+England, probably owing
+to the absence of beds
+of an age corresponding
+to those in which they
+are found on the European
+continent; but
+a skull and several
+teeth have been detected
+among the rolled debris of which the Red Crag of Suffolk is partially
+composed. The species are not yet satisfactorily characterised.
+Some of them appear to have attained a larger size than the existing
+Manatee or Dugong. One of these, from the Pliocene of Italy and
+France, having but ⁵⁄₅ molar teeth, has been separated generically
+under the name of <i>Felsinotherium</i> by Capellini, by whom it has been
+fully described; but the difference in the number of the teeth
+does not afford sufficient grounds for separation from <i>Halitherium</i>.
+<i>Miosiren</i> of the Belgian Miocene, differs in that the last upper
+molar is the smallest, in place of the largest of the whole series
+of teeth.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure074" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure074.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>—The penultimate and last right lower molars
+of <i>Halitherium fossile</i>; from the Miocene of the Continent.
+(After De Blainville.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Other forms.</i>—Remains from the Pliocene of France described as
+<i>Prohalicore</i> are regarded as indicating a Sirenian closely allied to
+<i>Halicore</i>; while a molar from the Tertiary of California has been
+made the type of <i>Desmotylus</i>, which is likewise referred to the
+<i>Halicoridæ</i>. <i>Dioplotherium</i>, from the Phosphorites of South Carolina,
+has been considered to connect <i>Halicore</i> with <i>Halitherium</i>, but even
+its ordinal position is uncertain.</p>
+
+<p>A portion of a skull found in the Pliocene of Belgium has been
+described as <i>Crassitherium</i> by Van Beneden; and some compressed
+teeth, somewhat similar to but larger than those of the Dugong,
+discovered in the Miocene of the department of Lot-et-Garonne,
+France, gave origin to the genus <i>Rytiodus</i> of E. Lartet. Of this<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224"></a>[224]</span>
+genus, which may be identical with <i>Trachytherium</i> of the French
+Miocene, better preserved remains have subsequently been described
+by Delfortrie. These show that the rostrum is more elongated
+than in <i>Halitherium</i>, but the skull is otherwise very similar, as are
+the molar teeth. The incisors are very large, exserted, strongly
+compressed, almost sabre-like, rounded on the upper or anterior
+surface, sharp below, concave on the external and convex on the
+inner side, and transversely striated.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pachyacanthus</i> from the Miocene of the Vienna basin is also, according
+to Van Beneden, another form of Sirenian, of which, however,
+the skull is not known. In various Miocene marine formations of
+the United States of America other remains of Sirenians have
+been found, but mostly in such a fragmentary condition that they
+afford at present little evidence of the early history of the group
+in that country. A more satisfactory discovery is that of a
+nearly complete skull and some bones from a Tertiary limestone
+formation in Jamaica. It is of smaller size than the Manatee,
+and, so far as the teeth are concerned, of a still more generalised
+character than <i>Halitherium</i>, the dentition being apparently <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁,
+<i>p</i> + <i>m</i> (?⁸⁄?₈) = 48. The incisors are small, not developed into tusks;
+the canines (wanting in all existing Sirenians) are rather larger
+than the incisors, judging by the sockets; and the molars are
+bilophodont, and covered with enamel. It has been described
+by Sir R. Owen under the name of <i>Prorastomus sirenoides</i>. Some
+writers regard this genus as the type of a distinct family—the
+<i>Prorastomatidæ</i>. Unfortunately we have no knowledge of the geological
+antiquity of the formation in which it was embedded. Lastly
+must be mentioned the <i>Eotherium egyptiacum</i>, Owen, founded on the
+cast of a brain, with a small quantity of surrounding bone, discovered
+in the nummulitic limestone of Eocene age in the Mokattam Hills,
+near Cairo. The brain is narrower than in <i>Manatus</i>, and resembles
+that of <i>Halitherium</i>. This is of interest as the most ancient known
+evidence of any Sirenian whose age has been geologically determined.
+Teeth from the same deposits referred to <i>Manatus</i> not
+improbably belong really to <i>Eotherium</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The few facts as yet collected relating to the former history of
+the Sirenia leave us as much in the dark as to the origin and
+affinities of this peculiar group of animals as we were when we only
+knew the living members. They lend no countenance to their
+association with the Cetacea, and on the other hand their supposed
+affinity with the Ungulata, so much favoured by modern zoologists,
+receives no very material support from them.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<p><i>Bibliography of Sirenia.</i>—J. F. Brandt, <i>Symbolæ Sirenologicæ</i>, St. Petersburg,
+3 fasciculi, 1846-61-68—an exhaustive account of the anatomy, affinities, and
+literature of the group, with copious illustrations of the osteology of <i>Rhytina</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225"></a>[225]</span>
+<i>Anatomy of Dugong</i>:—Everard Home, <i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1820, p. 315; Owen, <i>Proc.
+Zool. Soc.</i> 1838, p. 29. <i>Placenta of do.</i>:—W. Turner, <i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i>
+vol. xxxv. (1889). <i>Manatee</i>:—W. Vrolik, <i>Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde</i>, 1851;
+J. Murie, “On the Form and Structure of the Manatee,” <i>Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond.</i>
+vol. viii. p. 127, 1872, and “Further Observations on the Manatee,” <i>Ibid.</i> vol.
+xi. p. 19, 1880; A. H. Garrod, “Notes on the Manatee recently living in the
+Zoological Society’s Gardens,” <i>Ibid.</i> vol. x. p. 137, 1875; H. C. Chapman,
+“Observations on the Structure of the Manatee,” <i>Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences of
+Philadelphia</i>, 1875, p. 452; A. Crane, “Notes on the Habits of the Manatees in
+Captivity in the Brighton Aquarium,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.</i> 1881, p. 456.
+<i>Extinct Sirenia</i>:—Gervais, <i>Journal de Zoologie</i>, tom. i. p. 332, 1872. R. Lydekker,
+<i>Catalogue of Fossil Mammalia in the British Museum</i>, pt. v.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<h3><i>Order</i> <span class="smcap">Cetacea</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>This is perhaps the most distinctly circumscribed and natural
+of all the larger groups into which the class is divided.</p>
+
+<p>The external form is fish-like, the body being fusiform, passing
+anteriorly into the head without any distinct constriction or neck,
+and posteriorly tapering off gradually towards the extremity of the
+tail, which is provided with a pair of lateral, pointed expansions of
+skin supported by dense fibrous tissue, called “flukes,” forming
+together a horizontally-placed triangular propelling organ, notched
+in the middle line behind.</p>
+
+<p>The head is generally large, in some species attaining to even
+more than one-third of the entire length of the animal, and the
+aperture of the mouth is always wide, and bounded by stiff
+immobile lips. The fore limbs are reduced to the condition of
+flattened ovoid paddles, encased in a continuous integument, showing
+no external sign of division into arm, fore arm, and manus, or of
+separate digits, and without any trace of nails. There are no traces
+of hind limbs visible externally. The general surface of the skin is
+smooth and glistening, and devoid of hair, although in many species
+there are a few fine bristles in the neighbourhood of the mouth,
+which may either persist through life, or be present only in the
+young state. Immediately beneath the skin, and intimately
+connected with it, is a thick layer of fat, held together by a dense
+mesh of areolar tissue, constituting the “blubber,” which serves the
+purpose of the hairy covering of other mammals in retaining the
+heat of the body. In nearly all species a compressed median dorsal
+tegumentary fin is present. The eye is small, and is not provided
+with a nictitating membrane or true lachrymal apparatus. The
+external auditory meatus is a very minute aperture in the skin
+situated at a short distance behind the eye, and there is no vestige
+of a pinna. The nostrils open either separately or by a single
+crescentic valvular aperture, not at the extremity of the snout, but
+near the vertex of the head.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226"></a>[226]</span></p>
+
+<p>The bones generally are spongy in texture, the cavities being
+filled with oil. In the vertebral column the cervical region is
+remarkably short and immobile, and the vertebræ, originally
+always seven in number, are in many species more or less fused
+together into a solid mass. The odontoid process of the axis, when
+that bone is free, is usually very obtuse, or even obsolete. None
+of the vertebræ are united together to form a sacrum. The lumbar
+and caudal vertebræ are numerous and large, and, as their arches
+are not connected by any articular processes (zygapophyses), they
+are capable of a very free motion in all directions. The epiphyses
+at the ends of the vertebral bodies are very distinct flattened disks,
+not uniting until after the animal has attained its full dimensions.<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a>
+There are largely developed chevron bones, the presence of which
+indicates the distinction between the caudal and lumbar vertebræ.</p>
+
+<p>The skull (<a href="#figure075">Fig. 75</a>) is modified in a very peculiar manner. The
+brain-case is short, broad, and high, in fact almost spherical. The
+supraoccipital bone rises upwards and forwards from the foramen
+magnum, to meet the frontals at the vertex, thus completely
+excluding the parietals from the upper region of the cranium. The
+frontals are expanded laterally to form the roof of the orbits. The
+anterior narial aperture opens upwards, and has in front of it a
+more or less horizontally prolonged rostrum, formed of the maxillæ,
+premaxillæ, vomer, and mesethmoid cartilage, extending forwards
+to form the upper jaw or roof of the mouth.</p>
+
+<p>There are no clavicles. The humerus is freely movable on the
+scapula at the shoulder-joint, but beyond this the articulations of
+the limb are imperfect, the flattened ends of the bones coming in
+contact with each other, with fibrous tissue interposed, allowing of
+scarcely any motion. The radius and ulna are distinct, about
+equally developed, and much flattened, as are also all the bones
+of the manus. There are four, or more commonly five digits, and
+the number of the phalanges of the second and third digits always
+exceeds the normal number in mammals, sometimes very considerably
+(hyperphalangism); they present the exceptional character
+of having epiphyses at both ends.<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> The pelvis is represented by a
+pair of small styliform bones placed longitudinally, suspended below
+and at some distance from the vertebral column at the commencement
+of the caudal region. These appear to represent the ischia,
+as the crura of the corpora cavernosa are attached to them. In
+some species, to the outer surface of these are fixed other small
+bones or cartilages, the rudiments of the hind limb.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227"></a>[227]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp94" id="figure075" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure075.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>—A section of the skull of a young Dolphin (<i>Globicephalus melas</i>) × ⅕. <i>PMx</i>, Premaxilla;
+<i>Mx</i>, maxilla; <i>ME</i>, ossified portion of the mesethmoid; <i>an</i>, anterior nares; <i>Na</i>,
+nasal; <i>IP</i>, interparietal; <i>Fr</i>, frontal; <i>Pa</i>, parietal; <i>SO</i>, supraoccipital; <i>ExO</i>, exoccipital;
+<i>BO</i>, basioccipital; <i>Sq</i>, squamosal; <i>Per</i>, periotic; <i>AS</i>, alisphenoid; <i>PS</i>, presphenoid; <i>Pt</i>,
+pterygoid; <i>pn</i>, posterior nares; <i>Pl</i>, palatine; <i>Vo</i>, vomer; <i>s</i>, symphysis of mandible; <i>id</i>,
+inferior dental canal; <i>cp</i>, coronoid process of mandible; <i>cd</i>, condyle; a, angle; sh, stylohyal;
+<i>bh</i>, basihyal; <i>th</i>, thyrohyal. (From Flower’s <i>Osteology of Mammalia</i>.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Teeth are generally present, but exceedingly variable in number.
+In the existing species they are of simple, uniform character, all
+having conical or compressed crowns and single roots, and are never
+preceded by milk-teeth. They are therefore homodont and
+monophyodont. In one group, the Mystacocetes, the teeth are
+absent (except, in the fœtal condition), and the palate is provided
+with numerous transversely placed horny laminæ or “baleen.”
+The salivary glands are rudimentary or absent. The stomach is
+multilocular, its structure being fully noticed under the genus
+<i>Phocæna</i>. The intestinal canal is simple, and only in some species
+provided with a small cæcum. The liver is very little fissured, and
+there is no gall-bladder. The vascular system is greatly complicated
+by arterial and venous plexuses, or <i>retia mirabilia</i>. The larynx is of
+peculiar shape, the arytenoid cartilages and the epiglottis being
+much elongated, and together forming a tubular prolongation, which
+projects into the posterior nares, and when embraced by the soft
+palate produces a continuous passage between the nostrils and the
+trachea, as in Ungulates, but in a more perfect manner. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228"></a>[228]</span>
+brain is large relatively to the size of the animal, very round in
+form, and with its surface divided by sulci into very numerous and
+complex convolutions. The kidneys are deeply lobulated. The
+testes are abdominal. There are no vesiculæ seminales, nor os
+penis. The uterus is bicornuate, and the placenta non-deciduate
+and diffuse. The mammæ are two in number, and the nipples
+placed in depressions on each side of the vulva. The principal
+ducts of the gland are dilated during lactation into large reservoirs,
+into which the milk collects, and from which it is injected by the
+action of a compressor muscle into the mouth of the young animal,
+by which means the process of sucking under water is greatly
+facilitated and expedited.</p>
+
+<p>The animals of the order Cetacea abound in all known seas,
+and some species are inhabitants of the larger rivers of South
+America and Asia. Their organisation necessitates passing their life
+entirely in the water, as on land they are absolutely helpless.
+They have, however, to rise very frequently to the surface for the
+purpose of respiration; and, in relation to the constant upward and
+downward movement in the water thus necessitated, their principal
+instrument of motion, the tail, is expanded horizontally, quite
+unlike that of a fish, whose movements are mainly in straight-forward
+or lateral directions. The position of the respiratory orifice
+or nostril on the highest part of the head is very important for
+this mode of life, since it is the only part of the body of which
+the exposure above the surface is absolutely necessary. Of the
+numerous erroneous ideas connected with natural history, few are
+so wide spread and still so firmly believed, notwithstanding repeated
+expositions of its falsity, as that the Cetacea spout out through
+their blowholes water taken in at the mouth. The fact is, the
+“spouting,” or more properly “blowing,” of the Whale is nothing
+more than the ordinary act of expiration, which, taking place at
+longer intervals than in land animals, is performed with a greater
+amount of emphasis. The moment the animal rises to the surface
+it forcibly expels from its lungs the air taken in at the last inspiration,
+which of course is highly charged with watery vapour in
+consequence of the natural respiratory changes. This, rapidly
+condensing in the cold atmosphere in which the phenomenon is
+generally observed, forms a column of steam or spray, which has
+been erroneously taken for water. It also often happens, especially
+when the surface of the ocean is agitated into waves, that the
+animal commences its expiratory puff before the orifice has quite
+cleared the top of the water, some of which may thus be driven
+upwards with the blast, tending to complete the illusion. In
+hunting Whales the harpoon often pierces the lungs or air passages
+of the unfortunate victim, and then fountains of blood may be
+forced high in the air through the blowholes, as commonly depicted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229"></a>[229]</span>
+in scenes of Arctic adventure; but this is nothing more (allowance
+being made for the Whale’s peculiar mode of breathing) than what
+always follows severe wounds of the respiratory organs of other
+mammals.</p>
+
+<p>All the Cetacea are predaceous, subsisting on living animal food
+of some kind. One genus alone (<i>Orca</i>) eats other warm-blooded
+animals, as Seals, and even members of its own order, both large
+and small. Some feed on fish, others on small floating crustaceans,
+pteropods, and medusæ, while the principal staple of the food of
+many is constituted by the various species of cephalopods, <i>Loligo</i>
+and other <i>Teuthidæ</i>, which must abound in certain seas in vast
+numbers, as they form almost the entire support of some of the
+largest members of the order. In size the Cetacea vary much, some
+of the smaller Dolphins scarcely exceeding 4 feet in length, while
+others are the most colossal of all animals. It is true that most
+statements of their bulk found in general and even zoological
+literature are greatly exaggerated, but even when reduced to
+their actual dimensions (which will be stated under the respective
+genera) some of the existing Whales exceed in size any animal
+living either at present or in former times of which we have any
+certain evidence. With some exceptions, the Cetacea generally are
+timid inoffensive animals, active in their movements, and very
+affectionate in their disposition towards one another, especially the
+mother towards the young, of which there is usually but one, or
+at most two at a time. They are generally gregarious, swimming
+in herds or “schools” (so termed by the whalers) sometimes
+amounting to many thousands in number; though some species
+have hitherto only been met with either singly or in pairs.</p>
+
+<p>Although by their mode of life so far removed from close observation
+that it is impossible to become as familiar with them in
+their natural condition as with many other animals, Whales are in
+many respects the most interesting and wonderful of all creatures;
+and there is much in their structure and habits well worthy of
+study, much that is difficult to understand, and much that leads to
+great generalisations and throws light upon far-reaching philosophical
+speculations. One of the first lessons which a study of these
+animals affords is that, in the endeavour to discover what a creature
+really is, from what others it is descended, and to what it is related,
+the general outward appearance affords little clue, and we must go
+deep below the surface to find out the essential characteristics of its
+nature. There was once, and may be still in many places, a
+common idea that a Whale is a fish. To realise the fallacy of this
+notion we have only to consider what a fish really is, what under
+all the diversities of form, size, and colour known among fishes
+there is common to them all, and we see that in everything which
+characterises a true fish and separates it from other classes, as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230"></a>[230]</span>
+reptiles, birds, and mammals, the Whale resembles the last-named
+and differs from the fish. It is as essentially a mammal as a Cow
+or a Horse, and simply resembles a fish externally because it is
+adapted to inhabit the same element; but it is no more on that
+account a fish than is a bat, because adapted to pass a great part of
+its existence on the wing in the air, nearly related to a bird. The
+whole structure of a whale is a most instructive instance of a type
+of organisation which is common to and characteristic of the class
+Mammalia, but specially modified or adapted to a peculiar mode of
+life. We see in every part the result of two great principles acting
+and reacting upon each other—on the one hand, adherence to type,
+or rather to fundamental inherited structural conditions, and, on
+the other, adaptation to the peculiar circumstances under which it
+lives, and to which in all probability it has become gradually more
+and more fitted. The external fish-like form is perfectly suited for
+swimming through the water; the tail, however, is not placed
+vertically as in fishes, but horizontally, a position which accords
+better with the constant necessity for rising to the surface for the
+purpose of breathing. The hairy covering characteristic of all
+mammals, which if present might interfere with rapidity of movement
+through the water, is reduced to the merest rudiments—a
+few short bristles about the chin or upper lip—which are often
+only present in very young animals; and the function of keeping
+the body warm is supplied by the “blubber.” The forelimbs,
+though functionally reduced to mere paddles, with no power of
+motion except at the shoulder-joint, have beneath their smooth and
+continuous external covering all the bones, joints, and even most of
+the muscles, nerves, and arteries of the human arm and hand; and
+the rudiments of hind legs found buried deep in the interior of the
+animal apparently subserve no useful purpose, but point an instructive
+lesson to those who are able to read it.</p>
+
+<p>As before said, the Cetacea form a perfectly well-defined group,
+sharply separated from all other mammals, and with no outlying or
+doubtful forms at present known. Among the existing members
+of the order, there are two very distinct types, the Toothed Whales
+or Odontoceti and the Baleen Whales or Mystacoceti, which present
+as many marked distinguishing structural characters as are found
+between many other divisions of the Mammalia which are reckoned
+as orders. The extinct <i>Zeuglodon</i>, so far as its characters are known,
+does not fall into either of these groups, but is in some respects an
+annectant form, and therefore must be placed, provisionally at least,
+in a third group by itself.</p>
+
+<p>The Mystacocetes appear at first sight to be the most specialised
+and aberrant of the existing Cetacea, as indicated by the absence of
+teeth, the presence of baleen, and the form and size of the mouth;
+but, as we see in other groups, dental characters, and all such as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231"></a>[231]</span>
+relate to the prehension of food generally, are essentially adaptive
+and consequently plastic or prone to variation, and hence cannot
+well be relied upon as tests of affinity. In another character,
+also adaptive, the laxity of the connection of the ribs with the
+vertebral column and with the sternum, and the reduction of that
+bone in size, allowing great freedom of expansion of the thoracic
+cavity for prolonged immersion beneath the water, the Mystacocetes
+have passed beyond the Odontocetes in specialisation. On the other
+hand, the greater symmetry of the skull, the more anterior position
+of the external nostrils and their double external orifice, the form
+of the nasal bones, the presence of a distinctly developed olfactory
+organ, the mode of attachment of the periotic bone to the cranium,
+the presence of a cæcum and the regular arrangement of the
+alimentary canal, the more normal characters of the manus and the
+better development of the muscles attached to it, and the presence,
+in many species at least, of parts representing not only the bones
+but also the ligaments and muscles of a hind limb,<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> all show less
+deviation from the ordinary mammalian type than is presented by
+the Odontocetes. Taking all these characters into consideration, it
+does not appear reasonable to suppose that either type has been
+derived from the other, at all events in the form in which we see
+it now, but rather that they are parallel groups, both modified in
+different fashions from common ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Mystacocetes, in the especially distinguishing
+characters of the division, the Rorquals are less specialised than the
+Right Whales, which in the greater size of the head, the length and
+compression of the rostrum, the development of the baleen, and
+shortness of the cervical region, are exaggerated forms of the type,
+and yet they retain more fully some primitive characters, as the
+better development of the hind limb, the pentadactylous manus,
+and the absence of a dorsal fin. Both types are found distinct in
+a fossil state at least as far back as the early Pliocene age, but
+generally represented by smaller species than those now existing.
+Some of the Pliocene Rorquals (<i>Cetotherium</i>) were, in the elongated
+flattened form of the nasal bones, the greater distance between the
+occipital and frontal bone at the top of the head, and the greater
+length of the cervical vertebræ, more generalised than those now
+existing. In the shape of the mandible also, Van Beneden, to
+whose researches we are much indebted for a knowledge of these
+forms, discerns some approximation to the Odontocetes.</p>
+
+<p>Among the last-named group there are several distinct types, of
+which that represented by <i>Platanista</i>, although in some respects
+singularly modified, has been considered to present on the whole
+approximations towards the more normal and general type of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232"></a>[232]</span>
+mammalian structure. It is therefore interesting to find an
+apparently allied form well represented among the earliest fossil
+remains of Cetaceans in Europe. Almost all the other members of
+the suborder range themselves under the two principal heads of
+Ziphioids (or Physeteroids) and Delphinoids. The former is an
+ancient and once abounding type, of which the Sperm Whale
+(<i>Physeter</i>) is a highly specialised form. Among the latter, <i>Globicephalus</i>
+is a modified form as regards the structure of its anterior
+extremity, and <i>Monodon</i> as regards its dentition, while <i>Delphinus</i>,
+with the various allied genera, may be regarded as the dominating
+type of Cetaceans at the present day, abundant in slightly
+differentiated species and also in individuals. They are in this
+respect to the rest of the order much as the hollow-horned
+Ruminants are to the other Ungulates.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest Cetaceans of whose organisation we have anything
+like complete evidence are the Zeuglodonts of the Eocene period,<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a>
+which approach in the structure of the skull and teeth to a much more
+generalised mammalian type than either of the existing suborders.
+The smallness of the cerebral cavity compared with the jaws and the
+rest of the skull they share with the primitive forms of many other
+types. The forward position of the narial aperture and the length
+and flatness of the nasal bones, which distinguish them from all
+existing forms, we must also suppose to be a character at one time
+common to all Cetaceans, though now retained (but to a less degree)
+only by the Mystacocetes. Even <i>Squalodon</i>, which in its heterodont
+dentition so much resembles <i>Zeuglodon</i> as to have been placed by
+some zoologists in the same genus, entirely differs from it, and
+conforms with the ordinary Dolphins in its essential cranial
+characters.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the Cetacea is at present involved in much obscurity.
+They present no signs of closer affinity to any of the
+lower classes of vertebrates than do many other members of their
+own class. Indeed in all that essentially distinguishes a mammal
+from the oviparous vertebrates, whether in the osseous, nervous,
+reproductive, or any other system, they are as truly mammalian as
+any other group. Any supposed marks of inferiority, as absence
+of limb structure, of hairy covering, of lachrymal apparatus, etc., are
+obviously modifications (or degradations, as they may be termed)
+in adaptation to their special mode of life. The characters of the
+teeth of <i>Zeuglodon</i> and other extinct forms, and also of the fœtal
+Mystacocetes, clearly indicate that they have been derived from
+mammals in which the heterodont type of dentition was fully<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233"></a>[233]</span>
+established. The steps by which a land mammal may have been
+modified into a purely aquatic one are indicated by the stages
+which still survive among the Carnivora in the <i>Otariidæ</i> and in
+the true Seals. A further change in the same direction would produce
+an animal somewhat resembling a Dolphin; and it has been
+thought that this may have been the route by which the Cetacean
+form has been developed. There are, however, great difficulties in
+the way of this view. Thus if the hind limbs had ever been
+developed into the very efficient aquatic propelling organs they
+present in the Seals, it is not easy to imagine how they could have
+become completely atrophied and their function transferred to the
+tail. So that from this point of view it is more likely that Whales
+were derived from animals with long tails, which were used in
+swimming, eventually with such effect that the hind limbs became
+no longer necessary. The powerful tail, with its lateral cutaneous
+flanges, of an American species of Otter (<i>Lutra brasiliensis</i>) may give
+an idea of this member in the primitive Cetaceans. But the structure
+of the Cetacea is, in so many essential characters, so unlike
+that of the Carnivora that the probabilities are against these orders
+being nearly related. Even in the skull of the Zeuglodon, which
+has been cited as presenting a great resemblance to that of a Seal,
+quite as many likenesses may be traced to one of the primitive Pig-like
+Ungulates (except in the purely adaptive character of the form
+of the teeth), while the elongated larynx,<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> complex stomach, simple
+liver, reproductive organs both male and female, and fœtal membranes
+of the existing Cetacea are far more like those of that group
+than of the Carnivora. Indeed it appears probable that the old
+popular idea which affixed the name of “Sea-Hog”<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> to the Porpoise
+contains a larger element of truth than the speculations of many
+accomplished zoologists of modern times. The fact that <i>Platanista</i>,
+which, as mentioned above, appears to retain more of the primitive
+characteristics of the group than any other existing form, and also
+the somewhat related <i>Inia</i> from South America, are both at the
+present day exclusively fluviatile, may point to the freshwater origin
+of the whole group, in which case their otherwise rather inexplicable
+absence from the seas of the Cretaceous period would be
+accounted for.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, it should be observed that the teeth of the
+Zeuglodonts approximate more to a carnivorous than to an ungulate
+type. It is scarcely necessary to allude to the hypothesis started
+by some Continental writers to the effect that the Whales are the
+most primitive type of mammals with which we are acquainted,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234"></a>[234]</span>
+and that they are the descendants of the Mesozoic reptilian order
+Ichthyopterygia, from which their hyperphalangism is a direct
+inheritance. The Ichthyopterygia have been shown, on very strong
+evidence, to have been derived from land reptiles, and to have
+gradually acquired their hyperphalangism as an adaptive character
+suitable to their peculiar mode of life, and there can be but little
+doubt that a similar adaptation has taken place in the case of the
+Whales.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Mystacoceti</span>,
+<i>the</i> <span class="smcap">Balænoidea</span>, <i>Whalebone, or True Whales</i>.<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a></h4>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Balænidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Teeth never functionally developed, but always disappearing
+before the close of intra-uterine life. Palate provided with plates
+of baleen or “whalebone.” Skull symmetrical. Nasal bones forming
+a roof to the anterior nasal passages, which are directed upwards
+and forwards. Maxilla produced in front of, but not over, the
+orbital process of the frontal. Lachrymal bones small and distinct
+from the jugal. Tympanic bone involuted (<a href="#figure076">Fig. 76</a>), and ankylosed
+with the periotic, which is attached to the base of the cranium by
+two strong diverging processes. Olfactory organ distinctly developed.
+Rami of mandible arched outwards, their anterior ends
+meeting at an angle, and connected by fibrous tissue without any
+true symphysis. All the ribs at their upper extremities articulating
+only with the transverse processes of the vertebræ; their capitular
+processes, when present, not articulating directly with the bodies of
+the vertebræ. Sternum composed of a single piece, and articulating
+only with a single pair of ribs. No ossified sternal ribs. External
+openings of nostrils distinct from each other, longitudinal. A short
+conical cæcum.</p>
+
+<p>These animals have, when in the fœtal state, numerous minute
+calcified teeth lying in the dental groove of both upper and lower
+jaws. They are best developed about the middle of fœtal life, after
+which period they are absorbed, and no trace of them remains at the
+time of birth.<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> The baleen or whalebone does not make its appearance
+until after birth. It consists of a series of flattened horny<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235"></a>[235]</span>
+plates, between three and four hundred in number, on each side of
+the palate, with a bare interval along the middle line. These plates
+are placed transversely to the long axis of the palate, with very short
+intervals between them. Each plate or blade is somewhat triangular
+in form, with the base attached to the palate and the apex hanging
+downwards. The outer edge of the blade is hard and smooth; but
+the inner edge and apex fray out into long bristly fibres, so that the
+roof of the Whale’s mouth looks as if covered with hair, as described
+by Aristotle. At the inner edge of each principal blade are two
+or three much smaller or subsidiary blades. The principal blades
+are longest near the middle of the series, and gradually diminish
+towards the front and back of the mouth. The horny plates grow
+from a dense fibrous and highly vascular matrix, covering the
+palatal surface of the maxillæ, and sending out lamellar processes,
+one of which penetrates the base of each blade. Moreover, the
+free edge of these processes is covered with very long vascular
+thread-like papillæ, one of which forms the central axis of each of
+the hair-like epidermic fibres of which the blade is mainly composed.
+A transverse section of fresh whalebone shows that it is made up of
+numbers of these soft vascular papillæ, circular in outline, each
+surrounded by concentrically arranged epidermic cells, and the
+whole bound together by other epidermic cells, that constitute the
+smooth cortical (so-called “enamel”) surface of the blade, which,
+disintegrating at the free edge, allows the individual fibres to
+become loose and assume the hair-like appearance before spoken of.
+These fibres differ from hairs in not being formed in depressed
+follicles in the enderon, but rather resemble the fibres composing the
+horn of the Rhinoceros. The whalebone in fact consists of nothing
+more than modified papillæ of the buccal mucous membrane, with
+an excessive and cornified epithelial development. The blades are
+supported and bound together for a certain distance from their
+base by a mass of less hardened epithelium, secreted by the surface
+of the palatal membrane or matrix of the whalebone in the intervals
+of the lamellar processes. This is the “intermediate substance” of
+Hunter, the “gum” of the whalers. Baleen varies much in colour
+in different species. In some it is almost jet black, in others slate-colour,
+horn-colour, yellow, or even creamy-white. In some the
+blades are variegated with longitudinal strips of different hues.
+Baleen differs also greatly in other respects, being short, thick,
+coarse, and stiff in some, and greatly elongated and highly elastic
+in those species in which it has attained its fullest development.
+Its function is to strain the water from the small marine molluscs,
+crustaceans, or fish upon which the Whales subsist. In feeding the
+immense mouth is filled with water containing shoals of these small
+creatures, and then, on the Whale closing the jaws and raising the
+tongue, so as to diminish the cavity of the mouth, the water streams<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236"></a>[236]</span>
+out through the narrow intervals between the hairy fringe of the
+whalebone blades, and escapes through the lips, leaving the living
+prey to be swallowed.<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a></p>
+
+<p>Our knowledge of the different structural modifications attained
+by members of this important group of mammals, though largely
+increased of late years, is still imperfect. Formerly they were all
+divided into Right Whales (<i>Balæna</i>) and Rorquals or Fin-Whales
+(<i>Balænoptera</i>), the latter distinguished by their smaller heads,
+elongated and slender form, free cervical vertebræ, tetradactylous
+manus, and the presence of very conspicuous longitudinal furrows or
+folds in the skin of the throat and chest, and of a small adipose
+dorsal fin. Recent discoveries have, however, brought to light
+several forms holding a somewhat intermediate position, and presenting
+combinations of characters not found in either of the longer
+known sections. According to our present knowledge the group is
+naturally divided into five very distinct genera, of which the leading
+characters are given below.</p>
+
+<p><i>Balæna.</i><a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a>—Skin of throat smooth, not furrowed. No dorsal fin.
+Cervical vertebræ united into a single mass. Pectoral limb short,
+broad, and pentadactylous. Head very large. Baleen very long
+and narrow, highly elastic, and black. Scapula high, with a distinct
+coracoid and acromion process. Tympanic (<a href="#figure078">Fig. 78</a>) deep and angular,
+its inflation comparatively slight, and the involuted portion not fig-shaped,
+and frequently without a well-marked depression at the
+anterior extremity of the superior border of the inner surface for
+the Eustachian canal.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure076" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure076.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>—Greenland or Arctic Right Whale (<i>Balæna mysticetus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Greenland, or more properly Arctic, Right Whale (<i>Balæna
+mysticetus</i>) attains, when full grown, a length of from 45 to 50
+feet. Its usual vertebral formula is C 7, D 12, L 14, C 22.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237"></a>[237]</span>
+The external form is shown in <a href="#figure076">Fig. 76</a> from a careful drawing by
+Mr. Robert Gray. In this species all the peculiarities which
+distinguish the head and mouth of the Whales from those of other
+mammals have attained their greatest development. The head is
+of enormous size, exceeding one-third of the whole length of the
+creature. The cavity of the mouth is actually larger than that of
+the body, thorax and abdomen together. The upper jaw is very
+narrow, but greatly arched from before backwards, to increase the
+height of the cavity and allow for the great length of the baleen
+blades; the rami of the mandible are widely separated posteriorly,
+and have a still further outward sweep before they meet at
+the symphysis in front, giving the floor of the mouth the shape
+of an immense spoon. The baleen blades attain the number
+of 380 or more on each side, those in the middle of the series
+having a length of 10 or sometimes 12 feet. They are black in
+colour, fine and highly elastic in texture, and fray out at the inner
+edge and ends into long, delicate, soft, almost silky, but very tough,
+hairs. The remarkable development of the mouth and the structures
+in connection with it, which distinguishes the Right Whale among
+all its allies, is entirely in relation to the nature of its food. It
+is by this apparatus that the animal is enabled to avail itself of
+the minute but highly nutritious crustaceans and pteropods which
+swarm in immense shoals in the seas it frequents. The large mouth
+enables it to take in at one time a sufficient quantity of water filled
+with these small organisms, and the length and delicate structure
+of the baleen provide an efficient strainer or hair-sieve by which the
+water can be drained off. If the baleen were rigid, and only as
+long as is the aperture between the upper and lower jaws when the
+month is shut, a space would be left beneath it when the jaws were
+separated, through which the water and the minute particles of food
+would escape together. But instead of this the long, slender,
+brush-like, elastic ends of the whalebone blades fold back when
+the mouth is closed, the front ones passing below the hinder
+ones in a channel lying between the tongue and the lower jaw.
+When the month is opened, their elasticity causes them to
+straighten out like a bow unbent, so that at whatever distance
+the jaws are separated the strainer remains in perfect action,
+filling the whole of the interval. The mechanical perfection of
+the arrangement is completed by the great development of the
+lower lip, which rises stiffly above the jaw-bone and prevents the
+long, slender, flexible ends of the baleen from being carried
+outwards by the rush of water from the mouth, when its cavity
+is being diminished by the closure of the jaws and raising of the
+tongue.</p>
+
+<p>If, as appears highly probable, the “bowhead” of the Okhotsk
+Sea and Behring Strait belongs to this species, its range<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238"></a>[238]</span> is circumpolar.
+Though found in the seas on both sides of Greenland, and
+passing freely from one to the other, it is never seen so far south
+as Cape Farewell; but on the Labrador coast, where a cold stream
+sets down from the north, its range is somewhat farther. In the
+Behring Sea, according to Scammon, “it is seldom seen south of
+the fifty-fifth parallel, which is about the farthest southern extent
+of the winter ice, while on the Sea of Okhotsk its southern limit is
+about the latitude of 54°.” As has been abundantly shown by
+Eschricht and Reinhardt in the case of the Greenland seas, “everything
+tends to prove,” Scammon says, “that the <i>Balæna mysticetus</i>
+is truly an ‘ice whale,’ for among the scattered floes, or about the
+borders of the ice-fields or barriers, is its home and feeding-ground.
+It is true that these animals are pursued in the open water during
+the summer months; but in no instance have we learned of their
+being captured south of where winter ice-fields are occasionally met
+with.” The occurrence of this species, therefore, on the British or
+any European coast is exceedingly unlikely, as when alive and in
+health the southern limit of its range in the North Sea has been
+ascertained to be from the east coast of Greenland at 64° N. lat.
+along the north of Iceland towards Spitsbergen, and a glance at a
+physical chart will show that there are no currents setting southwards
+which could bear a disabled animal or a floating carcase to
+British shores. To this <i>à priori</i> improbability may be added the
+fact that no authentic instance has been recorded of the capture or
+stranding of this species upon any European coast; for the cases
+in which it has been reported as seen in British waters may be explained
+by the supposition of one of the other species of the genus
+being mistaken for it. Still, as two other essentially Arctic
+Cetaceans, the Narwhal and the Beluga, have in a few undoubted
+instances found their way to British shores, it would be rash
+absolutely to deny the possibility of the Greenland Right Whale
+doing the same.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure077" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure077.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span>—Southern Right Whale (<i>Balæna australis</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The southern Right Whale (<i>B. australis</i>, <a href="#figure077">Fig. 77</a>) resembles the
+last in the absence of dorsal fin and of longitudinal furrows in the
+skin of the throat and chest, but differs in that it possesses a smaller
+head in proportion to its body, shorter baleen, a different shaped<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239"></a>[239]</span>
+contour of the upper margin of the lower lip, and a greater number
+(fifteen) of ribs and dorsal vertebræ. This form inhabits the temperate
+seas of both northern and southern hemispheres, and is
+divided into several so-called species, according to their geographical
+distribution:—<i>B. biscayensis</i> of the North Atlantic, <i>B. japonica</i> of
+the North Pacific, <i>B. australis</i> of the South Atlantic, and <i>B. antipodarum</i>
+and <i>B. novæ-zealandiæ</i> of the South Pacific. The differential
+characters by which they have been separated, external as well as
+anatomical, are, however, slight and subject to individual variation;
+and the number of specimens available for comparison in museums
+is not yet sufficient to afford the necessary data to determine
+whether these characters can be regarded as specific or not.
+The most interesting of these is the Atlantic Right Whale,
+which was formerly abundant in the North Atlantic, but is
+now so scarce as to appear verging on extinction. This was
+the Whale the pursuit of which gave occupation to a numerous
+population on the shores of the Basque provinces of France and
+Spain in the Middle Ages. From the tenth to the sixteenth centuries
+Bayonne, Biarritz, St. Jean de Luz, and San Sebastian, as well as
+numerous other towns on the north coast of Spain, were the centres
+of an active Whale “fishery,” which supplied Europe with oil and
+whalebone. In later times these Whales were pursued as far as the
+coast of Newfoundland. They were, however, already getting scarce
+when the voyages undertaken towards the close of the sixteenth
+century for the discovery of the north-eastern route to China and
+the East Indies opened out the seas around Spitzbergen; then for
+the first time the existence of the Greenland Whale became known,
+and henceforth the energies of the European whale-fishers were
+concentrated upon that animal. It is a singular fact that the
+existence of the Atlantic Right Whale was quite overlooked by
+naturalists till lately, all accounts referring to it being attributed to
+the Greenland Whale, supposed once to have had a wider distribution
+than now, and to have been driven by the persecution of man
+to its present circumpolar haunts. To the two Danish cetologists
+Eschricht and Reinhardt is due the credit of having proved its
+existence as a distinct species, from a careful collation of numerous
+historical notices of its structure, distribution, and habits; and their
+restoration of the animal, founded upon these documents, has been
+abundantly confirmed by the capture of various specimens in recent
+times, showing that it still lingers in some of the localities where it
+formerly was so abundant. The only known instances of its
+occurrence on the coasts of Europe in modern times are in the
+harbour of San Sebastian in January 1854, in the Gulf of Taranto,
+in the Mediterranean, in February 1877, and on the Spanish coast
+between Guetaria and Zarauz (Guipuzcoa) in February 1878. The
+skeletons of these three whales are preserved in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240"></a>[240]</span> museums of Copenhagen,
+Naples, and San Sebastian respectively. On the coast
+of the United States several Whales of this species have been taken
+within the last few years. In the North Pacific a very similar if
+not identical species is regularly hunted by the Japanese, who tow
+the carcases ashore for the purposes of flensing and extracting
+the whalebone. In the tropical seas, however, according to Captain
+Maury’s whale charts, Right Whales are never or rarely seen; but
+the southern temperate ocean, especially the neighbourhood of the
+Cape of Good Hope, Kerguelen’s Island, Australia, and New Zealand,
+is inhabited by “Black Whales,” once abundant, but now
+nearly exterminated through the wanton destruction of the females
+as they visit the bays and inlets round the coast, their constant
+habit in the breeding time. The range of these Whales southward
+has not been accurately determined; but no species corresponding
+with the Arctic Right Whale has as yet been met with in the
+Antarctic icy seas.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure078" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure078.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span>—The right tympanic bone of an immature individual of the Greenland Whale
+(<i>Balæna mysticetus</i>), from the inner (<i>A</i>) and outer (<i>B</i>) aspects. ¹⁄₃ natural size. (From the
+<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Remains of Right Whales are of not uncommon occurrence in the
+Pliocene Crag deposits of England and Belgium. The tympanics
+of <i>B. affinis</i> from these deposits appear to indicate a species closely
+allied to <i>B. mysticetus</i>, in which this bone is long and angulated
+anteriorly (<a href="#figure078">Fig. 78</a>); while the tympanics from the same deposits
+described as <i>B. primigenia</i> are shorter and more rounded at the
+antero-inferior angle, thus resembling those of <i>B. australis</i>. A
+smaller species, having an estimated length of about 20 feet, has
+been described as <i>Balænula balænopsis</i>, the generic distinction being
+made on account of the free condition of the atlas and seventh
+cervical vertebræ; but it seems scarcely advisable to regard such a
+feature as indicating more than a less specialised species. <i>Balæna
+(Balænotus) insignis</i> is a whale of somewhat larger dimensions,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241"></a>[241]</span> in
+which the atlas is generally, and the seventh cervical vertebra
+always, free, while in young individuals the axis vertebra may
+likewise be separate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Neobalæna.</i><a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a>—Head about one-fourth the total length. Skin of
+the throat not plicated. A small falcate dorsal fin. Vertebræ,
+C 7, D 17, L 3, C 16 = 43. The cervical vertebræ are united. The
+manus small, narrow, and tetradactylous, wanting the pollex. The
+ribs remarkably expanded and flattened. The scapula very low
+and broad, with completely developed acromion and coracoid processes.
+Tympanic approximating to that of <i>Balæna</i>, but with certain
+very characteristic peculiarities of shape. Baleen very long, slender,
+elastic, and white. A single species, at present very rare, <i>N. marginata</i>,
+from the Australian and New Zealand seas is the smallest
+of the Whalebone Whales, being not more than 20 feet in length.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rhachianectes.</i><a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a>—This combines the small head, elongated form,
+and narrow pectoral fin of <i>Balænoptera</i> with the smooth skin of the
+throat and absence of the dorsal fin of <i>Balæna</i>. The baleen is the
+shortest and coarsest of any of the group. Its osteology is imperfectly
+known. One species, <i>R. glaucus</i>, the Gray Whale of the
+North Pacific.</p>
+
+<p><i>Megaptera.</i><a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a>—Head of moderate size. Baleen plates short and
+broad. Vertebræ, C 7, D 14, L 11, C 21 = 53. Cervical vertebræ
+free. Scapula with acromion and coracoid process absent or rudimentary.
+Skin of throat plicated. Dorsal fin low. Pectoral limb
+tetradactylous, very long and narrow, attaining about one-fourth of
+the length of the entire animal, the metacarpus and phalanges
+being greatly developed, and the latter very numerous. Tympanic
+still more inflated than in <i>Balænoptera</i>, with the involuted portion
+more distinctly pyriform, the Eustachian part of the aperture well
+defined, and two well-marked longitudinal ridges on the lower
+surface of adult specimens.</p>
+
+<p>The Whale commonly called “Humpback” (<i>Megaptera boops</i>) by
+whalers, perhaps on account of the low hump-like form of the
+dorsal fin, is very distinctly characterised from all others of the
+group, especially by the immense length of the pectoral fins or
+flippers, which are indented or scalloped along their margins, and
+are, except at their base, of a white colour, nearly all the rest of
+the body being black. The baleen plates are of a deep black
+colour. Though common in the North Atlantic between Norway
+and Greenland, this Whale does not frequently appear on the coasts
+of the British Isles. One came ashore at Newcastle in 1839;
+another, a young one, was taken in the estuary of the Dee in 1863,
+and its skeleton is preserved in the Liverpool museum; and a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242"></a>[242]</span>
+nearly full-grown animal was captured in the mouth of the Tay in
+the winter of 1883-84.<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> The usual length of the adult ranges from
+45 to 50 feet, the female being larger than the male. Whales of
+the genus <i>Megaptera</i> are found in the South Atlantic and in
+both the North and the South Pacific. They
+resemble those of British seas so closely that it
+is doubtful whether the differences which have
+been observed, and upon which several species
+have been founded, may not be individual peculiarities;
+but zoologists have not yet had the
+opportunity of examining and comparing such
+a series of specimens of different ages and sexes
+from different localities as would be necessary
+to determine these points satisfactorily.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure079" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure079.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span>—Humpbacked Whale (<i>Megaptera boops</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Tympanic bones of <i>Megaptera</i> occur in the
+English and Belgian Crags, although somewhat
+less commonly than those of <i>Balæna</i> and <i>Balænoptera</i>;
+they have been described under the
+names of <i>Megapteropsis</i> and <i>Burtinopsis</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure080" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure080.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span>—The Common Rorqual (<i>Balænoptera musculus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Balænoptera.</i><a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a>—Head small and flat, and
+pointed in front. Body long and slender. Skin
+of throat plicated. A small falcate dorsal fin.
+Baleen short and coarse. Cervical vertebræ free.
+Scapula low and broad, with a large acromion
+and coracoid process. Pectoral limb tetradactylous,
+small, narrow, and pointed. Tympanic
+(<a href="#figure081">Fig. 81</a>) long, much inflated, and rounded, with
+the involuted portion thickened and pyriform,
+and the notch for the Eustachian canal sharply
+defined; inner surface flattened, without the
+vertical groove found in <i>Megaptera</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="figure081" style="max-width: 23.4375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure081.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span>—The right tympanic of <i>Balænoptera musculus</i> from
+the inner (A) and outer (B) aspects. ½ natural size. (From the
+<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Rorquals, Fin-Whales, Fin-backs, Finners,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243"></a>[243]</span>
+or Razor-backs, as they are variously called,
+have the plicated skin of the throat like that of <i>Megaptera</i>, the
+furrows being more numerous and close set; but the pectoral
+fin is comparatively
+small, the dorsal fin
+distinct and falcate,
+and the tail very
+much compressed
+before it expands
+into the “flukes.”
+The Rorquals are
+perhaps the most
+abundant and widely
+distributed of all the
+whales, being found
+in some of their
+modifications in all
+seas, except the extreme
+Arctic, and
+probably Antarctic
+regions. Owing to
+the small quantity
+and inferior quality
+of their whalebone,
+the comparatively
+limited amount of
+blubber, and their
+great activity and
+the difficulty of capturing
+them by the
+old methods, these
+Whales were not
+until recently an object of pursuit by whale-fishers; but, since the introduction
+of steam-vessels, and especially of explosive harpoons fired
+from guns in the place of those hurled by the human hand, a regular
+fishery has been established on the coast of Finmark. There are four
+distinct species of this genus in British seas. (1) <i>Balænoptera sibbaldi</i>,
+the “Blue Whale,” the largest of all known animals, attains a
+length of 80 or even sometimes 85 feet. Its colour is dark bluish
+gray, with small whitish spots on the breast; the baleen is black;
+the flippers are larger proportionally than in other Rorquals,
+measuring one-seventh of the total length of the body; and the dorsal
+fin is small and placed very far back. This Whale has usually 64
+vertebræ, of which 16 bear ribs. Like the others of the genus, this
+species seems to pass the winter in the open seas, and approaches the
+coast of Norway at the end of April or beginning of May. At this<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244"></a>[244]</span>
+time its sole food is a small crustacean (<i>Euphausia inermis</i>) which
+swarms in the fjords. Several specimens have been taken on the
+British coasts, two fine skeletons from the Firth of Forth being preserved
+in the Edinburgh museums. (2) <i>Balænoptera musculus</i>, the
+Common Rorqual, has a length of 65 to 70 feet, is of a grayish slate
+colour above and white underneath, and the baleen is slate colour
+variegated with yellow or brown. It has usually 62 vertebræ,
+of which 15 bear ribs. This is the commonest of all the large
+Whales on the British coasts, scarcely a winter passing without
+the body of one being somewhere washed ashore, usually
+after stormy weather, and more frequently on the south coast,
+as this species has a more southern range than the last, and
+frequently enters the Mediterranean. It feeds largely on fish,
+and is frequently seen feasting among shoals of herring. (3)
+<i>Balænoptera borealis</i>, often called Rudolphi’s Whale from its first
+describer, is a smaller species, scarcely attaining a length of 50 feet.
+It is bluish-black above, with oblong, light-coloured spots, whilst
+the under parts are more or less white; the whole of the tail and
+both sides of the flippers are black; the baleen is black, and the
+bristly ends fine, curling, and white; the flippers are very small,
+measuring one-eleventh of the total length of the body. There are
+56 vertebræ, with 14 pairs of ribs. This species, according to
+Collett, feeds chiefly on minute crustaceans, mainly <i>Calanus finmarchicus</i>
+and <i>Euphausia inermis</i>, and not on fish. Until lately it was
+considered the rarest of the Whales of European seas, and was only
+known to science from a few individuals stranded on the coasts of
+northern Europe at long intervals, the skeletons of which have been
+preserved in museums. The most southern point at which it has
+been met with hitherto is Biarritz in France. Since the establishment
+of the whaling station near the North Cape it has been shown
+to be a regular summer visitor, and in 1885, 771 individuals were
+captured on the coast of Finmark. (4) <i>Balænoptera rostrata</i>, the
+lesser Fin-Whale or Rorqual, is the smallest species found in the
+northern seas, rarely exceeding 30 feet in length. Its colour is
+grayish-black above, whilst the under side is white, including the
+whole of the lower side of the tail; the inner side of the flippers
+is white; and there is a broad white band across the outer side,
+which is a very characteristic mark of the species; the baleen is
+yellowish-white. The dorsal fin in this and the last species is
+comparatively high, and placed far forwards on the body. This
+Whale has usually 48 vertebræ, 11 of which bear ribs. It is common
+in summer in the fjords of Norway, and is often seen around the
+British Isles. It has been taken, though rarely, in the Mediterranean;
+and ranges as far north as Davis’s Straits.</p>
+
+<p>Rorquals are met with in almost all seas throughout the world,
+but further and more accurate observations are required before<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245"></a>[245]</span>
+their specific characters and geographical distribution can be made
+out. Nearly all the individuals hitherto examined with any care,
+whether from the North Pacific, the Australian seas, or the Indian
+Ocean, come very near in structure to one or the other of the
+Atlantic forms described above, so much so that some zoologists
+have been induced to believe that there are but four species, each
+of which has a wide, almost cosmopolitan range, while others have
+described and named almost every individual specimen captured as
+belonging to a different species.<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p>
+
+<p>Tympanics, vertebræ, and other bones of Rorquals are among
+the commonest cetacean remains found in the Pliocene Crags of
+England and Belgium. Several species, varying in dimensions, are
+known from these deposits, <i>B. definita (sibbaldina)</i> being apparently
+nearly related to the existing <i>B. sibbaldi</i>. A caudal vertebra from
+the Upper Eocene of Hampshire has been referred to <i>Balænoptera</i>, but
+does not afford sufficient evidence to prove the existence of the
+genus at that date.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—The extinct genus <i>Cetotherium</i> of the European
+Pliocene may be taken to include a number of fossil Whalebone
+Whales allied to the Balænopterine group, several of which have
+been described under other names, such as <i>Plesiocetus</i>, <i>Heterocetus</i>,
+and <i>Amphicetus</i>. They are readily characterised by the form of
+the tympanic bone, which is much narrower in front than behind,
+the roughened inferior surface being in the shape of an isosceles
+triangle, and the notch for the Eustachian canal being smaller, and
+descending nearer to the inferior border of the inner wall than in
+<i>Balænoptera</i>. The skull is longer than the latter, with a greater
+interval between the occiput and the frontal, and with longer and
+more flattened nasals. The relative thickness of the cervical
+vertebræ is also greater. In the typical forms (<i>e.g.</i> <i>C. brialmonti</i>
+and <i>C. dubium</i>) the mandibular condyle is simple; but in <i>C.
+(Heterocetus) brevifrons</i> it is furnished with a projecting posterior
+talon, as in the Sperm Whale.</p>
+
+<p><i>Herpetocetus</i> is known by a comparatively small species from the
+Belgian and English Crags, characterised by the extreme inflation
+of the egg-shaped tympanic bone, which approximates to that of
+<i>Megaptera</i>, but has the greater part of the cavity filled by bone.
+There is a talon to the condyle of the mandible.</p>
+
+<p><i>Palæocetus</i>, as already mentioned (<a href="#Page_232">p. 232</a>), is founded upon the
+ankylosed cervical vertebræ of a small Whale originally considered as
+having been derived from the Kimeridge Clay, but which doubtless
+came from the <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246"></a>[246]</span>Suffolk Crag; if it belongs to the <i>Balænidæ</i> it indicates
+a Right Whale.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Archæoceti</span>.</h4>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Zeuglodontidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>This group is formed to include certain extinct Cetacean-like
+animals at present only known by more or less fragmentary portions
+of their skeleton and teeth, and whose position and affinities
+are, therefore, still subject to doubt.<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the anterior part of both jaws the teeth are simple, conical,
+or slightly compressed, and sharp pointed. The first three in the
+upper jaw are distinctly implanted in the premaxillary bone, and
+so may be reckoned as incisors. The tooth which succeeds, or the
+canine, is also simple and conical, but it does not exceed the others
+in size. This is followed by five teeth having two distinct roots
+and compressed pointed crowns, with denticulated cutting-edges.
+The dentition is therefore <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> and <i>m</i> ⁵⁄₅ = 36, resembling that
+of some Seals.<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> General form of the skull elongated and much
+depressed. Brain-cavity very small, and the skull between it and
+the orbits elongated and narrow. Temporal fossæ very large. A
+strong sagittal crest. Rostrum long and narrow, differing from
+that of other Cetaceans in the large extent to which the premaxillæ
+form the sides of the anterior extremity. Nasal bones elongated,
+flat, and narrow, the opening of the anterior nares being over the
+middle of the elongated compressed rostrum. All the cervical
+vertebræ free. The characters of the dorsal vertebræ and mode of
+articulation of the ribs appear to have resembled those of <i>Platanista</i>
+rather than <i>Balæna</i>, <i>Physeter</i>, or <i>Delphinus</i>. Lumbar vertebræ
+with elongated bodies, low neural spines, and the transverse processes
+placed low down on the bodies. Characters of the limbs
+not known with certainty.<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a></p>
+
+<p>All the known fossil remains belonging to the animals of this
+group may be referred, provisionally at least, to the genus <i>Zeuglodon</i>,
+so named because the first section of a molar tooth examined was
+taken from the base of the crown, where it was beginning to divide<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247"></a>[247]</span>
+into the two roots, and looked like two single teeth “linked or
+yoked together.” This name was substituted by Owen for the
+earlier one <i>Basilosaurus</i> of Harlan, with the consent of that author,
+on the mammalian nature of the animal being demonstrated.<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> The
+latter name is, however, still generally retained by American
+zoologists. The remains have hitherto been found chiefly in the
+Eocene formations of the States of Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi,
+and Arkansas, and have been assigned to several species. A portion
+of a skull is recorded from the Barton Clay (Eocene) of Hampshire,
+England.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Odontoceti</span>,
+<i>the</i> <span class="smcap">Delphinoidea</span>, <i>or Toothed Whales</i>.</h4>
+
+<p>Calcified teeth always present after birth; generally numerous,
+but sometimes a very limited number (in a few cases none) are
+functionally developed. No baleen. Upper surface of the skull
+more or less asymmetrical. Nasal bones in the form of nodules or
+flattened plates, applied closely to the frontals, and not forming
+any part of the roof to the narial passage, which is directed upwards
+and backwards. Olfactory organ rudimentary or absent. Hinder
+end of the maxilla expanded and covering the greater part of the
+orbital plate of the frontal bone. Lachrymal bone either inseparable
+from the jugal, or, when distinct, very large, and forming part of
+the roof of the orbit. Tympanic bone not ankylosed with the
+periotic, which is usually only attached to the rest of the skull by
+ligament. Rami of mandible nearly straight, much expanded in
+height posteriorly, with a wide funnel-shaped aperture to the dental
+canal, and coming in contact in front by a flat surface of variable
+length, but always constituting a true symphysis. Several of the
+anterior ribs with well-developed capitular processes, articulating
+with the bodies of the vertebræ. Sternum almost always composed
+of several pieces, placed one behind the other, with which several
+pairs of ribs are always connected by the intervention of well-developed
+cartilaginous or ossified sternal ribs. External respiratory
+aperture single, the two nostrils uniting before they reach the
+surface, usually in the form of a transverse subcrescentic valvular
+aperture, situated on the top of the head. Manus always pentadactylous,
+though the first and fifth digits are usually very little
+developed. No cæcum, except in <i>Platanista</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248"></a>[248]</span></p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Physeteridæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>No functional teeth in the upper jaw. Mandibular teeth various,
+often much reduced in number. Bones of the cranium raised so as
+to form an elevated prominence or crest behind the nares. Pterygoid
+bones thick, produced backwards, meeting in the middle line, and
+not involuted to form the outer wall of the post-palatine air-sinuses,
+but simply hollowed on their outer side. Anterior facet of periotic
+bone (<a href="#figure087">Fig. 87</a>) for articulation with the tympanic quite smooth;
+and the posterior tympanic surface of the former broad, with a
+median longitudinal ridge. Transverse processes of the arches of
+the dorsal vertebræ, to which the tubercles of the ribs are attached,
+ceasing abruptly near the end of the series, and replaced by
+processes on the body at a much lower level, and not on a line or
+serially homologous with them, but serially homologous anteriorly
+with the heads of the ribs, and posteriorly with the transverse
+processes of the lumbar vertebræ. (In some genera, as <i>Physeter</i>,
+the two processes, upper and lower on each side, are both present
+and well developed in the same vertebra in the region of transition.
+In others, as <i>Ziphius</i> and <i>Berardius</i>, they are not both developed on
+any single vertebra.) Costal cartilages not ossified.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Physeterinæ</b>.—Numerous teeth in the mandible,
+which are not set in distinct bony alveoli, but in a long groove
+imperfectly divided by partial septa, and held in place by the
+strong, fibrous gum surrounding them. No distinct lachrymal bone.
+Cranium strikingly asymmetrical in the region of the narial
+apertures, in consequence of the left opening greatly exceeding the
+right in size.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure082" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure082.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span>—Skull of Sperm Whale (<i>Physeter macrocephalus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Physeter.</i><a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a>—Upper teeth apparently of uncertain number, rudimentary,
+and functionless, being embedded in the gum. Lower jaw
+with from 20 to 25 teeth on each side, stout, conical, recurved, and
+pointed at the apex until they are worn, without enamel. Upper
+surface of the cranium concave; its posterior and lateral edges
+raised into a very high and greatly compressed semicircular crest<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249"></a>[249]</span>
+or wall. Zygomatic processes of jugal bones thick and massive.
+Rostrum greatly elongated, broad at the base, and gradually tapering
+to the apex. Upper edge of the mesethmoid forming a roughened
+irregular projection between the narial apertures, inclining to
+the left side. Mandible exceedingly long and narrow, the
+symphysis being more than half the length of the ramus. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 11, L 8, C 24; total 50. Atlas free; all the other cervical
+vertebræ united by their bodies and spines into a single mass.
+Eleventh pair of ribs rudimentary. Head about one-third the
+length of the body; very massive, high and truncated, and rather
+compressed in front; owing its huge size and remarkable form
+mainly to the accumulation of an oily substance secreted by
+the lining membranes of great cells surrounding the narial passage
+and filling the large hollow on the upper surface of the cranium
+and overlying the rostrum. The single blowhole is longitudinal,
+slightly sigmoid, and placed at the upper and anterior extremity
+of the head to the left side of the middle line. The opening
+of the mouth is on the under side of the head, considerably behind
+the end of the snout. Pectoral fin short, broad, and obliquely
+truncated. Dorsal fin a mere low protuberance.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure083" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure083.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span>—The Sperm Whale (<i>Physeter macrocephalus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The only representative of this genus is the Cachalot or Sperm
+Whale (<i>P. macrocephalus</i>, <a href="#figure083">Fig. 83</a>), one of the most colossal of
+animals, quite equalling, if not exceeding, the Greenland Whale
+in bulk. The length of the full-grown male is from 55 to
+60 feet, but the female is stated not to reach more than half
+that size. The general colour of the surface is black above and
+gray below, the colours gradually shading into each other. The
+Sperm Whale is one of the most widely distributed of animals,
+being met with usually in herds or “schools” in almost all
+tropical and subtropical seas, but not occurring, except accidentally,
+in the Polar regions. Not unfrequently specimens appear
+on the coasts of the British Isles, but only as solitary stragglers,
+or as dead carcases, floated northwards by the Gulf Stream. It
+is remarkable that every one of these of which we have an accurate
+record has been an old male. The food of this Whale consists
+mainly of various species of cephalopods (squid and cuttle-fish),
+but fish of considerable size are also eaten. The substance called<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250"></a>[250]</span>
+“ambergris,” formerly used in medicine and now in perfumery,
+is a concretion formed in the intestine of this Whale, and is found
+floating on the surface of the seas it inhabits. Its genuineness is
+proved by the presence of the horny beaks of the cephalopods on
+which the Whale feeds.</p>
+
+<p>The oil contained in the great cavity above the skull, when refined,
+yields “spermaceti,” and the thick covering of blubber which
+everywhere envelops the body produces the valuable “sperm-oil”
+of commerce; hence this animal has long been the subject of a
+regular chase, by which its numbers have been greatly diminished.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cogia.</i><a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a>—Teeth of the upper jaw absent, or reduced to a rudimentary
+pair in front; in the lower jaw 9 to 12 on each side, rather long,
+slender, pointed, and curved, with a coating of enamel. Upper
+surface of the cranium concave, with thick, raised posterior and
+lateral margins, massive and rounded at their anterior terminations
+above the orbits. Upper edge of the mesethmoid forming a prominent
+sinuous ridge, constituting a kind of longitudinal septum
+to the base of the great supra-cranial cavity. Rostrum not longer
+than the cranial portion of the skull, broad at the base, and rapidly
+tapering to the apex. Zygomatic process of the jugal styliform.
+Mandible with the symphysis less than half the length of the entire
+ramus. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13 or 14, L and C 30; total 50 or 51.
+All the cervical vertebræ united by their bodies and arches. External
+characters not well known, but, judging by the somewhat
+conflicting accounts of those that have had an opportunity of observing
+them, the head is about one-sixth of the length of the body,
+and obtusely pointed in front; the mouth small, and placed far
+below the apex of the snout; the spiracle crescentic, and placed
+obliquely on the top of the head anteriorly to the eyes, and to the
+left of the middle line; the pectoral fins are obtusely falcate; and
+there is a triangular dorsal fin.</p>
+
+<p>The history of this genus is a good illustration of the difficulties
+in which the study of the Cetacea has been involved by the superficial
+manner in which it has been investigated. The first known
+example, a skull from the Cape of Good Hope in the Paris Museum,
+was described by De Blainville under the name of <i>Physeter breviceps</i>.
+This was afterwards with good reason generically separated by Gray.
+Until within a very few years ago only five other individuals had
+been met with, each of which had been described under a different
+specific name (viz. <i>grayi</i>, <i>macleayi</i>, <i>simus</i>, <i>floweri</i>, and <i>potsii</i>), and
+which are arranged by Gray in two distinct genera. The most
+careful examination of the description given of these specimens, or
+of the now numerous osteological remains available, fails to detect
+any differences beyond those which may be attributed to age or sex,
+and hence, according to our present knowledge, these six supposed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251"></a>[251]</span>
+species must all be included under one name, <i>C. breviceps</i>. This
+animal appears to attain the length of 10 feet when adult, and has
+been met with at various distant localities in the Southern Ocean,
+and also off the coast of Madras and in the North Pacific.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Physeteroids.</i>—Teeth of Physeteroids are of very common
+occurrence in the Belgian and English Crags, and evidently indicate
+the former existence of Whales more or less closely allied to the
+Sperm Whale, but often distinguished by the presence of an enamel-cap
+on the crowns of the teeth. The generic determination of these
+teeth is, however, exceedingly difficult, owing to the water-worn
+condition in which they are frequently found, and also on account
+of the impossibility of knowing whether small and large teeth may
+not be referable to different parts of the jaws of the same species
+or to individuals of different ages. Moreover, in the cases of
+isolated teeth it is impossible to know how many were contained
+in the jaws, and therefore to distinguish Physeteroid from Ziphioid
+teeth. <i>Physeterula</i> is a small form about one-third the dimensions
+of the Sperm Whale, and distinguished by the length of the mandibular
+symphysis being only about one-third that of the entire ramus;
+it is identified by Professor Cope with <i>Cogia</i>. <i>Eucetus</i> (<i>Dinoziphius</i>) is
+founded on teeth which are regarded as closely resembling those of
+<i>Physeter</i>, but distinguished by their subcylindrical form and the
+small size of the aperture of the pulp-cavity. It does not appear,
+however, to be certain that these teeth are not worn specimens of
+those described as <i>Scaldicetus</i>. <i>Physetodon</i>, from the Pliocene of
+Australia, is founded upon the evidence of similar teeth. The teeth
+from the Belgian Crag described as <i>Scaldicetus</i> are somewhat smaller
+than those of the Sperm Whale, and are readily characterised by
+their cap of grooved enamel. Other teeth with enamel-caps have
+been described as <i>Physodon</i> and <i>Hoplocetus</i>. The genus <i>Balænodon</i>
+is founded upon a very imperfect large tooth from the English Crag,
+which is not sufficiently well preserved to admit of exact comparison
+with the other types.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Ziphiinæ</b>.—Teeth of the mandible (at least in existing
+forms) quite rudimentary and concealed in the gum, except one, or
+very rarely two, pairs which may be largely developed, especially
+in the male sex. A distinct lachrymal bone. Externally the mouth
+is produced into a slender rostrum or beak, from above which the
+rounded eminence formed by a cushion of fat resting on the cranium
+in front of the blowhole rises somewhat abruptly. Spiracle or
+blowhole single, crescentic, median, as in the <i>Delphinidæ</i>. Pectoral
+fin small, ovate, the five digits all moderately well developed. A
+small obtusely falcate dorsal fin situated considerably behind the
+middle of the back. Longitudinal grooves on each side of the skin
+of the throat, diverging posteriorly, and nearly meeting in front.
+In external characters and habits the animals of this group closely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252"></a>[252]</span>
+resemble each other. They appear to be almost exclusively feeders
+on various species of cephalopods, and occur either singly, in pairs,
+or in small herds. By their dental and osteological characters they
+are easily separated into four distinct genera.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hyperoödon.</i><a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a>—A small conical pointed tooth at the apex of each
+ramus of the mandible, concealed by the gum during life. Skull
+with the upper ends of the premaxillæ rising suddenly behind the
+nares to the vertex and expanded laterally, their outer edges
+curving backwards and their anterior surfaces arching forwards and
+overhanging the nares; the right larger than the left. Nasal bones
+lying in the hollow between the upper extremities of the premaxillæ,
+strongly concave in the middle line and in front; their outer edges,
+especially on the right side, expanded over the front of the inner
+border of the maxilla. Very high longitudinal crests on the
+maxillæ at the base of the rostrum, extending backwards almost to
+the nares, approaching each other in the middle line above; sometimes
+so massive that their inner edges come almost in contact.
+Anteorbital notch distinct. Mesethmoid but slightly ossified.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 9, L 10, C 19; total 45. All the cervical
+vertebræ united. Upper surface of the head in front of the blowhole
+hole very prominent and rounded, rising abruptly from above the
+small, distinct snout.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure084" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure084.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span>—<i>Hyperoödon rostratus.</i> From a female specimen taken off the coast of Scotland, 1882.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The genus is known typically by <i>H. rostratus</i> (<a href="#figure084">Fig. 84</a>), but an
+imperfect skull has been made the type of <i>H. planifrons</i>—a species
+differing considerably in cranial characters from the typical one.
+The females and young males of the first-named species have the
+contour of the head of the same general form as in <a href="#figure084">Fig. 84</a>; the
+premaxillary crests of the cranium being widely separated from
+one another, and terminating in comparatively sharp edges. In the
+males, however, as age advances the summits of these crests become
+gradually expanded and flattened, till they are almost or quite in
+contact in the middle line. This development of the maxillary
+crests produces a corresponding elevation and flattening of the front
+of the head, so that in very old males this aspect presents a flattened
+disc-like surface rising abruptly from the beak (which thus
+becomes almost buried) and situated in a plane nearly at right<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253"></a>[253]</span> angles
+to the line of the back.<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> So different, indeed, is the appearance of
+the skull of an old male from that of a female individual that
+it was long considered that they belonged to different species—the
+male form having been described as <i>H. latifrons</i>. The length
+of an adult male reaches 30 feet, while that of the female does not
+exceed 24 feet.</p>
+
+<p>The Hyperoödon, sometimes called “Bottlenose,” a name also
+vaguely given to several species of Dolphin, is a regular inhabitant
+of the North Atlantic, passing the summer in the Spitzbergen seas
+and going farther south in winter. It resembles the Sperm Whale
+in possessing a large store of oil in the upper part of the head,
+which yields spermaceti when refined; on this account, and also
+for the sake of the blubber, which supplies an oil almost indistinguishable
+from sperm-oil, this Whale has been the object of a
+regular chase in recent years.</p>
+
+<p>The following account of its habits is taken from a paper
+by Captain D. Gray, published in the <i>Zoological Society’s Proceedings</i>
+for 1882:—</p>
+
+<p>“These Whales are occasionally met with immediately after
+leaving the Shetland Isles in March, and north across the ocean
+until the ice is reached, near the margin of which they are found
+in the greatest numbers; but they are seldom seen amongst it.
+Although it is not in their nature to keep in amongst the ice, they
+like to frequent the open bays for the shelter it gives them from
+the sea. Sometimes a point of ice overlaps them; it is then only
+that they are seen going out again towards the ocean. They are
+also to be met with from the entrance of Hudson’s Straits and up
+Davis’s Straits, as far as 70° N. lat., and down the east side
+round Cape Farewell, all round Iceland, north along the Greenland
+ice to 77° N. lat.; also along the west coast of Spitzbergen,
+and east to Cherry Island in lat. 72° N. and long. 19° E. Beyond
+these limits I have never seen them; but doubtless they are to be
+found as far as the Straits of Belle Isle on the west, and east to
+Nova Zembla. From the fact that they are not seen in summer
+farther south than a day’s sail from the ice, it would appear that
+they migrate south in the autumn, and north again in the spring.
+They are gregarious in their habits, going in herds of from four
+to ten. It is rare to see more than the latter number together,
+although many different herds are frequently in sight at the same
+time. The adult males very often go by themselves; but young
+bulls, cows, and calves, with an old male as a leader, are sometimes
+seen together. They are very unsuspicious, coming close alongside
+the ship, round about underneath the boats, until their curiosity
+is satisfied.... They vary in colour from black in the young to
+light brown in the older animals. The very old turn almost yellow,
+the beak and front of the head being quite white, with a white<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254"></a>[254]</span>
+band round their necks; all of them are grayish-white on the belly.
+They can leap many feet out of the water, even having time while
+in the air to turn round their heads and look about them, taking
+the water head first, and not falling helplessly into it sideways like
+the larger whales. The full-grown whale is 30 feet long by 20
+feet in circumference, and yields two tons of oil besides two hundredweight
+of spermaceti.... Their ordinary food consists of a bluish-white
+cuttle-fish, six inches long by three inches in circumference,
+and pointed towards the tail.... They evidently have a great
+depth to go to find them, judging from the length of time that
+they remain away, and from the long heavy blasts they make on
+coming to the surface again.”</p>
+
+<p>Periotic bones of <i>Hyperoödon</i> are found in the Red Crag of
+Suffolk, presenting no character by which they can be specifically
+distinguished from those of the common existing species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ziphius.</i><a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a>—A single conical tooth of moderate size on each side
+of the mandible close to the anterior extremity, and directed
+forwards and upwards. Skull with the premaxillæ immediately in
+front of, and at the sides of the nares expanded, hollowed, and with
+elevated lateral margins, the posterior ends rising to the vertex and
+curving forwards, the right being considerably more developed than
+the left; the conjoint nasals forming a strongly pronounced symmetrical
+eminence at the top of the cranium, projecting forwards
+over the nares, flat above, most prominent and rounded in the
+middle line in front, and separated by a notch on each side from
+the premaxillæ. Anteorbital notch not distinct. Rostrum (seen
+from above) triangular, gradually tapering from the base to the
+apex; upper and outer edges of maxillæ at base of rostrum raised
+into low roughened tuberosities. Mesethmoid cartilage densely
+ossified in adult age, and coalescing with the surrounding bones of
+the rostrum. Vertebræ: C 7, D 10, L 10, C 22; total 49. The
+three anterior cervical vertebræ united, the rest free.</p>
+
+<p>The type of this genus is <i>Z. cavirostris</i> of Cuvier, founded upon
+an imperfect skull picked up in 1804 on the Mediterranean coast
+of France, and described and figured in the <i>Ossemens Fossiles</i> under
+the impression that it was that of an extinct species. Many other
+individuals have, however, been subsequently met with in various
+parts of the world, from the Shetland Islands to New Zealand, all
+referable to the same genus, if not to the same species; although,
+as is usual in such cases, they have mostly been described under
+different names, the so-called genera <i>Petrorhynchus</i> and <i>Epiodon</i>
+being probably referable to the type species.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite probable that some of the Physeteroid teeth from the
+Crag deposits mentioned on <a href="#Page_251">p. 251</a> may be referable to <i>Ziphius</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255"></a>[255]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure085" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure085.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span>—<i>Mesoplodon bidens.</i> From Reinhardt.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Mesoplodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a>—A much compressed and pointed tooth in each
+ramus of the mandible, variously situated, but generally at some
+distance behind the apex (<a href="#figure086">Fig. 86</a>); its point directed upwards, and
+often somewhat backwards, occasionally developed to a great size.
+Skull with the region around the nares as in <i>Hyperoödon</i>, except
+that the nasals are narrow and more sunk between the upper ends
+of the premaxillæ; like those of <i>Hyperoödon</i>, they are concave in
+the middle line in front and above. No maxillary tuberosities.
+Anteorbital notch not very distinct. Rostrum long, narrow, and
+solid throughout. Mesethmoid in adult age ossified in its entire
+length, coalescing with the surrounding bones, and showing as a
+narrow band on the upper surface of the rostrum. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 10, L 10 or 11, C 19 or 20; total 46 to 48. Two or three
+anterior cervicals united, the rest usually free.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure086" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure086.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span>—Left lateral view of skull of <i>Mesoplodon densirostris</i>.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Though varying in form, the mandibular teeth of the different
+members of this genus agree in their essential structure, having a
+small and pointed enamel-covered crown, composed of true dentine,
+which, instead of surmounting a root of the ordinary character, is
+raised upon a solid mass of osteodentine. The continuous growth of
+this greatly alters the form and general appearance of the organ
+as age advances, as seen most strikingly in the case of <i>M. layardi</i>,
+where the long, narrow, flat, strap-like teeth, curving inwards at
+their extremities, actually meet over the rostrum, and must greatly
+interfere with the movements of the jaw. In one species (<i>M. grayi<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256"></a>[256]</span></i>)
+a row of minute, conical, pointed teeth, like those of ordinary
+Dolphins, 17 to 19 in number, are present even in the adults, on
+each side of the middle part of the upper jaw, but embedded by
+their roots only in the gum, and not in bony alveoli. This fact,
+with the frequent presence of rudimentary teeth in other species
+of this and the last genus in both upper and lower jaws,
+suggests the idea that the Ziphioids are derived from ancestral forms
+which had teeth of normal character in both jaws; the dentition
+of the living forms having become greatly specialised. The existing
+species of this genus are widely distributed in both northern and
+southern hemispheres, but most frequent in the latter. The best
+established are <i>M. bidens</i>, <i>M. europæus</i>, <i>M. densirostris</i>, <i>M. layardi</i>,
+<i>M. grayi</i>, and <i>M. hectori</i>; but there is still much to be learned with
+regard to their distinctive characters and geographical distribution.
+They were abundant in the Pliocene age, as attested by the frequency
+with which the most imperishable
+and easily recognised
+portion of their structure, the
+long, cylindrical rostrum of the
+skull, of more than ivory denseness,
+is found among the rolled
+and water-worn fragments of
+animal remains which compose
+the well-known “bone-bed” at
+the base of the Red Crag of Suffolk
+Several species have been
+founded upon the evidence of
+these rostra. Periotic bones of
+this genus (<a href="#figure087">Fig. 87</a>) are of less common occurrence in the Crag;
+the figure is given to illustrate the characteristic features of this
+bone in the present family.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure087" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure087.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span>—The left periotic bone of <i>Mesoplodon</i>;
+from the Red Crag of Suffolk. The
+smooth concave surface in the right upper
+corner of the figure forms the anterior articulation
+with the tympanic. (From the
+<i>Cat. Foss. Mamm. Brit. Mus.</i> pt. v. p. 70.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Berardius.</i><a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a>—Two moderate-sized, compressed, pointed teeth on
+each side of the symphysis of the mandible, with their apices directed
+forwards, the anterior being the larger of the two and close to the
+apex. Upper ends of the premaxillæ nearly symmetrical, moderately
+elevated, very slightly expanded, and not curved forward over
+the nares. Nasals broad, massive, and rounded, of nearly equal
+size, forming the vertex of the skull, flattened in front, most
+prominent in the middle line. Anteorbital notch distinct. Rostrum
+long and narrow. Mesethmoid only partially ossified. Small
+rugous eminences on the outer edge of the upper surface of the
+maxillæ at base of rostrum. Vertebræ: C 7, D 10, L 12, C 19;
+total 48. The three anterior cervicals ankylosed, the rest free and
+well developed.</p>
+
+<p>The only<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257"></a>[257]</span> known species, <i>B. arnuxi</i>, attains the length of 30
+feet, and has hitherto only been met with in the seas around New
+Zealand.</p>
+
+<p><i>Choneziphius.</i><a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a>—The rostral portions of crania from the Antwerp
+and Suffolk Crags, on the evidence of which this genus has been
+established, agree with those of <i>Mesoplodon</i> in having the premaxillæ
+in contact with the intervening bones throughout the length of
+their inner surfaces, and also in showing only a very small portion
+of the vomer on the inferior surface; they differ, however, in that
+the mesethmoid cartilage remains unossified, whereby a fistular
+vacuity remains. In some species the soldering of the inner
+surfaces of the premaxillæ is incomplete. The interorbital region
+of the skull is flat; and there are two pits in the nasal region, of
+which the right is the larger.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Squalodontidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Numerous extinct forms, chiefly known by teeth and fragments
+of crania, may be provisionally placed here, until more of their
+osteological characters shall be brought to light. They differ from
+all existing Cetaceans in having the teeth distinctly differentiated
+into groups, as in the Archæoceti, the posterior molars being two-rooted.
+The cranium has, however, none of the distinguishing
+characteristics of the Zeuglodonts, but essentially resembles that of
+the Odontoceti, especially in the position of the anterior nares and
+form of the nasal bones.</p>
+
+<p><i>Squalodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a>—All the forms may be included in this genus, the
+so-called <i>Rhizoprion</i> not being distinct. Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, simple
+teeth of the molar series (premolars?) ⁴⁄₄, two-rooted molars ⁷⁄₇ = ¹⁵⁄₁₅;
+total 60. The double-rooted molars differ from those of <i>Zeuglodon</i>
+in having the denticulations of the crown confined to the posterior
+border, or at all events much less developed on the front edge.
+Very little is known of the structure of these animals beyond the
+skull and teeth, fragments of which have been found widely
+distributed throughout the marine Miocene and early Pliocene
+formations of Europe, especially in the Vienna basin, many parts
+of France, and the Antwerp and Suffolk Crags. They have also
+been found in formations of corresponding age in North America
+and South Australia. A few isolated teeth have been met with in
+the cave-deposits of Italy, which, if contemporaneous with the beds
+in which they occur, indicate the survival of the genus into the
+Pleistocene period.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258"></a>[258]</span></p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Platanistidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Under this heading may be placed three very singular genera,
+which, though differing considerably from each other, have several
+points in common, and do not altogether come under the definition
+either of the <i>Physeteridæ</i> or the <i>Delphinidæ</i>, especially in the
+important character of the mode of articulation of the ribs with
+the dorsal vertebræ, the tubercular and capitular articulations,
+distinct at the commencement of the series, gradually blending
+together, as they do in most ordinary mammals. The cervical
+vertebræ are all free. The lachrymal bone is not distinct from the
+jugal. The jaws are long and narrow, with numerous teeth in
+both. The symphysis of the mandible exceeds half the length of
+the whole ramus. Externally the head is divided from the body
+by a slightly constricted neck. Pectoral limbs broad and truncated.
+Dorsal fin small or obsolete. Fluviatile or estuarine in habits.
+There are three distinct genera, which might almost be made the
+types of families, but it is probably more convenient to keep them
+together, only regarding them as representing three subfamilies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Platanista.</i><a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a>—Teeth about ³⁰⁄₃₀ on each side, set near together,
+rather large, cylindrical, and sharp-pointed in the young; in old
+animals acquiring a large laterally compressed base, which in the
+posterior part of the series becomes irregularly divided into roots.
+As the conical enamel-covered crown wears away, the teeth of the
+young and old animals have a totally different appearance. The
+rostrum and dentigerous portion of the mandible are so narrow
+that the teeth of the two sides are almost in contact. Maxillæ supporting
+very large, incurved, compressed bony crests, which overarch
+the nares and base of the rostrum, and almost meet in the
+middle line above. Orbits very small and eyes rudimentary, without
+crystalline lens. External respiratory aperture longitudinal, linear.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 10, L 9, C 26; total: 52. A small cæcum. No
+pelvic bones. Dorsal fin represented by a low ridge.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure088" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure088.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span>—<i>Platanista gangetica.</i> (From Anderson.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>One species, <i>P. gangetica</i>, entirely fluviatile, being extensively
+distributed throughout nearly the whole of the river systems, not
+only of the Ganges, but of the Brahmaputra and Indus, ascending
+as high as there is water enough to swim in, but never passing out
+to sea. It is quite blind, and feeds on small fish and crustaceans,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259"></a>[259]</span>
+groping for them with its long snout in the muddy water at the
+bottom of the rivers. It attains the length of 8 feet.<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Inia.</i><a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a>—Teeth variable, from 26 to 33 on either side of each jaw;
+those at the posterior part with a distinct tubercle at the inner side
+of the base of the crown. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 3, C 18; total
+41. Transverse processes of lumbar vertebræ very broad. Sternum
+short and broad, and consisting of a single segment only. Dorsal
+fin a mere ridge. The long cylindrical rostrum externally furnished
+with scattered, stout, and crisp hairs. One species only is known,
+<i>I. geoffroyensis</i>, about 7 feet in length, inhabiting the upper Amazon
+and its tributary streams.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pontoporia.</i><a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a>—Teeth 50 to 60 on either side of each jaw, with a
+cingulum at the base of the crown. Jaws very long and slender.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 10, L 5, C 19; total 41. Transverse processes
+of the lumbar vertebræ extremely broad. Sternum elongated,
+composed of two segments, with four sternal ribs attached. Dorsal
+fin rather small, triangular, pointed. External respiratory aperture
+transverse, crescentic. This genus connects the last two forms with
+the true <i>Delphinidæ</i>. The only species, <i>P. blainvillei</i>, is one of the
+smallest members of the whole order, not exceeding 5 feet in length.
+It has only been met with at the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, near
+Buenos Ayres, and there is at present no evidence that it ascends
+into the fresh waters of the river.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure089" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure089.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span>—<i>Pontoporia blainvillei.</i> (From Burmeister.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Fossil forms.</i>—Remains of a Cetacean from the Pleistocene of
+South America were referred by Bravard to <i>Pontoporia</i>, but they
+have been regarded by other writers as indicating a distinct genus,
+for which the names <i>Palæopontoporia</i> and <i>Pontistes</i> have been proposed.
+The Upper Tertiary European genera <i>Champsodelphis</i> and
+<i>Schizodelphis</i> are generally referred to the present family. The
+former has wide transverse processes to the lumbar vertebræ, as in
+<i>Inia</i>, while the teeth also resemble those of that genus. In <i>Schizodelphis</i>
+the form of the rostrum presents a great resemblance to that
+of the Delphinoid genus <i>Steno</i>, but the symphysis of the mandible
+is relatively longer. A number of fossil Cetaceans from the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260"></a>[260]</span>
+Miocene of the United States, such as <i>Priscodelphinus</i>, <i>Lophocetus</i>,
+<i>Ixacanthus</i>, <i>Rhabdosteus</i>, etc., are referred by Professor E. D. Cope to
+this family. <i>Agabelus</i>, from the same deposits, is an apparently
+allied, but toothless type.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Delphinidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Teeth usually numerous in both jaws. Pterygoid bones short,
+thin, each involuted to form with a process of the palate bone the
+outer wall of the post-palatine air-sinus. Symphysis of mandible
+short, or moderate, never exceeding one-third of the length of the
+ramus. Lachrymal bone not distinct from the jugal. The anterior
+facet on the periotic (<a href="#figure096">Fig. 96</a>) for articulation with the tympanic
+deeply grooved; and the posterior tympanic surface of the same
+bone comparatively narrow, with its ridge for articulation with the
+free border of the tympanic ill-defined, and situated close to one
+edge. Transverse processes of the dorsal vertebræ gradually transferred
+from the arches to the bodies of the vertebræ without any
+sudden break, and becoming posteriorly continuous serially with the
+transverse processes of the lumbar vertebræ. Anterior ribs attached
+to the transverse process by the tubercle, and to the body of the
+vertebra by the head; the latter attachment lost in the posterior
+ribs. Sternal ribs firmly ossified. External respiratory aperture
+transverse, crescentic, with the horns of the crescent pointing
+forwards.</p>
+
+<p>A very large group, closely united in essential characters but
+presenting great modifications in details. The different types are
+mostly so connected by intermediate or osculant forms that there
+are great difficulties in grouping them into natural subfamilies.
+Even the formation of well-defined genera is by no means satisfactory
+in all cases. They may, however, be divided, perhaps
+artificially, into two groups.</p>
+
+<p><i>Group A.</i>—Head rounded, without distinct rostrum or beak.
+Rostrum of skull about as long as cranial portion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Monodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a>—Besides some irregular rudimentary teeth, the entire
+dentition is reduced to a single pair of teeth which lie horizontally
+in the maxilla, and in the female remain permanently concealed
+within the alveolus so that this sex is practically toothless, while
+in the male (see <a href="#figure090">Fig. 90</a>) the right tooth usually remains similarly
+concealed and abortive, and the left is immensely developed, attaining
+a length equal to more than half that of the entire animal, projecting
+horizontally from the head in the form of a cylindrical, or slightly
+tapering, pointed tusk, without enamel, and with the surface
+marked by spiral grooves and ridges, running in a sinistral direction.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261"></a>[261]</span>
+(When, as occasionally happens, both tusks are developed, the
+spiral grooves have the same direction in each.) Pterygoids very
+small, not meeting in the middle line, but approximating
+posteriorly. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11, L 6,
+C 26; total 50. Cervical region comparatively
+long, and all the vertebræ distinct, or with irregular
+unions towards the middle of the series,
+the atlas and axis being usually free. Manus
+small, short, and broad; second and third digits
+nearly equal, fourth slightly shorter. No dorsal
+fin.</p>
+
+<p>This genus is now represented only by the
+well-known Narwhal (<i>M. monoceros</i>), in which the
+horn-like tusk of the male often grows to a
+length of 7 or 8 feet. In very young animals
+several small additional teeth, irregular in number
+and position, are present, but these usually disappear
+soon after birth.</p>
+
+<p>The head is rather short and rounded; the
+fore limbs or paddles are small and broad compared
+with those of most Dolphins; and (as in the
+Beluga) the median dorsal fin, found in nearly
+all other members of the group, is wanting or
+replaced by a low ridge. The general colour of
+the surface is dark gray above and white below,
+but variously marbled and spotted with different
+shades of gray. In the general contour of the
+body the Narwhal resembles the White Whale
+or Beluga.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure090" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure090.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.</span>—Upper surface of the skull of male Narwhal (<i>Monodon monoceros</i>), with the whole of both teeth exposed
+by removal of the upper wall of their alveolar cavities.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Narwhal is essentially an Arctic animal,
+frequenting the icy circumpolar seas, and but
+rarely seen south of 65° N. lat. Three instances
+have, however, been recorded of its occurrence
+on the British coasts, one in the Firth of Forth
+in 1648, one near Boston in Lincolnshire in 1800,
+while a third, which entangled itself among
+the rocks in the Sound of Weesdale, Shetland,
+in September 1808, is described by Fleming
+in the <i>Memoirs of the Wernerian Society</i>, vol. i.
+Like most other Cetaceans, it is gregarious in
+its habits, being usually met with in “schools”
+or herds of fifteen or twenty individuals. Its
+food appears to be various species of cephalopods,
+small fishes, and crustaceans. The purpose
+served in the animal’s economy by the
+wonderfully developed asymmetrical tusk—or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262"></a>[262]</span>
+“horn,” as it is commonly but erroneously
+called—is not known. As it is present only
+in the male sex, no function essential to the well-being of the
+individual, such as the procuring of sustenance, can be assigned
+to it, but it must be looked upon as belonging to the same category
+of organs as the antlers of deer, and perhaps may be
+applied to similar purposes. Very little is, however, known of the
+habits of Narwhals. Scoresby describes them as “extremely
+playful, frequently elevating their horns and crossing them with
+each other as in fencing.” They have never been known to charge
+and pierce the bottom of ships with their weapons, as the sword-fish
+often does. The name “Sea Unicorn,” sometimes applied to the
+Narwhal, refers to the resemblance of its tusk to the horn
+represented as projecting from the forehead of the fabled unicorn.
+The ivory of which the tusk is composed is of very good quality,
+but, owing to the central cavity, which extends the greater part of
+its length, is only fitted for the manufacture of objects of small
+size. The entire tusks are sometimes used for decorative purposes,
+and are of considerable, though very fluctuating, commercial value.</p>
+
+<p><i>Delphinapterus.</i><a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a>—This genus is closely allied to the last in external
+form, as well as anatomical structure, differing mainly in the
+very distinct character of the dentition. Teeth from ⁸⁄₈ to ¹⁰⁄₁₀,
+occupying the anterior three-fourths of the rostrum and corresponding
+portion of the mandible, rather small, conical, and pointed
+when unworn, but usually becoming obliquely truncated, separated
+by intervals considerably wider than the diameter of the tooth, and
+implanted obliquely, the crowns inclining forwards, especially in
+the upper jaw. Skull rather narrow and elongated, depressed.
+Premaxillæ convex in front of the nares. Rostrum about equal in
+length to the cranial portion of the skull, triangular, broad at the
+base, and gradually contracting towards the apex, where it is somewhat
+curved downwards. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11, L 9, C 23; total 50.
+Cervical vertebræ free. Manus broad, short, and rounded, all the
+digits being tolerably well developed, except the first. No dorsal
+fin, but a low ridge in its place.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure091" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure091.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.</span>—Beluga or White Whale (<i>Delphinapterus leucas</i>). From a specimen taken in the river
+St. Lawrence, and exhibited in London, 1877.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>One existing species, <i>D. leucas</i> (<a href="#figure091">Fig. 91</a>), the Beluga or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263"></a>[263]</span> White
+Whale, so called from its pure white colour, about 12 feet long,
+abundant in the Arctic seas, and extending as far south on the
+American coast as the river St. Lawrence, which it ascends for a
+considerable distance. On rare occasions it has been seen on the
+coast of Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of a Cetacean from the Lower Pliocene of Tuscany have
+been referred by Brandt to this genus under the name <i>D. brocchii</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In all the remaining genera of <i>Delphinidæ</i> the cervical region of
+the vertebral column is very short, and the first two, and usually
+more, of the vertebræ are firmly united.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phocæna.</i><a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a>—Teeth ²⁵⁄₂₅, small, occupying nearly the whole length
+of the rostrum, with compressed, spade-shaped crowns, separated
+from the root by a constricted
+neck (<a href="#figure092">Fig. 92</a>). Rostrum rather
+shorter than the cranium
+proper, broad at the base and
+tapering towards the apex.
+Premaxillæ raised into tuberosities
+in front of the nares.
+The frontal bones forming a
+somewhat square, elevated protuberance
+in the middle line of the skull behind the nares, rising
+altogether above the flattened nasals. Pterygoids very small,
+and widely separated in the middle line. Symphysis of mandible
+very short. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 14, C 31; total 65 (subject
+to slight individual variations). First to sixth cervical vertebræ,
+and sometimes the seventh also, coalesced. Manus of moderate
+size, oval, slightly falcate; second and third digits nearly equal in
+length; fourth and fifth well developed, but shorter. Dorsal fin
+near the middle of the back, triangular; its height considerably less
+than the length of the base; its anterior edge frequently furnished
+with one or more rows of conical horny tubercles.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure092" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure092.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span>—Teeth of Porpoise. Twice natural size.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The common Porpoise (<a href="#figure093">Fig. 93</a>), <i>P. communis</i>, is the best known
+of British Cetaceans. The word Porpoise (sometimes spelled Porpus
+and Porpesse) is apparently derived from the French <i>porc</i> and
+<i>poisson</i>, or the Italian <i>porco</i> and <i>pesce</i>, and thus corresponds with
+some of the English vernacular appellations, “hog-fish,” “sea-hog,”
+“herring-hog,” and the German <i>Meerschwein</i>, whence the usual modern
+French name of the animal, <i>marsouin</i>. “Porpoise” is commonly used
+by sailors to designate all the smaller Cetaceans, especially those
+numerous species which naturalists call “Dolphins”; but in scientific
+language it is restricted to the genus <i>Phocæna</i> of Cuvier, of which the
+Porpoise of the British seas, <i>Phocæna communis</i>, Cuvier (<i>Delphinus
+phocæna</i>, Linnæus), is the type.</p>
+
+<p>The Common Porpoise, when full grown, attains a length of 5<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264"></a>[264]</span>
+feet or a little more. The dimensions of an adult female specimen
+from the English Channel were as follows:—length in straight line
+from nose to median notch between the flukes of the tail, 62½
+inches; from the nose to the anterior edge of the dorsal fin, 29
+inches; height of dorsal fin, 4½ inches; length of base of dorsal fin,
+8 inches; length of pectoral fin, 9¼ inches; breadth of pectoral fin,
+3½ inches; breadth of tail flukes, 13 inches. The under jaw
+projects about half an inch beyond the upper one. The aperture
+of the mouth is tolerably wide, and is bounded by stiff immobile
+lips, and curves slightly upwards at the hinder end. The eye is
+small, and the external ear represented by a minute aperture in the
+skin, scarcely larger than would be made by the puncture of a pin,
+situated about 2 inches behind the eye. The pectoral fins are of
+moderate size, and slightly falcate. The upper parts are dark gray,
+or nearly black, according to the light in which they are viewed,
+and the state of moisture or otherwise of the skin; the under parts
+are pure white. The line of demarcation between these colours is
+not distinct (washes or splashes of gray encroaching upon the
+white on the sides), and varies somewhat in different individuals.
+Usually it passes from the throat (the anterior part of which, with
+the whole of the under jaw, is dark) above the origin of the
+pectoral fin, along the middle of the flank, and descends again to
+the middle line before reaching the tail. Both sides of the pectoral
+and caudal fins are black.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="figure093" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure093.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span>—The Common Porpoise (<i>Phocæna communis</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Porpoise is sociable and gregarious in its habits, being usually
+seen in small herds, and frequenting coasts, bays, and estuaries<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_265"></a>[265]</span>
+rather than the open ocean. It is the commonest Cetacean in the
+seas around the British Isles, and not unfrequently ascends the
+river Thames, having been seen as high up as Richmond; it has
+also been observed in the Seine at Neuilly, near Paris. It frequents
+the Scandinavian coasts, entering the Baltic in the summer; and
+is found as far north as Baffin’s Bay, and as far west as the coasts
+of the United States. Southward its range is more limited than
+that of the Common Dolphin, as, though very common on the
+Atlantic coasts of France, it rarely enters the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>It feeds on fish, such as mackerel, pilchards, and herrings, of
+which it devours large quantities, and, following the shoals, is often
+caught by fishermen in the nets along with its prey. In former
+times it was a common and esteemed article of food in England and
+in France, but is now rarely if ever eaten, being commercially
+valuable when caught only for the oil obtained from its blubber.
+Its skin is sometimes used for leather and boot-thongs, but
+the so-called “porpoise hides” are generally obtained from the
+Beluga.</p>
+
+<p>A closely similar if not identical species from the American
+coast of the North Pacific has been described under the name of
+<i>Phocæna vomerina</i>, and another from the mouth of the Rio de la
+Plata as <i>P. spinipennis</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="figure094" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure094.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.</span>—Diagrammatic section of the stomach of the Porpoise.
+<i>a</i>, Œsophagus; <i>b</i>, left, or cardiac, compartment; <i>c</i>, middle compartment;
+<i>d</i> and <i>e</i>, the two divisions of the right, or pyloric, compartment;
+<i>f</i>, pylorus; <i>g</i>, duodenum, dilated at its commencement; <i>h</i>,
+biliary duct.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The stomach of the Porpoise (<a href="#figure094">Fig. 94</a>) may be taken as a typical
+example of this
+organ in the Cetacea.
+The first and
+by far the largest
+compartment (<i>b</i>)
+may be regarded
+as a kind of crop,
+or dilatation of
+the large œsophagus
+(<i>a</i>). It is
+lined by a thick
+white epithelium,
+which ceases
+abruptly at the
+entrance into the
+next cavity. It
+corresponds to
+the cardiac compartment
+of the
+stomach in the
+Ungulates and
+certain Rodents;
+but, although its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266"></a>[266]</span>
+walls do not appear to contain peptic glands, its contents undergo
+partial digestion—probably caused by the regurgitation into it
+of the secretions of the second, or true digestive compartment
+(<i>c</i>). This, which is much smaller than the first, has very thick
+walls, the mucous membrane being filled with numerous tubular
+glands. The surface of this membrane is smooth and soft,
+being thrown into numerous folds, which in this genus are arranged
+in a very peculiar and characteristic manner, so as to form a
+series of prominent longitudinal ridges, each of which sends off
+short lateral ridges at right angles to itself, which interdigitate
+with those proceeding from the next longitudinal ridge. The
+remainder of the stomach (<i>d</i> to <i>f</i>) may be compared to the pyloric
+antrum of the stomach of ordinary mammals. It is elongated,
+cylindrical, and intestiniform, with a smooth lining membrane,
+sharply bent upon itself, and terminating in a very small circular
+pyloric aperture (<i>f</i>). In the Porpoise the commencement
+of this cavity is constricted off from the remainder, so as to
+form a small globular sac. In most Dolphins (as <i>Tursiops</i>, <i>Globicephalus</i>,
+and <i>Grampus</i>) there are two such small sacs of very similar
+size and form, communicating by circular pylorus-like apertures;
+and in <i>Hyperoödon</i> the whole compartment is divided by a series of
+constrictions into as many as seven separate cavities, which have
+been regarded as distinct stomachs. Immediately beyond the
+pylorus the duodenum has a globular dilatation, as in the camels
+and some other Ungulates, into the lower end of which the biliary
+duct (<i>h</i>) enters.</p>
+
+<p>An allied species, differing mainly in the absence of dorsal fin,
+and in the teeth (with the same form of crown) being fewer in
+number and of larger size, called <i>Delphinus phacænoides</i> by Cuvier,
+<i>D. melas</i> by Schlegel, forms the type of Gray’s genus <i>Neomeris</i>.<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a>
+It is rather smaller than the Common Porpoise, and almost entirely
+black in colour. Common off the coast of Bombay, it has been
+met with in other parts of the Indian Ocean, and near Japan.
+The British Museum recently received a specimen taken in the
+Chinese river Yang-tse-kiang nearly a thousand miles from the
+sea, which only differs from others from India in wanting a patch
+of small horny tubercles on the back. As such tubercles are
+present or absent in otherwise similar individuals of <i>P. communis</i>, it
+is doubtful whether they can be regarded as constituting a specific
+character.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cephalorhynchus.</i><a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a>—Rostrum as long and sometimes slightly
+longer than the cranial portion of the skull. Pterygoids widely
+separated from one another. Teeth small (less than 3 mm. in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267"></a>[267]</span>
+diameter), ²⁵⁄₂₅ to ³⁰⁄₃₀. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 15, C 30; total 65.
+Dorsal fin low, obtusely triangular or rounded. Pectoral fins rather
+small, narrow, and ovate. Typified by <i>C. heavisidei</i>, from the
+southern seas. <i>C. eutropia</i> is a very distinct form from the same
+seas, known only by the skull, and referred provisionally to this
+genus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Orcella.</i><a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a>—Teeth ¹²⁄₁₂ to ¹⁴⁄₁₄, small, conical, pointed, rather closely
+set, and occupying nearly the whole length of the rostrum. Skull
+subglobular, high. Rostrum nearly equal in length to the cranial
+portion of the skull, tapering. Pterygoids widely separated from
+one another. Manus of moderate size, not elongated, but somewhat
+pointed. All the bones of the digits broader than long,
+except the proximal phalanges of the index and third fingers.
+Dorsal fin rather small, placed behind the middle of the body.
+Two species, both of small size—<i>O. brevirostris</i>, from the Bay of
+Bengal, and <i>O. fluminalis</i>, from the Irawadi river, from 300 to
+900 miles from the sea. Our present knowledge of the anatomy,
+geographical distribution, and habits of these interesting Cetaceans
+is almost entirely due to the researches of Dr. J. Anderson.<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Orca.</i><a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a>—Teeth about ¹²⁄₁₂, occupying nearly the whole length of
+the rostrum, very large and stout, with conical recurved crowns,
+and large roots, expanded laterally and flattened, or rather hollowed,
+on the anterior and posterior surfaces. Rostrum about equal in
+length to the cranial part of the skull, broad and flattened above,
+rounded in front; premaxillæ broad and rather concave in front of
+the nares, contracted at the middle of the rostrum, and expanding
+again towards the apex. Pterygoids of normal form, but not quite
+meeting in the middle line. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11-12, L 10,
+C 23; total 51 or 52. Bodies of the first and second and sometimes
+the third cervical vertebræ united; the rest free. Pectoral
+fin very large, ovate, nearly as broad as long. All the phalanges
+and metacarpals broader than long. General form of body robust.
+Dorsal fin near the middle of the back, very high and pointed.
+Anterior part of the head broad and depressed.</p>
+
+<p>The animals composing this genus are met with in almost all
+seas from Greenland to Tasmania, but the number of species is still
+uncertain, and possibly they may be all reduced to one. They are
+readily known, when swimming in the water, by the high, erect,
+falcate dorsal fin, whence their common German name of <i>Schwertfisch</i>
+(Sword-fish). By English sailors they are generally known as
+“Grampuses” or “Killers.” They are distinguished from all their
+allies by their great strength and ferocity, being the only Cetaceans<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268"></a>[268]</span>
+which habitually prey on warm-blooded animals, for, though fish
+form part of their food, they also attack and devour Seals, and
+various species of their own order, not only the smaller Porpoises
+and Dolphins, but even full-sized Whales, which last they combine
+in packs to hunt down and destroy, as Wolves do the larger
+Ruminants.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure095" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure095.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span>—The Killer Whale, or Grampus (<i>Orca gladiator</i>). From Hunter.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Orca citoniensis</i>, of the Italian Pliocene, was of smaller size than
+the existing Killer. Teeth and periotic bones from the Suffolk Crag
+not improbably belong to the same species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pseudorca.</i><a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a>—Teeth about ¹⁰⁄₁₀. Cranial and dental characters
+generally like those of <i>Orca</i>, except that the roots of the teeth are
+cylindrical. Vertebræ: C 7, D 10, L 9, C 24; total 50. First
+to sixth or seventh cervical vertebræ united. Bodies of the lumbar
+vertebræ distinguished from those of the preceding genera by being
+more elongated, the length being to the width as 3 to 2. Pectoral
+fin of moderate size, narrow, and pointed. Dorsal fin situated near
+the middle of the back, of moderate size, falcate. Head in front of
+the blowhole high, and compressed anteriorly, the snout truncated.</p>
+
+<p>This genus was first known by the discovery of a skull in a
+subfossil state in a fen in Lincolnshire, named by Sir R. Owen
+<i>Phocæna crassidens</i>. Animals of apparently the same species were
+afterwards met with in small herds on the Danish coast, and fully
+described by Reinhardt. Others subsequently received from Tasmania
+were supposed at first to indicate a different species, but
+comparison of a larger series of specimens from these extremely
+distant localities fails to establish any characteristic difference, and
+indicates an immense range of distribution for a species apparently
+so rare. The length of this Cetacean is about 14 feet, and
+its colour entirely black.</p>
+
+<p><i>Globicephalus.</i><a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a>—Teeth ⁸⁻¹²⁄₈₋₁₂, confined to the anterior half of the
+rostrum and corresponding part of the mandible, small, conical,
+curved, sharp-pointed when unworn, sometimes deciduous in old<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269"></a>[269]</span>
+age. Skull broad and depressed. Rostrum and cranial portion
+about equal in length. Upper surface of rostrum broad and flat.
+Premaxillæ strongly concave in front of the nares, as wide at the
+middle of the rostrum as at the base, or wider, and very nearly or
+completely concealing the maxillæ in the anterior half of this
+region. Pterygoids of normal form, meeting, or very nearly so,
+in the middle line. Vertebræ: C 7, D 11, L 12-14, C 28-29;
+total 58 or 59. Bodies of the anterior five or six cervical vertebræ
+united. Length of the bodies of the lumbar and anterior caudal
+vertebræ about equal to their width. Pectoral limb very long and
+narrow, the second digit the longest, and having as many as 12
+or 13 phalanges, the third shorter (with 9 phalanges), the first,
+fourth, and fifth very short. Fore part of the head very round, in
+consequence of the great development of a cushion of fat, placed
+on the rostrum of the skull in front of the blowhole. Dorsal fin
+low and triangular, the length of its base considerably exceeding its
+vertical height.</p>
+
+<p>The type of this well-marked genus is <i>G. melas</i>, the Pilot
+Whale, Ca’ing Whale, or Grindhval of the Faroe islanders, which
+attains the length of 20 feet, and is of nearly uniform black colour,
+except the middle of the under surface, which is lighter. These
+animals are extremely gregarious, and, unlike the Killers, are mild
+and inoffensive in disposition, feeding principally on cephalopods.
+Their eminently sociable character constantly leads to their destruction,
+since when attacked they instinctively rush together and
+blindly follow the leaders of the herd. When they are seen in
+the neighbourhood of land, the fishermen endeavour to get to seaward
+of them in their boats, and with shouting and firing of guns
+to drive them into a bay or fjord, pursuing them until they run
+themselves on shore in their alarm. In this way many hundreds
+at a time are frequently driven ashore
+and killed, when a herd enters one of
+the bays or fjords of the Faroe Islands
+or north of Scotland. Animals of this
+well-marked genus are found in nearly
+all seas, and their specific distinctions
+are not yet made out. Specimens from
+the Australian coasts, where they are
+generally called “Black-fish,” are quite
+indistinguishable, either by external or
+osteological characters, from those of the
+North Atlantic.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure096" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure096.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span>—The left periotic bone
+of <i>Globicephalus uncidens</i>; from the
+Suffolk Crag. Natural size. The
+grooved surface on the right is the
+anterior facet for articulation with
+the tympanic; the posterior tympanic
+articulation being on the opposite
+side of the figure. (From the
+<i>Cat. Foss. Mamm. Brit. Mus.</i> pt. v.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Teeth, periotic (<a href="#figure096">Fig. 96</a>) and tympanic
+bones from the Suffolk Crag,
+described as <i>G. uncidens</i>, indicate a form
+apparently closely allied to the existing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270"></a>[270]</span>
+species. The periotic is figured in order to illustrate the distinctive
+characters of that bone in the <i>Delphinidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grampus.</i><a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a>—Teeth none in the upper jaw; in the mandible few
+(3 to 7 on each side), and confined to the region of the symphysis.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 19, C 30; total 68. General external
+characters much as in <i>Globicephalus</i>, but the fore part of the head
+less rounded, and the pectoral fin less elongated.</p>
+
+<p>But one species, <i>G. griseus</i>, is certainly known, about 13 feet
+long, and remarkable for its great variability of colour. It has
+been found, though rarely, in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean.
+A skull from the Cape of Good Hope, which differs slightly from
+that of the above, has been described under the name of <i>G. richardsoni</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Feresia.</i><a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a>—This genus, known at present only by two skulls,
+may be provisionally placed here. These appear to indicate a form
+connecting <i>Globicephalus</i>, <i>Grampus</i>, and <i>Lagenorhynchus</i>. From the
+latter they differ chiefly in the smaller number (about ¹²⁄₁₂) and much
+larger size (6-7 mm. in diameter at base of crown) of the teeth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lagenorhynchus.</i><a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a>—Rostrum scarcely exceeding the length of the
+cranium, broad at the base and gradually tapering towards the
+apex, depressed. Pterygoids normal, meeting in the middle line.
+Teeth small (not exceeding 4 mm. in diameter), ²³⁄₂₃ to ³³⁄₃₃. Vertebræ
+very numerous, 80 to 90. Spines and transverse processes of the
+lumbar vertebræ very long and slender; centra short. Externally,
+head with a short but not very distinct beak. Two species,
+<i>L. albirostris</i> and <i>L. acutus</i>, are occasionally captured on the British
+coasts. Other species occur elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p><i>Group B.</i>—Head with distinctly elongated rostrum, or beak,
+generally marked off from the prenarial adipose elevation by a V-shaped
+groove. Rostrum of skull considerably longer than the
+cranial portion. Atlas and axis firmly united; all the other cervical
+vertebræ free.</p>
+
+<p>If we add to it the above-mentioned genus, <i>Lagenorhynchus</i>, this
+group will include all the true Dolphins, Bottle-noses, or, as they
+are more commonly called by seafaring people, “Porpoises,” which
+are found in considerable abundance in all seas, some species being
+habitually inhabitants of large rivers, as the Amazon. They are all
+among the smaller members of the order, none exceeding 10 feet in
+length. Their food is chiefly fish, for the capture of which their
+long narrow beaks, armed with numerous sharp-pointed teeth, are
+well adapted, but some appear also to devour crustaceans and
+molluscs. They are mostly gregarious, and the agility and grace
+of their movements in the water are constant themes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271"></a>[271]</span> of admiration
+to the spectators of the scene when a “school of Porpoises” is
+observed playing round the bows of a vessel at sea.</p>
+
+<p><i>Delphinus.</i><a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a>—Teeth very numerous in both jaws, ⁴⁰⁄₄₀ to ⁶⁰⁄₆₀,
+occupying nearly the whole length of the rostrum, small, close-set,
+conical, pointed, slightly curved. Rostrum elongated, usually about
+double the length of the cranial portion of the skull. Pterygoids of
+normal form, meeting in the middle line throughout their length.
+Palate with deep lateral grooves. Vertebræ 73 to 75. Pectoral fin
+of moderate size, narrow, pointed, somewhat falcate. Second and
+third digits well developed; the rest rudimental.</p>
+
+<p>The type of the genus is the Common Dolphin of the Mediterranean
+(<i>D. delphis</i>, <a href="#figure097">Fig. 97</a>), also found in the Atlantic, and of
+which a closely allied if not identical form is met with in the
+Australian seas (<i>D. forsteri</i>) and in the North Pacific (<i>D. bairdi</i>).
+Other species are <i>D. janira</i>, <i>D. major</i>, etc.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure097" style="max-width: 34.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure097.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span>—The Common Dolphin (<i>Delphinus delphis</i>). From Reinhardt.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Tursiops.</i><a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a>—Rostrum tapering moderately from base to apex;
+palate not grooved; symphysis of mandible short; other cranial
+characters as in <i>Delphinus</i>. Teeth ²¹⁄₂₁ to ²⁵⁄₂₅, stout (6 to 7 mm. in
+antero-posterior diameter). Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 17, C 27; total
+64. Limbs as in <i>Delphinus</i>. Represented by the widely distributed
+<i>T. tursio</i>; <i>T. catalania</i> being a second form. Fossil remains of this
+genus from the Italian Pliocene have been recently described.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prodelphinus.</i><a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a>—Rostrum somewhat variable; mandibular symphysis
+short (less than one-fifth the length of the ramus); other
+cranial characters as in the preceding genus. Teeth ³⁰⁄₃₀ to ⁵⁰⁄₅₀,
+small, not exceeding 3 mm. in diameter. Vertebræ 73 to 78.
+Limbs as in <i>Delphinus</i>. Four leading types of this genus are
+recognised (all of which have numerous synonyms) viz. <i>P. obscurus</i>,
+<i>P. euphrosyne</i>, <i>P. doris</i>, and <i>P. longirostris</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Péron’s Dolphin (<i>Delphinus leucorhamphus</i>, Péron, or <i>Leucorhamphus
+peroni</i>, Lilljeborg) resembles some forms of <i>Prodelphinus</i> in
+its cranial characters; but having no dorsal fin, it has been separated
+generically by some writers. It is not improbable that <i>Delphinus
+borealis</i>, Peale, from the North Pacific, in which there is likewise no
+dorsal fin, may be an allied form.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272"></a>[272]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Steno.</i><a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a>—Rostrum long, narrow, and compressed, very distinct
+from the cranium; mandibular symphysis as long as, or longer than
+one-fourth the length of the ramus; other cranial characters as in
+the preceding genus. Teeth ²¹⁄₂₁ to ²⁵⁄₂₅, of comparatively large size
+(5-6 mm. in diameter); surface of their crowns finely grooved.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 15, C 32; total 66. Represented by
+<i>S. rostratus</i>, from which the forms which have received other names
+are probably not specifically separable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sotalia.</i><a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a>—Pterygoids narrow, not meeting in the middle line,
+and in their inner borders diverging posteriorly, instead of being
+parallel as in the preceding genera; other cranial characters much
+as in <i>Steno</i>. Teeth tolerably large (4-5 mm. in diameter), ³⁰⁄₃₀ to ³⁵⁄₃₅,
+with smooth enamelled surface. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 10-14,
+C 22; total 51-55. Pectoral fin broad at base, the breadth being
+caused by the considerable development and position of the two
+outer digits. Six species are provisionally recognised as distinct,
+including the Chinese White Dolphin (<i>S. sinensis</i>) and <i>S. pallidus</i>
+from the river Amazon.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<p><i>Bibliography of Cetacea.</i>—D. F. Eschricht, <i>Untersuchungen über die Nordischen
+Wallthiere</i>, 1849, contains a copious bibliography of the group up to the date of
+publication. Since that time numerous monographs on special families and
+genera have been published, and a large illustrated general work, <i>Ostéographie des
+Cétacés</i>, by P. J. Van Beneden and P. Gervais, 1869-80. Besides those already
+referred to in the footnotes, the following may be mentioned; viz. J. F. Brandt,
+“Untersuchungen über die Fossilen und Subfossilen Cetaceen Europa’s,” in
+<i>Mém. de l’Acad. Imp. de St. Pétersbourg</i>, 7ⁱᵉᵐᵉ sér. vol. xx. 1873; C. M. Scammon,
+<i>Marine Mammals of the N. W. Coast of North America</i>, 1874; W. H. Flower,
+“On the characters and Divisions of the Families of the <i>Delphinidæ</i>,” <i>Proc. Zool.
+Soc.</i> 1883, p. 466, and <i>List of the Specimens of Cetacea in the British Museum</i>,
+1885; F. W. True, “Review of the Family Delphinidæ,” <i>Bull. U.S. Nat. Museum</i>,
+No. 36, 1889; P. J. Van Beneden, <i>Histoire Naturelle des Cétacés des Mers
+d’Europe</i>, 1889.</p>
+
+<p>For fossil forms, in addition to the works of Van Beneden, Gervais, and Brandt,
+already cited, the reader may refer to various memoirs published by the former
+writer in the <i>Bull. Ac. R. Belgique</i> and <i>Ann. Mus. R. Hist. Nat. Belg.</i>
+See also R. Lydekker, “The Cetacea of the Suffolk Crag,” <i>Quart. Journ. Geol.
+Soc.</i> vol. xlii. p. 7 (1887), and <i>Catalogue of the Fossil Mammalia in the British
+Museum</i>, pt. v. (1887).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_273"></a>[273]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE ORDER UNGULATA</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Under this term may be included provisionally a large and rather
+heterogeneous group of mammals, the existing members of which
+form the Pecora and Belluæ of Linnæus, the Ruminantia and
+Pachydermata of Cuvier. A few years ago it was found convenient
+to restrict the order to a well-marked and distinctly circumscribed
+group, comprising the two sections known as Perissodactyla and
+Artiodactyla, and to leave out such isolated forms as the Elephant
+and Hyrax; but the discovery of a vast number of extinct species,
+which could not be brought under the definition of either perissodactyle
+or artiodactyle Ungulates, and yet are evidently allied to
+both, and to a certain extent bridge over the interval between
+these and the isolated groups just mentioned, makes it necessary
+either to introduce a number of new and ill-defined ordinal
+divisions, or to widen the scope of the original order so as to
+embrace them all.</p>
+
+<p>The existing forms are all animals eminently adapted for a
+terrestrial life, and in the main for a vegetable diet. Though a
+few are more or less omnivorous, and may under some circumstances
+kill living creatures smaller and weaker than themselves for food,
+none are distinctly and habitually predaceous. Their teeth are
+markedly heterodont and diphyodont,—the milk set being well
+developed and not completely changed until the animal attains its
+full stature. The molars have broad crowns with tuberculated or
+ridged surfaces. There are no clavicles.<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> Their toes are provided
+with blunt, broad nails, or in the majority of cases with hoofs, more
+or less enclosing the ungual phalanges. The scaphoid and lunar
+bones of the carpus are always distinct. The humerus<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_274"></a>[274]</span> has no
+entepicondylar foramen. The number of digits varies from five to
+one; and the radius and ulna may be united together.</p>
+
+<p>The more generalised of the fossil forms do not conform in all
+respects to the above-mentioned characters; clavicles being present
+in <i>Typotherium</i>, and perhaps in some of the Condylarthra, while in
+the latter group the humerus may have an entepicondylar foramen,
+and thus approximate to the corresponding bone of the Carnivora.
+Wide as is the gap between existing Carnivores and Ungulates, there
+are indeed more or less strongly marked evidences of affinity
+between the earlier members of the two orders, as will be again
+noticed under the head of the suborder Condylarthra. A departure
+from the normal type of foot-structure is exhibited by the extinct
+<i>Macrotherium</i>, provisionally included in the Perissodactyla, where
+the digits terminated in long and curved claws.</p>
+
+<p>As a general rule, the cheek-teeth have distinct roots, and in
+those of the existing suborders a gradual increase in the height of
+the crowns of these teeth may be noticed in passing from the more
+generalised to the more specialised types. Those teeth in which
+the crowns are low, and their whole structure visible from the
+grinding surface, are termed <i>brachydont</i> (<a href="#figure122">Fig. 122</a>); while those with
+higher crowns, in which the bases of the infoldings of enamel are
+invisible from the grinding surface, are known as <i>hypsodont</i> (<a href="#figure123">Fig. 123</a>).
+Again, when the tubercles on the crowns of the molars are more or
+less cone-like in form the tooth
+is said to be <i>bunodont</i>; but when
+they are expanded in an antero-posterior
+direction and curved into
+a crescent shape the tooth is
+described as <i>selenodont</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp52" id="figure098" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure098.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span>—Right fore foot of Indian Elephant.
+× ⅛. U, ulna; R, radius; <i>c</i>, cuneiform;
+<i>l</i>, lunar; <i>sc</i>, scaphoid; <i>u</i>, unciform;
+<i>m</i>, magnum; <i>td</i>, trapezoid; <i>tm</i>, trapezium;
+I to V, first to fifth digit.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The whole order may be
+divided into the Ungulata Vera,
+containing the suborders Perissodactyla
+and Artiodactyla, and a
+somewhat heterogeneous assemblage
+of animals which may be
+called Subungulata or Ungulata
+Polydactyla. Cope has pointed
+out a character in the structure
+of the carpus by which the latter
+are differentiated from the former.
+Thus in all the Subungulata the
+bones of the proximal and distal
+row retain the primitive or more
+typical relation to each other (see
+<a href="#figure098">Fig. 98</a>); the os magnum of the
+second row articulating mainly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_275"></a>[275]</span>
+with the lunar of the first, or
+with the cuneiform, but not with the scaphoid. But in the group to
+which the vast majority of modern Ungulates belong the second or
+distal row has been shifted altogether towards the inner side of the
+limb (see <a href="#figure099">Fig. 99</a>), so that the magnum is brought considerably
+into relation with the scaphoid, and is entirely removed from the
+cuneiform, as in the great majority of existing mammals.</p>
+
+<p>It will be on the whole more convenient to commence our
+survey of the members of this suborder with the more specialised
+group of the Ungulata Vera, in which the Artiodactyla will be
+taken first.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Ungulata Vera.</span><a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a></h3>
+
+<p>In the typical Ungulata the feet are never plantigrade, and the
+functional toes do not exceed four—the inner digit being suppressed,
+at all events in all forms which have existed since the Upper
+Eocene period.<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> The os magnum of the carpus articulates freely
+with the scaphoid. The allantois is largely developed, and the
+placenta, so far as is known, is non-deciduate; the chorionic villi
+being either evenly diffused or collected in groups or cotyledons (in
+Pecora). The testes descend into a scrotum. There is never an os
+penis. The uterus is bicornuate. The mammæ are usually few
+and inguinal, or may be numerous and abdominal (as in Suina), but
+are never solely pectoral. The cerebral hemispheres in existing
+Ungulates are well convoluted.</p>
+
+<p>The group is now, and has been throughout almost the whole
+of the Tertiary period, composed of two perfectly distinct sections,
+differing from each other, not only in the obvious characters of the
+structure of the limbs, but in so many other parts of their organisation
+that they must be considered as of the rank at least of
+suborders. The characters of these divisions, first indicated by
+Cuvier, were thoroughly established by Owen, by whom the names
+whereby they are now generally known were proposed.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Artiodactyla</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>This is a well-defined group, traceable from the Eocene period,
+though then apparently by no means so numerous as the Perissodactyles.
+Some of its types, as that represented in the existing
+Swine, have retained to the present time much of the primitive
+character of the group; but others have been gradually becoming
+more specialised and perfected in structure, and its latest modification,
+the Cavicorn Ruminants or <i>Bovidæ</i> (Antelopes, Sheep, and
+Oxen), are now the dominating members of the great Ungulate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_276"></a>[276]</span>
+order, widespread in geographical range, rich in generic and specific
+variation, and numerous in individuals—forming in all these
+respects a great contrast to such decadent types as those represented
+by the Tapirs and Rhinoceroses.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp68" id="figure099" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure099.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.</span>—Bones of right fore foot of existing Artiodactyles. A, Pig (<i>Sus scrofa</i>), × ⅓; B,
+Red Deer (<i>Cervus elaphus</i>), × ⅐; C, Camel (<i>Camelus bactrianus</i>), × ⅛. <i>U</i>, Ulna; <i>R</i>, radius; <i>c</i>,
+cuneiform; <i>l</i>, lunar; <i>s</i>, scaphoid; <i>u</i>, unciform; <i>m</i>, magnum; <i>td</i>, trapezoid; <i>tm</i>, trapezium.
+From Flower’s <i>Osteology of Mammalia</i>.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The principal anatomical characters by which the Artiodactyles
+are distinguished from the Perissodactyles are as follows. The
+premolar and molar teeth usually not alike, the former being
+single and the latter two-lobed. The last lower molar of both first
+and second dentition almost invariably three-lobed; and the first
+tooth of the upper cheek series always without a milk-predecessor.
+Nasal bones not expanded posteriorly. No alisphenoid canal.
+Dorsal and lumbar vertebræ together always nineteen, though the
+former may vary from twelve to fifteen. Femur without third
+trochanter. Third and fourth digits of both feet almost equally
+developed, and their ungual phalanges flattened on their inner or
+contiguous surfaces, so that each is not symmetrical in itself, but
+when the two are placed together they form a figure symmetrically
+disposed to a line drawn between them. Or, in other words, the
+axis or median line of the whole foot is a line drawn between the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_277"></a>[277]</span>
+third and fourth digits, while in the Perissodactyles it is a line
+drawn down the centre of the third digit. Distal articular surface
+of the astragalus divided into two nearly equal facets, one for the
+navicular and the other for the cuboid bone. The calcaneum with
+an articular facet for the lower end of the fibula. Stomach almost
+always more or less complex. Colon convoluted. Cæcum small.
+Placenta diffused or cotyledonary. Mammæ few and inguinal, or
+numerous and abdominal.</p>
+
+<p>In treating of many sections of mammals, it is only from the
+existing species that our characters and classification can be derived,
+and to these chiefly our observations upon the group must be
+directed, many of the extinct forms being so little known that they
+can only be referred to incidentally. With the Ungulata, however,
+it is quite otherwise. The history of the Artiodactyla throughout
+the Tertiary period is now well known, and throws great light upon
+the position and relations of the existing groups.</p>
+
+<p>The principal modifications which have taken place in the type
+from its earliest known and most generalised manifestation have
+been the following:—</p>
+
+<p>1. As regards the teeth. Assumption by the grinding surfaces
+of the molar teeth either of a bunodont or of a selenodont form.
+Modification of the latter from a brachydont to a hypsodont type.
+Loss of upper incisors. Development of canines into projecting
+tusks. Loss of anterior premolars.</p>
+
+<p>2. As regards the limbs. Reduction of the ulna from a complete
+and distinct bone to a comparatively rudimentary state, in which it
+coalesces more or less firmly with the radius. Reduction of the
+fibula till nothing but its lower extremity remains. Reduction
+and final loss of external pair of digits (second and fifth), with coalescence
+of the metapodial bones of the two middle digits. Union
+of the navicular and cuboid, and sometimes the ectocuneiform,
+bones of the tarsus.</p>
+
+<p>3. Change of form of the odontoid process of the axis vertebra
+from a cone to a hollow half-cylinder.</p>
+
+<p>4. Development of horns or antlers on the frontal bones, and
+gradual complication of form of antlers.</p>
+
+<p>5. By inference only, increasing complication of stomach with
+ruminating function superadded. Modification of placenta from
+simple diffused to cotyledonary form.</p>
+
+<p>The primitive Artiodactyles, with the typical number (44) of
+incisor, canine, and molar teeth, brachydont molars, conical odontoid
+process, four distinct toes on each foot, with metapodium and
+all carpal bones distinct, no frontal appendages, and (in all probability)
+simple stomach and diffused placenta, were separated at a
+very early period into Bunodonts and Selenodonts, although there
+is evidence of intermediate forms showing a complete transition<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_278"></a>[278]</span>
+from the one modification to the other. These and other fossil
+forms so completely connect the four groups—Suina, Tylopoda,
+Tragulina, and Pecora—into which the existing members of the
+suborder have become divided, that in a general classification
+embracing both living and extinct forms these divisions cannot be
+maintained. In the present work, however, it will be convenient
+to retain them, mention being made of some of the chief annectant
+forms in separate sections.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Suina.</span></h5>
+
+<p>The existing members of this group are characterised by their
+bunodont molars, and the absence of a complete fusion of the third
+and fourth metapodials to form a “cannon-bone.” The full
+Eutherian dentition is very frequently present.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of very generalised swine-like animals have been
+abundantly found in Tertiary formations both in America and
+Europe. In the former continent they never (so far as present
+evidence indicates) underwent any great diversity of modification,
+but gradually dwindled away and almost died out, being only represented
+in the actual fauna by the two closely allied species of
+Peccary, among the smallest and most insignificant members of the
+group, which have existed almost unchanged since the Miocene age
+at least, if the evidence of teeth alone can be trusted. In the Old
+World, on the other hand, the swine have played a more important
+part in recent times, having become widely distributed, and throwing
+off some curiously specialised forms. At the present time, though
+not very numerous in species, they range through the greater part
+of the Old World, except within or near the Arctic Circle, although,
+in common with all the other members of the great Ungulate order,
+they were completely absent from the whole of the Australian region,
+until introduced by man in very recent times.</p>
+
+<p>The existing swine-like animals may be divided naturally into
+three families:—I. <i>Hippopotamidæ</i>; II. <i>Suidæ</i>, or true Pigs; III.
+<i>Dicotylidæ</i>, or Peccaries.<a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a></p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hippopotamidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp90" id="figure100" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure100.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 100.</span>—Grinding surface of a worn molar
+of <i>Hippopotamus amphibius</i>. (From Owen.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Muzzle very broad and rounded. Feet short and broad, having
+four subequal toes, with short rounded hoofs, all reaching
+the ground in walking. Incisors not rooted, but continuously
+growing; those of the upper jaw curved and directed downwards;
+those of the lower straight and procumbent. Canines very large,
+curved, continuously growing; those of the upper jaw directed
+downwards. Stomach complex. No cæcum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_279"></a>[279]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Hippopotamus.</i><a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a>—This genus may be taken to include all the
+known members of the family; it appears to have been always
+confined to the Old World. The dentition may be expressed by the
+formula <i>i</i> ²⁻³⁄₁₋₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. The crowns of the molars (<a href="#figure100">Fig. 100</a>)
+when worn present trefoil-shaped surfaces of dentine; and those of
+the premolars are sharp. The
+facial portion of the skull is much
+elongated, the orbits are tubular
+and very prominent, and the mandible
+has a large rounded descending
+flange at its angle. The ears
+are small, the tail is short, and the
+legs are likewise so short that the
+belly is raised but a little distance
+above the ground. The brain is
+not richly convoluted, and differs
+very considerably from that of
+the Pigs, approximating in some
+respects to that of the Camel and
+Giraffe, but on the whole standing very much by itself. The
+stomach of the common species is of enormous dimensions, having
+an axial length of 11 feet, and measuring upwards of 15 feet along
+the greater curvature. Its axis is longitudinal, the pylorus being
+situated almost in the pelvis, and it is divided into three distinct
+compartments, of which the third is cylindrical. The liver<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_280"></a>[280]</span> of the
+adult is of extremely simple form, elongated transversely, and narrow
+from above downwards. With the exception of a few tufts of
+hair on the lips, on the sides of the head and neck, and at the
+extremity of the short compressed tail, the skin of the hippopotamus,
+some portions of which are two inches in thickness, is entirely destitute
+of covering.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure101" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure101.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 101.</span>—The Hippopotamus (<i>Hippopotamus amphibius</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The common Hippopotamus (<i>H. amphibius</i>), widely distributed
+in the rivers and lakes of the African continent, is a huge bulky
+animal, characterised by having only two incisors on either side
+of each jaw; the central lower pair being very much larger than the
+outer ones. A male from the Upper Nile which lived for nearly
+thirty years in the gardens of the Zoological Society of London
+measured 12 feet along the back from the nose to the root of the tail.</p>
+
+<p>The Hippopotamus lives in herds of from twenty to forty
+individuals on the banks and in the beds of rivers, in the neighbourhood
+of which it finds its food. This consists chiefly of grass and
+aquatic plants, of which it consumes enormous quantities, the
+stomach being capable of containing from 5 to 6 bushels. These
+animals feed principally by night, remaining in the water during the
+day, although in districts where they are undisturbed by man they
+are less exclusively aquatic. In such regions they put their heads
+boldly out of the water to blow, but when rendered suspicious by
+persecution, they become exceedingly cautious, only exposing their
+eyes and nostrils above the water, and even this they prefer
+doing amid the shelter of water plants. In spite of their enormous
+size and uncouth form, they are expert swimmers and divers, and
+can remain under the water from five to eight minutes. They
+are said to walk with considerable rapidity on the bottoms of
+rivers, beneath at least a foot of water. At nightfall they come
+on land to feed; and when, as often happens on the banks of
+the Nile, they reach cultivated ground, they do immense damage
+to growing crops, destroying by their ponderous tread even more
+than they devour.</p>
+
+<p>A much smaller species, known as the Pigmy Hippopotamus
+(<i>H. liberiensis</i>), inhabits some of the rivers of Western Africa, and
+is characterised by having only a single pair of lower incisors.
+Mainly on this account, it has been proposed to regard this species
+as representing a distinct genus, under the name of <i>Chœropsis</i>; but
+since it agrees so essentially in other characters with the common
+form, and sometimes has two incisors on one side of the lower
+jaw, it appears preferable to include it in the type genus. The
+greater relative size of the brain-cavity as compared with the facial
+portion of the skull renders, indeed, the contour of the skull
+decidedly different from that of <i>H. amphibius</i>, but this is a feature
+generally found in young individuals of larger species, and also in
+the adults of allied smaller forms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_281"></a>[281]</span></p>
+
+<p>Both the existing species are now exclusively confined to Africa,
+but in the Pleistocene and Pliocene periods the genus was widely
+spread over the Old World. Thus in the Upper Pliocene of the
+Continent and the Pleistocene of England we meet with remains of
+a very large fossil Hippopotamus which cannot be specifically
+distinguished from <i>H. amphibius</i>. In the Pleistocene and Pliocene of
+India there are two species having three pairs of incisors in both
+jaws. Of these <i>H. palæindicus</i> has the second pair in the lower jaw
+very minute, and evidently just about to disappear; from which we
+learn that it is this pair which is missing in <i>H. amphibius</i>. In the
+still more generalised <i>H. sivalensis</i> the three incisors in the
+lower jaw are of equal size. Hexaprotodont species also occur
+in the Upper Tertiaries of Burma and Algeria. Small tetraprotodont
+species (<i>H. pentlandi</i> and <i>H. minutus</i>) have left their
+remains in enormous quantities in the caves and fissures of Sicily
+and Malta.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Suidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>An elongated mobile snout, with an expanded, truncated, nearly
+naked, flat, oval terminal surface in which the nostrils are placed.
+Feet narrow; four completely developed toes on each. Hoofs of
+the two middle toes with their contiguous surfaces flattened. The
+outer (second and fifth) digits of existing forms not reaching to
+the ground in the ordinary walking position. Teeth variable in
+number, owing to the suppression in some forms of an upper incisor
+and one or more premolars. Incisors rooted. Upper canines
+curving more or less outwards or upwards. Stomach simple,
+except for a more or less developed pouch near the cardiac orifice.
+A cæcum. Colon spirally coiled. Confined to the Old World.</p>
+
+<p>The mandible has no descending flange at the angle. The
+crowns of the molars do not wear into such distinct trefoils as in
+the Hippopotamus, and are oblong
+in shape. The last molar of both
+the upper and lower jaw (<a href="#figure102">Fig. 102</a>)
+has an additional hinder lobe or
+talon, varying in size in the different
+species. The upper premolars are
+simpler than the true molars.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure102" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure102.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 102.</span>—Grinding surface of a worn
+third right lower molar of the Wild Boar
+(<i>Sus scrofa</i>). After Owen.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Sus.</i><a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i>
+³⁄₃; total 44. Upper incisors diminishing
+rapidly in size from the first to the third. Lower incisors
+long, narrow, closely approximated, and almost horizontal in position,
+their apices inclining towards the middle line; the second slightly
+larger than the first, the third much smaller. Canines strongly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_282"></a>[282]</span>
+developed and with persistent roots and partial enamel-covering,
+those of the upper jaw not having the usual downward direction,
+but curving strongly outwards, upwards, and finally inwards, while
+those of the lower jaw are directed upwards and outwards with
+a gentle backward curve, their hinder edges working and wearing
+against the front edges of the upper canines<a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a>. They appear
+externally to the mouth as tusks, the form of the upper lip being
+modified to allow of their protrusion, but are much less developed
+in the females than in the males. The teeth of the molar series
+gradually increase in size and complexity from first to last, and
+are arranged in contiguous series, except that the first lower
+premolar is separated by an interval from the second. First and
+second upper premolars with compressed crowns and two roots.
+The third and fourth have an inner lobe developed on the crown,
+and an additional pair of roots. The first and second true molars
+have quadrate crowns, with four principal obtuse conical cusps,
+around which numerous accessory cusps are clustered. The length
+of the third molar is nearly equal (antero-posteriorly) to that of
+the first and second together, its crown having, in addition to the
+four principal cusps, a large posterior talon or heel, composed of
+numerous clustered conical cusps, and supported by several additional
+roots. The lower molar teeth resemble generally those of the upper
+jaw, but are narrower. Milk dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 28,—the
+first permanent premolar having no predecessor in this series.
+The third incisor, in both upper and lower jaws, is large, developed
+before the others, and has much the size, form, and direction of
+the canine. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13-14, L 6, S 4, C 20-24. The hairy
+covering of the body varies much under different conditions of
+climate, but when best developed, as in the European Wild Boar,
+consists of long stiff bristles, mostly abundant on the back and
+sides, and of a close softer curling undercoat.</p>
+
+<p>The skull of the Pigs (<a href="#figure103">Figs. 103-105</a>) has the axis of the face
+bent down upon the basicranial axis, as is also the case with the
+Sheep. Its most striking feature is the elevation and backward
+slope of the occipital crest formed by the union of the supraoccipital
+and parietals. The broad and flat frontals have small postorbital
+processes, which do not join the zygomata, so that the orbits are
+open behind. The nasals are very long and narrow; and the premaxillæ
+send up long nasal processes, stopping short of the frontals.
+A peculiar prenasal bone is developed at the anterior extremity <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_283"></a>[283]</span>of
+the mesethmoid, which serves to strengthen the cartilaginous snout.
+The palate is long and narrow, and extends behind the last molar
+tooth. In most species the occipital crest is more nearly vertical
+than in the skull represented in <a href="#figure104">Fig. 104</a>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp88" id="figure103" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure103.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 103.</span>—Left lateral view of the dentition of the Boar (<i>Sus scrofa</i>),
+the roots of the teeth being exposed by removing the external lamina
+of bone.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure104" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure104.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 104.</span>—Left lateral view of the skull of <i>Sus longirostris</i>. ⅕ natural size. (From Nehring.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp25" id="figure105" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure105.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 105.</span>—Frontal aspect of
+the cranium of <i>Sus longirostris</i>,
+⅕ natural size. (From Nehring.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This genus occurs at present under three principal modifications
+or subgenera.</p>
+
+<p><i>A.</i>—<i>Sus</i> proper comprises a number of animals
+found in a wild state throughout the greater part
+of Europe (except where exterminated
+by human agency), the north
+of Africa, southern continental
+Asia, and the
+great islands of
+the Malayan
+archipelago,
+Formosa, and
+Japan. The following
+among
+others have
+been admitted
+by many zoologists
+as distinct
+species:—<i>Sus
+scrofa</i>,
+the Wild Boar
+of Europe, Asia
+Minor, and North Africa, once common throughout the British
+Isles; <i>S. sennaarensis</i>, North-East Africa; <i>S. cristatus</i>, India; <i>S.
+vittatus</i>, Java, Borneo, Amboyna, Batchian; <i>S. papuensis</i>, New<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284"></a>[284]</span>
+Guinea; <i>S. timorensis</i>, Timor and Rotti; <i>S. andamanensis</i>, Andaman
+Islands; <i>S. taëvanus</i>, Formosa; <i>S. leucomystax</i>, Japan; <i>S.
+verrucosus</i>, Java, Borneo, Ceram; <i>S. barbatus</i>, Borneo; <i>S. celebensis</i>,
+Celebes, Philippines, and Moluccas; <i>S. longirostris</i>, Borneo and
+Java. The last four species form an allied group in which the
+facial portion of the skull may be greatly
+elongated; <i>S. barbatus</i>, and <i>S. celebensis</i>
+being characterised by the small size and
+simple structure of the talon of the third
+molars. The skull of <i>S. longirostris</i> is
+shown in <a href="#figure104">Figs. 104 and 105</a>. The small
+<i>S. andamanensis</i> also has very simple third
+molars. <i>S. vittatus</i>, <i>S. leucomystax</i>, <i>S. cristatus</i>,
+<i>S. taëvanus</i>, and <i>S. papuensis</i> form
+another group, in which the third molar
+is generally of very complex structure,
+more or less closely allied to the Wild
+Boar; and Dr. Nehring is inclined to
+think that the whole five might be included
+under a single specific name. This
+list will give some idea of the geographical
+distribution of wild Pigs, but it must be
+borne in mind that through the whole of
+this region, and in fact now throughout
+the greater part of the habitable world,
+Pigs are kept by man in a domesticated
+state, and it is still an open question
+whether some of the wild Pigs of the
+islands named above may not be local
+races derived originally from, or crossed
+with, imported domestic specimens. In
+New Zealand a wild or rather “feral”
+race is already established, the origin of
+which is of course quite recent, since it is
+well ascertained that no animal of the
+kind ever lived upon the island until
+after its settlement by Europeans.
+Whether the various breeds of domestic Pigs have been derived
+from one or several sources is still unknown. As in so many
+similar cases, there is no historic evidence upon the subject,
+and the researches of naturalists, as Nathusius, Rütimeyer,
+Rolleston, Nehring, and others, who have endeavoured to settle
+the question on anatomical evidence, have not led to any satisfactory
+conclusions. It is, however, tolerably certain that all
+the species or forms of wild Pigs enumerated above and all the
+domestic races are closely allied, and it is probable (though <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_285"></a>[285]</span>of
+this there has been no opportunity of proof) will breed freely
+together. It is a curious circumstance that the young of all
+the wild kinds of Pigs (so far as yet is known) present a
+uniform coloration, being dark brown with longitudinal stripes of
+a paler colour, a character which completely disappears after the
+first few months. On the other hand, this peculiar marking is
+rarely seen in domestic Pigs in any part of the world, although it
+has been occasionally observed. It is stated by Darwin that the
+Pigs which have run wild in Jamaica and the semiferal Pigs of New
+Granada have resumed this aboriginal character, and produce longitudinally
+striped young; these must of course be the descendants
+of domestic animals introduced from Europe since the Spanish
+conquest, as before that time there were no true Pigs in the New
+World. Another character by which the European domestic Pig
+differs from any of the wild species is the concave outline of the
+frontal region of the skull, a form still retained by the feral Pigs
+in New Zealand.</p>
+
+<p><i>B.</i>—The diminutive Pig of the Nipal, Terai, and Bhutan, <i>Sus
+salvanius</i>, has been separated from the rest by Hodgson under the
+generic name of <i>Porcula</i>, but all the alleged distinctive characters
+prove on more careful investigation to have little real value. Owing
+to its retired habits and power of concealment under bushes and
+long grass in the depths of the great Sal Forest, which is its
+principal home, very little has been known of this curious little<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_286"></a>[286]</span>
+animal, scarcely larger than a hare. The acquisition of living
+specimens in the London Zoological Gardens has, however, afforded
+opportunities for careful anatomical observation.<a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="figure106" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure106.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 106.</span>—Wild Boar and Young.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>C.</i>—Two well-marked species of African Swine have been with
+more reason separated under the name of <i>Potamochœrus</i>. The dentition
+differs from that of the true <i>Sus</i>, inasmuch as the anterior
+premolars have a tendency to disappear; sometimes in adult
+specimens the first upper premolar is retained, but it is usually
+absent, as well as the first and often the second lower premolars.
+The molar teeth are also less complex: the last especially having a
+much less developed talon. There are likewise characteristic cranial
+differences. The two species are very distinct in outward appearance
+and coloration. One is <i>S. africanus</i>, the South African River-Hog,
+or Bosch-Vark, of a gray colour, and the other <i>S. porcus</i>, the West
+African Red River-Hog (<a href="#figure107">Fig. 107</a>), remarkable for its vivid colouring
+and long pencilled ears. It should be noted that the young of both
+these species, as well as of the pigmy <i>S. salvanius</i>, present the striped
+character of the true <i>Sus</i>, a strong indication of close affinities,
+whereas in all the following forms this is absent.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure107" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure107.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 107.</span>—The Red River-Hog (<i>Sus porcus</i>). From Sclater, <i>Guide to Animals
+in Zoological Society’s Gardens</i>, 1883, p. 183.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The genus <i>Sus</i>, in the above extended sense, is well represented
+in the Tertiaries of the Old World from the period of the <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_287"></a>[287]</span>Lower
+Pliocene upwards. In the Pliocene and Pleistocene of India
+<i>S. falconeri</i> and <i>S. karnuliensis</i> are characterised by the extremely
+complex structure of the molars, in which they show decided signs
+of approximation to the Wart-Hogs; the same feature being
+exhibited by <i>S. phacochœroides</i> of the Algerian Pliocene. <i>S. titan</i>
+and <i>S. giganteus</i>, of the Indian Pliocene, together with <i>S. antiquus</i>
+and <i>S. erymanthius</i>, of the corresponding European deposits, are very
+large species characterised by their comparatively simple molars;
+<i>S. titan</i> being fully as large as a Tapir. <i>S. hysudricus</i> of the Pliocene
+of India, and <i>S. palæochœrus</i> of that of Europe, are smaller allied
+species not improbably related to <i>S. andamanensis</i>, with which they
+agree in molar structure. <i>S. arvernensis</i>, of the Upper Pliocene
+of France, appears to be allied to <i>S. africanus</i>; while in the
+diminutive <i>S. punjabiensis</i> of the Pliocene of North-Western India
+we probably have the direct ancestor of <i>S. salvanius</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure108" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure108.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 108.</span>—Head of Babirusa (<i>Babirusa alfurus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Babirusa.</i><a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34. The total
+number of teeth is therefore considerably reduced, the outer upper
+incisor and the two anterior premolars of both jaws being absent.
+The molars, especially the last, are smaller and simpler than in <i>Sus</i>;
+but the great peculiarity of this genus is the extraordinary development
+of the canines of the male. These teeth (<a href="#figure108">Fig. 108</a>) are
+ever-growing, long, slender, and curved, and entirely without enamel
+covering. Those of the upper jaw are directed upwards from their
+base, so that they never enter the mouth, but piercing the skin of
+the face, resemble horns rather than teeth, and curve backwards,
+downwards, and finally often forwards again, almost or quite
+touching the skin of the forehead. Vertebra: C 7, D 13, L 16,
+S 4. There is but one species (<i>B. alfurus</i>), found only<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_288"></a>[288]</span> in the
+islands of Celebes and Buru. Its external surface is almost
+entirely devoid of hair. With regard to the curiously modified
+dentition, Wallace (<i>Malay Archipelago</i>, vol. i. p. 435) makes the
+following observations:—“It is difficult to understand what can
+be the use of these horn-like teeth. Some of the old writers
+supposed that they served as hooks by which the creature could
+rest its head on a branch. But the way in which they usually
+diverge just over and in front of the eye has suggested the more
+probable idea, that they serve to guard these organs from thorns
+and spines while hunting for fallen fruits among the tangled thickets
+of rattans and other spiny plants. Even this, however, is not
+satisfactory, for the female, who must seek her food in the same
+way, does not possess them. I should be inclined to believe
+rather that these tusks were once useful, and were then worn
+down as fast as they grew, but that changed conditions of life have
+rendered them unnecessary, and they now develop into a monstrous
+form, just as the incisors of the Beaver and Rabbit will go on
+growing if the opposite teeth do not wear them away. In old
+animals they reach an enormous size, and are generally broken off
+as if by fighting.”</p>
+
+<p><i>Phacochœrus.</i><a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a>—The Wart-Hogs, so called from the large
+cutaneous lobes projecting from each side of the face, have
+the teeth still more remarkably modified than in <i>Babirusa</i>.
+The milk-dentition, and even the early condition of the permanent
+dentition, is formed on the same general type as that
+of <i>Sus</i>, except that certain of the typical teeth are absent, the
+formula being <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, total 34; but as age advances all
+the teeth have a tendency to disappear, except the canines and the
+posterior molars, which in some cases are the only teeth left in
+the jaws, and attain an extraordinary development. The upper
+canines especially are of great size, and curve outwards, forwards,
+and upwards. Their enamel covering is confined to the apex, and
+soon wears away. The lower canines are much more slender, but
+follow the same curve: except on the posterior surface, their crowns
+are covered with enamel. Unlike those of the Babirusa, the canines
+of the Wart-Hog are large in both sexes. The third molar tooth of
+both jaws is of great size, and presents a structure at first sight
+unlike that of any other mammal, being composed of numerous
+(22-25) parallel cylinders or columns, each with pulp-cavity, dentine,
+and enamel covering, and packed together with cement. Careful
+examination will, however, show that a similar modification to that
+which has transformed the comparatively simple molar tooth of
+the Mastodon into the extremely complex grinder of the Indian
+Elephant has served to change the tooth of the common Pig into
+that of <i>Phacochœrus</i>, and, as already mentioned, some of the fossil<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_289"></a>[289]</span>
+Indian and African species of <i>Sus</i> indicate the mode in which this
+transition came about. The tubercles which cluster over the surface
+of the crown of the molars of the common Pig are elongated and
+drawn out into columns in the Wart-Hog, as the low transverse
+ridges of the Mastodon’s tooth become the leaf-like plates of the
+Elephant’s.</p>
+
+<p>Two species of this genus are commonly but rather doubtfully
+distinguished:—<i>P. africanus</i>, Ælian’s Wart-Hog, widely distributed
+over the continent; and <i>P. æthiopicus</i>, Pallas’s Wart-Hog, confined
+to South-Eastern Africa. In specimens attributed to the latter
+species the dentition reaches its most complete reduction, as in
+adult animals the upper incisors are absent and the lower ones worn
+down to the roots.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dicotylidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Snout as in <i>Suidæ</i>. Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 38.
+Incisors rooted; upper canines directed downwards, with sharp
+cutting hinder edges. Toes, four on the fore feet and three on the
+hind feet (the fifth wanting). Stomach complex. A cæcum.
+Confined to the New World.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dicotyles.</i><a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a>—The teeth of the Peccaries (<i>Dicotyles</i>) differ from those
+of the true Pigs (<i>Sus</i>) numerically in wanting the upper outer
+incisor and the anterior premolar on either side of each jaw, and also
+in the circumstance that the last premolar is nearly as complex as
+the molars. The upper canines have their points directed downwards,
+not outwards or upwards as in the Boars, and are very
+sharp, with cutting hinder edges, and completely covered with
+enamel until worn. The lower canines are large, directed upwards
+and outwards, and slightly curved backwards. The premolar
+and molar teeth form a continuous series, gradually increasing
+in size from the first to the last. The true molars have square
+quadricuspidate crowns. The stomach is much more complex than
+in the true Pigs, almost approaching that of the ruminants. In the
+feet the two middle (third and fourth) metapodial bones, which are
+completely separate in the Pigs, are united at their upper ends, as
+in the ruminants. On the fore foot the two (second and fifth) outer
+toes are equally developed as in Pigs, but on the hind foot, although
+the inner (or second) is present, the outer (or fifth) toe is entirely
+wanting, giving an unsymmetrical appearance of the member, very
+unusual in Artiodactyles. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 5, S 4, C 7.
+As in the Pigs, the snout is truncated, and the nostrils are situated
+in its flat, expanded, disc-like termination. The ears are rather
+small, ovate, and erect; and there is no external appearance of a
+tail. The surface of the body is well covered with thick bristly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_290"></a>[290]</span>
+hair, and rather behind the middle of the back is a large and
+peculiar gland, which secretes an oleaginous substance with a powerful
+musky odour. This was mistaken by the old travellers for a
+second navel, a popular error which suggested to Cuvier the name
+of <i>Dicotyles</i>. When the animal is killed for food, it is necessary
+speedily to remove this gland, otherwise it will taint the whole
+flesh so as to render it uneatable.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure109" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure109.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 109.</span>—The Collared Peccary (<i>Dicotyles tajacu</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>There are two species,<a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> so nearly allied that they will breed
+together freely in captivity. Unlike the true Pigs, they never
+appear to produce more than two young ones at a birth. The
+Collared Peccary (<i>D. tajacu</i>, Linn., <i>torquatus</i>, Cuvier), <a href="#figure109">Fig. 109</a>, ranges
+from the Red River of Arkansas through the forest districts of
+Central and South America as far as the Rio Negro of Patagonia.
+Generally it is found singly or in pairs, or at most in small herds of
+from eight to ten, and is a comparatively harmless creature, not being
+inclined to attack other animals or human beings. Its colour is dark
+gray, with a white or whitish band passing across the chest from
+shoulder to shoulder. The length of the head and body is about
+36 inches. The White-lipped Peccary or Warree (<i>D. labiatus</i>, Cuvier)
+is rather larger, being about 40 inches in length, of a blackish
+colour, with the lips and lower jaw white. Its range is less extensive,
+since it is not found farther north than British Honduras
+or south of Paraguay. It is generally met with in large herds of
+from fifty to a hundred or more individuals, and is of a more<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_291"></a>[291]</span>
+pugnacious disposition than the former species, and capable of
+inflicting severe wounds with its sharp tusks. A hunter who encounters
+a herd of them in a forest has often to climb a tree as
+his only chance of safety. Both species are omnivorous, living on
+roots, fallen fruits, worms, and carrion; and when they approach
+the neighbourhood of villages and cultivated lands they often
+inflict great devastation upon the crops of the inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of the two existing species of Peccary, as well as of one
+much larger extinct form, are found in the cavern-deposits of Brazil;
+while large Peccaries also occur in the Pleistocene of the United
+States, which, although they have been referred to a distinct genus,
+<i>Platygonus</i>, on account of their relatively smaller incisors and somewhat
+simpler premolars, may well be included in <i>Dicotyles</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure110" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure110.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 110.</span>—The three left upper molars of <i>Hyotherium
+perimense</i>, from the Pliocene of India.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Allied Extinct Genera.</i>—In the Tertiary deposits of both
+the Old and New World occur remains of Pig-like animals
+which, so far as we can judge, appear to connect the Peccaries
+so closely with the true Pigs as to render the <i>Dicotylidæ</i>
+really inseparable from the <i>Suidæ</i>. Of these the American
+genus <i>Chænohyus</i> has the lower canine with a triangular cross
+section and received into a notch in the upper jaw, as in the Peccaries,
+but the fourth upper premolar is simpler than the molars, as
+in the under-mentioned genus <i>Hyotherium</i>. The typical forms have
+only three premolars, but in others, which it has been proposed to
+separate generically as <i>Bothriolabis</i>, there are four of these teeth.
+<i>Hyotherium</i>, of the Pliocene
+and Miocene of the Old
+World, is a generalised
+form allied both to <i>Sus</i> and
+<i>Dicotyles</i> as well as to certain
+extinct genera. The upper
+molars (<a href="#figure110">Fig. 110</a>) are characterised
+by their square
+crowns, the last having no
+distinct third lobe, and coming
+into use before the first is much worn, while the last premolar is
+simpler than the true molars. The canines, which have an oval section
+and are scarcely larger than the incisors, are not received into a
+notch in the upper jaw. In the Pliocene of India there occurs an
+apparently allied genus known as <i>Hippohyus</i>, in which the crowns
+of the molars are much taller, and have lateral infoldings of the
+enamel, producing a very complex pattern on the worn crowns.
+The European Miocene genus <i>Listriodon</i>, with the dental formula
+<i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, differs from all the preceding in having the
+anterior and posterior pairs of tubercles of the molars united into
+ridges running across their crowns, so that these teeth resemble the
+lower molars of the Tapir. The genus is also found in the Lower
+Pliocene of India.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_292"></a>[292]</span></p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Extinct Transitional Artiodactyles.</span></h5>
+
+<p>In this place it will be convenient to notice briefly a few of
+the extinct types of Tertiary Artiodactyles which connect the
+existing bunodont Suina with the more specialised selenodont
+groups mentioned below so closely as to show that in a strictly
+palæontological classification such groups cannot be maintained.
+It should be mentioned that while some of these extinct forms
+were in all probability actual ancestral links between the bunodonts
+and selenodonts, others, like the Anoplotheres, died out
+entirely without giving rise to any more specialised descendants.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp66" id="figure111" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure111.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 111.</span>—The imperfect third left
+upper molar of <i>Hyopotamus giganteus</i>,
+Miocene, India. (From the <i>Palæontologia
+Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Chœropotamidæ.</i>—In this family the molars are intermediate in
+structure between those of the <i>Suidæ</i> and the next family. The
+upper ones have very broad crowns, with the five columns arranged
+as in <i>Anthracotherium</i>; while the premolars are not secant, and may
+be very large. The best known forms are the small <i>Cebochœrus</i> of
+the Phosphorites of Central France; <i>Chœropotamus</i> of the Upper
+Eocene, the type species of which was of the size of a large Pig,
+with the dental formula <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, and no distinctly
+selenodont structure in the molars; the much larger <i>Elotherium</i>,
+from the Upper Eocene and Lower Miocene of both the Old and New
+Worlds, which presents the very rare feature of the absence of a third
+lobe to the last lower molar; and the equally large <i>Tetraconodon</i> of
+the Pliocene of India, in which this third lobe was present and the
+premolars were of enormous size. The remarkable North American
+Eocene genus <i>Achænodon</i> should perhaps also be placed here.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp68" id="figure112" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure112.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 112.</span>—A right
+upper molar of <i>Merycopotamus
+pusillus</i>,
+Pliocene, India.
+(From the <i>Palæontologia
+Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Anthracotheriidæ.</i>—The genera <i>Anthracotherium</i> and <i>Hyopotamus</i>,
+of the upper Eocene and Miocene,
+have the typical Eutherian dental formula;
+the upper molars (<a href="#figure111">Fig. 111</a>)
+carrying three columns on the anterior
+and two on the posterior half of the
+crown, all of which are of a more or
+less decidedly selenodont structure.
+The mandible has a descending flange
+at the angle. The figured tooth (in
+which the antero-internal and antero-median
+columns are imperfect) may be
+compared with the diagram given in
+<a href="#figure005">Fig. 5</a>, <a href="#figure005">p. 32</a>, when the homology of
+the columns or tubercles will be at
+once apparent, the broken antero-median
+column representing the protoconule.
+Some of the species are of
+large size, while others are comparatively small.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_293"></a>[293]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Merycopotamus.</i>—The genus <i>Merycopotamus</i> of the lower Pliocene
+of India may be regarded as an Anthracotheroid which has lost
+the antero-median column to the upper molars
+(<a href="#figure112">Fig. 112</a>), so that these teeth are consequently
+quadrituberculate; and may thus be regarded as
+typical examples of the brachy-selenodont modification
+of molar structure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cotylopidæ.</i>—The Miocene genus <i>Cotylops</i> (<i>Oreodon</i><a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a>)
+is the type of a large American family in
+which the upper molars are selenodont and usually
+have four columns, while the lower canine is approximated
+to the incisors and its form and function
+assumed by the first premolar. The last upper
+premolar is simpler than the molars. There is no
+flange to the angle of the mandible; and the feet have four digits.
+The affinities of this peculiar family are probably widely spread,
+but they may have been derived from the <i>Anthracotheriidæ</i>. The
+type genus has the full Eutherian dentition, but in some of the
+more specialised forms (<i>Cyclopidius</i>) the upper incisors may be
+wanting, and large vacuities occur in the lachrymal region. The
+generalised genus <i>Protoreodon</i>, of the Upper or Uinta Eocene, has
+five cusps on the upper molars, arranged as in the <i>Anthracotheriidæ</i>.
+The pollex is retained in the manus of the type genus.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure113" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure113.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 113.</span>—Restoration of <i>Anoplotherium commune</i>
+(Upper Eocene). Cuvier.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The family may be divided into subfamilies as follows:—</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>I. Upper molars with four columns.
+    <ul>
+      <li>1. Orbits open, no lachrymal fossa, a diastema, the
+      last upper premolar with two outer columns, outer wall of upper
+      molars concave and inclined inwards.—<i>Agriochœrinæ</i>
+      (<i>Agriochœrus</i>).</li>
+      <li>2. Orbits closed, a lachrymal fossa, no diastema, the
+      last upper premolar with one outer column; outer wall of upper
+      molars flattened.—<i>Cotylopinæ</i> (<i>Cotylops</i>,
+      <i>Eporeodon</i>, <i>Merycochœrus</i>, <i>Cyclopidius</i>, etc.)</li>
+    </ul>
+  </li>
+  <li>II. Upper molars with five columns.—<i>Protoreontinæ</i> (<i>Protoreodon</i>).
+  </li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><i>Anoplotheriidæ.</i>—This
+family includes
+several
+Upper Eocene
+European genera,
+with selenodont
+upper molars,
+carrying five
+columns arranged
+as those<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294"></a>[294]</span> in <i>Anthracotherium</i>.
+One of
+the earliest known, <i>Anoplotherium</i>, was fully described by Cuvier
+from remains found in the Paris gypsum-beds (Upper Eocene).
+Its forty-four teeth formed a series unbroken by a gap or diastema,
+and were of uniform height (as in Man alone of existing mammals).
+Its tail was long, with large chevron bones underneath,
+not usually found in Ungulates, and there were either three or
+two toes on each foot. It was in many respects a much-specialised
+form, apparently not on the line of descent of any of
+the existing groups.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dacrytherium</i> is an allied genus whose dentition leads on to that
+of the smaller <i>Xiphodon</i>. The latter genus is characterised by the
+compressed and elongated form of the crowns of the first three
+premolars, which thus approximate to those of the Chevrotains.
+There were only two functional digits to the feet. The so-called
+<i>Hyopotamus picteti</i>, of the Swiss Eocene, is a species of <i>Dacrytherium</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cænotheriidæ.</i>—The typical representatives of this family are
+small animals not larger than the Chevrotains, with the full complement
+of teeth, generally no marked gap in the series, and the
+crowns of the upper molars carrying two columns on the anterior
+and three on the posterior half of the crown—precisely the reverse
+of the arrangement obtaining in the <i>Anthracotheriidæ</i>. The known
+forms are from the Upper Eocene and Lower Miocene of Europe.
+In <i>Cænotherium</i> the molars are selenodont, while they are bunodont
+in <i>Dichobunus</i>. <i>Homacodon</i>, of the Bridger Eocene of the United
+States, is closely allied to the latter. The first lower premolar
+of <i>Dichobunus</i> assumes the form and function of a canine. <i>Spaniotherium</i>
+(<i>Metriotherium</i>) is a much larger form, in which the molars
+are not unlike those of <i>Anthracotherium</i>, if the arrangement of the
+cusps were reversed; it occurs in the Eocene Phosphorites of
+France. It is suggested that the <i>Tylopoda</i> may have originated
+from this group.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tapirulus</i> is a small Eocene Artiodactyle with the columns of
+the upper molars, which are somewhat like those of <i>Hyopotamus</i>,
+tending to form transverse ridges; its family position is uncertain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dichodontidæ.</i>—The European genera included in this family all
+have quadritubercular selenodont molars, and show signs of approximating
+more or less closely to existing types. <i>Dichodon</i>, from the
+Upper Eocene and Lower Miocene, has the full complement of teeth,
+which show no diastema, and have low crowns. The fourth upper
+premolar has four columns, like the true molars, and the corresponding
+lower tooth three complete lobes; these features being
+unknown in any other Selenodonts. In <i>Lophiomeryx</i>, of the same
+beds, the somewhat higher crowns of the molars approximate to
+those of the <i>Cervidæ</i>, but the hinder lobes of the upper ones are
+imperfectly developed; the genus may be allied, to the <i>Tragulidæ</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_295"></a>[295]</span>
+In the small <i>Gelocus</i>, of the Lower Miocene, the molars are not
+unlike those of <i>Dichodon</i>; but the navicular and cuboid bones of
+the tarsus were fused together, and the metatarsals had united to
+form a “cannon-bone,” although the metacarpals still remained
+distinct. It is not improbable that upper incisors were wanting;
+and it has been suggested that we have in this genus the ancestral
+type of the <i>Tragulidæ</i> and <i>Cervidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Tylopoda.</span></h5>
+
+<h6><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Camelidæ</span>.</h6>
+
+<p>This group is represented at the present day by the two species
+of Camels of the Old World and the Llamas of South America,
+collectively constituting the family <i>Camelidæ</i>. The special characters
+which the Llamas and Camels have in common, and the combination
+of which distinguishes them from the rest of the Artiodactyles,
+are as follows. The premaxillæ have the full number of incisor
+teeth in the young state, and the outermost is persistent through
+life as an isolated laniariform tooth. The canines are present in
+both jaws, and those of the mandible are differentiated from the
+long, procumbent, and spatulate incisors, being suberect and pointed.
+The crowns of the true molars belong to the crescentic or selenodont
+type, and are very hypsodont; but one or more of the
+anterior premolars is usually detached from the series, and is
+of simple pointed form. The auditory bulla is filled with cancellous
+tissue. The hinder part of the body is much contracted, and the
+femur long and vertically placed, so that the knee-joint is lower
+in position, and the thigh altogether more detached from the
+abdomen than in most quadrupedal mammals. The limbs are
+long, but with only the third and fourth digits developed; no
+traces of any of the others being present. The trapezoid and magnum
+of the carpus, and the cuboid and navicular of the tarsus are
+distinct. The two metapodial bones of each limb are confluent for
+the greater part of their length, though separated for a considerable
+distance at the lower end. Their distal articular surfaces, instead
+of being pulley-like, with deep ridges and grooves, as in other recent
+Artiodactyles, are simple, rounded, and smooth. The proximal
+phalanges are expanded at their distal ends, and the wide, depressed
+middle phalanges are embedded in a broad cutaneous pad, forming
+the sole of the foot, on which the animal rests in walking, instead
+of on the hoofs. The ungual phalanges are very small and nodular,
+not flattened on their inner or opposed surfaces, and not completely
+encased in hoofs, but bearing nails on their upper surface only.
+The cervical region is long and flexuous, and the vertebræ of which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_296"></a>[296]</span>
+it is composed are remarkable for the position of the canal for
+the transmission of the vertebral artery, which does not perforate
+the transverse process, but passes obliquely through the anterior
+part of the pedicle of the arch (a condition only found in two other
+genera of mammals, <i>Macrauchenia</i> and <i>Myrmecophaga</i>). There are
+no horns or antlers. Though these animals ruminate, the stomach
+differs considerably in the details of its construction from that of
+the Pecora. The interior of the rumen or paunch has no villi on
+its surface, and there is no distinct psalterium or manyplies. Both
+the first and second compartments are remarkable for the presence
+of a number of pouches or cells in their walls, with muscular septa,
+and a sphincter-like arrangement of their orifices, by which they can
+be shut off from the rest of the cavity, and into which the fluid
+portion only of the contents of the stomach is allowed to enter.<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a>
+The placenta is diffuse, as in the Suina and Tragulina, not cotyledonary,
+as in the Pecora. Finally, the <i>Camelidæ</i> differ not only
+from other Ungulates, but from all other mammals, in the fact
+that the red corpuscles of the blood, instead of being circular in
+outline, are oval, as in the inferior vertebrated classes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Camelus.</i><a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a>—Dentition of adult: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34. First
+upper premolar simple, placed immediately behind the premaxillæ,
+and separated by a long diastema from the penultimate tooth of
+that series. Lower incisors somewhat proclivous, the outermost the
+largest. Skull elongated, with an overhanging occiput, orbits completely
+surrounded by bone, and the premaxillæ not articulating
+with the arched and somewhat elongated nasals. Vertebræ: C 7,
+D 12, L 7, S 4, C 13-15. Ears comparatively short and rounded.
+One or two dorsal adipose humps. Feet broad, with the toes very
+imperfectly separated. Tail well developed, tufted at the end.
+Hair nearly straight, and not woolly. Size very large and bulky.</p>
+
+<p>The genus is now represented by two species, viz. the single-humped
+Arabian Camel (<i>Camelus dromedarius</i>), and the double-humped<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_297"></a>[297]</span>
+Bactrian Camel (<i>C. bactrianus</i>, <a href="#figure114">Fig. 114</a>).<a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a> The former
+is quite unknown in a wild state, but it is reported that wild
+Bactrian Camels occur in the more remote parts of Turkestan. The
+latter species is found in a domesticated state throughout a large
+portion of Turkestan and the neighbouring region, extending as far
+as the Crimea in the west and to Lake Baikal and Pekin in the
+east. It is a heavier and more clumsy animal than the Arabian
+Camel, with thicker hair, shorter legs, and the feet more callous
+and better adapted to a hard ground. The hair is most developed
+upon the top of the head, neck, humps, arm, and wrist. Bactrian
+Camels are occasionally brought over the stupendous mountain
+passes south of Yarkand to within a few days’ journey of Leh, in
+Kashmir territory.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure114" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure114.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 114.</span>—The Bactrian Camel (<i>Camelus bactrianus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Arabian Camel is commonly employed as a beast of burden
+in Africa and India, and has of late years been introduced into
+Australia for the same purpose; it is especially valuable in crossing
+long stretches of arid desert from its power of existing for a considerable
+period of time without water. The female goes fully
+eleven months with young, and produces but a single calf at a
+birth, which is suckled for a whole year. In disposition the Camel
+is surly and subject to furious outbursts of temper, especially during
+the rutting season. At such periods the male utters a peculiar and
+highly disagreeable bubbling noise in its throat, well known to all
+who have travelled in India with Camels as their transport.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_298"></a>[298]</span> It has
+been said that the Camel is docile, but Palgrave observes:—</p>
+
+<p>“If docile means stupid, well and good; in such a case the Camel is
+the very model of docility. But if the epithet is intended to designate
+an animal that takes an interest in its rider so far as a beast can, that
+in some way understands his intentions, or shares them in a subordinate
+fashion, that obeys from a sort of submissive or half-fellow-feeling
+with his master, like the horse or elephant, then I say that
+the camel is by no means docile—very much the contrary. He
+takes no heed of his rider, pays no attention whether he be on his
+back or not, walks straight on when once set agoing, merely
+because he is too stupid to turn aside, and then should some
+tempting thorn or green branch allure him out of the path, continues
+to walk on in the new direction simply because he is too dull to turn
+back into the right road. In a word, he is from first to last an
+undomesticated and savage animal, rendered serviceable by stupidity
+alone, without much skill on his master’s part, or any co-operation
+on his own save that of an extreme passiveness. Neither attachment
+nor even habit impress him; never tame, though not wide-awake
+enough to be exactly wild.” The two species breed together
+freely, and among the Yourouks of Asia Minor, hybrids, or mules,
+the produce generally of a male Bactrian and a female Arabian
+camel are preferred to either of the pure breeds.</p>
+
+<p>Fossil remains of Camels are found in the Pliocene of the
+Siwalik Hills in Northern India. These differ from the existing
+representatives of the genus in having a vertical ridge at the
+antero-external angle of the lower molars, whereby they resemble
+<i>Auchenia</i>; their cervical vertebræ are also intermediate in structure
+between those of the latter and the existing Camels. A fossil
+Camel is also found in the Pleistocene of Algeria.</p>
+
+<p><i>Auchenia.</i><a id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a>—Dentition of adults normally: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃;
+total 32—one of the lower premolars may, however, be wanting. In
+the upper jaw there is a compressed, sharp, pointed laniariform incisor
+near the hinder edge of the premaxilla, followed, in the male at least,
+by a moderate-sized, pointed, curved true canine in the anterior part
+of the maxilla. The isolated canine-like premolar which follows in
+the Camels is not present. The teeth of the molar series, which are
+in contact with each other, consist of two very small premolars (the
+first almost rudimentary) and three broad molars, constructed generally
+like those of <i>Camelus</i>. In the lower jaw the three incisors are
+long, spatulate, and procumbent; the outer ones being the smallest.
+Next to these is a curved, suberect canine, followed after an interval
+by an isolated, minute, and often deciduous simple conical premolar;
+then a contiguous series of one premolar and three molars, which
+differ from those of existing species of <i>Camelus</i> in having a small
+accessory column at the anterior outer edge. The skull generally<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_299"></a>[299]</span>
+resembles that of <i>Camelus</i>, the relatively larger brain-cavity and
+orbits and less developed cranial ridges being due to its smaller
+size. The nasal bones are shorter and broader, and are joined
+by the premaxillæ. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 7, S 4, C 15-20.
+Ears rather long and pointed. No dorsal hump. Feet narrow,
+the toes being more separated than in the camels, each having
+a distinct plantar pad. Tail short. Hairy covering long and
+woolly. Size (in existing forms) smaller, and general form lighter
+than in the Camels. At present and within historic times the
+genus is entirely confined to the western side and southernmost
+parts of South America, but fossil remains have been found in
+the caves of Brazil, in the pampas of the Argentine republic, and
+in Central and North America.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="figure115" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure115.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 115.</span>—Llama (<i>Auchenia glama</i>), from an animal living in the Gardens
+of the Zoological Society of London.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The word Llama, sometimes spelt Lama, is the name by which
+the Peruvians designated one of a small group of closely allied
+animals, which, before the Spanish conquest of America, were the
+only domesticated hoofed mammals of the country, being kept, not
+only for their value as beasts of burden, but also for their flesh,
+hides, and wool,—in fact, supplying in the domestic economy of
+the people the place of the horse, the ox, the goat, and the <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_300"></a>[300]</span>sheep
+of the Old World. The word is now sometimes restricted to one
+particular species or variety of the group, and sometimes used in a
+generic sense to cover the whole. Although they were often compared
+by early writers to sheep, and spoken of as such, their affinity
+to the camel was very soon perceived, and they were included in
+the genus <i>Camelus</i> in the <i>Systema Naturæ</i> of Linnæus. They were,
+however, separated by Cuvier in 1800 under the name of <i>Lama</i>,
+changed by Illiger in 1811 to <i>Auchenia</i> (in allusion to the great
+length of neck, αὐχήν), a term afterwards adopted by Cuvier, and
+almost universally accepted by systematic zoologists, although there
+has been of late a disposition to revive the earlier name.</p>
+
+<p>In essential structural characters, as well as in general appearance
+and habits, all the animals of this genus very closely resemble
+each other, so that the question as to whether they should be
+considered as belonging to one, two, or more species has been one
+which has led to a large amount of controversy among naturalists.
+The question has been much complicated by the circumstances of
+the great majority of individuals which have come under observation
+being either in a completely or partially domesticated state,
+and descended from ancestors which from time immemorial have
+been in like condition, one which always tends to produce a certain
+amount of variation from the original type. It has, however, lost
+much of its importance since the doctrine of the distinct origin of
+species has been generally abandoned.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp75" id="figure116" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure116.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 116.</span>—Head of Vicugna, from an animal living
+in the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The four forms commonly distinguished by the inhabitants of
+South America are recognised
+by some naturalists
+as distinct species, and have
+had specific designations
+attached to them, though
+usually with expressions of
+doubt, and with great difficulties
+in defining their distinctive
+characteristics.
+These are (1) the Llama,
+<i>Auchenia glama</i> (Linn.), or
+<i>Lama peruana</i> (Tiedemann);
+(2) the Alpaca, <i>A. pacos</i>
+(Linn.); (3) the Guanaco or
+Huanaco, <i>A. huanacus</i> (Molina);
+and (4) the Vicugna,
+<i>A. vicugna</i> (Molina), or <i>A.
+vicunna</i>, (Cuv.) The first
+and second are only known in the domestic state, and are variable
+in size and colour, being often white, black, or piebald. The third
+and fourth are wild, and of a nearly uniform light-brown colour,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_301"></a>[301]</span>
+passing into white below. They certainly differ from each other,
+the Vicugna being smaller, more slender in its proportions, and
+having a shorter head (<a href="#figure116">Fig. 116</a>) than the Guanaco (<a href="#figure117">Fig. 117</a>).
+It may therefore, according
+to the usual view of species,
+be considered distinct. It
+lives in herds on the bleak
+and elevated parts of the
+mountain range bordering
+the region of perpetual
+snow, amidst rocks and
+precipices, occurring in
+various suitable localities
+throughout Peru, in the
+southern part of Ecuador,
+and as far south as the
+middle of Bolivia. Its
+manners very much resemble
+those of the Chamois
+of the European Alps; and
+it is as vigilant, wild, and
+timid. The wool is extremely
+delicate and soft, and highly valued for the purposes of
+weaving, but the quantity which each animal produces is not great.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp75" id="figure117" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure117.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 117.</span>—Head of Guanaco, from an animal living
+in the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Guanaco has an extensive geographical range, from the
+highlands of the Andean region of Ecuador and Peru to the open
+plains of Patagonia, and even the wooded islands of Tierra del
+Fuego. It constitutes the principal food of the Patagonian Indians,
+and its skin is invaluable to them, as furnishing the material out
+of which their long robes are constructed. It is about the size of
+a European Red Deer, and is an elegant animal, being possessed
+of a long, slender, gracefully curved neck and fine legs. Dr.
+Cunningham,<a id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> speaking from observation on wild animals, says:—</p>
+
+<p>“It is not easy to describe its general appearance, which combines
+some of the characters of a camel, a deer, and a goat. The body,
+deep at the breast but very small at the loins, is covered with long,
+soft, very fine hair, which on the upper parts is of a kind of fawn-colour,
+and beneath varies from a very pale yellow to the most
+beautiful snow-white. The head is provided with large ears, in
+general carried well back, and is covered with short grayish hair,
+which is darkest on the forehead. Occasionally the face is nearly
+black. As a rule it lives in flocks of from half a dozen to several
+hundreds, but solitary individuals are now and then to be met with.
+They are very difficult to approach sufficiently near to admit of an
+easy shot, as they are extremely wary, but, on being disturbed,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_302"></a>[302]</span>
+canter off at a pace which soon puts a safe distance between them
+and the sportsman, even though he should be mounted. Despite
+their timidity, however, they are possessed of great curiosity, and
+will sometimes advance within a comparatively short distance of an
+unknown object, at which they will gaze fixedly till they take
+alarm, when they effect a speedy retreat. Their cry is very peculiar,
+being something between the belling of a deer and the neigh of a
+horse. It would be difficult to overestimate their numbers upon
+the Patagonian plains; for in whatever direction we walked we
+always came upon numbers of portions of their skeletons and
+detached bones.”</p>
+
+<p>Darwin, who has given an interesting account of the habits of
+the Guanaco in his <i>Naturalist’s Voyage</i>, says that they readily take
+to the water, and were seen several times at Port Valdes swimming
+from island to island.</p>
+
+<p>The Llama is only known as a domestic animal, and is chiefly
+met with in the southern part of Peru. Burmeister, a very competent
+writer on the subject, says that he is perfectly satisfied that
+it is the descendant of the wild Guanaco, an opinion opposed to
+that of Tschudi. It generally attains a larger size than the
+Guanaco, and is usually white or spotted with brown or black,
+and sometimes altogether black. The earliest and often-quoted
+account of this animal by Agustin de Zarate, treasurer-general of
+Peru in 1544, will bear repeating as an excellent summary of the
+general character and uses to which it was put by the Peruvians at
+the time of the Spanish conquest. He speaks of the Llama as a
+sheep, observing, however, that it is camel-like in shape though
+destitute of a hump:—</p>
+
+<p>“In places where there is no snow the natives want water, and
+to supply this they fill the skins of sheep with water and make
+other living sheep carry them; for, it must be remarked, these
+sheep of Peru are large enough to serve as beasts of burden. They
+can carry about one hundred pounds or more, and the Spaniards
+used to ride them, and they would go four or five leagues a day.
+When they are weary they lie down upon the ground; and as there
+are no means of making them get up, either by beating or assisting
+them, the load must of necessity be taken off. When there is a
+man on one of them, if the beast is tired and urged to go on, he
+turns his head round and discharges his saliva, which has an unpleasant
+odour, into the rider’s face. These animals are of great
+use and profit to their masters, for their wool is very good and fine,
+particularly that of the species called Pacas, which have very long
+fleeces; and the expense of their food is trifling, as a handful of
+maize suffices them, and they can go four or five days without
+water. Their flesh is as good as that of the fat sheep of Castile.
+There are now public shambles for the sale of their flesh in all parts<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_303"></a>[303]</span>
+of Peru, which was not the case when the Spaniards came first; for
+when one Indian had killed a sheep his neighbours came and took
+what they wanted, and then another Indian killed a sheep in his
+turn.”</p>
+
+<p>The disagreeable habit here noticed of spitting in the face of
+persons whose presence is obnoxious is common to all the group, as
+may be daily witnessed in specimens in confinement in the
+menageries of Europe. One of the principal labours to which the
+Llamas were subjected at the time of the Spanish conquest was that
+of bringing down ore from the mines in the mountains.
+Gregory de Bolivar estimated that in his day as many as three
+hundred thousand were employed in the transport of the produce
+of the mines of Potosi alone; but since the introduction of horses,
+mules, and donkeys the importance of the Llama as a beast of
+burden has greatly diminished.</p>
+
+<p>The Alpaca, though believed by many naturalists to be a variety
+of the Vicugna, is more probably, like the Llama, derived from the
+Guanaco, having the naked callosities on the hind limbs, and the
+relatively large skull of the latter. It is usually found in a
+domesticated or semi-domesticated state, being kept in large flocks
+which graze on the level heights of the Andes of southern Peru
+and northern Bolivia at an elevation of from 14,000 to 16,000 feet
+above the sea-level, throughout the year. It is smaller than the
+Llama, and, unlike that animal, is not used as a beast of burden,
+but is valued only for its wool, of which the Indian blankets and
+ponchas are made. Its colour is usually dark brown or black.</p>
+
+<p>Mention has already been made of the occurrence of fossil
+Llamas in America, but some diversity of view obtains as to the
+generic position of some of these forms, owing to variations in their
+dental formula. Remains apparently referable to the existing
+species occur in the cavern-deposits of Brazil. In the Pleistocene
+of Mexico we meet with <i>A. (Palauchenia) magna</i>, which attained
+the size of a Camel, and had always two, and occasionally three,
+lower premolars; while in one South American Pleistocene species,
+which has been generically separated as <i>Hemiauchenia</i>, there were
+invariably three premolars in each jaw. In <i>A. (Holomeniscus)
+hesterna</i>, from the Pleistocene of North America, which was equal
+in size to <i>A. magna</i>, the premolars were reduced to one in each
+jaw; and the same condition obtains in <i>A. (Eschatius) vitakeriana</i>,
+where, however, the upper one is of simpler structure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Cameloids.</i>—Until within the last few years the existence
+of two genera having so very much in common as the Camels and
+the Llamas, and yet so completely isolated geographically, had not
+received any satisfactory explanation; for the old idea that they in
+some way “represented” each other in the two hemispheres of the
+world was a mere fancy without philosophical basis. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_304"></a>[304]</span> discoveries
+made mostly within the past twenty years of a vast and
+previously unsuspected extinct fauna in the American continent of
+the Tertiary period, as interpreted by Leidy, Cope, Marsh, and
+others, has thrown a flood of light upon the early history of this
+family, and upon its relations to other mammals.</p>
+
+<p>There have been found in these regions many Camel-like
+animals exhibiting different generic modifications; and, what is
+more interesting, a gradual series of changes, coinciding with the
+antiquity of the deposits in which they are found, have been traced
+from the thoroughly differentiated species of the modern epoch
+down through the Pliocene to the early Miocene beds, where, their
+characters having become by degrees more generalised, they have
+lost all that specially distinguishes them as <i>Camelidæ</i>, and are
+merged into forms common to the ancestral type of all the other
+sections of the Artiodactyles. Hitherto none of these annectant
+forms have been found in any of the fossiliferous strata of the Old
+World; and it may therefore be fairly surmised (according to
+the evidence at present before us) that America was the original
+home of the Tylopoda, and that the true Camels have passed over into
+the Old World, probably by way of the north of Asia, where we
+have every reason to believe there was formerly a free communication
+between the continents, and then, gradually driven southward,
+perhaps by changes of climate, having become isolated, have undergone
+some further special modifications; while those members of
+the family that remained in their original birthplace have become,
+through causes not clearly understood, restricted solely to the
+southern or most distant part of the continent. The occurrence
+in the dentition of the fossil Siwalik Camels of a feature now
+found only in <i>Auchenia</i> is especially interesting from this point
+of view.</p>
+
+<p>Briefly referring to some of these fossil types, we may note
+that <i>Pliauchenia</i>, of the Loup Fork beds (Lower Pliocene) of
+the United States, has three lower premolars, while in <i>Procamelus</i>
+there were four of these teeth. In <i>Protolabis</i> of the Miocene
+we have a more generalised form, in which the dental formula
+is <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; and from this type a transition may be
+traced to <i>Poëbrotherium</i>, which, while having the same dental
+formula, was no larger than a Fox, and had the third and fourth
+metacarpals separate, with rudiments of the fourth and fifth. The
+earliest undoubted representative of the group is <i>Leptotragulus</i>, of
+the Uinta Eocene, which appears to have been closely allied to
+<i>Poëbrotherium</i>. It is, however, probable that the first lower premolar
+was wanting; while the other premolars of the mandible
+were much shorter antero-posteriorly than in the last-named genus.
+The manus, moreover, appears to have been less reduced, the second
+metacarpal retaining its connection with the magnum. It is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_305"></a>[305]</span>
+suggested that <i>Leptotragulus</i> may have been derived from the
+Bunodont genus <i>Homacodon</i> of the Bridger Eocene, mentioned
+among the <i>Cænotheriidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Tragulina.</span></h5>
+
+<h6><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Tragulidæ</span>.</h6>
+
+<p>No teeth in premaxillæ. Upper canines well developed, especially
+in the males; narrow and pointed. Lower canines incisiform.
+No caniniform premolars in either jaw, all the premolars except the
+last in the upper jaw being secant. Molariform teeth in a continuous
+series, consisting of <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. Odontoid process of axis
+vertebra conical. Fibula complete. Four complete toes on each
+foot. The middle metapodials generally confluent, the outer ones
+(second and fifth) very slender but complete, <i>i.e.</i> extending from
+the carpus or tarsus to the digit. Navicular, cuboid, and ectocuneiform
+bones of tarsus united. Tympanic bullæ of skull filled with
+cancellar tissue. No frontal appendages. Ruminating, but the
+stomach with only three distinct compartments, the manyplies or
+third cavity of the stomach of the Pecora being rudimentary.
+Placenta diffused.</p>
+
+<p>This section is represented only by the single family <i>Tragulidæ</i>,
+containing a few animals of small size, commonly known as
+Chevrotains, intermediate in their structure between the Deer, the
+Camels, and the Pigs. The large size of the canines of the male and
+the absence of horns caused them to be associated formerly with
+<i>Moschus</i>, one of the <i>Cervidæ</i>; hence they are often spoken of as
+“Pigmy Musk-Deer,” although they have no musk-secreting gland,
+or, except in the above-named trivial external characters, no special
+affinities with the true Musk-Deer. There has scarcely been a more
+troublesome and obdurate error in zoology than in this association
+of animals so really distinct. It has been troublesome, not only in
+preventing a just conception of the relations of existing Artiodactyles,
+but also in causing great confusion and hindrance in palæontological
+researches among allied forms; and most obdurate, inasmuch
+as all that has been recently done in advancing our knowledge of
+both groups has not succeeded in eradicating it, not only from
+nearly every one of our zoological text-books, whether British or
+Continental, but even from works of the highest scientific pretensions.</p>
+
+<p>The family is now generally divided into two genera.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tragulus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a> containing the smallest of the existing Ungulates,
+animals having more of the general aspects and habits of some
+Rodents, as the Agoutis, than of the rest of their own order. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_306"></a>[306]</span>
+best-known species are <i>T. javanicus</i>, <i>T. napu</i>, <i>T. stanleyanus</i>, and
+<i>T. memmina</i>. The first three are from the Malay Peninsula, or the
+islands of the Indo-Malayan Archipelago, the last from Ceylon and
+India. A fossil species occurs in the Pliocene of the latter country.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dorcatherium</i><a id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a> is distinguished chiefly by the feet being stouter
+and shorter, the outer toes better developed, and the two middle
+metacarpals not ankylosed together. Its dental formula (as that
+of <i>Tragulus</i>) is usually <i>i</i> ⁰⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃ = 34. Vertebræ: C 7,
+D 13, L 6, S 5, C 12-13. The only existing species, <i>D. aquaticum</i>
+(<a href="#figure118">Fig. 118</a>), from the west coast of Africa, is rather larger than any
+of the Asiatic Chevrotains, which it otherwise much resembles, but
+it is said to frequent the banks of streams, and have much the
+habits of Pigs. It is of a rich brown colour, with back and sides
+spotted and striped with white. It is evidently the survivor of a
+very ancient form, as remains of the type species (<i>D. naui</i>), only
+differing in size, occur in the lower Pliocene and Miocene of
+Europe; fossil species are also found in the Indian Pliocene.
+In <i>D. naui</i> there are, at least frequently, four lower premolars,
+while the existing species has but three of these teeth.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure118" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure118.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 118.</span>—The African Water-Chevrotain (<i>Dorcatherium aquaticum</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_307"></a>[307]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Traguloids.</i>—A number of small selenodont Artiodactyles
+from various Miocene and Pliocene deposits appear to connect the
+modern Tragulina so closely with <i>Gelocus</i> (<a href="#Page_294">p. 294</a>), and thus with
+the ancestral <i>Cervidæ</i>, that their classification is almost an impossibility.
+Thus <i>Leptomeryx</i>, from the Miocene of the United States,
+is regarded as a Traguloid, having four premolars in each jaw
+and with the metatarsals fused into a cannon-bone. <i>Prodremotherium</i>,
+of the Upper Eocene Phosphorites of France, differs in that the
+metacarpals also form a cannon-bone; while in the American
+<i>Hypertragulus</i>, both metacarpals and metatarsals remain separate.
+<i>Bachitherium</i>, of the French Phosphorites, apparently presents
+affinity with <i>Gelocus</i>, <i>Prodremotherium</i>, and <i>Dorcatherium</i>. In this
+genus the first of the four lower premolars assumes the character
+and function of a canine, the true canine being incisor-like, and
+there are traces of minute upper incisors.</p>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Pecora, or Cotylophora.</span></h5>
+
+<p>No premaxillary teeth or caniniform premolars. Upper canines
+generally absent, though sometimes largely developed. Inferior
+incisors, three on each side with an incisiform canine in contact
+with them. Molariform teeth consisting of <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, in continuous
+series. Auditory bullæ simple and hollow within. Odontoid
+process in the form of a crescent, hollow above. Distal
+extremity of the fibula represented by a distinct malleolar bone of
+peculiar shape, articulating with the outer surface of the lower end
+of the tibia. Third and fourth metacarpals and metatarsals confluent.
+Outer or lateral toes small and rudimentary, or in some
+cases entirely suppressed; their metapodial bones never complete
+in existing forms. Navicular and cuboid bones of tarsus united.
+Horns or antlers usually present, at least in the male sex. Left
+brachial artery arising from a common innominate trunk, instead
+of coming off separately from the aortic arch as in the preceding
+sections. Stomach with four complete cavities. Placenta
+cotyledonous.<a id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp51" id="figure119" style="max-width: 17.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure119.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 119.</span>—A shed right antler of the Red Deer
+(<i>Cervus elaphus</i>), found in an Irish lake. <i>a</i>, Brow
+tine; <i>b</i>, bez tine; <i>c</i>, tres tine; <i>d</i>, crown or royal
+tine. (After Owen.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Pecora or true Ruminants form at the present time an
+extremely homogeneous group, one of the best-defined and most
+closely united of any of the Mammalia. But, though the original
+or common type has never been departed from in essentials, variation
+has been very active among them within certain limits; and
+the great difficulty which all zoologists have felt in subdividing
+them into natural minor groups arises from the fact that
+the changes in different organs (feet, skull, frontal appendages,
+teeth, cutaneous glands, etc.) have proceeded with such apparent<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_308"></a>[308]</span>
+irregularity and absence of correlation that the different modifications
+of these parts are most variously combined in different
+members of the group. It appears, however, extremely probable
+that they soon branched into two main types, represented in the
+present day by the <i>Cervidæ</i> and the <i>Bovidæ</i>,—otherwise the
+antlered and horned Ruminants. Intermediate smaller branches
+produced the existing Musk-Deer and Giraffe, as well as the extinct
+<i>Helladotherium</i> inclining to the first-named group, and the extinct
+<i>Sivatherium</i>, <i>Brahmatherium</i>, <i>Hydaspitherium</i>, and others more allied
+to the latter, although upon the true relationship of these forms
+there is a difference of opinion.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp56" id="figure120" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure120.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 120.</span>—Head of Deer (<i>Cervus schomburgki</i>), showing antlers.
+From Sclater, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1877, p. 682.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The earliest forms of true Pecora, as <i>Palæomeryx</i>, generally had
+no frontal appendages, and some few forms continue to the present
+day in a similar case. In the very large majority, however, either
+in both sexes or in the male
+only, a pair or occasionally two
+pairs (<i>Tetraceros</i> and the extinct
+<i>Sivatherium</i>) of processes are developed
+from the frontal bones
+as weapons of offence and defence,
+these being almost always
+formed on one or other of two
+types.</p>
+
+<p>1. “Antlers” are outgrowths
+of true bone, covered during
+their growth with vascular,
+sensitive integument coated with
+short hair. When the growth
+of the antler is complete, the
+supply of blood to it ceases, the
+skin dies and peels off, leaving
+the bone bare and insensible,
+and after a time, by a process
+of absorption near the base, it
+becomes detached from the skull
+and is “shed” (<a href="#figure119">Fig. 119</a>). A
+more or less elongated portion
+or “pedicle” always remains on
+the skull from the summit of
+which a new antler is developed. In the greater number of existing
+species of Deer this process is repeated with great regularity at
+the same period of each year. The antler may be simple, straight,
+subcylindrical, tapering and pointed, but more often it sends off
+one or more branches called “tines” or “snags” (<a href="#figure119">Fig. 119</a>). In
+this case the main stem is termed the “beam.” Commonly all the
+branches of the antler are cylindrical and gradually tapering.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_309"></a>[309]</span>
+Sometimes they are more or less expanded and flattened, the
+antler being then said to be “palmated.” In young animals the
+antlers are always small and simple, and in those species in which
+they are variously branched or palmated, this condition is only
+gradually acquired
+in several
+successive annual
+growths. An
+interesting parallel
+has been observed
+here, as
+in so many other
+cases, between
+the development
+of the race and
+that of the individual.
+Thus the earliest
+known forms of
+Deer, those of
+the Lower Miocene,
+generally
+have no antlers,
+as in the young
+of the existing
+species. The
+Deer of the
+Middle Miocene
+have simple antlers,
+with not
+more than two
+branches, as in
+existing Deer of
+the second year;
+but it is not until the Pliocene and Pleistocene times that Deer
+occur with antlers developed with that luxuriance of growth and
+beauty of form characteristic of some of the existing species in a
+perfectly adult state. Among recent <i>Cervidæ</i>, antlers are wanting
+in the genera <i>Moschus</i> and <i>Hydropotes</i>; they are present in both sexes
+in <i>Tarandus</i> (the Reindeer), and in the male sex only in all others.</p>
+
+<p>In those forms with the most complex antlers (<a href="#figure119">Figs. 119, 120</a>)
+the tine immediately over the forehead is termed the <i>brow tine</i>, the
+next one the <i>bez tine</i>, and the third one the <i>tres tine</i>; the mass of
+points at the summit of the antler being termed either the <i>royal</i>
+and <i>surroyal tines</i>, or collectively the <i>crown</i>. The nodulated bony
+ring at the base of the antler, just above the point at which it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_310"></a>[310]</span>
+separates from the pedicle when it is shed, is termed the <i>burr</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp50" id="figure121" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure121.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 121.</span>—Head of Antelope (<i>Gazella granti</i>), showing horns. From
+Sir V. Brooke, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1878, p. 724.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>2. The horns of the <i>Bovidæ</i> consist of permanent, conical,
+usually curved bony processes, into which air-cells continued from
+the frontal sinuses
+often extend,
+called “horn-cores,”
+ensheathed
+in a case of true
+horn, an epidermic
+development
+of fibrous structure,
+which grows
+continuously,
+though slowly,
+from the base, and
+wears away at the
+apex, but is very
+rarely shed entire.
+The only existing
+species in which
+the latter process
+occurs regularly
+and periodically
+is the American
+Prong-Buck
+(<i>Antilocapra</i>), in
+which the horns
+also differ from
+those of all others
+in being bifurcated.
+Horns are
+not present at
+birth, but begin
+to grow very soon
+afterwards. The
+males of all existing
+<i>Bovidæ</i> possess
+them, and they are also present (though usually not so fully
+developed) in the females of all except the genera <i>Boselaphus</i>,
+<i>Strepsiceros</i>, <i>Tragelaphus</i>, <i>Antilope</i>, <i>Æpyceros</i>, <i>Saiga</i>, <i>Cobus</i>, <i>Cervicapra</i>,
+<i>Pelea</i>, <i>Nanotragus</i>, <i>Neotragus</i>, <i>Cephalophus</i>, and <i>Tetraceros</i>; as well as
+in some species of <i>Gazella</i>, such as <i>G. picticandata</i> and <i>G. walleri</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp70" id="figure122" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure122.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 122.</span>—Crown surface
+of a worn left upper
+molar of <i>Palæomeryx sivalensis</i>,
+to show brachydont
+type. (From the <i>Palæontologia Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Another character by which different members of the <i>Pecora</i> can be
+distinguished among themselves is derived from the nature of the molar
+teeth. Although there is nothing in the general mode and arrangement
+of the enamel-folds, or in the accessory columns, absolutely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_311"></a>[311]</span>
+distinctive between the two principal families, existing species may
+generally be distinguished, inasmuch as the true molars of the <i>Cervidæ</i>
+are more or less brachydont, and those of the <i>Bovidæ</i> generally
+hypsodont, <i>i.e.</i>, the teeth of the former have
+comparatively short crowns (<a href="#figure122">Fig. 122</a>), which,
+as in most mammals, take their place at once
+with the neck (or point where the crown and
+root join) on a level with or a little above the
+alveolar border, and remain in this position
+throughout the animal’s life; whereas in the
+other forms (<a href="#figure123">Fig. 123</a>), the crown being lengthened
+and the root small, the neck does not come up
+to the alveolar level until a considerable part
+of the surface has worn away, and the crown of
+the tooth thus appears for the greater part of
+the animal’s life partially buried in the socket.
+In this form of tooth (which is almost always most developed
+in the posterior molars of the permanent series) the constituent
+columns of the crown are necessarily nearly parallel, whereas
+in the first-described they diverge from the neck towards the free
+or grinding surface of the tooth. In the completely hypsodont
+form the interstices of the lengthened columnar folds of enamel
+and dentine are filled up with cement, which gives stability to
+the whole organ, and is entirely or nearly wanting in the short-crowned
+teeth. The same modification from low to high crowns
+without essential alteration of pattern is seen in an even still
+more marked manner in some of the Perissodactyle Ungulates,
+the tooth of the Horse bearing to that of <i>Anchitherium</i> the same<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_312"></a>[312]</span>
+relation as that of an Ox does to the early selenodont Artiodactyles.
+A parallel modification has also taken place in the molar teeth of
+the Proboscidea.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure123" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure123.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 123.</span>—Inner and outer aspects of an almost unworn left upper molar of the Nilghai
+(<i>Boselaphus tragocamelus</i>), to show hypsodont type. (From the <i>Palæontologia Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>As the hypsodont tooth is essentially a modification of, and, as
+it were, an improvement upon, the brachydont, it is but natural to
+expect that all intermediate forms may be met with. Even among
+the Deer themselves, as pointed out by Lartet, the most ancient
+have very short molars, and the depressions on the grinding surface
+are so shallow that the bottom is always visible; while in the <i>Cervidæ</i>
+of the more recent Tertiary periods, and especially the Pleistocene
+and living species, these same cavities are so deep that whatever be
+the state of the dentition the bottom cannot be seen. Some
+existing Deer, as the Axis, are far more hypsodont than the majority
+of the family; and, on the other hand, many of the Antelopes (as
+<i>Tragelaphus</i>) retain much of the brachydont character, which is,
+however, completely lost in the more modern and highly specialised
+Sheep and Oxen.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure124" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure124.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 124.</span>—Stomach of Ruminant opened to show internal structure. <i>a</i>, Œsophagus; <i>b</i>,
+rumen or paunch; <i>c</i>, reticulum or honey-comb bag; <i>d</i>, psalterium or manyplies; <i>e</i>, abomasum
+or reed; <i>f</i>, duodenum.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The complicated stomach of the Pecora (<a href="#figure124">Fig. 124</a>), which is
+necessary for the performance of the peculiar function known as
+“chewing the cud”—a function common also to the Tragulina
+and Tylopoda—is divided into four well-defined compartments,
+known as (1) the Rumen or Paunch, (2) the Reticulum or Honey-comb
+Bag, (3) the Psalterium or Manyplies, (4) the Abomasum
+or Reed. The paunch is a very capacious receptacle, shaped like a
+blunted cone bent partly upon itself. Into its broader base opens
+the œsophagus or gullet at a spot not far removed from its wide
+orifice of communication with the second stomach or honey-comb
+bag. Its inner walls are nearly uniformly covered with a
+pale mucous membrane, which is beset with innumerable close-set,
+short, and slender villi, resembling very much the “pile” on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_313"></a>[313]</span>
+velvet. The honey-comb bag is very much smaller than the paunch.
+It is nearly globose in shape, and receives its name on account of
+the peculiar arrangement of its mucous membrane which forms
+shallow hexagonal cells all over its inner surface. Running along
+its upper wall there is a deep groove, coursing from the first to the
+third stomach. This groove plays an important part in the act of
+rumination. Its walls are muscular, like those of the viscus with
+which it is associated, which allows its calibre to be altered. Sometimes
+it completely closes round so as to become converted into a
+tube by the opposition of its edges. At others it forms an open
+canal. The manyplies is globular in form, and its lining membrane
+is raised into longitudinal folds or laminæ arranged very much like
+the leaves of a book, and very close together. Their surfaces
+are roughened by the presence of small projections or papillæ.
+The reed is the proper digestive stomach, corresponding with the
+same organ in man. Its shape is somewhat pyriform, and its
+walls are formed of a smooth mucous membrane, which secretes the
+gastric juice.</p>
+
+<p>When the food is first swallowed it is conveyed into the paunch,
+and after undergoing a softening process there it is regurgitated
+into the mouth, and undergoes a further trituration by the molar
+teeth and mixture with the secretion of the salivary and buccal
+glands. It is then swallowed again, but now passes directly through
+the before-mentioned groove into the manyplies, and, after filtering
+through the numerous folds of the lining membrane of this cavity,
+finally reaches the fourth or digestive stomach.</p>
+
+<p>The placenta of the Pecora is characterised by the fœtal villi
+being collected into groups or cotyledons, which may present either
+a convex or a concave surface to the uterus. These cotyledons are
+received into permanent elevations in the mucous membrane of the
+uterus, the surfaces of which present a curvature which is the
+reverse of the cotyledons.</p>
+
+<h6><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Cervidæ</span>.</h6>
+
+<p>Frontal appendages, when present, in the form of antlers. First
+molar, at least, in both jaws brachydont. Two orifices to the lachrymal
+duct, situated on or inside the rim of the orbit. An antorbital or
+lachrymal vacuity of such dimensions as to exclude the lachrymal bone
+from articulation with the nasal. Upper canines usually present in
+both sexes and sometimes attaining a very great size in the male
+(see <a href="#figure134">Fig. 134</a>). Lateral digits of both fore and hind feet, almost
+always present, and frequently the distal ends of the metapodials.
+Placenta with few cotyledons. Gall-bladder absent (except in
+<i>Moschus</i>). This family contains numerous species, having a wide<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_314"></a>[314]</span>
+geographical distribution, ranging in the New World from the Arctic
+Circle as far south as Chili, and in the Old World throughout the
+whole of Europe and Asia, though absent in the Ethiopian and
+Australian regions.</p>
+
+<p>It may be divided into two subfamilies.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Moschinæ</b>.—This subfamily is represented solely by
+the Musk-Deer, which differs so remarkably from the true Deer that
+it is considered by several writers as the representative of a separate
+family. The late Professor Garrod even suggested that it should
+be regarded as an extremely aberrant member of the <i>Bovidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure125" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure125.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 125.</span>—The Musk-Deer (<i>Moschus moschiferus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Moschus.</i><a id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a>—The Musk-Deer (<a href="#figure125">Fig. 125</a>) in many respects stands by
+itself as an isolated zoological form, retaining characters belonging to
+the older and more generalised types of ruminants before they were
+distinctly separated into the horned and the antlered sections now
+dominant upon the earth. One of these characters is that both
+sexes are entirely devoid of any sort of frontal appendage. In this,
+however, it agrees with one existing genus of true Deer (<i>Hydropotes</i>);
+and, as in that animal, the upper canine teeth of the males are
+remarkably developed, long, slender, sharp pointed, and gently
+curved, projecting downwards out of the mouth with the ends
+turned somewhat backwards. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 5, S 5, C 6.
+Among the anatomical peculiarities in which it differs from all<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_315"></a>[315]</span>
+true Deer and agrees with the <i>Bovidæ</i> is the presence of a gall-bladder.
+The hemispheres of the brain are but slightly convoluted,
+and the cotyledons of the placenta are arranged in a peculiar linear
+manner.<a id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a></p>
+
+<p>Although, owing to variations of colour presented by different
+individuals in different localities and seasons, several nominal species
+have been described, zoologists are now generally agreed that there
+is but one, the <i>Moschus moschiferus</i> of Linnæus. In size it is rather
+less than the European Roe Deer, being about 20 inches high at the
+shoulder. Its limbs, especially the hinder ones, are long. The feet
+are remarkable for the great development of the lateral pair of hoofs,
+and for the freedom of motion they all present, so that they appear
+to have the power of grasping projecting rocky points,—a power
+which must be of great assistance to the animal in steadying it in
+its agile bounds among the crags of its native haunts. The ears are
+large, and the tail quite rudimentary. The hair covering the body
+is long, coarse, and of a peculiarly brittle and pith-like character,
+breaking with the application of an extremely slight force; it is
+generally of a grayish-brown colour, sometimes inclined to yellowish-red,
+and often variegated with lighter patches. The Musk-Deer has
+a wide distribution over the highlands of central and eastern Asia,
+including the greater part of southern Siberia, and extends to
+Kashmir on the south-west and Cochin-China on the south-east,
+always, however, at considerable elevations,—being rarely found in
+summer below 7000 feet above the sea-level, and ranging as high as
+the limits of the thickets of birch or pines, among which it mostly
+conceals itself in the daytime. It is a hardy, solitary, and retiring
+animal, chiefly nocturnal in its habits, and almost always found
+alone, rarely in pairs, and never in herds. It is exceedingly active and
+sure-footed, having few equals in traversing rocky and precipitous
+ground; and it feeds on moss, grass, and leaves of the plants
+which grow on the mountains among which it makes its home.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the animals of the group to which the Musk-Deer
+belongs, in fact the large majority of mammals, have some portion
+of the cutaneous surface peculiarly modified and provided with
+glands secreting some odorous and oleaginous substance specially
+characteristic of the species. This, correlated with the extraordinary
+development of the olfactory organs, appears to offer the principal
+means by which animals in a state of nature become aware of
+the presence of other individuals of their own species, or of those
+inimical to them, even at very great distances, and hence it is of
+extreme importance both to the well-being of the individual and to
+the continuance of the race. The situation of this specially modified
+portion of skin is extremely various, sometimes between the toes,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_316"></a>[316]</span>
+as in Sheep, sometimes on the face in front of the eyes, as in many
+Deer and Antelopes. Sometimes it is in the form of a simple depression
+or shallow recess, often very deeply involuted, and in its fullest
+state of development it forms a distinct pouch or sac with a narrow
+tubular orifice. In this sac a considerable quantity of the secretion
+can accumulate until discharged by the action of a compressor
+muscle which surrounds it. This is the form taken by the special
+gland of the Musk-Deer, which has made the animal so well known,
+and has proved the cause of an unremitting persecution to its
+possessor. It is found in the male only, and is a sac about the size
+of a very small orange, situated beneath the skin of the abdomen,
+the orifice being immediately in front of the preputial aperture.
+The secretion with which the sac is filled is of dark-brown or
+chocolate colour, and when fresh described as being of the consistence
+of “moist gingerbread,” but becoming dry and granular after
+keeping. It has a peculiar and very powerful scent, which when
+properly diluted and treated forms the basis of many of our most
+admired perfumes. When the animal is killed the whole gland or
+“pod” is cut out and dried, and in this form reaches the market of
+the Western World, chiefly through China.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Cervinæ.</b>—This subfamily includes all the true Deer.
+According to the arrangement proposed by Sir V. Brooke<a id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> the
+existing <i>Cervinæ</i> may be divided into the sections Plesiometacarpalia
+and Telemetacarpalia.</p>
+
+<p><b>Plesiometacarpalia.</b>—In this section, which is mainly characteristic
+of the Old World, the proximal portions of the lateral (second
+and fifth) metacarpals persist, and the vomer is never so ossified
+as to divide the posterior osseous nares into two distinct passages.
+The premaxillæ nearly always articulate with the nasals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cervulus.</i><a id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a>—Antlers half the length of the head, placed on
+pedicles nearly equal to them in length. Brow tine short,
+inclined inwards and upwards; terminal extremity of beam
+unbranched, and curved downwards and inwards. Lachrymal fossa
+of skull very large, and extending into facial part of jugal; lachrymal
+(antorbital) vacuity moderate. Ascending portion of premaxillæ
+at least as long as nasals. A permanent ridge extending
+from each pedicle over the orbit, lachrymal fossa and vacuity.
+Auditory bulla much inflated. Upper canines of males very large.
+Ectocuneiform united with naviculo-cuboid of tarsus. No traces of
+the phalanges of the lateral digits.</p>
+
+<p>The native name Muntjac has been generally adopted in
+European languages for a small group of Deer indigenous to the
+southern and eastern parts of Asia and the adjacent islands, which
+are separated by very marked characters from all their allies. <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_317"></a>[317]</span>They
+are also called “Kijang” or “Kidjang,” and constitute the genus
+<i>Cervulus</i> of Blainville and most zoologists;—<i>Styloceros</i> of Hamilton-Smith,
+and <i>Prox</i> of Ogilby. They are all of small size compared
+with the majority of Deer, and have long bodies and rather short
+limbs and neck. The antlers, which as in most Deer are present in
+the male only, are small and simple, and the main stem or beam,
+after giving off a very short brow tine, inclines backwards and upwards,
+is unbranched and pointed, and when fully developed curves
+inwards and somewhat downwards at the tip. These small antlers
+are supported upon pedicles or permanent processes of the frontal
+bones, longer than in any other Deer, and the front edges of which
+are continued downwards as strong ridges passing along the sides of
+the face above the orbits, and serving to protect the large supraorbital
+glands lying on their inner sides. The lachrymal fossa of
+the skull, in which is lodged the large suborbital gland or crumen,
+is of great depth and extent. The upper canine teeth of the males
+are strongly developed and sharp, curving downwards, backwards,
+and outwards, projecting visibly outside the mouth as tusks, and
+loosely implanted in their sockets. In the females they are very
+much smaller. The limbs exhibit several structural peculiarities not
+found in other Deer. The lateral digits of both fore and hind feet are
+very little developed, the hoofs alone being present and their bony
+supports (found in all other Deer) wanting. There is a tufted gland
+on the outer side of the metatarsus.</p>
+
+<p>The Muntjacs are solitary animals, very rarely even two being
+seen together. They are fond of hilly ground covered with forests,
+in the dense thickets of which they pass most of their time, only
+coming to the skirts of the woods at morning and evening to
+graze. They carry the head and neck low and the hind-quarters
+high, their action in running being peculiar and not very elegant,
+somewhat resembling the pace of a sheep. Though with no
+power of sustained speed or extensive leap, they are remarkable
+for flexibility of body and facility of creeping through tangled
+underwood. They are often called by Indian sportsmen “Barking
+Deer,” a name given on account of their alarm cry, a kind of
+short shrill bark, like that of a fox but louder, which may often
+be heard in the jungles they frequent both by day and by night.
+When attacked by dogs the males use their sharp canine teeth
+with great vigour, inflicting upon their opponents deep and even
+dangerous wounds.</p>
+
+<p>There is some difference of opinion among zoologists as to the
+number of species of the genus <i>Cervulus</i>. Sir Victor Brooke, who
+investigated this question in 1878 (see <i>Proceedings of the Zoological
+Society of London</i> for that year, p. 898), came to the conclusion that
+there are certainly three which are quite well marked, viz.—</p>
+
+<p><i>C. muntjac</i> (<a href="#figure126">Fig. 126</a>), found in British India, Burma, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_318"></a>[318]</span> Malay
+Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Hainan, Banca, and Borneo. The general
+colour is a bright yellowish-red, darker in the upper parts of the
+back; the fore legs from the shoulder downwards and the lower part
+of the hind legs, dark bluish-brown; anterior parts of the face from
+the muzzle to between the eyes, brown—a blackish line running up
+the inside of each frontal ridge; chin, throat, inside of hind legs,
+and under surface of tail white. The female has a black bristly
+tuft of hair on the spot from which the pedicles of the antlers of the
+male grow. The average length of the male, according to Jerdon,
+is 3½ feet, tail 7 inches, height 26 to 28 inches. The female is a
+little smaller. The specimens from Java, Sumatra, and Borneo are
+of larger size than those from the mainland, and may possibly be of
+distinct species or race.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure126" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure126.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 126.</span>—The Muntjac (<i>Cervulus muntjac</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>C. lacrymans</i> of Milne-Edwards, or Sclater’s Muntjac of Swinhoe,
+from Moupin, and near Hangchow, China.</p>
+
+<p><i>C. reevesi</i>, a very small species from southern China.</p>
+
+<p>Subsequently the name <i>C. crinifrons</i> has been applied to a Muntjac
+from Ningpo, China, readily distinguished from all other species
+by its bushy forehead and long tail. Another species from Tenasserim
+has been described as <i>C. feæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Small Deer from the European Pliocene have been provisionally
+referred to <i>Cervulus</i>, but the so-called <i>Prox furcatus</i>, of the Miocene,
+is now included in <i>Palæomeryx</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_319"></a>[319]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Elaphodus.</i><a id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a>—Antlers very small, unbranched, supported on long,
+slender, converging pedicles. Ascending rami of premaxillæ shorter
+than nasals. No supraorbital ridges or frontal glands. Upper
+canines of male long, but not everted. A distinct frontal tuft
+of hair. Other characters as in <i>Cervulus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This genus (which has also received the name of <i>Lophotragus</i>) is
+represented by a small Deer (<a href="#figure127">Fig. 127</a>) from China of about the
+same size as the Indian Muntjac. The male has minute simple
+antlers and very large canine teeth. There are no supraorbital
+glands, nor is there a tufted gland on the metatarsus. The limbs
+have the same peculiarities as in <i>Cervulus</i>, but the mesocuneiform
+may also ankylose with the ectocuneiform, and traces of the metacarpals
+may remain. The hair is coarse and somewhat quill-like.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp88" id="figure127" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure127.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 127.</span>—Male of <i>Elaphodus michianus</i>. From Sclater <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1876, p. 273.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Cervus.</i><a id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a>—The great majority of the Deer of the Old World may
+be included in this large genus, which is one not easy of definition.
+The antlers of the male are, however, large, and two or three times
+the length of the head, and may be either rounded or palmate; the
+canines are never large; the ectocuneiform of the tarsus remains
+distinct from the naviculo-cuboid; the lateral digits are represented
+by their phalanges; and the skull does not carry prominent frontal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_320"></a>[320]</span>
+ridges. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 11-14. The size of the
+lachrymal fossa and vacuity, and the degree of inflation of the auditory
+bulla, are subject to variation in the different groups into
+which the genus may be divided.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Rusine</i> group is characteristic of the Oriental region, where
+it is typically represented by the Sambur (<i>C. aristotelis</i>) of India,
+Burma, and China. The antlers are rounded, and often strongly
+grooved, without a bez tine, and with the beam simply forked at the
+extremity, upright, and but slightly curved; the angle formed by
+the brow tine, which rises close to the burr, being acute. The
+molars are markedly hypsodont, with small accessory columns. The
+lachrymal fossa is deep and the vacuity large; the auditory bulla
+is slightly inflated and rugose. Tail moderate; neck maned.</p>
+
+<p>The Sambur, which is abundant in hilly districts, is a fine animal,
+standing nearly 5 feet in height, and of massive build; the general
+colour being deep brown. <i>C. equinus</i>, of Borneo, Sumatra, and
+Singapore, <i>C. swinhoei</i>, of Formosa, <i>C. philippinus</i>, and <i>C. alfredi</i> of
+the Philippines, are closely allied species, of which the two latter
+are of smaller dimensions. The Indian Hog Deer (<i>C. porcinus</i>) is a
+still smaller form, not larger than the Roe. <i>C. hippelaphus</i> of Java,
+<i>C. timoriensis</i>, and <i>C. moluccensis</i> are distinguished by the posterior
+branch of the beam of the antler being considerably larger than the
+anterior.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Rucervine</i> group is another strictly Oriental one, and is
+represented by the Swamp Deer (<i>C. duvaucelli</i>) of India, the closely
+allied <i>C. schomburgki</i> of Siam, of which the antlers are shown in
+<a href="#figure119">Fig. 119</a> (<a href="#figure119">p. 309</a>), and <i>C. eldi</i> of Burma and Hainan. The beam of
+the antler is somewhat flattened, and more curved than in the Rusine
+group; the large brow tine is given off from the beam at an obtuse
+angle and curves upwards; the beam bifurcates into two branches,
+which again divide. Skull as in the Rusine group, but relatively
+narrower. Tail short; neck maned.</p>
+
+<p>The Swamp Deer is somewhat smaller than the Sambur, and of
+a full yellowish colour. Fossil representatives of this group occur
+in the Pliocene of India.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Elaphurine</i> group is represented only by the very aberrant
+<i>C. davidianus</i> of Northern China. In size and proportions this
+species approximates to the Swamp Deer, but the antlers are peculiar
+in rising straight from the brow and then giving off a long and
+straight back tine (correlated by Sir V. Brooke with the posterior
+branch of the Rusine antler); the summit of the beam is forked,
+and in old individuals the two tines of the fork may again branch.
+Nasals long, and much expanded between the lachrymal vacuities,
+of which they form the inner border; lachrymal fossa large and
+deep. Tail long; neck maned.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Axine</i> group includes only the well-known Axis of India,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_321"></a>[321]</span>
+readily distinguished by the white spots with which the body is
+marked. Antlers of a Rusine type, the beam being much
+curved, and the brow tine usually given off at an acute or
+right angle. Molars very hypsodont. The coloration of the
+Axis is more brilliant than that of any other member of the
+family.</p>
+
+<p>Here may be noticed a group of Deer mainly characteristic of
+the eastern Palæarctic region, frequently known as the <i>Pseudaxine</i>
+group, which appears to connect the Axine with the Elaphine
+type. Well-known representatives of this group are <i>C. sika</i> (<a href="#figure128">Fig.
+128</a>) of Japan, <i>C. mantchuricus</i> of China, and <i>C. taëvanus</i> of Formosa.
+The antlers have a brow and tres tine, and then a forked beam, of
+which the posterior tine is the smaller. The lachrymal vacuity
+and fossa are of moderate size; and the auditory bulla is only
+moderately inflated, and quite smooth externally. Tail moderate;
+neck maned. In summer the coat is spotted, but is plain in
+winter. A herd of <i>C. sika</i> have been acclimatised in Ireland
+by Viscount Powerscourt, at Powerscourt, County Wicklow. A
+number of Deer from the Pliocene of Europe, such as <i>C. perrieri</i>
+and <i>C. etueriarum</i>, appear to be allied both to the Pseudaxine and
+Axine groups.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="figure128" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure128.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 128.</span>—The Japanese Deer (<i>Cervus sika</i>). From Lord Powerscourt, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>
+1884, p. 209.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The <i>Elaphine</i> or typical group is at once characterised by the
+presence of a bez tine to the antlers (<a href="#figure129">Fig. 129</a>), in which the beam<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_322"></a>[322]</span>
+is rounded, and splits up near the summit into a larger or smaller
+number of snags, often arranged in a cup-like manner. Skull as
+in the preceding group. All the species large. The Red Deer,
+<i>C. elaphus</i>, which is dark brown in colour, with a light patch on
+the rump, inhabits Europe, Western Asia, and Northern Africa—the
+so-called Barbary Deer not being specifically distinct. A full-grown
+Scotch Stag is fully 4 feet in height at the withers. The antlers are
+shed between the end of February and the early part of April; old
+animals shedding earlier than younger ones. The young, which
+(as in all the members of the genus except some of the Rusine
+species) are spotted, are born at the end of May or the beginning
+of June. The points on the antlers increase in number with the
+age of the creature, and when twelve are present it is known in
+Scotland as a “royal stag.” This number, however, is sometimes
+exceeded, as in the case of a pair of antlers, weighing 74 lbs., from
+a stag killed in Transylvania, which had forty-five points. The
+antlers during the second year consist of a simple unbranched stem,
+to which a tine or branch is added in each succeeding year, until
+the normal development is attained, after which their growth is
+somewhat irregular. Many of the antlers dug up in British peat-beds
+(as <a href="#figure118">Fig. 118</a>) are larger than those of living individuals, and
+in the cave-deposits of England and the Continent antlers are met<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_323"></a>[323]</span>
+with rivalling those of the Wapiti in size; these large fossil antlers
+probably indicating the ancestral form from which the Red Deer
+and several of the allied species are descended.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="figure129" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure129.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 129.</span>—Head of the Wapiti (<i>Cervus canadensis</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The North American Wapiti (<i>Cervus canadensis</i>, <a href="#figure129">Fig. 129</a>), the
+Persian Maral (<i>C. maral</i>), the Kashmir Stag (<i>C. cashmeerianus</i>), as
+well as <i>C. affinis</i> of Tibet, are all closely allied to the Red Deer, but
+are of larger size, this being especially the case with the first two.
+A fine example of the antlers of the Wapiti is shown in the
+accompanying woodcut, and exhibits the absence of a cup at the
+surroyals, by which this species is distinguished from the Red Deer.</p>
+
+<p>The last, or <i>Damine</i> group of existing Deer includes the Common
+and the Persian Fallow Deer. These are readily characterised
+by the palmation of the antlers in the region of the surroyals
+and the spotted coat. The Common Fallow Deer (<i>C. dama</i>) stands
+about three feet in height. The Persian Fallow Deer (<i>C.
+mesopotamicus</i>) is very closely allied, differing only in its slightly
+larger size and the form of the antlers, the two breeding together.
+The common species, although now kept in English parks, does not
+appear to be a native of this country, having probably been
+introduced from the regions bordering the Mediterranean. The fur
+is of a yellowish-brown colour (whence the name “fallow”), marked
+with white spots; there is, however, a uniformly dark brown variety
+found in Britain. The bucks and does live apart, except during the
+pairing season; and the doe produces one or two, and sometimes
+three fawns at a birth. The Fallow Deer from the Pleistocene and
+Pliocene deposits of the East Coast described under the names of
+<i>C. browni</i> and <i>C. falconeri</i> appear to have been closely allied to the
+existing species. The remarkable <i>C. verticornis</i>, of the Norfolk
+Forest-bed, is regarded as an aberrant member of this group, in
+which the antlers are very short and thick, with the brow tine
+cylindrical and downwardly curved, and the beam expanded above
+the tres tine into a crown with two points.</p>
+
+<p>The extinct Irish Deer (<i>Cervus giganteus</i>), of which the skeleton
+is shown in the woodcut (<a href="#figure130">Fig. 130</a>), is the only representative of the
+<i>Megacerotine</i> group. The antlers, which may have a span of over
+11 feet, are enormously palmated, and have a bifurcated brow
+tine, a small bez tine, and a third posterior tine. The skeleton
+measures upwards of 6 feet at the withers. Remains of this
+species are especially common in the peat-bogs of Ireland, but are
+also met with in Pleistocene deposits over a large part of Europe.
+In addition to the forms already mentioned there are many other
+fossil species of <i>Cervus</i>, some of which, like the English Pleistocene
+<i>C. sedgewicki</i>, cannot be included in any of the existing groups.
+There is no conclusive evidence of the existence of any species of
+<i>Cervus</i> before the Lower Pliocene period.</p>
+
+<p><b>Telemetacarpalia.</b>—This section includes all the Deer of <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_324"></a>[324]</span>the New
+World, together with some Old World forms, and is characterised
+by retaining the distal extremities of the lateral (second
+and fifth) metacarpals. With the exception of <i>Alces</i>, <i>Capreolus</i>,
+and <i>Hydropotes</i> (which are either partly or entirely Old World
+types), the vomer is so much ossified as to divide the posterior
+bony nares into two distinct orifices (<a href="#figure132">Fig. 132</a>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="figure130" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure130.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 130.</span>—Skeleton of the Gigantic Irish Deer (<i>Cervus giganteus</i>). After Owen.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Rangifer.</i><a id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a>—The Reindeer, or Caribou as it is termed in North
+America, is the sole representative of the genus <i>Rangifer</i>, which
+is sufficiently distinguished from all its allies by the presence of
+antlers in both sexes. The lachrymal vacuity is small. This
+animal is distributed over the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and
+America; the differences which may be observable in specimens from
+different regions not being sufficient to allow of specific distinction.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_325"></a>[325]</span>
+The Reindeer is a heavily built animal, with short limbs, in which
+the lateral hoofs are well developed, and the cleft between the
+two main hoofs is very deep, so that these hoofs spread out as
+the animal traverses the snow-clad regions in which it dwells.
+The antlers
+(<a href="#figure131">Fig. 131</a>) are
+of very large
+relative size.
+There is a bez
+as well as a
+brow tine, which
+are peculiar in
+being either
+branched or
+palmated. In
+the American
+race (Caribou),
+as well as
+in some of
+the specimens
+found fossil in
+the English
+Pleistocene
+(<a href="#figure131">Fig. 131</a>), one
+of the brow
+tines is generally
+aborted to
+allow of the
+great development
+of the
+other. The
+dentition of the Reindeer is frequently remarkable for the very
+small size of the posterior lobe of the last lower molar. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 14, L 5, S 5, C 11.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="figure131" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure131.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 131.</span>—Skull and antlers of the Reindeer (<i>Rangifer tarandus</i>),
+from an English Pleistocene deposit. <i>br</i>, Brow tine; <i>bz</i>, bez tine.
+(After Owen.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Reindeer has long been domesticated in Scandinavia, and is
+of especial value to the Laplanders, whom it serves as a substitute
+for the Horse, Cow, Sheep, and Goat. It is capable of drawing a
+weight of 300 lbs., and its fleetness and endurance are remarkable.
+Harnessed to a sledge it will travel without difficulty 100 miles a
+day over the frozen snow, on which its broad and deeply cleft hoofs
+are admirably adapted for travelling. During the summer the
+Lapland Reindeer feeds chiefly on the young shoots of the willow
+and birch; and since at this season migration to the coast seems
+necessary to the well-being of this animal, the Laplander, with his
+herds, sojourns for several months in the neighbourhood of the sea.
+In winter its food consists chiefly of the so-called reindeer-moss<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_326"></a>[326]</span> and
+other lichens which the animal makes use of its hoofs in seeking
+for beneath the snow. The wild Reindeer grows to a much greater
+size than the tame breed; but in Northern Europe the former
+are being gradually reduced through the natives entrapping and
+domesticating them.
+The tame breed found
+in Northern Asia is
+much larger than the
+Lapland form, and is
+there used to ride on.
+Remains referable to
+the existing species are
+found in the cavern
+and other Pleistocene
+deposits of Europe.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp64" id="figure132" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure132.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 132.</span>—Hinder part of the base of the cranium of the
+Virginian Deer (<i>Cariacus virginianus</i>). From Garrod, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1877, p. 13.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Alces.</i><a id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a>—The Elk or
+Moose (<i>Alces machlis</i>)
+has the same general
+distribution as the
+Reindeer, and is likewise
+the single existing
+representative of its
+genus. It is the largest
+existing member of the
+family, attaining sometimes
+a height of 8 feet
+at the withers. The
+antlers (<a href="#figure133">Fig. 133</a>) have neither brow nor bez tine, but form an
+enormous basin-shaped palmation, primarily composed of an anterior
+and a posterior branch; their weight may be as much as 60 lbs.
+The nasal bones are very short, and the narial aperture of great
+size. The Elk is covered with a thick coarse fur of a brownish
+colour, longest on the neck and throat. Its legs are long and
+its neck short, and as it is thus unable to feed close to the
+ground, it browses on the tops of low plants, the leaves of
+trees, and the tender shoots of the willow and birch. Its antlers
+attain their full length by the fifth year, but in after years they
+increase in breadth and in the number of snags, until fourteen of
+these are produced. Although spending a large part of their lives
+in forests, Elks do not suffer much inconvenience from the great
+expanse of their antlers, as in making their way among trees
+they are carried horizontally to prevent entanglement with the
+branches. Their usual pace is a shambling trot, but when frightened
+they break into a gallop. The natural timidity of the Elk
+forsakes the male at the rutting season, and he will then attack<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_327"></a>[327]</span>
+whatever animal comes in his way. The antlers and hoofs are his
+principal weapons, and with a single blow from the latter he has
+been known to kill a wolf. The female often gives birth to two
+fawns, and with these she retires into the deepest recesses of the
+forest, the young remaining with her till their third year. The Elk
+ranges, but in scanty numbers, over the whole of Northern Europe
+and Asia, as far south as East Prussia, the Caucasus, and North
+China, and over North America from the New England States
+westward to British Columbia. Fossil species are found in the
+Pleistocene deposits of Europe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cervalces.</i><a id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a>—A remarkable extinct Deer from the Pleistocene of
+North America, described as <i>Cervalces</i>, appears in some respects
+(although a true Telemetacarpalian) to connect <i>Alces</i> with <i>Cervus</i>.
+Thus the palmated antlers are divided into anterior and posterior
+branches, but below this division there are two tines apparently
+corresponding to the bez and posterior tines of <i>Cervus giganteus</i>
+(<a href="#figure130">Fig. 130</a>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure133" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure133.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 133.</span>—Head of Elk (<i>Alces machlis</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Capreolus.</i><a id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a>—Antlers (in the existing species) less than twice the
+length of the head, usually with three tines on each. Brow tine
+developed from the anterior surface of the upper half of the antler,
+and directed upwards. Lachrymal vacuity small. Premaxillæ not
+always articulating with nasals. Auditory bullæ slightly inflated,
+rugose externally. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 6, C 8. Tail very
+short. Glands in fore feet rudimentary; large in hind feet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_328"></a>[328]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Roe, or Roe Deer (<i>Capreolus caprea</i>), is a small form distributed
+over Europe and Western Asia, being one of the species
+found in the British Isles. The male is somewhat over two feet
+in height at the withers, of a dark reddish-brown colour in summer,
+with a white patch on the rump. The small antlers are approximated
+at their bases, and consist of a rugged beam rising vertically
+for some distance, then bifurcating, and the posterior branch again
+dividing. The Roe dates from the Pleistocene period. Extinct
+Deer from the Continental Pliocene have been provisionally referred
+to <i>Capreolus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hydropotes.</i><a id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a>—No antlers in either sex. Lachrymal fossa deep
+and short (<a href="#figure134">Fig. 134</a>); lachrymal vacuity of moderate size. Orbits
+small and but slightly prominent. Auditory bulla much inflated.
+Angle of mandible much produced backwardly (<a href="#figure134">Fig. 134</a>); alveolar
+margins of mandible in diastema sharp and everted. Canines of
+male very large, and slightly convergent. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12,
+L 6, S 4, C 10. No tufts
+on metatarsals. Foot
+glands small in fore feet,
+deep in hind ones.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure134" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure134.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 134.</span>—The left lateral view of the skull of a male Chinese Water Deer (<i>Hydropotes
+inermis</i>), with the wall of the maxilla cut away to show the root of the canine. ½ natural
+size. (From Sir V. Brooke, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1872, p. 524.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure135" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure135.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 135.</span>—Upper surface of the brain of <i>Hydropotes
+inermis</i>. (From Garrod, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1877, p. 792.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Chinese Water
+Deer (<i>H. inermis</i>) is the
+sole representative of this
+genus. In the absence of
+antlers and the large canines
+of the male it resembles
+<i>Moschus</i>, although very
+different in other respects.
+Thus the brain (<a href="#figure135">Fig. 135</a>)
+has the hemispheres much<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_329"></a>[329]</span>
+convoluted, as in other <i>Cervinæ</i>, and approximates to that of <i>Pudua</i>;
+while the placenta and viscera likewise agree with those of the true
+Deer. In the total absence of any ossification of the vomer to
+divide the posterior nares <i>Hydropotes</i> resembles <i>Capreolus</i> and differs
+from all the following genera. The Chinese Water-Deer is nearly
+of the same size as the Indian Muntjac. It has short legs and a
+long body, the hair covering the latter being of a light reddish-brown.
+It is a remarkably prolific animal, differing from all other
+Deer in producing five or six young at a time.</p>
+
+<p>The mandible of a ruminant from the Middle Miocene of Gers
+in France, described under the name of <i>Platyprosopus</i>, presents such
+a marked resemblance to <i>Hydropotes</i> in the form of the angle as to
+suggest a more or less intimate affinity.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cariacus.</i><a id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a>—Skull (<a href="#figure132">Fig. 132</a>) with the vomer dividing the
+posterior nares into two distinct chambers; premaxillæ not reaching
+nasals. Antlers never greatly exceeding the length of the head.
+Lachrymal vacuity very large, and lachrymal fossa small. Auditory
+bullæ slightly inflated. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 13. Tail
+long or short. Colour uniform in adult.</p>
+
+<p>This genus, which agrees with the Reindeer in the division of
+the posterior nares by the ossified vomer, comprises a number of
+species confined to the New World, none of which attain very
+large dimensions, and the antlers of which are relatively smaller
+than in the existing species of <i>Cervus</i>. The genus may be divided
+into groups.</p>
+
+<p>The typical <i>Cariacine</i> group, as represented by <i>C. virginianus</i>,
+has well-developed antlers, with a short brow tine rising from
+the inner side of the beam, and directed upwards, and several
+branches; a long tail; and no upper canines. In this species, as
+well as in <i>C. mexicanus</i> and other forms, the antlers do not divide
+dichotomously, and the lachrymal fossa is of moderate depth. The
+Mule Deer (<i>C. macrotis</i>) of North America is distinguished by the
+dichotomous branching of the antlers and the deeper lachrymal
+fossa. The Virginian Deer is somewhat smaller than the Fallow
+Deer, and of a uniform reddish-yellow colour in summer, and light
+gray in winter.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Blastocerine</i> group of South America is represented by <i>C.
+paludosus</i> and <i>C. campestris</i>, and has dichotomous antlers, with no
+brow tine, and the posterior branch the larger, a short tail, and no
+upper canines. The <i>Furciferine</i> group includes <i>C. chilensis</i> and
+<i>C. antisiensis</i>, confined to western South America. The antlers are
+not longer than the head, with a large anterior tine curving forwards
+at right angles to the simple posterior one. Auditory bullæ slightly
+inflated, and rugose. Upper canines may be present. The species
+are of medium size. <i>C. clavatus</i>, of Central America, while<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_330"></a>[330]</span> resembling
+this group in the characters of the skull and the arrangement
+of the hair on the face, agrees with the next one in having simple
+spike-like antlers.</p>
+
+<p>The South American <i>Coassine</i> group comprises the small forms
+known as Brockets, in which the antlers form simple spikes not
+exceeding half the length of the head. Some six species are known.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of <i>Cariacus</i>, mostly or entirely referable to existing
+species, are of common occurrence in the Brazilian cave-deposits.
+<i>Blastomeryx</i>, of the Pliocene of North America, is believed to be an
+allied type.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pudua.</i><a id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a>—Antlers in the form of minute simple spikes.
+Distinguished from the Coassine group of <i>Cariacus</i> by the articulation
+of the premaxillæ with the nasals (as in the <i>Furciferine</i> group),
+and the coalescence of the ectocuneiform with the naviculo-cuboid,
+as well as by various external characters. No upper canines. Represented
+only by the very small <i>P. humilis</i> of the Chilian Andes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—In the European and other Tertiary deposits
+several genera of extinct <i>Cervidæ</i> occur, of which the more important
+may be briefly mentioned. <i>Amphitragulus</i>, of the Lower Miocene
+of the Continent, has four lower premolars, brachydont molars, and
+no antlers; the largest species being somewhat bigger than the
+Musk-Deer. The closely allied <i>Palæomeryx</i> (<i>Dremotherium</i> or <i>Micromeryx</i>)
+generally has but three lower premolars, and the brachydont
+upper molars (<a href="#figure122">Fig. 122</a>), like those of <i>Amphitragulus</i>, want the small
+accessory inner column<a id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a> found in modern Deer. In <i>P. feignouxi</i>, of
+the Lower Miocene, the lateral metacarpals, although slender, were
+complete, and the males had large canines, but no antlers.
+<i>P. furcatus</i>, of the Middle Miocene, had small antlers, and the canines
+appear to have been reduced in size. This genus, besides being represented
+in the European Miocene, also occurs in the Pliocene of India
+and China; some of the species being as large as the Red Deer.</p>
+
+<h6><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Giraffidæ</span>.</h6>
+
+<p>In the existing genus the frontal appendages consist of a pair
+of short, erect, permanent bony processes placed over the union of
+the frontal and the parietal bones, ossified from distinct centres,
+though afterwards ankylosed to the skull, covered externally with
+a hairy skin, present in both sexes, and even in the new-born animal.
+Anterior to these is a median protuberance on the frontal and
+contiguous parts of the nasal bones, which increases with age, and
+is sometimes spoken of as a third horn. Skull with a lachrymal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_331"></a>[331]</span>
+vacuity. No upper canines. Molars brachydont, with rugose
+enamel; the upper ones having no inner accessory column. Lateral
+digits entirely absent on both fore and hind feet, even the hoofs
+not developed. Humerus with double bicipital groove. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 14, L 5, S 3, C 20. Gall-bladder generally absent. Male
+reproductive organs and placenta of a Bovine type. Dentition:
+<i>i</i> ⁰⁄₃, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp48" id="figure136" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure136.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 136.</span>—The Giraffe (<i>Giraffa camelopardalis</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Giraffa.</i><a id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a>—The Giraffe (<i>G. camelopardalis</i>) is the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_332"></a>[332]</span>
+    sole existing
+representative of the genus, now confined to the Ethiopian region.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the characters noticed above, the Giraffe is
+characterised by its great size and peculiar proportions; the neck
+and limbs being of great length, and the back inclining upwards
+from the loins to the withers.</p>
+
+<p>To produce the extremely elongated neck the seven cervical
+vertebræ are proportionately long, which gives a somewhat stiff and
+awkward motion to the neck. The ears are large, the lips long and
+thin, the nostrils closable at the will of the animal, the tongue very
+long and extensile, and the tail of considerable length, with a large
+terminal tuft. An adult male may have a total height of 16 feet.
+The coloration consists of large blotches of darker or lighter chestnut-brown
+on a paler ground, the lower limbs and under parts being of
+a uniform pale colour. The Giraffe feeds almost exclusively on the
+foliage of trees, showing a preference for certain varieties of mimosa,
+and for the young shoots of the prickly acacia, for browsing on
+which its prehensile tongue and large free lips are specially adapted.
+It is gregarious in its habits, living in small herds of about twenty
+individuals, although Sir S. Baker, who hunted it in Abyssinia,
+states that he has seen as many as a hundred together.</p>
+
+<p>Fossil species of <i>Giraffa</i> occur in Pliocene deposits over Greece,
+Persia, India, and China, thus affording one of many striking instances
+of the former wide distribution of the generic types now confined to
+the Ethiopian region.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allied Extinct Types.</i>—The Pliocene deposits of many parts of the
+Old World yield remains of a number of large Ruminants which show
+such evident signs of affinity with the Giraffe that it is difficult to
+draw up a definition by which they can be separated in characters of
+family value from that genus. On the other hand, some of these
+forms approximate in the characters of the skull to some of the
+brachydont members of the <i>Bovidæ</i>, although it is quite clear from
+the nature of the cranial appendages that they cannot be included in
+that family. All these forms have brachydont molars, with rugose
+enamel, like those of the Giraffe; while several of them have limb-bones
+approximating to those of the latter—the humerus, when
+known, having a double bicipital groove. The nature of the cranial
+appendages (when present) is not fully understood, but it appears
+that in some cases these approximated more to the type of an antler
+than to that of a horn; although, from the absence of a “burr,” they
+appear never to have been shed. A gradual diminution in the
+length of the limbs and neck can be traced from the more Giraffoid
+to the more Bovoid forms of this extinct group; and it is manifest
+that if these animals be included in the <i>Giraffidæ</i> the definition of
+that family as given above must be somewhat modified. Only brief
+mention can be made of the more important genera.</p>
+
+<p>The imperfectly known <i>Vishnutherium</i>, of the Pliocene of India<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_333"></a>[333]</span>
+and Burma, seems to make the nearest approach to the Giraffe, but
+the limbs and cervical vertebræ were decidedly shorter, although of
+a similar slender type. <i>Helladotherium</i>, of the Pliocene of Greece
+and India, is represented by a species of considerably larger size
+than the Giraffe, with no appendages or lachrymal vacuity to the
+skull, and with shorter and stouter limbs and neck.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hydaspitherium</i>, <i>Bramatherium</i>, and <i>Sivatherium</i> are Indian genera,
+characterised by the presence of large palmated and antler-like
+cranial appendages, varying considerably in arrangement. The
+former genus has a large lachrymal vacuity which is absent in the
+two latter. In the first and second genera all the appendages rise
+from a common base; but in <i>Sivatherium</i> there is a pair of simple
+horn-like projections on the orbits in addition to the posterior
+palmated antlers. <i>Sivatherium</i> was an animal of huge bulk, being
+the largest known representative of the Pecora.</p>
+
+<p>Another apparently allied type is <i>Samotherium</i>, of the Pliocene
+of the Isle of Samos, which appears also to have some affinity with
+the Antelopes. The skull is nearly as large as that of the Giraffe,
+and is of the same elongated shape, although depressed between the
+conical horn-cores, which rise vertically above the orbits, and without
+a median bony prominence on the frontals. The horn-cores form
+mere processes of the frontals. The diastema and the mandibular
+symphysis are shorter than in the Giraffe, and the latter is less
+deflected. The teeth, although larger, are almost indistinguishable
+from those of the Giraffe, the only well-marked difference being that
+the last lower premolar has a double in place of a single postero-internal
+column.</p>
+
+<h6><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Antilocapridæ</span>.</h6>
+
+<p>Closely allied to the <i>Bovidæ</i>, but the horns deciduous and branched.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antilocapra.</i><a id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a>—The Prong-buck, or Prong-horned Antelope
+(<i>Antilocapra americana</i>), as the single existing member of this family
+is called, is an animal of nearly the same size as the Fallow Deer,
+but of a lighter and more graceful build. It is an inhabitant of the
+prairies of North America, where it is one of the few representatives
+of the Cavicorn Pecora. The bony horn-cores are unbranched,
+and form vertical, blade-like projections immediately above the
+orbit. The horns themselves are compressed, and nearly one foot in
+length, having a gentle backward curvature, the short branch arising
+somewhat above the middle of its height, and inclining forwards.
+When the horn is about to be cast off it becomes loosened, and a
+new one is formed upon the bony core beneath it. The ears are
+long and pointed, and the tail is short. The neck has a thick mane
+of long<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_334"></a>[334]</span> chestnut-coloured hair, and there is a white patch on the
+rump.</p>
+
+<h6><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Bovidæ</span>.</h6>
+
+<p>Frontal appendages, when present, in the form of non-deciduous
+horns. Molars frequently hypsodont. Usually only one orifice to
+the lachrymal canal, situated inside the rim of the orbit. Lachrymal
+bone almost always articulating with the nasal. Canines absent in
+both sexes. The lateral toes may be completely absent, but more
+often they are represented by the hoofs alone, supported sometimes
+by a very rudimentary skeleton, consisting of mere irregular
+nodules of bone. Distal ends of the lateral metapodials never
+present. Gall-bladder almost always present. The number of
+cotyledons in the placenta generally varies from 60 to 100; whereas
+in the <i>Cervidæ</i> the number is usually from 5 to 12, <i>Capreolus</i> and
+<i>Hydropotes</i> having the fewest. In <i>Giraffa</i> the number is upwards of
+180. The nature of the horns and horn-cores has been already
+explained; in the majority of genera these appendages are present
+in both sexes, although much larger in the male (see <a href="#Page_310">p. 310</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Bovidæ</i>, or hollow-horned Ruminants (Cavicornia), form a
+most extensive family, with members widely distributed throughout
+the Old World, with the exception of the Australian region;
+but in America they are less numerous, and confined to the Arctic
+and northern temperate regions, no species being indigenous either
+to South or Central America. There is scarcely any natural and
+well-defined group in the whole class which presents greater
+difficulties of subdivision than this; consequently zoologists are as
+yet very little agreed as to the extent and boundaries of the genera
+into which it should be divided. For the present the genera
+provisionally adopted may be arranged under a number of sections
+or groups, which some writers regard as subfamilies. The series
+may be commenced with the Antelopes, the greater number of which
+are now characteristic of the Ethiopian region.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alcelaphine Section.</i>—Includes large African Antelopes, of which
+the type genus ranges into Syria; generally characterised by their
+great height at the withers as compared with the rump. Skull with
+large frontal sinuses, extending into the horn-cores, and the horns lyre-shaped
+or recurved, and more or less approximated at the base. No
+large pits at apertures of supraorbital foramina in frontals; upper
+molars hypsodont and narrow. Horns in both sexes. General
+colour mostly uniform.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alcelaphus.</i><a id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a>—If <i>Damalis</i> be included, this genus is represented
+by some nine or ten living species. Head more or less long and
+narrow, with the muffle moderately broad and naked. Nostrils
+approximated, edged with stiff hairs. Horns compressed and ringed
+at the base, more or less lyrate, and bent back at the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_335"></a>[335]</span> tips. Hoofs
+small. Tail of moderate length, and heavy. Two mammæ.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure137" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure137.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 137.</span>—The Harte-beest (<i>Alcelaphus caama</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the typical forms, such as the Bubaline Antelope (<i>A. bubalinus</i>),
+the Harte-beest (<i>A. caama</i>, <a href="#figure137">Fig. 137</a>), and the Tora Antelope
+(<i>A. tora</i>, <a href="#figure138">Fig. 138</a>), the horns, which present the peculiar curvature
+shown in the figures, are situated on a crest at the vertex of the skull,
+and the facial portion of the cranium is greatly elongated. The Harte-beest,
+which is found throughout Central and Southern Africa,
+stands nearly 5 feet high at the withers, and is a somewhat ungainly
+looking animal, with short hair, which is grayish-brown above
+and nearly white beneath. In the Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills in
+Northern India there occur remains of an <i>Alcelaphus</i> (<i>A. palæindicus</i>)
+in which the skull had the long facial portion characteristic of the
+typical group, while the horns approximate to those of the
+Bontebok. The Blessbok (<i>A. albifrons</i>) and Bontebok (<i>A. pygargus</i>),
+belonging to the genus <i>Damalis</i> of many authors, have the facial
+portion of the skull shorter, the horns situated more in advance of
+the plane of the occiput, and inclining regularly backwards. Of the
+Blessbok Mr. C. J. Anderson observes that “it is of a beautiful
+violet colour, and is found in company with black Wildebeests and
+Springboks in countless thousands on the vast green plains of short
+crisp, sour grass occupying a central position in South Africa. Cattle
+and horses refuse to pasture on the grassy products of these plains,
+which afford sustenance to myriads of this Antelope, whose skin<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_336"></a>[336]</span>
+emits a most delicious and powerful perfume of flowers and sweet-smelling
+herbs.” Since the time this was written these Antelopes
+have been greatly reduced in number. <i>A. (Damalis) hunteri</i>, from
+East Africa, appears to be allied to <i>A. senegalensis</i>, but in the more
+elongated facial portion of the skull approximates to the Harte-beest,
+and thus confirms the view that <i>Damalis</i> should not form a distinct
+genus.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="figure138" style="max-width: 23.4375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure138.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 138.</span>—Head of <i>Alcelaphus tora</i>. From Sclater, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1873, p. 762.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Connochætes.</i><a id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a>—Head short and massive, with the muffle very
+broad and bristly. Nostrils widely separated, hairy within. Horns
+on the vertex of the skull, immediately over the occiput, approximated
+at base, cylindrical, bent outwards, and recurving upwards
+at the tip. Extremities of premaxillæ much expanded laterally,
+and firmly ankylosed. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 4, C 16.
+Hoofs very narrow. Tail very long, covered throughout with long<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_337"></a>[337]</span>
+hairs. Four mammæ. Two species, <i>C. taurina</i> and <i>C. gnu</i> (<a href="#figure139">Fig. 139</a>),
+both from South Africa. The former, or Brindled Gnu, is distinguished
+by the absence of long hair on the face, the black (instead
+of white) tail, and the presence of dark vertical streaks on the
+shoulders; it is never found to the south of the Orange River.</p>
+
+<p>The White-tailed Gnu stands about 4 feet 6 inches at the
+withers. These animals were formerly found in large herds, and
+are remarkable not only on account of their peculiar form, but also
+for their grotesque actions when alarmed. Some interesting
+observations have recently been published upon the mode of
+development of the horns of the Gnu,<a id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> from which it appears that
+in very young individuals the horns are straight and divergent,
+situated some distance below the vertex of the head, and separated
+by a wide hairy interval. These young horns form the straight
+tips of those of the adult, the basal downwardly curved portion
+being subsequently developed. In the fully adult animal the base
+of the horns forms a helmet-like mass on the forehead which
+completely obliterates the hairy frontal space of the young.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp79" id="figure139" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure139.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 139.</span>—The White-tailed Gnu (<i>Connochætes gnu</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Cephalophine Section.</i>—Small or medium-sized African and
+Indian Antelopes, with simple horns present only in the males, a
+more or less elongated suborbital gland, a lachrymal depression
+in the skull, and square-crowned<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_338"></a>[338]</span> upper molars (<a href="#figure140">Fig. 140</a>). Lateral
+hoofs well developed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cephalophus.</i><a id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a>—One pair of horns, arising far back on the frontals,
+conical, short, angulated at the base, and erect or recurved. Suborbital
+gland opening in the form of a slit, or as a row of pores.
+Auditory bulla divided by a distinct septum. Muffle large and moist.
+Tail very short. Head tufted. Upper molars of larger species with
+an accessory internal column. Dorsal vertebræ fourteen in number.
+Some sixteen species, confined to southern and tropical Africa.</p>
+
+<p>The Duikerboks, as the members of this genus are called, are
+among the most graceful of the African Antelopes, the smallest
+species not being larger than a rabbit. The West African <i>C.
+sylvicultor</i> and <i>C. longiceps</i> are the largest species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tetraceros.</i><a id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a>—Two pairs of conical horns, of which the anterior
+are much the smaller. Suborbital gland elongated, and lachrymal
+fossa very large. Upper molars
+(<a href="#figure140">Fig. 140</a>) without accessory internal
+column. One existing Indian species
+(<i>T. quadricornis</i>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp75" id="figure140" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure140.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 140.</span>—Palatal and outer aspects of
+the three right upper premolars and first
+molar of the Four-horned Antelope (<i>Tetraceros
+quadricornis</i>). From the <i>Palæontologia
+Indica</i>.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Four-horned Antelope is found
+throughout the peninsula of India in
+jungle. The general colour is brown,
+lighter beneath and on the inside of
+the limbs. Remains of this species
+are found fossil in the cave-deposits
+of Madras, and a small Ruminant from
+the Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills has
+been provisionally referred to this
+genus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cervicaprine Section.</i>—Small or
+large Antelopes now confined to the
+Ethiopian region, with horns present
+only in the males, lachrymal vacuity generally large, more or less
+distinct pits at the apertures of the supraorbital foramina in the
+frontals, and narrow upper molars in which there is no accessory
+internal column.</p>
+
+<p><i>Neotragus.</i><a id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a>—Distinguished from the next genus by having the
+crown of the head tufted, muzzle hairy, premaxillæ long and
+reaching the lachrymals, nasals very short, mesethmoid much
+ossified, third lobe of last lower molar either absent or very small,
+and the hinder lobe of the corresponding upper molar much reduced.</p>
+
+<p>Three species, Salt’s Antelope (<i>N. saltianus</i>), from Abyssinia,
+and also <i>N. kirki</i> and <i>N. damarensis</i>; the two latter<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_339"></a>[339]</span> having a small
+third lobe to the last molar. Writing of the first-named species,
+Mr. W. T. Blanford<a id="FNanchor_216" href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> observes that “the <i>Beni-Israel</i>, or <i>Om-dig-dig</i>,
+one of the smallest Antelopes known, abounds on the shores of
+the Red Sea and throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of
+Abyssinia. It is occasionally, but rarely, found at higher elevations;
+I heard of instances of its being shot both at Serafie and
+Dildi, but it is not often seen above about 6000 feet. It inhabits
+bushes, keeping much to heavy jungle on the banks of water-courses,
+and is usually single, or in pairs, either a male and female or a
+female and young being found together; less often the female is
+accompanied by two young ones, which remain with her until
+full grown.”</p>
+
+<p><i>Nanotragus.</i><a id="FNanchor_217" href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a>—Horns small, parallel with frontals, and rising
+immediately above postorbital process of frontals, in front of the
+fronto-parietal suture. Lachrymal fossa very large, suddenly
+descending in front of the orbit, and extending on to the
+maxilla; lachrymal vacuity small. Auditory bulla large and
+smooth, without internal septum. Nasals of moderate length.
+Crown of the head smooth; naked part of muffle small; aperture
+of suborbital gland small. Lateral hoofs small or absent. Nine
+species.<a id="FNanchor_218" href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a></p>
+
+<p>The typical species is the Royal Antelope (<i>N. pygmæus</i>) of
+Guinea, the smallest existing representative of the Pecora. This
+species, together with <i>N. moschatus</i> and <i>N. tragulus</i> have no lateral
+hoofs, or tufts on the knees. In the <i>Scopophorine</i> group, comprising
+<i>N. scoparia</i>, <i>N. montanus</i>, and <i>N. hastatus</i>, both these appendages
+are present; while in the <i>Oreotragine</i> group (<i>N. melanotis</i> and
+<i>N. oreotragus</i>) the former are present and the latter absent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pelea.</i><a id="FNanchor_219" href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a>—Horns rather small, compressed, upright, scarcely
+diverging, and placed immediately over the orbits. No suborbital
+gland, nor lachrymal fossa; premaxillæ not reaching nasals. Tail
+short and bushy. Colour uniform. One species—the Rehbok
+(<i>P. capreola</i>), South Africa, is nearly of the size of a Fallow Deer,
+although more resembling a Chamois in build and habits. The
+colour is of a uniform light gray. This animal inhabits bare
+rocky districts, and thus differs widely from the Water-buck and
+its allies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cobus.</i><a id="FNanchor_220" href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a>—Large Antelopes, with the horns large, elongate, sublyrate,
+and ringed at the base, and with rudimentary suborbital<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_340"></a>[340]</span>
+glands. Skull with a deep frontal hollow, no lachrymal depression,
+large lachrymal vacuity, and the premaxillæ reaching the very long
+nasals. Tail long, with a ridge of hair above, and slightly tufted
+at the end. Colour uniform. Six species, African.</p>
+
+<p>The Antelopes of this genus are water-loving animals, the
+Water-buck (<i>C. ellipsiprymnus</i>) and the Singsing (<i>C. defassus</i>) being
+well-known examples. Both these species are much alike, standing
+as much as 4 feet 6 inches at the withers. The Water-buck of
+South and Eastern Africa is characterised by the coarseness of
+its long hair; while in the Singsing of West and Central Africa
+the hair is remarkably fine and soft. Fossil Antelopes from the
+Pliocene of India are referred to <i>Cobus</i>. <i>Helicophora</i>, from the
+Lower Pliocene of Attica, is regarded as allied to <i>Cobus</i>, but it has
+no distinct supraorbital pits.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cervicapra.</i><a id="FNanchor_221" href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a>—An allied South African genus in which the tail is
+short and bushy and the premaxillæ do not reach the nasals. Three
+species.</p>
+
+<p>The Reitbok (<i>C. arundineum</i>) is of a grizzly ochre colour; it
+stands nearly 3 feet in height, and has horns about 1 foot in
+length. The Nagor (<i>C. redunca</i>) is about 6 inches shorter, with
+horns of half the length, and fulvous brown above and white
+below; the West African <i>C. bohor</i> being rather larger.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antilopine Section.</i>—A large group of moderate-sized or
+small Antelopes, most abundant in the deserts bordering the
+Palæarctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions. Horns generally
+compressed and lyrate, or recurved, or cylindrical and spiral,
+ringed at base, sometimes present in both sexes. Skull with large
+pits at apertures of supraorbital foramina of frontals, and generally
+a distinct lachrymal fossa. Molars of upper jaw narrow, without
+inner accessory column, and resembling those of the Sheep and
+Goats. Tail moderate, compressed, hairy above.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antilope.</i><a id="FNanchor_222" href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a>—Horns, present only in the male, long, cylindrical,
+subspiral, and diverging. Suborbital gland large, with a somewhat
+linear opening; lachrymal depression of skull very large, and a
+small lachrymal fissure. Glands in the feet; lateral hoofs present.
+One species, India.</p>
+
+<p>The well-known Black-buck (<i>A. cervicapra</i>) is found on open
+plains all over India, except in lower Bengal and Malabar. Old
+males are deep blackish-brown in colour on the back and sides and
+the outer surfaces of the limbs, the under parts and inner surfaces
+of the limbs white, and the back of the head, nape, and neck
+yellowish. Young males and females are fawn-coloured above.
+Very large herds are seen in the plains about Delhi and Mattra,
+which are said in some instances to reach to thousands. Horn-cores<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_341"></a>[341]</span>
+are found in the Pleistocene deposits of the valley of the
+Jumna which cannot be distinguished from those of the existing
+species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Æpyceros.</i><a id="FNanchor_223" href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a>—Horns compressed, lyrate, and wide-spreading;
+present only in male. No suborbital gland, or lachrymal depression
+in the skull. No lateral hoofs. Two species; one from South and
+the other from West Africa.</p>
+
+<p>The Palla (<i>Æ. melampus</i>) is a large Antelope standing over
+3 feet high at the withers, and readily distinguished by its dark red
+colour, gradually shading to white below. It is usually found on
+or near hills in herds of from twenty to thirty. <i>Æ. petersi</i> is
+from the Congo.</p>
+
+<p><i>Saiga.</i><a id="FNanchor_224" href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a>—Nose very large, convex, and inflated. Supraorbital
+gland present. Lachrymal fossa of skull small, and fissure absent;
+narial aperture very large; nasals extremely short; supraorbital
+pits rather small. Horns yellow, lyrate, of moderate length;
+present only in male. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 10. One
+species, Eastern Europe and Western Asia.</p>
+
+<p>The Saiga (<i>S. tatarica</i>) is a clumsily built and somewhat
+sheep-like Antelope inhabiting the steppes; it occurs fossil in the
+Pleistocene of France and England.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pantholops.</i><a id="FNanchor_225" href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a>—Allied in the characters of the head and skull to
+<i>Saiga</i>, but the nose less convex, the nostrils of the male more
+swollen, and the horns of that sex black, very long, compressed,
+and lyrate; those of female very short. One species, Central Asia.</p>
+
+<p>The Chiru (<i>P. hodgsoni</i>) inhabits the highlands of Western Tibet
+and Turkestan. In the former area it generally goes in small herds
+of from three to six, and in the summer may be found grazing in
+early morning on the level spaces frequently found in the river
+valleys at elevations of about 15,000 feet. It is excessively shy
+and difficult to approach. The large size of the narial aperture in
+the skull of Chiru is suggestive of a connection with respiration at
+a high altitude, but this appears to be negatived by the occurrence
+of the same feature in the Saiga.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gazella.</i><a id="FNanchor_226" href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a>—Delicately built and sandy-coloured Antelopes, with
+lyrate or recurved horns, which may be absent in the female, and
+are always smaller and simpler in that sex than in the male. Skull
+with moderate lachrymal fossa, and a distinct lachrymal fissure.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 14. Suborbital gland frequently
+small, and covered with hair. Face with a white streak running
+from the outer side of the base of each horn nearly down to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_342"></a>[342]</span>
+upper end of each nostril, cutting off a dark triangular central
+patch, and bordered externally by a diffused dark line (see <a href="#figure121">Fig.
+121</a>, <a href="#figure121">p. 310</a>). The Gazelles, of which there are some twenty-four
+existing species, are typically Palæarctic desert forms, the
+Springbok (<i>G. euchore</i>) being an outlying South African species.
+<i>G. picticaudata</i> and <i>G. gutturosa</i> are respectively found in Western
+Tibet and Mongolia, the former at great elevations. The
+majority of the Gazelles do not exceed 30 inches in height,
+although <i>G. mohr</i> is 36. Sir Victor Brooke classifies<a id="FNanchor_227" href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> the Gazelles
+as follows:—</p>
+
+<ul>
+  <li>A. No stripe on back; three lower premolars.
+    <ul>
+      <li><i>a.</i> White of rump not encroaching on the fawn
+      of the haunches.
+        <ul>
+          <li>I. Female with horns.
+            <ul>
+              <li>1. Horns lyrate or sublyrate—<i>G. dorcas</i>, <i>G.
+              isabella</i>, <i>G. rufifrons</i>, <i>G. lævipes</i>, <i>G.
+              tilonura</i>, <i>G. naso</i>.</li>
+              <li>2. Horns non-lyrate—<i>G. cuvieri</i>, <i>G. leptoceros</i>,
+              <i>G. spekei</i>, <i>G. arabica</i>, <i>G. bennetti</i>, <i>G.
+              fuscifrons</i>, <i>G. muscatensis</i>.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+          <li>II. Female without horns.
+            <ul>
+              <li><i>G. subgutturosa</i>, <i>G. gutturosa</i>, <i>G.
+              picticaudata</i>.</li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+      <li><i>b.</i> White of rump projecting forwards in an angle
+      into the fawn colour of the haunches. Horns in both sexes.
+        <ul>
+          <li><i>G. dama</i>, <i>G. mohr</i>, <i>G. soemmerringi</i>,
+          <i>G. granti</i> (<a href="#figure121">Fig. 121</a>), <i>G.
+          thomsoni</i>.</li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </li>
+  <li>B. A white stripe down the back, two lower premolars.
+    Horns in both sexes.—<i>G. euchore.</i>
+  </li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>The East African <i>G. walleri</i> is an aberrant species, in which the
+females are hornless, which has been made the type of the genus
+<i>Lithocranius</i>. It is characterised by the extreme density of the
+horns and skull, the slenderness of the mandible, and the small
+size of the cheek-teeth, the upper molars being relatively broader
+and lower than usual. The cranium is remarkable for the shortness
+of its facial portion, the large size and production backwards
+of the supraoccipital, and for the circumstance that the long
+basicranial axis is nearly parallel with the plane of the palate.</p>
+
+<p>Fossil species of <i>Gazella</i> are found in the Pliocene and Pleistocene
+deposits of Europe and India. <i>G. deperdita</i> (<i>brevicornis</i>), of the
+Lower Pliocene of France and Greece, appears to be a generalised
+species in which the lower molars frequently have accessory
+columns, traces of which are found in some of the existing forms.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hippotragine Section.</i>—Includes very large African Antelopes,
+with long horns, present in both sexes, which are placed over or
+behind the orbit, and are either recurved, straight, or subspiral.
+Skull with no distinct pits at apertures of supraorbital foramina in
+frontals, no lachrymal fossa, and only a small lachrymal fissure.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_343"></a>[343]</span>
+No suborbital gland. Tail long, cylindrical, and tufted at the end.
+Upper molars extremely hypsodont, very broad, and with large
+accessory columns, thus closely resembling those of the Oxen.
+Some authorities divide this section into two. In the Pliocene it
+occurs in India and Europe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hippotragus.</i><a id="FNanchor_228" href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a>—Horns stout, rising vertically from a crest over
+the orbit at an obtuse angle to the plane of the nasals, then
+recurved; lachrymal fissure in some instances almost obliterated.
+Neck with an erect recurved mane. Tail very distinctly tufted.
+Four species, tropical Africa and south to the Cape.</p>
+
+<p>The Sable Antelope (<i>H. niger</i>) is one of the best-known
+examples of this genus, occurring in South and East Africa. It
+stands upwards of 4½ feet in height at the withers, and, except
+for some white streaks on the face and the whole of the under
+surface of the body, is of a black colour. The Blaubok (<i>H. leucophæus</i>)
+is distinguished by the glaucous hue of the hair. The other
+species are the Equine Antelope (<i>H. equinus</i>) and Baker’s Antelope
+(<i>H. bakeri</i>) from the Sudan, both closely allied, but the latter
+distinguished by its pale fulvous colour, pencilled ears, and black
+stripes on the shoulder.</p>
+
+<p>Skulls of fossil Antelopes from the Pliocene of India have been
+referred to <i>Hippotragus</i> (<i>H. sivalensis</i>), and Sir V. Brooke suggests
+that the European Pliocene <i>Antilope recticornis</i> is not generically
+separable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oryx.</i><a id="FNanchor_229" href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a>—Horns long, slender, nearly straight or somewhat
+recurved, rising behind the orbit, and inclining backwards in the
+plane of the nasals; lachrymal fossa distinct. Nape maned; tail
+long, and more haired than in <i>Hippotragus</i>. Four species, ranging
+over all the African deserts to Arabia and Syria.</p>
+
+<p>The Gemsbok (<i>O. gazella</i>, <a href="#figure141">Fig. 141</a>), is a South African species
+characterised by its straight horns, the presence of a tuft of
+hair on the throat, as well as by the large patches and stripes
+of black on the head, back, limbs, and flanks. It stands nearly
+4 feet in height at the shoulder, and the horns are 2 feet 9
+inches in length. The colour of the upper part of the body is
+a rusty gray, and of the under part white, while these are separated
+from each other by a well-defined black band on either side.
+These bands unite on the breast, and are continued as a single
+black band until reaching the lower jaw, where they again divide
+and form two transverse bands on the head, terminating at
+the base of the horns. The head otherwise is white, as also are
+the limbs, with the exception of the thighs, which are black.
+The Gemsbok generally goes in pairs, or in small herds of three
+or four. The Beisa (<i>O. beisa</i>) of Abyssinia is distinguished<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_344"></a>[344]</span> by
+the absence of the tuft of hair on the throat. Writing of this
+species in his <i>Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia</i>, Mr. W. T. Blanford
+observes that “the appearance of a herd of Oryx is very imposing.
+They are some of the most elegant and symmetrical of animals, the
+motions being those of a wild Horse rather than of an Antelope.
+Their favourite pace appears to be either a steady quick walk or a
+trot; they rarely break into a gallop unless greatly alarmed.
+When frightened they dash off, sometimes snorting and putting
+their heads down as if charging, raising their long tails, and looking
+very formidable. They are wary animals, though far less so
+than some other Antelopes. It is said that they frequently attack
+when wounded, and their long straight horns are most deadly
+weapons.” The Arabian Beatrix Antelope (<i>O. beatrix</i>) is a much
+smaller animal, with the black markings confined to the head, fore
+limbs, and flanks. Finally, the Leucoryx (<i>O. leucoryx</i>) of North
+Africa, while agreeing in size with the Beatrix, differs by its curved
+horns and uniform coloration.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="figure141" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure141.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 141.</span>—The Gemsbok (<i>Oryx gazella</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The extinct <i>Palæoryx</i>, of the Lower Pliocene of Europe and the
+Isle of Samos, appears to have been an ancestral form of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_345"></a>[345]</span> <i>Oryx</i>, said
+to show some signs of affinity with <i>Hippotragus.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Addax.</i><a id="FNanchor_230" href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a>—Horns with the same inclination as in <i>Oryx</i>, but with
+a slight spiral twist. No mane on nape, but a slight one on the
+throat. Hoofs rounded. One species (<i>A. nasomaculatus</i>), from North
+Africa and Arabia, the colour of which is nearly white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tragelaphine Section.</i>—Includes large, so-called Bovine, Antelopes
+now mainly characteristic of the Ethiopian region, but with
+one Oriental genus. Horns usually present in the male only (if
+developed in the female smaller), with a more or less distinct ridge
+in front, and usually twisted spirally, the front ridge twisting
+outwards from the base of the horn. Skull without lachrymal
+fossa, but with a large or small lachrymal fissure; usually large
+pits at the apertures of the supraorbital foramina on the frontals;
+premaxillæ reaching nasals. Muffle large and moist; nostrils
+approximated. Molars hypsodont or brachydont. Vertical white
+stripes frequently present on the body.</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> <i>Hind limbs much shorter than the fore. Horns behind the orbit,
+short, conical, faintly angulated. Nose bovine. Body without
+vertical stripes. Molars</i> (<a href="#figure123">Fig. 123</a>, <a href="#figure123">p. 311</a>) <i>hypsodont, with
+a large accessory column in those of the upper jaw. One
+Oriental genus.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Boselaphus.</i><a id="FNanchor_231" href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a>—The one genus of this subsection is represented
+only by the well-known Nilghai (<i>B. tragocamelus</i>) of India. The
+male stands over 4 feet in height at the shoulder, with horns
+about 8 inches in length; the hornless female being about one
+third smaller. Both sexes have a short erect mane, and the male
+has also a tuft of hair upon the throat. When adult the sexes
+are very different in colour, the male being of a dark iron gray
+or slate colour, approaching black on the head and legs, while
+the female and young are of a bright light brown or fawn colour.
+In both male and female at all ages the lips, chin, and under parts,
+as well as two transverse stripes on the inner sides of the ears and
+rings on the fetlocks, are white, and the mane and tip of the tail
+black. The Nilghai is one of the few Antelopes occurring in India,
+where it is found from near the foot of the Himalaya to the south
+of Mysore, though rare to the north of the Ganges and also in the
+extreme south. It is most abundant in Central India, and does not
+occur in Assam or the countries to the east of the Bay of Bengal.
+It frequents forests and low jungles, though often found in tolerably
+open plains, associating in small herds. One, or very often
+two, young produced at a birth. Fossil remains of species of this
+genus occur in the Pleistocene and Pliocene deposits of India.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> <i>Fore and hind limbs equal. Horns long, and spirally<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_346"></a>[346]</span> twisted.
+Nose cervine, and aperture of suborbital gland very small.
+Body generally striped. Molars brachydont, those of the
+upper jaw in existing forms with a smaller inner accessory
+column. Three existing Ethiopian genera.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Tragelaphus.</i><a id="FNanchor_232" href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a>—Female hornless. Horns of males (<a href="#figure142">Fig. 142</a>) over
+orbit, with one or two spiral turns, obscurely ridged, the posterior
+ridge being more developed than the anterior. Skull with small
+supraorbital pits, very small lachrymal fissure, and no deep intercornual
+depression in the frontals. Neck maned or smooth. Hoofs
+short or long. Coloration usually brilliant, differing markedly in
+the two sexes, and the white bands on the body, when present,
+numerous and distinct. Seven species.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_347"></a>[347]</span></p>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp57" id="figure142" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure142.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 142.</span>—Head of <i>Tragelaphus gratus</i>. From Sclater, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1883, p. 36.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Harnessed Antelopes are among the handsomest of the
+whole group. The small Guib (<i>T. scriptus</i>) is not larger than a
+Goat, but <i>T. angasi</i> is 3 feet 4 inches in height at the shoulder. In
+<i>T. scriptus</i>, <i>T. angasi</i>, and <i>T. euryceros</i>, the two sexes differ in colour,
+the body is marked by white stripes descending from a white dorsal
+streak, and the hoofs are short; the third species differing from the
+others by the absence of a mane on the neck, back, and belly.
+<i>T. gratus</i> agrees with this group in coloration (the mane being
+absent), but differs in the extreme elongation of its hoofs. The
+Nakong, <i>T. spekei</i>, while having the long hoofs of <i>T. gratus</i>, has a
+perfectly plain body coloration, with a mane on the neck. The two
+species with elongated hoofs inhabit swampy districts, for which
+this peculiar structure is admirably adapted; and the Nakong, when
+frightened, will rush into the water and leave only its nostrils and
+the tips of the horns above the surface. The small Bushbuck
+(<i>T. sylvaticus</i>) of South Africa has no stripes, and short hoofs.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure143" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure143.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 143.</span> The Kudu (<i>Strepsiceros kudu</i>). From Sclater, <i>List of Animals in Zoological Society’s
+Gardens</i>, 1883, p. 136.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Strepsiceros.</i><a id="FNanchor_233" href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a>—Females hornless. Horns (<a href="#figure143">Fig. 143</a>) more twisted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_348"></a>[348]</span>
+than in <i>Tragelaphus</i>, forming an open spiral, with the anterior ridge
+very strongly developed, and rising at an obtuse angle to the plane
+of the nasals. Skull with large supraorbital pits, large lachrymal
+fissure, and deep intercornual depression. Hoofs short. Body with
+white vertical stripes descending from a longitudinal dorsal streak.
+Two existing species.</p>
+
+<p>The Kudu (<i>S. kudu</i>, <a href="#figure143">Fig. 143</a>) extends from South Africa to
+Abyssinia, and is only inferior in size to the Eland. The horns
+are about 4 feet in length, and form a very open spiral, and
+there is a fringe of long hair down the front of the neck. The
+Lesser Kudu (<i>S. imberbis</i>), of Somali-land is a much smaller form,
+without the fringe of hair on the neck, and with a much smaller
+axis formed by the spiral of the horns.</p>
+
+<p>An imperfect skull from the Pliocene of Northern India has
+been referred to <i>Strepsiceros</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oreas.</i><a id="FNanchor_234" href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a>—Females horned. Horns twisted on their own axis,
+with very strong ridges, inclining upwards and outwards in the
+plane of the nasals. General characters of skull as in preceding
+genus. Stripes on body, if present, very faintly marked. One
+existing species.</p>
+
+<p>The Eland (<i>O. canna</i>) is the largest of all the Antelopes, the
+males standing nearly 6 feet at the withers. One variety from
+South Africa is of a uniform pale fawn colour, while the Central
+African form is of a bright tan colour, marked by a number of thin
+pale vertical stripes descending from a dark dorsal ridge—these
+markings fading more or less in the adults. The males have a
+large dewlap, a tuft of brown hair on the forehead, and a small
+mane on the neck. The straight black horns of the male are
+usually about 18 inches long. Elands were formerly extremely
+abundant in Southern and Eastern Africa, but their destruction
+has been so relentless that they have totally disappeared from
+extensive areas, and are daily becoming scarcer.</p>
+
+<p>Portions of upper jaws from the Pliocene deposits of India appear
+to indicate the former existence in that area of large Antelopes
+closely allied to the Eland, but distinguished from the living species
+by the greater size of the inner accessory column in the upper
+molars.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allied Extinct Types.</i>—Large Antelopes with spirally twisted
+horns appear to have been common over Southern Europe in Pliocene
+times, but their exact affinity is in many cases difficult to determine.
+Of these, <i>Palæoreas</i>, which occurs in the Lower Pliocene of Europe
+and Algeria, appears to present affinities both to <i>Oreas</i> and
+<i>Strepsiceros</i>, and may have been the ancestral type from which
+these two genera are derived; the upper molars have well-developed
+accessory columns.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_349"></a>[349]</span></p>
+
+<p>The so-called <i>Antilope torticornis</i>, of the French Pliocene,
+resembles <i>Tragelaphus</i> in the greater development of the posterior
+as compared with the anterior ridge of the horn-cores, and has
+accordingly been referred to that genus. <i>Protragelaphus</i>, of the
+Lower Pliocene of Attica, differs from all the other types in the
+absence of the anterior ridge on the horn-cores and of the
+supraorbital pits, while it has a distinct lachrymal fossa.</p>
+
+<p>In this place it will be convenient to notice certain fossil forms
+which do not accord with any of the existing sections of the family,
+and for the reception of which the <i>Palæotragine</i> section has been
+formed. In these types the horn-cores are laterally compressed
+like those of the modern Goats, but the upper molars resemble those
+of the brachydont Antelopes. The earliest of these genera, and the
+first representative of the Antelopes yet known, is <i>Protragoceros</i>, of
+the Middle Miocene of France, first described as <i>Antilope clavata</i>;
+<i>Palæotragoceros</i> and <i>Tragoceros</i>, of the Lower Pliocene, are distinguished
+by their larger horns and wider molars.</p>
+
+<p>A remarkable large Antelope from the Lower Pliocene of the
+Isle of Samos, in the Turkish Archipelago, proposed to be described
+as <i>Criotherium</i>, appears to be unlike any other form. The horns,
+which are placed on the extreme vertex of the skull, are very
+short, tightly twisted, and project in front of the forehead. The
+upper molars have short and broad crowns, with no accessory
+column on the inner side.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rupicaprine Section.</i>—The Caprine Antelopes, as the typical
+members of this section may be termed, appear to connect the true
+Antelopes with the Goats. They are mostly small or medium-sized
+forms, inhabiting portions of the Palæarctic and Oriental
+regions, with one outlying North American genus. The typical
+forms present the following features. Horns present, and of nearly
+equal size in both sexes, rising behind the orbits, short, ringed at
+the base, conical or somewhat compressed, and recurved. Suborbital
+gland generally present, in some cases small. Build clumsy;
+hoofs large; tail short, tapering, hairy above. Skull with lachrymal
+fossa, but no fissure. Molars as in the Caprine section.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rupicapra.</i><a id="FNanchor_235" href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a>—Horns short and cylindrical, rising perpendicularly
+from the forehead for some distance, then bending sharply backwards
+and downwards, forming hooks with pointed tips. Premaxillæ
+not reaching the nasals. One species, Palæarctic.</p>
+
+<p>The Gemse, or Alpine Chamois (<i>R. tragus</i>), inhabits the high
+mountains of Europe from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus. It stands
+about 2 feet in height at the withers. The body is covered in
+winter with long hair of a chestnut-brown colour, that of the head
+being paler, with a dark brown streak on each side. At other
+seasons the colour is somewhat lighter, in spring approaching<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_350"></a>[350]</span>
+to gray. Underneath the external covering the body is further
+protected from cold by a coat of short thick wool of a grayish colour.
+The tail is black; the ears are pointed and erect; the hoofs have the
+outer edges higher than the soles, and are thus admirably adapted
+for laying hold of the slightest projection or roughness on the face
+of the rocky precipices it frequents. The Chamois is gregarious,
+living in herds of fifteen or twenty, and feeding generally in the
+morning or evening. The old males, however, live alone, except in
+the rutting season, which occurs in October, when they join the
+herds, driving off the young males, and engaging in contests with
+each other that often end fatally. The period of gestation is
+twenty weeks, when the female, beneath the shelter of a projecting
+rock, produces one and sometimes two young. In summer the
+Chamois ascends to the limits of perpetual snow, being only outstripped
+in the loftiness of its haunts by the Ibex; and during that
+season it shows its intolerance of heat by choosing such browsing
+grounds as have a northern exposure.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="figure144" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure144.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 144.</span>—<i>Nemorhædus crispus.</i> From Sclater, <i>List of Animals in Zoological Society’s Gardens</i>,
+1883, p. 151.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Nemorhædus.</i><a id="FNanchor_236" href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a>—Horns rounded, gradually recurving, without
+distinct hook at the end. Suborbital gland small or wanting; ears
+large; skull with a large lachrymal depression, and the premaxillæ
+not quite reaching the nasals. Some nine species, ranging from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_351"></a>[351]</span>
+the Eastern Himalayas to North China and Japan, and southwards
+to Formosa, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra. The smallest
+species is the Himalayan Goral (<i>N. goral</i>). Of the larger forms we
+may mention the Himalayan Serow (<i>N. bubalinus</i>) the Cambing-Utan
+(<i>N. sumatrensis</i>) of Sumatra, and the Japanese <i>N. crispus</i>
+(<a href="#figure144">Fig. 144</a>). Of the Serow, Colonel Kinloch remarks that “it
+is a large and powerful beast. The body is covered with very
+coarse hair, which assumes the form of a bristly mane on the
+head and shoulders, and gives the beast a ferocious appearance,
+which does not belie its disposition. The colour is a dull black
+on the back, bright red on the sides, and white underneath, the
+legs also being dirty white. The ears are very large, the muzzle
+is coarse. The Serow has an awkward gait, but in spite of this can
+go over the worst ground; and it has perhaps no superior in going
+down steep hills. It is a solitary animal, and nowhere numerous.”</p>
+
+<p><i>Haploceros.</i><a id="FNanchor_237" href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a>—The Rocky-Mountain Goat (<i>Haploceros montanus</i>),
+inhabiting the northern parts of California, appears to be very
+closely allied to <i>Nemorhædus</i>. The horns are somewhat compressed
+at the base; there is no suborbital gland; and the ears are small.
+The hair, which is whitish in colour, is very long, and especially
+abundant in the region of the throat, shoulders, flanks, and tail.
+The animal is about the size of a large Sheep.</p>
+
+<p><i>Budorcas.</i><a id="FNanchor_238" href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a>—The Takin (<i>B. taxicolor</i>) of the Mishmi Hills in
+Assam, and an allied species from Eastern Tibet, are larger forms
+apparently related to <i>Nemorhædus</i>, but with a much greater development
+of the horns. The horns of what is considered to be the
+male<a id="FNanchor_239" href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> arise from the vertex of the skull, and are nearly in contact
+in the middle line; they first bend outwards and downwards,
+and then suddenly upwards and backwards. Those regarded by
+Mr. Hume as referable to the female are directed at first outwards,
+and then gradually curve upwards and backwards, without any downward
+flexure or angulation. The horns of the male may be 2 feet in
+length, with a basal diameter of 13 inches. The muzzle is hairy, with
+a small naked muffle. There appear to be considerable seasonal
+and sexual variations in colour; the body being in some cases of
+a yellow dun, while in others it is a dusky, reddish-brown, with
+much black intermingled. The heads of large males are blackish.</p>
+
+<p>Scarcely anything is known of the habits of the Takin, which
+never appears to have been seen alive by Europeans.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caprine Section.</i>—Both sexes with horns, but those of the female
+small. Horns usually compressed, triangular, with transverse
+ridges, and either curving backwards or spiral. Muzzle hairy,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_352"></a>[352]</span>
+without naked muffle. Suborbital gland small or absent; lachrymal
+fossa of skull present or absent. Tail short and flattened. Foot-glands
+frequently present. Molars very hypsodont; those of the
+upper jaw being narrow, without an accessory internal column.
+Mainly Palæarctic, but with some outlying forms.</p>
+
+<p>This section includes the Goats and Sheep, which are so closely
+connected that it is difficult to give well-marked generic characters
+that will hold good for all the species. They seem to be one of
+the latest developments of the <i>Bovidæ</i>, since they are unknown
+before the Pliocene period; and are essentially mountain forms.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="figure145" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure145.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 145.</span>—The Alpine Ibex (<i>Capra ibex</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Capra.</i><a id="FNanchor_240" href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a>—Horns flattened from side to side, and either curving
+backwards (<a href="#figure145">Fig. 145</a>) or spirally twisted. No suborbital gland,
+and no lachrymal fossa in the skull. Foot-glands, if present, only
+in the fore feet. Chin more or less bearded. Males with a strong
+odour. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 9-13. Some dozen species,
+ranging over all the higher mountains of Southern Europe, from
+Spain to the Caucasus; also found in Abyssinia, Persia, Sind, and
+Baluchistan, thence through the higher Himalaya, and so on to
+Tibet and Northern China. One <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_353"></a>[353]</span>outlying species occurs in the
+Nilgherries of Southern India.</p>
+
+<p>The European Ibex or Steinbok (<a href="#figure145">Fig. 145</a>), which may be
+taken as a typical Goat, stands about 2½ feet in height at the
+shoulder. In summer the hair is short and smooth, and of an
+ashy-gray colour, but a long coat is developed in winter. The
+horns of the male rise in a bold backward sweep from the forehead,
+and are characterised by the strong transverse ridges on the broad
+and flat anterior surface. They are said to be not more than some
+2 feet in length, but these dimensions are greatly exceeded by the
+horns of the Himalayan Ibex. The Alpine Ibex lives at a greater
+height than the Chamois, spending the day just at the limit of
+perpetual snow, and descending at night to graze at lower levels.
+Both this and the Himalayan species generally live in small herds
+of from five to fifteen or more; they are wary animals, although not
+so much so as many of the wild Sheep. The following list, mainly
+taken from two papers by Mr. Sclater,<a id="FNanchor_241" href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> gives the distribution
+of the various species of Goats, with some remarks on their
+peculiarities:—</p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>C. ibex</i>, confined to the Alps of Switzerland, Savoy, and
+the Tyrol, and now nearly extinct, except where artificially preserved.
+(2) <i>C. sibirica</i>, closely allied to the preceding, but with
+larger horns, occurs in the Altai Mountains, and throughout the
+Himalaya from Kashmir to Nipal, and northward towards Turkestan.
+(3) <i>C. sinaitica</i>, of the mountains of Upper Egypt, the
+Sinaitic Peninsula, and Palestine, is allied to the two preceding
+species, but has the horns somewhat more compressed, with a
+difference in the ridges on the front. (4) <i>C. caucasica</i>, a very
+distinct species, confined to the Caucasus, where it inhabits the
+western part of the Great Caucasus; with thick horns curving
+backwards and outwards in one plane, with the exception of their
+tips, which incline inwards.<a id="FNanchor_242" href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> (5) <i>C. pallasi</i> is an allied species from
+the Eastern Caucasus, distinguished, among other features, by the
+curvature of the horns, which lie flatter and twist more outward
+from the forehead, with a greater terminal inward bend. (6) <i>C.
+pyrenaica</i>, of the Pyrenees, and the higher ranges of Central Spain,
+Andalusia, and Portugal, is another nearly related species. (7)
+<i>C. ægagrus</i>, formerly abundant over the Grecian Archipelago, but
+now restricted in Europe to Crete and some of the Cyclades, is
+found throughout the mountains of Asia Minor and Persia, and
+thence to Baluchistan and Sind. The horns are thinner and
+sharper in front than in the Ibexes, and this species is generally
+regarded as the ancestral stock of the various breeds of domestic
+Goats. (8) <i>C. dorcas</i>, a Goat from the island of Jura, near Eubœa,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_354"></a>[354]</span>
+has been described under this name, and is apparently nearly allied
+to <i>C. ægagrus</i>. (9) <i>C. walie</i>, an apparently well-characterised
+species from the highest ranges of Abyssinia. (10) <i>C. falconeri</i>;
+the Markhoor differs from all the preceding species by the spiral
+twisting of its horns, which attain enormous dimensions. It occurs
+in the Pir-Panjal range south of Kashmir, and thence into
+Afghanistan and the Suleiman range, and northwards to Astor,
+Gilgit, and Scardo (Baltistan). The specimens from the Suleiman
+range have the spiral of the horns very close, somewhat as in the
+Eland; while in those from Astor, Gilgit, and Scardo it is very open,
+as in the Kudu. The Pir-Panjal race occupies a somewhat intermediate
+position in this respect. (11) <i>C. jemlaica</i>, the Thar,
+inhabits suitable regions along the whole range of the Himalaya
+from Kashmir to Bhutan. Together with the next species, it
+differs from the more typical Goats in its short, thick, and much
+compressed horns, the anterior border of which is keeled, and the
+moist naked muffle. There are no glands in the fore feet. It was
+generically separated by Gray as <i>Hemitragus</i>. (12) <i>C. hylocrius</i>,
+the so-called Ibex of the Nilgherries, Anamallays, and other adjoining
+ranges of Southern India, is an outlying species, apparently
+allied to the preceding, but with somewhat different horns, in
+which the external angle in front is much rounded off.</p>
+
+<p>Of fossil Goats we have but little knowledge. Remains of
+<i>C. pyrenaica</i> are found in cave-deposits at Gibraltar; and it is not
+improbable that the genus is represented in the Upper Pliocene of
+France. Several species occur in the Pliocene of India, <i>C. sivalensis</i>
+being apparently closely allied to <i>C. jemlaica</i>, while another has
+horns resembling those of <i>C. falconeri</i>, and it is possible that a
+third may be more nearly related to the Ibexes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ovis.</i><a id="FNanchor_243" href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a>—Horns curving backwards and downwards in a bold
+sweep, with the tips everted, generally with more or less prominent
+transverse ridges, and brownish in colour. Suborbital gland and
+lachrymal fossa usually present, but generally small. Foot-glands
+in all the feet. Chin not bearded;<a id="FNanchor_244" href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> males without a strong odour.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 10-14. Some twelve species,
+mainly Palæarctic, but extending into the adjacent portions of the
+Oriental region, and with one outlying species in North America.</p>
+
+<p>The more typical Sheep are closely connected with the Goats by
+the Himalayan Bharal (<i>O. nahura</i>) and the Aoudad (<i>O. tragelaphus</i>) of
+Northern Africa, both these species having no suborbital gland and
+no lachrymal fossa, while their comparatively smooth and olive-coloured
+horns show a decided approximation to those of the
+Goats. Both present, however, the ovine character of glands in
+all the feet. In the typical Sheep the basioccipital of the skull<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_355"></a>[355]</span>
+is wider in front than behind, with the anterior pair of tubercles
+widely separated and much larger than the posterior pair. The
+Bharal, however, resembles the Goats in having an oblong basioccipital,
+with the posterior tubercles larger and more prominent
+than the anterior ones, both being situated in the same antero-posterior
+line. These transitions towards the caprine type are,
+however, not sufficient to support the view that the Bharal should
+form the type of a distinct genus (<i>Pseudois</i>), more especially since
+some of the typical Sheep, like <i>O. canadensis</i>, have the lachrymal
+fossa of the skull very much reduced in size.</p>
+
+<p>The distinction of the various permanent modifications under
+which wild Sheep occur is a matter of considerable difficulty. Trivial
+characters, such as size, slight variations in colour, and especially
+the form and curvature of the horns, are relied upon by different
+zoologists who have given attention to the subject in the discrimination
+of species, but no complete accord has yet been established.
+The most generally recognised forms are enumerated below.</p>
+
+<p>The geographical distribution of wild Sheep is interesting. The
+immense mountain ranges of Central Asia, the Pamir and Thian-Shan
+of Turkestan, may be looked upon as the centre of their
+habitat. Here, at an elevation of 16,000 feet above the sea-level,
+is the home of the magnificent <i>Ovis poli</i>, named after the celebrated
+Venetian traveller Marco Polo, who met with it in his adventurous
+travels through this region in the thirteenth century. It is remarkable
+for the great size of the horns of the old rams and the wide
+open sweep of their curve, so that the points stand boldly out on each
+side, far away from the animal’s head, instead of curling round
+nearly in the same plane, as in most of the other species. A Sheep
+from the same region, in which the horns retain their more normal
+development, has received the name of <i>O. karelini</i>, but, according to
+Mr. W. T. Blanford,<a id="FNanchor_245" href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> is not distinct specifically from <i>O. poli</i>. Eastward
+and northward is found the Argali (<i>O. argali</i>), with a wide and
+not very well determined range; it formerly occurred in the Altai,
+but is now found in Northern Mongolia. Still farther north, in the
+Stanovoi Mountains and Kamschatka, is <i>O. nivicola</i>, and away on
+the other side of Behring’s Strait, in the Rocky Mountains and
+adjacent highlands of western North America, is the “Bighorn”
+or Mountain Sheep (<i>O. canadensis</i>), the only member of the genus
+found in that continent, and indeed—except the Bison, Musk-Ox,
+Mountain Goat (<i>Haploceros</i>), and the Prong-buck (<i>Antilocapra</i>)—the
+only hollow-horned Ruminant, being like the rest obviously
+a straggler from the cradle of its race. The two last-named
+species are nearly allied, and are characterised by the slight
+development of the ridges on their horns and the very shallow
+lachrymal fossa. Turning southward from the point from which we<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_356"></a>[356]</span>
+started, and still a little to the east, in Nipal and Western Tibet,
+is the Himalayan Argali (<i>O. hodgsoni</i>), having massive and strongly
+curved horns, with bold ridges, like those of the true Argali.
+Indeed, were it not for their isolated areas there would appear to
+be no grounds for distinguishing these two closely allied forms,
+and it is not improbable that they are really identical. <i>O. brookei</i>,
+appears to have been founded on a hybrid between <i>O. hodgsoni</i> and
+<i>O. vignei</i>. In the same districts, and also in Southern Ladak, there
+occurs the Bharal (<i>O. nahura</i>), with smaller, smoother, and more
+spreading horns. Passing in a south-westerly direction we find a
+series of smaller forms, <i>O. vignei</i> of Ladak, <i>O. cycloceros</i> of Northern
+India, Persia, and Baluchistan. <i>O. gmelini</i> of Asia Minor and Persia,
+<i>O. ophion</i>, confined to the elevated pine-clad Troodos Mountains of
+the island of Cyprus, and said at the time of the British occupation
+in 1878 to have been reduced to a flock of about twenty-five
+individuals, and <i>O. musimon</i>, the Moufflon of Corsica and Sardinia
+(see <a href="#figure146">Fig. 146</a>), believed to have been formerly also a native of
+Spain. In the three latter species the females are hornless. Lastly,
+we have the somewhat aberrant, Goat-like Aoudad (<i>O. tragelaphus</i>),
+of the great mountain ranges of North Africa, in which, as already
+mentioned, the skull and horns resemble those of the Bharal,
+although the tail is longer, and there is a thick fringe of long hair
+on the throat, chest, and fore legs.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure146" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure146.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 146.</span>—The Moufflon (<i>Ovis musimon</i>). From a living animal in the London Zoological
+Gardens.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_357"></a>[357]</span></p>
+
+<p>We thus find that Sheep are essentially inhabitants of high
+mountainous parts of the world, for dwelling among which their
+wonderful powers of climbing and leaping give them special
+advantages. No species frequent by choice either level deserts,
+open plains, dense forests, or swamps. By far the greater number
+of species are inhabitants of the continent of Asia, one extending
+into North America, one into Southern Europe, and one into North
+Africa. No wild Sheep exist in any other part of the world,
+unless the so-called Musk-Ox of the Arctic regions, the nearest
+existing ally to the true Sheep, may be considered as one. Geologically
+speaking, Sheep appear to be very modern animals, or
+perhaps it would be safer to say that no remains that can be with
+certainty referred to the genus have been met with in the hitherto
+explored true Tertiary beds, which have yielded such abundant
+modifications of Antelopes and Deer. They are generally considered
+not to be indigenous in the British Isles, but to have been
+introduced by man from the East in prehistoric times. A fossil
+Sheep (<i>Ovis savigni</i>), apparently allied to the Argali, has, however,
+been described from the so-called Forest-bed of the Norfolk coast.</p>
+
+<p>The Sheep was a domestic animal in Asia and Europe before
+the dawn of history, though quite unknown as such in the New
+World until after the Spanish conquest. It has now been introduced
+by man into almost all parts of the world where settled agricultural
+operations are carried on, but flourishes especially in the
+temperate regions of both hemispheres. Whether our well-known
+and useful animal is derived from any one of the existing wild
+species, or from the crossing of several, or from some now extinct
+species, is quite a matter of conjecture. The variations of external
+characters seen in the different domestic breeds are very great.
+They are chiefly manifested in the form and number of the horns,
+which may be increased from the normal two to four or even eight,
+or may be altogether absent in the female alone, or in both sexes;
+in the form and length of the ears, which often hang pendent by
+the side of the head; in the peculiar elevation or arching of the
+nasal bones in some Eastern races; in the length of the tail, and
+the development of great masses of fat at each side of its root, or
+in the tail itself; and in the colour and quality of the fleece.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ovibos.</i><a id="FNanchor_246" href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a>—This genus is generally considered to be a connecting
+link between the Caprine and Bovine sections, but should rather
+be regarded as an aberrant type of the former. Horns of adult
+male rounded, smooth, and closely approximated at their bases,
+where they are depressed and rugose; curving downwards, and
+then upwards and forwards. Muzzle caprine; no suborbital gland,
+no lachrymal fossa or fissure in skull; orbits tubular; a large<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_358"></a>[358]</span> narial
+aperture and very short nasals; premaxillæ not reaching nasals.
+Tail short, and molar teeth caprine. One existing and two fossil
+species, Palæarctic and Nearctic.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="figure147" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure147.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 147.</span>—The Musk-Ox (<i>Ovibos moschatus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The animal commonly known as the Musk-Ox (<i>Ovibos moschatus</i>),
+though approaching in size the smaller varieties of Oxen, is in
+structure and habits closely allied to the Sheep, its affinities being
+well expressed by the generic name <i>Ovibos</i> bestowed upon it by
+De Blainville. The specific name, as also the common English
+appellatives “Musk-Ox,” “Musk-Buffalo,” or “Musk-Sheep,” applied
+to it by various authors, refer to the musky odour which the animal
+exhales. This does not appear to be due to the secretion of a
+special gland, as in the case of the Musk-Deer; but it must be
+observed that, except as regards the osteology, very little is known
+of the anatomy of this species. It about equals in size the small
+Welsh and Scotch cattle. The head is large and broad. The horns
+in the old males have extremely broad bases, meeting in the median
+line, and covering the brow and whole crown of the head. They
+are directed at first downwards by the side of the face and then
+turn upwards and forwards, ending in the same plane as the eye.
+Their basal halves are of a dull white colour, oval in section and
+coarsely fibrous; their middle part smooth, shining, and round; their
+tips black. In the females and young males the horns are smaller,
+and their bases are separated from each other by a space in the
+middle of the forehead. The ears are small, erect, and pointed, and
+nearly concealed in the hair. The space between the nostrils and
+the upper lip is covered with short close hair, as in Sheep and Goats,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_359"></a>[359]</span>
+without any trace of the bare muffle of the Oxen. The greater part
+of the animal is covered with long brown hair, thick, matted, and
+curly on the shoulders, so as to give the appearance of a hump, but
+elsewhere straight and hanging down,—that of the sides, back, and
+haunches reaching as far as the middle of the legs and entirely
+concealing the very short tail. There is also a thick woolly under-fur,
+shed in the summer. The hair on the lower jaw, throat, and
+chest is long and straight, and hangs down like a beard or dewlap,
+though there is no loose fold of skin in this situation as in Oxen.
+The limbs are stout and short, terminating in unsymmetrical hoofs,
+the external one being rounded, the internal pointed, and the sole
+partially covered with hair.</p>
+
+<p>The Musk-Ox is at the present day confined to the most northern
+parts of North America, where it ranges over the rocky barren
+grounds between the 60th parallel and the shores of the Arctic
+Sea. Its southern range is gradually contracting, and it appears
+that it is no longer met with west of the Mackenzie River, though
+formerly abundant as far as Eschscholtz Bay. Northwards and
+eastwards it extends through the Parry Islands and Grinnell Land
+to North Greenland, reaching on the west coast as far south as
+Melville Bay; and it was also met with in abundance by the
+German polar expedition of 1869-70 at Sabine Island on the east
+coast. No trace of it has been found in Spitzbergen or Franz
+Joseph Land. As proved by the discovery of fossil remains, it
+ranged during the Pleistocene period over northern Siberia and the
+plains of Germany and France, its bones occurring very generally
+in river deposits along with those of the Reindeer, Mammoth, and
+Woolly Rhinoceros. It has also been found in Pleistocene gravels
+in several parts of England, as Maidenhead, Bromley, Freshfield
+near Bath, Barnwood near Gloucester, and also in the lower brick-earth
+of the Thames valley at Crayford, Kent.</p>
+
+<p>It is gregarious in habit, assembling in herds of twenty or thirty
+head, or, according to Hearne, sometimes eighty or a hundred, in
+which there are seldom more than two or three full-grown males.
+The Musk-Ox runs with considerable speed, notwithstanding the
+shortness of its legs. Major H. W. Feilden, naturalist to the Arctic
+expedition of 1875, says: “No person watching this animal in a
+state of nature could fail to see how essentially ovine are its actions.
+When alarmed they gather together like a flock of sheep herded by
+collie dog, and the way in which they pack closely together and
+follow blindly the vacillating leadership of the old ram is unquestionably
+sheep-like. When thoroughly frightened they take to the hills,
+ascending precipitous slopes and scaling rocks with great agility.”
+They feed chiefly on grass, but also on moss, lichens, and tender
+shoots of the willow and pine. The female brings forth a single
+young one in the end of May or beginning of June after a gestation<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_360"></a>[360]</span>
+of nine months. According to Sir J. Richardson, “when this animal
+is fat its flesh is well tasted, and resembles that of the Caribou, but
+has a coarser grain. The flesh of the bulls is highly flavoured, and
+both bulls and cows when lean smell strongly of musk, their flesh
+at the same time being very dark and tough, and certainly far
+inferior to that of any other ruminating animal existing in North
+America.” The carcase of a Musk-Ox weighs, exclusive of fat, above
+3 cwt. On this subject, Major Feilden<a id="FNanchor_247" href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> says: “The cause of the
+disagreeable odour which frequently taints the flesh of these animals
+has received no elucidation from my observations. It does not
+appear to be confined to either sex, or to any particular season of
+the year; for a young unweaned animal, killed at its mother’s side
+and transferred within an hour to the stew-pans, was as rank and
+objectionable as any. The flesh of some of these animals of which
+I have partaken was dark, tender, and as well flavoured as that of
+four-year old Southdown mutton.”</p>
+
+<p>Remains of two fossil species of this genus (<i>O. bombifrons</i> and
+<i>O. cavifrons</i>) have been described from Pleistocene beds in the
+United States, the one from Kentucky and the other from the
+Arkansas River. Both (if indeed they be valid species) appear
+closely allied to the living form.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bovine Section.</i>—Horns present and of nearly equal size in both
+sexes; in form rounded or angulated, placed on or near the vertex
+of the skull, extending more or less outwards, and curving upwards
+near the extremities; external surface comparatively smooth and
+never marked by prominent transverse ridges or knobs. Muzzle
+broad, with large naked muffle; nostrils lateral; no suborbital
+gland. Skull without any trace of lachrymal fossa or fissure. Tail
+long and cylindrical; generally tufted at the extremity, rarely
+hairy throughout. Males usually with a dewlap on the throat. No
+foot-glands. Molar teeth extremely hypsodont; those of the upper
+jaw with a nearly square cross-section, and a large accessory inner
+column.</p>
+
+<p>The section is abundantly represented in the Palæarctic,
+Oriental, and Ethiopian regions, with one Nearctic species and an
+outlying and aberrant species in Celebes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bos.</i><a id="FNanchor_248" href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a>—The whole of the species of Oxen were included by
+Linnæus in the single genus <i>Bos</i>, and although the species have
+been distributed by modern zoologists in several genera—such as
+<i>Anoa</i>, <i>Bubalus</i>, <i>Bison</i>, <i>Poëphagus</i>, <i>Bibos</i>, and <i>Bos</i>—the characters by
+which they are separated are so slight that it seems, on the whole,
+preferable to retain the old genus in its original wide sense. Using
+then the term <i>Bos</i> in this sense, it will include all the representatives
+of the section—about<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_361"></a>[361]</span> a dozen in number—and may be divided
+into several groups.</p>
+
+<p>The first group includes the Buffaloes (genus <i>Bubalus</i>), chiefly
+characterised by their more or less flattened and angulated horns,
+which incline upwards and backwards, with an inward curve
+towards their tips, and are placed below the plane of the occiput,
+or vertex of the skull. The premaxillæ reach to the nasals, and
+the vomer is peculiar in being so much ossified as to join the
+posterior border of the palate. The back has a distinct ridge in
+the region of the withers; and the forehead is frequently convex.
+Oriental and Ethiopian region, and Celebes.</p>
+
+<p>The most generalised representative of this group is the small
+Anoa (<i>B. depressicornis</i>) of Celebes, the type of the genus <i>Anoa</i> or
+<i>Probubalus</i>, which has the same cranial structure as in the more
+typical Buffaloes, to the young of which (as was pointed out by
+the late Professor Garrod) it presents a striking resemblance. Its
+colour is black; and the short and prismatic horns are directed
+upwards from the forehead. In the Pliocene Siwaliks of India
+there occur the remains of larger Buffaloes (<i>B. occipitalis</i> and
+<i>B. acuticornis</i>) closely allied to the Anoa, but with longer and more
+distinctly angulated horns. The still larger <i>B. platyceros</i> of the
+last-named deposits, in which the horns are wide-spreading and
+much flattened, appears to be in some respects intermediate between
+the preceding and following forms. The typical Indian Buffalo
+(<i>Bos buffelus</i>), which has been domesticated over South-East Asia,
+Egypt, and Southern Europe, is, in the wild state, a gigantic animal
+with enormous horns. These horns are longer, more slender, and
+more outwardly directed in the female than in the male; and in
+the former sex may have a length of more than 6 feet from base
+to tip. They are widely separated at their bases, the forehead is
+very convex, and the ears are not excessively large, and have no
+distinct fringe. These Buffaloes frequent swampy and moist districts
+in several parts of India, but it is in many instances difficult
+to decide whether they belong to really wild or to feral races.
+Very large skulls, specifically indistinguishable from those of the
+existing form, occur in the Pleistocene deposits of the Narbada
+valley in India; while an allied, if not specifically identical form,
+occurs in the Pliocene of the same country. There is some doubt
+whether <i>B. antiquus</i> of the Pleistocene of Algeria is most nearly
+related to the Indian or to the African species.</p>
+
+<p>In Africa two species of Buffalo are recognised by Sir Victor
+Brooke,<a id="FNanchor_249" href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> namely the large <i>B. caffer</i>, occurring typically at the Cape,
+but said by this writer to range to Abyssinia, and the smaller
+<i>B. pumilus</i>, which seems to have a very wide distribution. The
+skulls of both these forms are shorter than in the Indian species,
+while the horns are also shorter, much more curved inwardly, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_362"></a>[362]</span>
+more approximated on the forehead. In the large typical form of
+<i>B. caffer</i> from South Africa the colour is black, the horns of the male
+are very thick, much reflected, and closely approximated on the
+forehead, where they form a helmet-like mass.<a id="FNanchor_250" href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> The large northern
+form described as <i>B. æquinoctialis</i> has the horns somewhat less thick,
+and thus approximates to the so-called <i>B. pumilus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The latter occurs typically in Western Africa, where it has also
+been described as <i>B. brachyceros</i>. In the typical form the horns are
+thinner and less reflected than in <i>B. caffer</i>, and in some specimens
+they are more widely separated on the forehead, and are marked at
+their bases by distinct rugæ. The colour is ruddy brown, inclining
+to rufous in one specimen. The skulls of Buffaloes from West
+Africa, probably referable to the form described as <i>B. centralis</i>, appear
+to connect <i>B. pumilus</i> with <i>B. caffer</i>, as shown by their larger size
+and the form of their horns; so that further observations are
+required to show whether the smaller form is really entitled to
+rank as a distinct species, or merely as a well-marked local race.</p>
+
+<p>The second group comprises the Bisons, which are more nearly
+allied to the true Oxen, having similar rounded horns, but the skull
+being less massive, with a longer and more tapering frontal region,
+and a wider frontal diameter. The superior part of the forehead
+is transversely arched, the intercornual space elevated in the
+middle, the horns situated below the plane of the occiput, and
+the orbits more or less prominent. The premaxillæ do not extend
+upwards to reach the nasals. The Bisons (<a href="#figure148">Fig. 148</a>) have the body
+covered with short, crisp, woolly hair, while on the head and neck
+there is an abundance of much longer and darker hair, which forms
+a mane concealing the eyes, ears, and the bases of the horns. There
+is also a long beard beneath the chin; while a line of long hair
+extends from the head nearly to the tail, the latter being tufted
+at the extremity. The withers are much higher than the hind
+quarters, so that there is a kind of hump at the shoulders.</p>
+
+<p>The group is represented by two species—the European and
+the American Bison. The former is the <i>Bos bonasus</i> of Linnæus,
+and is also identical with the <i>Bos bison</i> of Ray. The German name
+<i>Wisent</i> is the equivalent of the Greek <i>Bison</i>. The American
+species is the <i>Bos americanus</i> of Gmelin. Both species are closely
+allied, but the American Bison is slightly the smaller animal of
+the two, and is shorter and weaker in the hind quarters, with
+a smaller pelvis; its body is, however, more massive in front;
+and the hair on the head, neck, and fore quarters is longer and
+more luxuriant. A large bull American Bison, preserved in the
+Museum at Washington, stands 5 feet 8 inches in height at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_363"></a>[363]</span> the
+withers. The European Bison appears to have been formerly
+abundant over a large portion of Europe in the Pleistocene period—the
+fossil race described as <i>B. priscus</i> not being specifically distinct;
+but at the present day it exists only in the primeval forests
+of Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and the Caucasus, where it is
+artificially preserved.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure148" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure148.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 148.</span>—The American Bison (<i>Bos americanus</i>). After Hornaday.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The American Bison formerly ranged over about one-third of
+the North American continent. Thus, to quote from Mr. Hornaday,<a id="FNanchor_251" href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a>
+“starting almost at tide-water on the Atlantic coast, it extended
+across the Alleghany mountain system to the prairies along
+the Mississippi, and southward to the delta of that great system.
+Although the great plain country of the West was the natural
+home of the species, where it flourished most abundantly, it also
+wandered south across Texas to the burning plains of North-Eastern
+Mexico, westward across the Rocky Mountains into New Mexico,
+Utah, and Idaho, and northward across a vast treeless waste to the
+bleak and inhospitable shores of the Great Slave Lake itself.” In
+consequence of the settlement of the country by Europeans the area
+inhabited by the Bison was gradually contracted, till about 1840
+one mighty herd occupied the centre of its former range. The
+completion of the Union Pacific Railway in 1869 divided this great
+herd into a southern and a northern division, the former comprising
+a number of individuals estimated at nearly four millions, while the
+latter contained about a million and a half. Before 1880 the
+southern herd had, however, practically ceased to exist; while the
+same fate overtook the northern one in 1883. In 1889 some twenty
+stragglers in Texas represented the last of the southern herd;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_364"></a>[364]</span>
+while there were a few others in Colorado, Wyoming, Montana,
+and Dakota. A herd of some two hundred wild individuals,
+derived from the northern herd, is preserved by the United States
+Government in the Yellowstone National Park; and it is believed
+that some five hundred of the race known as Wood-Bison exist in
+British territory; but with these exceptions this magnificent species
+is exterminated. The multitudes in which the American Bison
+formerly existed are almost incredible; the prairies being absolutely
+black with them as far as the eye could reach, and the numbers
+in the herds being, as we have said, reckoned by millions. Mr.
+Hornaday even considers that the whole of the game in South
+Africa was never equal to the number of Bison on an equal area of
+the American prairies.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp88" id="figure149" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure149.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 149.</span>—The Yak (<i>Bos grunniens</i>), domestic variety.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>An extinct Bison from the Pleistocene of Texas, known as <i>Bos
+latifrons</i>, was probably the ancestor of the recent American species.</p>
+
+<p>The Yak (<i>Bos grunniens</i>) appears to be allied both to the Bisons
+and the true Oxen, being distinguished from the former by the
+different position occupied by the long hair, which forms a fringe
+investing the shoulders, flanks, and thighs, and grows over the
+whole of the tail. In the skull the orbits are less tubular, the forehead
+flatter, and the premaxillæ less widely separated from the
+nasals. There is no distinct dewlap. Wild Yaks inhabit the
+higher regions of Chinese Tibet and the region of the Karakoram,
+as well as the more outlying parts of Ladak, such as the Changchemo
+valley. Owing, however, to incessant pursuit those now found<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_365"></a>[365]</span>
+within the territories of the Maharaja of Kashmir are stragglers
+from Chinese Tibet. The height of the Yak is somewhat lower
+than that of the larger domestic cattle. The colour of the wild race
+is black, tending to brown on the flanks; but many of the tame
+breeds which have been crossed with ordinary cattle have more or
+less white (<a href="#figure149">Fig. 149</a>), and it is the white tails of these half-breeds
+that are so esteemed in India as “chowries.” Yaks are exceedingly
+intolerant of heat, and the wild ones always live at very great
+elevations. Tame Yaks are extensively used as beasts of burden
+in Tibet, where they are extremely valuable in crossing the high
+and desolate wastes of that region; they have, however, the great
+drawback that they refuse to eat corn, so that in districts where
+there is no grass it is frequently necessary to make forced marches
+with wearied beasts in order to prevent them (and thus the whole
+party) perishing from starvation.</p>
+
+<p>The skull of an extinct species from the Pliocene of Northern
+India, described as <i>Bos sivalensis</i>, appears to indicate a species allied
+to the Yak.</p>
+
+<p>With the Bibovine group we come to the consideration of three
+Oriental species which connect the preceding forms with the
+typical Oxen. The three species are the Gaur (<i>B. gaurus</i>) the
+Gayal (<i>B. frontalis</i>, <a href="#figure150">Fig. 150</a>) of India, and the Banteng (<i>B. sondaicus</i>)
+of Burma, Java, Bali, and Lambok. In this group, as in the true
+Oxen, there are thirteen pairs of ribs, against fourteen in the
+Bisons. All the three species are characterised by the great height
+of the spines of the anterior dorsal vertebræ, causing a prominent
+ridge down the back. The horns, which are of a greenish
+colour in the Gaur, are somewhat flattened, and after running outwards
+are directed upwards instead of backwards; they occupy the
+vertex of the skull. The frontals are more or less concave, the
+premaxillæ do not join the nasals, and the occipital aspect of the
+skull is characterised by the deep incisions made by the temporal
+fossæ. The lower part of the legs is white (<a href="#figure150">Fig. 150</a>), and the hoofs
+are comparatively small and pointed. The Gaur (<i>B. gaurus</i>) is the
+largest of the three species, and inhabits all the large forests of India
+from near Cape Comorin to the foot of the Himalaya; it is commonly
+known to sportsmen as the Indian Bison. It stands fully 6 feet in
+height at the withers, which are much elevated; and since the whole
+back is arched the line from the nose to the root of the tail forms
+an almost continuous curve. The most characteristic feature of the
+animal is, however, the large and convex intercornual frontal crest,
+which curves forward, and thus gives a concave profile to this part
+of the skull. As a rule the Gaur prefers hilly regions, although it
+is sometimes met with on the flat. It is very shy and readily
+frightened; and it has never been domesticated. The Gayal, or
+Mithan, of which a figure is given in woodcut 150, is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_366"></a>[366]</span> at once distinguished
+from the Gaur by the straight line between the horns
+(which are black in colour), owing to the absence of the intercornual
+crest of the latter. The horns are also shorter, more rounded,
+and less curved. In the Indian Museum, Calcutta, there are, however,
+skulls which are to a great extent intermediate between those
+of typical Gaurs and those of typical Gayals, but these may belong
+to hybrids. The Gayal occurs in Assam, Chittagong, and adjacent
+districts, but it appears that these animals exist in a semi-domesticated
+condition, no wild race being known to Europeans, although
+it is probable that such may exist in the unexplored Mishmi Hills.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="figure150" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure150.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 150.</span>—The Gayal (<i>Bos frontalis</i>). From Sclater, <i>List of Animals in Zoological
+Society’s Gardens</i>, 1883.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Banteng (<i>B. sondaicus</i>) is a smaller and lighter built animal
+than either of the preceding, with a longer and sharper head, and
+more rounded and slender horns. The dorsal ridge is, moreover,
+but slightly developed; while the bright dun colour of the body
+of the female readily distinguishes it from the darker hue of the
+Gaur and Gayal.</p>
+
+<p>A fossil skull from the Pleistocene deposits of the Narbada
+valley, India, described as <i>Bos palæogaurus</i>, is believed to indicate
+a species<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_367"></a>[367]</span> nearly allied to the Gaur, if indeed it be specifically
+distinct.</p>
+
+<p>The true Oxen, or Taurine group, are now represented solely
+by <i>Bos taurus</i> and <i>Bos indicus</i>. Both of these species are now known
+only by domesticated races, unless the herds of the former preserved
+at Chillingham and some other British parks are the survivors
+of an original wild race. The dorsal ridge of the Bibovine group
+is here wanting; the horns are rounded, with their extremities
+directed backwards, and are placed at the extreme vertex of the
+skull; while the long frontal region is nearly flat; the temporal
+fossæ scarcely intrude upon the occipital aspect of the skull; and
+the premaxillæ reach the nasals. The hoofs are large and rounded.
+It is known that wild Oxen were abundant in the forests of Europe
+at the time of Julius Cæsar, by whom they were described as the
+Urus, equal to the German Aurochs; and the large skulls found in
+turbary and Pleistocene deposits, and described under the name of
+<i>Bos primigenius</i>, can only be regarded as having belonged to the
+large original race of <i>B. taurus</i>, of which it has been thought the
+Chillingham cattle are smaller descendants.<a id="FNanchor_252" href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> The subfossil skulls
+described as <i>B. longifrons</i> and <i>B. frontosus</i> must also be looked upon
+as referable to smaller races of the same species. That the domestic
+cattle of Europe are descendants from the various races of the same
+original species there can be no doubt, but in the case of the humped
+cattle of India (<i>B. indicus</i>) it is quite probable that their origin
+may be, at least in part, different. The extinct <i>Bos namadicus</i>, of
+the Pleistocene deposits of India, was a species with the general
+characters of the Taurine group, but with an inclination to a
+flattening of the horns, and with an approximation to a Bibovine
+type of occiput, as well as with the separation of the premaxillæ
+from the nasals.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest representatives of this group occur in the Pliocene
+of the Siwalik Hills in Northern India. One of these species
+(<i>B. planifrons</i>) appears to be allied to <i>B. namadicus</i>; but the other
+(<i>B. acutifrons</i>) was a gigantic species characterised by the sharp
+median angulation of the frontal region, and the pyriform section
+of the enormous horn-cores.</p>
+
+<p>The extinct <i>B. elatus</i>, from the Upper Pliocene of France and
+Italy, is the representative of a generalised type, which may be
+known as the Leptobovine group. The males had rounded horn-cores
+widely separated at their bases, and placed low down on the
+forehead. The females (which have been described as <i>Leptobos</i>) were
+often or always hornless. The limbs were unusually slender.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_368"></a>[368]</span>
+This group also occurs in the Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Perissodactyla</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>This is a perfectly well-defined group of Ungulate mammals,
+represented in the actual fauna of the world by only three distinct
+types or families—the Tapirs, the Rhinoceroses, and the Horses—poor
+in genera and species, and (except in the case of the two
+domesticated species of <i>Equus</i>, which have been largely multiplied
+and diffused by man’s agency) not generally numerous in individuals,
+though widely scattered over the earth’s surface. Palæontological
+records, however, show very clearly that these are but the surviving
+remnants of a very extensive and much-varied assemblage of
+animals, which flourished upon the earth through the Tertiary
+geological period, and which, if it could be reconstructed in its
+entirety, would not only show members filling up structurally the
+intervals between the existing apparently isolated forms, but would
+also show several marked lines of specialisation which have become
+extinct without leaving any direct successors.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="figure151" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure151.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 151.</span>—Bones of right fore foot of existing Perissodactyles. A, Tapir (<i>Tapirus indicus</i>),
+× ⅕; B, Rhinoceros (<i>Rhinoceros sumatrensis</i>), × ⅙; C, Horse (<i>Equus caballus</i>), × ⅛. <i>U</i>, ulna;
+<i>R</i>, radius; <i>c</i>, cuneiform; <i>l</i>, lunar; <i>s</i>, scaphoid; <i>u</i>, unciform; <i>m</i>, magnum; <i>td</i>, trapezoid; <i>tm</i>,
+trapezium.—From Flower, <i>Osteology of Mammalia</i>.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The following are the principal characters distinguishing them
+from the Artiodactyla. Premolar and molar teeth in continuous
+series, with massive, quadrate, transversely ridged or complex<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_369"></a>[369]</span>
+crowns,—the posterior premolars often resembling the true molars
+in size and structure. Crown of the last lower molar commonly
+bilobed, and if a third lobe is present in this tooth it is wanting in
+the last lower milk-molar. Dorso-lumbar vertebræ never fewer than
+twenty-two, usually twenty-three in the existing species. Nasal
+bones expanded posteriorly. An alisphenoid canal. Femur with
+a third trochanter.<a id="FNanchor_253" href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> The middle or third digit on both fore and
+hind feet larger than any of the others, and symmetrical in itself,
+the free border of the ungual phalanx being evenly rounded (see
+<a href="#figure151">Fig. 151</a>). This may be the only functional toe, or the second and
+fourth may be subequally developed on each side of it. In the
+Tapirs and many extinct forms, the fifth toe also remains on the
+fore limb, but its presence does not interfere with the symmetrical
+arrangement of the remainder of the foot around the median line
+of the third or middle digit. Traces of a hallux have only been
+found in some extremely ancient and primitive forms. The
+astragalus has a pulley-like surface above for articulation with the
+tibia, but its distal surface is flattened and unites to a much greater
+extent with the navicular than with the cuboid, which bone is
+of comparatively less importance than in the Artiodactyla. The
+calcaneum does not articulate with the lower or distal extremity of
+the fibula. The stomach is always simple, the cæcum is large and
+capacious, the placenta diffused, and the mammæ are inguinal.
+The gall-bladder is invariably absent.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the dentition, the whole of the premolar series
+may be preceded by milk-teeth; and it has been demonstrated in
+<i>Rhinoceros</i> that when there is no displacement of the first cheek-tooth
+that tooth is a persistent milk-molar; the same condition
+apparently holding good in <i>Palæotherium.</i> This feature indicates
+considerable dental specialisation, the milk-molars, according to the
+theory generally accepted by the leading English zoologists, being
+the acquired, and the premolars the original series. Another
+peculiar feature of the dentition of the Perissodactyla, very rarely
+met with among the Artiodactyla, is that the premolars tend to
+resemble the true molars; this feature occurring in all the existing
+genera, although not found in the earlier generalised types. The
+cheek-teeth of all the members of the suborder are primarily constructed
+on some modification of what is known as the lophodont
+plan. Thus the upper molars (<a href="#figure155">Fig. 155</a>, <a href="#figure155">p. 375</a>) have an outer antero-posterior
+wall from which proceed two transverse ridges, formed by
+the coalescence of the primitive inner and outer columns, towards
+the inner aspect of the crown; while in the lower molars there
+may be either two simple transverse ridges, or these ridges may be
+curved into crescents, coming into contact with one another at their
+extremities. Those forms having brachydont teeth show this plan<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_370"></a>[370]</span>
+of structure in its simplest modification; but in cases, as in the
+Horse, where the teeth assume an extremely hypsodont form, the
+original plan is so obscured by infoldings of the enamel that it can
+only be traced with difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>At the present day the Perissodactyla are sharply differentiated
+into Horses, Tapirs, and Rhinoceroses, but the knowledge
+already gained of the extinct representatives of the suborder shows
+such a close alliance between these groups that it is exceedingly
+difficult to make any satisfactory classification of the whole. This
+is of course exactly what might have been expected; and the same
+would doubtless be the case with all other groups if we knew as
+much of their past history as we do of that of the Perissodactyles.</p>
+
+<p>The detailed account of the anatomy of the Horse given in the
+sequel will afford much information as to the general structure of
+the members of the suborder.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Tapiridæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Both upper and lower cheek-teeth brachydont and simply
+bilophodont; hinder premolars as complex as the molars; last lower
+molar without third lobe; first upper cheek-tooth with a milk-predecessor.<a id="FNanchor_254" href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a>
+Outer columns of upper molars conical. Four digits
+in the manus, and three in the pes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tapirus.</i><a id="FNanchor_255" href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a>—Dentition <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 42. Of the
+upper incisors, the first and second are nearly equal, with short,
+broad crowns; the third is large and conical, considerably larger
+than the canine, which is separated from it by an interval. Lower
+incisors diminishing in size from the first to the third; the canine,
+which is in contact with the third incisor, large and conical, working
+against (and behind) the canine-like third upper incisor. In both
+jaws there is a diastema between the canines and the commencement
+of the teeth of the cheek-series, which are all in contact.
+First upper premolar with a triangular crown, narrow in front
+owing to the absence of the anterior inner cusp. The other upper
+premolars and molars all formed on the same plan and of nearly
+the same size, with four roots and quadrate crowns, rather wider
+transversely than from before backwards, each having four cusps,
+connected by a pair of transverse ridges, anterior and posterior.
+The first lower premolar compressed in front; the others composed
+of a simple pair of transverse crests, with a small anterior and
+posterior circular ridge.</p>
+
+<p>Skull elevated and compressed. Orbit and temporal fossa
+widely continuous, there being no true postorbital process from
+the frontal bone. Anterior narial apertures very large, and extending<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_371"></a>[371]</span>
+high on the face between the orbits; nasal bones short, elevated,
+triangular, and pointed in front. Vertebræ: C 7, D 18, L 5, S 6,
+C about 12. Limbs short and stout. Forefeet with four toes,
+having distinct hoofs: the first is absent, the third the longest, the
+second and fourth nearly equal, the fifth the shortest and scarcely
+reaching the ground in the ordinary standing position. Hind feet
+with the typical Perissodactyle arrangement of three toes,—the
+middle one being the largest, the two others nearly equal. Nose
+and upper lip elongated into a flexible, mobile snout or short proboscis,
+near the end of which the nostrils are situated. Eyes rather
+small. Ears of moderate size, ovate, erect. Tail very short. Skin
+thick and but scantily covered with hair.</p>
+
+<p>The existing species of Tapir may be grouped into two sections,
+the distinctive characters of which are only recognisable in the
+skeleton. (A) With a great anterior prolongation of the ossification
+of the nasal septum (mesethmoid), extending in the adult far
+beyond the nasal bones, and supported and embraced at the base
+by ascending plates from the maxillæ (genus <i>Elasmognathus</i>, Gill).
+Two species, both from Central America, <i>Tapirus bairdi</i> and <i>T. dowi</i>.
+The former is found in Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica,
+and Panama; the latter in Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.
+(B) With ossification of the septum not extending farther forward
+than the nasal bones (<i>Tapirus</i> proper). Three species, <i>T. indicus</i>,
+the largest of the genus, from the Malay Peninsula (as far north as
+Tavoy and Mergui), Sumatra, and Borneo, distinguished by its
+peculiar coloration, the head, neck, fore and hind limbs, being glossy
+black, and the intermediate part of the body white; <i>T. americanus</i>
+(<i>T. terrestris</i>, Linn.), the common Tapir of the forests and lowlands
+of Brazil and Paraguay (<a href="#figure152">Fig. 152</a>); and <i>T. roulini</i>, the Pinchaque
+Tapir of the high regions of the Andes. All the American species
+are of a nearly uniform dark brown or blackish colour when adult;
+but it is a curious circumstance that when young (and in this the
+Malay species conforms with the others) they are conspicuously
+marked with spots and longitudinal stripes of white or fawn colour
+on a darker ground.</p>
+
+<p>The habits of all the kinds of Tapirs appear to be very similar.
+They are solitary, nocturnal, shy, and inoffensive, chiefly frequenting
+the depths of shady forests and the neighbourhood of water, to
+which they frequently resort for the purpose of bathing, and in
+which they often take refuge when pursued. They feed on various
+vegetable substances, as shoots of trees and bushes, buds, and
+leaves. They are hunted by the natives of the lands in which they
+live for the sake of their hides and flesh.</p>
+
+<p>The singular fact of the existence of so closely allied animals as
+the Malayan and the American Tapirs in such distant regions of the
+earth, and in no intervening places, is accounted for by what is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_372"></a>[372]</span>
+known of the geological history of the race; for the Tapirs must
+once have had a very wide distribution. There is no proof of their
+having lived in the Eocene epoch, but in deposits of Miocene and
+Pliocene date remains undistinguishable generically from the modern
+Tapirs, and described as <i>T. priscus</i>, <i>T. arvernensis</i>, etc., have been
+found in France, Germany, and in the Red Crag of Suffolk. Tapirs
+appear, however, to have become extinct in Europe before the
+Pleistocene period, since none of their bones or teeth have been found
+in any of the caverns or alluvial deposits in which those of Elephants,
+Rhinoceroses, and Hippopotamuses occur in abundance; but in other
+regions their distribution at this age was far wider than at present,
+as they are known to have extended eastward to China (<i>T. sinensis</i>,
+Owen) and westwards over the greater part of the southern United
+States of America, from South Carolina to California. Lund also
+distinguished two species or varieties from the caves of Brazil, one
+of which appears identical with <i>T. americanus</i>. Thus we have no
+difficulty in tracing the common origin in the Miocene Tapirs of
+Europe of the now widely separated American and Asiatic species.
+It is, moreover, interesting to observe how very slight an amount
+of variation has taken place in forms isolated during such an
+enormous period of time.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp79" id="figure152" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure152.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 152.</span>—The American Tapir (<i>Tapirus americanus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_373"></a>[373]</span></p>
+
+<p>The anatomy of the soft parts of the Tapirs<a id="FNanchor_256" href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a> conforms to the
+general Perissodactyle type, as exemplified in the Rhinoceros and
+the Horse, although on the whole (as might have been expected)
+presenting a closer resemblance to the former. <i>T. americanus</i>
+differs from <i>T. indicus</i> by the absence, or at any rate the less
+development, of the intestinal valvulæ conniventes, the presence
+of a moderator band in the heart, the shape of the glans penis,
+and the more elongated cæcum, which is sacculated by four distinct
+longitudinal fibrous bands. The convolutions of the hemispheres
+of the brain of the Tapirs are simpler than in other Perissodactyles,
+thus tending to confirm the inferences which may be drawn
+from the skeleton and teeth as to the comparatively low or generalised
+organisation of these animals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Palæotapirus.</i>—This name has been applied to an imperfectly
+known form from the Upper Eocene Phosphorites of Central France,
+which is regarded by Dr. Filhol as referable to this family.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Lophiodontidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Molars brachydont and bilophodont, those of the lower jaw with
+either straight or imperfectly crescentoid ridges; premolars smaller
+and usually simpler than the molars; last lower molar generally
+with a third lobe. Outer columns of upper molars conical or
+flattened. Digits usually as in the preceding family.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure153" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure153.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 153.</span>—Right side of skull of <i>Hyracotherium leporinum</i>, from the London Clay. ½ natural
+size. (After Owen.) 3, Occiput; 7, sagittal crest; 11, frontals; 15, nasals; 21, maxilla; 22,
+premaxilla; <i>d</i>, mandibular condyle; <i>a</i>, aperture of facial nerve; <i>p</i> 1-4, premolars; <i>m</i> 1-3, molars.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This family includes a number of more or less imperfectly
+known forms, all of which are extinct and apparently confined to
+the Eocene period, and ranging from the size of a Rabbit to that of
+a Rhinoceros. Although some of these appear to have died out
+without giving rise to more specialised forms, it is probable that this
+family contained the ancestral types from which most or all of the
+modern Perissodactyles have been derived. Only very brief mention
+can be made here of some of the leading genera. <i>Lophiodon</i>, of the
+Middle and Upper Eocene of Europe, with the dental formula,
+<i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, includes the largest representatives of the family,
+and is generally regarded as a stock which has died out without
+giving rise to later forms. The ridges of the lower molars are
+straight, and the last of these teeth has a third lobe; while the
+second transverse ridge of the last upper premolar is usually incomplete;
+the outer columns of the upper molars are flattened, as in
+the next genus. <i>Hyrachyus</i>, of the Upper Eocene of the United
+States, and probably also occurring in the French Eocenes, is an
+allied genus, with four premolars and no third lobe to the last lower
+molar; the fourth upper premolar having the two ridges uniting
+internally to form a crescent. This genus has been regarded as the
+ancestor of the Rhinocerotic <i>Hyracodon</i>. The genus <i>Hyracotherium</i>
+was established in 1839 by Owen for a small animal no larger than<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_374"></a>[374]</span>
+a Hare, the skull of which was found in the London Clay at Herne
+Bay. A more nearly perfect specimen, apparently of the same species,
+was afterwards (in 1857) described under the name of <i>Pliolophus vulpiceps</i>,
+of which the skull is figured in the accompanying woodcut.
+Other forms referable to the same genus have been obtained from
+the Wasatch Eocene of the United States, and were described
+by Professor Marsh under the name of <i>Eohippus</i>. There were four
+premolars, the fourth being unlike the molars, and in the upper jaw
+having only one inner cusp. The upper molars are of the general
+type of those of <i>Lophiodon</i>, but have conical outer columns, and
+the anterior transverse ridge imperfect, while the ridges of the
+lower molars are crescentoid. <i>Systemodon</i> differs from <i>Hyracotherium</i>
+by the absence of a diastema between the first and second premolars;
+it occurs in the Wasatch Lower Eocene of the United States.
+In <i>Pachynolophus</i> (<i>Lophiotherium</i>, <i>Orotherium</i>, or <i>Orohippus</i>), which is
+common to the Middle and Upper Eocene of Europe and the Bridger
+Eocene of North America, the outer columns of the upper molars
+are flattened, and in some cases, at least, the last premolar resembles
+the molars, that of the upper jaw having two inner cusps.<a id="FNanchor_257" href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> This
+genus, indeed, so closely connects <i>Hyracotherium</i> with the genera
+<i>Epihippus</i> and <i>Anchilophus</i> as to show that the distinction between
+the <i>Lophiodontidæ</i> and <i>Palæotheriidæ</i> is really an arbitrary one.
+<i>Epihippus</i>, of the Upper Eocene of the United States, has both the
+third and fourth upper premolars as complex in the molars, and
+is distinguished from <i>Anchilophus</i> by the lower cusps and more
+imperfect transverse ridges of these teeth. The so-called <i>Orohippus
+agilis</i> belongs to this genus. <i>Isectolophus</i> is another American Eocene
+genus which may be provisionally placed in this family; it is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_375"></a>[375]</span>
+regarded by Professors Scott and Osborn as connecting <i>Systemodon</i>
+with the <i>Tapiridæ</i>; the fourth and probably the third upper premolar
+approximating in structure to the molars; the upper molars
+have conical outer columns. <i>Helaletes</i> is another closely allied
+form, with similar premolars, but with the outer columns of the
+upper molars flattened.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure154" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure154.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 154.</span>—Restoration of <i>Palæotherium</i> (Upper Eocene). After Cuvier.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Palæotheriidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp90" id="figure155" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure155.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 155.</span>—A half-worn right upper molar of
+<i>Palæotherium magnum</i>. (After Owen.) <i>f</i>, <i>f</i>,
+External surfaces of outer columns; <i>a</i>, postero-external
+column (metacone); <i>b</i>, antero-external
+column (paracone); <i>c</i>, postero-internal
+column (hypocone); <i>d</i>, antero-internal column
+(protocone); <i>i</i>, anterior intermediate column
+(protoconule); <i>e</i>, median valley; <i>g</i>, posterior
+valley.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Molars (<a href="#figure155">Fig. 155</a>) brachydont, with the valleys between the
+ridges never filled with cement; upper premolars either simpler than
+or as complex as the molars; lower molars with crescentoid ridges,
+and the last of the series with or without a third lobe. Outer
+columns of upper molars flattened.
+Orbit (at least usually) confluent
+with temporal fossa. Three digits
+on each foot. This family includes
+extinct genera ranging from
+the Middle and Upper Eocene to
+the Miocene, and passes so gradually
+into the following one that the
+maintenance of the two can only
+be supported on the ground of
+convenience. The typical genus,
+<i>Palæotherium</i>, was made known to
+science in the early part of the
+present century by Cuvier, who
+restored the skeleton (<a href="#figure154">Fig. 154</a>)
+with a short neck like that of the
+Tapirs, although it has been subsequently
+found that the neck
+was considerably longer. This<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_376"></a>[376]</span>
+genus (which may be taken to include <i>Paloplotherium</i>) ranges from
+the Middle to the Upper Eocene of Europe, and usually has the full
+typical dentition, although the first premolar may disappear. The
+last lower molar has a third lobe; and in the typical forms the last
+premolar is as complex as the molars, the diastema is short, and the
+canines are not large. In other forms, however, the hinder ridge of
+the fourth upper premolar may be aborted. The first upper cheek-tooth
+is generally a well-developed tooth, which may have a
+deciduous predecessor. <i>Anchilophus</i>, of the Upper Eocene of Europe,
+and <i>Anchitherium</i>, of the Miocene of Europe and North America,
+connect the preceding forms with the <i>Equidæ</i>. In the latter genus
+there is the full number of teeth, the last lower molar has almost
+completely lost the third lobe of <i>Anchilophus</i>, and the surfaces
+of the two outer lobes of the upper molars (<a href="#figure157">Figs. 157, 158</a>) lack
+the median vertical ridges of that genus. In the American
+species of <i>Anchitherium</i> (which have been described as <i>Mesohippus</i>
+and <i>Miohippus</i>) the lateral digits are larger than in the European
+Middle Miocene <i>Anchitherium aurelianense</i>; a mere splint represents
+the fifth metacarpal, and the meso- and ento-cuneiform of the tarsus
+do not unite as they do in the latter.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Equidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Molars hypsodont, with the outer columns of the upper ones
+flattened, the valleys completely filled with cement, and the enamel
+thrown into folds and plications; upper premolars as complex as
+molars, which they slightly exceed in size; ridges of lower molars
+crescentoid, and complicated by enamel-foldings; no distinct third
+lobe to last lower molar; summits of incisors with a central infolding
+of enamel. Orbit completely surrounded by bone. Digits
+three or one, but in the former case the median one is alone of
+functional importance; ulna and fibula incomplete; meso- and ento-cuneiform
+of tarsus united.</p>
+
+<p>Such are the leading characters which serve to distinguish the
+existing Horses and their nearest fossil allies from the <i>Palæotheriidæ</i>.
+The Horse, as being the best known of the Perissodactyle Ungulates,
+is selected for a somewhat detailed description; but before
+proceeding to this it will be advisable to take a brief survey
+of the relations of the <i>Equidæ</i> to the extinct forms already
+noticed, and also of the modifications of the family at present
+existing.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest form which can be certainly included in this line of
+descent is the American Lower Eocene genus <i>Phenacodus</i> (noticed
+below under the head of the suborder Condylarthra), in which
+there were five complete digits to the feet. From this form there
+is but a step to <i>Systemodon</i> and <i>Hyracotherium</i>, in which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_377"></a>[377]</span> the functional
+digits of the manus were reduced to four, as in <i>Pachynolophus</i>
+(<a href="#figure156">Fig. 156</a>, <i>a</i>), although one species retained a rudiment of the
+metacarpal of the pollex.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure156" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure156.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 156.</span>—Successive stages of modification of the feet of extinct forms of Horse-like
+animals (chiefly from Marsh), showing gradual reduction of the outer and enlargement of the
+middle toe (<span class="allsmcap">III</span>). <i>a</i>, <i>Pachynolophus</i> (Eocene); <i>b</i>, <i>Anchitherium</i> (Early Miocene); <i>c</i>, <i>Anchitherium</i>
+(Late Miocene); <i>d</i>, <i>Hipparion</i> (Pliocene); <i>e</i>, <i>Equus</i> (Pleistocene).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The transition from these animals of the Eocene period to the
+Horses of modern times has been accompanied by a gradual increase
+in size. The diminutive <i>Hyracotherium</i> of the Lower, and <i>Pachynolophus</i>
+of the Middle and Upper Eocene were succeeded in the
+Miocene period by the forms to which the name of <i>Anchitherium</i>
+has been given, of the size of sheep; these again in Pliocene times
+by <i>Hipparion</i> and <i>Protohippus</i>, as large as the modern donkeys; and
+it is mainly in the Pleistocene period that <i>Equidæ</i> occur which
+approach in size the existing Horse. Important structural modifications
+have also taken place, with corresponding changes in the
+mode of life of the animal. Thus the neck has become elongated,
+the skull altered in form, the teeth greatly modified, and the limbs
+have undergone remarkable changes. The last two require to be
+described more in detail.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure157" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure157.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 157.</span>—<i>a</i>, Grinding surface of unworn molar tooth of <i>Anchitherium</i>; <i>b</i>, corresponding
+surface of unworn molar of young Horse; <i>c</i>, the same tooth after it has been some time in use.
+The uncoloured portions are the dentine or ivory, the shaded parts the cement filling the
+cavities and surrounding the exterior. The black line separating these two structures is the
+enamel or hardest constituent of the tooth.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The teeth in the Eocene forms had, as mentioned above, the
+characteristic number of forty-four. This number has been retained
+throughout the series, at least theoretically; but one tooth on either
+side of each jaw, the anterior premolar, which in all the Eocene
+and Miocene species was well developed, persisting through the
+lifetime of the animal, is in all modern Horses rudimentary,
+functionless, and generally lost at an early period of life, evidently
+passing through a stage which must soon lead to its complete disappearance.
+The canines have also greatly diminished in size, and
+are rarely present in the female sex, so that practically a very large
+number of adult Horses of the present day have eight teeth less
+than the number possessed by their predecessors. The diastema<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_378"></a>[378]</span>
+or interval between the incisor and premolar teeth (of essential
+importance in the domesticated Horse to his master, as without it
+there would be no room for inserting the special instrument of
+subjugation to his commands, the bit) already existed in the
+earliest known forms, but has gradually increased in length. The
+incisors have undergone in comparatively recent times that curious
+change producing the structure more fully described hereafter,
+which distinguishes the Horse’s incisors from those of all other
+known animals, with the exception of the extinct <i>Macrauchenia</i>.
+Lastly, the molars have undergone a remarkable series of modifications,
+much resembling in principle those that have taken place
+in several other groups of herbivorous animals. Distinctions in
+form which existed between the premolars, at least in the anterior
+part of the series, and the true molars have gradually disappeared,
+the teeth becoming all very uniform in the shape and
+structure of their grinding surface. The crowns of all these teeth
+in the early forms were very short (see <a href="#figure158">Fig. 158</a>, <i>a</i>); there was a
+distinct constriction, or neck, between the crown and roots; and
+when the tooth was developing, as soon as the neck once rose
+fairly above the alveolar margin, the tooth remained permanently
+in this position. The term “brachydont” expresses this condition
+of teeth, the mode of growth of which may be illustrated by those
+of man. The free surface had two nearly transverse curved ridges,
+with valleys between (<a href="#figure157">Fig. 157</a>, <i>a</i>); but the valleys were shallow
+and had no deposit of cement filling them, the whole exposed
+surface of the unworn tooth being formed of enamel. When the
+ridges became worn down the dentine of the interior was exposed,
+forming islands surrounded by enamel. With the progress of time
+the crowns of the teeth gradually became longer, the valleys deeper,
+and the ridges not only more elevated but more curved and complex
+in arrangement. To give support to these high ridges and
+save them from breaking in use, the valleys or cavities between
+them became filled up to the top with cement, and as the crown<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_379"></a>[379]</span>
+wore down an admirable grinding surface consisting of patches and
+islands of the two softer substances, dentine and cement, separated
+by variously reduplicated and contorted lines of intensely hard
+enamel, resulted (<a href="#figure157">Fig. 157</a>, <i>c</i>). The crown continued lengthening
+until in the modern Horses it has assumed the form called “hypsodont”
+(<a href="#figure158">Fig. 158</a>, <i>b</i>). Instead of contracting into a neck, and
+forming roots, its sides continue parallel for a considerable depth in
+the socket, and as the surface wears away, the whole
+tooth slowly pushes up, and maintains the grinding
+edge constantly at the same level above the alveolus,
+much as in the perpetually growing Rodent’s teeth.
+But in existing Horses there is still a limit to the
+growth of the molar. After a length is attained
+which in normal conditions supplies sufficient grinding
+surface for the lifetime of the animal,
+a neck and roots are formed, and the
+tooth is reduced to the condition of that
+of the brachydont ancestor. It is perfectly
+clear that this lengthening of the
+crown adds greatly to the power of the
+teeth as organs of mastication, and enables
+the animals in which it has taken
+place to find their sustenance among the
+comparatively dry and harsh herbage
+of the open plains, instead of being
+limited to the more succulent vegetable productions of the marshes
+and forests in which their predecessors probably dwelt.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp62" id="figure158" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure158.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 158.</span>—<i>a</i>, Outer view of second
+upper molar teeth of <i>Anchitherium</i>
+(brachydont form); <i>b</i>, corresponding
+tooth of Horse (hypsodont form).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The modifications of the limbs which took place <i>pari passu</i> with
+those of the teeth must have been associated with increased speed,
+especially over firm and unyielding ground. Short, stout legs, and
+broad feet, with numerous toes, spreading apart from each other
+when the weight of the creature is borne on them, are sufficiently
+well adapted for plodding deliberately over marshy and yielding
+surfaces, and the Tapirs and the Rhinoceroses, which in the
+structure of the limbs have altered but little from the primitive
+Eocene forms, still haunt the borders of streams and lakes and
+the shady depths of the forests, as was probably the habit of
+their ancient representatives, while the Horses are all inhabitants of
+the open plains, for life in which their whole organisation is in
+the most eminent degree adapted. The length and mobility of
+the neck, position of the eye and ear, and great development of the
+organ of smell, give them ample means of becoming aware of the
+approach of enemies, while the length of their limbs, the angles
+the different segments form with each other, and especially the
+combination of firmness, stability, and lightness in the reduction of
+all the toes to a single one, upon which the whole weight of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_380"></a>[380]</span>
+body and all the muscular power are concentrated, give them speed
+and endurance surpassing that of almost any other animal. When
+surprised, however, they are by no means helpless, both fore and
+hind feet becoming at need powerful weapons of defence.</p>
+
+<p>If we were not so habituated to the sight of the Horse as hardly
+ever to consider its structure, we should greatly marvel at being
+told of a mammal so strangely constructed that it had but a single
+toe on each extremity, on the end of the nail of which it walked or
+galloped. Such a conformation is without a parallel in the vertebrate
+series, and is one of the most remarkable instances of specialisation,
+or deviation from the usual type, in accordance with particular
+conditions of life. It is clear, both from the structure of the foot
+itself, and also by an examination of the intermediate forms, that
+this toe corresponds to the middle or third digit of the complete
+typical or pentadactyle foot; and there is very strong evidence to
+show that by a gradual concentration of all the power of the limb
+upon this toe, and the concurrent dwindling away and final disappearance
+of all the others, the present condition of the Horse’s
+foot has been produced.</p>
+
+<p><i>Protohippus.</i><a id="FNanchor_258" href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a>—In this Lower Pliocene North American genus
+(also described as <i>Merychippus</i>) the cheek-teeth resemble those of
+the generalised species of <i>Equus</i>, but have shorter crowns; while
+the milk-molars approximate to the permanent molars of <i>Anchitherium</i>.
+Each foot has three digits.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure159" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure159.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 159.</span>—Three right upper cheek-teeth
+of <i>Hipparion</i>. <i>a</i>, Antero-external column; <i>b</i>,
+postero-external column; <i>c</i>, postero-internal column, or posterior
+pillar; <i>d</i>, antero-internal column, or anterior pillar; <i>f</i>,
+posterior intermediate column; <i>i</i>, anterior intermediate column.
+(From the <i>Palæontologia Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Hipparion.</i><a id="FNanchor_259" href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a>—Upper cheek-teeth (<a href="#figure159">Fig. 159</a>), with the antero-internal
+column, or anterior pillar as it may be conveniently termed
+in this family, detached throughout the greater part of its height
+from the adjacent column. Either a single or three digits in each foot.
+First upper premolar large and persistent. This genus was very
+widely distributed in the Pliocene, occurring in Europe, Asia, <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_381"></a>[381]</span>and
+North America. In the typical European forms, and also in those
+of North America, there were three digits in the feet (<a href="#figure156">Fig. 156</a>, <i>d</i>);
+but in the Indian <i>H. antilopinum</i> (separated by Cope as <i>Hippodactylus</i>)
+the lateral digits seem to have disappeared. There is
+some doubt whether or no <i>Hipparion</i> should occupy a place in the
+direct ancestry of the Horse, and Professor Cope suggests that while
+in America the intermediate place between <i>Anchitherium</i> and <i>Equus</i>
+was held by <i>Protohippus</i>, in Europe the same position was occupied
+by <i>Hipparion</i>—a view which involves the dual origin of the Horses
+of the New and Old Worlds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Equus.</i><a id="FNanchor_260" href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a>—Upper cheek-teeth with the anterior pillar (except in
+a very early stage of wear) joined by a narrow neck to the
+adjacent column (<a href="#figure157">Fig. 157</a>, <i>c</i>). Each foot with a single complete
+digit, but with remnants of the proximal portions of the second
+and fourth metapodials (<a href="#figure156">Fig. 156</a>, <i>e</i>); some extinct forms having
+claw-like rudiments of the terminal phalangeals of the lateral digits.
+First upper premolar very small or altogether absent in existing
+species, but in some fossil species larger and persistent; first
+lower premolar only occasionally developed in some fossil forms.
+Ears long. Tail long, with long hairs either at the end or
+throughout. A callosity on the inner side of the fore limb above
+the carpus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fossil Species.</i>—In the Pleistocene Horses of South America
+described as <i>Hippidium</i>, as well as in the closely allied ones from
+North America for which the name <i>Pliohippus</i> has been proposed,
+the upper molars are shorter and more curved than in the existing
+species, while their anterior pillar is not longer antero-posteriorly
+than in <i>Hipparion</i>; the lateral claw-like hoofs persisting. Some of
+the European Pliocene species (like <i>E. stenonis</i>) agree with these
+species in the form of the grinding surface of the anterior pillar
+of the upper molars. In one of the species from the Lower
+Pliocene of India (<i>E. sivalensis</i>)—which was a contemporary of
+<i>Hipparion</i>—and in all the existing species, the grinding surface of
+the pillar in question is greatly elongated in the antero-posterior
+direction, as in <a href="#figure157">Fig. 157</a>, <i>c</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fossil remains of Horses are found abundantly in deposits of
+the most recent geological age in almost every part in America,
+from Eschscholtz Bay in the north to Patagonia in the south. In
+that continent, however, they became quite extinct, and no Horses,
+either wild or domesticated, existed there at the time of the
+Spanish conquest, which is the more remarkable as, when introduced
+from Europe, the Horses that ran wild proved by their
+rapid multiplication in the plains of South America and Texas that
+the climate, food, and other circumstances were highly favourable
+for their existence. The former great abundance of <i>Equidæ</i> in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_382"></a>[382]</span>
+America, their complete extinction, and their perfect acclimatisation
+when reintroduced by man, form curious but as yet unsolved
+problems in geographical distribution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Existing Species.</i>—The existing species of the genus are the
+following:—</p>
+
+<p>The Horse, <i>Equus caballus</i>, is distinguished from the others by
+the long hairs of the tail being more abundant and growing quite
+from the base as well as the end and sides, and also by possessing
+a small bare callosity on the inner side of the hind leg, just below
+the “hock” or heel joint, in addition to the one on the inner side
+of the fore limb above the carpus, common to all the genus. The
+mane is also longer and more flowing, and the ears are shorter,
+the limbs longer, the hoofs broader, and the head smaller.</p>
+
+<p>Though the existing Horses are not usually marked in any
+definite manner, or only irregularly dappled, or spotted with light
+surrounded by a darker ring, many examples are met with showing
+a dark median dorsal streak like that found in all the other
+members of the genus, and even with dark stripes on the shoulders
+and legs indicating “the probability of the descent of all the
+existing races from a single dun-coloured, more or less striped,
+primitive stock, to which our horses still occasionally revert.”<a id="FNanchor_261" href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a></p>
+
+<p>In Europe wild Horses were extremely abundant in the
+Neolithic or polished-stone period. Judging from the quantity of
+their remains found associated with those of the men of that time,
+the chase of these animals must have been among man’s chief
+occupations, and they must have furnished him with one of his
+most important food supplies. The characters of the bones
+preserved, and certain rude but graphic representations carved on
+bones or reindeers’ antlers, enable us to know that these Horses
+were rather small in size, and heavy in build, with large heads and
+rough shaggy manes and tails, much like, in fact, the present wild
+horses of the steppes of the south of Russia. They were
+domesticated by the inhabitants of Europe before the dawn of
+history, but it is doubtful whether the majority of the animals now
+existing on the Continent are derived directly from them, as it is
+more probable that they are descendants from Horses imported
+through Greece and Italy from Asia, derived from a still earlier
+domestication, followed by gradual improvement through long-continued
+attention bestowed on their breeding and training.
+Horses are now diffused by the agency of man throughout almost
+the whole of the inhabited parts of the globe, and the great modifications
+they have undergone in consequence of domestication and
+selective breeding are well exemplified by comparing such extreme
+forms as the Shetland pony, dwarfed by uncongenial climate, <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_383"></a>[383]</span>the
+thoroughbred racer, and the London dray-horse. In Australia,
+as in America, horses imported by the European settlers have
+escaped into the unreclaimed lands, and multiplied to a prodigious
+extent, roaming in vast herds over the plains where no hoofed
+animal ever trod before.</p>
+
+<p>A wild Horse from Central Asia, named <i>E. prezevalskii</i>,<a id="FNanchor_262" href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a> is
+described as having callosities on both limbs and broad hoofs like
+<i>E. caballus</i>; but the long hairs of the tail do not begin until about
+half way down its length. It also differs from <i>E. caballus</i> in having
+a short erect mane and no forelock; neither is there any dorsal
+stripe. The ears are of moderate size; the whole body is of a
+whitish-gray, paler beneath, and reddish on the head and upper
+parts of the limbs. If rightly described this form would appear
+to be intermediate between the true Horses and the Asses.</p>
+
+<p>The second species is the domestic Ass (<i>E. asinus</i>), and the wild
+Asses of Africa (<i>E. asinus</i>, var. <i>africanus</i> and var. <i>somalicus</i><a id="FNanchor_263" href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a>). The
+domestic Ass, which is now nearly as widely diffused and useful
+to man as the Horse, was known in Egypt long before the latter,
+and is doubtless of African origin. The ears are long, the mane
+erect, the tail without long hairs at the base, and there are no
+callosities on the hind limbs. There is a dark dorsal stripe, and
+another across the shoulders; while the limbs are frequently banded.
+Of the wild forms the Nubian race (var. <i>africanus</i>) has distinct
+dorsal and shoulder stripes, but the rings on the limbs are often very
+indistinct; while in the Somali race the dorsal stripe is indistinct,
+and the shoulder stripe wanting, but the rings on the limbs are
+very boldly marked. Teeth and bones from a Pleistocene cavern
+deposit in Madras have been referred to <i>E. asinus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Asiatic wild Asses, which roam in small herds in the open
+plains of Syria, of many parts of Persia, of the north-west of India,
+and the highlands of Tartary and Tibet, from the shores of the
+Caspian to the frontiers of China, differ from the last in being of a
+more rufous or isabelline colour, instead of pure gray, in wanting
+the dark streak across the shoulder, and having smaller ears. They
+have all a dark-coloured median dorsal stripe. Though it is considered
+probable by many zoologists that they form but a single
+species<a id="FNanchor_264" href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> (<i>E. hemionus</i>), they present such marked variations in size
+and form that they have commonly been divided into three—the
+Syrian Wild Ass (<i>E. hemippus</i>), the Onager (<i>E. onager</i>) from Persia,
+Baluchistan, the Punjab, Sind, and the desert of Kach, and the
+Kiang or Dzeggetai (<i>E. hemionus</i>) of the high table-lands of Tibet,
+where it is usually met with at an elevation of 15,000 feet and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_384"></a>[384]</span>
+upwards above the sea-level. The last is considerably larger than
+either of the others, and differs from them in external appearance,
+having more the aspect of the horse. They are all remarkably
+swift, having been known to outstrip the fleetest Horse in speed.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure160" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure160.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 160.</span>—The Quagga (<i>Equus quagga</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Lastly, there are four striped species, all inhabitants of Africa.
+These constitute the genus <i>Hippotigris</i> of Hamilton-Smith, but they
+are not separable except by their coloration from the true Asses,
+and one of them, the Quagga (<i>E. quagga</i>), may be considered as
+intermediate. This animal was formerly met with in vast herds on
+the great plains of South Africa, between the Cape Colony and the
+Vaal River, but now, in common with most of the larger wild
+animals of that region, is becoming extremely scarce, owing to the
+encroachments of European civilisation, if, indeed, it is not already
+extinct. In length of ears and character of tail it more resembles
+the Horse than it does the Ass, although it agrees with the latter in
+wanting the callosity on the inner side of the hind leg, just below
+the hock, characteristic of the Horse. The colour of the head, neck,
+and upper parts of the body is reddish-brown, irregularly banded
+and marked with dark brown stripes, stronger on the head and
+neck and gradually becoming fainter until lost behind the shoulder.
+There is a broad dark median dorsal stripe. The under surface of
+the body, the legs, and tail are nearly white, without stripes. The
+crest is very high, surmounted by a standing mane, banded alternately
+brown and white. Though never really domesticated,
+Quaggas have occasionally been trained to harness. The accompanying
+figure is reduced from a painting made from one of a pair<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_385"></a>[385]</span>
+which were driven in Hyde Park in the early part of the present
+century. The name is an imitation of the shrill barking neigh of
+the animal—“ouag-ga, ouag-ga,” the last syllable very much prolonged.
+It must be remembered, however, in reading books of
+African travel that the same word is very commonly applied by
+hunters to Burchell’s Zebra.</p>
+
+<p>Of the Zebras proper, the one which was first known to Europeans,
+and was formerly considered the most common, is the True Zebra
+(<i>E. zebra</i>), sometimes called the Mountain Zebra. It inhabits the
+mountainous regions of the Cape Colony; but now, owing to the
+advances of civilised man into its somewhat restricted range, it has
+become very scarce, and is even, like the Quagga, threatened with
+extermination at no distant date. The second species, Burchell’s
+Zebra (<i>E. burchelli</i>), still roams in large herds over the plains to the
+north of the Orange River, but in yearly diminishing numbers.
+Both species are subject to considerable individual variations in
+marking, but the following are the principal characters by which
+they can be distinguished.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="figure161" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure161.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 161.</span>—True or Mountain Zebra (<i>Equus zebra</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>E. zebra</i> (<a href="#figure161">Fig. 161</a>) is the smaller of the two (about 4 feet high
+at the shoulders), and has longer ears, a tail more scantily clothed
+with hair, and a shorter mane. The general ground colour is white,
+and the stripes are black; the lower part of the face is bright brown.
+With the exception of the abdomen and the inside of the thighs, the
+whole of the surface is covered with stripes, the legs having narrow<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_386"></a>[386]</span>
+transverse bars reaching quite to the hoofs, and the base of the tail
+being also barred. The outsides of the ears have a white tip and
+a broad black mark occupying the greater part of the surface, but
+are white at the base. Perhaps the most constant and obvious
+distinction between this species and the next is the arrangement
+of the stripes on the hinder part of the back, where there are a
+number of short transverse bands passing from the median longitudinal
+dorsal stripe towards, and sometimes joining with, the
+uppermost of the broad stripes which run obliquely across the
+haunch from the flanks towards the root of the tail. There is often
+a median longitudinal stripe under the chest.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="figure162" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure162.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 162.</span>—Burchell’s Zebra (<i>Equus burchelli</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>E. burchelli</i> (<a href="#figure162">Fig. 162</a>) is a rather larger and more robust animal,
+with smaller ears, a longer mane, and fuller tail. The general
+ground colour of the body is pale yellowish-brown, the limbs nearly
+white, the stripes dark brown or black. In the typical form they
+do not extend on to the limbs or the tail; but there is a great
+variation in this respect, even in animals of the same herd, some
+being striped quite down to the hoofs (this form has been named
+<i>E. chapmani</i>). There is a strongly marked median longitudinal
+ventral black stripe, to which the lower ends of the transverse side
+stripes are usually united, but the dorsal stripe (also strongly
+marked) is completely isolated in its posterior half, and the uppermost
+of the broad haunch stripes runs nearly parallel to it. A
+much larger proportion of the ears is white than in the other<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_387"></a>[387]</span>
+species. In the middle of the wide intervals between the broad
+black stripes of the flanks and haunches fainter stripes are generally
+seen.</p>
+
+<p><i>E. grevyi.</i>—Under this name a Zebra has been described which
+was sent in 1882 to Paris from the Galla country, lying to the
+south of Abyssinia, the most northern locality in which Zebras have
+previously been met with. In many of its characters it resembles
+<i>E. zebra</i>, but the stripes are much finer and more numerous than in
+the typical examples of that species, and it has a strong, black, and
+isolated dorsal stripe. Even allowing for the great variations that
+are met with in the markings of animals of this group, the aberrant
+characters of this individual are quite sufficient to separate it specifically
+from the true Zebra of South Africa. Other similar specimens
+have been recently brought from the Somali country.</p>
+
+<p>The flesh of the Zebras is relished by the natives as food, and their
+hides are very valuable for leather. Although the many attempts
+that have been made to break in and train these animals for riding
+or driving have sometimes been rewarded with partial success, they
+have never been domesticated in the true sense of the word.</p>
+
+<p>There are thus at least seven modifications of the Horse type at
+present existing, sufficiently distinct to be reckoned as species by
+all zoologists, and easily recognised by their external characters.
+They are, however, all so closely allied that each will, at least in a
+state of domestication or captivity, breed with perfect freedom with
+any of the others. Cases of cross breeds are recorded between the
+Horse and the Quagga, the Horse and Burchell’s Zebra, the Horse
+and the Hemionus or Asiatic wild Ass, the common Ass and the
+Zebra, the common Ass and Burchell’s Zebra, the common Ass and
+the Hemionus, the Hemionus and the Zebra, and the Hemionus and
+Burchell’s Zebra. The two species which are perhaps the farthest
+removed in general structure, the Horse and the Ass, produce, as is
+well known, hybrids or Mules, which in some qualities useful to
+man excel both their progenitors, and in some countries, and
+for certain kinds of work, are in greater requisition than either.
+Although occasional instances have been recorded of female Mules
+breeding with the males of one or other of the pure species, it is
+doubtful if any case has occurred of their breeding <i>inter se</i>, although
+the opportunities of doing so must have been great, as Mules have
+been reared in immense numbers for at least several thousands of
+years. We may therefore consider it settled that the different
+species of the group are now in that degree of physiological differentiation
+which enables them to produce offspring with each other,
+but does not permit of the progeny continuing the race, at all events
+unless reinforced by the aid of one of the pure forms.</p>
+
+<p>The several members of the group show mental differences
+quite as striking as those exhibited by their external form, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_388"></a>[388]</span>
+more than perhaps might be expected from the similarity of their
+cerebral organisation. The patience of the Ass, the high spirit of
+the Horse, the obstinacy of the Mule, have long been proverbial.
+It is very remarkable that, out of so many species, two only should
+have shown any aptitude for domestication, and that these two
+should have been from time immemorial the universal and most
+useful companions and servants of man, while all the others remain
+in their native freedom to this day. It is, however, still a question
+whether this really arises from a different mental constitution
+causing a natural capacity for entering into relations with man, or
+whether it may not be owing to their having been brought gradually
+into this condition by long-continued and persevering efforts when
+the need of their services was keenly felt. It is quite possible
+that one reason why most of the attempts to add new species to
+the list of our domestic animals in modern times have ended in
+failure is that it does not answer to do so in cases in which existing
+species supply all the principal purposes to which the new ones
+might be put. It can hardly be expected that Zebras and Quaggas
+fresh from their native mountains and plains can be brought into
+competition as beasts of burden and draught with Horses and Asses,
+whose naturally useful qualities have been augmented by the training
+of thousands of generations of progenitors.</p>
+
+<p>Not unfrequently instances occur of domestic Horses being
+produced with a small additional toe with complete hoof, usually on
+the inside of the principal toe, and, though far more rarely, three
+or more toes may be present. These malformations are often cited
+as instances of reversion to the condition of some of the earlier
+forms of equine animals previously mentioned. Such explanations,
+however plausible they appear at first sight, are nevertheless very
+doubtful. All the feet of polydactyle horses which we have
+examined bear little resemblance to those of <i>Hipparion</i> or <i>Anchitherium</i>,
+but look rather as if due to that tendency to reduplication
+of parts which occurs so frequently as a teratological condition,
+especially among domestic animals, and, whatever its origin, certainly
+cannot in many instances, as the cases of entire limbs superadded,
+or of six digits in man, be attributed to reversion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anatomy.</i>—The anatomical structure of the Horse has been described
+in great detail in several works devoted to the subject, which
+will be mentioned in the bibliography, though these have generally
+been written from the point of view of the veterinarian rather than
+of the comparative anatomist. The limits of the present work will
+only admit of the most salient points being indicated, particularly
+those in which the Horse differs from the other Ungulata. Unless
+otherwise specified, it must be understood that all that is stated
+here, although mostly derived from observation upon the Horse,
+applies equally well to the other existing members of the group.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="figure163" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure163.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 163.</span>—Side view of skull of Horse, with the bone removed so as to expose the whole of
+the teeth. <i>PMx</i>, Premaxilla; <i>Mx</i>, maxilla; <i>Na</i>, nasal; <i>Ma</i>, malar or jugal; <i>L</i>, lachrymal; <i>Fr</i>,
+frontal; <i>Sq</i>, squamosal; <i>Pa</i>, parietal; <i>oc</i>, occipital condyle; <i>pp</i>, paroccipital process; <i>i¹</i>, <i>i²</i>,
+and <i>i³</i>³, the three incisors; <i>c</i>, the canine; <i>pm¹</i>, the situation of the rudimentary first premolar,
+which has been lost in the lower, but is present in the upper jaw; <i>pm²</i>, <i>pm³</i>, and <i>pm⁴</i>, the
+three fully developed premolars; <i>m¹</i>, <i>m²</i>, and <i>m³</i>, the three true molars.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_389"></a>[389]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Skeleton.</i>—The skull (<a href="#figure163">Fig. 163</a>) as a whole is greatly elongated,
+chiefly in consequence of the immense size of the face as compared
+with the hinder or true cranial portion. The basal line of the
+cranium from the lower border of the foramen magnum to the
+incisor border of the palate is very nearly straight. The orbit, of
+nearly circular form, though small in proportion to the size of the
+whole skull, is distinctly marked, being completely surrounded by a
+strong ring of bone with prominent edges. Behind it, and freely
+communicating with it beneath the osseous bridge (the postorbital
+process of the frontal) forming the boundary between them, is the
+small temporal fossa occupying the whole of the side of the cranium
+proper, and in front is the great flattened expanse of the “cheek,”
+formed chiefly by the maxilla, giving support to the long row of
+cheek-teeth, and having a prominent ridge running forward from
+below the orbit for the attachment of the masseter muscle. The
+lachrymal occupies a considerable space on the flat surface of the
+cheek in front of the orbit, and below it the jugal or malar does
+the same. The latter sends a horizontal or slightly ascending
+process backwards below the orbit to join the under surface of the
+zygomatic process of the squamosal, which is remarkably large, and,
+instead of ending as usual behind the orbit, runs forwards to join<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_390"></a>[390]</span>
+the greatly developed postorbital process of the frontal, and even
+forms part of the posterior and inferior boundary of the orbit, an
+arrangement not met with in other mammals. The closure of the
+orbit behind distinguishes the skull of the Horse from that of the
+Rhinoceros and Tapir, and also from all of the Perissodactyles of
+the Eocene period. In front of the cerebral cavity, the great
+tubular nasal cavities are provided with well-developed turbinal
+bones, and are roofed over by very large nasals, broad behind, and
+ending in front in a narrow decurved point. The opening of the
+anterior nares is prolonged backwards on each side of the face
+between the nasals and the elongated slender premaxillæ. The
+latter expand in front, and are curved downwards to form the semicircular
+alveolar border supporting the large incisor teeth. The
+palate is narrow in the interval between the incisor and cheek-teeth,
+in which are situated the large anterior palatine foramina.
+Between the cheek-teeth it is broader, and it ends posteriorly in a
+rounded excavated border opposite the hinder edge of the penultimate
+molar. It is mainly formed by the maxillæ, as the palatines
+are very narrow. The pterygoids are delicate slender slips of bone
+attached to the hinder border of the palatines, and supported
+externally by, and generally ankylosed to, the rough pterygoid
+plates of the alisphenoid, with no pterygoid fossa between. They
+slope very obliquely forwards, and end in curved, compressed,
+hamular processes. There is a distinct alisphenoid canal for the
+passage of the internal maxillary or main branch of the external
+carotid artery. The base of the cranium is long and narrow; the
+alisphenoid is very obliquely perforated by the foramen rotundum,
+but the foramen ovale is confluent with the large foramen lacerum
+medium behind. The glenoid surface for the articulation of the
+mandible is greatly extended transversely, concave from side to
+side, convex from before backwards in front, and hollow behind, and
+is bounded posteriorly at its inner part by a prominent post-glenoid
+process. The squamosal enters considerably into the formation of
+the temporal fossa, and, besides sending the zygomatic process forwards,
+it sends down behind the meatus auditorius a post-tympanic
+process which aids to hold in place the otherwise loose tympano-periotic
+bone. Behind this the exoccipital gives off a very long
+paroccipital process. The periotic and tympanic are ankylosed
+together, but not with the squamosal. The former has a wide but
+shallow floccular fossa on its inner side, and sends backwards a
+considerable “pars mastoidea,” which appears on the outer surface
+of the skull between the post-tympanic process of the squamosal and
+the exoccipital. The tympanic forms a tubular meatus auditorius
+externus directed outwards and slightly backwards. It is not
+dilated into a distinct bulla, but ends in front in a pointed styliform
+process; and completely embraces the truncated cylindrical<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_391"></a>[391]</span> tympanohyal,
+which is of great size, in correspondence with the large
+development of the whole anterior arch of the hyoid. This consists
+mainly of a long and compressed stylohyal, expanded at the
+upper end, where it sends off a triangular posterior process. The
+basihyal is remarkable for the long, median, pointed, compressed
+“glossohyal” process, which it sends forward from its anterior
+border into the base of the tongue. A similar but less developed
+process is found in the Rhinoceros. The mandible is largely
+developed, especially the region of the angle, which is expanded
+and flattened, giving great surface for the attachment of the
+masseter muscle. The condyle is greatly elevated above the
+alveolar border; its articular surface is very wide transversely, and
+narrow and convex from before backwards. The coronoid process
+is slender, straight, and inclined backwards. The horizontal ramus,
+long, straight, and compressed, gradually narrows towards the
+symphysis, where it expands laterally to form with the ankylosed
+opposite ramus the wide, semicircular, shallow alveolar border for
+the incisor teeth.</p>
+
+<p>The vertebral column consists of seven cervical, eighteen dorsal,
+six lumbar, five sacral, and fifteen to eighteen caudal vertebræ.
+There may be nineteen rib-bearing vertebræ, in which case five
+only will be reckoned as belonging to the lumbar series. The
+odontoid process of the atlas is wide, flat, and hollowed above, as
+in the Ruminants. The bodies of the cervical vertebræ are elongated,
+strongly keeled, and markedly opisthocœlous, or concave
+behind and convex in front. Their neural laminæ are very broad,
+the spines almost obsolete, except in the seventh, and the transverse
+processes not largely developed. In the trunk vertebræ the
+opisthocœlous character of the centrum gradually diminishes. The
+spinous processes of the anterior thoracic region are high and compressed.
+To these is attached the powerful elastic ligament,
+<i>ligamentum nuchæ</i>, or “paxwax,” which passing forwards in the
+middle line of the neck above the neural arches of the cervical vertebræ,
+to which it is also connected, is attached to the occiput and
+supports the weight of the head. The transverse processes of the
+lumbar vertebræ are long, flattened, and project horizontally outwards
+or slightly forwards from the arch. The metapophyses are
+moderately developed, and there are no anapophyses. The caudal
+vertebræ, except those quite at the base, are slender and cylindrical,
+without processes and without chevron-bones beneath. The ribs
+are eighteen or nineteen in number on each side, flattened, and
+united to the sternum by short, stout, tolerably well ossified sternal
+ribs. The sternum consists of six pieces; the anterior or presternum
+being extremely compressed, and projecting forwards like
+the prow of a boat. The segments which follow gradually widen,
+and the hinder part of the sternum is broad and flat.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_392"></a>[392]</span></p>
+
+<p>As in all other Ungulates, there are no clavicles. The scapula
+is long and slender; the suprascapular border is rounded, and
+slowly and imperfectly ossified. The spine is very slightly developed;
+rather above the middle its edge is thickened and somewhat
+turned backwards, but it gradually subsides at the lower extremity
+without forming any acromial process. The coracoid process is a
+prominent rounded nodule. The humerus is stout and rather
+short, and has a double bicipital groove. The ulna is quite rudimentary,
+being only represented by little more than the olecranon.
+The shaft gradually tapers below, and is firmly ankylosed to the
+radius. The latter bone is of nearly equal width throughout. The
+three bones of the first row of the carpus (the scaphoid, lunar, and
+cuneiform) are subequal in size. The second row consists of a very
+broad and flat magnum, supporting the great third metacarpal,
+having to its radial side the trapezoid, and to its ulnar side the unciform,
+which are both small, and articulate distally with the rudimentary
+second and fourth metacarpals. The pisiform is large and
+prominent, flattened, and curved; articulating partly with the
+cuneiform and partly with the lower end of the radius. The large
+metacarpal is called in veterinary anatomy “cannon-bone”; the
+small lateral metacarpals, which gradually taper towards their
+lower extremities, and lie in close contact with the large one, are
+called “splint-bones.” The single digit consists of a moderate-sized
+proximal (<i>os suffraginis</i>, or large pastern), a very short middle (<i>os
+coronæ</i>, or small pastern), and a wide, semilunar, ungual phalanx
+(<i>os pedis</i>, or coffin-bone). There is a pair of large nodular sesamoids
+behind the metacarpo-phalangeal articulation, and a single large
+transversely extended sesamoid behind the joint between the
+second and third phalanx, called the “navicular bone.”<a id="FNanchor_265" href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a></p>
+
+<p>The carpal joint, corresponding to the wrist of man, is commonly
+called the “knee” of the Horse, the joint between the metacarpal
+and the first phalanx the “fetlock,” that between the first and
+second phalanges the “pastern,” and that between the second and
+third phalanges the “coffin-joint.”</p>
+
+<p>In the hind limb the femur is marked, as in other Perissodactyles,
+by the presence of a “third trochanter,” a flattened process,
+curving forwards, arising from the outer side of the bone, about
+one-third of the distance from the upper end. The fibula is reduced
+to a mere styliform rudiment of the upper end; its lower part being
+absent or completely fused with the tibia. The calcaneum has a
+long and compressed calcaneal process. The astragalus has a large
+flat articular surface in front for the navicular, and a very small one
+for the cuboid. The navicular and the external cuneiform bones
+are very broad and flat. The cuboid is small, and the internal and
+middle cuneiform bones are small and united together. The metapodials<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_393"></a>[393]</span>
+and phalanges resemble very closely those of the fore limb,
+but the principal metatarsal is more laterally compressed at its
+upper end than is the corresponding metacarpal. The joint
+between the femur and tibia, corresponding to the knee of man, is
+called the “stifle joint”; while that between the tibia and tarsus,
+corresponding to the ankle of man, is termed the “hock.” The
+bones and joints of the foot have the same names as in the fore
+limb. The Horse is eminently “digitigrade,” standing on the extremity
+of the single digit of each foot, which is kept habitually in
+a position approaching to vertical.</p>
+
+<p>The muscles<a id="FNanchor_266" href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a> of the limbs are modified from those of the ordinary
+mammalian type in accordance with the reduced condition of
+the bones and
+the simple requirements
+of
+flexion and extension
+of the
+joints, no such
+actions as pronation
+and
+supination, or
+opposition of
+digits, being
+possible or
+needed. The
+muscles, therefore,
+which perform
+these
+functions in
+other mammals
+are absent or
+rudimentary.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp88" id="figure164" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure164.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 164.</span>—Section of foot of Horse. 1, Metacarpal bone; 2, first
+phalanx (<i>os suffraginis</i>); 3, second phalanx (<i>os coronæ</i>); 4, third or
+ungual phalanx (<i>os pedis</i>, or coffin-bone); 5, one of the upper sesamoid
+bones; 6, lower sesamoid or “navicular” bone; 7, tendon of anterior
+extensor of the phalanges; 8, tendon of superficial flexor (<i>fl. perforatus</i>);
+9, tendon of deep flexor (<i>fl. perforans</i>); 10, suspensory ligament of
+fetlock; 11, inferior or short sesamoid ligament; 12, derma or skin
+of the foot, covered with hair, and continued into 13, the coronary
+cushion, 14, the podophyllous or laminar membrane, and 15, the keratogenous
+membrane of the sole; 16, plantar cushion; 17, hoof; 18, fatty
+cushion of fetlock.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Below the
+carpal and tarsal
+joints the
+fore and hind
+limbs correspond
+almost
+exactly in structure
+as well as function. On the anterior or extensor surface of
+the limb a powerful tendon (7 in <a href="#figure164">Fig. 164</a>), that of the anterior
+extensor of the phalanges (corresponding to the <i>extensor communis
+digitorum</i> of the arm and <i>extensor longus digitorum</i> of the foot of man)
+passes down over the metacarpal bone and phalanges, to be inserted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_394"></a>[394]</span>
+mainly into the upper edge of the anterior surface of the last phalanx
+or pedal bone. There is also a much smaller second extensor on
+the outer side of this in each limb, the lateral extensor of the
+phalanges. In the fore leg the tendon of this muscle (which corresponds
+with the <i>extensor minimi digiti</i> of man) receives a slip from
+that of the principal extensor, and is inserted into the first phalanx.
+In the hind leg (where it is the homologue apparently of the
+<i>peroneus brevis</i> of man) the tendon becomes blended with that of the
+large extensor.</p>
+
+<p>A very strong ligamentous band behind the metapodium,
+arising from near the upper extremity of its posterior surface,
+divides into two at its lower end, and each division, being first
+connected with one of the paired upper sesamoid bones, passes by
+the side of the first phalanx to join the extensor tendon of the
+phalanges. This is called in veterinary anatomy the “suspensory
+ligament of the sesamoids,” or of the “fetlock” (10 in <a href="#figure164">Fig. 164</a>); but
+its attachments and relations, as well as the occasional presence of
+muscular fibres in its substance, show that it is the homologue of
+the short flexor muscle of other mammals, curiously modified both
+in structure and function to suit the requirements of the Horse’s
+foot. Behind or superficial to this are placed the two strong tendons
+of the long flexor muscles, the most superficial, or <i>flexor perforatus</i>
+(8), dividing to allow the other to pass through, and then inserted
+into the middle phalanx. The <i>flexor perforans</i> (9) is as usual inserted
+into the terminal phalanx. In the fore leg these muscles
+correspond with those similarly named in man. In the hind leg,
+the perforated tendon is a continuation of that of the plantaris,
+passing pulley-wise over the tuberosity of the calcaneum. The
+perforating tendon is derived from the muscle corresponding with
+the long flexor of man, and the smaller tendon of the oblique flexor
+(<i>tibialis posticus</i> of man) is united with it.</p>
+
+<p>The hoof of the Horse corresponds to the nail or claw of other
+mammals, but is so constructed as to form a complete and very
+solid case to the expanded termination of the toe, giving a firm
+basis of support formed of a nonsensitive substance, which is continually
+renewed by the addition of material from within as its
+surface wears away by friction against the ground. The terminal
+phalanx of the toe is greatly enlarged and modified in form to support
+this hoof, and the size of the internal framework of the foot is
+further increased by a pair of lateral fibro-cartilaginous masses
+attached on each side to the hinder edges of the bone, and by a
+fibro-cellular and adipose plantar cushion in the median part.
+These structures are all enclosed in the keratogenous membrane or
+“subcorneous integument,” a continuation of the ordinary derma of
+the limb, but extremely vascular, and having its superficial extent
+greatly increased by being developed into papillæ or laminæ. From<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_395"></a>[395]</span>
+this the horny material which constitutes the hoof is exuded. A
+thickened ring encircling the upper part, called coronary cushion
+(13), and the sole (15), are covered with numerous thickly set
+papillæ or villi, and take the greatest share in the formation of the
+hoof; the intermediate part constituting the front and side of the
+foot (14), corresponding with the wall of the hoof, is covered with
+parallel, fine longitudinal laminæ, fitting into corresponding depressions
+in the inner side of the horny hoof.</p>
+
+<p>The horny hoof is divided into a wall or crust consisting of the
+front and sides, the flattened or concave sole, and the “frog,” a
+triangular median prominence, notched posteriorly, with the apex
+turned forwards, situated in the hinder part of the sole. It is
+formed of pavement epithelial cells, mainly grouped in a concentric
+manner around the vascular papillæ of the keratogenous membrane,
+so that a section near the base of the hoof, cut transversely to the
+long axis of these papillæ, shows a number of small circular or oval
+orifices, with cells arranged concentrically round them. The nearer
+the surface of the hoof, or farther removed from the seat of growth,
+the more indistinct the structure becomes.</p>
+
+<p>Small round or oval plates of horny epidermis called “chestnuts,”
+growing like the hoof from enlarged papillæ of the skin, are
+found on the inner face of the fore limb, above the carpal joint, in
+all species of <i>Equidæ</i>, and in the Horse (<i>E. caballus</i>) alone similar
+formations occur near the upper extremity of the inner face of the
+metatarsus. Their use is unknown.</p>
+
+<p>Behind the joint between the metapodium and the first phalanx
+is a prominence formed by the fatty cushion of the fetlock (18 in
+<a href="#figure164">Fig. 164</a>). On the middle of this is a small bare patch covered
+with thickened epidermis, the <i>ergot</i> or spur, generally concealed
+beneath the long hair which grows around it. This is the functionless
+vestige of the large callous pad found in this situation in the
+Tapir, and in fact in all mammals in which this part reaches the
+ground in walking.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp65" id="figure165" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure165.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 165.</span>—Longitudinal and transverse section of upper
+incisor of Horse. <i>p</i>, Pulp cavity; <i>d</i>, dentine or ivory; <i>e</i>,
+enamel; <i>c</i>, outer layer of cement; <i>c′</i>, inner layer of cement,
+lining <i>a</i>, the pit or cavity of the crown of the tooth.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Dentition.</i>—The dentition of the Horse, when all the teeth are
+in place, is, as stated before, expressed by the formula <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₃,
+<i>m</i> ³⁄₃ = 42. The incisors of each jaw are placed in close contact,
+forming a semicircle. The crowns are broad, somewhat awl-shaped,
+and of nearly equal size. They have all the great peculiarity,
+not found in the teeth of any other living mammal, of an
+involution of the external surface of the tooth (see <a href="#figure165">Fig. 165</a>)
+forming a deep fossa or pit, the bottom of which becomes partially
+filled up with cement. As the tooth wears, the surface, besides
+the external enamel layer as in an ordinary simple tooth, shows
+in addition a second inner ring of the same hard substance surrounding
+the pit, thus of course adding greatly to the efficiency
+of the tooth as an organ for biting tough, fibrous substances. This<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_396"></a>[396]</span>
+pit, generally filled in the living animal with particles of food, is
+conspicuous from its dark colour, and constitutes the “mark” by
+which the age of the horse is judged, as in consequence of its
+extending only to a certain depth, it becomes obliterated as the
+crown wears away, when the tooth assumes the character of an
+ordinary incisor, consisting only of a core of dentine surrounded
+by the external enamel
+layer. It is not quite so
+deep in the lower as in
+the upper teeth. The
+canines are either quite
+rudimentary or entirely
+absent in the female. In
+the male they are compressed,
+pointed, and
+smaller than the incisors,
+from which they are
+separated by a slight interval.
+The teeth of the
+cheek series are all in
+contact with each other,
+but separated from the
+canines by a considerable
+toothless space. The
+anterior premolars are
+quite rudimentary, often,
+especially in the lower
+jaw, not developed at all,
+and generally fall by the
+time the animal attains maturity, so that there are but six functional
+grinding teeth—three that have predecessors in the milk-dentition,
+and hence are considered as premolars, and three true
+molars, but otherwise, except the first and last of the series,
+not distinguishable in form or structure. These teeth in both
+upper and lower jaws are extremely long-crowned or hypsodont
+(<a href="#figure158">Fig. 158</a>), successive portions being pushed out as the surface
+wears away;—a process which continues until the animal
+becomes advanced in age. The enamelled surface is infolded in a
+complex manner (a modification of that found in other Perissodactyles,
+see <a href="#figure155">Figs. 155</a>, <a href="#figure167">167</a>), the folds extending quite to the base of
+the crown, and the interstices being filled and the surface covered
+with a considerable mass of cement, which binds together and
+strengthens the whole tooth. As the teeth wear, the folded enamel,
+being harder than the other constituents—the dentine and cement—forms
+projecting ridges on the surface arranged in a definite
+pattern, which give it great efficiency as a grinding instrument (see<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_397"></a>[397]</span>
+<a href="#figure157">Fig. 157</a>, <i>b</i> and <i>c</i>). The free surfaces of the upper teeth are
+quadrate, except the first and last, which are nearly triangular.
+The lower teeth are much narrower than the upper.</p>
+
+<p>The milk dentition consists of <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃ = 24,—the canines
+and first or rudimentary premolars having apparently no predecessors.
+In form and structure they much resemble the
+permanent teeth, having the same characteristic enamel-foldings.
+Their eruption commences a few days after birth, and is complete
+before the end of the first year, the upper teeth usually appearing
+somewhat earlier than those of the lower jaw. The first
+teeth to appear are the first and second milk-molars (about
+five days), then the central incisor (from seven to ten days); this
+is followed by the second incisor (at one month), then by the third
+molar, and finally by the third incisor. Of the permanent teeth the
+first true molar appears a little after the end of the first year,
+followed by the second molar before the end of the second year. At
+about two and a half years the first premolar replaces its predecessor.
+Between two and a half and three years the first incisor appears.
+At three years the second and third premolars and the third true
+molar have appeared; at from three and a half to four years the
+second incisor; at four to four and a half years the canine; and,
+finally, at five years the third incisor, completing the permanent
+dentition. Up to this period the age of the horse is clearly shown
+by the state of the dentition, and for some time longer indications
+can be obtained from the wear of the incisor teeth, though this
+depends to a certain extent upon the hardness of the food or other
+accidental circumstances. As a general rule, the depression caused
+by the infolding of the surface of the incisor (the “mark”), is
+obliterated in the first or central incisor at six years, in the second
+at seven years, and in the third at eight years. In the upper teeth,
+as the depressions are deeper, this obliteration does not take place
+until about two years later. After this period no certain indications
+can be obtained of the age of the horse from the teeth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Digestive Organs.</i>—The lips are flexible and prehensile. The
+membrane that lines them and the cheeks is quite smooth. The
+palate is long and narrow; its mucous surface has seventeen pairs
+of not very sharply defined oblique ridges, extending as far back as
+the last molar tooth, beyond which the velum palati extends for
+about 3 inches, having a soft corrugated surface, and ending
+posteriorly in an arched border without uvula. This embraces the
+base of the epiglottis, and shuts off all communication between
+the cavity of the mouth and the nasal passages, respiration
+being, under ordinary circumstances, carried on exclusively
+through the nostrils. Between the mucous membrane and
+the bone of the hard palate is a dense vascular and nervous
+plexus. The membrane lining the fauces is soft and corrugated.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_398"></a>[398]</span>
+An elongated raised glandular mass, 3 inches long and 1 inch from
+above downwards, extending backwards from the root of the tongue
+along the side of the fauces, with openings on the surface leading
+into crypts with glandular walls, represents the tonsil. The tongue,
+corresponding to the general form of the mouth, is long and narrow.
+It consists of a compressed intermolar portion with a flat upper
+surface, broad behind and becoming narrower in front; and of a
+depressed anterior part rather shorter than the former, which
+is narrow behind but widens towards the evenly rounded apex.
+The dorsal surface generally is very soft and smooth. There are
+two large circumvallate papillæ near the base, rather irregular in
+form, about a quarter of an inch in diameter and half an inch apart.
+The conical papillæ are very small and close set, though longer and
+more filamentous on the intermolar portion. There are no fungiform
+papillæ on the dorsum, but a few not very conspicuous ones
+scattered along the sides of the organ.</p>
+
+<p>Of the salivary glands the parotid is by far the largest; elongated
+in the vertical direction, and narrower in the middle than at either
+upper or lower extremity. Its upper extremity embraces the lower
+surface of the cartilaginous ear-conch; its lower end reaches the
+level of the inferior margin of the mandible, along the posterior
+margin of which it is placed. Its duct leaves the inferior anterior
+angle, at first descends a little, and runs forward under cover of
+the rounded inferior border of the mandibular ramus, then curves
+up along the anterior margin of the masseter muscle, becoming
+superficial, pierces the buccinator, and enters the mouth by a simple
+aperture opposite the middle of the crown of the third premolar
+tooth. It is not quite so thick as a goose-quill when distended, and
+nearly a foot in length.</p>
+
+<p>The submaxillary gland is of very similar texture to the last,
+but much smaller; it is placed deeper, and lies with its main axis
+horizontal. It is elongated and slender, and flattened from within
+outwards. Its posterior end rests against the anterior surface of
+the transverse process of the atlas, from which it extends forwards
+and downwards, slightly curved, to beneath the ramus of the jaw.
+The duct which runs along its upper and internal border passes
+forwards in the usual course, lying in the inner side of the sublingual
+gland, to open on the outer surface of a distinct papilla, situated
+on the floor of the mouth, half an inch from the middle line, and
+midway between the lower incisor teeth and the attachment of the
+frænum linguæ. The sublingual is represented by a mass of glands
+lying just beneath the mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth
+on the side of the tongue, causing a distinct ridge, extending from
+the frænum backwards, and the numerous ducts opening separately
+along the summit of the ridge. The buccal glands are arranged
+in two rows parallel with the molar teeth. The upper ones<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_399"></a>[399]</span>
+are the largest, and are continuous anteriorly with the labial
+glands, the ducts of which open on the mucous membrane of the
+upper lip.</p>
+
+<p>The stomach of the Horse is simple in its external form, with
+a largely developed right <i>cul de sac</i>, and is a good deal curved
+on itself, so that the cardiac and pyloric orifices are brought near
+together. The antrum pyloricum is small and not very distinctly
+marked off. The interior is divided by the character of the lining
+membrane into two very distinct portions, right and left. Over
+the latter the dense white smooth epithelial lining of the œsophagus
+is continued, terminating abruptly by a raised crenellated border.
+Over the right part (rather the larger portion) the mucous membrane
+has a grayish-red colour and a velvety appearance, and contains very
+numerous peptic glands, which are wanting in the cardiac portion.
+The œsophageal orifice is very small, and is guarded by a strong
+crescentic or rather horse-shoe-like band of muscular fibres, which is
+supposed to be the cause of the difficulty of vomiting in the Horse.
+The small intestine is of great length (80 to 90 feet), its mucous
+membrane being covered with numerous fine villi. The cæcum is
+of conical form, about 2 feet long and nearly a foot in diameter;
+its walls are sacculated, especially near the base, having four longitudinal
+fibrous bands; and its capacity is about twice that of the
+stomach. It lies with its base near the lower part of the abdomen,
+and its apex directed towards the thorax. The colon is about one-third
+the length of the small intestine, and very capacious in the
+greater part of its course. As usual, it may be divided into an
+ascending, transverse, and descending portion; but the middle or
+transverse portion is folded into a great loop, which descends as low
+as the pubis; so that the colon forms altogether four folds, generally
+parallel to the long axis of the body. The descending colon is much
+narrower than the rest, and not sacculated, and being considerably
+longer than the distance it has to traverse, is thrown into numerous
+folds.</p>
+
+<p>The liver (<a href="#figure166">Fig. 166</a>) is tolerably symmetrical in its general
+arrangement, being divided nearly equally into segments by a well-marked
+umbilical fissure. Each segment is again divided by lateral
+fissures, which do not extend quite to the posterior border of the
+organ; of the central lobes thus cut off, the right is rather the larger,
+and has two fissures in its free border subdividing it into lobules.
+The extent of these varies, however, in different individuals, being
+not usually so marked as in the figure, which is from a fœtal
+specimen. The two lateral lobes are subtriangular in form. The
+Spigelian lobe is represented by a flat surface between the portal
+fissure and the posterior border, not distinctly marked off from the
+left lateral by a fissure of the ductus venosus, as this vessel is buried
+deep in the hepatic substance, but the caudate lobe is distinct and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_400"></a>[400]</span>
+tongue-shaped, its free apex reaching nearly to the border of the
+right lateral lobe. In most works on the anatomy of the Horse this
+has been confounded with the Spigelian lobe of man. There is no
+gall-bladder (as in
+all other Perissodactyles),
+and the
+biliary duct enters
+the duodenum
+about 6 inches from
+the pylorus. The
+pancreas has two
+lobes or branches—a
+long one passing
+to the left and
+reaching the spleen,
+and a shorter right
+lobe. The principal
+duct enters the
+duodenum with the
+bile-duct, and there
+is often a second
+small duct which
+opens separately
+near to this.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp85" id="figure166" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure166.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 166.</span>—Under surface of the liver of the Horse. <i>u</i>, Umbilical
+fissure; <i>ll</i>, left lateral lobe; <i>lc</i>, left central lobe; <i>rc</i>, right central
+lobe; <i>rl</i>, right lateral lobe; <i>s</i>, Spigelian lobe; <i>c</i>, caudate lobe.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Circulatory and Respiratory Organs.</i>—The heart has the form of a
+rather elongated and pointed cone. There is one anterior vena cava,
+formed by the union of the two jugular and two axillary veins.
+The aorta gives off a large branch (the anterior aorta) very near its
+origin, from which arise—first, the left axillary, and afterwards the
+right axillary and the two carotid arteries.</p>
+
+<p>Under ordinary circumstances the Horse breathes entirely by
+the nasal passages, the communication between the larynx and the
+mouth being closed by the velum palati. The nostrils are placed
+laterally, near the termination of the muzzle, and are large and
+very dilatable, being bordered by cartilages upon which several
+muscles act. Immediately within the opening of the nostril, the
+respiratory canal sends off on its upper and outer side a diverticulum
+or blind pouch (called “false nostril”) of a conical form, and
+curved, 2 to 3 inches in depth, lying in the notch formed between
+the nasal and premaxillary bones. It is lined by mucous membrane
+continuous with that of the nasal passage, but its use is not
+apparent. It is longer in the Ass than in the Horse. A similar
+structure is found in the Rhinoceros, and in a much more developed
+condition in the Tapir. Here may be mentioned the guttural pouches,
+large air sacs, diverticula from the Eustachian tubes, and lying
+behind the upper part of the pharynx. These are likewise found<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_401"></a>[401]</span>
+in other Perissodactyles, but their use is also still not clearly
+understood. The larynx has the lateral sacculi well developed,
+though entirely concealed within the alæ of the thyroid cartilage.
+The trachea divides into two bronchi, one for each lung.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nervous System.</i>—The brain differs little, except in details of
+arrangement of convolutions, from that of other Ungulates. The
+cerebral hemispheres are rather elongated and subcylindrical, the
+olfactory lobes are large and project freely in front of the hemispheres,
+and the greater part of the cerebellum is uncovered. The
+eye is provided with a nictitating membrane or third eyelid, at the
+base of which the ducts of the Harderian gland open.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reproductive System.</i>—The testes are situated in a distinct sessile
+or slightly pedunculated scrotum, into which they descend from the
+sixth to the tenth month after birth. The accessory generative
+glands are the two vesiculæ seminales, with the median third vesicle,
+or <i>uterus masculinus</i>, lying between them, the single bilobed prostate,
+and a pair of globular Cowper’s glands. The penis is large,
+cylindrical, with a truncated, expanded, flattened termination.
+When in a state of repose it is retracted by a muscle arising from
+the sacrum, within the prepuce, a cutaneous fold attached below the
+symphysis pubis.</p>
+
+<p>The uterus is bicornuate. The vagina is often partially divided
+by a membraneous septum or hymen. The mammæ (as in other
+members of the suborder), are two, inguinally placed. The surface of
+the chorion is covered evenly with minute villi, constituting a diffuse
+non-deciduate placenta. The period of gestation is eleven months.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<p><i>Bibliography.</i>—M. S. Arloing, “Organisation du pied chez le cheval,” <i>Ann.
+Sci. Nat.</i> 1867, viii. pp. 55-81; H. Burmeister, <i>Los caballos fosiles de la Pampa
+Argentina</i>, Buenos Ayres, 1875; Chanveau and Arloing, <i>Traité d’anatomie comparée
+des animaux domestiques</i>, Paris, 1871, and English edition by G. Fleming,
+1873; E. Cuyer and E. Alix, <i>Le Cheval</i>, 1886; A. Ecker, “Das Europäische Wildpferd
+und dessen Beziehungen zum domesticirten Pferd,” <i>Globus</i>, Bd. xxxiv.
+Brunswick, 1878; Forsyth-Major, “Beiträge zur Geschichte der fossilen Pferde
+besonders Italiens,” <i>Abh. Schw. Pal. Ges.</i> iv. pp. 1-16, pt. iv.; George, “Études
+zool. sur les Hémiones et quelques autres espèces chevalines,” <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i>
+1869, xii. p. 5; E. F. Gurlt, <i>Anatomische Abbildungen der Haussäugethiere</i>, 1824,
+and <i>Hand. der vergleich. Anat. der Haussäugethiere</i>, 2 vols. 1822; Huet, “Croisement
+des diverses espèces du genre cheval,” <i>Nouv. Archives du Muséum</i>, 2d sér.
+tom. ii. p. 46, 1879; Leisering, <i>Atlas der Anatomie des Pferdes</i>, Leipsic, 1861;
+J. M’Fadyean, <i>The Anatomy of the Horse</i>, 1884; O. C. Marsh, “Notice of New
+Equine Mammals from the Tertiary Formation,” <i>Am. Journ. of Science and Arts</i>,
+vol. vii. March 1874; Id. “Fossil Horses in America,” <i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, vol.
+viii. May 1874; Id. “Polydactyle Horses,” <i>Am. Journ. of Science and Arts</i>, vol.
+xvii. June 1879; Franz Müller, <i>Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Pferdes</i>, Vienna, 1853;
+R. Owen, “Equine Remains in Cavern of Bruniquel,” <i>Phil. Trans.</i> vol. clix.
+(1870), p. 535; W. Percivall, <i>The Anatomy of the Horse</i>, 1832; G. Stubbs,
+<i>Anatomy of the Horse</i>, 1766. F. H. Huth’s <i>Bibliographical Record of Hippology</i>
+(1887) contains a list of nearly four thousand works on Horses and Equitation,
+published<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_402"></a>[402]</span> in the various languages of the civilised world.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Rhinocerotidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Although the existing members of this family are readily distinguished
+from the other living representatives of the suborder
+by the simple crescentoid form assumed by the ridges of the lower
+cheek-teeth, yet it is exceedingly difficult to give a definition by
+which they can be distinguished from the <i>Lophiodontidæ</i>, from some
+members of which they are, indeed, probably derived. The outer
+columns of the upper molars (<a href="#figure167">Fig. 167</a>) are, however, so excessively
+flattened as to produce
+a continuous thick and
+nearly straight outer
+wall, which is often produced
+in advance of
+the anterior transverse
+ridge; both transverse
+ridges being but little
+curved, and intimately
+connected with the
+outer wall. The upper
+premolars are in most
+cases nearly or quite as
+complex as the molars,
+and the ridges of the
+lower cheek-teeth are
+crescentoid. The last
+lower molar has no
+third lobe. The height
+of the crowns of the
+cheek-teeth is variable.
+The skull is large, with
+the orbit confluent with
+the temporal fossa.
+There are either three
+or four digits in the manus, and three in the pes. One or more
+dermal horns are attached to the fronto-nasal region of the skull
+of existing forms, but these were wanting in some of the fossil
+species.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp64" id="figure167" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure167.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 167.</span>—A partially worn second right upper molar of
+<i>Rhinoceros antiquitatis</i>. Letters as in <a href="#figure155">Fig. 155</a> (<a href="#figure155">p. 375</a>), except
+<i>k</i>, which indicates a prolongation of the median valley.
+(After Owen.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Rhinoceros.</i><a id="FNanchor_267" href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a>—Incisors variable, reduced in number, often quite
+rudimentary, and early deciduous. Upper canines absent. Molar
+series, consisting of the full number of four premolars and three
+molars above and below, all in contact and closely resembling each
+other, except the first, which is much smaller than the rest and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_403"></a>[403]</span>
+often deciduous; and the last, in which the hinder lobe is partly
+aborted, so that the contour of the crown is triangular. Head
+large, skull elongated, elevated posteriorly into a transverse occipital
+crest. No postorbital processes. Nasal bones large and stout,
+co-ossified, and standing out freely above the premaxillæ, from which
+they are separated by a deep and wide fissure; the latter small,
+generally not meeting in the middle line in front, often quite rudimentary.
+Tympanics small, not forming a bulla. Brain cavity very
+small for the size of the skull. Vertebræ: C 7, D 19-20, L 3,
+S 4, C about 22. Limbs stout, and of moderate length. Three
+completely developed toes, with distinct broad rounded hoofs on each
+foot (<a href="#figure151">Fig. 151</a>, <a href="#figure151">p. 368</a>), some fossil forms having a fourth in the
+manus. Eyes small. Ears of moderate size, oval, erect, prominent,
+placed near the occiput. Skin very thick, in many species thrown
+into massive folds. Hairy covering scanty. When one horn is
+present it is situated over the conjoined nasal bones; when two, the
+hinder one is over the frontals. These horns, which are of a more
+or less conical form and usually recurved, often grow to a great
+length (three or even four feet), and are composed of a solid mass
+of hardened epidermic cells growing from a cluster of long dermal
+papillæ. The cells formed on each papilla constitute a distinct
+horny fibre, like a thick hair, and the whole are cemented together
+by an intermediate mass of cells which grow up from the interspaces
+between the papillæ. It results from this that the horn has the
+appearance of a mass of agglutinated hairs, which, in the newly
+growing part at the base, readily fray out on destruction of the
+softer intermediate substance; but the fibres differ from true hairs in
+growing from a free papilla of the derm, and not within a follicular
+involution of the same.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure168" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure168.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 168.</span>—A partially worn second right upper
+molar of (<i>A</i>) <i>Rhinoceros sondaicus</i>, and (<i>B</i>) <i>R. unicornis</i>.
+<i>k</i>, Fossette cut off from median valley; <i>m</i>,
+crotchet; <i>n</i>, crista, or combining-plate; <i>e</i>, anterior
+valley; <i>l</i>, anterior intermediate column. Other
+letters as in <a href="#figure155">Fig. 155</a>, <a href="#figure155">p. 375</a>.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The large lower cutting
+teeth of the typical Rhinoceroses
+have been very generally
+regarded as incisors, but
+comparison with fossil allied
+types, in which three lower incisors
+and canines are present,
+leaves little doubt but that
+they are really canines. The
+upper molar teeth present some
+amount of specific variation;
+thus while one type (<a href="#figure168">Fig.
+168</a>, <i>A</i>) has only a simple
+“crotchet” projecting from
+the posterior transverse ridge
+into the median valley, in others (<a href="#figure168">Fig. 168</a>, <i>B</i>) this crotchet joins a
+“crista,” or “combing-plate,” projecting from the outer wall to cut<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_404"></a>[404]</span>
+off a distinct fossette from the median valley. Occasionally, however
+(as in <a href="#figure167">Fig. 167</a>), the crotchet and combing-plate do not completely
+join, although the fossette is distinctly indicated. The first upper
+premolar may occasionally be preceded by a milk-tooth. The Rhinoceroses
+differ from the Horses and agree with the Tapirs in the
+direction of the cæcum.</p>
+
+<p>The living species of <i>Rhinoceros</i> are all animals of large size, but of
+little intelligence, generally timid indisposition, though ferocious when
+attacked and brought to bay, using the nasal horns as weapons, by
+which they strike and toss their assailant. Their sight is dull, but
+their hearing and scent are remarkably acute. They feed on herbage,
+shrubs, and leaves of trees, and, like so many other large animals
+which inhabit hot countries, sleep the greater part of the day, being
+most active in the cool of the evening or even during the night.
+They are fond of bathing and wallowing in water or mud. None
+of the species have been domesticated. Animals of the group have
+existed in both the Old and New Worlds since the latter part of
+the Eocene period. In America they all became extinct before the
+end of the Pliocene period. In the Old World their distribution
+has become greatly restricted, and they are no longer found in
+Europe and North Asia, but only in Africa and portions of the
+Indian and Indo-Malayan region.</p>
+
+<p><i>Existing Species.</i>—The existing (as well as many of the extinct)
+species of Rhinoceroses naturally divide into three groups, which are
+regarded by some zoologists as of generic value.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rhinocerotic, or Typical Group.</i>—The adults with a single large
+compressed incisor above on each side, and occasionally a small lateral
+one; below, a very small incisor and a very large, procumbent,
+pointed canine. Nasal bones pointed in front. A single nasal
+horn. Skin very thick, and raised into strong, definitely arranged
+ridges or folds.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp96" id="figure169" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure169.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 169.</span>—Indian Rhinoceros (<i>Rhinoceros unicornis</i>). This figure, and also figures 170, 172,
+are reduced from drawings by J. Wolf, from animals living in the London Zoological Society’s
+Gardens.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>There are two well-marked species of one-horned Rhinoceroses.
+(1) The Indian Rhinoceros, <i>R. unicornis</i> (<a href="#figure169">Fig. 169</a>) of Linnæus,<a id="FNanchor_268" href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> the
+largest and best known, from being the most frequently exhibited
+alive in England, is at present only met with in a wild state in the
+terai region of Nipal and Bhutan, and in the upper valley of the
+Brahmaputra or province of Assam, though it formerly had a wider
+range. The first Rhinoceros seen alive in Europe since the time
+when these animals, in common with nearly all the large remarkable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_405"></a>[405]</span>
+beasts of both Africa and Asia, were exhibited in the Roman
+shows, was of this species. It was sent from India to Emmanuel,
+King of Portugal, in 1513; and from a sketch of it, taken in
+Lisbon, Albert Dürer composed his celebrated but rather fanciful
+engraving, which was reproduced in so many old books on natural
+history. Both in this and the following species the post-glenoid
+and post-tympanic processes of the squamosal bone of the skull
+unite below so as to completely surround the external auditory
+meatus. The molar teeth are hypsodont, and have a horizontal
+plane of wear; those of the upper jaw (<a href="#figure168">Fig. 168</a>, <i>b</i>) being characterised
+by the presence of a combing-plate joining the crotchet, and
+the absence of a distinct buttress at the antero-external angle.
+The stomach departs from the ordinary Perissodactyle type. The
+small intestine is beset over most of its surface with long and fine
+villi; and the Spigelian lobe of the liver is well developed. There
+is a gland behind the foot. Teeth from the Pleistocene of the
+Narbada valley in India apparently indicate the existence of the
+Indian Rhinoceros at that epoch. (2) The Javan Rhinoceros (<i>R.
+sondaicus</i>, <a href="#figure170">Fig. 170</a>) is a smaller form, readily distinguished by
+dental and internal characters, as well as by the different arrangement
+of the plications of the skin (as seen in the figures); the horn
+in the female appears to be very little developed, if not altogether
+absent. This species has a more extensive geographical range,
+being found in the Bengal Sunderbans near Calcutta, Burma, the
+Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, and probably Borneo. The molar
+teeth have shorter crowns than in the preceding species, and wear<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_406"></a>[406]</span>
+into ridges; those of the upper jaw (<a href="#figure168">Fig. 168</a>, <i>a</i>) having no combing-plate,
+and a strongly marked buttress at the antero-external angle
+(not distinctly shown in the figure). The visceral anatomy, according
+to Beddard,<a id="FNanchor_269" href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> does not differ materially from that of the next
+species. In respect to its dentition and anatomical characters
+this species is indeed more nearly allied to the Sumatran than to
+the Indian Rhinoceros; and thereby indicates that the division of
+the existing Rhinoceroses into separate genera is not advisable.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure170" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure170.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 170.</span>—Javan Rhinoceros (<i>Rhinoceros sondaicus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Ceratorhine Group.</i>—The adults with a moderate-sized compressed
+incisor above, and a laterally placed, pointed, procumbent canine
+below, which is sometimes lost in old animals. Nasal bones narrow
+and pointed anteriorly. A well-developed nasal, and a small frontal
+horn separated by an interval. The skin thrown into folds, but
+these not so strongly marked as in the former group. The
+smallest living member of the family, the Sumatran Rhinoceros, <i>R.
+sumatrensis</i>, Cuvier, now represents this group. Its geographical
+range is nearly the same as that of the Javan species, though not
+extending into Bengal; but it has been found in Assam, Chittagong,
+Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo. So far as
+can be determined during the life of the type specimen, it appears
+that the hairy form from Chittagong, described as <i>R. lasiotis</i>, is only
+a variety of this species.<a id="FNanchor_270" href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> The molar teeth of the Sumatran<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_407"></a>[407]</span> Rhinoceros
+are almost indistinguishable from those of the Javan species,
+and reference has already been made to the resemblance between
+the visceral anatomy of these species.<a id="FNanchor_271" href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a> The form of the stomach
+is very similar to that of the Horse. The liver (<a href="#figure171">Fig. 171</a>) has a
+comparatively large caudate lobe, but is chiefly remarkable for the
+peculiar shape of the Spigelian lobe, which mainly consists of a thin
+strip of tissue, 8 inches long, ¾ inch wide, and ¼ inch deep. The
+small intestine, in place of the villi of <i>R. unicornis</i>, has throughout
+the greater part of its length a uniform series of thin and nearly or
+quite continuous transverse foldings, like the valvulæ conniventes
+of the human small intestine. There is no gland behind the foot.
+The post-glenoid and post-tympanic processes of the squamosal do
+not unite below the auditory meatus. The presence of a lateral
+nasal diverticulum, like that of the Horses and Tapirs, has been
+verified only in this species, although it doubtless occurs in the
+others.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure171" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure171.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 171.</span>—Posterior aspect of the liver of <i>Rhinoceros sumatrensis</i>. <i>rc</i>, Right central lobe;
+<i>rl</i>, right lateral lobe; <i>lc</i>, left central lobe; <i>ll</i>, left lateral lobe; <i>c</i>, caudate lobe; <i>sp</i>, Spigelian
+lobe. (From Garrod, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1873, p. 102.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Atelodine Group.</i>—In the adults the incisors and canines quite
+rudimentary or entirely wanting. Nasal bones thick, rounded and
+truncated in front. Well-developed anterior and posterior horns in
+close contact. Skin without any definite permanent folds.</p>
+
+<p>The two well-marked<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_408"></a>[408]</span> existing species are peculiar to the African
+continent.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="figure172" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure172.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 172.</span>—Common African Rhinoceros (<i>Rhinoceros bicornis</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The common Two-horned Rhinoceros, <i>R. bicornis</i>, is the smaller of
+the two, with a pointed prehensile upper lip, and a narrow compressed
+deep symphysis of the lower jaw. It ranges through the wooded
+and watered districts of Africa, from Abyssinia in the north to the
+Cape Colony, but its numbers are yearly diminishing, owing to the
+inroads of European civilisation, and especially of English sportsmen.
+It feeds exclusively upon leaves and branches of bushes and
+small trees, and chiefly frequents the sides of wood-clad rugged
+hills. Specimens in which the posterior horn has attained a length
+as great as, or greater than, the anterior have been separated under
+the name of <i>R. keitloa</i>, but the characters of these appendages are
+too variable to found specific distinctions upon. The Common
+African Rhinoceros is far more rarely seen in menageries in Europe
+than either of the three Oriental species, but one has lived in the
+gardens of the London Zoological Society since 1868. The molar
+teeth of this species are of the general type of those of <i>R. sondaicus</i>,
+having no combing-plate to join the crotchet in those of the upper
+jaw. The conch of the ear is much rounded at its extremity, and
+edged by a fringe of short hairs; while the nostrils are somewhat
+rounded. The eye is placed immediately below the posterior
+horn.<a id="FNanchor_272" href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a> Both in this and the following species the post-glenoid<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_409"></a>[409]</span> and
+post-tympanic processes of the squamosal do not unite below the
+auditory meatus. Nothing is known of the anatomy of the soft
+parts of either of them.</p>
+
+<p>Burchell’s or the Square-mouthed Rhinoceros (<i>R. simus</i>), sometimes
+called the White Rhinoceros, though the colour (dark slate) is not
+materially different from that of the last species, is the largest of
+the whole group, and differs from all the others in having a square
+truncated upper lip and a wide, shallow, spatulate symphysis to
+the lower jaw. In conformity with the structure of the mouth,
+this species lives entirely by browsing on grass, and is therefore
+more partial to open countries or districts where there are broad
+grassy valleys between the tracts of bush. It is only found in
+Africa south of the Zambesi, and of late years has become extremely
+scarce, owing to the persecutions of sportsmen; indeed,
+the time of its complete extinction cannot be far off. No specimen
+of this species has ever been brought alive to Europe. Mr. F. C.
+Selous<a id="FNanchor_273" href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a> gives the following description of its habits from extensive
+personal observation:—</p>
+
+<p>“The square-mouthed rhinoceros is a huge ungainly-looking
+beast, with a disproportionately large head, a large male standing
+6 feet 6 inches at the shoulder. Like elephants and buffaloes they
+lie asleep during the heat of the day, and feed during the night
+and in the cool hours of early morning and evening. Their sight
+is very bad; but they are quick of hearing, and their scent is very
+keen; they are, too, often accompanied by rhinoceros birds, which,
+by running about their heads, flapping their wings, and screeching
+at the same time, frequently give them notice of the approach of
+danger. When disturbed they go off at a swift trot, which soon
+leaves all pursuit from a man on foot far behind; but if chased by
+a horseman they break into a gallop, which they can keep up for
+some distance. However, although they run very swiftly, when
+their size and heavy build is considered, they are no match for an
+average good horse. They are, as a rule, very easy to shoot on
+horseback, as, if one gallops a little in front of and on one side of
+them, they will hold their course, and come sailing past, offering
+a magnificent broadside shot, while under similar circumstances a
+prehensile-lipped rhinoceros will usually swerve away in such a
+manner as only to present his hind-quarters for a shot. When
+either walking or running, the square-mouthed rhinoceros holds its
+head very low, its nose nearly touching the ground. When a small
+calf accompanies its mother it always runs in front, and she appears
+to guide it by holding the point of her horn upon the little animal’s
+rump; and it is perfectly wonderful to note how in all sudden
+changes of pace, from a trot to a gallop or <i>vice versâ</i>, the same
+position is always exactly maintained. During the autumn and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_410"></a>[410]</span>
+winter months (<i>i.e.</i> from March to August) the square-mouthed
+rhinoceros is usually very fat; and its meat is then most excellent,
+being something like beef, but yet having a peculiar flavour of its
+own. The part in greatest favour among hunters is the hump,
+which, if cut off whole and roasted just as it is in the skin, in a
+hole dug in the ground, would, I think, be difficult to match either
+for juiciness or flavour.”</p>
+
+<p>The molar dentition is of the type obtaining in <i>R. unicornis</i>, so
+that in this respect <i>R. simus</i> has the same relation to <i>R. bicornis</i> as
+is presented by <i>R. unicornis</i> to <i>R. sondaicus</i>. The ear-conch of the
+Square-mouthed Rhinoceros is very large, elongated, and pointed at
+its extremity, which bears only a slight tuft of hair; it is much expanded
+in the middle, and the lower portion has its edges united
+to form a short tube. The nostrils have a long slit-like aperture;
+and the eye is situated behind the posterior horn.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Species.</i>—Using the generic term <i>Rhinoceros</i> in its widest
+signification, a very large number of fossil forms may be referred to
+it, the earliest of which date from the Upper Eocene (Oligocene)
+Phosphorites of Central France. Only a few of the more important
+of these types can, however, be even mentioned in this
+place.</p>
+
+<p>In the Pliocene Siwaliks of India <i>R. sivalensis</i> appears to have
+been the direct ancestor of <i>R. sondaicus</i>; while <i>R. palæindicus</i> was
+probably nearly related to <i>R. unicornis</i>, although the upper molars
+had not developed a combing-plate.</p>
+
+<p><i>R. schleirmacheri</i>, of the Lower Pliocene of Europe, falls into
+the Ceratorhine group, although differing from <i>R. sumatrensis</i> by
+the union of the post-glenoid and post-tympanic processes of the
+squamosal beneath the auditory meatus. The Middle Miocene
+<i>R. sansaniensis</i> was a closely allied if not identical form.</p>
+
+<p>The Atelodine group was very widely spread in past epochs.
+Thus the huge <i>R. platyrhinus</i> of the Indian Pliocene, and the equally
+large <i>R. antiquitatis</i> of the Pleistocene of Europe, were specialised
+forms with a dentition resembling that of <i>R. simus</i>, to which they
+were probably allied. An upper molar of <i>R. antiquitatis</i>—the so-called
+Tichorine, or Woolly Rhinoceros—is shown in the woodcut
+on <a href="#figure167">p. 402</a>. Of this species nearly whole carcases, with the thick
+woolly external covering, have been discovered associated with
+those of the Mammoth, preserved in the frozen soil of the north of
+Siberia. In common with some other extinct species it had a solid
+median wall of bone supporting the nasals, from which it is inferred
+that the horns were of a size and weight surpassing that of the
+modern species. In the Lower Pliocene of Attica <i>R. pachygnathus</i>
+appears to have been closely allied to <i>R. bicornis</i>. Several species
+such as <i>R. leptorhinus</i> (<a href="#figure173">Fig. 173</a>), <i>R. megarhinus</i>, and <i>R. etruscus</i>,
+occur in the European Pleistocene which do not present a marked<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_411"></a>[411]</span>
+relationship to any of the living forms. This group is also represented
+in the Pleistocene of Southern India by the small <i>R. deccanensis</i>
+and <i>R. karnuliensis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the Upper Miocene, or Lower Pliocene, of North America
+numerous Rhinoceroses with incisor teeth occur which have no
+nasal horn, although in those forms of which the limbs are known
+the fore feet resembled those of existing species in having only three
+digits. These species have been generically separated as <i>Aphelops</i>,
+but so closely do they resemble existing Rhinoceroses that at one
+time Professor Cope proposed to refer the hornless female of <i>R.
+sondaicus</i> (described by Lesson as <i>R. inermis</i>) to the same genus.
+If these American types be included in <i>Rhinoceros</i> there seems no
+valid reason for separating the European Lower Pliocene and Miocene
+forms described as <i>Aceratherium</i>, at least some of which have
+four digits in the manus. This group is represented in the Upper
+Eocene Phosphorites of France, and also by a very large species in
+the Pliocene of India. Lastly, <i>R. minutus</i>, of the Lower Miocene of
+France, and an allied North American species are distinguished by
+carrying a pair of very small horns placed transversely across the
+nasals, from which feature it has been proposed that they should
+be separated genetically as <i>Diceratherium</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure173" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure173.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 173.</span>—Skull of <i>Rhinoceros leptorhinus</i>, from the Pleistocene of Essex. About ⅛ natural size.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Generic Types.</i>—The Tertiary deposits of different parts
+of the world have yielded remains of many extinct forms more or
+less closely related to the Rhinoceroses, and some of which should
+certainly be included in the same family; although others perhaps
+form the types of one or more distinct families. One of the most
+remarkable of these extinct types is the huge <i>Elasmotherium</i>, from
+the Pleistocene of Siberia, in which the dentition was reduced<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_412"></a>[412]</span> to
+two premolars and three molars on either side of each jaw. The
+structure of the skeleton is essentially rhinocerotic, the skull having
+an ossified nasal septum, and a huge frontal prominence for the
+support of a very large horn. The teeth are extremely hypsodont,
+with the enamel plicated to a remarkable degree, and unlike those
+of <i>Rhinoceros</i>. The genus is evidently a very specialised one.</p>
+
+<p>The other genera we have to notice are more generalised types.
+Of these the North American <i>Hyracodon</i>, with the full typical
+number of teeth, and without nasal horn, appears to connect the
+Rhinoceroses with the Lophiodont <i>Hyrachyus</i>. The genera <i>Amynodon</i>
+and <i>Metamynodon</i> (<a href="#figure174">Fig. 174</a>), from the American Tertiaries, are
+forms allied to the Rhinoceroses, with the full number of incisors
+and canines, and the hinder lobe of the last upper molar not aborted.
+The lower canines are either upright, or less proclivous than in the
+Rhinoceroses; in <i>Metamynodon</i> the premolars are reduced to ³⁄₂.
+Molar teeth from the Phosphorites of Central France, described
+under the name of <i>Cadurcotherium</i>, are constructed on the general
+plan of those of the Rhinoceroses, although distinguished by their
+extreme narrowness; this type of tooth being very similar to that
+found in <i>Homalodontotherium</i> from Tertiary deposits in Patagonia.
+The latter has the full number of teeth, without any diastema in
+the series. Until we have some knowledge of the skeleton of these
+remarkable forms nothing definite can be said as to their serial
+position.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure174" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure174.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 174.</span>—Right half of the palatal surface of the cranium of <i>Metamynodon planifrons</i>, from
+the Upper Miocene of North America. (After Scott and Osborn.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<h5><i>Families</i> <span class="smcap">Lambdotheriidæ, Chalicotheriidæ, and
+Titanotheriidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>These families contain a large number of more or less nearly
+related extinct types from Tertiary beds of both the Old and New
+Worlds, some of which present most remarkable deviations from
+the ordinary Ungulate structure. All are characterised by their
+brachydont molars, which depart widely from the normal lophodont
+type. The upper molars consist of four columns, of which the two<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_413"></a>[413]</span>
+external ones are expanded to form an outer wall; the posterior
+pair being connected in some cases by an oblique transverse ridge,
+while there may be traces of an anterior ridge. The premolars
+are simpler.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lambdotheriidæ.</i>—This family is confined to the Upper Eocene
+and Miocene of North America, where it is represented by <i>Lambdotherium</i>,
+<i>Palæosyops</i>, and <i>Limnosyops</i>; it presents the normal type
+of foot structure, and all the genera except the first have the full
+complement of teeth. There were four digits in the manus. The
+last lower molar has a third lobe. <i>Limnosyops</i> differs from <i>Palæosyops</i>
+in having two inner columns to the last upper molar.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure175" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure175.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 175.</span>—Anterior and distal aspects of a
+phalangeal bone of <i>Chalicotherium sivalense</i>. (From
+the <i>Palæontologia Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Chalicotheriidæ.</i>—The genus <i>Chalicotherium</i>, which is found in the
+Tertiaries of Europe, Asia, and North America, differs so remarkably
+in the structure of the feet from all other Ungulates that it has
+been proposed to regard it as the representative of a distinct order,
+Ancylopoda. The molars are, however, almost indistinguishable
+from those of the preceding and following families; while the cervical
+vertebræ and portions of the limbs are of a Perissodactyle type.
+On the other hand, the femur has lost its third trochanter; while
+the phalanges are strangely modified, the terminal ones forming
+long curved claws, while the others (<a href="#figure175">Fig. 175</a>) have strong ginglymoid
+distal articulations.
+These phalanges were, indeed,
+long regarded as referable to
+Edentates, being described in
+Europe as <i>Macrotherium</i>, and
+in the United States as <i>Morotherium</i>
+and <i>Moropus</i>. <i>Ancylotherium</i>,
+of the Grecian
+Pikermi beds, is founded upon
+phalanges which indicate an
+allied genus. The Indian
+species of <i>Chalicotherium</i> is distinguished
+by the loss of the incisors and the upper canine; while
+all the species want the first premolar.</p>
+
+<p><i>Titanotheriidæ.</i>—This exclusively North American family includes
+gigantic forms closely allied to the <i>Lambdotheriidæ</i>, but with
+the last upper premolar as complex as the molars, and frequently
+with large bony protuberances in the nasal region. The best
+known genus, <i>Titanotherium</i> (<i>Menodus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_274" href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a> <i>Brontotherium</i>, <i>Symborodon</i>,
+<i>Allops</i>, etc.), may either have the full complement of teeth, or the
+incisors may be reduced to ²⁄₀. The canines and incisors are small,
+and there is no diastema when the full dental series is developed.
+The skull is very like that of the Rhinoceroses; but has a transverse
+pair of large bony prominences on the nasal region, varying<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_414"></a>[414]</span>
+considerably in shape and size in the different species, which in the
+living animal were probably covered with horny sheaths. The third
+trochanter of the femur was aborted. These huge animals—inferior
+in size only to the Elephant—appear to have been abundant
+in the United States during the Miocene period.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Macraucheniidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>This extinct South American family is best known by the genus
+<i>Macrauchenia</i>, as represented by <i>M. patachonica</i> and <i>M. boliviensis</i>,
+which are apparently from Pleistocene formations. They are very
+singular and specialised forms, quite out of the line of descent of
+any of the existing Perissodactyles, and the steps by which they
+are connected with the rest of the group have not yet been
+discovered. Of the larger species, <i>M. patachonica</i>, the skeleton is
+completely known. It had the full number of forty-four teeth,
+forming an almost uninterrupted series. The cervical vertebræ
+resemble those of the Camels in the position of the vertebrarterial
+canal, but the ends of the centra are flat, and not opisthocœlous as
+in the allied forms. In some of the limb characters it resembles
+the <i>Equidæ</i>, but in the articulation of the fibula with the calcaneum
+it agrees with the Artiodactyles. The structure of the feet is,
+however, distinctly Perissodactylate, there being three toes on each.
+The teeth approximate to a Rhinocerotine structure; and the incisors
+have an infolding of the enamel of their crowns, as in those of the
+Horses. The nares open on the top of the skull, and it is probable
+that the muzzle was produced into a short proboscis. Several
+other South American forms have been referred to this family,
+some of which have received distinct generic names, but further
+evidence is required before many of them can be accepted. Possibly
+<i>Homalodontotherium</i> should be placed here.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Proterotheriidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p><i>Proterotherium.</i>—Here may be noticed certain very remarkable
+Perissodactyles from the South American Tertiaries, for which the
+name <i>Proterotherium</i> has been proposed. The cheek-teeth are so
+like those of <i>Anchitherium</i> that they have been described under
+that name. The upper jaw has one pair of canine-like incisors and
+no canines, while the lower jaw carries two pairs of incisors. In
+the skull the orbits were completely closed, as in the Horses. The
+feet were tridactyle, like those of <i>Hipparion</i>, but the tarsus was
+constructed on an Artiodactyle type.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Subungulata.</span></h3>
+
+<p>By far the greater number of the Subungulata are extinct, and
+of many of those whose former existence has been revealed, chiefly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_415"></a>[415]</span>
+by the labours of the American palæontologists, our knowledge is
+at present necessarily imperfect, though daily extending. It will
+only be possible here to give details of some of the more interesting
+or best-known forms.</p>
+
+<p>The characters by which the skeleton of the feet of the Subungulata
+are distinguished from those of the Ungulata Vera have
+been already mentioned on <a href="#Page_275">p. 275</a>. In addition to these it may
+be observed that the feet frequently have five functional digits,
+and may be plantigrade; while the upper surface of the astragalus
+is generally flattened, instead of presenting the strongly-marked
+pulley-like ridges and groove so characteristic of the Ungulata
+Vera.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Hyracoidea</span>.</h4>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hyracidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure176" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure176.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 176.</span>—<i>Hyrax capensis.</i></p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This division is constituted to receive a single family of mammals,
+the affinities of which have long constituted a puzzle to
+zoologists. They were first placed among the Rodents, to which
+animals their small size and general appearance and habits give
+them much superficial resemblance. Cuvier’s investigations into
+their anatomical structure, and especially their dental characters,
+led him to place them among the Ungulates, near the genus
+<i>Rhinoceros</i>, a position long accepted by many zoologists. Further
+knowledge of their organisation and mode of development caused
+Milne-Edwards, Huxley, and others to disassociate them from this
+connection, and, failing to find any agreement with any other known
+forms, to place them in an order entirely apart. Palæontology has
+thrown no light upon the affinities<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_416"></a>[416]</span> of this anomalous and isolated
+group, as no extinct animals possessing their distinctive characters
+have as yet been discovered.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure177" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure177.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 177.</span>—Skull and dentition of <i>Dendrohyrax dorsalis</i>. × ⅔.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The dentition, according to the usual interpretation, consists
+only of incisors and molars, the formula in all known species being
+<i>i</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. The upper incisors have persistent pulps, and
+are curved longitudinally, forming a semicircle as in Rodents.
+They are, however, not flattened from before backwards as in that
+order, but prismatic, with an antero-external, an antero-internal,
+and a posterior surface, the first two only being covered with
+enamel; their apices are consequently not chisel-shaped, but sharp
+pointed. They are preceded by functional, rooted milk-teeth.
+The outer lower incisors, which should perhaps be regarded rather
+as canines, have long tapering roots, but not of persistent
+growth. They are straight, procumbent, with awl-shaped, trilobed
+crowns. Behind the incisors is a considerable diastema. The
+molars and premolars are all contiguous, and formed almost exactly
+on the pattern of some of the Perissodactyle Ungulates. The hyoid
+arch is unlike that of any known mammal. The dorsal and lumbar
+vertebræ are very numerous, 28 to 30, of which 21 or 22 bear
+ribs. The tail is extremely short. There are no clavicles. In
+the fore foot the three middle toes are subequally developed,
+the fifth is present, but smaller, and the hallux is rudimentary,
+although, in one species at least, all its normal bones are present.
+The ungual phalanges of the four outer digits are small, somewhat
+conical, and flattened in form. The carpus has a distinct os
+centrale. There is a slight ridge on the femur in the place of a
+third trochanter. The fibula is complete, thickest at its upper
+end, where it generally ankyloses with the tibia. The articulation
+between the tibia and astragalus is more complex than in other
+mammals, the end of the malleolus entering into it. The hind
+foot is very like that of <i>Rhinoceros</i>, having three well-developed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_417"></a>[417]</span>
+toes. There is no trace of a hallux, and the fifth metatarsal is
+represented only by a small nodule. The ungual phalanx of the
+inner (or second) digit is deeply cleft, and has a peculiar long
+curved claw, the others have short broad nails. The stomach is
+formed upon much the same principle as that of the Horse or
+Rhinoceros, but is more elongated transversely and divided by a
+constriction into two cavities—a large left <i>cul de sac</i>, lined by
+a very dense white epithelium and a right pyloric cavity, with a
+very thick, soft, vascular lining. The intestinal canal (<a href="#figure178">Fig. 178</a>)
+is long, and has an
+arrangement perfectly
+unique among
+mammals, indeed
+among vertebrated
+animals, for, in addition
+to the ordinary
+short, but capacious
+and sacculated cæcum
+(<i>cm</i>) at the commencement
+of the
+colon, there is, lower
+down, an additional
+pair of large, conical,
+pointed, supplemental
+cæca (<i>c</i>). The
+liver is much subdivided,
+and there is
+no gall-bladder. The
+brain resembles that
+of the typical Ungulates
+far more than
+the Rodents. The
+testes are permanently
+abdominal.
+The ureters open into
+the fundus of the
+bladder, as in some
+Rodents. The female has six teats, of which four are inguinal
+and two axillary; and the placenta is zonary, as in the Elephant
+and Carnivora.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="figure178" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure178.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 178.</span>—Diagrammatic view of the alimentary canal of
+<i>Hyrax capensis</i>, the intestines being somewhat abbreviated.
+<i>d</i>, Duodenum; <i>i</i>, ileum; <i>cm</i>, cæcum; <i>c</i>, supplemental colic cæca;
+<i>r</i>, rectum.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>There are two distinct forms of Hyrax, differing both in
+structure and habits, which may be accorded generic rank.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_418"></a>[418]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Hyrax.</i><a id="FNanchor_275" href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a>—Molar teeth having the same pattern as those of
+<i>Rhinoceros</i>. Interval between upper incisors less than the width of
+the teeth. Lower incisors slightly notched at the cutting edge.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 22, L 8, S 6, C 6. Of this form the earliest
+known species, <i>H. capensis</i> (<a href="#figure176">Fig. 176</a>) is the type. There are several
+other species, as <i>H. habessinicus</i> and <i>syriacus</i>, from Eastern Africa
+and Syria. They inhabit mountainous and rocky regions, and live
+on the ground.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dendrohyrax.</i><a id="FNanchor_276" href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a>—Molar teeth having the same pattern as <i>Palæotherium</i>
+(except that the third lower molar has but two lobes).
+Interval between upper incisors exceeding the width of the teeth.
+Lower incisors with very distinctly trilobed crowns. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 21, L 7, S 5, C 10. The members of this section frequent
+the trunks and large branches of trees, sleeping in holes. There
+are several species, not distinctly defined, from western and south
+Africa, as <i>D. arboreus</i> and <i>D. dorsalis</i>. The members of both groups
+appear to have a power like that possessed by the Lizards called
+Geckos of clinging to vertical surfaces of rocks and trees by the
+soles of their feet.</p>
+
+<p>It should be added that some writers separate three of the
+African species usually included in <i>Hyrax</i> (viz. <i>H. bocagei</i>, <i>H. bakeri</i>,
+and <i>H. blainvillei</i>) under the designation of <i>Heterohyrax</i>.<a id="FNanchor_277" href="#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a></p>
+
+<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Proboscidea</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>This name has been appropriated to a well-marked group of
+animals, presenting some very anomalous characters, allied in many
+respects to the typical Ungulata, but belonging neither to the Artiodactyle
+nor Perissodactyle type of that order. It has been thought
+that they possess some, though certainly not very close, affinities
+with the Rodentia, and also with the Sirenia. It is certain,
+however, that the two species of Elephant, which are the sole living
+representatives of the group, stand quite alone among existing
+mammals, differing widely from all others in many points of their
+structure. In some respects, as the skull, proboscis, and dentition,
+they are highly specialised; but in others, as in the presence of two
+anterior venæ cavæ and in the structure of the limbs, they retain
+a low or generalised condition. A considerable series of extinct<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_419"></a>[419]</span>
+forms, extending back through the Pliocene and Miocene epochs,
+show the same type under different modifications, and in still more
+generalised outlines; and certain forms from the Eocene of North
+America, if their affinities are rightly interpreted, appear to link
+the true Proboscidea to some unknown primitive type of Ungulata.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the principal characters common to existing,
+and, by inference, to the extinct, Proboscidea. The nose extended
+into a long, muscular, very flexible and prehensile proboscis, at the
+end of which the nostrils are situated, and from which the name
+given to the group is derived. The teeth consisting of ever-growing
+incisors of very great size, but never exceeding one pair in each
+jaw, and often present in one jaw only; no canines; large and
+transversely ridged molars. No clavicles. Limbs strong, the
+upper segment, especially in the hind limb, the longer. Radius
+and ulna distinct, the latter articulating extensively with the carpus.
+Fibula and tibia distinct. Astragalus very flat on both surfaces.
+Manus and pes short, broad, and massive, each with five toes,
+though the outer pair may be more or less rudimentary, all encased
+in a common integument, though with distinct, broad, short hoofs.
+Third digit the largest. Two anterior venæ cavæ entering the
+right auricle. Stomach simple. A capacious cæcum. Testes permanently
+abdominal. Uterus bicornuate. Placenta non-deciduate
+and zonary. Mammæ two, pectoral.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the teeth, the incisors,<a id="FNanchor_278" href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a> which project largely
+out of the mouth, and are commonly called “tusks,” are of an
+elongated conical form, and generally curved. They are composed
+mainly of solid dentine, the fine elastic quality and large mass of
+which renders it invaluable as “ivory” for commerce and the arts.
+A peculiarity of the dentine of most Proboscidea is that it shows, in
+transverse fractures or sections, striæ proceeding in the arc of a
+circle from the centre to the circumference in opposite directions,
+and forming by their decussations curvilinear lozenges, as in the
+“engine-turning” of the case of a watch. The enamel-covering in
+existing species is confined to the extreme apex, and very soon
+wears off, but in some extinct species it forms persistent longitudinal
+bands of limited breadth. The tusks have small milk-predecessors,
+shed at an early age.</p>
+
+<p>The molar teeth present a remarkable series of modifications,
+from the comparatively simple form in <i>Dinotherium</i>, with two<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_420"></a>[420]</span> or
+three strongly pronounced transverse ridges and a normal mode of
+succession, to the extremely complex structure and anomalous mode
+of replacement found in the true Elephants. The intermediate
+conditions occur in the various species of <i>Mastodon</i>. In this genus
+the enamel-covered transverse ridges of each tooth are generally
+more numerous than in <i>Dinotherium</i>, and often complicated by
+notches dividing their edge or by accessory columns attached to
+them, but in the unworn tooth they stand out freely on the surface
+of the crown, with deep valleys between (<a href="#figure179">Fig. 179</a>, I). In the
+Elephants the ridges are still further increased in number, and consequently
+narrower from before backwards, and are greatly extended
+in vertical height, so that, in order to give solidity to what would
+otherwise be a laminated or pectinated tooth, it becomes necessary
+to envelop and unite the whole in a large mass of cement, which
+completely fills up the valleys, and gives a general smooth appearance
+to the organ when unworn; but as the wear consequent upon
+the masticating process proceeds, the alternate layers of tissue
+of different hardness—cement, dentine, and enamel—which are
+disclosed upon the surface form a fine and very efficient triturating
+instrument. The modification of the tooth of a Mastodon into that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_421"></a>[421]</span>
+of an Elephant is therefore precisely the same in principle as that
+of the molar of a Palæotherium into that of a Horse, or of the
+corresponding tooth of one of the primitive Artiodactyles into that
+of an Ox. The intermediate stages, moreover, even in the present
+state of our knowledge, are so numerous that it is not possible to
+draw a definite line between the two types of tooth structure (see
+<a href="#figure179">Fig. 179</a>, I, II, III, IV).</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp75" id="figure179" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure179.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 179.</span>—Longitudinal sections of the crown of a molar tooth of various Proboscideans,
+showing stages in the gradual modification from the simple to the complex form. I, <i>Mastodon
+americanus</i>; II, <i>Elephas insignis</i>; III, <i>Elephas africanus</i>; IV, <i>Elephas primigenius</i>. The dentine
+is indicated by transverse lines, the cement by a dotted surface, and the enamel is black.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>As regards the mode of succession, that of modern Elephants is,
+as before mentioned, very peculiar. During the complete lifetime
+of the animal there are but six molar teeth on either side of each
+jaw, with occasionally a rudimentary one in front, completing the
+typical number of seven. The last three represent the true molars
+of ordinary mammals; those in front appear to be milk-molars,
+which are never replaced by permanent successors, but the whole series
+gradually moves forwards in the jaw, and the teeth become worn
+away and their remnants cast out in front, while development of
+others proceeds behind. The individual teeth are so large, and the
+processes of growth and destruction by wear take place so slowly,
+that not more than one, or portions of two, teeth are ever in place
+and in use on either side of each jaw at one time, and the whole series
+of changes coincides with the usual duration of the animal’s life.
+On the other hand, the Dinotherium, the opposite extreme of the
+Proboscidean series, has the whole of the molar teeth in place and
+use at one time, and the milk-molars are vertically displaced by
+premolars in the ordinary fashion. Among Mastodons transitional
+forms occur in the mode of succession as well as in structure, many
+species showing a vertical displacement of one or more of the milk-molars,
+and the same has been observed in one extinct species of
+Elephant (<i>E. planifrons</i>) as regards the posterior of these teeth.</p>
+
+<p>All known Proboscideans are animals of comparatively large
+dimensions, and some are the most colossal of land mammals. The
+head is of great proportionate size; and, as the brain case increases
+but little in bulk during growth, while the exterior wall of the
+skull is required to be of great superficial extent to support the
+trunk and the huge and ponderous tusks, and to afford space for
+the attachment of muscles of sufficient size and strength to wield
+the skull thus heavily weighted, an extraordinary development of
+air-cells takes place in the cancellous tissue of nearly all the bones
+of the cranium (<a href="#figure180">Fig. 180</a>). These cells are not only formed in the
+walls of the cranium proper, but are also largely developed in the
+nasal bones and upper part of the premaxillæ and maxillæ, the bones
+forming the palate and the basicranial axis, and even extend into
+the interior of the ossified mesethmoid and vomer. Where two
+originally distinct bones come into contact, the cells pass freely
+from one to the other, and almost all the sutures become obliterated
+in old animals. The intercellular lamellæ in the great mass which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_422"></a>[422]</span>
+surrounds the brain cavity superiorly and laterally mostly radiate
+from the inner to the outer table, but in the other bones their
+direction is more irregular. Like the similar but less developed
+air-cells in the skulls of many other mammals, they all communicate
+with the nasal passages, and they are entirely secondary to the
+original growth of the bones, their development having scarcely
+commenced in the new-born animal, and they gradually enlarge as
+the growth of the creature proceeds towards maturity. The nasal
+bones are very short, and the anterior narial aperture is situated
+high in the face. The zygomatic arch is slender and straight, the
+jugal bone being small, and forming only the middle part of the
+arch, the anterior part of which (unlike that of typical Ungulates) is
+formed only by the maxilla. The maxillo-turbinals are but rudimentary,
+the elongated proboscis supplying their place functionally
+in warming and clearing from dust the inspired air.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp96" id="figure180" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure180.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 180.</span>—A vertical section of the skull of the African Elephant (<i>Elephas africanus</i>) taken
+to the left of the middle line, and including the vomer (<i>Vo</i>) and the mesethmoid (<i>ME</i>).
+<i>an</i>, Anterior, and <i>pn</i>, posterior narial aperture. ¹⁄₁₂ natural size. (From Flower’s <i>Osteology of
+the Mammalia</i>.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The neck is very short. The limbs are long and stout, and
+remarkable for the great length of the upper segment (especially
+the femur) as compared with the distal segment, the manus, and
+pes. It is owing to this and the vertical position of the femur that
+the knee-joint in the hind leg is placed much lower, and is more
+conspicuous externally than in most quadrupedal mammals; and
+this having been erroneously compared with the hock-joint or ankle
+of typical Ungulates, the popular fallacy that the joints of the
+Elephant’s leg bend in a contrary direction to that of other mammals
+has arisen. There is no round ligament in the hip-joint, or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_423"></a>[423]</span>
+third trochanter to the femur. The radius and ulna are distinct,
+though fixed in a crossed or prone position. The fibula also is
+quite distinct from the tibia. The feet are short and broad, the
+carpal and tarsal bones being very square, with flattened surfaces
+for articulation; the astragalus especially differs from that of typical
+Ungulates in its flatness, in the absence of a distinct pulley-like
+articular surface at either extremity, and in having no articular
+facet for the cuboid. The fibula articulates with the calcaneum, as
+in Artiodactyles. Of the five toes present on each extremity (see
+<a href="#figure098">Fig. 98</a>), the middle one is somewhat the largest, and the lateral
+ones smallest, and generally wanting (especially in the hind foot)
+the complete number of phalanges. The ungual phalanges are all
+small, irregular in form, and late in ossification. The whole are
+encased in a common integument, with a flat, subcircular, truncated
+sole, the only external indication of the toes being the broad oval
+nails or hoofs arranged in a semicircle around the front edge of the
+sole. The hind foot is smaller and narrower than the front. The
+liver is small and simple, and there is no gall-bladder. In form
+the brain resembles that of the Rodents and other lower orders of
+mammals, the cerebellum being entirely behind and uncovered by the
+cerebrum, but the hemispheres of the latter are richly convoluted.</p>
+
+<p>The Proboscidea are exclusively vegetable feeders, living chiefly
+on leaves and young branches of forest trees and various kinds of
+herbage, which they gather and convey to their mouth by the very
+mobile proboscis, an organ which combines in a marvellous manner
+strength with dexterity of application, and is a necessary compensation
+for the shortness and inflexibility of the neck, as by it many
+of the functions of the lips of other animals are performed. By its
+means the Elephant is enabled to drink without bending the head
+or limbs; the end of the trunk being dipped into the stream or
+pool, a forcible inspiration fills the two capacious air-passages in
+its interior with water, which, on the tip of the trunk being turned
+upwards and inserted into the mouth, is ejected by a blowing action,
+and swallowed; or if the animal wishes to refresh and cool its skin,
+it can throw the water in a copious stream over any part of its
+surface. Elephants can also throw dust and sand over their bodies
+by the same means and for the same purpose, and wild animals
+have been frequently observed fanning themselves with leafy boughs
+held in the trunk. The species are at present limited in their
+geographical distribution to the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, but
+they formerly had a far more extensive range.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Elephantidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Cheek-teeth succeeding one another in an arc of a circle, and
+portions of only two, <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_424"></a>[424]</span>or at most three, of the hinder teeth in use
+at any one time. Premolars frequently lost, and in any case of no
+functional importance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Elephas.</i><a id="FNanchor_279" href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>dm</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃ = 26. The incisors
+variable, but usually of very large size, especially in the male sex,
+directed somewhat outwards, and curved upwards, without enamel
+except on the apex before it is worn. The molars composed of
+numerous flattened enamel-covered plates or ridges of dentine,
+projecting from a common many-rooted base, surrounded and united
+together by cement, and extending straight across the crown, without
+(in most forms) any median division into inner and outer
+columns. The number of plates increases from the anterior to the
+posterior molar in regular succession, varying in the different species,
+but the third and fourth (or the last milk-molar and the first true
+molar), and these only, have the same number of ridges, which
+always exceeds five. Premolars nearly always wanting. Skull
+of adult very high and globular. Mandible ending in front in a
+short, deflected, and spout-like symphysis. Vertebræ: C 7, D 19-21,
+L 3-4, S 4, C 26-33.</p>
+
+<p>The existing species of the genus differ so much that they have
+been referred by some writers to distinct genera; fossil forms show,
+however, such a transition from the one to the other that it is
+scarcely possible to regard them even as the representatives of
+distinct groups.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure181" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure181.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 181.</span>—Grinding surface of a half-worn lower molar of
+the Indian Elephant (<i>Elephas indicus</i>). <i>d</i>, Dentine; <i>e</i>, enamel; <i>c</i>,
+cement. (From Owen.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the well-known Indian or Asiatic Elephant (<i>E. indicus</i>) the
+average number of plates of the six successive molar teeth is
+expressed by the “ridge-formula,” 4, 8, 12, 12, 16, 24. The
+plates are compressed from before backwards, the anterior and
+posterior surfaces (as seen in the worn grinding face of the tooth,
+<a href="#figure181">Fig. 181</a>) being
+nearly parallel.
+Ears of moderate
+size. Upper
+margin of the
+end of the proboscis
+developed
+into a
+distinct finger-like
+process,
+much longer
+than the lower
+margin. Five nails on the fore feet, and four (occasionally five) on
+the hind feet.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure182" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure182.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 182.</span>—Grinding surface of a partially worn right upper molar of the African Elephant
+(<i>Elephas africanus</i>). Letters as in the preceding figure. The left side of the figure is the front
+of the tooth, and the lower side the outer border. (From Owen.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This species inhabits in a wild state the forest lands of India,
+Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Cochin China, Ceylon, and Sumatra.
+The elephants from the last-named islands, presenting some variations<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_425"></a>[425]</span>
+from those of the mainland, have been separated under the name of
+<i>E. sumatranus</i>, but the distinction has not been satisfactorily established.
+The appearance of the Asiatic Elephant is familiar to all.
+Though rarely breeding in captivity, it has been domesticated from
+the most remote antiquity, and is still extensively used in the East
+as a beast of burden. In the wild state it is gregarious, associating
+in herds of ten, twenty, or more individuals, and though it may,
+under certain circumstances, become dangerous, it is generally
+inoffensive and even timid, fond of shade and solitude and the
+neighbourhood of water. The height of the male at the shoulder
+when full grown is usually from 8 to 10 feet, but occasionally as
+much as 11. The female is somewhat smaller.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="figure183" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure183.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 183.</span>—African Elephant (<i>Elephas africanus</i>). From a young specimen in the
+London Zoological Gardens.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the African Elephant (<i>E. africanus</i>) the molars (<a href="#figure182">Fig. 182</a>) are
+of coarse construction, with fewer and larger plates and thicker
+enamel. Ridge-formula: 3, 6, 7, 7, 8, 10. The plates not
+flattened, but thicker in the middle than at the edges, so that their
+worn grinding surfaces are lozenge-shaped. Ears very large. The
+upper and lower margins of the end of the trunk forming two
+nearly equal prehensile lips. But three hoofs on the hind foot.
+This species now inhabits the wooded districts of the whole of
+Africa south of the Sahara, except where it has been driven away
+by human settlements. Fossil remains of Pleistocene age, undistinguishable
+specifically, have been found in Algeria, Spain, and
+Sicily. It was trained for war and show by the ancient Carthaginians
+and Romans, and recent experience of the species in captivity
+in England shows that it is as intelligent as its Asiatic relative, if
+not more so, while surpassing it in courage, activity, and obstinacy.
+Nevertheless, in modern times, no people in Africa have been
+sufficiently civilised or enterprising to care to train it for domestic
+purposes. It is hunted chiefly for the sake of the ivory of its
+immense tusks, of which it yields the principal source of supply to
+the European market, and the desire to obtain which is rapidly
+leading to the extermination of the species. In size the male<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_426"></a>[426]</span>
+African elephant often surpasses that of Asia, but the female is
+usually smaller. The circumference of the fore foot is half the
+height at the shoulder, a circumstance which enables the hunters to
+judge from the footprints the exact size of the animals of which
+they are in pursuit. The African Elephant also differs from its
+Indian congener in having tusks in both sexes, whereas in the latter
+the male only is so armed. Moreover, the eye is relatively larger,
+the forehead more convex, and the colour somewhat darker.
+Whereas the Indian Elephant frequents the depths of forests and
+seldom leaves their shade during the daytime, the following
+account by Sir Samuel Baker indicates different habits in the
+African species. This traveller observes: “In Africa, the country
+being generally more open than in Ceylon, the Elephant remains
+throughout the day either beneath a solitary tree or exposed to
+the sun in the vast prairies, where the thick grass attains a height
+of from nine to twelve feet. The general food of the African
+Elephant consists of the foliage of trees, especially mimosas. Many
+of the mimosas are flat-headed, about thirty feet high, and the
+richer portion of the foliage confined to the crown. Thus the
+Elephant, not being able to reach to so great a height, must overturn
+the tree to obtain the coveted food. The destruction caused
+by a herd of Elephants in a mimosa forest is extraordinary, and I
+have seen trees uprooted of so large a size that I am convinced no
+single elephant could have overturned them. I have measured<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_427"></a>[427]</span>
+trees four feet six inches in circumference and about thirty feet
+high uprooted by elephants. The natives have assured me that
+the elephants mutually assist each other, and that several engage
+together in the work of overturning a large tree.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure184" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure184.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 184.</span>—Restored skeleton of the Mammoth (<i>Elephas primigenius</i>). From Tilesius in
+<i>Mém. Acad. Imp. Sc. St. Pétersbourg</i>, vol. v. (1815). <i>s</i>, Scapula; <i>h</i>, humerus; <i>r</i>, radius; <i>u</i>, ulna;
+<i>c</i>, carpus; <i>rs</i>, ischium; <i>f</i>, femur; <i>t</i>, tibia; <i>fi</i>, fibula; <i>ta</i>, tarsus.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Species of Elephant.</i>—Abundant remains of Elephants are
+found embedded in alluvial gravels, or secreted in the recesses of
+caves, into which they have been washed by streams and floods, or
+dragged as food by Hyænas and other carnivorous inhabitants of
+these subterranean dens. Such remains belonging to the Pleistocene
+and Pliocene periods have been found in many parts of Europe,
+including the British Isles, in North Africa, throughout the North
+American continent from Alaska to Mexico, and extensively distributed
+in Asia, where the deposits of the sub-Himalayan Siwalik
+Hills, and equivalent deposits in the Punjab, Perim Island,<a id="FNanchor_280" href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a> and
+Burma, belonging to the earliest Pliocene, are rich in the remains
+of Elephants of varied form. These species are chiefly known and
+characterised at present by the skulls and teeth; some of the latter
+resemble the existing Indian and some the African type, but the
+majority are between the two, and make the distinction between
+the two existing species as of generic importance quite impracticable.
+Others again approach so closely in the breadth and coarseness
+of the ridges and paucity of cement to <i>Mastodon</i> as to have
+been placed by some zoologists<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_428"></a>[428]</span> in that genus. These form the
+subgenus called <i>Stegodon</i> by Falconer, and may be regarded as a
+distinct group of the genus.</p>
+
+<p>Among the best known extinct Elephants is <i>E. primigenius</i>, the
+Mammoth,<a id="FNanchor_281" href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a> very closely resembling the existing Indian species, and
+one of the most recently extinct and extensively distributed of all
+the fossil forms. Probably no animal which has not survived to
+the historic period has left such abundant and well-preserved evidence
+of its former existence. The discovery of immense numbers,
+not only, as in the case of most extinct creatures, in the form of
+fragmentary bones and teeth, but often as more or less nearly
+entire carcases, or “mummies,” as they may be called, with the
+flesh, skin, and hair <i>in situ</i>, in the frozen soil of the tundras of
+Northern Siberia, has for a long time given great interest to the
+species, and been the cause of many legendary stories among the
+natives of the lands in which they occur. Among these one of the
+most prevailing is that the Mammoth was, or still is, an animal which
+passes its life habitually in burrows below the surface of the ground,
+and immediately dies if by any chance it comes into the upper air.</p>
+
+<p>Of the whole group the Mammoth is in many respects, as in the
+size and form of the tusks, and especially the characters of the
+molar teeth, the farthest removed from the primitive Mastodon-like
+type, while its nearest surviving relative, <i>E. indicus</i>, has retained
+the slightly more generalised characters of the Mammoth’s contemporaries
+of more southern climes, <i>E. columbi</i> of America, and
+<i>E. armeniacus</i> of the Old World, if, indeed, it can be specifically
+distinguished from them.</p>
+
+<p>The tusks or upper incisor teeth were doubtless present in both
+sexes, but probably of smaller size in the female. In the adult
+males they often attained the length of from 9 to 10 feet measured
+along the outer curve. Upon leaving the head they were directed
+at first downwards and outwards, then upwards and finally inwards
+at the tips, and generally with a tendency to a spiral form not seen
+in other species of Elephant. Different specimens, however, present
+great variations in curve, from nearly straight to an almost complete
+circle.</p>
+
+<p>It is chiefly by the characters of the molar teeth that the
+various extinct modifications of the Elephant type are distinguished.
+Those of the Mammoth (<a href="#figure185">Fig. 185</a>) differ from the corresponding
+organs of allied species in the great breadth of the crown as
+compared with the length, the narrowness and close approximation of
+the ridges, the thinness of the enamel and its straightness, parallelism,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_429"></a>[429]</span>
+and absence of “crimping,” as seen on the worn surface, or in a
+horizontal section of the tooth. Dr. Falconer gave the prevailing
+“ridge-formula” as 4, 8, 12, 12, 16, 24. Dr. Leith Adams, working
+from more abundant materials, has shown, however, that the
+number of ridges of each
+tooth, especially those at
+the posterior end of the
+series, is subject to very
+great individual variation,
+ranging in each tooth of
+the series within the following
+limits: 3 to 4, 6
+to 9, 9 to 12, 9 to 15,
+14 to 16, 18 to 27, excluding
+the small plates
+called talons at each end
+of the tooth. Besides these
+variations in the number of ridges or plates of which each tooth is
+composed, the thickness of the enamel varies so much as to have
+given rise to a distinction between a “thick-plated” and a “thin-plated”
+variety—the latter being most prevalent among the specimens
+from the Arctic regions, and most distinctively characteristic
+of the species. From the specimens with thick enamel plates
+the transition to the other species or varieties mentioned above,
+including <i>E. indicus</i>, is almost imperceptible.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure185" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure185.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 185.</span>—Grinding surface of upper molar of the
+Mammoth (<i>Elephas primigenius</i>). <i>c</i>, Cement; <i>d</i>, dentine;
+<i>e</i>, enamel. (From Owen.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The bones of the skeleton generally more resemble those of the
+Indian Elephant than of any other known species, but the skull
+differs in the narrower summit, narrower temporal fossæ, and more
+prolonged incisive sheaths required to support the roots of the
+enormous tusks. Among the external characters by which the
+Mammoth was distinguished from either of the existing species of
+Elephant was the dense clothing, not only of long coarse outer hair,
+but also of close woolly under hair, of a reddish-brown colour,
+evidently in adaptation to the colder climate which it inhabited.
+This character, for a knowledge of which we are indebted to the
+well-preserved remains found in Northern Siberia, is also represented
+in the rude but graphic drawings of prehistoric age found in caverns
+in the south of France.<a id="FNanchor_282" href="#Footnote_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> In size different individuals varied considerably,
+but the average height does not appear to have exceeded
+that of either of the existing species of Elephant.</p>
+
+<p>The geographical range of the Mammoth was very extensive.
+There is scarcely a county in England in which some of its remains<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_430"></a>[430]</span>
+have not been found either in alluvial deposits of gravel or in
+caverns, and numbers of its teeth are from time to time dredged
+up from the bottom of the sea by the fishermen who ply their
+trade in the German Ocean, having been washed out of the water-worn
+cliffs of the eastern counties of England. In Scotland and
+Ireland its remains are less abundant, but they have been found in
+vast numbers at various localities throughout the greater part of
+Central Europe (as far south as Santander in Spain and Rome),
+Northern Asia, and the northern part of the American continent,
+though the exact distribution of the Mammoth in the New World
+is still a question of debate. It has not hitherto been met with in
+any part of Scandinavia or Finland.</p>
+
+<p>In point of time, the Mammoth belongs exclusively to the
+Pleistocene epoch, and it was undoubtedly contemporaneous with
+man in France, and probably elsewhere. There is evidence to show
+that it existed in Britain before, during, and after the glacial period.</p>
+
+<p>As before indicated, it is in the northern part of Siberia that
+its remains have been found in the greatest abundance, and in
+quite exceptional conditions of preservation. For a very long
+period there has been from that region a regular export of
+Mammoth ivory in a state fit for commercial purposes, both eastward
+to China and westward to Europe. In the middle of the tenth
+century an active trade was carried on at Khiva in fossil ivory,
+which was fashioned into combs, vases, and other objects, as related
+by Abu’l Kásim, an Arab writer of that period. Middendorff
+reckoned that the number of tusks which have yearly come into
+the market during the last two centuries has been at least a hundred
+pairs, and Nordenskiöld, from personal observation, considers this
+calculation as probably rather too low than too high. They are
+found at all suitable places along the whole line of the shore
+between the mouth of the Obi and Behring Straits, and the farther
+north the more numerous do they become, the islands of New
+Siberia being now one of the most favourite collecting localities.
+The soil of Bear Island and of Liachoff Islands is said to consist only
+of sand and ice with such quantities of Mammoth bones as almost
+to compose its chief substance. The remains are not only found
+around the mouths of the great rivers, as would be the case if the
+carcases had been washed down from more southern localities in
+the interior of the continent, but are imbedded in the frozen soil
+in such circumstances as to indicate that the animals had lived not
+far from the localities in which they are now found, and they are
+exposed either by the melting of the ice in unusually warm
+summers or by the washing away of the sea cliffs or river banks
+by storms or floods. In this way the bodies of more or less nearly
+perfect animals, often standing in the erect position, with the soft
+parts and hairy covering entire, have been brought to light.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_431"></a>[431]</span></p>
+
+<p>References to the principal recorded discoveries of this kind,
+and to the numerous speculations to which they have given rise,
+both among ignorant peasants and learned academicians, will be
+found in Nordenskiöld’s <i>Voyage of the Vega</i> (English translation,
+vol. i. 1881, p. 398 <i>sq.</i>) and a series of papers in the <i>Geological
+Magazine</i> for 1880 and 1881, by H. H. Howorth, as well as in a
+separate work on the Mammoth by the same writer. For the
+geographical distribution and anatomical characters, see Falconer’s
+<i>Palæontological Memoirs</i>, vol. ii. 1868; Boyd Dawkins, “<i>Elephas
+primigenius</i>, its Range in Space and Time,” <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i>
+xxxv. p. 138 (1879); and Leith Adams, “Monograph of British
+Fossil Elephants,” part ii., <i>Palæontographical Society</i> (1879).</p>
+
+<p><i>E. antiquus</i>, of the European Pleistocene, has a lower ridge-formula
+than in the Mammoth, the molars being narrower, and
+approximating to those of the African Elephant in structure.
+Small allied forms occur in the rock-fissures and caverns of Malta,
+and have been described as <i>E. mnaidriensis</i> and <i>E. melitensis</i>; some
+of the individuals of the latter not exceeding 3 feet in height. The
+European <i>E. meridionalis</i> is a southern form of somewhat earlier
+age, very common in the Upper Pliocene of Italy and France, and
+also in the so-called Forest-bed of the Norfolk coast. It attained
+very large dimensions, its height being estimated at upwards of
+15 feet. The ridge-formula is lower than in <i>E. antiquus</i>, the
+molars are broad, with the worn enamel-discs generally expanded
+in the middle, and the enamel itself is crenulated.</p>
+
+<p>Elephant remains are very abundant in the Pleistocene and
+Pliocene deposits of India, those from the latter beds being the
+oldest representatives of the genus. Of these the Pleistocene
+<i>E. namadicus</i> appears closely allied to <i>E. antiquus</i>, from which it is
+distinguished by a bold ridge across the forehead. Among the Pliocene
+forms <i>E. hysudricus</i> may be an ancestral type allied to the Indian
+Elephant; while <i>E. planifrons</i> is closely related to <i>E. meridionalis</i>,
+although retaining the ancestral feature of developing premolars.</p>
+
+<p>The Stegodont group is peculiar to the eastern parts of the
+Old World, and, as already observed, connects the true Elephants
+intimately with the Mastodons. The molars (<a href="#figure179">Fig. 179</a>, II) are
+characterised by the lowness of the ridges, while the intervening
+valleys may have but little cement, and there may be a more
+or less distinct longitudinal groove in the crown dividing each
+ridge into an inner and an outer moiety. In species like <i>E. insignis</i>
+the ridge-formula is nearly the same as in <i>E. meridionalis</i>, but in
+<i>E. clifti</i> some of the molars carry only six ridges, and premolars
+were present, so that we thus have such a complete transition to
+the next genus that it is very difficult to know where to draw the
+line between the two.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_432"></a>[432]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Mastodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_283" href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₁₋₀, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>dm</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. Upper incisors
+large, as in <i>Elephas</i>, sometimes with longitudinal bands of
+enamel, more or less spirally disposed. Lower incisors variable;
+when present comparatively small and straight, sometimes persistent,
+sometimes early deciduous, and in some species never
+present. Grinding surface of molars with transverse ridges, the
+summits of which are divided more or less into conical or mammillary
+cusps, and often with secondary or additional cusps between
+and clustering against the principal ridges; enamel thick; cement
+very scanty, never filling up the interspaces between the ridges.
+The third, fourth, and fifth cheek-teeth (<i>i.e.</i> the last milk-molar,
+and the first and second molars) having the same number of ridges,<a id="FNanchor_284" href="#Footnote_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a>
+which never exceeds five.</p>
+
+<p>In the upper jaw the incisors, though of large size, were
+apparently never so much curved as in some species of Elephant,
+and they often have longitudinal bands of enamel, more or less
+spirally disposed upon their surface, which are not met with in
+Elephants. Lower incisors were present throughout life in some
+species, which have the symphysis of the lower jaw greatly elongated
+to support them (as in <i>M. angustidens</i>, <i>M. pentilici</i>, and <i>M.
+longirostris</i>). In the common North American species (<i>M. americanus</i>)
+the mandibular symphysis is short, but it may have a small incisor
+on one side. In other species no inferior tusks have been found,
+at all events in adult life (see figure of <i>M. arvernensis</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The molar teeth increase in size from before backwards, but as
+many as three of these teeth may be in place in each jaw at one
+time. There is in many species a true vertical succession, affecting
+either the third, or the third and second, or (in <i>M. productus</i>) the
+first, second, and third of the six molariform teeth. These three
+are therefore reckoned as milk-molars, and their successors as premolars,
+while the last three, which are never changed, correspond
+to the true molars of those animals in which the typical dentition
+is fully developed. The study of the mode of succession of the
+teeth in the different species of Mastodons is particularly interesting,
+as it exhibits so many stages of the process by which the very
+anomalous dentition of the modern Elephants may have been
+derived by gradual modification from the typical heterodont and
+diphyodont dentition of the ordinary mammal. It also shows that
+the anterior molars of Elephants do not correspond to the premolars<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_433"></a>[433]</span>
+of other Ungulates, but to the milk-molars, the early loss of
+which in consequence of the peculiar process of horizontal forward-moving
+succession does not require, or allow time for, their replacement
+by premolars. It must be noted, however, that, in the
+Mastodon in some respects the least specialised in tooth-structure,
+the <i>M. americanus</i> of North America, no vertical succession of the
+molars has yet been observed, although vast numbers of specimens
+have been examined.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure186" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure186.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 186.</span>—Restoration of the skeleton of <i>Mastodon arvernensis</i>, from the Pliocene of Europe,
+(After Sismonda.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Mastodons have fewer ridges on their molar teeth than
+the Elephants; the ridges are also less elevated, wider apart, have
+a thicker enamel-covering,
+and scarcely any
+cement filling up the
+space between them.
+Sometimes (as in <i>M.
+americanus</i>) the ridges
+are simple transverse
+wedge-shaped elevations,
+with straight or
+concave edges. In
+other species the summits
+of the ridges are
+more or less subdivided into conical cusps, and may have accessory
+cusps clustering around them (as in <i>M. americanus</i>, see <a href="#figure187">Fig. 187</a>).
+When the apices of these are worn by mastication, their surfaces
+present circles of dentine, surrounded by a border of enamel, and
+as the attrition proceeds different patterns<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_434"></a>[434]</span> are produced by the
+union of the bases of the cusps, a trilobed or trefoil form being
+characteristic of some species (<a href="#figure188">Fig. 188</a>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure187" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure187.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 187.</span>—Oblique side and crown view of the last upper
+molar of <i>Mastodon arvernensis</i>. (From Owens.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>As already mentioned, certain of the molariform teeth of the
+middle of the series in
+Mastodons have the
+same number of principal
+ridges, those in
+front of them having
+fewer and those behind
+a greater number.
+These teeth were distinguished
+as “intermediate”
+molars by
+Dr. Falconer, and are
+three in number, namely
+the last milk-molar
+and the first and second
+true molars (or the
+third, fourth, and fifth of the whole series). The number of ridges
+on these intermediate molars is nearly always three or four, and the
+tooth in front has usually one fewer and that behind one more, so
+that the ridge-formula of most Mastodons can be reduced either to
+1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, or 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5. The former characterises the
+section called <i>Trilophodon</i> (of which an intermediate molar is shown
+in <a href="#figure188">Fig. 188</a>), and the latter that called <i>Tetralophodon</i> by Dr. Falconer.
+These divisions are very useful, as under one or the other all the
+present known species of Mastodon can be ranged, but observations
+upon a larger number of individuals have shown that the number
+of ridges upon the teeth is not quite so constant as implied by the
+formulæ given above. Their exact enumeration is even difficult in
+many cases, as “talons” or small accessory ridges at the hinder end
+of the teeth occur in various stages of development, until they take
+on the character of true ridges. Transitional conditions have also
+been shown, at least in some of the teeth, between the trilophodont
+and the tetralophodont forms, and again between the latter and
+what has been called a “pentalophodont” type, which leads on
+towards the condition of dental structure characteristic of the true
+Elephants.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure188" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure188.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 188.</span>—Grinding surface of the partially worn last
+left lower milk-molar of <i>Mastodon angustidens</i>, from the
+Upper Miocene of India. The lower side of the figure is
+the outer border of the tooth.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The range of the genus <i>Mastodon</i> in time was from the middle
+of the Miocene period to the end of the Pliocene in the Old World,
+when it became extinct; but in America several species—especially
+the one best known, owing to the abundance of its remains, which
+has been variously called <i>M. americanus</i>, <i>M. ohioticus</i>, and <i>M. giganteus</i>—survived
+to a late Pleistocene period.</p>
+
+<p>The range in space will be best indicated by the following list<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_435"></a>[435]</span>
+of some of the better known species. (1) Trilophodont series—<i>M.
+angustidens</i>,<a id="FNanchor_285" href="#Footnote_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a> <i>borsoni</i>, <i>pentelici</i>, <i>turiensis</i>, from Europe; <i>M. falconeri</i>
+and <i>pandionis</i>, from India; <i>M. americanus</i>, <i>obscurus</i>, and <i>productus</i>,
+North America; and <i>M. cordillerum</i> and <i>humboldti</i>, South America.
+(2) Tetralophodont series—<i>M. arvernensis</i>, <i>M. longirostris</i>, from
+Europe; <i>M. latidens</i>, <i>sivalensis</i>, and <i>perimensis</i>, from India; <i>M. mirificus</i>,
+from North America. <i>Mastodon arvernensis</i> and <i>M. longirostris</i>,
+together with a trilophodont species, occur in the crag-deposits of
+Norfolk and Suffolk.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dinotheriidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>An extinct family distinguished from the <i>Elephantidæ</i> by the whole
+series of permanent cheek-teeth being in use at the same time.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp63" id="figure189" style="max-width: 26.5625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure189.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 189.</span>—Skull of <i>Dinotherium
+giganteum</i>, from the Lower Pliocene
+of Eppelsheim, Hessen-Darmstadt.
+(After Kaup.) <i>p</i>, 3, 4, premolars;
+1, 2, 3, molars.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Dinotherium.</i><a id="FNanchor_286" href="#Footnote_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a>—Dentition of adult: <i>i</i> ⁰⁄₁, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃ = 22; all
+present at the
+same time, there
+being no horizontal
+succession,
+but the
+premolars replacing
+milk-teeth
+in the ordinary
+manner.
+The presence or
+absence of upper
+incisors has not
+yet been clearly
+ascertained.
+Lower incisors
+large, conical, descending, and slightly
+curved backwards, implanted in a greatly
+thickened and deflected beak or prolongation
+of the symphysis. In section
+they do not show the decussating striæ
+characteristic of Mastodons and Elephants.
+Crowns of molars carrying strong
+transverse, crenulated ridges, with deep
+valleys between, much resembling the
+lower ones of the Tapirs. Ridge-formula
+of the permanent molar series: 2, 2, 3,
+2, 2. The three ridges of the first true
+molar are constant in both upper and
+lower jaws, although it is quite an anomalous character among<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_436"></a>[436]</span>
+Proboscideans for this molar to have more ridges than those which
+come behind it. The last milk-molar has also three ridges, the
+penultimate but two. The cranium is much depressed, with comparatively
+little development of air-cells. The remainder of the
+skeleton is imperfectly known, but apparently agrees in its general
+character with that of the other Proboscideans.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of <i>Dinotherium giganteum</i>, an animal of elephantine
+proportions, strikingly characterised by the pair of huge tusks
+descending nearly vertically from the front of the lower jaw, were
+first discovered at Eppelsheim, near Darmstadt, and described by
+Kaup. They have since been met with in various Lower Pliocene
+and higher Miocene formations in the south of Germany, France,
+Greece, and Asia Minor. Closely allied forms also occur in the
+Lower Pliocene and Upper Miocene of India, but none are known
+from America.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Amblypoda</span>.</h4>
+
+<p><i>Uintatherium.</i><a id="FNanchor_287" href="#Footnote_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a>—Among the most remarkable of the comparatively
+recent discoveries in the higher Eocene formations of the
+western states of North America has been one of a group of
+animals of huge size, approaching that of the largest existing
+Elephants, presenting a combination of characters quite unlike
+those known among other recent or extinct creatures, and of which
+there were evidently many species living contemporaneously, but
+all of which became extinct before the close of the Eocene period.
+To form some idea of their appearance, we must imagine animals
+very elephantine in general proportions and in the structure of their
+limbs. The feet had five short toes. The tail, as in the Elephants,
+was long and slender, but the neck, though still short, was not so
+much abbreviated as in the Proboscideans, and there is no evidence
+that these animals possessed a trunk. The head differed greatly
+from that of the Elephants, being long and narrow, more like that
+of a Rhinoceros, and, as in that animal, was elevated behind into a
+great occipital crest, and it had developed upon its upper surface
+three pairs of conspicuous, laterally diverging protuberances—one
+pair in the parietal region, one on the maxillaries in front of the
+orbits, and one (much smaller) near the fore part of the elongated
+nasal bones. Whether these were merely covered by bosses of
+callous skin, as the rounded form and ruggedness of their extremities
+would indicate, or whether they formed the bases of attachment for
+horns of still greater extent, like those of the Rhinoceros or of the
+Cavicorn Ruminants, can only be a matter of conjecture. There
+were no upper incisors, but usually three on each side below, of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_437"></a>[437]</span>
+comparatively small size, as was also the lower canine. A huge,
+compressed, curved, sharp-pointed canine tusk, very similar in form
+and position to that of the Musk-Deer, descended from each side
+of the upper jaw. These were present in both sexes, but very
+much smaller in the female, as was also the flange-like process of
+the lower jaw by which they were guarded. Behind these, and
+at some distance from them, were on each side above and below
+six cheek-teeth, of comparatively small size, placed in continuous
+series, each with a pair of oblique ridges conjoined internally and
+diverging externally in a V-like manner, and provided with a
+stout basal cingulum. The normal dental formula was therefore
+<i>i</i> ⁰⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃ = 34; and the dentition had thus already attained
+a remarkable degree of specialisation, although the brain was
+smaller and more rudimentary in characters than in almost any other
+known mammal. In its comparative length and the absence of a
+third trochanter the femur of these animals resembles that of the
+Proboscidea. The first discovered evidences of the existence of
+animals of this group were described by Leidy in 1872, under the
+name of <i>Uintatherium</i> (from the Uinta mountains, near which they
+were found). Subsequently the names <i>Dinoceras</i>, <i>Tinoceras</i>, <i>Loxolophodon</i>,
+etc., have been applied to various members of the group,
+but the characters by which they are distinguished do not seem of
+sufficient importance to allow of their separation from the type
+genus <i>Uintatherium</i>.<a id="FNanchor_288" href="#Footnote_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure190" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure190.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 190.</span>—Skeleton of <i>Uintatherium mirabile</i>. ¹⁄₃₀ natural size. (From Marsh,
+<i>Am. Journ. Sci.</i> vol. xii. p. 2.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Coryphodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_289" href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a>—Another interesting form referred to this<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_438"></a>[438]</span> suborder
+is <i>Coryphodon</i>, which appears to connect the <i>Uintatheriidæ</i> with the
+most primitive Perissodactyla. It was first described by Owen in
+1846 from a fragment of a jaw from the London Clay. Other
+remains were afterwards discovered in France, and lately in great
+abundance, indicating many species from the size of a Tapir to that
+of a Rhinoceros, in the Lower and Middle Eocenes of New Mexico
+and Wyoming in the United States. <i>Coryphodon</i> had forty-four
+teeth; the canines of both jaws were large and sharp pointed,
+and the molars had strongly pronounced oblique ridges. The
+general proportions were those of a Bear, but the tail was of
+moderate length, and the feet short and wide. The femur had
+a third trochanter; and the cranium was devoid of protuberances.
+The genus should be regarded as the type of a distinct family
+<i>Coryphodontidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure191" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure191.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 191.</span>—Palatal aspect of the cranium of <i>Coryphodon hamatus</i>, from the Wasatch Eocene of
+New Mexico. ²⁄₉ natural size. (After Cope.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Condylarthra</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>The term Condylarthra has been proposed by Professor Cope
+for a number of generalised and mostly comparatively small Ungulates,
+which were probably allied both to the Perissodactyla and
+Artiodactyla, but present characters separating them from those
+divisions as commonly defined. In the structure of the carpus
+and tarsus these forms (which are chiefly known to us from
+the Eocene of the United States) come nearer to the Hyracoidea
+than to any other existing type. As a rule they have the full
+dental formula; the molars are brachydont, generally bunodont,
+and in many instances also tritubercular; while the premolars are
+always simpler than the molars.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_439"></a>[439]</span></p>
+
+<p>The humerus is quite peculiar among Ungulates in having an
+entepicondylar foramen; the femur has a third trochanter; and
+the form and relations of the astragalus are similar to those obtaining
+in the Carnivora. The feet are usually furnished with five
+functional digits, of which the ungual phalanges are pointed. In
+many respects the skeleton of these remarkably generalised Ungulates
+approximates so decidedly to a Carnivorous type as to have
+led palæontologists to conclude that the Ungulata and Carnivora
+are branches of an original common stock.</p>
+
+<p>In this work space only permits of allusion to a few of the
+more important types of this group. <i>Periptychus</i>, which occurs in
+the lowest Eocene of New Mexico, is a bunodont type readily distinguished
+by the vertical flutings of the premolars, and the small
+size of the incisors and canines. It has been suggested that this
+genus is closely related to the stock of the bunodont Artiodactyla.
+Of greater interest is the genus <i>Phenacodus</i>, which is regarded as the
+lowest factor in the series from which the modern Horse has been
+evolved, where it holds the position immediately below <i>Hyracotherium</i>
+or, <i>Systemodon</i> (see <a href="#Page_374">p. 374</a>). One of the species was about
+the size of a Bull-dog, while another might be compared to a small
+Leopard. The structure of the cheek-teeth is such as might readily
+be modified into that obtaining in <i>Hyracotherium</i>; all the feet had
+five fully developed digits, and the tail was long. <i>Meniscotherium</i>
+and <i>Hyracodontotherium</i> are more specialised forms of somewhat
+later age, with a lophodont dentition: the latter genus being
+European.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Toxodontia</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>In addition to the <i>Macraucheniidæ</i> and certain other forms
+noticed under the head of the Perissodactyla, the Tertiaries of
+South America have yielded some very remarkable forms of mammalian
+life, the nature and affinities of which have greatly puzzled
+all zoologists who have attempted to unravel them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nesodon</i> and <i>Toxodon</i>.—Among these <i>Nesodon</i>, from Patagonia,
+has the full typical Eutherian number of teeth; the crowns of the
+incisors being short, and the molars having a complex rhinocerotic
+type of structure somewhat intermediate between <i>Homalodontotherium</i>
+(<a href="#Page_412">p. 412</a>) and the following genus <i>Toxodon</i>. The typical
+species of <i>Nesodon</i> was about as large as a Sheep, but nothing
+more is known of it than the teeth and portions of the skull.</p>
+
+<p><i>Toxodon</i> is an animal about the size of a Hippopotamus; it was
+first discovered by Darwin, and many specimens have since been
+found in Pleistocene deposits near Buenos Ayres, and described by
+Owen, Gervais, and Burmeister. The teeth consist of large incisors,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_440"></a>[440]</span>
+very small lower canines, and strongly curved molars, all with
+persistent roots, the formula being apparently <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃ = 38.
+The cranial characters exhibit a combination of those found in both
+Perissodactyles and Artiodactyles, but the form of the hinder part
+of the palate and the absence of an alisphenoid canal belong to the
+latter; and the tympanic, firmly fixed in between the squamosal
+and the exoccipital, ankylosed to both, and forming the floor of a
+long upward-directed meatus auditorius, is so exactly like that of
+the Suina that it is difficult to believe it does not indicate some
+real affinity to that group. These characters seem to outweigh in
+importance those by which some zoologists have linked <i>Toxodon</i> to
+the Perissodactyla, and the absence of the third trochanter and the
+articulation of the fibula with the calcaneum tell in the same direction.
+According to the recent observations of Ameghino the hind
+feet were certainly tridactylous, and the front feet probably so.
+The earlier allied genera <i>Protoxodon</i> and <i>Adinotherium</i> are definitely
+known to have tridactylous front and hind feet, which conform to
+the Perissodactylate type, the bones of the proximal and distal
+rows of the carpus interlocking. <i>Acrotherium</i>, which has similar
+feet, differs from all other Ungulates, and indeed from all Eutherians
+except some individuals of the existing carnivorous genus <i>Otocyon</i>,
+in having eight cheek-teeth, five of which have been reckoned as
+premolars.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure192" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure192.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 192.</span>—Cranium and Lower Jaw of <i>Typotherium cristatum</i>. ¹⁄₃ natural size. From Gervais.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_441"></a>[441]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Typotherium.</i>—<i>Typotherium</i> (<a href="#figure192">Fig. 192</a>), also called <i>Mesotherium</i>,
+from the same locality as <i>Toxodon</i>, was an animal rather larger than
+a Capybara, and of much the same general appearance. Its skeleton
+is completely known, and shows a singular combination of characters,
+resembling <i>Toxodon</i> or a generalised Ungulate on the one hand, and
+the Rodents, especially the <i>Leporidæ</i>, on the other. In the presence
+of clavicles it differs from all known Ungulates, and in having two
+pairs of lower incisors from all Rodents. The teeth are <i>i</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₁,
+<i>m</i> ³⁄₃ = 24.</p>
+
+<p>From the Tertiaries of various parts of South America a number
+of forms more or less closely allied to <i>Toxodon</i> and <i>Typotherium</i> have
+been recently described, but as many of them are very imperfectly
+known, and there is much doubt as to their generic position, it will
+be unnecessary to refer to them further.</p>
+
+<p>It will thus be seen that, although our knowledge of many of
+these forms is still very limited, we may trace among them a curious
+chain of affinities, which would seem to unite the Ungulates on the
+one hand with the Rodents on the other; but further materials
+are required before we can establish with certainty so important a
+relationship, one which, if true, would alter materially some of the
+prevailing views upon the classification of mammals.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Group</i> <span class="smcap">Tillodontia</span>.</h3>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure193" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure193.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 193.</span>—Skull of <i>Tillotherium fodiens</i>. ⅙ natural size. From Marsh.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Here may be noticed a remarkable group of animals, called by
+Marsh, Tillodontia, the remains of which are found abundantly in
+the Lower and Middle Eocene beds of North America. They seem
+to combine the characters of the Ungulata, Rodentia, and Carnivora.
+In the genus <i>Tillotherium</i> of Marsh (probably identical with the previously
+described <i>Anchippodus</i> of Leidy) the skull (<a href="#figure193">Fig. 193</a>) resembled
+that of the Bears, but the molar teeth were of the Ungulate type,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_442"></a>[442]</span>
+while the large incisors were very similar to those of the Rodents.
+The dental formula is <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. The first pair of incisors
+was very small; the upper molars were tritubercular, while the
+lower ones had crescentoid ridges as in <i>Palæotherium</i>. The skeleton
+resembled that of the Carnivores, but the scaphoid and lunar bones
+were distinct, and there was a third trochanter on the femur. The
+feet were plantigrade, and each had five digits, all with long pointed
+claws. In the allied genus <i>Stylinodon</i> all the teeth were rootless.
+Some forms were as large as a Tapir.</p>
+
+<p>These, with other more or less closely allied animals, such as
+<i>Calamodon</i> and <i>Psittacotherium</i>, constituting a group called Tæniodonta,
+are included by Cope in his large order Bunotheria, to which
+also the existing Insectivora are referred. The dentition of some
+of these forms makes a remarkable approximation towards a Rodent
+type, while it has been suggested that there are also signs of remote
+Edentate affinities. The constantly increasing knowledge of these
+annectant forms adds to the difficulty so often referred to in this
+work of establishing anything like a definite classification of the
+heterodont mammals. An incisor tooth from the Swiss Eocene
+has recently been referred to <i>Calamodon</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<p><i>Bibliography of Ungulata.</i>—In addition to the works and memoirs mentioned
+under the different sections of the order, the following may be referred to:—W.
+Kowalevsky, “Monographie des genus Anthracotherium,” <i>Palæontographica</i>
+1873; Id. “Sur l’Anchitherium aurelianense et sur l’histoire paléontologique
+des Chevaux,” <i>Mém. de l’Acad. Imp. des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg</i>, 1873; Id.
+“On the Osteology of the Hyopotamidæ,” <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, 1873;
+L. Rütimeyer, “Versuch einer natürlichen Geschichte des Rindes.” etc., <i>Neue
+Denks. der allgem. Schweiz. Gesellsch. für Naturwissenschaften</i>, 1867; Id. “Die
+Rinder der Tertiär-Epoche,” <i>Abhand. der Schweiz. Paläont. Gesellsch.</i> 1877 and
+1878; Id. “Beiträge zu einer Natürliche Geschichte der Hirsche,” <i>ibid.</i> 1880-1881;
+C. J. Forsyth-Major, “Beiträge zur Geschichte der Fossilen Pferde,” <i>ibid.</i> 1880;
+M. Schlosser, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Stammesgeschichte der Hufthiere
+und Versuch einer Systematik der Paar- und Unpaarhufer,” <i>Morph. Jahrb.</i> 1886;
+E. D. Cope, “The Perissodactyla,” <i>Amer. Natural.</i> 1887; M. Pavlow, “Études
+sur l’histoire paléontologique des Ongulés,” <i>Bull. Soc. Imp. Naturalistes Moscow</i>,
+1887-1890. W. B. Scott and H. F. Osborn, “The Mammalia of the Uinta Formation,”
+<i>Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc.</i> vol. xvi. (1889).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_443"></a>[443]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE ORDER RODENTIA</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The Rodentia, or Rodents, form a well-defined order, readily distinguished
+by their large scalpriform incisors and the absence of any
+trace of canines. The existing forms are mostly of comparatively
+small size, and are generally of terrestrial habits, although a
+few are arboreal or natatorial. The dentition is diphyodont; the
+mandible never has more than a single pair of incisors; the premolars
+are always below the full number, being very generally ¹⁄₁, or
+altogether wanting. The feet are plantigrade or semi-plantigrade,
+generally with five digits, and usually unguiculate, although occasionally
+of a subungulate type. Clavicles are present as a rule,
+although they may be imperfect or rudimentary.</p>
+
+<p>The upper incisors resemble the lower in growing uninterruptedly
+from persistent pulps, and, except in the suborder
+Duplicidentata, agree with them in number; the premolars and
+molars may be rooted or rootless, with tuberculated or laminated
+crowns, and are arranged in an unbroken series. The orbits communicate
+freely with the temporal fossæ; the condyle of the
+mandible is elongated in the antero-posterior direction, and, through
+the absence of a post-glenoid process to the squamosal, admits of a
+backward and forward motion of the jaw. The intestine (except
+in the <i>Myoxidæ</i>) has a large cæcum; the testes are inguinal or
+abdominal; the uterus is two-horned, the cornua either opening
+separately into the vagina or uniting to form a corpus uteri; the
+placenta is discoidal and deciduate; and the smooth cerebral hemispheres
+do not extend backwards so as to cover any part of the
+cerebellum.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure194" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure194.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 194.</span>—Skull of <i>Hystrix cristata</i> (juv.) <i>t</i>, Temporal
+muscle; <i>m</i>, masseter; <i>m′</i>, portion of masseter transmitted
+through the infraorbital foramen, the superior maxillary
+nerve passing outwards between it and the maxillary bone.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Rodents include by far the greatest number of species, and
+have the widest distribution of any of the orders of terrestrial
+mammals, being in fact cosmopolitan, although more abundant in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_444"></a>[444]</span>
+some parts than in others. The total number of known existing
+species exceeds 900. South America may be regarded as their headquarters
+at the present day; while in Australia and Madagascar
+they are represented only by a few genera. All the Rodents are
+exclusively herbivorous, and the whole of them gather their food
+by gnawing. They present considerable diversity of habits. Thus
+the Squirrels are arboreal, and some of them provided with a parachute
+for taking flying leaps from tree to tree; the Hares are
+cursorial; the Jerboas agile jumpers; the Mole-Rats fossorial;
+while the Beavers and Water-Voles are aquatic. In spite, however,
+of this diversity of habits the Rodents present a remarkable
+similarity in general structure; so much so, indeed, that the characters
+employed for distinguishing the various families and genera
+are comparatively trivial, and of slight structural importance. The
+skull of the Rodents is characterised by the invariable presence of
+the zygomatic arch, of which the middle portion is formed by the
+jugal (<a href="#figure007">Fig. 7</a>, <a href="#figure007">p. 37</a>); and, as already mentioned, the orbit communicates
+freely with the temporal fossa. There is invariably a long
+diastema separating the incisors from the cheek-teeth; and, with
+the exception of the Duplicidentata, the glenoid cavity of the squamosal
+is elongated antero-posteriorly. Postorbital processes of the
+frontals exist only in the Squirrels, Marmots, and Hares; in all
+other genera they are rudimentary or altogether absent; the
+zygoma never sends upwards a corresponding process; the lachrymal
+foramen is always
+within the orbital margin;
+in many species the infraorbital
+foramen is very
+large (in some as large as
+the orbit), and transmits
+part of the great masseter
+muscle (<a href="#figure194">Fig. 194</a>, <i>m</i>), by
+means of which the jaws
+are worked. The zygomatic
+arch varies in its
+degree of development,
+and the position of the
+jugal therein is used as a
+distinguishing character
+for grouping the families; the nasals are, with few exceptions, large,
+and extend far forwards; the parietals are moderate, and there is
+generally a distinct interparietal. The palate is narrow from before
+backwards—this being especially pronounced in the Hares, where it
+is reduced to a mere bridge between the premolars; while in other
+cases, as in the Mole-Rats (<i>Bathyerginæ</i>), it is extremely narrow
+transversely, its width being less than that of one of the molar teeth.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_445"></a>[445]</span>
+Auditory bullæ are always present, and generally large; in some
+genera, as in the Gerbilles and Jerboas, there are also supplemental
+mastoid bullæ forming great hemispherical bony swellings at the back
+of the skull (see <a href="#figure007">Fig. 7</a>, <i>Per</i>); and in these genera, and in the true
+Hares, the meatus auditorius is tubular and directed upwards and
+backwards. The mandible is characterised by the abruptly narrowed
+and rounded symphysial part supporting the large incisors,
+as well as by the small size of the coronoid process and the great
+development of the angular portion.</p>
+
+<p>The dental formula varies from <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>p</i> ³⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃ (total 28)
+in the Duplicidentata to <i>i</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>p</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂ (total 12) in <i>Hydromys</i>,
+<i>Xeromys</i>, and one species of <i>Heterocephalus</i>; but in the great
+majority of forms it is very constant, <i>i</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>p</i> ⁰⁻¹⁄₀₋₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃ being
+very typical. Only in the Duplicidentata is there a second pair of
+upper incisors, which are of very small size, and situated immediately
+behind the large normal pair. This group is also peculiar in
+that the enamel of the incisors is not confined to their anterior
+surfaces, but extends partially on to their sides. It is by reason
+of the thick layer of enamel on their anterior surface and its
+absence from the posterior surface that the incisors maintain their
+sharp chisel-like edge, which is so essentially characteristic of the
+order. Both the upper and the lower incisors are regularly curved—the
+curvature being somewhat greater in the upper ones—and
+since they grew continuously from persistent pulps, it is quite
+evident that should any accident, such as the loss of one of them,
+or displacement by
+fracture of the jaw,
+prevent the regulation
+of the length
+by attrition against
+one another, the
+unopposed tooth
+will gradually
+curve upon itself
+until a complete
+circle or more has
+been formed, the
+tooth, perhaps,
+passing during its growth through some part of the animal’s head.
+The molars, as already mentioned, may be rooted or rootless, tuberculated
+or laminated; this diversity of structure occurring even
+in the same family. When there are more than three cheek-teeth
+those in front of the last three have succeeded milk-teeth,
+and must therefore be considered premolars. In some species, as
+in the Agoutis (<i>Dasyproctidæ</i>), the milk-teeth are long retained,
+while in the allied Cavies (<i>Caviidæ</i>) they are shed before birth.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure195" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure195.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 195.</span>—Vertical and longitudinal section through skull of
+the Beaver (<i>Castor fiber</i>) showing the cerebral cavity, the greatly
+developed turbinal lamellæ, the mode of implantation of the large
+incisor, and the curved, rootless molars.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_446"></a>[446]</span></p>
+
+<p>There are generally nineteen dorso-lumbar vertebræ (thirteen
+dorsal and six lumbar), their form varying in the different genera.
+In the cursorial and leaping species the lumbar transverse processes
+are generally very long, and in the Hares there are large compressed
+hypapophyses. The caudal vertebræ exhibit great variety
+in structure, being in a rudimentary condition in the Guinea-Pig,
+while in the Jumping Hares and prehensile-tailed Porcupines they
+are of very large dimensions. The scapula is usually narrow, with
+a long acromion; the clavicles may be altogether absent or imperfect,
+as in the Porcupines, Cavies, and Hares, but in most species
+they are well developed. In all existing forms the humerus has
+no entepicondylar foramen, and the radius and ulna are distinct.
+In most species the manus has five digits, with phalanges normally
+developed; the pollex being rarely rudimentary or absent. The
+pelvis has well-developed ischia and pubes, meeting in a long, and
+usually bony, symphysis. The femur varies considerably in form,
+but generally has a well-defined third trochanter; in the Sciurine
+and Hystricine Rodents the tibia and fibula are distinct, but in the
+Rats and other Murines, and in the Hares, these bones are united,
+often high up; the pes is much more variable than the manus, the
+digits varying in number from five, as in the Squirrels and Rats, to
+four, as in the Hares, or even three, as in the Capybara, Viscacha,
+and Agouti; in the <i>Dipodidæ</i> the metatarsals are greatly elongated,
+and in some of the species, as in the Jerboas, they are ankylosed
+together.</p>
+
+<p>The mouth is divided into two cavities communicating by a
+constricted orifice, an anterior one containing the large incisors, and
+a posterior one in which the molars are placed; the hairy integument
+of the face being continued inwards behind the incisors. This
+peculiar arrangement evidently prevents substances not intended
+for food getting into the mouth, as when the animal is engaged in
+gnawing through an obstacle. In the Hares and Pacas the inside
+of the cheeks is hairy, and in some species, as in the Pouched Rats
+and Hamsters, there are large internal cheek-pouches lined with
+the hairy integument, which open near the angles of the mouth
+and extend backwards behind the ears. In the New World
+Pouched Rats (<i>Geomyidæ</i>) the pouches open externally on the
+cheeks. The tongue presents little variability in length, being
+always short and compressed, with an obtuse apex never protruded
+beyond the incisors. In most species there are three circumvallate
+papillæ at the base; and the apical portion is generally covered
+with small filiform papillæ, some of which in the Porcupines
+(<i>Hystrix</i>) become greatly enlarged, forming toothed spines. The
+stomach varies in form from the simple oval sac of the Squirrel to
+the complex ruminant-like organ of the Lemming. In the Water-Vole
+(<i>Arvicola amphibius</i>) and the Agouti (<i>Dasyprocta aguti<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_447"></a>[447]</span></i>) it is
+strongly constricted between the œsophagus and pylorus. In the
+common Dormouse the œsophagus immediately before entering the
+stomach is much dilated, forming a large egg-shaped sac with
+thickened glandular walls; and in some other species, as in
+<i>Lophiomys imhausi</i> and in the Beaver, glandular masses are
+attached to and open into the
+cardiac or pyloric pouches. The
+alimentary canal (<a href="#figure196">Fig. 196</a>) of
+all Rodents, with the exception
+of the Dormice (<i>Myoxidæ</i>), has
+a cæcum, which is often of great
+length and sacculated, as in the
+Hares, Water-Voles, and Porcupines.
+In some instances, as in
+the Hamster and Water-Vole,
+the long colon is spirally twisted
+upon itself near its commencement.
+The liver is typically
+divided in all, but the lobes are
+variously subdivided in the
+different species (in <i>Capromys</i>
+they are divided into minute
+lobules); and the gall-bladder,
+though present in most, is absent
+in a few. In most species the
+penis (which is generally provided
+with a bone) can be more
+or less completely retracted
+within the fold of integument surrounding the anus, where it lies
+curved backwards upon itself under cover of the integument. It
+may, however, be carried forward some distance in front of
+the anal orifice, from which in the breeding season, as in the
+Voles and Marmots, the prominent testicular mass separates it.
+The testes in the rutting season form projections in the groins,
+but (except in the Duplicidentata) do not completely leave the
+cavity of the abdomen. Prostatic glands and, except in the
+Duplicidentata, vesiculæ seminales are present in all. The uterus
+may be double, each division opening by a separate aperture into
+a common vagina, as in <i>Leporidæ</i>, <i>Sciuridæ</i>, and <i>Hydrochœrus</i>, or
+completely two-horned, as in most species. The mammæ vary in
+number and position from the single abdominal pair of the Guinea-Pig
+to the ten thoracico-abdominal pairs found in some of the
+Rats. In the <i>Octodontidæ</i> the mammæ are placed high up on the
+sides of the body.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp52" id="figure196" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure196.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 196.</span>—Alimentary canal of Rat (<i>Mus decumanus</i>),
+the greater part of the small intestine
+being omitted. <i>o</i>, Œsophagus; <i>d</i>, duodenum;
+<i>i</i>, ileum; <i>cm</i>, cæcum; <i>c</i>, colon.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The peculiar odour evolved by many Rodents is due to the
+secretions of special glands, which may open either into the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_448"></a>[448]</span>
+prepuce, as in <i>Mus</i>, <i>Arvicola</i>, <i>Cricetus</i>, etc., or into the rectum, as in
+<i>Arctomys</i> and <i>Aulacodus</i> or into the passage common to both, as in
+the Beaver, or again, into pouches opening near the anus, as in the
+Hare, Agouti, and Jerboa.</p>
+
+<p>The integument is generally thin, and the panniculus carnosus
+(the sheet of muscle underlying the skin) rarely much developed.
+The fur varies exceedingly in character. Thus it may be very
+fine and soft, as in the Chinchillas and Hares, in others more
+or less replaced by spines on the upper surface, as in the Spiny-Rats
+and Porcupines; in several genera, as in <i>Xerus</i>, <i>Acanthomys</i>,
+<i>Platacanthomys</i>, <i>Echinothrix</i>, <i>Loncheres</i>, and <i>Echinomys</i>, the spines are
+flattened. In the muscular structures the chief peculiarities are
+noticeable in the comparatively small size of the temporal muscles,
+and in the great double masseters (<a href="#figure194">Fig. 194</a>), which are the principal
+agents in gnawing; the digastrics also are remarkable for their
+well-defined central tendon, and in many species their anterior bellies
+are united between the mandibular rami; the cleidomastoid generally
+arises from the basioccipital, and the pectoralis major is connected
+with the latissimus dorsi; in the Porcupines and Hares the tendons
+of the flexor digitorum longus and flexor hallucis longus are connected
+in the foot, while in the Rats and Squirrels they are separate,
+and the flexor digitorum longus is generally inserted into the
+metatarsal of the hallux.<a id="FNanchor_290" href="#Footnote_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a></p>
+
+<p>Rodents are tolerably well represented in a fossil condition from
+the period of the Upper Eocene, while if <i>Decticadapis</i>, of the Lower
+Eocene of Rheims, is rightly referred to it the order dates from the
+oldest Tertiary. All the fossil forms at present known are, however,
+essentially true Rodents, and afford no clue as to the relations of
+the order with other mammals. The remote affinities of the
+Rodents to the Proboscidea, as well as their more marked resemblances
+to <i>Typotherium</i>, have been already mentioned. Whether
+there is a real genetic affinity (as Professor Cope suggests) with the
+Tillodontia cannot be decided with the evidence at present available.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Simplicidentata</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>Only one pair of upper incisors, having their enamel confined to
+their front surfaces. Incisive foramina moderate and distinct;
+fibula not articulating with the calcaneum. Testes abdominal, and
+descending periodically only into a temporary sessile scrotum.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Sciuromorpha</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Zygomatic arch slender, chiefly formed by the jugal, which is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_449"></a>[449]</span>
+not supported by a long maxillary process extending backwards
+beneath it; postorbital processes of frontal present or absent;
+infraorbital opening small (except in <i>Anomalurus</i>); mandible with
+the angular part arising from the inferior surface of the bony
+socket of the lower incisor; clavicles well developed; fibula distinct.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Anomaluridæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Arboreal forms, having their limbs connected by a cutaneous
+expansion supported by a cartilaginous process arising from the
+olecranon; tail long and hairy, with large imbricated scales on its
+inferior surface near the root; sixteen pairs of ribs; no postorbital
+processes on the frontals; <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁; molars not tuberculate, with
+transverse enamel-folds. Confined to the Ethiopian region.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="figure197" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure197.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 197.</span>—<i>Anomalurus fulgens.</i> From Alston, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1875.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Anomalurus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_291" href="#Footnote_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a> with several species from West and Central Africa,
+alone represents the family. The peculiar caudal scales, which
+evidently assist the animal in climbing, and the position of the
+cartilaginous support of the parachute, are well shown in <a href="#figure197">Fig. 197</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_450"></a>[450]</span>
+All the species but two are from Western Africa; <i>A. orientalis</i> occurs
+near Zanzibar, and <i>A. pusillus</i> is from the equatorial regions of that
+continent. According to Mr. O. Thomas,<a id="FNanchor_292" href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a> the latter “little animal
+is most nearly allied to the West-African <i>A. beecrofti</i>, but differs
+from that species in its duller and less yellow upper side, in the
+entire absence of rufous on its neck and belly, and, as from all the
+other described species, in its diminutive size.”</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Sciuridæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Arboreal or terrestrial forms, with cylindrical hairy tails, without
+scales, and with
+twelve or thirteen
+pairs of ribs. Skull
+(<a href="#figure198">Figs. 198, 199</a>) with
+distinct postorbital
+processes; infraorbital
+opening
+small; palate broad;
+<i>p</i> ²⁄₁; first upper premolar
+very small or
+deciduous; molars
+rooted, tubercular.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Sciurinæ</b>.—Incisors
+compressed;
+form slender;
+tail long and
+hairy. Cosmopolitan (excluding Australian region).</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure198" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure198.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 198.</span>—Lateral view of skull of American Marmot
+(<i>Arctomys monax</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This subfamily includes the true Squirrels, of which seven
+existing genera are usually recognised.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sciurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_293" href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a>—Tail long and bushy; ears generally well developed,
+pointed, often tufted;
+feet adapted for climbing,
+the anterior having
+four digits and
+a rudimentary pollex,
+and the posterior with
+five digits, all of which
+have long, curved, and
+sharp claws. Mammæ,
+from four to six. Skull
+(<a href="#figure199">Fig. 199</a>) lightly built,
+with long postorbital
+processes. Penultimate
+upper premolar, when
+present, minute.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_451"></a>[451]</span></p>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure199" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure199.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 199.</span>—Palatal Aspect of cranium of Squirrel (<i>Sciurus
+bicolor</i>). Natural size.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>True Squirrels are found in most of the temperate and tropical
+regions of the world, exclusive of Madagascar and the Australian
+region. They are, however, most abundant in the Malayan part of
+the Oriental region, and attain their largest size and most brilliant
+coloration in the tropics. Their size is very variable, so that
+whereas <i>S. soricinus</i>, of Borneo, is no larger than a Mouse, <i>S. bicolor</i>,
+of the Malayan region, is nearly as large as a Cat. The common
+English Squirrel (<i>S. vulgaris</i>) is found over the whole of the Palæarctic
+region, reaching in one direction from Ireland to Japan, and in the
+other from the north of Italy to Lapland; its remains occur in the
+Norfolk “Forest-bed.” In the Malayan region “nearly all the
+numerous species are brilliantly marked, and many are ornamented
+with variously coloured longitudinal stripes along their bodies. One
+of the commonest and best known of the striped species is the little
+Indian Palm-Squirrel (<i>S. palmarum</i>), which in large numbers<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_452"></a>[452]</span> runs
+about every Indian village. Another Oriental species (<i>S. caniceps</i>)
+presents almost the only known instance among mammals of the
+temporary assumption during the breeding season of a distinctly
+ornamental coat, corresponding to the breeding-plumage of birds.
+For the greater part of the year the animal is of a uniform gray
+colour; but about December its back becomes a brilliant orange-yellow,
+which lasts until about March, when it is again replaced by
+gray. The Squirrel shown in <a href="#figure200">Fig. 200</a> is a native of Burma and
+Tenasserim, and is closely allied to <i>S. caniceps</i>, but goes through no
+seasonal change of colour.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp61" id="figure200" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure200.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 200.</span>—Burmese Squirrel (<i>Sciurus pygerythrus</i>). After Anderson.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>“The number of species in the genus is about 75, of which 3
+belong to the Palæarctic, 15 to the Ethiopian, about 40 to the
+Oriental, and 16 to the combined Nearctic and Neotropical regions”
+(Thomas).</p>
+
+<p>Fossil species referred to <i>Sciurus</i> are found in the European
+Tertiaries down to the Phosphorites of Central France, while others
+occur in the White River Miocene of the United States.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rhithrosciurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_294" href="#Footnote_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a>—A very striking Squirrel, confined to Borneo,
+and as yet only known from three or four examples, has been
+separated generically under this name. The general shape of its
+skull is very different from that of other Squirrels; but its most
+peculiar characteristic is the presence of from seven to ten minute
+parallel vertical grooves running down the front face of its incisors;
+no other Squirrel having really grooved incisors, and no other
+member of the whole order incisive grooves resembling these.
+Its premolars number ¹⁄₁, and its molars are simpler and less ridged
+than in the other genera. This Squirrel (<i>R. macrotis</i>) is far larger
+than the English, with an enormously long bushy tail, long tufted
+ears, and black and white bands down its sides.</p>
+
+<p><i>Xerus.</i><a id="FNanchor_295" href="#Footnote_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a>—Fur coarse and spiny. Claws long and comparatively
+straight. Ear-conchs minute or absent. Skull with the postorbital
+processes short and directed backwards, the bony palate prolonged
+considerably behind the tooth-row, and the external ridge on the
+front face of the anterior zygomatic root more developed, and
+continued much farther upwards than in <i>Sciurus</i>. Premolars ²⁄₁;
+molars as in <i>Sciurus</i>. Mammæ two. This genus contains four well-marked
+species, known as Spiny Squirrels, all natives of Africa.
+They are terrestrial in their habits, living in burrows which they
+dig for themselves. <i>X. getulus</i>, a striped species of North Africa,
+has much the size and appearance of the Indian Palm-Squirrel;
+all the others are a little larger than the English Squirrel.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tamias.</i><a id="FNanchor_296" href="#Footnote_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a>—All the members of this genus are characterised by
+the possession of internal cheek-pouches, and by their style of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_453"></a>[453]</span> coloration;
+being ornamented on the back with alternate light and dark
+bands. Their skulls are slenderer and lighter than those of the
+true Squirrels, from which they differ in several unimportant
+details. There is only one functional premolar—the small anterior
+one usually found in <i>Sciurus</i> being either absent altogether or quite
+small and functionless. There are some four well-defined species,
+all found in North America, one (<i>T. asiaticus</i>) extending also through
+Siberia into Eastern Europe.<a id="FNanchor_297" href="#Footnote_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a> They are generally known as Ground-Squirrels,
+but in America, where they are among the commonest
+and best known of the indigenous Rodents, as “Chipmunks.” The
+members of this genus seem to lead into the genus <i>Spermophilus</i>,
+so that the division of the <i>Sciuridæ</i> into two subfamilies, although
+convenient for classification, is rather artificial.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of <i>Tamias</i>, probably belonging to existing species, occur
+in the Pleistocene deposits of Europe and Nebraska.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pteromys</i><a id="FNanchor_298" href="#Footnote_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a> and <i>Sciuropterus</i>.<a id="FNanchor_299" href="#Footnote_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a>—The
+    Flying Squirrels, although incapable
+of true flight, can yet float through the air for considerable
+distances by the aid of an extension of skin connecting their fore
+and hind limbs, and forming a sort of parachute. This parachute
+is merely a lateral extension of the ordinary skin of the body,
+which passes outwards between the limbs and terminates at the
+wrists and ankles. In addition to the lateral membrane there is a
+narrow and inconspicuous one passing from the cheek along the
+front of the shoulder to the front of the wrist, and another—at
+least in the larger species—stretching across behind the body from
+ankle to ankle and involving the base of the tail. The Flying
+Squirrels are divided into three genera. Of those with a normal
+dentition <i>Pteromys</i> contains the larger and <i>Sciuropterus</i> the smaller
+species. The two differ in certain details of dentition, as well as
+in the greater development in the former of the expanded membranes,
+especially of the “interfemoral” or posterior membrane,
+which in the latter is almost wholly absent. In <i>Pteromys</i> the tail
+is cylindrical and comparatively thin, while in <i>Sciuropterus</i> it is
+broad, flat, and laterally expanded, and evidently compensates for
+the absence of the interfemoral membrane by acting as a supplementary
+parachute. In appearance Flying Squirrels resemble the
+other forms, although they are even more beautifully coloured.
+Their habits, food, etc., are also very similar to those of the
+true Squirrels, except that they are more decidedly nocturnal,
+and are therefore less often seen by the traveller; their peculiar
+shrill cry is, however, well known to all who have camped out in
+the regions which they inhabit. Their mode of flight is precisely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_454"></a>[454]</span>
+similar to that of the Flying Phalangers of Australia. Of each of
+the two genera there are about thirteen or fourteen species, all
+natives of the Oriental region, except that one of <i>Sciuropterus</i> is found
+in North America, and another in Siberia and Eastern Europe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eupetaurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_300" href="#Footnote_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a>—Externally as in <i>Pteromys</i>, except that the claws
+are less sharp. Skull with a more produced muzzle than in the
+latter, more distinct supraorbital notches, longer anterior palatal
+foramina, and a shorter bony palate. Cheek-teeth differing from
+those of all other <i>Sciuridæ</i> in their hypsodont character. One large
+species (<i>E. cinereus</i>), from Gilgit and adjacent districts on the
+extreme north-west of Kashmir territory. This fine Flying Squirrel
+is chiefly known by one entire specimen and some imperfect skins.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—The genera <i>Pseudosciurus</i> and <i>Sciuroides</i>, from
+the Upper Eocene of Europe, have the molar teeth more elongated
+than in <i>Sciurus</i>. <i>Gymnoptychus</i> with <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, from the North American
+Miocene, approximates in the structure of its molars to <i>Tamias</i>.
+<i>Meniscomys</i> (<i>p</i> ²⁄₁), from the latter deposits, together with <i>Sciurodon</i>
+of the French Phosphorites, are regarded as Squirrels showing signs
+of affinity with the <i>Haplodontidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Arctomyinæ</b>.—Incisors not compressed; typically
+the form stout, and the tail comparatively short. This subfamily
+comprises burrowing forms which may be collectively known as
+Marmots; as already mentioned, they are so intimately connected
+with the preceding subfamily that the division into two groups is
+purely a matter of convenience. They are confined to the Palæarctic
+and Nearctic regions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arctomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_301" href="#Footnote_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a>—External form stout and heavy, ears short, tail
+short and hairy, cheek-pouches rudimentary or absent. Fore feet
+with four well-developed digits, and a rudimentary pollex provided
+with a flat nail. Skull (<a href="#figure198">Fig. 198</a>) large and heavy, with the postorbital
+process stout, and at right angles to the axis. Incisors
+broad and powerful. First upper premolar nearly as large as the
+second. Molar series nearly parallel, scarcely converging behind
+at all.</p>
+
+<p>The various species of true Marmot, which exceed a dozen in
+number, are all much alike in general appearance, ranging in size
+from about 15 to 25 inches in length, with tails from 3 to 12 inches
+long.</p>
+
+<p>The Alpine Marmot (<a href="#figure201">Fig. 201</a>) is peculiar to Europe, being
+found in the Alps, Pyrenees, and Carpathians; its remains occur in
+European Pleistocene deposits. <i>A. bobac</i> occurs in Eastern Europe
+and Siberia. Several species (<i>e.g.</i> <i>A. monax</i>, <a href="#figure198">Fig. 198</a>) are found
+in the Nearctic region, and many in Kashmir and Central Asia.
+The long-tailed Red Marmot (<i>A. caudatus</i>) is a fine Himalayan<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_455"></a>[455]</span>
+species, which may be seen on the mountain passes to the north of
+the valley of Kashmir, as soon as the snow begins to disappear,
+sitting at the entrance to its burrow, which is generally beneath a
+rhubarb plant.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="figure201" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure201.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 201.</span>—Alpine Marmot (<i>Arctomys marmotta</i>). After Brehm.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The following account of the habits of the Alpine Marmot is
+given by Professor Blasius: “Marmots live high up in the snowy
+regions of the mountains, generally preferring exposed cliffs, whence
+they may have a clear view of any approaching danger, for which,
+while quietly basking in the sun or actively running about in search
+of food, a constant watch is kept. When one of them raises the cry
+of warning, the loud piercing whistle so well known to travellers
+in the Alps, they all instantly take to flight and hide themselves in
+holes and crannies among the rocks, often not reappearing at the
+entrance of their hiding-places until several hours have elapsed, and
+then frequently standing motionless on the look-out for a still longer
+period. Their food consists of the roots and leaves of various
+Alpine plants, which, like squirrels, they lift to their mouths with
+their fore paws. For their winter quarters they make a large
+round burrow, with but one entrance, and ending in a sleeping-place
+thickly lined with hay. Here often from ten to fifteen Marmots
+pass the winter, all lying closely packed together fast asleep until
+the spring.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_456"></a>[456]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Cynomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_302" href="#Footnote_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a>—Size and form intermediate between <i>Arctomys</i> and
+<i>Spermophilus</i>. Ears and tail short. Cheek-pouches shallow. Fore
+feet with five claws, that on the pollex as large as that on the fifth
+toe. Skull (<a href="#figure202">Fig. 202</a>) heavily built, with the postorbital processes
+directed outwards. Dentition (as shown in <a href="#figure202">Fig. 202</a>) remarkably
+heavy, the molar teeth
+differing from those
+of <i>Arctomys</i> and <i>Spermophilus</i>
+by having
+three instead of two
+transverse grooves on
+their crowns. First
+premolar nearly as
+large as the second.
+Molar series strongly
+convergent behind.</p>
+
+<p>Two species of
+Prairie Marmots, or,
+as they are often called,
+“Prairie-Dogs,” are
+found in North America. They live together in large communities,
+inhabiting burrows excavated at short distances apart, and feeding
+on the buffalo-grass which covers the plains. The small burrowing
+owl (<i>Athene cunicularia</i>) and the rattlesnake are often found inhabiting
+their burrows; the former probably availing itself of the
+convenience of a ready-made habitation, the latter coming there to
+feed on the young Marmots.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure202" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure202.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 202.</span>—Palatal aspect of the cranium of the Prairie Marmot
+(<i>Cynomys ludovicianus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Spermophilus.</i><a id="FNanchor_303" href="#Footnote_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a>—Size much smaller than in either of the preceding
+genera; form more slender and squirrel-like. Tail very variable,
+from 1 to 8 or 9 inches in length. Cheek-pouches always present.
+Fore feet with four well-developed toes and a rudimentary pollex,
+of which the claw may be either present or absent. Skull more
+lightly built than in the other preceding genera, with the postorbital
+processes slender and directed backwards. Molar series nearly
+parallel, as in <i>Arctomys</i>, but all these teeth much smaller and lighter;
+first premolar simply rounded, never more than about one-third of
+the size of the second.</p>
+
+<p>The Pouched Marmots, or Sousliks, have nearly the same distribution
+as <i>Tamias</i>, and are represented by a considerable number
+of species. They present a far greater range of variation than
+is found among the true Marmots, some of them, such as the
+European species, being scarcely as large as a common squirrel,
+almost entirely without external ears, and with the tail reduced to
+a mere stump, barely an inch long, while others are more than
+three times this size, with large and often tufted ears, and long<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_457"></a>[457]</span>
+bushy squirrel-like tails. Professor Blasius gives the following
+details of the habits of the common European Souslik (<i>S. citillus</i>):
+“It lives in dry treeless plains, especially on a sandy or clayey soil,
+and is never found either in forests or on swampy ground. It
+forms burrows, often 6 or 8 feet deep, in which food is stored up
+and the winter sleep takes place. Each burrow has but one
+entrance, which is closed up when winter approaches,—a second
+hole, however, being previously formed from the sleeping-place to
+just below the surface of the ground. The second hole is opened
+the next year, and used as the ordinary entrance, so that the
+number of closed-up holes round a burrow gives an indication of
+the length of time that it has been occupied. Sousliks ordinarily
+feed on roots, seeds, berries, etc., but occasionally also on animal
+food, preying readily on eggs, small birds, and mice, the remains of
+these latter being often found in their burrows. They bring forth
+in the spring from four to eight young ones, which, if taken early,
+may be easily tamed. They are often eaten by the peasants, the
+inhabitants of the Russian steppes considering their flesh an
+especial delicacy.”</p>
+
+<p>Remains of <i>Spermophilus</i> are not uncommon in European Tertiary
+deposits, some belonging to living and others to extinct species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—<i>Plesispermophilus</i>, from the Upper Eocene Phosphorites
+of Central France, appears to be closely allied to the
+Sousliks. <i>Plesiarctomys</i> (<i>Sciuravus</i> or <i>Paramys</i>), which is common
+to the Middle Tertiaries of Europe and North America, appears to
+be a generalised form, showing some resemblance both to <i>Arctomys</i>
+and <i>Sciurus</i>, but with tritubercular upper molars and no postorbital
+processes to the skull; in the latter respect agreeing with the next
+family. In the size of the preorbital vacuity the skull resembles the
+Hystricomorpha.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Haplodontidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Distinguished from the <i>Sciuridæ</i> by the absence of postorbital
+processes to the frontals, the depressed skull, and the rootless cheek-teeth.
+Premolars ²⁄₁; the penultimate upper one small.</p>
+
+<p><i>Haplodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_304" href="#Footnote_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a>—<i>H. rufus</i> and <i>H. major</i>, of North America, west of
+the Rocky Mountains, are the only representatives of the family;
+their habits are similar to those of <i>Cynomys</i>.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Castoridæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Skull massive, without postorbital processes, the angle of the
+mandible rounded, and the cheek-teeth rootless, with re-entering
+enamel-folds. Premolars ¹⁄₁. Habits natatorial.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_458"></a>[458]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Castor.</i><a id="FNanchor_305" href="#Footnote_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a>—The upper molars are subequal, each with one internal
+and two external enamel-folds; the stomach has a large glandular
+mass situated to the right of the œsophageal orifice; the anal and
+urethro-genital orifices open within a common cloaca; the tail is
+broad, horizontally flattened, and naked; and the hind feet are
+webbed. One or two species, Palæarctic and Nearctic.</p>
+
+<p>Zoologists are not yet of accord as to whether the European
+and American Beavers should be regarded as distinct species or as
+local races; the general concensus of opinion being in favour of
+the latter view.</p>
+
+<p>The European Beaver (<i>C. fiber</i>) was at one time an inhabitant
+of the British Isles, having been found, according to Pennant, in
+certain Welsh rivers so late as the twelfth century, while subfossil
+remains of it occur in the peat-beds of many parts of the country.
+In Scandinavia Beavers are still found in the neighbourhood of
+Arendal. Isolated pairs are occasionally met with on the banks of
+the Rhone, Weser, and Elbe; and a considerable number are kept
+in a park belonging to the Emperor of Austria, on the banks of
+the Danube. They also occur sparingly in Russia and Poland,
+in the streams of the Ural Mountains, and in those which flow
+into the Caspian. They live in burrows on the banks of rivers,
+like the Water-Rat, and show little of the architectural instinct
+so conspicuous in the American form, but this may be owing to
+unfavourable external conditions rather than to want of the
+faculty; for there is a well-authenticated instance of a colony of
+Beavers, on a small stream near Magdeburg, whose habitations
+and dam were exactly similar to those found in America.</p>
+
+<p>The American Beaver (<i>C. canadensis</i>) extends over that part of
+the American continent included between the Arctic circle and
+the tropic of Cancer; owing, however, to the gradual spread of
+population over part of this area, and still more to the enormous
+quantity of skins that, towards the end of last and the beginning
+of the present century, were exported to Europe, numbering about
+200,000 annually, this species is in imminent danger of extirpation.
+It is distinguished from the European Beaver by the shorter and
+somewhat wider nasals.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of extinct species of <i>Castor</i> occur in the Pliocene of
+Europe, and in the North American Miocene; the one from the
+last-mentioned deposits being of small size, and separated by some
+writers as <i>Eucastor</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—A very large Beaver known as <i>Trogontherium</i>
+(<i>Diobroticus</i>), and distinguished by the nature of the enamel-folds of
+the molars, occurs in the Upper Pliocene and Pleistocene of Europe.
+<i>Chalicomys</i> (<i>Steneofiber</i>) is a considerably smaller form from the
+Miocene of Europe and the United States, distinguished from all<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_459"></a>[459]</span>
+existing Rodents by the presence of an entepicondylar foramen in
+the humerus. <i>Palæocastor</i>, of the North American Miocene, is allied.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Myomorpha</span>.</h4>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp87" id="figure203" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure203.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 203.</span>—Side view of skull of <i>Fiber zibethicus</i>, natural size.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Skull (<a href="#figure203">Fig. 203</a>), with slender zygomatic arch, in which the
+jugal seldom extends
+far forwards, being
+usually supported by
+the long zygomatic
+process of the maxilla;
+no postorbital process;
+infraorbital vacuity
+variable; angle of
+mandible, except in
+the <i>Bathyerginæ</i>, rising
+from the inferior surface
+of the incisive
+alveolus. Clavicles
+well developed, except
+in <i>Lophiomys</i>. Tibia
+and fibula united.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Myoxidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Small arboreal forms, with long hairy tails, large eyes and ears,
+and short fore limbs. No cæcum in the intestine. Skull with
+narrow frontals, a high and narrow infraorbital vacuity of moderate
+size, and a long and slender coronoid process to the mandible.
+Premolars ¹⁄₁; molars rooted, with transverse enamel-folds.</p>
+
+<p>The Dormice form a natural family allied to the Squirrels in
+form and habits, and confined to the Palæarctic and Ethiopian
+regions. The absence of the cæcum distinguishes them from all
+other members of the order. They are usually divided into the
+following five genera, but some of these are of very doubtful value,
+and it might be preferable to retain <i>Muscardinus</i> and include all
+the others in <i>Myoxus</i>.<a id="FNanchor_306" href="#Footnote_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Myoxus.</i><a id="FNanchor_307" href="#Footnote_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a>—Represented by the European <i>M. glis</i>, and characterised
+by the bushy distichous tail, simple stomach, and the large
+size and complex enamel-folds of the molars, which have flat crowns.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eliomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_308" href="#Footnote_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a>—Tail tufted and distichous; stomach simple; and
+the molars small, with concave crowns and indistinct enamel-folds.
+Some seven species, Ethiopian and Palæarctic.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_460"></a>[460]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Graphiurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_309" href="#Footnote_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a>—Tail short, cylindrical, and tufted at the end;
+molars very small, with the enamel-folds almost absent. Some
+three Ethiopian species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Claviglis.</i><a id="FNanchor_310" href="#Footnote_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a>—Represented by one West African species, said to be
+distinguished from all other forms by the shorter tail, which is
+more distinctly pencilled. The right to generic distinction is, however,
+very problematical.</p>
+
+<p><i>Muscardinus.</i><a id="FNanchor_311" href="#Footnote_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a>—Includes the Common Dormouse (<i>M. avellanarius</i>)
+of Europe, distinguished by the cylindrical bushy tail, and thickened
+glandular walls of the cardiac extremity of the œsophagus; the
+molars have flat crowns, with complex enamel folds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fossil Dormice.</i>—Using the generic term <i>Myoxus</i> in a more
+extended sense than the above, it has existed in Europe from the
+date of the Upper Eocene. A species nearly as large as a Guinea-Pig,
+with very complex molars, is common in the Pleistocene of
+Malta.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Lophiomyidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp90" id="figure204" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure204.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 204.</span>—<i>Lophiomys imhausi</i>. From Milne-Edwards.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The genus <i>Lophiomys</i>,<a id="FNanchor_312" href="#Footnote_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a> represented only by <i>L. imhausi</i> (<a href="#figure204">Fig.
+204</a>) of North-East Africa, differs from the typical <i>Muridæ</i> in
+having the temporal fossæ roofed over by a thin plate of bone,
+rudimentary clavicles, and an opposable hallux. On these grounds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_461"></a>[461]</span>
+it has been made the type of a family, but since all the features
+are Murine—the dentition being that of a typical Cricetine—it
+appears doubtful whether that distinction is justifiable. The hair
+forms a crest along on the back, and is of a peculiar structure.
+The habits of this Rodent are arboreal.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Muridæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Skull (<a href="#figure203">Fig. 203</a>) with contracted frontals; a short and slender
+jugal, generally reduced to a splint between the zygomatic processes
+of the maxilla and squamosal; the lower root of the former
+process more or less flattened into a perpendicular plate; typically,
+the infraorbital vacuity tall, and wide above and narrow below.
+Lower incisors compressed; no premolars;<a id="FNanchor_313" href="#Footnote_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> molars rooted, or rootless,
+tuberculate, or with angular enamel-folds. Pollex rudimental;
+tail generally nearly naked and scaly. Habits various, but mostly
+terrestrial.</p>
+
+<p>This large and cosmopolitan family, which includes more than
+a third of the existing Rodents, is represented by about forty
+genera.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Hydromyinæ</b>.—Molars ²⁄₂ in number, rooted, and
+divided into transverse lobes. Represented by two Australasian
+genera.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hydromys.</i><a id="FNanchor_314" href="#Footnote_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a>—External form modified for an aquatic life. Tip
+of muzzle extensively haired, so that the nostrils can be closed.
+Skull with the infraorbital vacuity crescentic, scarcely narrowed
+below, and its external wall without the perpendicular zygomatic
+plate characteristic of most of the family; incisive foramina very
+small.</p>
+
+<p>Two species, with habits like those of the Water Voles, are
+known from Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea. In the
+typical <i>H. chrysogaster</i> the colour of the back is black, with an
+admixture of golden-coloured hairs; the belly being of a dark
+golden hue.<a id="FNanchor_315" href="#Footnote_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Xeromys.</i><a id="FNanchor_316" href="#Footnote_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a>—External form Murine. Tip of muzzle as in <i>Mus</i>,
+not as in <i>Hydromys</i>. Toes unwebbed. Tail scaly, very finely
+haired. Skull as in <i>Mus</i>, with the exception of the rounding of the
+supraorbital edges. Teeth as in <i>Hydromys</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Represented by <i>X. myoides</i>, of Queensland; a species about
+twice the size of the Common Mouse. This genus serves to connect
+<i>Hydromys</i> with the other Murines, although it is difficult to
+say to which group it comes nearest.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_462"></a>[462]</span></p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Platacanthomyinæ</b>.—Molars rooted, with transverse
+laminæ. Flattened spines mingled with the hair; tail thickly
+haired. Represented by one genus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Platacanthomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_317" href="#Footnote_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a>—The one representative of this genus is <i>P.
+lasiurus</i>, found in the clefts of rocks and hollow trees in Southern
+India at elevations of about 3000 feet. This elegant little animal
+closely resembles a Dormouse; the tail and body having a length
+of 6 inches.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Gerbillinæ</b>.—Incisors narrow; molars with transverse
+laminæ (<a href="#figure205">Fig. 205</a>). Auditory bullæ very large in most cases.
+Hind limbs elongated. Tail usually long and hairy. Ranges over
+the Palæarctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gerbillus.</i><a id="FNanchor_318" href="#Footnote_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a>—Upper incisors grooved; first molar with three
+laminæ, second with two, and third with one.
+There are some sixty species, with a range
+coextensive with that of the family. The
+Gerbils, with their large and bright eyes and
+long tufted tails, are very graceful creatures,
+inhabiting sandy plains, where they form extensive
+burrows. Remains of existing species
+are found in cavern-deposits in Madras (<a href="#figure205">Fig.
+205</a>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp75" id="figure205" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure205.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 205.</span>—The left ramus
+of the mandible of <i>Gerbillus
+indicus</i>, with an enlarged
+view of the molars, from a
+cavern deposit in Madras.
+(From the <i>Palæontologia
+Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Pachyuromys.</i><a id="FNanchor_319" href="#Footnote_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a>—The African genus <i>Pachyuromys</i>
+is distinguished by the very large size
+of the auditory bulla, as well as by the short
+and fleshy tail, which is club-shaped. The
+incisors are narrow and faintly grooved.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mystromys</i>,<a id="FNanchor_320" href="#Footnote_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a> <i>Otomys</i>,<a id="FNanchor_321" href="#Footnote_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a>
+    and <i>Dasymys</i>.<a id="FNanchor_322" href="#Footnote_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a>—These genera, also from
+South Africa, differ from <i>Gerbillus</i> in the form of the molars, and
+are represented by a few species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Malacomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_323" href="#Footnote_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a>—The one known species of this genus is from the
+Gaboon, and is in some respect intermediate between the true
+Gerbils and the Rats. Thus the dentition and feet are those of the
+former, but the long scaly tail resembles that of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Phlœomyinæ</b>.<a id="FNanchor_324" href="#Footnote_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a>—This subfamily is represented only
+by <i>Phlœomys</i><a id="FNanchor_325" href="#Footnote_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a> <i>cumingi</i>, of the Philippine Islands,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_463"></a>[463]</span>
+    in which the incisors
+are very broad, the molars are divided into transverse laminæ, and
+the claws are large. The muzzle is blunt; the ears are hairy
+externally; the tail is moderate, and thickly haired; and the
+auditory bullæ are very small. The first upper molar has three,
+and the others two laminæ.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Dendromyinæ</b>.—Incisors convex in front; molars ³⁄₃,
+rooted and tuberculated. Ears hairy; claws long. Confined to
+the Ethiopian region.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dendromys.</i><a id="FNanchor_326" href="#Footnote_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a>—A small Rodent, with the habits of a Dormouse,
+characterised by its grooved incisors, slender form, and long, scaly
+tail, which is sparsely haired. Two other Murines described as
+<i>Steatomys</i><a id="FNanchor_327" href="#Footnote_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a> and <i>Lophuromys</i><a id="FNanchor_328" href="#Footnote_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a>
+    are referred to this subfamily. The
+first is of plump form, with a rather short and thickly haired
+tail, and grooved incisors. The latter resembles <i>Steatomys</i> in form,
+but has fine flattened bristles instead of fur, and plain incisors.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Cricetinæ</b>.—Molars ²⁄₃, tuberculate and rooted, with
+the tubercles of the upper ones arranged in two longitudinal rows
+(<a href="#figure206">Fig. 206</a>, <i>B</i>). This subfamily has an almost
+cosmopolitan distribution, and appears to include
+the most generalised members of the family, from
+which the more specialised <i>Murinæ</i> have been
+evolved.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cricetus.</i><a id="FNanchor_329" href="#Footnote_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a>—According to the arrangement proposed
+by Mr. O. Thomas<a id="FNanchor_330" href="#Footnote_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a> this genus is taken to
+include both the Hamsters of the Old World
+(<i>Cricetus</i> proper) and the white-footed or Vesper
+Mice (<i>Hesperomys</i>) of the New. Cheek-pouches
+are frequently present, and may be very large.
+The first molar (<a href="#figure206">Fig. 206</a>, <i>B</i>) generally has six
+tubercles. The tail may be very short.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp50" id="figure206" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure206.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 206.</span>—Left upper
+molars of <i>Mus</i> (<i>A</i>) and
+<i>Cricetus</i> (<i>B</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This large and unwieldy genus may be divided into a number of
+groups or subgenera. The typical group includes the Hamsters of
+the Old World, characterised by the large size of their cheek-pouches,
+the walls of which are connected with muscles arising from the
+lumbar vertebræ. The tail is remarkable for its shortness. The
+best-known species is <i>C. frumentarius</i>, inhabiting Europe and Northern
+Asia. The American forms, which range over the whole of that
+continent, comprise a number of subgenera, of which the following
+are the most important. <i>Rhipidomys</i>, including Dormouse-like
+forms with long tails and a dentition like that of the typical
+group; <i>Oryzomys</i>, represented by Murine species; <i>Calomys</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_464"></a>[464]</span> with
+short tail and Hamster-like body; <i>Vesperimus</i>, with only five tubercles
+on the first molar; <i>Onychomys</i>, in which the tail is extremely
+short and Hamster-like, and the form is Arvicoline; <i>Scapteromys</i>, of
+Murine form with a long and hairy tail; <i>Phyllotis</i>, with a shorter
+tail; <i>Habrothrix</i>, an Arvicoline group, with a short and thinly haired
+tail; and <i>Oxymycterus</i>, distinguished from the preceding by having
+a nail instead of a claw on the pollex. With regard to the distribution
+of these forms Mr. Thomas<a id="FNanchor_331" href="#Footnote_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> remarks that in South
+America as we proceed southwards there is a general tendency “to
+a disappearance of the tropical and northern Mouse- and Dormouse-like
+subgenera <i>Rhipidomys</i>, <i>Vesperimus</i>, and <i>Oryzomys</i>, with the
+appearance and increase of the Vole- and Hamster-like <i>Habrothrix</i>
+and <i>Calomys</i>—a change that is curiously paralleled in the Old World
+by the gradual supercession of <i>Mus</i> and <i>Myoxus</i> in favour of <i>Arvicola</i>
+and <i>Cricetus</i> as we go northwards from tropical to temperate and
+arctic regions.” One species has spines in the fur.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of <i>Cricetus</i> are abundant in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits
+of Brazil, where a number of the forms are referable to
+existing species; the genus is also represented in the Miocene of
+North America and Europe, the species from the former area having
+been described as <i>Eomys</i>, and those from the latter as <i>Cricetodon</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Holochilus</i><a id="FNanchor_332" href="#Footnote_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a> (<i>Nectomys</i>).—The Rats of this genus are allied to
+the American forms of <i>Cricetus</i>, but have the third upper molars
+proportionately larger and the skull more stoutly built. This
+genus is confined to Brazil, and contains about six species, some of
+which are the largest indigenous Rats of America. Two species are
+aquatic in their habits, and have short webs between the toes of
+their hind feet.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sigmodon</i><a id="FNanchor_333" href="#Footnote_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a> differs from <i>Cricetus</i> in the pattern of the molar
+teeth. It contains one species only, the Rice-Rat, <i>S. hispidus</i>,
+ranging from the United States to Ecuador.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rhithrodon</i>,<a id="FNanchor_334" href="#Footnote_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a> and <i>Ochetodon</i>.<a id="FNanchor_335" href="#Footnote_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a>—These
+    are more or less like
+<i>Cricetus</i>, but with grooved upper incisors. The first, is a South-American
+genus, and contains five Rat-like species, one from
+Venezuela, another from Peru, and the other three from Patagonia.
+The second consists of three North American mice, of about the
+size and proportions of the English Wood-Mouse (<i>Mus sylvaticus</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Neotoma.</i><a id="FNanchor_336" href="#Footnote_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a>—A peculiar North American genus, in which the
+teeth simulate the prismatic appearance of those of the <i>Arvicolinæ</i>.
+There are four species known as Wood-Rats, all of about the size
+of <i>Mus decumanus<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_465"></a>[465]</span></i>; one of them (<i>N. cinerea</i>) having a tail almost as
+bushy as a Squirrel’s while the other three have ordinary scaly
+Rat-like tails.</p>
+
+<p>Fossil remains of <i>Neotoma</i> from cavern-deposits in Pennsylvania
+are not improbably referable to the existing Florida Rat (<i>N.
+floridana</i>). <i>Paciculus</i>, from the Miocene of the United States, is
+regarded as an allied extinct genus with enamel-folds to the molars.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hypogeomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_337" href="#Footnote_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a>—This and the following genera are confined
+to Madagascar, where they are the sole representatives of the
+Rodentia. <i>Hypogeomys</i> is a very peculiar form of large size, with
+long ears, feet, and tail. There is only one species, <i>H. antimena</i>, a
+fawn-coloured Rat about 9 inches long.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nesomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_338" href="#Footnote_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a>—Contains two species of long-haired Rats, more or
+less rufous in colour, about the size of the Brown Rat.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brachytarsomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_339" href="#Footnote_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a>—Represented only by <i>B. albicauda</i>, a pretty
+velvety-haired fawn-coloured Rat, with short feet and a long tail.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hallomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_340" href="#Footnote_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a>—The only species (<i>H. audeberti</i>) is very like a
+<i>Nesomys</i>, but has much longer hind feet.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eliurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_341" href="#Footnote_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a>—Represented by one small Dormouse-like species,
+characterised by its nearly naked and short ears, and long tail, of
+which the proximal third is scaly, and the remainder covered
+with long hair. The pollex is rudimental, but the hallux well
+developed.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Arvicolinæ</b>.—Molars usually imperfectly rooted or
+rootless, and composed of two longitudinal rows of triangular
+prisms placed alternately
+(<a href="#figure207">Fig. 207</a>). Tail moderate
+or short. Common to the
+Palæarctic and Nearctic
+regions.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp95" id="figure207" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure207.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 207.</span>—Upper (<i>A</i>) and lower (<i>B</i>) molars of the
+Water-Vole (<i>Arvicola amphibius</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Voles, as the members
+of this group are commonly
+termed, are so closely connected
+with the Cricetines
+that they may be regarded
+merely as a branch of that
+subfamily which has attained
+a peculiarly specialised type
+of molar dentition. The
+Voles are externally distinguished,
+as a rule, from true Rats and Mice by their more
+clumsy and heavy build and <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_466"></a>[466]</span>less graceful movements; by the small
+size of their eyes, the bluntness of the muzzle, the small ears, and
+the shorter limbs and tail.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phenacomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_342" href="#Footnote_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a>—A North American genus distinguished by its
+rooted molars, and thus connecting the typical forms with
+Cricetines like <i>Neotoma</i>. Several species have been described by
+Dr. C. H. Merriam.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arvicola.</i><a id="FNanchor_343" href="#Footnote_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a>—The type genus <i>Arvicola</i> has rootless molars, and
+naked soles to the feet. It includes over forty species inhabiting
+Europe, North America, and Asia, a few species entering into the
+northern limits of the Oriental region in India. Three species of
+the genus are found in the British Isles, of which the following
+account is given by Mr. O. Thomas:—</p>
+
+<p>The common Water-Vole (<i>A. amphibius</i>) is as large as the Brown
+Rat. Its fur is long, soft, and thick, of a uniform grizzled brown
+all over, except when, as is not uncommon, it is wholly black. The
+tail is about half the length of its head and body, and the hind feet
+are unusually long and powerful, although not webbed, and have
+five rounded pads on their lower surfaces. Its molar teeth (see
+<a href="#figure207">Fig. 207</a>) present the following number of prismatic spaces:—in
+the upper jaw the first, or anterior, has 5, the second 4, and the
+third 4, of which the last is very irregular in shape, and is
+sometimes itself divided into two, making 5 in all; in the lower
+jaw the first has 7 spaces, of which the 3 anterior are generally not
+fully separated from one another, the second has 5, and the third
+3. These numbers for the different teeth are taken as the
+characters of the subgenus <i>Paludicola</i> of Dr. Blasius, by whom this
+method of subdividing the genus was first introduced. The Water-Vole
+is one of the commonest English mammals, and is perhaps the
+most often actually seen of all, owing to its diurnal habits. It
+frequents rivers and streams, burrowing deeply into their banks,
+and in this way often causing considerable damage. Its food
+consists almost wholly of water-weeds, rushes, and other vegetable
+substances, but, like so many other Rodents, it will also occasionally
+eat animal food, in the shape of insects, mice, or young birds.
+The female during the warm season of the year has three or four
+litters, each of from two to seven young. The range of the
+Water-Vole extends over the whole of Europe and North Asia,
+from England to China, but it is not found in Ireland. The common
+Field-Vole, or short-tailed Field-Mouse (<i>A. agrestis</i>), representing
+the subgenus <i>Agricola</i>, is about the size of a House-Mouse, but
+with a short stumpy body, and a tail only about one third the
+length of the head and body combined. Its hind feet have six
+pads on their inferior surfaces. The colour is dull grizzled brown<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_467"></a>[467]</span>
+above, and grayish-white below. Its molar teeth have respectively
+5, 5, and 6 prismatic spaces above, and 9, 5, and 3 below. The
+Field-Vole is one of the commonest of our smaller mammals, and
+frequents fields, woods, and gardens in enormous numbers, often
+doing very considerable damage in the latter, owing to its fondness
+for garden produce of all kinds. It is spread over the whole of
+Great Britain from the Hebrides southwards. Abroad its range
+extends from Finland to North Italy and from France and Spain
+to Russia. The Bank-Vole (<i>A. glareolus</i>) resembles in size and
+general appearance the common Field-Vole, but may be distinguished
+by its more or less rusty or rufous-coloured back, its
+larger ears, and the relatively longer tail, which attains to about
+half the length of the head and body. Its molar teeth present
+characters so different from those of all other Voles as to have
+caused it to be regarded as belonging to an entirely distinct genus,
+for which the name of <i>Evotomys</i> has been used. Their chief
+distinction lies in the fact that, unlike those of all other Voles,
+their pulp-cavities close up in adult life, and they form distinct
+roots, more resembling those of the ordinary Rats and Mice.
+The enamel-spaces of these teeth number respectively 5, 4, and
+5 above, and 7, 3, and 3 below. The habits of this species are
+in every way similar to those of the Field-Vole. Its range in
+Great Britain extends northwards to Morayshire, beyond which it
+has not yet been observed. It is also found all along the north
+temperate zone from France to China, and is replaced in North
+America by a closely allied animal known as <i>A. gapperi</i>. It is
+probable, however, that both <i>A. gapperi</i> and <i>A. glareolus</i> are only
+southern climatic offshoots of a still more northern species, the
+<i>A. rutilus</i> of Northern Europe, Siberia, and Arctic America.</p>
+
+<p>Fossil remains of <i>Arvicola</i> are common in European Pleistocene
+deposits, and they have also been obtained from the Upper
+Pliocene of the Norwich Crag.</p>
+
+<p><i>Synaptomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_344" href="#Footnote_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a>—Represented by one North American species,
+having grooved upper incisors, skull and molars like those of
+<i>Myodes</i>, with the external characters of <i>Arvicola</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Myodes.</i><a id="FNanchor_345" href="#Footnote_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a>—Distinguished from <i>Arvicola</i> by the more clumsy
+build, convex obtuse head, extremely short and Rabbit-like tail,
+short ears, small feet, the soles of which are furred, elongated claws,
+and thick fur, as well as by the breadth and massiveness of the
+skull, in which the zygomatic arch has a laminar expansion and
+the palate a peculiar contour; while the root of the lower incisor
+does not extend behind the last molar, the upper incisors are
+bevelled, and not grooved, and the molars have a characteristic
+pattern, which cannot be well explained without a figure.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="figure208" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure208.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 208.</span>—The Lemming (<i>Myodes lemmus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_468"></a>[468]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Lemmings, as the members of the genus are commonly
+called, are represented by the Norwegian Lemming (<i>M. lemmus</i>, <a href="#figure208">Fig.
+208</a>), and the North American <i>M. obensis</i>. Different individuals of
+the Norwegian Lemming vary considerably both in size and colour,
+but its usual length is about 5 inches, and its soft fur yellowish
+brown, marked with spots of dark brown and black. It has a
+short, rounded head, obtuse muzzle, small bead-like eyes, and short
+rounded ears, nearly concealed by the fur. The tail is very short.
+The feet are small, each with five claws, those of the fore feet
+strongest, and fitted for scratching and digging. The usual dwelling
+place of the Lemmings is in the highlands or fells of the great
+central mountain chain of Norway and Sweden, from the southern
+branches of the Langfjeldene in Christiansand-stift to the North
+Cape and the Varangerfjord. South of the Arctic circle they are,
+under ordinary circumstances, exclusively confined to the plateaus
+covered with dwarf birch and juniper above the conifer region,
+though in Tromsö-amt and in Finmarken they occur in all suitable
+localities down to the level of the sea. The nest is formed under a
+tussock of grass or a stone, constructed of short dry straws, and
+usually lined with hair. The number of young in each nest is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_469"></a>[469]</span>
+generally five, sometimes only three, but occasionally seven or eight,
+and at least two broods are produced annually. Their food is
+entirely vegetable, especially grass-roots and stalks, shoots of the
+dwarf birch, reindeer-lichens, and mosses, in search of which they
+form, in winter, long galleries through the turf or under the snow.
+They are restless, courageous, and pugnacious little animals. When
+suddenly disturbed, instead of trying to escape they will sit upright,
+with their back against a stone or other coign of vantage, hissing
+and showing fight in a very determined manner (<a href="#figure208">Fig. 208</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The circumstance which has given more popular interest to the
+Lemming than to a host of other species of the same order of
+animals is that certain districts of the cultivated lands of Norway
+and Sweden, where in ordinary circumstances they are quite unknown,
+are occasionally and at very uncertain intervals, varying
+from five to twenty or more years, literally overrun by an army of
+these little creatures, which steadily and slowly advance, always in
+the same direction, and regardless of all obstacles, swimming across
+streams and even lakes of several miles in breadth, and committing
+considerable devastation on their line of march by the quantity of
+food they consume. In their turn they are pursued and harassed
+by crowds of beasts and birds of prey, as bears, wolves, foxes, dogs,
+wild cats, stoats, weasels, eagles, hawks, and owls, and never spared
+by man; even the domestic animals not usually predaceous, as
+cattle, goats, and reindeer, are said to join in the destruction,
+stamping them to the ground with their feet, and even eating their
+bodies. Numbers also die from diseases apparently produced from
+overcrowding. None ever return by the course by which they
+came, and the onward march of the survivors never ceases until they
+reach the sea, into which they plunge, and swimming onwards in
+the same direction as before perish in the waves. These extraordinary
+and sudden appearances of vast bodies of Lemmings, and
+their singular habit of persistently pursuing the same onward course
+of migration, have given rise to various speculations, from the
+ancient belief of the Norwegian peasants, shared in by Olaus
+Magnus, that they fall down from the clouds, to the almost equally
+untenable hypothesis, ingeniously maintained by the late Mr. W.
+D. Crotch, that they are acting in these migrations in obedience to
+an instinct inherited from vastly ancient times, and are still seeking
+the congenial home in a supposed submerged Atlantis, to which
+their ancestors of the Miocene period were wont to resort when
+driven from their ordinary dwelling-places by crowding or scarcity
+of food. The principal really ascertained facts regarding these
+migrations seem to be as follows. When any combination of circumstances
+has occasioned an increase in the numbers of the
+Lemmings in their ordinary dwelling-places, impelled by the restless
+or migratory instinct possessed in a less developed degree by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_470"></a>[470]</span>
+so many of their congeners, a movement takes place at the edge of
+the elevated plateau, and a migration towards the lower-lying land
+begins. The whole body moves forward slowly, always advancing
+in the same general direction in which they originally started, but
+following more or less the course of the great valleys. They only
+travel by night; and, staying in congenial places for considerable
+periods, with unaccustomed abundance of provender, notwithstanding
+all the destructive influences to which they are exposed,
+they multiply excessively during their journey, having families still
+more numerous and more frequently than in their usual homes.
+The progress may last from one to three years, according to the
+route taken, and the distance to be traversed until the sea-coast
+is reached, which in a country so surrounded by water as the
+Scandinavian peninsula must be the ultimate goal of such a journey.
+This may be either the Atlantic or the Gulf of Bothnia, according
+as the migration has commenced from the west or the east side of
+the central elevated plateau. Those that finally perish in the sea,
+committing what appears to be a voluntary suicide, are only acting
+under the same blind impulse which has led them previously to
+cross smaller pieces of water with safety.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cuniculus.</i><a id="FNanchor_346" href="#Footnote_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a>—Cranial and incisive characters those of <i>Myodes</i>,
+in the main, but the molars more of an Arvicoline type, the first
+upper one differing from that of all other members of the family in
+having seven prisms. Externally of the general shape of <i>Myodes</i>,
+but distinguished by the absence of external ears, the shortness and
+dense furring of the feet, the obsolete pollex with rudimentary
+nail, and the great length of the two middle claws of the manus.
+Represented by one species, the Banded Lemming (<i>C. torquatus</i>), of
+the Arctic region.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of both <i>C. torquatus</i> and <i>Myodes lemmus</i> occur in British
+Pleistocene deposits.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fiber.</i><a id="FNanchor_347" href="#Footnote_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a>—Closely allied to <i>Arvicola</i>, both externally and in cranial
+and dental characters, but with the tail nearly as long as the body
+(apart from the head), compressed, nearly naked, and reticulate.
+Feet incompletely webbed, and the whole body adapted for a
+thoroughly aquatic life.</p>
+
+<p>The Musk-Rat or Musquash (<i>F. zibethicus</i>, <a href="#figure209">Fig. 209</a>) is the only
+representative of this genus, and the largest member of the subfamily,
+the head and body being about 12 inches in length. It is
+rather a heavily built animal, with a broad head, no distinct neck,
+and short limbs; the eyes are small, and the ears project very little
+beyond the fur. The fore limbs have four toes and a rudimentary
+thumb, all with claws; the hind limbs are larger, with five distinct
+toes, united by short webs at their bases. The tail is laterally<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_471"></a>[471]</span>
+compressed, nearly naked, and scaly. The hair much resembles
+that of a beaver, but is shorter; it consists of a thick soft under-fur
+interspersed with longer stiff, glistening hairs, which overlie and
+conceal the former on the upper surface and sides of the body.
+The general colour is dark umber-brown, almost black on the back
+and gray below. The tail and naked parts of the feet are black.
+The musky odour from which it derives its name is due to the
+secretion of a large gland situated in the inguinal region, and present
+in both sexes.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure209" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure209.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 209.</span>—The Musk-Rat (<i>Fiber zibethicus</i>.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Musk-Rat is peculiar to America, being extensively distributed
+in suitable localities in the northern part of the continent,
+extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Rio Grande
+to the barren grounds bordering the Arctic Seas. It is aquatic in
+its habits, living on the shores of lakes and rivers, swimming and
+diving with great facility, feeding on the roots, stems, and leaves of
+water-plants, or on fruits and vegetables which grow near the
+margin of the streams it inhabits. Musk-Rats are most active at
+night, spending the greater part of the day concealed in their
+burrows dug out of the bank, consisting of a chamber with numerous
+passages, all of which open under the surface of the water. For
+winter quarters they build more elaborate houses of conical or
+dome-like form, composed of sedges, grasses, and similar materials
+plastered together with mud. As their fur is an important article
+of commerce, large numbers are annually killed, being either trapped
+or speared at the mouths of their holes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_472"></a>[472]</span></p>
+
+<p>The skull of the Musk-Rat is shown in <a href="#figure203">Fig. 203</a> (<a href="#figure203">p. 459</a>); its
+structure is essentially Arvicoline, but the squamosals are greatly
+expanded, with a corresponding reduction of the parietal and interparietal,
+and the interorbital constriction of the frontals attains its
+greatest development. Fossil remains of <i>Fiber</i> occur in the North
+American Pleistocene.</p>
+
+<p><i>Neofiber.</i><a id="FNanchor_348" href="#Footnote_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a>—This genus, while agreeing with <i>Fiber</i> in the characters
+of the skull and teeth, differs by the cylindrical tail, and the normal
+form of the feet, in which the toes are not bent laterally at an angle
+with the sole. The single species <i>N. alleni</i>, commonly known as
+the Round-tailed Musk-Rat, is found in Florida, and is much less
+completely aquatic in its habits than <i>Fiber</i>. Its colour is brown
+above, and silvery-white mixed with rufous below, the sides of the
+body gradually shading from brown to rufous, the forehead and
+the tip of the nose are black, while the tail is rufous mingled with
+black.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Siphneinæ</b>.—Includes two genera of Mole-like
+Rodents with an <i>Arvicoline</i> dentition, but with the body thoroughly
+adapted for a subterranean life, the limbs and tail being very short,
+and the external ears rudimentary. Both are Palæarctic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ellobius.</i><a id="FNanchor_349" href="#Footnote_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a>—The Russian <i>E. talpinus</i>, the typical representative
+of the genus, has short claws, and comes nearest to the <i>Arvicolinæ</i>.
+<i>E. fuscocapillus</i> is from Afghanistan.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp96" id="figure210" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure210.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 210.</span>—<i>Siphneus armandi.</i> (From Milne-Edwards.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Siphneus.</i><a id="FNanchor_350" href="#Footnote_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a>—This genus (<a href="#figure210">Fig. 210</a>) includes species inhabiting<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_473"></a>[473]</span>
+Northern and Central Asia, and is characterised by the great length
+of the claws of the manus. Remains of an existing species occur
+in the Pleistocene of the Altai, while an extinct one has been
+described from the Pliocene of North China.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Deomyinæ</b>.—Represented only by the under-mentioned
+genus, in which the bituberculate anterior and tricuspidate
+middle ridge of the first upper molar presents a condition
+intermediate between that obtaining in the <i>Cricetinæ</i> and that of
+the <i>Murinæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Deomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_351" href="#Footnote_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a>—Externally as in <i>Mus</i>. Pollex with a narrow nail;
+hind feet elongate. Infraorbital vacuity of skull triangular, not
+narrowed below. Upper incisors with a pair of minute grooves.
+First upper molar with seven distinct tubercles, of which three are
+placed on the middle ridge, and two on each of the others. One
+species, <i>D. ferrugineus</i>, from the Lower Congo, an animal about the
+size of the Common Mouse.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Murinæ</b>.—Molars rooted and tuberculated; those
+of the upper jaw with three longitudinal rows of tubercles (<a href="#figure206">Fig.
+206</a>, <i>A</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This group includes the true Rats and Mice, and may be
+regarded as more
+specialised than
+the <i>Cricetinæ</i>.
+All the members
+of the group
+closely resemble
+one another, and
+are light and
+active, with large
+ears, bright eyes,
+and long and
+scaly tails. Their
+coloration, in
+conformity with
+the fossorial and
+nocturnal habits
+of most of the
+forms, is sombre,
+and their movements
+are remarkably
+agile
+and graceful.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="figure211" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure211.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 211.</span>—The Australian Brown-footed Rat (<i>Mus fuscipes</i>).
+After Gould.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Mus.</i><a id="FNanchor_352" href="#Footnote_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a>—Incisors
+narrow, without<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_474"></a>[474]</span>
+grooves. Structure of molars as in <a href="#figure206">Fig. 206</a>, <i>A</i> (<a href="#figure206">p. 463</a>). Incisive
+foramina of skull long; coronoid process of mandible well developed.
+Ears and eyes large; muzzle naked at the extremity. Fur soft, in
+some cases intermingled with spines. Pollex with a short nail in
+place of a claw. No cheek-pouches. Tail long, nearly naked,
+with rings of overlapping scales. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4,
+C 26-32.</p>
+
+<p>This genus is the largest in the whole mammalian class, comprising
+not less than 130 species, ranging over the whole of
+the Old World, with the noteworthy exception of Madagascar.
+On the whole, the species are more numerous in tropical than
+in temperate regions, and very few occur in cold countries.
+Many of the species living in warm climates have flattened spines
+mingled with the fur; these spines being shed in winter, when a
+warmer covering is necessary, and replaced by hair. Five species
+occur in England, which are briefly noticed below; and it may be
+observed that none of the species are much larger than <i>M. decumanus</i>
+or smaller than <i>M. minutus</i>. As a rule the habits of the species
+are similar to those of the English forms, but a few are arboreal,
+while others again, like the one represented in <a href="#figure211">Fig. 211</a>, are
+aquatic. The earliest known representatives of the genus (excluding
+<i>Acanthomys gaudryi</i> of the Lower Pliocene Pikermi beds of Attica)
+occur in the Pleistocene of Europe.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp65" id="figure212" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure212.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 212.</span>—<i>A</i>, Head of Brown Rat (<i>M. decumanus</i>).
+<i>B</i>, Head of Black Rat (<i>Mus rattus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Brown or Norway Rat (<i>M. decumanus</i>) is a heavily built
+animal, growing to 8 or 9
+inches in length, with a
+bluff rounded head, small
+ears (<a href="#figure212">Fig. 212</a>, <i>A</i>), and a
+comparatively short tail,
+which is always shorter
+than the head and body
+combined, and generally
+not longer than the body
+alone. The colour is a
+uniform grayish-brown
+above and white below,
+the ears, feet, and tail being
+flesh coloured. Black
+varieties, which are often
+mistaken for true Black
+Rats, are by no means rare,
+but the differences in size
+and proportions form a
+ready means of distinguishing
+the two. The Brown
+Rat is believed to be a native of Western China, where a race<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_475"></a>[475]</span>
+(<i>M. humiliatus</i>) has been discovered so like it as to be practically
+indistinguishable. Both this, and the next species agree in their
+predaceous habits, omnivorous diet, and great fecundity. They
+bear four or five times in the year from four to ten blind and
+naked young, which are in their turn able to breed at an age of
+about six months; the time of gestation being about twenty
+days.</p>
+
+<p>The Black Rat (<i>M. rattus</i>) is a smaller and more lightly built
+species, generally not more than 7 inches in length, with a slender
+head (<a href="#figure212">Fig. 212</a>, <i>B</i>), large ears, and a thin tail of about 8 or 9
+inches in length. The colour is usually a glossy bluish-black, somewhat
+lighter below; but in the tropical variety described as <i>M.
+alexandrinus</i> the general colour is gray or rufous, and the belly
+white. The disposition of the Black Rat is milder than that of
+<i>M. decumanus</i>, and the white and pied rats kept as pets mostly belong
+to this species. In many localities where it was formerly abundant
+it has been entirely superseded by <i>M. decumanus</i>, but it is said that
+in some parts of Germany it has been lately reasserting itself.</p>
+
+<p><i>M. musculus</i>, the Common House-Mouse, is, like the Brown Rat,
+originally a native of Asia, whence it has spread to all the inhabited
+parts of the globe. Its habits and appearance are too well known
+to need any description.</p>
+
+<p><i>M. sylvaticus</i>, the Wood or Long-tailed Field-Mouse, is very
+common in many parts of England, often taking to barns and outhouses
+for shelter during the winter. It is of about the same size
+and proportions as <i>M. musculus</i>, but of a bright reddish-gray colour,
+with a pure white belly.</p>
+
+<p><i>M. minutus</i>, the Harvest-Mouse, is the smallest of the European
+Mice, seldom exceeding 2½ or 3 inches in length. It is of a
+yellowish-red colour, with comparatively short ears and tail. It
+lives entirely away from human habitations, generally dwelling in
+grass or corn-fields, where it builds a globular nest of dried grass of
+the size of a cricket-ball, in which the young are nurtured.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nesocia.</i><a id="FNanchor_353" href="#Footnote_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a>—General characters those of <i>Mus</i>, but the incisors
+and molars very much wider, and the tubercles of the latter more
+connected by transverse ridges, thus producing a laminated type
+of structure.</p>
+
+<p>This genus has been placed by some writers in a distinct subfamily
+with <i>Phlœomys</i>, but Mr. O. Thomas regards it as so closely
+allied to <i>Mus</i> that even its generic separation may be open to
+question. It comprises several species, mostly spread over Southern
+Asia, ranging from Palestine to Formosa, and from Kashmir to
+Ceylon, but <i>N. scullyi</i> is found in Turkestan. The great Indian
+Bandicoot-Rat (<i>N. bandicota</i>) is the largest representative of the
+subfamily, often exceeding a foot in length. <i>N. bengalensis</i> is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_476"></a>[476]</span>
+remarkable for possessing no less than eighteen mammæ. Fossil
+remains of <i>Nesocia</i> occur in the Pleistocene of Madras and in the
+Pliocene of Northern India; those from the first-named deposits
+being referable to existing species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Golunda.</i><a id="FNanchor_354" href="#Footnote_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a>—Like <i>Mus</i>, but with a distinct groove down the front
+of the upper incisors. There are only three species, one from
+Western India, one from West Africa, and the other from Eastern
+Africa.</p>
+
+<p><i>Uromys.</i><a id="FNanchor_355" href="#Footnote_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a>—Differs from <i>Mus</i> in having the scales of the tail not
+overlapping, but set edge to edge, so as to form a sort of mosaic
+work. There are about six species of <i>Uromys</i>, spread over the
+northern part of the Australian region from the Aru Islands to
+Queensland.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chiruromys.</i><a id="FNanchor_356" href="#Footnote_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a>—Externally like <i>Mus</i>, but with the terminal
+portion of the tail without scales above, quite naked, transversely
+wrinkled, and prehensile. Scales of remainder of tail more or less
+pentagonal, and arranged in oblique diagonal series. Supraorbital
+vacuity of skull without projecting plate in external wall. Incisive
+foramina short and narrow; auditory bulla small. Upper
+molars very complex, with the tubercles (of which there are eleven
+in the first tooth) low, and distinctly arranged in transverse rows.
+Known only by <i>C. forbesi</i>, from mountains in New Guinea, which
+must be regarded as a specialised form very similar in outward
+appearance to <i>Uromys cervinipes</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hapalotis.</i><a id="FNanchor_357" href="#Footnote_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a>—Hind limbs elongated. Incisive foramina very
+large. No coronoid process to the mandible. This genus is confined
+to Australia, where there are about fifteen species known.
+They are pretty little animals, with long ears and tail, and in many
+respects resemble the Jerboas, whose place they seem to take in
+the sandy Australian deserts. Remains of <i>H. albipes</i> occur in the
+Pleistocene of New South Wales.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mastacomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_358" href="#Footnote_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a>—Like <i>Mus</i>, but with the molars remarkably
+broadened, and with only four mammæ. The single species of the
+genus is as yet only known from Tasmania, though it has been
+found fossil in New South Wales; it is somewhat similar in size
+and general appearance to the English Water-Vole, but has much
+longer and softer fur.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acanthomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_359" href="#Footnote_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a>—Fur almost entirely composed of flattened spines.
+Teeth and skull as in <i>Mus</i>, but the coronoid process of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_477"></a>[477]</span> mandible
+very small. There are six species of Spiny-Mice known, all of
+about the size of the Common Mouse. They are found in Syria,
+Palestine, and Eastern Africa as far south as Mozambique. <i>A.
+dimidiatus</i> presents the appearance of a little Hedgehog when its
+spines are erected; it inhabits the stony deserts of Arabia Petræa
+and Palestine, and feeds on bulbs. A fossil Mouse (<i>A. gaudryi</i>)
+referred to this genus occurs in the Lower Pliocene of Attica.</p>
+
+<p><i>Echinothrix.</i><a id="FNanchor_360" href="#Footnote_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a>—A very remarkable rat with an extremely elongated
+muzzle, all the bones of the face being much produced. The
+incisors are faintly grooved. The only species is <i>E. leucura</i>, an
+animal of about the size of the Brown Rat, with its fur thickly
+mixed with spines. It is found in Celebes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Typhlomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_361" href="#Footnote_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a>—This genus is represented by a single species from
+China, which resembles a House-Mouse in size and general appearance,
+but has smaller ears, while the eyes are so reduced in size as
+to be totally concealed by the long eyelashes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cricetomys</i><a id="FNanchor_362" href="#Footnote_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a> and <i>Saccostomus</i>.<a id="FNanchor_363" href="#Footnote_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a>—These
+    two African genera have
+been—from the presence of cheek-pouches—usually placed in the
+neighbourhood of <i>Cricetus</i>, but their molars are of the Murine type.
+<i>Cricetomys</i> is said to have grooved upper incisors, and is represented
+only by <i>C. gambianus</i>. There are two species of <i>Saccostomus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pithechirus.</i>—A small Rodent from Sumatra and Java described
+under this name is a true Mouse, having nothing to do with
+<i>Chiropodomys</i>, to which it has been compared.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Spalacidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Mole-like forms, with very small or rudimentary eyes and ear-conchs,
+large claws, and short or rudimentary tail. Form cylindrical.
+Incisors large; premolars present or absent; molars rooted,
+with re-entering enamel-folds; palate narrow.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Spalacinæ</b>.—Angular part of the mandible arising
+from the lower edge of the socket of the lower incisor. No premolars.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spalax.</i><a id="FNanchor_364" href="#Footnote_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a>—Represented by the great Mole-Rat (<i>S. typhlus</i>) of
+South-Eastern Europe, in which the eyes are completely covered by
+the skin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rhizomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_365" href="#Footnote_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a>—Eyes uncovered, although very minute; small
+naked ear-conchs; and a short partially hairy tail. Includes
+several species from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_478"></a>[478]</span> Northern India, Tibet, China, Burma, Malaya,
+and Eastern Africa. A fossil species occurs in the Pliocene Siwaliks
+of Northern India.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Bathyerginæ</b>.—Angular part of the mandible arising
+from the side of the socket of the lower incisor. Premolars absent
+or present. Confined to the Ethiopian region.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bathyergus.</i><a id="FNanchor_366" href="#Footnote_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a>—Upper incisors strongly grooved; <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; no
+ear-conchs; very powerful claws. One species (<i>B. maritimus</i>), from
+South Africa, attaining a length of about 10 inches.</p>
+
+<p><i>Georychus</i><a id="FNanchor_367" href="#Footnote_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a> and <i>Myoscalops</i>.<a id="FNanchor_368" href="#Footnote_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a>—Upper
+    incisors without grooves.
+<i>Georychus</i>, with some half dozen species, generally has <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁; <i>Myoscalops</i>,
+with one species, usually has <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, and the second toe of the
+foot is the longest. In <i>Georychus</i> the premolar may be wanting,
+and some examples of <i>Myoscalops</i> have only two teeth of this
+series.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heterocephalus.</i><a id="FNanchor_369" href="#Footnote_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a>—Small and nearly naked forms, with small
+head, small eyes, no ear-conchs, moderately long tail, and powerful
+fore feet provided with a pair of large pads; <i>p</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>m</i> ²⁻³⁄₂₋₃. Two
+species. These very remarkable little Rodents are regarded by
+Mr. O. Thomas as very closely allied to <i>Georychus</i>, but specialised,
+and, so to speak, somewhat degraded for a purely subterranean life,
+for which their hairless body is peculiarly adapted. They are
+found in Somali-land, where they burrow in the sandy soil.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Geomyidæ</span>.<a id="FNanchor_370" href="#Footnote_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a></h5>
+
+<p>Terrestrial or fossorial forms, with large cheek-pouches opening
+on the cheeks outside the mouth. Squamosal much expanded,
+and the jugal extending forwards to the lachrymal. <i>P</i> ¹⁄₁; molars
+rooted or rootless, with transverse laminæ. Nearctic and Neotropical
+regions.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Geomyinæ</b>.—Incisors broad; mastoid not appearing on
+the top of the skull; eyes small; ear-conch rudimentary; limbs
+short, subequal. Habits fossorial.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_371" href="#Footnote_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a>—Upper incisors deeply grooved. The common North
+American Pouched-Rat or “Pocket-Gopher” (<i>G. bursarius</i>) inhabits
+the plains of the Mississippi and lives in burrows. Several other
+species are recognised from the Southern United States, Mexico,
+and Central America. The genus is represented in the Pleistocene
+and Pliocene of the United States.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_479"></a>[479]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Thomomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_372" href="#Footnote_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a>—Upper incisors plain. Represented by two species,
+with numerous varieties found all over Canada and North America
+west of the Rocky Mountains. Remains referred to an existing
+species occur in the Pliocene of Oregon. <i>Entoptychus</i>, from the
+Miocene of the United States, is an allied genus, with broad incisors
+and rootless molars.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Heteromyinæ</b>.—Incisors narrow; mastoid appearing
+largely on the top of the skull; eyes and ears moderate or large;
+hind limbs and tail elongated. Habits terrestrial.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dipodomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_373" href="#Footnote_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a>—This genus is characterised by the rootless molars.
+It is best known by <i>D. phillipsi</i>, the Kangaroo-Rat of the desert
+regions east of the Rocky Mountains, having habits like those of
+the Jerboas. The typical forms have four toes in the pes; but in
+others, which it has been proposed to separate as <i>Dipodops</i>, there
+are five: <i>D. ordi</i> and <i>D. agilis</i> belong to the latter group.</p>
+
+<p><i>Perognathus</i><a id="FNanchor_374" href="#Footnote_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a> and <i>Heteromys</i>.<a id="FNanchor_375" href="#Footnote_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a>—In
+    both these genera, which are
+represented by species of very small size, the molars are rooted;
+the latter being distinguished by the presence of flattened spines
+mingled with the fur, and having species ranging into South
+America. According to Dr. C. H. Merriam the forms described as
+<i>Cricetodipus</i> are not separable from <i>Perognathus</i>; while Dr. Coues
+considers that <i>Saccomys</i> was founded upon a species of <i>Heteromys</i>.
+<i>Pleurolichus</i>, from the Miocene of the United States, is regarded as
+an extinct genus allied to <i>Heteromys</i>.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dipodidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Terrestrial forms usually with four upper cheek-teeth, and typically
+with the following characters. Incisors compressed; molars
+with transverse enamel-folds; infraorbital vacuity of skull (<a href="#figure007">Fig. 7</a>,
+p. 37) large and rounded; jugal ascending in front to the lachrymal;
+and the mastoid part of the auditory bulla usually very large.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Sminthinæ</b>.—Molars rooted; <i>p</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. Skull with
+the infraorbital vacuity widest below, and the incisive palatal
+foramina long. Limbs short. Palæarctic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sminthus.</i><a id="FNanchor_376" href="#Footnote_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a>—Represented by the Rat-like <i>S. vagans</i> from Northern
+Europe and Asia, in which the ears are rather long and pointed, the
+tail is covered with short hairs and nearly as long as the body,
+while the molars present a somewhat complicated pattern. This
+genus has generally<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_480"></a>[480]</span> been regarded as an aberrant member of the
+<i>Muridæ</i>, but was transferred in 1887 to the present family by
+Dr. H. Winge.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Zapodinæ</b>.—Molars rooted; <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; cervical vertebræ
+free; hind limbs elongated; metatarsals separate; hind feet
+with five digits. Nearctic region.</p>
+
+<p><i>Zapus.</i><a id="FNanchor_377" href="#Footnote_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a>—The American Jumping-Mouse (<i>Z. hudsonianus</i>) extends
+over almost the whole North-American continent from Labrador
+to Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Dipodinæ</b>.—Molars rooted; <i>p</i> ⁰⁻¹⁄₀₋₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; cervical
+vertebræ more or less ankylosed; hind limbs elongated; metatarsals
+united; hind feet with only three functional digits. Palæarctic
+and Ethiopian regions.</p>
+
+<p>This subfamily includes the true Jerboas, and contains three
+genera: <i>Dipus</i><a id="FNanchor_378" href="#Footnote_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a> with three toes, and <i>Alactaga</i><a id="FNanchor_379" href="#Footnote_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a>
+    and <i>Platycercomys</i><a id="FNanchor_380" href="#Footnote_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a>
+with five, the outer two not reaching to the ground. The latter is
+distinguished by the absence of premolars, and comprises many
+species extending from Siberia to Nubia.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of the existing <i>Alactaga decumana</i><a id="FNanchor_381" href="#Footnote_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a> occur in the Pleistocene
+of Germany, and those of <i>Zapus hudsonianus</i> in the corresponding
+strata of the United States. <i>Platycercomys</i> has been recorded from
+the Pleistocene of Northern Asia.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Pedetinæ</b>.—Molars rootless; cervical vertebræ free;
+hind limbs elongated; metatarsals separate; hind feet with four
+digits. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 7, S 3, C 30. Ethiopian region.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pedetes</i>,<a id="FNanchor_382" href="#Footnote_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a> the Cape Jumping-Hare (<i>P. caffer</i>), by far the largest
+species of the family, extends from Mozambique and Angola to the
+Cape of Good Hope.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Hystricomorpha</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Skull (<a href="#figure213">Fig. 213</a>) with a stout zygomatic arch; jugal not supported
+below by a continuation of the maxillary zygomatic process;
+infraorbital vacuity large; mandible with the angular part arising
+from the outer side of the bony socket of the lower incisor.
+Clavicles perfect or imperfect; fibula distinct. One premolar in
+each jaw.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Octodontidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Clavicles complete. Skull with long incisive foramina extending
+into the maxillæ; and usually an inferior angle to the jugal.
+Molars with external and internal enamel-folds; <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, except <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_481"></a>[481]</span>in
+<i>Ctenodactylus</i>. Mammæ placed high up on the sides of the body.
+Confined to the Ethiopian and Neotropical regions, with the exception
+of one species of <i>Echinomys</i> which ranges into Central America.
+Habits mostly terrestrial, but occasionally fossorial or natatorial.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Ctenodactylinæ</b>.—Molars semi-rooted; jugal as in
+<i>Dipodidæ</i>; the two inner toes of the hind feet with a horny comb
+and rigid bristles. Ethiopian region.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ctenodactylus.</i><a id="FNanchor_383" href="#Footnote_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a>—Represented only by <i>C. gundi</i> from North
+Africa, on the borders of the Sahara. Has no premolars; each foot
+has four digits; the hind limbs are rather longer than the fore; the
+ears small; and the tail reduced to a stump. This animal is about
+the size of the Water-Vole, and dwells on rocky ground, its habits
+being diurnal. The peculiar comb-like inner toes are employed for
+dressing the fur.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp96" id="figure213" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure213.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 213.</span>—Skull of <i>Hydrochœrus capybara</i> (reduced).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Pectinator.</i><a id="FNanchor_384" href="#Footnote_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a>—Closely allied to the preceding, but with a minute
+premolar in each jaw; and a moderately long and bushy tail. One
+species (<i>P. spekei</i>), from Somali-land.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Octodontinæ</b>.—Molars semi-rooted or rootless, with
+simple enamel-folds; fur soft. There are some six existing genera,
+including Rat-like species, all of which are South American, except
+<i>Petromys</i>, which is Ethiopian.</p>
+
+<p><i>Octodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_385" href="#Footnote_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a>—Upper and lower molars alike; ears moderate; tail
+of medium length and tufted. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 7, S 4, C<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_482"></a>[482]</span>
+25. Typically represented by <i>C. cumingi</i> of Chili and Peru, with
+other species from Chili and Bolivia. They live in large communities.</p>
+
+<p><i>Habrocoma.</i><a id="FNanchor_386" href="#Footnote_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a>—Lower molars more complex than the upper;
+ears large; and fur extremely soft. Two Bolivian species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Schizodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_387" href="#Footnote_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a>—One species, inhabiting elevated spots in the
+Southern Andes, and characterised by the enamel-folds of the upper
+molars meeting in the middle line. The external characters are
+much the same as in <i>Ctenomys</i>, but the ears are larger and the claws
+shorter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ctenomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_388" href="#Footnote_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a>—Incisors broad; molars rootless, with kidney-shaped
+crowns; last molar small and cylindrical; eyes and ears very
+small; claws larger than the toes. Some four species. Fossil
+remains are common in the Pleistocene of Buenos Ayres and the
+cavern-deposits of Brazil. Habits fossorial.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spalacopus.</i><a id="FNanchor_389" href="#Footnote_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a>—Represented by two Chilian species, distinguished
+from the preceding genus by the rudimentary ears. These rodents
+store up magazines of food in their burrows.</p>
+
+<p><i>Petromys.</i><a id="FNanchor_390" href="#Footnote_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a>—The South African <i>P. typicus</i> is closely allied to
+<i>Spalacopus</i>, but differs by its harsh fur, the shortness of the pollex,
+and the somewhat bushy tail. The teeth are semi-rooted, with
+single inner and outer enamel-folds, nearly meeting in the middle.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Echinomyinæ</b>.—Molars semi-rooted or rootless, with
+deep and curved enamel-folds; fur more or less harsh, frequently
+mixed with spines; tail generally long. One Ethiopian genus, and
+the remaining nine or so Neotropical. Many of the species are
+of large size, some being arboreal and others aquatic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Myopotamus.</i><a id="FNanchor_391" href="#Footnote_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a>—Incisors very large; molars with two internal
+and two external enamel-folds in the upper, and three internal and
+one external in the lower jaw, last molar the largest; ears moderate;
+tail about two-thirds the length of the head and body, scaly,
+and sparsely haired; hind feet webbed; five digits. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 25. The well-known Coypu (<i>M. coypu</i>), the
+only existing representative of this genus, is one of the largest
+living members of the order, and attains a length of about 2 feet.
+It is common in South America, living in burrows near water, and
+feeding on aquatic plants. Fossil remains of the genus occur in the
+caverns of Brazil, as well as in the Tertiaries of Argentina.</p>
+
+<p><i>Capromys.</i><a id="FNanchor_392" href="#Footnote_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a>—This genus comprises arboreal forms from the West
+Indies allied to the Coypu, but, according to Dr. G. E. Dobson,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_483"></a>[483]</span>
+showing signs of affinity with the <i>Hystricidæ</i>. The incisors are
+smaller than in the Coypu, and the upper molars have one internal
+and two external enamel-folds; the ears are comparatively small;
+the tail usually of considerable length, and the general form somewhat
+Rat-like. The typical <i>C. pilorides</i> is somewhat smaller than
+the Coypu, and is confined to Cuba; it is remarkable for the
+subdivision of the lobes of the liver into a number of lobules.
+<i>C. brachyurus</i> and <i>C. prehensilis</i> are also confined to Cuba. In
+Jamaica the genus is represented by <i>C. melanurus</i>, which is somewhat
+smaller than a Rabbit, and has no secondary lobulation of the liver.<a id="FNanchor_393" href="#Footnote_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Aulacodus.</i><a id="FNanchor_394" href="#Footnote_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a>—Upper incisors with three deep grooves; molars
+as in <i>Capromys</i>. Fur very harsh; tail moderate, sparsely haired;
+manus with rudimentary pollex, and small fifth digit; pes with no
+hallux, and rudimental fifth digit. One species (<i>A. swinderianus</i>),
+from Western and Southern Africa, which attains a length of nearly
+2 feet, and dwells in burrows.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plagiodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_395" href="#Footnote_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a>—Allied to <i>Capromys</i>, but with the enamel-folds of
+the molars very complex, and forming a kind of zig-zag pattern in
+those of the upper jaw. Represented only by <i>P. ædium</i> of Hayti
+and Jamaica.</p>
+
+<p><i>Loncheres</i><a id="FNanchor_396" href="#Footnote_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a> and <i>Echinomys</i>.<a id="FNanchor_397" href="#Footnote_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a>—These
+    genera include small South
+American species, in most of which flattened lanceolate spikes are
+mingled with the fur. The majority of the species occur in Guiana
+and Brazil, but one species of <i>Echinomys</i> has been recorded from
+Central America. Fossil remains of both genera occur in the
+cavern-deposits of Brazil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mesomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_398" href="#Footnote_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a>—This genus resembles <i>Loncheres</i> externally, but the
+pollex has a short curved claw, and there are no spines in the fur.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dactylomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_399" href="#Footnote_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a>—A Brazilian genus presenting the following distinctive
+features. Ears short; tail long and scaly; pollex minute;
+third and fourth digits of manus elongated, with short convex nails.
+Incisors flat; molars divided into two lobes, each of which has
+a single enamel-fold. Represented by two species, <i>D. typus</i> and
+<i>D. amblyonyx</i>, both of which seem to be rare and but little known.
+In the elongation of some of the digits <i>Dactylomys</i> recalls <i>Chiromys</i>
+among the Primates.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cercomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_400" href="#Footnote_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a>—This South<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_484"></a>[484]</span> American genus is usually placed near
+<i>Carterodon</i>, from which it is readily distinguished by the pointed
+muzzle and the plain incisors.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carterodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_401" href="#Footnote_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a>—This genus, which was originally described upon
+the evidence of skulls from the Brazil caves, but subsequently found
+living, is readily distinguished by the broad and grooved incisors.
+The upper molars have one inner and two outer enamel-folds;
+those of the lower jaw being the reverse of this.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fossil Forms.</i>—Remains of the existing genus <i>Loncheres</i> occur in
+the Brazilian cave-deposits, which also yield the extinct <i>Dicolpomys</i>.
+A large number of fossil <i>Octodontidæ</i> from the Tertiaries of South
+America have been described under many generic names, but it
+will be sufficient to mention that <i>Phloramys</i> and <i>Pithanotomys</i> are
+considered to be allied to <i>Ctenomys</i>; while <i>Morenia</i>, <i>Orthomys</i>, and
+<i>Trilodon</i> show affinity to <i>Myopotamus</i>. <i>Pellegrinia</i>, from the Pleistocene
+of Sicily, may be allied both to <i>Ctenodactylus</i> and <i>Octodon</i>.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Theridomyidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>This extinct family, which is represented in the Tertiaries of
+Europe and the United States, comprises several genera of comparatively
+small Rodents, which are regarded by Dr. Schlosser as
+nearly related to the <i>Octodontidæ</i>, although connected by <i>Archæomys</i>
+with the <i>Chinchillidæ</i>. The dental formula is the same as in the
+<i>Octodontidæ</i>. In the typical genus <i>Theridomys</i>, from the Lower
+Miocene and Upper Eocene of Europe, the molars are rooted, and
+have three or four re-entering enamel-folds, which form isolated
+discs on the worn crowns. <i>Syllophodus</i>, from the Miocene of the
+United States, is closely allied. <i>Protechinomys</i> and <i>Trechomys</i> are
+genera from the Phosphorites of Central France with rooted molars;
+while in <i>Archæomys</i> of the same deposits the molars are rootless,
+with the enamel-folds dividing their crowns into laminæ, as in the
+Chinchillas.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hystricidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Build stout. Limbs subequal. A number of long and stout
+spines in the integument. Facial portion of skull short and broad,
+and the jugal without an inferior angle. Molars with external and
+internal enamel-folds; completely or partly rooted.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Synetherinæ</b>.—Molars rooted; clavicles complete;
+upper lip not cleft; soles tuberculated; pollex absent; four mammæ;
+tail generally prehensile; spines mixed with long hairs. This group
+is confined to America, all the forms except one being arboreal,
+and their habits less strictly nocturnal than in the next subfamily.
+There are three genera.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_485"></a>[485]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Erethizon.</i><a id="FNanchor_402" href="#Footnote_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a>—Represented by the common Canadian Porcupine
+(<i>E. dorsatus</i>), a stout heavily-built animal, with long hairs almost
+or quite hiding the spines; four anterior and five posterior toes;
+and a short stumpy tail. It is a native of the greater part of
+Canada and the United States where there is any remnant of the
+original forest left. Remains of <i>Erethizon</i> occur in cavern-deposits
+in Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp63" id="figure214" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure214.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 214.</span>—The Tree Porcupine (<i>Synetheres prehensilis</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Synetheres.</i><a id="FNanchor_403" href="#Footnote_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a>—This genus contains some eight or ten species,
+known as Tree Porcupines (<a href="#figure214">Fig. 214</a>), found throughout the tropical
+parts of South America, and one of them extending northwards into
+Mexico. They are of a lighter build than the Ground Porcupines,
+are covered with short, close, many-coloured spines, often mixed with
+hairs, and their tails are always prehensile. Their hind feet have
+only four toes, owing to the suppression of the hallux; but they
+have a peculiar fleshy pad on the inner side of the foot, between
+which and the toes boughs and other objects can be firmly grasped
+as with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_486"></a>[486]</span> a hand. Vertebræ: C 7, D 17, L 5, S 3, C 36. An extinct
+species of this genus has been described from the cavern-deposits of
+Brazil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chætomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_404" href="#Footnote_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a>—Distinguished by the shape of its skull and the
+greater complexity of its teeth. It contains only one species
+(<i>C. subspinosus</i>), a native of the hottest parts of Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Hystricinæ</b>.—Molars semi-rooted; clavicles incomplete;
+soles smooth; a rudimentary pollex: six mammæ; tail not
+prehensile. Now confined to the Old World, where they occur in
+Southern Europe, Africa, India, and the Malay Archipelago as
+far eastwards as Borneo. Habits terrestrial and nocturnal. Three
+genera.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="figure215" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure215.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 215.</span>—The Common Porcupine (<i>Hystrix cristata</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Hystrix.</i><a id="FNanchor_405" href="#Footnote_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a>—This genus is readily characterised by the inflated
+skull, in which the nasal chamber is often considerably larger than
+the brain-case, and by the short tail, tipped with numerous slender
+stalked open quills, which make a loud rattling noise when the
+animal moves. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 4, S 4, C 12. The best-known
+member is the Common Porcupine (<i>H. cristata</i>, <a href="#figure215">Fig. 215</a>),
+which occurs throughout Southern Europe and North and West
+Africa, but is replaced in South Africa by <i>H. africæ-australis</i>, and
+in India by the Hairy-nosed Porcupine (<i>H. leucura</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The following account of the habits of the last-named species
+is from Dr. Jerdon: “<i>Hystrix leucura</i> is found over a great part of
+India, from the lower ranges of the Himalayas to the extreme south,
+but does not occur in lower Bengal, where it is replaced by <i>H.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_487"></a>[487]</span>
+bengalensis</i>. It forms extensive burrows, often in societies, in the
+sides of hills, banks of rivers and nullas, and very often in the
+dams of tanks, and in old mud walls, etc. In some parts of
+the country they are very destructive to various crops, potatoes,
+carrots, and other vegetables. They never issue forth till after
+dark, but now and then one will be found returning to his lair in
+daylight. Dogs take up the scent of the Porcupine very keenly,
+and on the Nilghiris I have killed many by the aid of dogs, tracking
+them to their dens. They charge backwards at their foes, erecting
+their spines at the same time, and dogs generally get seriously injured
+by their strong spines, which are sometimes driven deeply
+into the assailant. The Porcupine is not bad eating,—the meat,
+which is white, tasting something between pork and veal.”</p>
+
+<p>Besides these three large crested species of <i>Hystrix</i>, there are
+four or five smaller species without nuchal crests occurring in
+North-East India and in the Malay region, from Nipal to Borneo.</p>
+
+<p>Fossil species of <i>Hystrix</i> occur in the Pleistocene and Pliocene
+of India, and in Europe from the Upper Pliocene to the Middle
+Miocene, being perhaps also represented in the French Phosphorites.
+Remains from the Pliocene and Miocene of the United States have
+been referred to this genus, and if rightly determined are of especial
+interest from a distributional point of view.</p>
+
+<p><i>Atherura.</i><a id="FNanchor_406" href="#Footnote_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a>—The Brush-tailed Porcupines are much smaller
+animals than the last, characterised by their long tails tipped with
+bundles of peculiar flattened spines. Of the three species two are
+found in the Malay region and one in West Africa. A fossil
+species occurs in the cavern-deposits of Madras.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trichys.</i><a id="FNanchor_407" href="#Footnote_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a>—This genus contains but one Bornean species (<i>T.
+guentheri</i>), externally very like an <i>Atherura</i>, but differing from the
+members of that genus in many important cranial characters.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Chinchillidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Terrestrial forms, with elongated hind limbs, bushy tails, very
+soft fur, and complete clavicles. Jugal without an inferior angle,
+and extending forwards to the lachrymal; palate contracted in front
+and deeply emarginate behind; incisors short, and the molars
+divided by continuous enamel-folds into transverse laminæ. Neotropical
+region. This family includes only three existing species,
+divided into as many genera.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chinchilla.</i><a id="FNanchor_408" href="#Footnote_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a>—In this genus the fore feet have five and the hind
+four digits, the tail is long and bushy, and the auditory bullæ are
+enormous, appearing on the top of the skull. The one species<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_488"></a>[488]</span>
+(<i>C. lanigera</i>) is restricted to the alpine zones of the Andes from the
+north of Peru to the south of Chili. It is a Squirrel-like Rodent,
+about 10 inches in length, the tail somewhat exceeding 5 inches,
+and the ears very large. Its fur is greatly valued on account of
+its extreme softness and delicate gray colour.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lagidium</i><a id="FNanchor_409" href="#Footnote_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a> and <i>Lagostomus</i>.<a id="FNanchor_410" href="#Footnote_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a>—<i>Lagidium</i>
+    has four digits in both
+fore and hind feet, and <i>Lagostomus</i> three only in the hind feet,
+and the auditory bullæ are much smaller than in the preceding
+genus. <i>Lagidium</i> has the same distribution as <i>Chinchilla</i>; while
+<i>Lagostomus</i>, as represented by the Viscacha (<i>L. trichodactylus</i>), is
+found in the Pampas from the Uruguay River to the Rio Negro.
+The Viscachas live in burrows, generally in large numbers, and are
+nocturnal in their habits. Remains referable to the existing species,
+as well as others which appear to belong to extinct forms, occur in
+the Pleistocene deposits of South America.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—Several Rodents from the South American
+Tertiaries more or less closely allied to <i>Lagostomus</i> have been
+described by Dr. Ameghino under the names of <i>Prolagostomus</i>,
+<i>Pliolagostomus</i>, etc. The huge <i>Megamys</i> (<i>Potamarchus</i>), from the
+infra-Pampean deposits of Parana and Patagonia, is referred to this
+family, and has dimensions approximating to those of an Ox.
+Other fossil genera have received the names of <i>Epiblema</i> and <i>Tetrastylus</i>.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Castoroididæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p><i>Castoroides.</i><a id="FNanchor_411" href="#Footnote_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a>—The large Beaver-like Rodent with the dimensions
+of a Bear from the Pleistocene of the United States described
+under this name is regarded by Dr. Coues as the type of a family.
+Its dentition is nearest to that of <i>Chinchilla</i> and <i>Hydrochœrus</i>, but
+some of the cranial characters are like those of the <i>Castoridæ</i>. The
+genera <i>Amblyrhiza</i> and <i>Loxomylus</i>, from the Pleistocene of the
+Antilles, appear to be allied types.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dasyproctidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Terrestrial forms with subequal limbs, hoof-like claws, short or
+obsolete tail, and rudimentary clavicles. Mandibular masseteric
+ridge obsolete; palate broad; incisors long; molars semi-rooted,
+with external and internal enamel-folds. Neotropical region.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dasyprocta.</i><a id="FNanchor_412" href="#Footnote_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a>—Includes several slender-limbed species, with three
+hind toes, commonly called Agoutis, inhabiting Central and South
+America, one<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_489"></a>[489]</span> (<i>D. cristata</i>) extending into the West-Indian Islands.
+Numerous fossil remains of this genus occur in the cavern-deposits
+of Brazil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cælogenys.</i><a id="FNanchor_413" href="#Footnote_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a>—This genus is readily characterised by the presence
+of five hind toes, and the extraordinary development of its zygomatic
+arches, which are enormously expanded vertically, forming
+great convex bony capsules on the sides of the face, enclosing
+on each side a large cavity lined with mucous membrane, and
+communicating by a small opening with the mouth. The Paca
+(<i>C. paca</i>) is about 2 feet long, and, like the species of <i>Dasyprocta</i>, lives
+generally in the forests or along the banks of rivers. This species
+appears to date from the epoch of the Pleistocene deposits of the
+Brazilian caves. A smaller species from Ecuador, living at elevations
+of from 6000 to 10,000 feet, has been described as
+<i>C. taczanowskii</i>.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Dinomyidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Distinguished from the <i>Dasyproctidæ</i> by the cleft upper lip,
+rather long and bushy tail, the presence of four digits in both fore
+and hind feet, and the complete clavicles. The manubrium is
+broad; the optic foramina are confluent; the incisors broad; and
+the molars rootless, with enamel-folds dividing them into transverse
+laminæ.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dinomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_414" href="#Footnote_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a>—The sole representative of this family is the Rodent
+known as <i>D. branicki</i>, of which hitherto only a single specimen has
+been obtained. This was captured in Peru, where it was found at
+daybreak walking about a courtyard; the inhabitants of the district
+were previously unacquainted with the species, from which
+its extreme rarity may be inferred. Externally it resembles much
+the Paca, having similar S-like nostrils; but in the laminated
+molars, and many features of the skeleton, it differs from all the
+other Rodents with hoof-like nails. It is regarded by its describer,
+the late Professor Peters, as a connecting link between the
+<i>Octodontidæ</i>, <i>Chinchillidæ</i>, <i>Dasyproctidæ</i>, and <i>Caviidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Caviidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Terrestrial or natatorial forms, with short incisors, strong mandibular
+masseteric ridges, long and curved paroccipitals, and palate
+contracted in front. Fore feet with four digits, hind feet with
+three. Clavicles imperfect. Molars divided by enamel-folds into
+transverse laminæ; milk-teeth shed before birth. Other characters
+as in <i>Dasyproctidæ</i>. Neotropical region.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_490"></a>[490]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Cavia.</i><a id="FNanchor_415" href="#Footnote_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a>—Limbs and ears short, subequal; tail none. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 13, L 6, S 4, C 7. This genus includes several species widely
+distributed throughout South America, extending even to the Straits
+of Magellan. The Restless Cavy (<i>C. porcellus</i>), which is found
+throughout Uruguay and Brazil, has been very generally regarded
+as the ancestral form of the domesticated Guinea-Pig. It is about
+10 inches long, and weighs a little over a pound; its fur is long
+and of a nearly uniform grayish-brown colour. This species is
+rarely found in dry sandy localities, preferring marshes covered
+with aquatic plants, among which it lies concealed, feeding in the
+early morning and after sunset in the evening; but when the soil
+is dry it forms burrows. It lives in societies of from six to eighteen
+individuals, breeding but once a year, with one, or at most only two,
+young at a birth. The Guinea-Pig (probably a misnomer of Guiana-Pig)
+is larger than <i>C. porcellus</i>, and is regarded by Dr. Nehring as
+descended from another species, <i>C. cutleri</i>. It is white in colour,
+with irregular patches of reddish-brown and black. The Bolivian
+Cavy (<i>C. boliviensis</i>), found throughout the higher regions of Bolivia,
+usually at an elevation of 10,000 or 12,000 feet, is exceedingly
+shy, and lives in burrows, which in some districts are so numerous
+as to have completely undermined the soil. The Rock-Cavy
+(<i>C. rupestris</i>), distinguished by its short, blunt nails, is found in rocky
+situations throughout Brazil, and is much sought after for its flesh.
+The Southern Cavy (<i>C. australis</i>), common along the coast of Patagonia,
+forms deep burrows, with several outlets, in sandy declivities.
+Remains of existing species of <i>Cavia</i> are found in the cavern-deposits
+of Lagoa Santa, Brazil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dolichotis.</i><a id="FNanchor_416" href="#Footnote_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a>—Characterised by the great length of the ears and
+the short tail. The palate is so much contracted in front that the
+premolars of opposite sides touch by their antero-internal edges.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 8, S 3, C 10.</p>
+
+<p>The Patagonian Cavy (<i>D. patachonica</i>)—the only living representative
+of the genus—is rather larger than a Hare, which it
+somewhat resembles in external appearance. It inhabits the dry
+sterile districts of Patagonia and La Plata, disappearing wherever
+the country becomes more humid. This animal burrows in the
+earth, although in districts where the Viscacha is found it is said
+to avail itself of the works of the latter. Unlike other cavies, its
+eyes are protected from the glare of the sun by prominent eyelashes.
+The body is covered with a long dense fur of a rusty colour. Two
+young are produced at a birth. Three species of <i>Dolichotis</i> have
+been described from the Brazilian cave-deposits, one of which is
+probably not really separable from the existing form.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hydrochœrus.</i><a id="FNanchor_417" href="#Footnote_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a>—A large aquatic form with all <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_491"></a>[491]</span>the feet fully
+webbed; the skull (<a href="#figure213">Fig. 213</a>, <a href="#figure213">p. 481</a>) large, with enormous paroccipital
+processes; and the molars very complex, the third upper
+one having some twelve transverse laminæ. Upper incisors grooved.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 3, C 8.</p>
+
+<p>The Capybara (<i>H. capybara</i>) is the largest existing Rodent, and the
+only living representative of the genus. It is a bulky and stoutly
+built animal, and attains a length of about 4 feet. The body is
+covered with long and coarse hair, reddish-brown above and brownish-yellow
+beneath. Capybaras are found over the whole of the
+eastern part of South America, and to the westward range into
+Bolivia and Peru. They frequent the borders of rivers and lakes,
+concealing themselves among reeds and other water plants. Remains
+of <i>Hydrochœrus</i> are found in the cavern-deposits of Brazil, which are
+probably referable to the existing species; one extinct species from
+the Pleistocene of Buenos Ayres is estimated to have attained a
+length of 5 feet, while <i>H. magnus</i> of the same deposits was of still
+larger dimensions. The genus is also represented in the Pleistocene
+of South Carolina and the infra-Pampean beds of Parana.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—A number of South American fossil Rodents
+have been referred to extinct genera of <i>Caviidæ</i>. Thus <i>Plexochœrus</i>,
+from the Tertiary of Argentina, differs from <i>Hydrochœrus</i> in having only
+nine laminæ in the last upper molar; <i>Cardiomys</i>, <i>Cardiatherium</i>, etc.,
+from the infra-Pampeans are also stated to be allied to <i>Hydrochœrus</i>,
+while <i>Contracavia</i>, of the same deposits, is related to <i>Cavia</i>, but of
+larger size. <i>Microcavia</i>, again, from the Pleistocene of Argentina, is
+regarded as connecting <i>Cavia</i> with <i>Dolichotis</i>. The Tertiary European
+genera <i>Issiodoromys</i> and <i>Nesocerodon</i> are apparently referable to the
+present family.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Duplicidentata</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>Two pairs of incisors in the upper jaw (the second very small,
+and placed directly behind the large first pair), the enamel of which
+extends round to their posterior surfaces. At birth there are
+three pairs of these incisors, but the outer one on each side is soon
+lost. Incisive foramina large; and usually confluent; bony palate
+very narrow from before backwards; no true alisphenoid canal;
+fibula ankylosed to the tibia, and articulating with the calcaneum.
+Testes permanently external. This suborder includes the Picas,
+Hares, and Rabbits, all of which are strictly terrestrial.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Lagomyidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Complete clavicles, subequal limbs, no external tail, and short
+ears. Skull depressed, frontals contracted and without postorbital
+processes; <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁ or ²⁄₂; molars rootless, with transverse enamel-folds.
+Palæarctic and Nearctic.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_492"></a>[492]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Lagomys.</i><a id="FNanchor_418" href="#Footnote_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a>—Represented by about a dozen species of small
+Guinea-Pig-like animals, inhabiting chiefly the mountainous parts of
+Northern Asia (from 11,000 to 14,000 feet), one species only being
+known from South-East Europe, and another from the Rocky
+Mountains.</p>
+
+<p>The Picas, or Tailless Hares, live in holes among the rocks of
+their native mountains, and are agile and shy little creatures.
+The genus is well represented through the upper and middle
+Tertiaries. It has been proposed to separate those fossil forms
+with <i>p</i> ²⁄₁ as <i>Myolagus</i>, and those with <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁ as <i>Titanomys</i>, but this
+seems scarcely advisable.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Leporidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Imperfect clavicles, elongated hind limbs, short recurved tail,
+and long ears. Skull
+(<a href="#figure216">Fig. 216</a>) compressed,
+frontals
+with large wing-shaped
+postorbital
+processes <i>p</i> ³⁄₂; molars
+as in the <i>Lagomyidæ</i>.
+Cosmopolitan (except
+Australasia).
+Vertebræ: C 7, D
+12, L 7, S 4, C 13-15.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="figure216" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure216.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 216.</span>—Skull of Hare (<i>Lepus timidus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Lepus.</i><a id="FNanchor_419" href="#Footnote_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a>—The
+single genus <i>Lepus</i>
+includes about
+twenty species, all
+of which resemble
+one another in
+general external characters. In all the fore limbs have five and
+the hind only four digits, and the soles of the feet are densely
+clothed with hairs similar to those covering the legs; the inner
+surface of the cheeks is also hairy. Although the family has such
+a wide distribution, the greater number of the species are restricted
+to the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions, only a single species (<i>L.
+brasiliensis</i>) extending into South America, where it has existed
+since the date of the Pleistocene deposits of the Brazilian caves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_493"></a>[493]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Common Hare (<i>L. timidus</i><a id="FNanchor_420" href="#Footnote_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a>) may be taken as a typical
+example of the genus, and is characterised by the great length of
+the ears and hind limbs. It is found in all parts of Europe except
+the north of Russia, the Scandinavian peninsula, and Ireland. Its
+fur is usually of
+a tawny gray
+colour above and
+white beneath,
+with the upper
+surface of the
+short tail and the
+tips of the ears
+black. The colour
+of the fur
+differs, however,
+considerably in
+different latitudes
+and at different
+seasons of
+the year; showing
+a tendency
+to become white
+during winter in northern countries, while assuming a reddish-yellow
+hue in the more genial climate of southern Europe. The
+Hare is a nocturnal animal, remaining during the day on its “form,”
+as the slight depression is called which it makes in the open field,
+usually among grass.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp92" id="figure217" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure217.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 217.</span>—The Common Hare (<i>Lepus timidus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Mountain Hare (<i>L. variabilis</i>) is found throughout the
+northern part of
+the Palæarctic
+region, ranging
+from Ireland in
+the west to Japan
+in the east, and
+also occurring in
+several of the
+more southerly
+mountain ranges,
+such as the
+Pyrenees, the
+Alps, and the
+Caucasus. It is
+smaller than the
+common species,
+with a smaller
+and more rounded<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_494"></a>[494]</span>
+head, and shorter ears, tail, and hind limbs. In cold climates the
+colour of the whole animal changes in the winter to a pure white
+(as in <a href="#figure218">Fig. 218</a>), with the exception of the tips of the ears, which
+remain black. In Ireland no winter change of colour takes place.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp95" id="figure218" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure218.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 218.</span>—The Mountain Hare (<i>Lepus variabilis</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Rabbit (<i>L. cuniculus</i>), speaking of the wild race only, is
+distinguished from the Hare externally by its smaller size, shorter
+ears and feet, the absence or reduction of the black patch at
+the tip of the ears so characteristic of the Hare, and by its grayer
+colour. The skull is smaller and lighter, with a slenderer muzzle
+and a longer and narrower palate. Besides these characters, however,
+the Rabbit is sharply separated from the Hare by the fact that
+it brings forth its young naked, blind, and helpless; to compensate
+for this, it digs a deep burrow in the earth in which they are born
+and reared, while the young of the Hare are born fully clothed with
+fur, and able to take care of themselves in the “form” in which they
+are born. The weight of the Rabbit is from 2½ to 3 lbs., although
+individuals perfectly wild have been recorded up to more than 5 lbs.
+Its general habits are too well known to need a detailed description
+here. It breeds from four to eight times a year, bringing forth
+each time from three to eight young. Its period of gestation is
+about thirty days, and it begins to breed when six months old.
+It attains to an age of about seven or eight years.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="figure219" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure219.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 219.</span>—The Rabbit (<i>Lepus cuniculus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The geographical distribution of the Rabbit presents many most
+interesting peculiarities. It is believed to be originally a native of
+the western half of the Mediterranean basin only, and still abounds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_495"></a>[495]</span>
+in Spain, Sardinia, Southern Italy, Sicily, Greece, Tunis, and Algeria;
+and many of the Islands adjoining these countries are quite overrun
+with it. Thence it has spread, partly by man’s agency, northwards
+throughout temperate Western Europe, increasing rapidly wherever
+it gains a footing; and this extension is still going on, as is shown
+by the case of Scotland, in which sixty years ago Rabbits were little
+known, while they are now found in all suitable localities up to the
+extreme north. It has also gained admittance into Ireland, and
+now abounds there as much as in England. Out of Europe the
+same extension of range has been going on. In New Zealand and
+Australia Rabbits, introduced either for profit or sport, have increased
+to such an extent as to form one of the most serious pests that the
+farmers have to contend against, as the climate and soil seem to
+suit them perfectly, and their natural enemies are too few and
+too lowly organised to keep their numbers within reasonable bounds.
+In other cases Rabbits introduced into islands have become or
+remained more or less distinct from their parent stock; thus the
+Rabbits both of the Falkland Islands and of Jamaica still show traces
+of their descent from domesticated varieties, and have never reverted
+to the ordinary brownish-gray type. And again, as was pointed
+out by Mr. Darwin,<a id="FNanchor_421" href="#Footnote_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a> the Rabbits in the island of Porto Santo, near
+Madeira, whose ancestors were introduced from Spain in 1418 or
+1419, have formed quite a distinct diminutive race, barely half the
+bulk or weight of English Rabbits, and differing in certain slight
+details of colour and habits.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<p><i>Bibliography of Rodentia.</i>—G. R. Waterhouse, “Observations of the Rodentia,”
+<i>Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> iii. (1839); Id. <i>Ann. Nat. Hist.</i> viii. and x. (1839-42); Id.
+“On the Geographical Distribution of the Rodentia,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1839, pp.
+162-174; Id. <i>Natural History of the Mammalia</i>, vol. ii. “Rodentia” (1848);
+Gervais, <i>Dic. Univ. d’Hist. Nat.</i> xi. p. 202 (1848); Brandt, “Untersuchungen
+über die craniologischen Entwickelungsstufen und Classification der Nager der
+Jetzwelt,” <i>Mém. de l’Acad. Impér. de St. Pétersbourg</i> (1855); Lilljeborg,
+<i>Systematisk Œfversight af de Gnagnde Däggdjuren</i>, Upsala, 1866; Alston, “On
+the Classification of the Order <i>Glires</i>,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1876, pp. 61-98; Trouessart,
+“Catal. de Rongeurs, Vivants et Fossiles,” <i>Bullet. Soc. d’Études Scient. d’Angers</i>,
+1880-1881; Coues and Allen, “Monographs of North American Rodentia,” <i>United
+States Geol. Surv. of Territories</i>, vol. xi. (1877); Winge, “Rodentia pa Lagos
+Santa, Brazil.” <i>Mus. Lund.</i> vol. iii. (1887); various papers by Peters in <i>Monatsber.
+Ak. Berlin</i>, and by Alston, Anderson, Blanford, Dobson, Milne-Edwards,
+Thomas, and others, in <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, <i>Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng.</i>, <i>Ann. Mag.
+Nat. Hist.</i>, etc.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_496"></a>[496]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE ORDER CARNIVORA</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Though the existing Carnivora as at present restricted<a id="FNanchor_422" href="#Footnote_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a> form a
+very natural and well-defined order among the Mammalia, it is
+difficult to find any important common diagnostic characters by
+which they can be absolutely separated; so that, as in the case of
+so many other natural groups, it is by the possession of a combination
+of various characters that they must be distinguished. Thus
+they are all unguiculate, and never have less than four well-developed
+toes on each foot, with nails more or less pointed, rarely rudimentary
+or absent. The pollex and hallux are never opposable to the other
+digits. They are regularly diphyodont and heterodont, and their
+teeth are always rooted.<a id="FNanchor_423" href="#Footnote_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a> Their dentition consists of small pointed
+incisors, usually three in number, on either side of each jaw, of
+which the first is always the smallest and the third the largest, the
+difference being most marked in the upper jaw; strong conical,
+pointed, recurved canines; cheek-teeth variable, but generally,
+especially in the anterior part of the series, more or less compressed,
+pointed, and trenchant; if the crowns are flat and tuberculated
+they are never complex or divided into lobes by deep inflexions of
+enamel. The condyle of the lower jaw is a transversely placed
+half-cylinder working in a deep glenoid fossa of corresponding
+form. The brain varies much in relative size and form, but the
+hemispheres are never destitute of well-marked convolutions (<a href="#figure023">Fig.
+23</a>, <a href="#figure023">p. 71</a>). The stomach (<a href="#figure234">Fig. 234</a>) is always simple and pyriform.
+The cæcum is either absent or short and simple (<a href="#figure235">Fig. 235</a>), and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_497"></a>[497]</span>
+the colon is not sacculated, or greatly wider than the small intestine.
+Vesiculæ seminales are never present. Cowper’s glands are present
+in some, absent in other groups. The uterus is bicornuate. The
+mammæ are abdominal, and very variable in number. The
+placenta is deciduate, and almost always zonary. The clavicle
+is often entirely absent, and when present is never complete. The
+humerus often has an entepicondylar foramen. The radius and
+ulna are distinct. The scaphoid and lunar bones are united into
+one, and there is never a distinct os centrale in the adult. The
+fibula is always a distinct slender bone.</p>
+
+<p>Several of these characters are, however, not applicable to all
+the members of the extinct group of Carnivores for which the
+name Creodonta has been proposed, as will be noticed in the
+sequel.</p>
+
+<p>The large majority of the species composing this order subsist
+chiefly upon some variety of animal food, though many are
+omnivorous, and some few chiefly, though not entirely, vegetable
+eaters. The more typical forms live altogether on recently killed
+warm-blooded animals, and their whole organisation is thoroughly
+adapted to a predaceous mode of life. In conformity with this
+manner of obtaining their subsistence they are generally bold and
+savage in disposition, though some species are capable of being
+domesticated, and when placed under favourable circumstances for
+the development of such qualities exhibit a very high degree of
+intelligence and fidelity. The existing representatives of the order
+are naturally divided into two suborders, the members of the one
+being the more typical, and mainly terrestrial in their mode of life;
+while those of the other are aberrant, having the whole of their
+organisation specially modified for living habitually in water.
+These are called respectively the True, or Fissiped, and the Pinniped
+Carnivora.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Carnivora Vera</span>.</h3>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure220" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure220.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 220.</span>—Left upper carnassial teeth of Carnivora. I, <i>Felis</i>; II, <i>Canis</i>; III, <i>Ursus</i>.
+1, Anterior, 2, middle (paracone), and 3, posterior (metacone) cusp of blade; 4, inner tubercle
+(protocone) supported on distinct root; 5, inner cusp posterior in position, and without
+distinct root, characteristic of the <i>Ursidæ</i>.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Generally adapted for terrestrial progression and mode of life,
+though some may be partially aquatic in their habits. The fore
+limbs never have the first digit, or the hind limbs the first and fifth
+digits, longer than the others. Incisors ³⁄₃ on each side, with very
+rare exceptions. Cerebral hemispheres more or less elongated;
+always with three or four gyri on the outer surface forming arches
+above each other, the lowest surrounding the Sylvian fissure. The
+molar series of teeth have not the uniform characters of those of
+the Pinnipedia. There is always one tooth in each jaw which
+is specially modified, and to which the name of “sectorial” or
+“carnassial” tooth has been applied. The teeth in front of this are
+more or less sharp pointed and compressed; while those behind<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_498"></a>[498]</span> it are
+broad and tuberculated. The characters of the carnassial teeth
+deserve special attention, as, though fundamentally the same
+throughout the suborder, they are greatly modified in different
+genera. The upper carnassial is the most posterior of the teeth
+which have predecessors, and is therefore reckoned as the last
+premolar (<i>p</i> ⁴⁄ of the typical dentition). It consists essentially of a
+more or less compressed blade supported on two roots and an inner
+tubercle supported by a distinct root (see <a href="#figure220">Fig. 220</a>). The blade
+when fully developed has three cusps or lobes (1, 2, and 3), but the
+anterior is always small, and often absent. The middle lobe is
+conical, high, and pointed; the posterior lobe has a compressed
+straight knife-like edge. The inner tubercle (4) varies very much
+in extent, but is generally placed near the anterior end of the
+blade, though sometimes it is median in position. In the <i>Ursidæ</i>
+alone both the inner tubercle and root are wanting, and there is
+often a small internal and posterior cusp (5) without root. In this
+aberrant family also the carnassial is relatively to the other teeth
+much smaller than in the rest of the Carnivora. The lower
+carnassial (see <a href="#figure221">Fig. 221</a>) is the most anterior of the teeth without
+predecessors in the milk-series; it is therefore reckoned the first
+true molar (<i>m</i> ¹⁄). It has two roots supporting a crown, consisting
+when fully developed of a compressed bilobed blade (1 and 2), a
+heel, or talon (4), and an inner cusp (3). The lobes of the blade,
+of which the hinder (2) is the larger, are separated by a notch,
+generally prolonged into a linear fissure. In the most specialised<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_499"></a>[499]</span>
+Carnivora, as the <i>Felidæ</i> (I), the blade alone is developed, both
+talon and inner cusp being absent or rudimentary. In others, as
+<i>Meles</i> (V) and <i>Ursus</i> (VI), the heel is greatly developed, broad, and
+tuberculated. The blade in these cases is generally placed obliquely,
+its flat or convex (outer) side looking forwards, so that the two
+lobes are almost side by side, instead of anterior and posterior.
+The inner cusp (3) is generally conical, pointed, and placed to the
+inner side of the hinder lobe of the blade. The special characters
+of these teeth are more disguised in the Sea Otter (<i>Latax</i>) than
+in any other form, but even in it they can be traced.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="figure221" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure221.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 221.</span>—Left lower carnassial teeth of Carnivora. I, <i>Felis</i>; II, <i>Canis</i>; III, <i>Herpestes</i>;
+IV, <i>Lutra</i>; V, <i>Meles</i>; VI, <i>Ursus</i>. 1, Anterior lobe (paraconid) of blade; 2, posterior (protoconid)
+lobe of blade; 3, inner cusp (metaconid); 4, talon (hypoconid). It will be seen that the
+relative size of the two roots varies according to the development of the portion of the crown
+they have respectively to support.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The homology of the various parts of the Carnivorous carnassial
+with the primitive tritubercular type (<a href="#Page_30">p. 30</a>) is indicated in the
+figures. It may be observed, however, that the anterior lobe of the
+three-lobed upper carnassial is an element added on to the more
+primitive two-lobed type. When the talon of the lower carnassial,
+as in <i>Canis</i>, consists of a large outer and small inner cusp, the latter
+(not seen in the figure) is the entoconid.</p>
+
+<p>The toes are nearly always armed with large, strong, curved,
+and tolerably sharp claws, ensheathing the ungual phalanges, and
+held more firmly in their places by broad laminæ of bone reflected<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_500"></a>[500]</span>
+over their attached ends from the bases of the phalanges. In some
+forms, most notably the <i>Felidæ</i>, these claws are retractile; that is to
+say, the ungual phalanx, with the claw attached, folds back in
+the fore foot into a sheath by the outer or ulnar side of the middle
+phalanx of the digit, being retained in this position when the
+animal is at rest by a strong elastic ligament. In the hind foot the
+ungual phalanx is retracted on to the top, and not the side of the
+middle phalanx. By the action of the deep flexor muscles, the
+ungual phalanges are straightened out, the claws protruded from
+their sheath, and the soft “velvety” paw becomes suddenly converted
+into a most formidable weapon of offence. The habitual
+retraction of the claws preserves their points from wear in ordinary
+progression.</p>
+
+<p>The skeleton of the Lion represented in <a href="#figure015">Fig. 15</a> (<a href="#figure015">p. 45</a>) illustrates
+the digitigrade mode of progression of the <i>Felidæ</i>, as well
+as the essential characters of the bony framework of a typical
+Carnivore.</p>
+
+<p>The Fissipedal Carnivora were divided by Cuvier into two
+groups, according to the position of the feet in walking,—the
+Plantigrada, or those that place the whole of the soles to the
+ground, and the Digitigrada, or those that walk only on the toes;
+and the difference between these groups was considered of equal
+importance to that which separated the Pinnigrada or Seals from
+both of them. The distinction is, however, quite an artificial one,
+since every intermediate condition exists between the extreme
+typical plantigrade gait of the Bears and the truly digitigrade walk
+of the Cats and Dogs; in fact, the greater number of the Carnivora
+belong to neither one form nor the other, but may be called
+“subplantigrade”; often when at rest applying the whole of the
+sole to the ground, but keeping the heel raised to a greater or less
+extent when walking.</p>
+
+<p>An amended classification of the existing forms is into three
+distinct sections, of which the Cats, the Dogs, and the Bears may be
+respectively taken as representatives, and which are hence called
+Æluroidea, Cynoidea, and Arctoidea. This division is founded
+mainly on characters exhibited by the base of the skull, but is
+corroborated by the structure of other parts.<a id="FNanchor_424" href="#Footnote_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a> The presence or
+absence of a bridge of bone, covering the external carotid artery in
+a part of its course by the side of the alisphenoid bone, and enclosing
+the “alisphenoid canal” (see <a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>, <a href="#figure008">p. 38</a>), a character to which the
+late Mr. H. N. Turner first drew attention, might seem unimportant<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_501"></a>[501]</span>
+at first sight, but it is curiously constant in certain groups, which
+we have other reasons, derived often from a combination of less
+easily definable characters, to regard as natural. It is therefore
+generally mentioned in the following family definitions.</p>
+
+<p>It must, however, be stated that while the arrangement is a
+convenient one as regards the existing Carnivores, it will not hold
+good when the fossil forms are included. Thus there is ample
+evidence to show that the Dogs and Bears were formerly so intimately
+connected that in a palæontological classification the <i>Canidæ</i>
+cannot be satisfactorily separated from the <i>Ursidæ</i>; while in another
+direction the <i>Canidæ</i> were closely allied to the ancestral <i>Viverridæ</i>.
+The most important objection against this classification is, however,
+the apparent intimate connection exhibited by fossil forms between
+the <i>Viverridæ</i> and the <i>Mustelidæ</i>, which, so far as the present evidence
+goes, tends to show that the latter are derived from the
+former. If this be eventually fully proved, it would seem to
+indicate that the Arctoidea are not a natural group; and that the
+resemblances between the <i>Ursidæ</i> and <i>Mustelidæ</i> have been independently
+acquired, in the course of the descent of the one family from
+a Canoid, and of the other from a Viverroid stock.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Æluroidea</span>.</h4>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp52" id="figure222" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure222.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 222.</span>—Left side of the palatal aspect of
+the cranium and mandible of the Suricate (<i>Suricata
+tetradactyla</i>). <i>c</i>, Carotid foramen; <i>f</i>, fissure
+in floor of auditory meatus. From Mivart,
+<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 184.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Æluroidea or Cat-like Carnivores include the <i>Felidæ</i>,
+<i>Viverridæ</i>, <i>Proteleidæ</i>, and <i>Hyænidæ</i>.
+The existing representatives of
+this section present the following
+common features. Auditory bulla
+(<a href="#figure222">Fig. 222</a>) much dilated, rounded
+smooth, thin-walled, and (except
+in the <i>Hyænidæ</i>) divided into two
+chambers, by a septum. Bony
+auditory meatus short. Paroccipital
+process applied to, and
+spread over the hinder part of
+the bulla (<a href="#figure222">Fig. 222</a>). Mastoid
+process never very salient, and
+often obsolete. Carotid canal
+(<a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>, <a href="#figure008">p. 38</a>, <i>car</i>) small, sometimes
+very inconspicuous. Condyloid
+and glenoid foramina concealed
+or wanting. Cæcum small,
+rarely absent. Os penis generally
+small and irregular (large in
+<i>Cryptoprocta</i>). Cowper’s glands
+present; prostate distinctly lobed.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_502"></a>[502]</span>
+Some details of the anatomy of
+the soft parts will be found under the head of <i>Genetta</i>.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Felidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>In all the forms, both recent and fossil, which can be included
+in this family the canines are strongly developed, there are never
+more than one upper and two lower molars, and the three lower
+incisors are placed in the same horizontal line. With one exception,
+the humerus has an entepicondylar foramen.</p>
+
+<p>The following characters are common to all the existing
+members. True molars reduced to one above and below, that of
+the upper jaw very small and transversely extended. Only two
+inferior premolars. Upper carnassial with three lobes to the
+blade; lower without talon or inner cusp. Auditory bulla not externally
+constricted. No alisphenoid canal. Carotid canal very
+minute. Digits 5-4. Dorsal vertebræ 13.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp92" id="figure223" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure223.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 223.</span>—Front view of skull of Lion (<i>Felis leo</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Felis.</i><a id="FNanchor_425" href="#Footnote_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a>—The whole structure of the animals of this genus exhibits
+the Carnivorous type in its fullest perfection. Dentition:
+<i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₂, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁; total 30. A distinctly cusped inner tubercle
+to the upper carnassial.
+Claws completely
+retractile.
+The upper anterior
+premolar (<i>p.</i> 2), always
+small, and may
+be absent without
+any other modification
+in the dental
+or other structures.
+Such a variation
+should not therefore
+be considered as
+of generic importance.
+Incisors very
+small. Canines
+large, strong, slightly
+recurved, with trenchant edges and sharp points, and placed wide
+apart (<a href="#figure223">Fig. 223</a>). Premolars compressed and sharp pointed. The
+most posterior in the upper jaw (the carnassial), a very large tooth,
+consisting of a subcompressed blade, divided into three unequal
+lobes supported by two roots, with a very small inner tubercle
+placed near the front end of the tooth and supported by a distinct
+root (<a href="#figure220">Fig. 220</a>). The upper true molar a very small tubercular
+tooth placed more or less transversely at the inner side of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_503"></a>[503]</span>
+hinder end of the last. In the lower jaw the true molar (carnassial)
+reduced to the blade alone, which is very large, trenchant, and
+much compressed, divided into two subequal lobes. Occasionally
+it has a rudimentary talon, but never an inner cusp. The skull
+is generally short and rounded, though proportionally more elongated
+in the larger forms. The facial portion is especially short
+and broad, and the zygomatic arches are very wide and strong.
+The auditory bullæ are large, rounded, and smooth. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 13-29. Clavicles better developed
+than in other Carnivora, but not articulating with either the
+scapulæ or sternum. Limbs digitigrade. Anterior feet with
+five toes, the third and fourth nearly equal and longest, the
+second slightly and the fifth considerably shorter; the pollex
+still shorter, not reaching as far as the metacarpo-phalangeal
+articulation of the second. Hind feet with only four toes. The
+third and fourth the longest, the second and fifth somewhat shorter
+and nearly equal; the hallux represented only by the rudimentary
+metatarsal bone. The claws all very large, strongly curved, compressed,
+very sharp, and exhibiting the retractile condition in the
+highest degree. The tail varies greatly in length, being in some a
+mere stump, in others nearly as long as the body. Ears of moderate
+size, more or less triangular and pointed. Eyes rather large. Iris
+very mobile, and with a pupillary aperture which contracts under
+the influence of light in some species to a narrow vertical slit, in
+others to an oval, and in some to a circular aperture. Tongue
+thickly covered with sharp-pointed, recurved horny papillæ. Cæcum
+small and simple.</p>
+
+<p>As in structure so in habits, the Cats may be considered the
+most specialised of all the Carnivora. All the known members of
+the genus feed, in the natural state, almost exclusively on warm-blooded
+animals which they have themselves killed. One Indian
+species (<i>F. viverrina</i>) preys on fish and even (it is said) on freshwater
+molluscs. Unlike the Dogs, they never associate in packs, and
+rarely hunt their prey in open ground, but from some place of concealment
+wait until the unsuspecting victim comes within reach, or
+with noiseless and stealthy tread, crouching close to the ground for
+concealment, approach near enough to make the fatal spring. In
+this manner they frequently attack and kill animals considerably
+exceeding their own size. They are mostly nocturnal, and the
+greater number, especially the smaller species, more or less arboreal.
+None are aquatic, and all take to the water with reluctance, though
+some may habitually haunt the banks of rivers or pools, because
+they more easily obtain their prey in such situations.</p>
+
+<p>The numerous species of the genus are very widely diffused over
+the greater part of the habitable world, though most abundant in
+the warm latitudes of both hemispheres. No species are,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_504"></a>[504]</span> however,
+found in the Australian region, or in Madagascar. Although the Old-World
+and New-World Cats (except perhaps the Northern Lynx)
+are all specifically distinct, no common structural character has been
+pointed out by which the former can be separated from the latter.
+On the contrary, most of the minor groups into which the genus
+has been divided have representatives in both hemispheres.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the considerable diversity in external appearance
+and size between different members of this extensive genus,
+the structural differences are but slight, and so variously combined
+in different species that the numerous attempts hitherto made to
+subdivide it are all unsatisfactory and artificial. The principal
+differences are to be found in the form of the cranium, especially
+of the nasal and adjoining bones, the completeness of the bony orbit
+posteriorly, the development of the first upper premolar and of the
+inner tubercle of the upper carnassial, the length of the tail, the form
+of the pupil, and the condition and coloration of the fur, especially
+the presence or absence of tufts or pencils of hair on the external
+ears. Writing in 1881 Professor Mivart<a id="FNanchor_426" href="#Footnote_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a> gave the number of
+existing species of <i>Felis</i> as 48, but by Mr. Blanford’s reduction of
+the number of Indian species<a id="FNanchor_427" href="#Footnote_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a> the list may now be diminished to
+some 41. The following account is chiefly devoted to some of the
+more important and better known species.</p>
+
+<p>A. <i>Old World Species.</i>—The Lion (<i>F. leo</i>, <a href="#figure224">Fig. 224</a>) has been
+well known to man from the earliest historic times. Its geographical
+habitat made it familiar to all the races among whom human
+civilisation took its origin, and its strongly marked physical and
+moral characteristics have rendered it proverbial, perhaps to an
+exaggerated degree, and have in all ages afforded favourite types
+for poetry, art, and heraldry. The literature of the ancient Hebrews
+abounds in allusions to the Lion; and the almost incredible numbers
+that are stated to have been provided for exhibition and destruction
+in the Roman amphitheatres (as many as six hundred on a single
+occasion by Pompey, for example) show how abundant these
+animals must have been within accessible distance of the capital of
+the world.</p>
+
+<p>The geographical range of the Lion was once far more extensive
+than at present, even within the historic period covering the whole
+of Africa, the south of Asia, including Syria, Arabia, Asia Minor,
+Persia, and the greater part of Northern and Central India, and also
+the south-eastern portion of Europe, as shown by the well-known
+story told by Herodotus of the attacks by Lions on the Camels which
+carried the baggage of the army of Xerxes on its march through
+the country of the Pæonians in Macedonia. The very circumstantial
+account of that historian shows that the animal in his time<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_505"></a>[505]</span>
+ranged through the country south of the Balkans, through Roumania
+to the west of the River Carasu, and through Thessaly as far
+south as the Gulf of Lepanto and the Isthmus of Corinth, having
+as its western boundary the River Potamo and the Pindus mountains.
+The whole of the evidence relating to the existence of Lions in
+Europe, and to their retreat from that continent shortly before the
+commencement of the Christian era, has been collected in the article
+on “<i>Felis spelæa</i>” in Boyd Dawkins and Sandford’s <i>British Pleistocene
+Mammalia</i> (1868). Fossil remains attest a still wider range, as
+it is shown in the same work that there is absolutely no osteological
+or dental character by which the well-known Cave Lion (<i>F.
+spelæa</i>), so abundantly found in cave-deposits of the Pleistocene age
+in Western Europe, can be distinguished from the existing <i>F. leo</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="figure224" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure224.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 224.</span>—Lion and Lioness, after a drawing by Wolf in Elliot’s Monograph of the <i>Felidæ</i>.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>At the present day the Lion is found in localities suitable to its
+habits, and where not exterminated (as it probably was in Europe)
+by the encroachments of man, throughout Africa from Algeria to
+the Cape Colony, and in Mesopotamia, Persia, and some parts of
+the north-west of India. According to Blanford,<a id="FNanchor_428" href="#Footnote_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a> Lions are still
+very numerous in the reedy swamps bordering the Tigris<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_506"></a>[506]</span> and
+Euphrates, and also occur on the west flanks of the Zagros mountains
+and the oak-clad ranges near Shiraz, to which they are
+attracted by the immense herds of swine which feed on the acorns.
+The Lion nowhere exists in the table-land of Persia, nor is it found
+in Baluchistan. In India, where it is verging on extinction, it
+appears now to be confined to parts of Kattywar and Rajputana,
+though within the present century its range extended through the
+north-west part of India, from Bahawalpur and Sind to at
+least the Jumna (about Delhi), southward as far as Khandesh, and
+in Central India through the Saugor and Narbada territories,
+Bundelkund, and as far east as Palamau. It was extirpated in
+Harriana about 1824. One was killed at Rhyli, in the Dumaoh
+district, Saugor and Narbada territories, so late as in the cold
+season of 1847-48; and one was shot in 1810 near Kot-Deji, Sind.<a id="FNanchor_429" href="#Footnote_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a></p>
+
+<p>The great variations in external characters which different Lions
+present, especially in the colour and the amount of mane, has given
+rise to the idea that there are several species, or at all events distinct
+varieties peculiar to different localities. It was at one time
+supposed, on the authority of Captain Walter Smee,<a id="FNanchor_430" href="#Footnote_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a> that the Lion
+of Gujerat differed essentially from that of Africa in the absence of
+a mane, but subsequent evidence has not supported this view, which
+was probably founded upon young specimens having been mistaken
+for adults. Lions from that district as well as from Babylonia,
+which have lived in the gardens of the London Zoological Society,
+have had as fully developed manes as any other of the species.
+Mr. F. C. Selous<a id="FNanchor_431" href="#Footnote_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a> has shown that in South Africa the so-called
+Black-maned Lion and others with yellow scanty manes are found,
+not only in the same locality, but even among individuals of the
+same parentage.</p>
+
+<p>The Lion belongs to a well-defined group, containing the largest
+members of the genus, and differing from the others in the well-marked
+character that the anterior cornu of the hyoid arch is but
+little ossified, so that this arch is connected with the cranium by a
+long ligament, instead of by a continuous chain of bones, and by
+the less important one that the pupil of the eye, when contracted,
+is a circular hole, instead of a vertical slit as in the cat. The Lion
+agrees with the Tiger and the Leopard in these respects, but differs
+from them in its uniform style of colouring, and from all the other
+<i>Felidæ</i> in the arrangement of its hairy covering; thus the hair of the
+top of the head, chin, and neck, as far back as the shoulder, is not
+only very much longer, but also differently disposed from the hair
+elsewhere, being erect or directed forwards, and so constituting the
+characteristic ornament called the mane. There is also a tuft of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_507"></a>[507]</span>
+elongated hairs at the end of the tail, one upon each elbow, and
+in most lions a copious fringe along the middle line of the under
+surface of the body, wanting, however, in some examples.<a id="FNanchor_432" href="#Footnote_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a> It must,
+however, be observed that these characters are peculiar to the adults
+of the male sex only, and that young lions show indications of
+the darker stripes and mottlings so characteristic of the greater
+number of the members of the genus.</p>
+
+<p>The usual colour of the adult is yellowish-brown, but it may
+vary from a deep red or chestnut brown to an almost silver gray.
+The mane, as well as the long hair of the other parts of the body,
+sometimes scarcely differs from the general colour, but it is usually
+darker and not unfrequently nearly black. The mane begins to
+grow when the animal is about three years old, and is fully developed
+at five or six.</p>
+
+<p>In size the Lion is only equalled or exceeded by the Tiger
+among the existing <i>Felidæ</i>; though both species present great
+variations, the largest specimens of the latter appear to surpass the
+largest Lions. A full-sized South African Lion, according to Selous,
+measures slightly less than 10 feet from nose to tip of tail, following
+the curves of the body. Harris gives 10 feet 6 inches, of which
+the tail occupies 3 feet. The Lioness is about a foot less. The
+tongue, like that of the other species of the genus, is long and flat,
+and remarkable for the development of the papillæ of the anterior
+part of the dorsal surface, which (except near the edge) are modified
+so as to resemble long, compressed, recurved, horny spines or claws;
+these, near the middle line, attaining the length of one-fifth of an
+inch. They give the part of the tongue on which they occur the
+appearance and feel of a coarse rasp, and serve the purpose of such
+an instrument in cleaning the flesh from the bones of the animals
+on which the Lions feed.</p>
+
+<p>The habits of the Lion in a state of nature are fairly well known
+from the united observations of numerous travellers and sportsmen
+who have explored those districts of the African continent in which
+it is still common. It lives chiefly in sandy plains and rocky places
+interspersed with dense thorn-thickets, or frequents the low bushes
+and tall rank grass and reeds that grow along the sides of streams
+and near the springs where it lies in wait for the larger herbivorous
+animals on which it feeds. Although it is occasionally seen abroad
+during the day, especially in wild and desolate regions, where it is
+subject to but little molestation, the night is, as in the case of so
+many other predaceous animals,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_508"></a>[508]</span> the period of its greatest activity.
+It is then that its characteristic roar is chiefly heard, as thus graphically
+described by Gordon Cumming:—</p>
+
+<p>“One of the most striking things connected with the Lion is
+his voice, which is extremely grand and peculiarly striking. It
+consists at times of a low, deep moaning, repeated five or six times,
+ending in faintly audible sighs; at other times he startles the forest
+with loud, deep-toned, solemn roars, repeated in quick succession,
+each increasing in loudness to the third or fourth, when his voice
+dies away in five or six low muffled sounds very much resembling
+distant thunder. At times, and not unfrequently, a troop may be
+heard roaring in concert, one assuming the lead, and two, three, or
+four more regularly taking up their parts, like persons singing a
+catch. Like our Scottish stags at the rutting season, they roar
+loudest in cold frosty nights; but on no occasions are their voices
+to be heard in such perfection, or so intensely powerful, as when
+two or three troops of strange Lions approach a fountain to drink
+at the same time. When this occurs, every member of each troop
+sounds a bold roar of defiance at the opposite parties; and when
+one roars, all roar together, and each seems to vie with his comrades
+in the intensity and power of his voice. The power and grandeur
+of these nocturnal concerts are inconceivably striking and pleasing to
+the hunter’s ear.”</p>
+
+<p>“The usual pace of a Lion,” C. J. Andersson<a id="FNanchor_433" href="#Footnote_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a> says, “is a walk,
+and, though apparently rather slow, yet, from the great length of
+his body, he is able to get over a good deal of ground in a short
+time. Occasionally he trots, when his speed is not inconsiderable.
+His gallop—or rather succession of bounds—is, for a short distance,
+very fast—nearly or quite equal to that of a horse. Indeed, unless
+the steed has somewhat the start when the beast charges, it will be
+puzzled to escape. Many instances are on record of horsemen who
+have incautiously approached too near to the Lion, prior to firing,
+who have been pulled down by him before they could get out of
+harm’s way. Happily, however, the beast soon tires of the exertion
+of galloping, and unless his first rush succeeds he, for the most part,
+soon halts and beats a retreat.” “The Lion, as with other members
+of the feline family,” the same writer tells us, “seldom attacks his
+prey openly, unless compelled by extreme hunger. For the most part
+he steals upon it in the manner of a cat, or ambushes himself near
+to the water or a pathway frequented by game. At such times he
+lies crouched upon his belly in a thicket until the animal approaches
+sufficiently near, when, with one prodigious bound, he pounces upon
+it. In most cases he is successful, but should his intended victim
+escape, as at times happens, from his having miscalculated the
+distance, he may make a second or even a third bound, which,
+however, usually prove fruitless, or he returns disconcerted <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_509"></a>[509]</span>to his
+hiding-place, there to wait for another opportunity.” His food consists
+of all the larger herbivorous animals of the country in which
+he resides—buffaloes, antelopes, zebras, giraffes, or even young
+elephants or rhinoceroses, though the adults of these latter he dare
+not attack. In cultivated districts the cattle, sheep, and even human
+inhabitants are never safe from his nocturnal ravages. He appears,
+however, as a general rule, only to kill when hungry or attacked,
+and not for the mere pleasure of killing, as with some other carnivorous
+animals. Moreover, he by no means limits himself to
+animals of his own killing, but, according to Selous, often prefers
+eating game that has been killed by man, even when not very fresh,
+to taking the trouble to catch an animal himself. All books of
+African travel and sport abound with stories, many of which are
+apparently well authenticated, of the lion’s prodigious strength, as,
+exemplified by his being able to drag off a whole ox in his mouth
+to a long distance, even leaping fences and dykes with it.</p>
+
+<p>The Lion appears to be monogamous, a single male and female
+continuing attached to each other irrespectively of the pairing
+season. At all events the Lion remains with the Lioness while the
+cubs are young and helpless, and assists in providing her and them
+with food, and in educating them in the art of providing for themselves.
+The number of cubs at a birth is from two to four, usually
+three. They are said to remain with their parents till they are
+about three years old. The following account by an eye-witness
+gives a good idea of Lion family life<a id="FNanchor_434" href="#Footnote_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a>:—</p>
+
+<p>“I once had the pleasure of, unobserved myself, watching a
+lion family feeding. I was encamped on the Black Umfolosi in
+Zululand, and towards evening, walking out, about half a mile
+from camp, I saw a herd of zebra galloping across me, and when
+they were nearly 200 yards off, I saw a yellow body flash towards
+the leader, and saw him fall beneath the lion’s weight. There
+was a tall tree about 60 yards from the place, and anxious to see
+what went on, I stalked up to it, while the lion was still too much
+occupied to look about him, and climbed up. He had by this time
+quite killed the beautifully striped animal, but instead of proceeding
+to eat it, he got up and roared vigorously, until there was an
+answer, and in a few minutes a lioness, accompanied by four
+whelps, came trotting up from the same direction as the zebra,
+which no doubt she had been to drive towards her husband.
+They formed a fine picture as they all stood round the carcase,
+the whelps tearing it and biting it, but unable to get through the
+tough skin. Then the lion lay down, and the lioness driving her
+offspring before her did the same four or five yards off, upon which
+he got up, and, commencing to eat, had soon finished a hind leg,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_510"></a>[510]</span>
+retiring a few yards on one side as soon as he had done so. The
+lioness came up next and tore the carcase to shreds, bolting huge
+mouthfuls, but not objecting to the whelps eating us much as they
+could find. There was a good deal of snarling and quarrelling
+among these young lions, and occasionally a stand-up fight for a
+minute, but their mother did not take any notice of them, except
+to give them a smart blow with her paw if they got in her way....
+There was now little left of the zebra but a few bones, which
+hundreds of vultures were circling round waiting to pick, while
+almost an equal number hopped awkwardly about on the ground
+within 50 or 60 yards of it, and the whole lion family walked
+quietly away, the lioness leading, and the lion, often turning his
+head to see that they were not followed, bringing up the rear.”</p>
+
+<p>Though not strictly gregarious, Lions appear to be sociable
+towards their own species, and often are found in small troops,
+sometimes consisting of a pair of old Lions, with their nearly full-grown
+cubs, but occasionally of adults of the same sex; and there
+seems to be good evidence that several Lions will associate together
+for the purpose of hunting upon a preconcerted plan. As might
+be supposed, their natural ferocity and powerful armature are
+sometimes turned upon one another; combats, often mortal, occur
+among male Lions under the influence of jealousy; and Andersson
+relates an instance of a quarrel between a hungry Lion and Lioness
+over the carcase of an Antelope which they had just killed, and
+which did not seem sufficient for the appetite of both, ending in
+the Lion not only killing, but even devouring his mate. Old Lions,
+whose teeth have become injured with constant wear, often become
+“man-eaters,” finding their easiest means of obtaining a subsistence
+in lurking in the neighbourhood of villages, and dashing into the
+tents at night and carrying off one of the sleeping inmates. Lions
+differ from most of the smaller <i>Felidæ</i> in never climbing trees;
+indeed, as mentioned before, they are rarely found in forests.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the character of the Lion, those who have had
+opportunities of observing it in its native haunts differ greatly.
+The exaggerated accounts of early writers as to its courage,
+nobility, and magnanimity have led to a reaction, which causes
+some modern authors to speak of it in language quite the reverse,
+and to accuse it of positive cowardice and all kinds of meanness.
+Livingstone goes so far as to say, “Nothing that I ever learned of
+the lion could lead me to attribute to it either the ferocious or
+noble character ascribed to it elsewhere,” and he adds that its roar
+is not distinguishable from that of the ostrich. Of course these
+different estimates depend to a great extent upon the particular
+standard of the writer, and also upon the circumstance that
+Lions, like other animals, undoubtedly show considerable individual
+differences in character, and behave differently under varying circumstances.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_511"></a>[511]</span>
+They are certainly not so reckless as to be entirely
+devoid of the instinct of self-preservation, and if one, perhaps
+satiated with a good meal the night before, unexpectedly disturbed
+in the daytime, will occasionally retreat when confronted, even by
+an unarmed man, that is scarcely a reason for assigning cowardice
+as one of the characteristics of the species. The latest authority,
+Selous, while never denying the daring courage of the Lion when
+hungry or provoked, and vindicating the awe-inspiring character of
+the roar of several Lions in unison, when heard at close quarters,
+as the grandest sound in nature, says with regard to its outward
+aspect:—</p>
+
+<p>“It has always appeared to me that the word ‘majestic’ is
+singularly inapplicable to the lion in its wild state, as when seen
+by daylight he always has a stealthy furtive look that entirely
+does away with the idea of majesty. To look majestic a lion
+should hold his head high. This he seldom does. When walking
+he holds it low, lower than the line of his back, and it is only
+when he first becomes aware of the presence of man that he sometimes
+raises his head and takes a look at the intruder, usually
+lowering it immediately, and trotting away with a growl. When
+at bay, standing with open mouth and glaring eyes, holding his
+head low between his shoulders, and keeping up a continuous low
+growling, twitching his tail the while from side to side, no animal
+can look more unpleasant than a lion; but there is then nothing
+majestic or noble in his appearance.”</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding this evidently truthful description of the
+animal when seen under what may be called unfavourable circumstances,
+no one with an eye for beauty can contemplate the form
+of a fine specimen of a Lion, at all events in a state of repose, even
+though in the confinement of a menagerie, without being impressed
+with the feeling that it is a grand and noble-looking animal.</p>
+
+<p>The Tiger (<i>F. tigris</i>) is so closely related to the Lion that it is
+chiefly by external characters that the two species are distinguished.
+There are, however, slight distinctions in the proportionate size of
+the lower teeth, the general form of the cranium, and the relative
+length of the nasal bones and ascending processes of the maxillaries
+by which the skull of the Lion and Tiger can be easily discriminated
+by the practised observer.</p>
+
+<p>Although examples of both species present considerable variations
+in size, and reliance cannot always be placed upon alleged
+dimensions, especially when taken from skins stripped from the
+body, it seems well ascertained that the length of the largest-sized
+Bengal Tiger may exceed that of any Lion. According to Mr. W.
+T. Blanford,<a id="FNanchor_435" href="#Footnote_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a> adult males measure from 5½ to 6½ feet from the
+nose to the root of the tail; the tail itself measuring some 3 feet<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_512"></a>[512]</span>
+in length. Measured along the curves of the head and back to the
+tip of the tail, males usually give a length of from 9 to 10 feet,
+but some specimens reach to 12 feet. The female is somewhat
+smaller, and has a lighter and narrower head. The Tiger has no
+mane, but in old males the hair of the cheeks is rather long and
+spreading. The ground colour of the upper and outer parts of the
+head, body, limbs, and tail is a bright rufous fawn, and these parts
+are beautifully marked with transverse stripes of a dark, almost
+black colour. The markings vary much in different individuals,
+and even on the two sides of the same individual. The under
+parts of the body, the inside of the limbs, the cheeks, and a large
+spot over each eye are nearly white. The Tigers which inhabit
+hotter regions, as Bengal and the south Asiatic islands, have shorter
+and smoother hair, and are more richly coloured and distinctly
+striped than those of Northern China and Siberia, in which the fur
+is longer, softer, and lighter coloured.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp79" id="figure225" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure225.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 225.</span>—The Tiger (<i>Felis tigris</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Tiger is exclusively Asiatic, but has a very wide range in
+that continent, having been found in almost all suitable localities
+south of a line drawn from the river Euphrates, passing along the
+southern shores of the Caspian and Sea of Aral by Lake Baikal to
+the Sea of Okhotsk. Its most northern range is the territory
+of the Amur, its most southern the islands of Sumatra, Java, and
+Bali. Westward it reaches to Turkish Georgia and eastward to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_513"></a>[513]</span>
+the island of Saghalin. It is absent, however, from the great
+elevated plateau of Central Asia, nor does it inhabit Ceylon,
+Borneo, or the other islands of the Indo-Malayan Archipelago,
+except those above mentioned. Its absence from Ceylon leads
+Mr. Blanford to conclude that the Tiger has only recently migrated
+into Southern India.</p>
+
+<p>The principal food of the Tiger in India is cattle, deer, wild hog,
+and pea-fowl, and occasionally human beings. The regular “man-eater”
+is generally an old Tiger whose vigour is passed, and whose
+teeth are worn and defective; it takes up its abode in the neighbourhood
+of a village, the population of which it finds an easier
+prey than the larger or wilder animals named above. Though
+chiefly affecting grassy plains or swamps, it is also found in forests,
+and seems to be fond of haunting the neighbourhood of old ruins.
+As a rule, Tigers do not climb trees; but when pressed by fear, as
+during an inundation, they have been known to do so. They take
+to the water readily and are good swimmers. The Tigers of the
+Sundarbans (Ganges delta) continually swim from one island to the
+other to change their hunting-grounds for deer. The following
+extract on the habits of the Tiger is taken from Sir J. Fayrer’s
+<i>Royal Tiger of Bengal</i> (1875):—</p>
+
+<p>“The tigress gives birth to from two to five, even six cubs;
+but three is a frequent number. She is a most affectionate and
+attached mother, and generally guards and trains her young with
+the most watchful solicitude. They remain with her until nearly
+full grown, or about the second year, when they are able to kill for
+themselves and begin life on their own account. Whilst they
+remain with her she is peculiarly vicious and aggressive, defending
+them with the greatest courage and energy, and when robbed of
+them is terrible in her rage; but she has been known to desert
+them when pressed, and even to eat them when starved. As soon
+as they begin to require other food than her milk, she kills for
+them, teaching them to do so for themselves by practising on small
+animals, such as deer and young calves or pigs. At these times
+she is wanton and extravagant in her cruelty, killing apparently
+for the gratification of her ferocious and bloodthirsty nature, and
+perhaps to excite and instruct the young ones, and it is not until
+they are thoroughly capable of killing their own food that she
+separates from them. The young tigers are far more destructive
+than the old. They will kill three or four cows at a time, whilst
+the older and more experienced rarely kill more than one, and this
+at intervals of from three or four days to a week. For this purpose
+the tiger will leave its retreat in the dense jungle, proceed to
+the neighbourhood of a village or gowrie, where cattle feed, and
+during the night will steal on and strike down a bullock, drag it
+into a secluded place, and then remain near the ‘marrie,’ or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_514"></a>[514]</span>
+‘kill,’ for several days, until it has eaten it, when it will proceed
+in search of a further supply, and, having found good hunting
+ground in the vicinity of a village or gowrie, continue its ravages,
+destroying one or two cows or buffaloes a week. It is very fond of
+the ordinary domestic cattle, which in the plains of India are
+generally weak, half-starved, under-sized creatures. One of these
+is easily struck down and carried or dragged off. The smaller
+buffaloes are also easily disposed of; but the buffalo bulls, and
+especially the wild ones, are formidable antagonists, and have
+often been known to beat the Tiger off, and even to wound him
+seriously.”</p>
+
+<p>In many districts of India the number of Tigers has been very
+considerably diminished of late years. In some other countries
+they appear, however, to be on the increase; thus according to
+one of the administration reports of Java laid before the Dutch
+Chambers, portions of that island are being depopulated through
+Tigers. In 1882 the population of a village in the south-west of
+the Bantam province was removed and transferred to an island off
+the coast in consequence of the trouble caused to the people by
+Tigers. These animals have now become an intolerable pest in
+parts of the same province. The total population is about 600,000,
+and, in 1887, sixty-one were killed by Tigers, and in consequence
+of the dread existing among the people, it has been proposed to
+deport the inhabitants of the villages most threatened to other
+parts of the country where Tigers are not so common, and where
+they can pursue their agricultural occupations with a greater
+degree of security. At present they fear to go anywhere near
+the borders of the forest. The people seem disinclined, or they
+lack the means and courage, to attack and destroy their enemy,
+although considerable rewards are offered by Government for the
+destruction of beasts of prey. In 1888 the reward for killing a
+Royal Tiger was raised to two hundred florins. It appears also that
+the immunity of the Tiger is in part due to superstition, for it is
+considered wrong to kill one unless he attacks first or otherwise
+does injury.</p>
+
+<p>The Leopard (<i>F. pardus</i>, <a href="#figure226">Fig. 226</a>), although belonging to the
+same restricted group as the two preceding species, is distinguished
+from both by its inferior size, and its coloration. The animal
+now commonly known as the Leopard was called Pard (πάρδος and
+πάρδαλις) or Panther (πάνθηρ) by the ancients. Leopard (<i>leo-pardus</i>)
+is a later term, originally applied, it is believed, to the Cheeta or
+Hunting Leopard, upon the supposition that it was a creature
+intermediate between the Lion and the true Pard. If so it has
+been completely transferred to the more common species, and
+though in this sense a perfectly unnecessary and unmeaning term,
+has gradually superseded those by which this was originally known.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_515"></a>[515]</span>
+Pard, so commonly used by Elizabethan authors, is now nearly
+obsolete in the English language, and Panther has either become
+synonymous with Leopard, or is used vaguely for any similar large
+feline animal, even the Puma of America.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="figure226" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure226.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 226.</span>—The Leopard (<i>Felis pardus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Owing to their extensive geographical range, and the great
+variations, both in size, form, and coloration to which Leopards are
+subject, zoologists have scarcely decided whether all the forms
+popularly referred to this animal should be regarded as specifically
+alike, or whether they should constitute several distinct species,
+but the prevailing opinion is in favour of the former view. The
+attempts to separate a larger and more robust variety, under the
+name of Panther, from a smaller and more graceful form, to which
+the term Leopard might properly be restricted, have failed, owing
+to the existence of intermediate conditions which cannot be assigned
+definitely to either one or the other form.<a id="FNanchor_436" href="#Footnote_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a> The most marked
+anatomical difference yet noted in different varieties of leopard is
+in the length of the tail as compared with that of the body, even
+the number of the caudal vertebræ showing variation, though within
+what limits, and whether correlated with other characters, has not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_516"></a>[516]</span>
+yet been clearly ascertained. The fur of those specimens which
+inhabit the most northern confines of its range of distribution, as
+North China, is longer and softer, and the markings are consequently
+less distinct than on those from more congenial climates,
+and the well-marked variation thus produced has given rise to the
+idea of specific distinction.</p>
+
+<p>The size of different individuals, as before said, varies greatly,
+the head and body usually measuring from 3½ to 4½ feet in length,
+and the tail from 2½ to 3 feet, but specimens have been met with
+which fall short of or exceed these limits. The ground colour of
+the fur varies from a pale fawn to a rufous buff, graduating into a
+pure white on the under parts and inside of the limbs. This is
+spotted over with dark brown or black; the spots on the back and
+sides being arranged in rosettes or broken rings, which vary greatly
+in size and distinctness in different individuals, but are without the
+central spot seen in those of the Jaguar. The spots on the under
+parts and limbs are simple and blacker than those on the other parts
+of the body. The bases of the ears behind are black, the tips buff.
+The upper side of the tail is buff, spotted with broken rings like
+the back, its under surface white with simple spots. The hair of
+the cubs is longer than that of the adults, its ground colour less
+bright, and its spots less distinct. Perfectly black Leopards, which,
+however, in certain lights show the characteristic markings on the
+fur, are not uncommon. These appear to be examples of melanism,
+occurring as individual variations, sometimes in one cub out of a
+litter of which the rest are normally coloured, and therefore not
+indicating a distinct race, much less a species. These are met
+with chiefly in Southern Asia. We are not aware of any recorded
+case from Africa, though there seems no reason why they should
+not occur.</p>
+
+<p>In habits the Leopard resembles the other large Cat-like animals,
+yielding to none in the ferocity and bloodthirstiness of its disposition.
+It is exceedingly quick and active in its movements, but
+seizes its prey by waiting in ambush or stealthily approaching to
+within springing distance, when it suddenly rushes upon it and
+tears it to the ground with its powerful claws and teeth. It preys
+upon almost any animal it can overcome, such as antelopes, deer,
+sheep, goats, monkeys, peafowls, and is said to have a special liking
+for dogs. It not unfrequently attacks human beings in India,
+chiefly children and old women, but instances have been known of
+a Leopard becoming a regular “man-eater.” When favourable
+opportunities occur, it often kills many more victims than it can
+devour at once, apparently to gratify its propensity for killing, or
+only for the sake of their fresh blood. It generally inhabits woody
+districts, and can climb high trees with facility if necessary for its
+safety when hunted, but usually lives on or near the ground, among
+rocks, bushes, and roots and low branches of large trees.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_517"></a>[517]</span></p>
+
+<p>The present geographical range of the Leopard is very extensive,
+as it is met with in various suitable localities, where not too much
+interfered with by human cultivation, throughout the greater part
+of Africa from Algeria to the Cape Colony, and through the whole
+of the South of Asia from Palestine to China, including all India
+south of the Himalaya, and the islands of Ceylon, Java, Sumatra,
+and Borneo. Fossil bones and teeth, indistinguishable from those
+of existing Leopards, have been found in cave-deposits of Pleistocene
+age in Spain, France, Germany, and England. The evidence
+of the former existence of the Leopard in England is described at
+length by Boyd Dawkins and Sanford in their <i>British Pleistocene
+Mammalia</i>.<a id="FNanchor_437" href="#Footnote_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Ounce, or Snow Leopard (<i>F. uncia</i>), inhabits the highlands
+of Central Asia, from the lofty mountains of Tibet to the southern
+parts of Siberia, at altitudes of from 9000 to 18,000 feet above the
+sea. It is about the size of the common Leopard, but lighter in
+colour, with longer fur, less distinct spots, and a long thick tail.
+Its skull differs in shape from that of all the other <i>Felidæ</i>; the
+facial portion being very broad, the nasal bones especially being
+wide and depressed, and the zygomatic arches very strong and
+deep. The Clouded Tiger (<i>F. nebulosa</i><a id="FNanchor_438" href="#Footnote_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a>) is a beautifully marked
+species, with elongated head
+and body, long tail, and rather
+short limbs. The canine teeth
+are proportionally longer than
+in any existing member of
+the genus. It is thoroughly
+arboreal, and is found in the
+forests of South-East Asia and
+the islands of Sumatra, Java,
+Borneo, and Formosa.
+<i>F. serval</i>, the Serval, from
+South Africa, is yellow with
+black spots, and has a short
+tail and large ears. Numerous
+smaller species called Tiger
+Cats and Wild Cats, of which
+the Oriental <i>F. marmorata</i>
+(<a href="#figure227">Fig. 227</a>) is a good example,
+are found throughout the
+warmer parts of Asia and
+Africa. The Wild Cat of Europe, <i>F. catus</i>, still inhabits the
+mountainous and wooded parts of Great Britain.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp64" id="figure227" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure227.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 227.</span>—The Marbled Cat (<i>Felis marmorata</i>).
+From Blanford, <i>Mammalia of British India</i>, p. 74,
+after Elliot.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_518"></a>[518]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Caffre Cat (<i>F. caffra</i><a id="FNanchor_439" href="#Footnote_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a>), of Africa and Southern Asia, was the
+species held in veneration by the ancient Egyptians, and immense
+numbers of its mummified remains have recently been found in
+Egypt, whence they have been imported in large quantities to this
+country for manure. This species is generally regarded as the
+main ancestral stock from which the European Domestic Cat has
+been derived; one of the arguments in support of this opinion being
+that the whole of the sole of the hind foot of <i>F. caffra</i> is black, and
+that the same feature obtains in the darker varieties of the Domestic
+Cat; while in <i>F. catus</i> there are only spots of black upon this
+portion of the limb. Remains of the Caffre Cat occur in the
+Pleistocene cave-deposits at Gibraltar. The Indian <i>F. rubiginosa</i> is
+the smallest species of Cat.</p>
+
+<p>The Caracal or Persian Lynx (<i>F. caracal</i>) is an animal about
+the size of a fox, of slender build, with a moderately long tail,
+reaching down to the heels. It is of a uniform vinous or bright
+fulvous brown colour above, and is paler, sometimes almost white,
+beneath. It is quite or almost entirely unspotted. The tail has a
+black tip, and the ears are black externally, long, upright, pointed,
+and surmounted by a pencil of fine black hairs. It inhabits Central
+and North-West India, Persia, Arabia, Syria, and the greater part
+of Africa.</p>
+
+<p>The true Lynxes comprise various species or varieties found
+in the northern and temperate regions of both the Old and New
+World, all larger than the true Wild Cats, with long limbs, short
+stumpy tail, ears tufted at the tip, and pupil of the eye linear when
+contracted. Their fur is generally long and soft, varying, however,
+according to season and locality, and always longish upon the
+cheeks. Their colour is always light brown or gray, and generally
+more or less spotted with a darker shade. The naked pads of the
+feet are more or less covered by the hair that grows between them.
+The skull and skeleton do not differ markedly from those of the
+other cats, but the small anterior upper premolar tooth found in
+many other species is usually wanting; and the lower carnassial has a
+rudimental talon. Their habits are exactly those of the other Wild
+Cats, and they are exceeded by none in the untameable savageness
+of their disposition. They capture their prey in the same manner,
+either lying in wait, or noiselessly stealing within reach, and then
+making a sudden rush or spring upon it. Their food consists of
+any mammals or birds which they can overpower. In inhabited
+countries they commit extensive ravages upon sheep, lambs, and
+poultry. Lynxes generally frequent rocky places and forests, being
+active climbers, and passing much of their time among the branches
+of the trees. Their skins are of considerable commercial value.</p>
+
+<p>Zoologists are by no means agreed at present as to the specific
+distinctions, if any really exist, between the various modifications<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_519"></a>[519]</span>
+of this group. As many as eight species are sometimes recognised,
+four belonging to the Old and four to the New World. The former
+are <i>F. lynx</i>, of Scandinavia, Russia, Northern Asia, and till lately
+the forest regions of Central Europe; though not an inhabitant of
+Britain during the historic period, its remains have been found in
+cave-deposits of Pleistocene age; <i>F. cervaria</i>, Siberia; <i>F. pardina</i>,
+Turkey, Greece, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain; and <i>F. isabellina</i>, Tibet.
+The American varieties are <i>F. canadensis</i>, the most northern species,
+and <i>F. rufa</i>, the American Wild Cat or Bay Lynx, extensively distributed
+from the Atlantic to the Pacific throughout nearly the
+whole latitude of the United States, but replaced in Texas and
+southern California by <i>F. maculata</i>, and in northern Oregon and
+Washington territory by <i>F. fasciata</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure228" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure228.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 228.</span>—European Lynx (<i>Felis lynx</i>). From a drawing by Wolf in Elliot’s
+<i>Monograph of the Felidæ</i>.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In both cases, as might be supposed, specimens obtained from
+the more southern climates are shorter in their fur, more brightly
+coloured, and more distinctly spotted than those from colder regions.
+When only a few individuals of each most markedly different form
+are examined the distinctions are sufficiently evident. The occurrence,
+however, of transitional or intermediate forms makes it
+extremely difficult to draw the line between the different varieties
+or species, or to assign definite characters by which they can be
+separated. Wherefore it is best at present to accept the so-called<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_520"></a>[520]</span>
+species as only provisional, and wait until more abundant materials,
+with fuller knowledge of the localities from which they are derived,
+and of the variations due to age, sex, season, and climate, have
+been more carefully studied. We shall then probably come to the
+conclusion that all or nearly all the existing forms of northern
+Lynxes, whether American or Eurasian, belong to what may fairly
+be called a species, which is becoming by degrees differentiated into
+several more or less strongly marked local varieties. Mr. W. T.
+Blanford has indeed shown that the Tibetan Lynx (<i>F. isabellina</i>)
+is inseparable from <i>F. lynx</i>; the specimens from Gilgit being intermediate
+in colour between the typical forms of the two races.
+On the other hand, from the evidence of cranial characters, Professor
+Mivart is disposed to regard <i>F. pardina</i> as a valid species.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure229" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure229.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 229.</span>—The Puma (<i>Felis concolor</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>B. <i>New World Species.</i>—The Puma or Couguar (<i>F. concolor</i>, <a href="#figure229">Fig.
+229</a>), commonly called “Panther” in the United States, is about
+the size of a Leopard, but of an uniform brown colour. It usually
+measures from nose to root of tail about 40 inches, the tail being
+rather more than half that length. The head is rather small compared
+with that of other Cats and has no mane. The ears are large
+and rounded. The tail is cylindrical, with some bushy elongation
+of the hairs near the end, but not forming a distinct tuft as in the
+Lion. The general colour of all the upper parts and sides of the
+adult is a tawny yellowish-brown, sometimes having a gray or
+silvery shade, but in some individuals dark or inclining to red.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_521"></a>[521]</span>
+The lower parts of the body, inner surface of the limbs, the
+throat, chin, and upper lip are dirty white; the outside of the ears,
+particularly at their base, and a patch on each side of the muzzle
+black; the end of the tail dusky. The young are, when born,
+spotted with dusky brown and the tail ringed; these markings
+gradually fading, and quite disappearing before the animal becomes
+full-grown.</p>
+
+<p>The Puma has an exceedingly wide range of geographical
+distribution, extending over a hundred degrees of latitude, from
+Canada in the north to Patagonia in the south, and was formerly
+pretty generally diffused in suitable localities from the Atlantic to
+the Pacific Ocean, but the advances of civilisation have in recent
+years considerably curtailed the extent of the districts which it
+inhabits. In Central America it is still common in the dense forests
+which clothe the mountain ranges as high as 8000 or 9000 feet
+above the sea-level, where the hideous sound of its howling is
+said to be almost continuously heard at night during the breeding
+season. Though an expert climber, it is by no means confined to
+wooded districts, being frequently found in scrub and reeds along
+the banks of rivers, and even in the open pampas and prairies. Its
+habits much resemble those of the rest of the group to which it
+belongs; and, like the Leopard, when it happens to come within
+reach of an abundant and easy prey, as the sheep or calves of an
+outlying farming station, it kills far more than it can eat, either
+for the sake of the blood only or to gratify its propensity for
+destruction. It rarely attacks man, and, when pursued, escapes if
+possible by ascending lofty trees. Several instances have occurred
+of Pumas becoming tame in captivity. Edmund Kean, the celebrated
+actor, had one which followed him about like a dog. When
+caressed they express their pleasure by purring like a domestic
+cat.</p>
+
+<p><i>F. onca</i>, the Jaguar, is a larger and more powerful animal than
+the last, and more resembles the Leopard in its colours. It also is
+found in both North and South America, but with less extensive
+range, reaching northwards only as far as Texas, and southwards
+nearly to Patagonia. It climbs as well as the Puma, and preys to
+a great extent upon monkeys. Several allied smaller elegantly
+spotted forms inhabiting the intratropical regions of America are
+commonly included under the name of Ocelot or Tiger Cat, though
+zoologists are still undecided whether under this designation several
+distinct species have not been confused, or whether all the Ocelots
+are to be referred to a single species (<i>F. pardalis</i>) showing great
+individual or racial variation. Their fur has always a tawny yellow
+or reddish-gray ground colour, and is marked with black spots,
+aggregated in streaks and blotches, or in elongated rings enclosing
+an area which is rather darker than the general ground colour.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_522"></a>[522]</span>
+They range through the wooded parts of tropical America, from
+Arkansas in the north as far south as Paraguay, and in their habits
+resemble the other smaller members of the Cat tribe, being ready
+climbers and exceedingly bloodthirsty.</p>
+
+<p><i>F. yaguarundi</i>, rather larger than the Domestic Cat, with an
+elongated head and body, and of a uniform brownish-gray colour,
+ranges from Matamoras to Paraguay. <i>F. eyra</i> is a small Cat, very
+Musteline in form, having an elongated head, body, and tail, and
+short limbs, and is also of a uniform light reddish-brown colour.
+It is a native of South America and Mexico. <i>F. pajeros</i> is the
+Pampas Cat. The American Lynxes have been already noticed
+with those of the Old World.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure230" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure230.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 230.</span>—The Ocelot (<i>Felis pardalis</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>C. <i>Fossil Species.</i>—It has been already incidentally mentioned
+that several of the existing species of <i>Felis</i>, such as the Lion,
+Leopard and Caffre Cat, are met with in a fossil condition in the
+European Pleistocene deposits, and it may be added that the Pardine
+Lynx has left its remains in the cavern-deposits of Gibraltar. The
+caves of Brazil have yielded remains of the Jaguar and Ocelot;
+while the Puma is found in the Pleistocene of the United States.
+Existing species now inhabiting India are met with in cavern-deposits
+in Madras. In the Pliocene Siwaliks of Northern India
+the huge extinct <i>F. cristata</i> shows characters connecting it both
+with the Tiger and the Jaguar; and the same deposit also contains<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_523"></a>[523]</span>
+the remains of a small species of the size of <i>F. bengalensis</i>. In
+Europe numerous species occur in the Upper and Lower Pliocene,
+some of which were as large as a Leopard. <i>F. atrox</i> and <i>F. augusta</i>,
+of the Pliocene of the United States, were of the dimensions of the
+Lion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cynælurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_440" href="#Footnote_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a>—The Cheeta or Hunting Leopard (<i>C. jubatus</i>) is distinguished
+from the other <i>Felidæ</i> by the inner tubercle of the upper
+carnassial, though supported by a distinct root, having no salient
+cusp upon it; by the tubercular molar being more in a line with
+the other teeth; and by the claws being smaller, less curved, and
+less completely retractile, owing to the feebler development of the
+elastic ligaments. The skull is short and high, with the frontal
+region broad and elevated in consequence of the large development
+of the frontal air-sinuses. The head is small and round, the body
+light, the limbs and tail long. Its colour is pale yellowish-brown
+with small black spots. The Cheeta is less savage and more
+easily tamed than most of the Cats. In Asia it has been trained
+for the chase of the Antelope. It has rather an extensive geographical
+range from the Cape of Good Hope, throughout Africa
+and the south-western parts of Asia, as far as Southern India.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—A number of forms are gradually becoming
+known, especially through the researches of American palæontologists,
+which, though evidently animals of the same general type,
+and therefore to be placed in or near the family <i>Felidæ</i>, depart so
+much in various details of structure that they must be referred to
+different genera. As one of the points in which <i>Felis</i> manifests its
+specialisation is the reduction of the number of the molar series of
+teeth, with concomitant shortening of the jaws, it might be
+supposed that in the earlier and perhaps ancestral forms these
+teeth would be more numerous and approach more nearly to the
+primitive or typical number of the heterodont mammals, viz. seven
+on each side. This is actually the case. Similarly we find that
+many of these forms exhibit a less specialised structure of the teeth
+themselves, as is shown by the absence of the anterior lobe of the
+upper carnassial, and the retention of the hind talon in the corresponding
+lower tooth. Again, some of them have an alisphenoid
+canal in the skull; while the femur may have a third trochanter,
+and the claws be very imperfectly retractile.</p>
+
+<p>An extremely generalised form is the small <i>Proælurus</i>, from the
+Upper Eocene and Lower Miocene, with <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂, an alisphenoid
+canal, and a third trochanter to the femur. <i>Dinictis</i>, of the North
+American Miocene, is a larger allied form, with <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; the upper
+carnassial having no anterior lobe, and the ungual phalanges being
+devoid of bony sheaths. The characters of the base of the skull,
+and the form and relations of the astragalus, differ very considerably<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_524"></a>[524]</span>
+from <i>Felis</i>. <i>Pseudælurus</i>, from the French Miocene, is another
+very generalised Feline, in which there may be either three or four
+premolars, and the lower carnassial may retain its inner cusp.
+<i>Ælurictis</i>, of the French Phosphorites, with <i>p</i> ³⁄₃₋₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁₋₂, together
+with several American Miocene genera, such as <i>Nimravus</i> (<i>p</i> ³⁄₂,
+<i>m</i> ¹⁄₂), <i>Archælurus</i> (<i>p</i> ³⁄₃₋₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂), <i>Pogonodon</i> (<i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁), and <i>Hoplophoneus</i>
+(<i>p</i> ²⁻³⁄₂, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁), approach more closely to the modern Cats,
+although many or all of them retain the alisphenoid canal, and have
+not yet developed the anterior lobe to the upper carnassial, or lost
+the talon to the lower one. <i>Hoplophoneus</i> has a descending flange
+to the mandible; and its scapholunar bone has a line indicating its
+dual origin; while the femur still retains the third trochanter,
+of which all traces are lost in the modern Cats.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, some of the extinct <i>Felidæ</i> show a most
+remarkable tendency towards a specialisation not occurring in any
+of the surviving members of the family, viz. an enormous development
+of the upper canines, with which is usually associated an
+expansion downwards and flattening of the anterior part of the
+ramus of the lower jaw, on the outer side of which the canine lies,
+when the mouth is closed. In <i>Machærodus næogeus</i>, the Sabre-toothed
+Tiger, from the caves of Brazil and also from Pleistocene
+deposits near Buenos Ayres, an animal about the size of a Tiger,
+these teeth are 7 inches in length, greatly compressed, and finely
+serrated on the trenchant anterior edges. Similar serrations are
+seen on a much fainter scale in the unworn teeth of modern Tigers.
+Many modifications of this commonly-called “machærodont” type
+have been met with both in the Old and New World. In <i>M.
+cultridens</i>, of the Upper Pliocene of Italy and France, the upper
+canine is long and narrow, with smooth cutting edges; the smaller
+form described as <i>M. meganthereon</i> being apparently the female
+of this species. <i>M. crenatidens</i>, of the same deposits, is distinguished
+by the shorter and broader upper canine, in which both edges are
+strongly serrated; the same feature occurring in the closely allied
+or identical <i>M. latidens</i> of the English cavern-deposits. The Italian
+Pliocene form described as <i>M. nestianus</i> has serrations only on the
+hinder edge of the upper canine, and the third lower premolar
+is separated by a long interval from the fourth. <i>M. necator</i>,
+of the Pleistocene of South America, is remarkable as being the
+only member of the family in which the humerus has no entepicondylar
+foramen. A very remarkable form, <i>Eusmilus</i>, from the
+Upper Eocene Phosphorites of Central France, differs from all other
+known Felines in having only two pairs of incisors in the lower jaw,
+and a small canine separated by a very long diastema from the
+cheek-teeth, which consist only of one premolar and one sectorial
+true molar. The lower jaw is enormously expanded towards the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_525"></a>[525]</span>
+symphysis to protect the large upper canines. This animal then,
+although of Eocene age, appears to form the culminating development
+of the sabre-toothed or machærodont dentition, the most
+specially carnivorous type of structure known.</p>
+
+<p>Other species of <i>Machærodus</i> are found in the Pliocene deposits
+of Europe and Asia. The accompanying
+woodcut exhibits the last two upper teeth
+of the Indian <i>M. sivalensis</i>, from which it will
+be seen that the inner tubercle of the carnassial
+is much reduced in size, while the molar is
+very minute.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Viverridæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp60" id="figure231" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure231.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 231.</span>—Oral surface
+of the left upper carnassial
+and molar of <i>Machærodus
+sivalensis</i>.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Premolars ³⁄₃ or ⁴⁄₄. Molars ¹⁄₁ or ²⁄₂. Upper
+carnassial usually without an anterior lobe, and
+the lower one with a well-developed talon;
+second lower incisor (as in all the following
+families) raised above the level of the first and
+third. Auditory bulla externally constricted, and divided by a
+septum. An alisphenoid canal (with very rare exceptions). Carotid
+canal distinct as a groove on the side of the bulla. Humerus
+usually with an entepicondylar foramen. Digits usually 5-5, but
+sometimes the pollex or hallux or both may be wanting. Dorsal
+vertebræ 13 or 14. Limited in distribution to the Old World.</p>
+
+<p>The subfamily <b>Cryptoproctinæ</b> contains the single genus <i>Cryptoprocta</i>.<a id="FNanchor_441" href="#Footnote_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a>
+Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁; total 36. The teeth
+generally closely resemble those of the <i>Felidæ</i>. The first premolar
+of both jaws is very minute and early deciduous. The upper
+carnassial has a very small inner tubercle, quite at the anterior part
+of the tooth. The true molar is very small and placed transversely.
+The lower carnassial has a large trenchant bilobed blade, and a
+very minute talon, but no inner cusp. Skull generally like that of
+<i>Felis</i>, but proportionately longer and narrower. Orbit widely open
+behind. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 29. Body elongated.
+Limbs moderate in size. Feet subplantigrade; five well-developed
+toes on each, with sharp, compressed, retractile claws. Ears
+moderate. Tail long and cylindrical.</p>
+
+<p>The only known species, <i>C. ferox</i>, the “Foussa” of the Malagasy,
+is peculiar to Madagascar, being the largest carnivorous animal in
+the island. It is about twice the size of the common Cat (5 feet
+from nose to end of tail), with short close fur of nearly uniform
+pale brown. Little is as yet known of its habits, except that it is
+nocturnal, frequently attacks and carries off goats, and especially
+kids, and shows great ferocity when wounded, on which account it
+is much dreaded by the natives.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_526"></a>[526]</span></p>
+
+<p>The remaining numerous specific and generic modifications found
+in the existing animals belonging to this family seem to arrange
+themselves mainly into two tolerably distinct groups, distinguishable
+by the characters of the auditory bulla and neighbouring parts
+of the base of the skull, and by the structure of the feet. The one
+form has the genus <i>Viverra</i> or Civet Cats for its most typical representative,
+and the other <i>Herpestes</i> or the Ichneumons.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Viverrinæ</b>.—Auditory bulla oval, or rather conical,
+broad and truncated and not everted behind, narrow in front and
+more or less compressed at the sides. The outer or anterior
+chamber very small and flat. The meatus with scarcely any
+inferior lip, its orifice being close to the tympanic ring. Paroccipital
+process triangular, its apex projecting slightly beyond the
+bulla. Claws strongly curved and more or less retractile. Perineal
+scent-glands generally present.</p>
+
+<p>This subfamily includes both Ethiopian and Oriental forms, but
+the former are the more numerous.</p>
+
+<p>The typical section, which includes five genera, has the following
+characters. Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂ (¹⁄₂ in <i>Prionodon</i>);
+total 40. Skull elongated; facial portion small and compressed.
+Orbits well-defined but incomplete behind. Teeth always sectorial,
+never very small. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7 (or D 14, L 6),
+S 3, C 22-30. Body elongated and compressed. Head pointed in
+front; ears rather small. Extremities short. Feet small and
+rounded. Toes short, five on each foot. First toe both on fore
+and hind feet much shorter than the others. Palms and soles
+covered with hair, except the pads of the feet and toes, and in
+some species a narrow central line on the under side of the sole,
+extending backwards nearly to the heel. Tail moderate or long;
+usually marked with dark and light rings. A pair of large glandular
+follicles situated on the perineum (in both sexes), and secreting in
+most species an oily substance of a peculiarly penetrating odour.</p>
+
+<p>The numerous species of this section form a large series, the
+two extremes of which differ considerably, but the several genera
+into which they may be divided blend so into one another that it is
+difficult to differentiate them sharply.</p>
+
+<p>All the animals of this section are, for their size, extremely
+active, fierce, and rapacious. They feed chiefly on small mammals
+and birds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Viverra.</i><a id="FNanchor_442" href="#Footnote_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a>—This includes the largest species. The teeth (<a href="#figure232">Fig.
+232</a>) are stouter and less compressed than in the other genera; the
+second upper molar being especially larger. The auditory bulla smaller
+and more pointed in front. Body shorter and stouter; limbs
+longer; tail shorter, tapering. Under side of tarsus completely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_527"></a>[527]</span>
+covered with hair. Claws longer and less retractile. Fur rather
+long and loose, and in the middle line of the neck and back usually
+elongated so as to form a sort of crest or mane; neck with a black
+gorget. Pupil circular when contracted. Perineal glands greatly
+developed. These characters apply especially to <i>V. civetta</i>, the
+African Civet, or “Civet-Cat” as it is commonly called, an animal
+rather larger than a common Fox, and an inhabitant of intratropical
+Africa. <i>V. zibetha</i>, the Indian Civet, of about equal size,
+inhabits Bengal, China, the Malay Peninsula, and adjoining islands.
+<i>V. tangalunga</i>, from Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippines,
+and <i>V. megaspila</i>, from Burma, are smaller but nearly allied
+animals; the latter being more distinctly spotted than either of the
+others. From these species and the next the civet of commerce,
+once so much admired as a perfume in England, and still largely
+used in the East, is obtained. The animals are kept in cages, and
+the odoriferous secretion collected from the interior of the perineal
+follicles with a spoon or spatula.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure232" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure232.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 232.</span>—The left upper dentition of the Indian Civet (<i>Viverra zibetha</i>). From the
+<i>Palæontologia Indica</i>.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Rasse or Lesser Indian Civet (<i>V. malaccensis</i>) may be regarded
+as the representative of a distinct group of <i>Viverra</i>, although
+often referred to a separate genus (<i>Viverricula</i>). The size of this
+animal is smaller than in the typical group, the build is slighter, the
+muzzle finer, the claws sharper and more curved, and there is no
+erectile mane along the back. Generally there is an alisphenoid
+canal in the skull; and the anterior chamber of the auditory bulla is
+much more inflated than the hinder one, so that the apparent length
+of the whole bulla is increased. This species is found over the
+greater part of India, and extends to the Malay Peninsula and
+Southern China.</p>
+
+<p>Large species of <i>Viverra</i> occur in the Pleistocene and Pliocene of
+India, and also in the Pliocene of France, which approximate in
+some characters of the dentition to the extinct genus <i>Ictitherium</i>,
+mentioned at the end of the family. Species of this genus have
+also been described from the Miocene and Upper Eocene of Europe.
+The Lower Miocene <i>V. antiqua</i> has an alisphenoid canal, and all the
+other cranial characters of the typical forms.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_528"></a>[528]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Fossa.</i><a id="FNanchor_443" href="#Footnote_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a>—The Fossa of Madagascar comes so close to the Rasse
+that its right to generic distinction seems doubtful. There is,
+however, no scent-pouch. The limbs are slender; and there are
+two small bare spots on the sole of the hind foot, above the
+plantar pads. There is no dark line along the back; the throat
+gorget of <i>Viverra</i> is absent; and in the tail the spots only tend to
+form rings, which are not complete. The skull has an alisphenoid
+canal, and a large bulla as in the typical group of <i>Viverra</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure233" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure233.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 233.</span>—The Common Genet (<i>Genetta vulgaris</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Genetta.</i><a id="FNanchor_444" href="#Footnote_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a>—The Genettes are smaller animals, with more elongated
+and slender bodies, and shorter limbs than the Civets. Skull
+elongated and narrow. Auditory bulla large, elongated, rounded
+at both ends. Teeth compressed and sharp pointed. The inner
+side of the third upper premolar has a tubercle not present in the
+previous genus, and the talon of the lower carnassial is larger.
+Pupil contracting to a linear aperture. Tail long, slender. Fur short
+and soft, spotted or cloudy. Under side of the tarso-metatarsus
+with a narrow longitudinal bald streak. No pouch for storing the
+secretion of the scent-gland. <i>G. vulgaris</i>, the common Genet
+(<a href="#figure233">Fig. 233</a>), is found in France south of the river Loire, Spain,
+South-Western Asia, and Africa from Barbary to the Cape.
+<i>G. felina</i>, <i>senegalensis</i>, <i>tigrina</i>, and <i>pardalis</i> are other named species,
+all African in habitat.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure234" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure234.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 234.</span>—Stomach of Genet cut open. <i>œ</i>, Œsophagus; <i>pv</i>,
+pyloric valve; <i>x</i>, sudden bend where the internal folds are interrupted.
+(From Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 505.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp75" id="figure235" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure235.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 235.</span>—Cæcum of Genet. (After Mivart,
+<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 508.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_529"></a>[529]</span></p>
+
+<p>A few details (taken from Professor Mivart’s memoirs on the
+Æluroidea) of the anatomy of the soft parts of the Genet may be
+given as illustration of these parts in the Carnivora generally, and
+of this family and genus in particular. The salivary glands are
+shown in <a href="#figure019">Fig. 19</a> (<a href="#figure019">p. 56</a>), and these conform to the general type
+prevalent in the
+Æluroidea. Thus
+there is a distinct
+zygomatic gland;
+the parotid with
+its (Steno’s) duct
+is well developed;
+and there is a
+small submaxillary
+gland. The
+stomach (<a href="#figure234">Fig.
+234</a>), while conforming
+to the
+simple type characteristic
+of the
+Carnivora, is
+much larger than
+in the Cat; it is characterised by the presence of some strongly
+marked internal folds near the pyloric extremity, which stop suddenly
+at a point where the stomach makes an abrupt constriction
+and flexure. Beyond this point there are three other longitudinal
+folds; and the pyloric valve is
+small. The allied genera present
+modifications from this form of
+stomach. The cæcum (<a href="#figure235">Fig.
+235</a>) is short, thick, and
+pointed. The liver (<a href="#figure236">Fig. 236</a>)
+much resembles that of the
+Cat, but differs in that the left
+lateral lobe is undivided, although
+having a small groove
+on its posterior or abdominal
+aspect, while the cystic fissure
+is less deep, and situated more
+to the right. The caudate lobe
+is relatively longer, has a deep
+concavity, and runs uninterruptedly
+into the Spigelian;
+the latter being relatively somewhat larger than in the Cat,
+with a deep groove dividing the proximal third from the distal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_530"></a>[530]</span>
+two-thirds. In <i>Viverra</i> the right lateral and right central lobes
+are nearly equal in size. The variations in the form of the liver
+of the allied genera are detailed in Professor Mivart’s memoir.
+The brain of the Genet is shown in <a href="#figure023">Fig. 23</a> (<a href="#figure023">p. 71</a>); the small
+depression <i>d</i> placed on the superior lateral gyrus appears to be
+the sole representative of the distinct crucial sulcus which distinguishes
+the brains of the <i>Felidæ</i> from those of all other members
+of the Æluroidea.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure236" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure236.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 236.</span>—Abdominal aspect of the liver of the Genet. <i>c</i>, Caudal lobe; <i>gb</i>, gall-bladder; <i>ha</i>,
+hepatic artery; <i>hd</i>, hepatic duct; <i>LC</i>, left central lobe; <i>LL</i>, left lateral lobe; <i>pv</i>, portal vein;
+<i>RC</i>, right central lobe; <i>RL</i>, right lateral lobe; <i>Sp</i>, Spigelian lobe; <i>vc</i>, vena cava. (From
+Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 510.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp54" id="figure237" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure237.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 237.</span>—Cæcum of <i>Prionodon</i>.
+(From Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882,
+p. 508.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Prionodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_445" href="#Footnote_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a>—This and the following genus comprise the beautiful
+Linsangs (<a href="#figure238">Fig. 238</a>), which are distinguished
+from the preceding genera
+by the loss of the second upper molar,
+which is, however, very small in some
+of the Genets. In the present genus the
+ground colour is whitish or yellowish
+with brown or black markings, which
+may either form broad continuous patches
+across the hinder part of the body, or
+may be broken up into spots. The tail
+is very long, the limbs comparatively
+short, and the fur very short and close.
+The pollex and hallux are well developed;
+the claws are almost completely retractile;
+and the tarsus and metatarsus are completely
+haired. The pupil is round. The
+cæcum (<a href="#figure237">Fig. 237</a>) is remarkably small.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_531"></a>[531]</span>
+This genus is exclusively Oriental, and
+comprises <i>P. gracilis</i> from Borneo, Java, and (?) Sumatra, <i>P. pardicolor</i>
+from Nipal, and <i>P. maculosus</i> from Tenasserim; the head and
+body of the latter measuring from 18 to 20 inches in length.
+Speaking of <i>P. pardicolor</i>, Mr. Hodgson observes that it is “equally
+at home on trees and on the ground; it dwells and breeds in the
+hollows of decayed trees. It is not gregarious at all, and preys
+chiefly upon small birds, which it is wont to pounce upon from the
+cover of the grass. The times of breeding are said to be February
+and August, and the litter to consist of two young, there being two
+litters each year.”</p>
+
+<p><i>Poiana.</i><a id="FNanchor_446" href="#Footnote_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a>—This African genus, represented solely by one species,
+<i>P. poënsis</i> (<a href="#figure238">Fig. 238</a>), from Fernando Po, is very closely allied to
+the preceding, but the spots are smaller, and show no tendency to
+run into transverse bands or stripes, except in the region of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_532"></a>[532]</span>
+head and shoulder; while the sole of the foot has a narrow bald
+band running up towards the tarsus, as in <i>Genetta</i>. The length
+of the head and body is 38 inches, and that of the tail about 40
+inches. It is probable that this animal should really be regarded
+as a slightly aberrant species of the genus <i>Prionodon</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp78" id="figure238" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure238.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 238.</span>—The African Linsang (<i>Poiana poënsis</i>). From Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 160.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The five following genera differ in several important respects
+from all the preceding, and collectively constitute the <i>Paradoxurine</i>
+section of Professor Mivart. With the exception of one African form,
+they are mainly Oriental. In this section the auditory bulla is
+frequently in two portions, the posterior moiety in one case being
+unossified, and it is always much narrowed in front (<a href="#figure239">Fig. 239</a>).
+The palate (as in the figure) may be much produced behind the
+molars; and the teeth are often but slightly sectorial, and may be
+very small. The long tail is in most cases not ringed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Paradoxurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_447" href="#Footnote_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 40. The
+blunt and rounded form of the cusps of the hinder premolar
+and the molar teeth distinguishes this genus from most of the
+members of the family. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 29-36.
+Head pointed in front. Ears small, rounded. Body long. Limbs
+moderate. Palms and soles almost entirely naked, and joining the
+foot-pads without the intervention of any hairy space. Claws completely
+retractile. Pupil vertical. Tail long, non-prehensile; in
+the Indian species without rings. The Paradoxures or Palm-Civets
+are less strictly carnivorous than the other members of the family.
+They are mostly about the size of the common Cat, or rather larger,
+and are partly arboreal in their habits. The species are rather
+numerous, and present considerable variations in the details of the
+form and size of their molar teeth; in only a few does the bony
+palate extend behind the molars. They are restricted geographically
+to Southern Asia and the Indo-Malayan archipelago. The best
+known species<a id="FNanchor_448" href="#Footnote_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a> are <i>P. niger</i>, <i>P. hermaphroditus</i>, <i>P. jerdoni</i>, <i>P. aureus</i>,
+<i>P. grayi</i> from India and Burma, <i>P. philippinensis</i> of the Philippines,
+<i>P. larvatus</i> of Southern China and Formosa, <i>P. leucomystax</i>
+of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo, and <i>P. musschenbroeki</i>
+of Celebes. The name <i>Paradoxurus</i> was applied from the mistaken
+notion that the tail was prehensile. Mr. Blanford<a id="FNanchor_449" href="#Footnote_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a> gives the
+following account of the habits of <i>P. niger</i>: “The common Palm-Civet,
+Tree-Cat, or Toddy-Cat, is a familiar animal in most parts of
+India, though, being thoroughly nocturnal in its habits, it is but
+rarely seen in the daytime. It is arboreal, passing the day generally
+in trees, either coiled up in the branches, or in a hole in
+the trunk, and in places where cocoa-nut palms are common it
+frequently selects one of them for a residence. Mango groves<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_533"></a>[533]</span>
+are also a favourite resort. It not unfrequently takes up its
+abode in the thatched roofs of houses; Jerdon found a large colony
+established in the rafters of his own house in Tellicheri. It even
+occurs in large towns; I have known of one being caught in the
+middle of Calcutta.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp43" id="figure239" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure239.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 239.</span>—Palatal aspect of the left side of the cranium
+and mandible of <i>Arctogale leucotis</i>. <i>a</i>, Anterior opening of
+alisphenoid canal; <i>o</i>, foramen ovale; <i>c</i>, carotid canal ¹⁄₁.
+(From Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool Soc.</i> 1882, p. 165.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Arctogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_450" href="#Footnote_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a>—This genus—represented only by <i>A. trivirgata</i> of
+Java, and <i>A. leucotis</i> of Burma, Tenasserim, Sumatra, Java, etc.—is
+chiefly distinguished from <i>Paradoxurus</i> by the extremely small
+size of the cheek-teeth
+(<a href="#figure239">Fig. 239</a>), which are
+often not in contact
+with one another; the
+upper carnassial being
+almost triangular in
+shape. Palate frequently
+convex longitudinally
+between the
+carnassials, and greatly
+produced behind the
+last molar, with a very
+narrow bony aperture
+of the posterior nares.
+The soles of the feet
+are still more naked
+than in <i>Paradoxurus</i>;
+and the pollex and
+hallux are more divergent.
+In <i>A. leucotis</i> the
+length of the head and
+body is 26·5 inches, and
+the tail 27 inches. In
+many specimens the
+three dorsal stripes are
+much less distinctly
+marked than in others,
+and tend to break up
+into spots; while the
+general coloration is
+considerably lighter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hemigale</i>,<a id="FNanchor_451" href="#Footnote_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a> another
+modification of the
+Paradoxure type, contains one species, <i>H. hardwickei</i>, from Borneo
+and Malacca, an elegant-looking animal, smaller and more slender
+than the Paradoxures, of light gray colour, with transverse<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_534"></a>[534]</span> broad
+dark bands across the back and loins; the proximal portion of the
+tail being ringed. The tarsus is hairy. The general cranial
+characters are those of <i>Paradoxurus</i>, but the auditory bulla is
+ankylosed into a single piece.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arctictis.</i><a id="FNanchor_452" href="#Footnote_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 40. The posterior
+upper molar and the first lower premolar very often absent.
+Cheek-teeth generally small and rounded, with a distinct interval
+between them, but formed generally on the same pattern as
+<i>Paradoxurus</i>. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 5, S 3, C 34. Body
+elongated. Head broad behind, with a small pointed face.
+Whiskers long and numerous. Ears small, rounded, but clothed
+with a pencil of long hairs. Eyes small. Limbs short. Soles and
+palms broad, entirely naked. Tail very long and prehensile;
+thickly covered with long hair. Fur long and harsh. Cæcum
+extremely small. But one species is known, <i>A. binturong</i>, the
+Binturong, an inhabitant of Southern Asia from Nipal through the
+Malay Peninsula to the islands of Sumatra and Java. Although
+structurally agreeing closely with the Paradoxures, its tufted ears,
+long, coarse, and dark hair, and prehensile tail give it a very
+different external appearance. It may be regarded as a very
+aberrant Paradoxure, connected, so far as dental characters are
+concerned, with <i>Paradoxurus</i> by means of <i>Arctogale</i>. The bony
+palate also extends considerably behind the last molar, as in the
+latter. The Binturong is slow and cautious in its movements,
+chiefly if not entirely arboreal, and appears to feed on vegetable as
+well as animal substances.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nandinia</i><a id="FNanchor_453" href="#Footnote_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a> contains one species, <i>N. binotata</i>, a somewhat
+aberrant Paradoxure, from West Africa. It is rather smaller than
+the true Paradoxures, with smaller and more pointed molar teeth,
+and no cæcum. The wall of the hinder chamber of the auditory
+bulla remains through life unossified.</p>
+
+<p>The dentition appears to be of a more decidedly carnivorous
+type than in the other members of the section.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cynogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_454" href="#Footnote_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a>—This remarkable genus is regarded by Professor
+Mivart as representing a third section of the <i>Viverrinæ</i>; it contains
+one species, <i>C. bennetti</i> (described by S. Müller under the name of
+<i>Potamophilus barbatus</i>), from Borneo, Sumatra, and the Malay
+Peninsula. This is a curious Otter-like modification of the
+Viverrine type, having semiaquatic habits, both swimming in the
+water and climbing trees, living upon fish, crustacea, small
+mammals, birds, and fruit. The number and general arrangement
+of its teeth are as in <i>Paradoxurus</i>, but the premolars are <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_535"></a>[535]</span>peculiarly
+elongated, compressed, pointed and recurved, somewhat as in the
+Seals, though the molars are tuberculated. The head is elongated,
+the muzzle broad and depressed. Whiskers very long and
+abundant. Ears small and rounded. Toes short and slightly
+webbed at the base. Tail short, cylindrical, covered with short
+hair. Fur very dense and soft, of a dark brown colour, mixed
+with black and gray. Humerus without entepicondylar foramen.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Herpestinæ</b>.—Auditory bulla very prominent, and
+somewhat pear-shaped, the posterior chamber being large, rounded,
+and generally with its greatest prominence to the outer side. The
+anterior chamber considerably dilated, and produced into a short
+inferior wall to the auditory meatus, in which is a depression or
+vacuity just below the centre of the opening of the meatus.
+Sometimes this vacuity is continued into the meatus, forming a
+narrow fissure. The paroccipital process does not project beyond
+the bulla, but is spread out and lost (in adult animals) on its
+posterior surface. Toes straight; claws lengthened, exserted,
+non-retractile. No perineal glands. The dentition is always of
+a markedly sectorial type; and the orbit may be surrounded by
+bone. Very generally the anus opens into a sac-like depression.
+The majority of the genera are Ethiopian; the type genus alone
+extending into the Oriental and Palæarctic regions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Herpestes.</i><a id="FNanchor_455" href="#Footnote_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, sometimes ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total
+40 or 36. Teeth of molar series generally with strongly developed,
+sharply-pointed cusps. Skull elongated, constricted behind the
+orbits. Face short and compressed. Frontal region broad and
+arched. Postorbital processes of frontal and jugal bones well
+developed, generally meeting so as to complete the circle of the
+orbit behind. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 21-26. Head
+pointed in front. Ears short and rounded. Body very long and
+slender. Extremities short. Five toes on each foot, the first,
+especially that on the hind foot, very short. Toes free, or but
+slightly palmated. Palms generally naked. Distal portion of
+soles naked, under surface of tarsus and metatarsus usually
+clothed with hair, but considerable specific variation in this respect.
+Tail long or moderate, generally thick at the base, and sometimes
+covered with more or less elongated hair. The longer hairs
+covering the body and tail almost always annulated. This genus
+contains a very large number of animals commonly called
+Ichneumons, or in India Mungooses, varying in size from that of a
+large Cat down to a Weasel. They are widely distributed over
+the African continent and the southern parts of Asia, especially
+India and the Indo-Malayan archipelago, one species occurring also
+in Spain. They are mostly terrestrial in their habits, feeding on
+small mammals and birds, reptiles, especially snakes, eggs of birds<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_536"></a>[536]</span>
+and reptiles, and also insects. Some species are partially
+domesticated, being used to keep houses clear of rats, mice, and
+snakes. <i>H. ichneumon</i> was a sacred animal to the ancient
+Egyptians. They vary considerably in appearance, some, as <i>H.
+galera</i> and <i>H. urva</i> (<a href="#figure240">Fig. 240</a>), are larger and heavier, with stouter
+body, longer limbs, and stronger teeth. The common Indian
+Mungoose (<i>H. mungo</i>) is considerably smaller than the Egyptian
+form; its fur is of a pale gray colour, the hairs being largely
+white ringed, while the cheeks and throat are more or less reddish.
+Like the Egyptian species, it is frequently domesticated, and put
+to a similar use. It is especially serviceable in India as a serpent-killer,
+destroying not only the eggs and young of these creatures,
+but attacking without hesitation and killing the most venomous
+adult snakes. The fact that it invariably survives those encounters
+has led to the belief that it either enjoys immunity from
+the effects of snake-poison, or that after being bitten it has
+recourse, as the natives maintain, to the root of a plant as an
+antidote. Neither of these suppositions has stood the test of
+scientific examination, for it has been found that when actually
+bitten it falls a victim to the poison as rapidly as other mammals,
+while there is no trustworthy evidence of its seeking a vegetable
+antidote. The truth seems to be that the Mungoose, by its
+exceeding agility and quickness of eye, avoids the fangs of the
+snake while fixing its own teeth in the back of the reptile’s neck.
+One large species, believed to be from Africa, recently described as
+<i>H. grandis</i>, is remarkable for the extreme complexity of the cusps
+on the molars, and also for the absence of an entepicondylar
+foramen to the humerus; the latter feature also occurring in the
+allied <i>H. albicaudatus</i>. The Oriental <i>H. urva</i> (<a href="#figure246">Fig. 246</a>) is stated to
+be somewhat aquatic in habits, and to feed on frogs and crabs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_537"></a>[537]</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure240" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure240.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 240.</span>—The Crab-eating Mungoose (<i>Herpestes urva</i>). From Blanford, <i>Mammalia of
+British India</i>, p. 130.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Remains of the small <i>H. nipalensis</i> occur in the cavern-deposits
+of Madras. Viverroids from the Miocene and Upper Eocene of
+Europe, which agree with <i>Herpestes</i> in the presence of an inner
+tubercle to the third upper premolar and of a hinder cusp to the
+fourth lower premolar, have been referred to the existing genus.
+The species which have been separated generically under the three
+following names are very closely allied to <i>Herpestes</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Helogale</i>,<a id="FNanchor_456" href="#Footnote_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a> premolars ³⁄₃, without diastema between first and
+second; soles of feet completely naked. Contains two small
+South-African species, <i>H. parvula</i> and <i>H. undulata</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bdeogale</i><a id="FNanchor_457" href="#Footnote_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a> contains also two small Ichneumon-like animals, <i>B.
+crassicauda</i> and <i>puisa</i>, differing from <i>Herpestes</i> proper in having only
+four toes on each foot, both pollex and hallux being absent. The
+orbit is nearly complete, the tail of moderate length and rather
+bushy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cynictis.</i><a id="FNanchor_458" href="#Footnote_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a>—Pollex present, but hallux absent. Skull shorter
+and broader than in <i>Herpestes</i>, rather contracted
+behind the orbits, which are large
+and complete behind. Face short. Anterior
+chamber of the auditory bulla very
+large. Front claws elongated. <i>C. penicillata</i>,
+from South Africa. The cæcum
+(<a href="#figure241">Fig. 241</a>) of this genus is longer than in
+any other member of the family.</p>
+
+<p>All the foregoing Herpestines have
+the nose short, with its under surface
+flat, bald, and with a median longitudinal
+groove. The remaining forms have the
+nose more or less produced, with its under
+side convex, and a space between the
+nostrils and the upper lip covered with
+close adpressed hairs, and without any
+median groove.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp50" id="figure241" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure241.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 241.</span>—Cæcum of <i>Cynictis
+penicillata</i>. (From Mivart, <i>Proc.
+Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 508.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Rhinogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_459" href="#Footnote_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a>—Toes 5-5. Claws of fore
+feet short, compressed, acute. Under surface
+of tarsus hairy. Palate flat. Founded on a single specimen
+from East Africa, <i>R. melleri</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crossarchus.</i><a id="FNanchor_460" href="#Footnote_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 36. Snout
+elongated. Toes 5-5. Claws on fore feet long and curved.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_538"></a>[538]</span>
+Hallux very short. Under surface of tarsus naked. Tail shorter
+than the body, tapering. Palate flat. Fur harsh. Species: <i>C.
+obscurus</i>, the Kusimanse, a small burrowing animal from West
+Africa, of uniform dark brown colour; <i>C. fasciatus</i>; <i>C. zebra</i>; and
+<i>C. gambianus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Suricata.</i><a id="FNanchor_461" href="#Footnote_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a>—A more distinct genus than any of the above. The
+dental formula as in the last, but the teeth of the cheek-series
+remarkably short in the antero-posterior direction, corresponding
+with the shortness of the skull generally (<a href="#figure222">Fig. 222</a>). Orbits
+complete behind. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 6, S 3, C 20. Though
+the head is short and broad, the nose is pointed and rather
+produced and movable. Ears very short. Body shorter and
+limbs longer than in <i>Herpestes</i>. Toes 4-4, the pollex and hallux
+being absent. Claws on fore feet very long and narrow, arched,
+pointed, and subequal. Hind feet with much shorter claws, soles
+hairy. Tail rather shorter than the body. One species only is
+known, the Suricate, <i>S. tetradactyla</i>, a small gray-brown animal,
+with dark transverse stripes on the hinder part of the back, from
+South Africa. The cæcum is short.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp50" id="figure242" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure242.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 242.</span>—Cæcum of <i>Galidea
+elegans</i>. (From Mivart, <i>Proc.
+Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 508.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Galidictis</i>,<a id="FNanchor_462" href="#Footnote_462" class="fnanchor">[462]</a> <i>Galidea</i>,<a id="FNanchor_463" href="#Footnote_463" class="fnanchor">[463]</a>
+    and <i>Hemigalidea</i><a id="FNanchor_464" href="#Footnote_464" class="fnanchor">[464]</a> are names of three slight
+generic modifications of the Viverrine type,
+allied to the <i>Herpestinæ</i>, but placed by
+Mivart in a distinct subfamily, <i>Galidictiinæ</i>.
+They are all characterised by the absence
+of the alisphenoid canal in the skull, as
+well as of the entepicondylar foramen to
+the humerus; and are inhabitants of Madagascar.
+The best known, <i>Galidea elegans</i>,
+is a lively Squirrel-like little animal with
+soft fur and a long bushy tail, which climbs
+and jumps with agility. It is of a chestnut-brown
+colour, the tail being annulated with
+darker brown. The cæcum (<a href="#figure242">Fig. 242</a>) is
+remarkable for its comparative length and
+pointed termination. <i>Hemigalidea</i> is distinguished
+by the absence of rings on the
+tail. <i>Galidictis vittata</i> and <i>striata</i> chiefly
+differ from the Ichneumons in their coloration,
+being gray with parallel longitudinal
+stripes of dark brown.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eupleres</i><a id="FNanchor_465" href="#Footnote_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a> is another form, also from Madagascar, which has<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_539"></a>[539]</span>
+been placed in a subfamily apart. It differs remarkably from all
+the other <i>Viverridæ</i> in the weak development of the jaws and the
+small size of the teeth (<a href="#figure243">Fig. 243</a>), in consequence of which it was,
+when first discovered, placed in the order Insectivora. Dentition:
+<i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 40. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 20.
+No alisphenoid
+canal; an entepicondylar
+foramen
+to the humerus.
+But one
+species is known,
+<i>E. goudoti</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure243" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure243.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 243.</span>—Skull of <i>Eupleres goudoti</i>. ⅘ natural size.
+Mus. Roy. Coll. Surgeons.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—The
+Tertiaries
+of the Old
+World have
+yielded several genera allied to the existing Viverroids, some of
+which show decided signs of affinity with other families. Of these
+the Lower Miocene <i>Amphictis</i> appears to be nearly related to <i>Viverra</i>,
+but is distinguished by the form of the second lower molar, which is
+longer and has two distinct roots. <i>Palæoprionodon</i>, of the French
+Phosphorites, has a dentition very like that of <i>Prionodon</i>, the molars
+being reduced to ¹⁄₂; the skull has an alisphenoid canal and the
+general basal characters of the <i>Viverridæ</i>, but resembles the <i>Mustelidæ</i>
+in the presence of a glenoid foramen and in the position of the
+condylar foramen. In <i>Stenoplesictis</i>, of the same deposits, the dental
+formula is <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; and although the skull has a complete
+septum in the bulla, yet some of the cranial and dental features approximate
+so decidedly towards those of the extinct <i>Mustelidæ</i>, as to
+lead some authorities to refer the genus to that family. The most
+probable explanation of this resemblance is that the Musteloids
+have originated from generalised Viverroids allied to <i>Stenoplesictis</i>.
+The Lower Pliocene <i>Ictitherium</i> differs from all other Viverroids in
+the presence of three distinct lobes to the upper carnassial, and
+thereby connects the other members of the family so closely with
+the <i>Hyænidæ</i> that it is practically impossible to draw up a definition
+which will distinguish the two families.</p>
+
+<p>The North American Eocene genera <i>Miacis</i> and <i>Didymictis</i> are
+generally regarded as representing a separate family—<i>Miacidæ</i>—with
+affinities both to the <i>Viverridæ</i> and <i>Canidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Proteleidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Skull with no alisphenoid canal; and the auditory bulla divided
+into two distinct chambers. Dorsal vertebræ 15. Molars ¹⁄₁. Premolar
+and molar teeth very small and simple in character.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_540"></a>[540]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Proteles.</i><a id="FNanchor_466" href="#Footnote_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a>—This genus contains but a single species, <i>P. cristatus</i>,
+the Aard-Wolf or Earth-Wolf of the Dutch colonists of the Cape, an
+animal nearly allied to the Hyænas, but remarkably modified in its
+dentition, the molar teeth being very small, placed far apart, and
+almost rudimentary
+in character
+(<a href="#figure244">Fig. 244</a>).
+The canines are
+long and rather
+slender. The
+dental formula is
+<i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> and <i>m</i> ⁴⁄₃₋₄; total 30 or
+32. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 15, L 5,
+S 2, C 24. The
+fore feet with
+five toes; the pollex though short, with a distinct claw. The
+hind feet with four subequal toes. Claws all strong, blunt, subcompressed,
+and non-retractile. The general external appearance is
+very like that of a small Striped Hyæna, but the muzzle is more
+pointed and the ears larger. It has a copious mane of long hair,
+capable of being erected when the animal is excited, along the
+middle line of the neck and back. It is a native of South Africa,
+and is a burrowing nocturnal animal, feeding on decomposing
+animal substances, larvæ, and termites. Observations upon specimens
+in captivity indicate that it has neither inclination nor power
+to attack or feed upon living vertebrated animals.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure244" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure244.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 244.</span>—Skull and Dentition of the Aard-Wolf (<i>Proteles cristatus</i>).
+½ natural size.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Some writers regard <i>Proteles</i> as representing a subfamily of the
+<i>Hyænidæ</i>.<a id="FNanchor_467" href="#Footnote_467" class="fnanchor">[467]</a></p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hyænidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Skull with no alisphenoid canal; and the auditory bulla not
+divided by a septum into two chambers. Dorsal vertebræ 15.
+Molars usually ¹⁄₁, but in some fossil forms ¹⁄₂, or ²⁄₂, the second lower
+molar being very small; upper carnassial with three distinct
+lobes; lower carnassial with a large blade and small talon. No
+entepicondylar foramen to the humerus. This family is confined
+to the Old World, where it is now represented by a single genus,
+which, although evidently nearly related to the <i>Viverridæ</i>, is
+sufficiently distinct to be regarded as not referable to that family.
+The extinct <i>Ictitherium</i>, however, as already mentioned, connects the
+more generalised members of the <i>Hyænidæ</i> very closely with the
+<i>Viverridæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_541"></a>[541]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Hyæna.</i><a id="FNanchor_468" href="#Footnote_468" class="fnanchor">[468]</a>—Dentition in existing forms usually <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>m</i>
+¹⁄₁; total 34. Teeth, especially canines and premolars, very large,
+strong, and conical. Upper carnassial (<a href="#figure245">Fig. 245</a>) with a very large,
+distinctly trilobed blade and a moderately developed inner tubercle
+placed at the anterior
+extremity of the blade.
+Molar very small, and
+placed transversely close
+to the hinder edge of the
+last, as in the <i>Felidæ</i>.
+Lower carnassial consisting
+of little more than
+the bilobed blade. Zygomatic
+arches of cranium
+very wide and strong.
+Sagittal crest high, giving
+attachment to very powerful
+biting muscles. Orbits incomplete behind. Vertebræ: C 7,
+D 15, L 5, S 4, C 19. Limbs rather long, especially the anterior
+pair, digitigrade, four subequal toes on each, with stout non-retractile
+claws. Pollex and hallux only represented by rudimentary
+metacarpal and metatarsal bones. Tail rather short. A
+large post-anal median glandular pouch, into which the largely
+developed anal scent glands pour their secretion.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure245" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure245.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 245.</span>—Outer (<i>A</i>) and palatal (<i>B</i>) aspects of the right
+upper carnassial tooth of the Striped Hyæna (<i>Hyæna
+striata</i>). From the <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i></p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The three existing species of Hyæna are divisible into two
+sections, to which some zoologists assign generic rank, but fossil
+forms show such a transition between these two types as to render
+any such division impracticable.</p>
+
+<p>The typical or <i>Euhyænine</i> group presents the following distinctive
+features. Upper molar moderately developed and three-rooted.
+An inner cusp and hind talon more or less developed on
+the lower molar. Ears large, pointed. Hair long, forming a mane
+on the back and shoulders. <i>H. striata</i>, the Striped Hyæna (<a href="#figure246">Fig. 246</a>)
+of Northern Africa and Southern Asia. <i>H. brunnea</i>, of South Africa,
+in some respects intermediate between this and the next group.</p>
+
+<p>The Striped Hyæna is dirty gray in colour, with narrow transverse
+tawny or blackish stripes on the body and legs; the length of
+the head and body is 3½ feet, and that of the tail, with its hair,
+1½ feet. It occurs throughout peninsular India, where it is most
+common in open hilly districts, and in North Africa. Mr. Blanford<a id="FNanchor_469" href="#Footnote_469" class="fnanchor">[469]</a>
+gives the following account of its habits: “It is a nocturnal animal,
+and although an occasional individual may be met with returning to
+its den in the early morning, its rambles are usually commenced after
+sunset and ended before sunrise. During the night it roams far and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_542"></a>[542]</span>
+wide, and no tracks of wild animals are more common in the countries
+where it is found than its unmistakable footprints, very like a dog’s
+in shape, but with the marks of the hind feet conspicuously smaller
+than those of the fore feet. Unlike the Spotted Hyæna, the Striped
+species appears to be solitary in its habits, and it is rare to meet
+with more than two together. The principal food of the Hyæna
+consists of the carcases of animals that have died of disease or been
+killed by beasts of prey, and very often it carries off portions of
+the body to its den. I once shot one that was carrying away the
+hind leg of a Nilghai. The powerful jaws and large teeth are
+admirably adapted for crushing bones, which are consumed by
+Hyænas, after the flesh has been picked off by vultures and jackals.
+Occasionally sheep or goats, and more often dogs, are carried off by
+Hyænas, and the latter at all events are often taken alive to the
+animal’s den.” The Striped Hyæna is essentially a cowardly animal,
+and one that is much more silent than <i>H. crocuta</i>. Remains of <i>H.
+striata</i> are found in the cavern-deposits of the south of France, and
+also in the Upper Pliocene of the Val d’Arno in Tuscany, and in
+the English Red Crag.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure246" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure246.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 246.</span>—The Striped Hyæna (<i>Hyæna striata</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The <i>Crocutine</i> group presents the following characters. Upper
+molar extremely small, two- or one-rooted, often deciduous.
+Lower molar without trace of inner cusp, and with an extremely
+small talon. Ears moderate, rounded. Hair not elongated to form
+a mane. <i>H. crocuta</i>, the Spotted Hyæna (<a href="#figure247">Fig. 247</a>), from Africa
+south of the Sahara. In dental characters as well as in its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_543"></a>[543]</span>
+visceral anatomy, especially as regards the reproductive organs of
+the female,<a id="FNanchor_470" href="#Footnote_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a> this species may be considered as by far the more
+specialised form. The Spotted Hyæna is a larger and bolder animal
+than the Striped species, hunting in packs, and uttering very
+frequently its unearthly cry. The coloration consists of dark brown
+spots on a yellowish ground. It was formerly very common at the
+Cape. Remains of a large race of this species are exceedingly common
+in the cavern-deposits of Europe, where they were first described under
+the name of <i>Hyæna spelæa</i>; teeth have also been met with in the
+Norfolk Forest-bed, and in cavern-deposits in Madras—the latter
+locality being exceedingly interesting from a distributional point of
+view.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp92" id="figure247" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure247.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 247.</span>—The Spotted Hyæna (<i>Hyæna crocuta</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In addition to the remains of existing species, to which reference
+has been already made, there were numerous extinct forms of
+<i>Hyæna</i> in the upper Tertiaries of Europe, from the horizon of the
+Lower Pliocene Pikermi beds of Greece upwards. In the Crocutine
+group <i>H. colvini</i> of the Pliocene of India (<a href="#figure248">Fig. 248</a>), and <i>H. robusta</i> of
+that of Italy, appear to have been ancestral forms allied to <i>H. crocuta</i>;
+the former being distinguished by the loss of the first upper premolar.
+<i>H. eximia</i>, of the Pikermi beds, is a more generalised form,
+in which the first lower premolar (lost in existing forms) is retained.
+In the typical group, <i>H. arvernensis</i> and <i>H. perrieri</i>, of the Upper
+Pliocene of the Continent, approximate to <i>H. brunnea</i>; although <i>H.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_544"></a>[544]</span>
+perrieri</i> makes a farther step towards the Crocutine group by the
+loss of the inner cusp in the lower carnassial. The extinct <i>Hyænictine</i>
+group, as represented by the Indian <i>H. sivalensis</i> and the
+Grecian <i>H. græca</i>, connects <i>H. striata</i> with <i>Palhyæna</i>. Both are
+characterised by the presence of a small second lower molar behind
+the carnassial; while <i>H. græca</i> also has four lower premolars. Still
+more generalised is the <i>Lychyænine</i> group; comprising <i>H. macrostoma</i>
+of India and <i>H. chæretis</i> of the Pikermi beds; in these forms the
+muzzle was longer, and the premolars much more compressed than
+in the existing species, thus making a very decided approach to the
+<i>Viverridæ</i>. There were four lower premolars; the lower carnassial
+had an inner cusp, and it is probable that there was a second lower
+molar; while the first upper molar was placed partially behind the
+carnassial. The Lower Pliocene <i>Palhyæna hipparionum</i>, in which
+the dental formula is <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂, is a smaller form with long
+jaws and compressed premolars which approaches so closely to the
+Viverroid genus <i>Ictitherium</i> as to show pretty clearly how the
+Hyænas have been gradually modified from that stock.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure248" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure248.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 248.</span>—Outer view of part of the right ramus of the mandible of <i>Hyæna colvini</i>, showing
+the third and fourth premolars and the carnassial. (From the <i>Palæontologia Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<h4><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Cynoidea</span>.</h4>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Canidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>This section contains the single family of the <i>Canidæ</i>, or Dog-like
+animals, which appear to hold an intermediate position between
+the other two sections, retaining also many of the more generalised
+characters of the ancient members of the order. The structure of
+the auditory bulla and adjacent parts of the bones of the skull is
+intermediate between that of the Æluroid and Arctoid forms. In<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_545"></a>[545]</span>
+the number and arrangement of the teeth they more nearly approach
+the primitive heterodont type than any other existing Carnivora.
+A cæcum is always present, sometimes short and simple, but when
+long it is folded upon itself in a characteristic manner.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure249" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure249.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 249.</span>—Right lateral aspect of the skull of the Dog (<i>Canis familiaris</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The characters of the base of the cranium are shown in <a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>
+(<a href="#figure008">p. 38</a>), where it will be seen that the auditory bulla is inflated,
+although it has only a rudimental internal septum; the paroccipital
+process, although in contact with the bulla, is
+prominent, and there is a large glenoid foramen.
+In all the existing forms the humerus has lost the
+entepicondylar foramen; the crowns of the upper
+molars are triangular in shape (<a href="#figure251">Fig. 251</a>), and the
+blade of the upper carnassial consists of two lobes.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp25" id="figure250" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure250.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 250.</span>—Cæcum
+of the Arctic
+Fox (<i>Canis lagopus</i>).
+<i>i</i>, Ileum; <i>c</i>,
+colon. In the natural
+position the
+colon is uppermost.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the alimentary canal the cæcum (<a href="#figure250">Fig. 250</a>) is
+extremely characteristic. It is a simple appendage
+of nearly uniform width (about equal to that of the
+ileum) attached to the side of the canal, just beyond
+the ileo-cæcal valve, and with a rounded termination.
+In a Dog of average size it is 5 or 6 inches long if
+uncoiled, but it is normally folded by its mesenteric
+attachments backwards and forwards several times
+on itself by the side of the ileum, after the manner
+shown in the figure.</p>
+
+<p>The existing Dogs form a very compact group,
+with numerous species closely resembling each other
+in essential characters, though differing considerably
+externally. The most marked differences are slight
+variations in the number of the true molar teeth,
+which exceed the usual number in the Cape Long-eared
+Fox (<i>Otocyon</i>), and fall short of it in some other
+less aberrant forms to which the names of <i>Icticyon</i>
+and <i>Cyon</i> have been given, and a diminution in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_546"></a>[546]</span>
+number of toes in the Cape Hunting Dog (<i>Lycaon</i>),
+which has 4-4, instead of 5-4 as in the remainder of the family.
+After taking these away, there remain a great number of animals
+called Dogs, Wolves, Jackals, and Foxes, varying from one another
+only in the characters of the tail, ears, fur, form of the pupil, and
+some trifling peculiarities of skull and teeth, upon which some
+authors have divided them into many genera. These divisions are,
+however, extremely difficult, if not impossible, to define, on account
+of the numerous gradual transitions from one form to the other.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure251" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure251.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 251.</span>—The last four left upper teeth of an extinct Wolf
+(<i>Canis cautleyi</i>). From the <i>Palæontologia Indica</i>.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Canis.</i><a id="FNanchor_471" href="#Footnote_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a>—It appears on the whole convenient to retain all the
+species, with the exception of <i>Otocyon</i>, <i>Icticyon</i>, and <i>Lycaon</i>, in the
+old genus <i>Canis</i>, the most prominent characters of which are the
+following. Teeth, usually <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃; total 42. The
+absence of the last
+upper molar (<i>m</i> ³⁄),
+alone distinguishes this
+from the generalised
+dentition of heterodonts,
+and this tooth
+is occasionally present
+in one species (<i>C. cancrivorus</i>).
+In certain
+Asiatic species (<i>C. primævus</i>
+and its allies),
+which on this account
+have been separated to form the genus <i>Cyon</i> of Hodgson, the last
+lower molar ⁄<i>m₃</i> appears to be constantly absent. The milk-dentition
+is <i>di</i> ³⁄₃, <i>dc</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>dm</i> ³⁄₃; total 28,—the first permanent premolar
+having no predecessor. The teeth of both permanent and
+milk or temporary series are figured on <a href="#figure003">p. 26</a>, <a href="#figure003">Fig. 3</a>, from the
+outer aspect, while the woodcut <a href="#figure251">251</a> shows the palatal aspect of the
+hinder upper teeth. The upper carnassial (<i>p</i> ⁴⁄) consists of a stout
+blade, of which the anterior lobe is almost obsolete, the middle lobe
+large, conical, and pointed backwards, and the posterior lobe in the
+form of a compressed ridge; the inner tubercle is very small, and
+placed quite at the fore part of the tooth. The first molar is more
+than half the antero-posterior length of the carnassial, and considerably
+wider than it is long; its crown consists of two prominent
+conical cusps, of which the anterior is the larger, and a low broad
+inward prolongation, supporting two more or less distinct cusps and
+a raised inner border. The second molar resembles the first in
+general form, but is considerably smaller. The lower carnassial
+⁄<i>m₁</i> is a very large tooth, with a strong compressed bilobed blade,
+the hinder lobe being considerably the larger and more pointed, a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_547"></a>[547]</span>
+small but distinct inner cusp placed at the hinder margin of the
+posterior lobe of the blade, and a broad, low, tuberculated talon,
+or heel, occupying about one-third of the whole length of the tooth.
+The second molar is less than half the length of the first, with a
+pair of cusps placed side by side anteriorly, and a less distinct
+posterior pair. The third is an extremely small and simple tooth,
+with a subcircular tuberculated crown and single root.</p>
+
+<p>The cranium (<a href="#figure249">Fig. 249</a>) is more or less elongated, the facial
+portion tapering forwards and compressed. The jaws are elongated,
+and the zygomata moderately strong. The postorbital processes of
+the frontal short, leaving the orbit widely open posteriorly. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 17-22. Clavicles present, but very
+rudimentary. Limbs of moderate proportions, digitigrade. Feet
+short; five toes on the fore foot, the pollex much shorter than the
+others, and not reaching to the ground. Four toes on the hind
+foot, the hallux being represented by a rudiment of the metatarsal.<a id="FNanchor_472" href="#Footnote_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a>
+All the toes are provided with exserted, non-retractile, slightly
+curved, and blunt claws, which, being exposed, become worn at the
+tips. Tail moderate, or rather long, generally somewhat bushy.
+The pupil of the eye, when contracted, is in some species round, in
+others elliptical and vertical.</p>
+
+<p>This extensive genus may be considered as truly cosmopolitan.
+One or more species occur in every part of the American continent
+from Greenland to Patagonia and the Falkland Isles; and similarly,
+in the Old World, Europe, Africa, and Asia, with most of the large
+islands adjacent, and even Australia, have their wild Dogs, though
+in the last case they may belong to a feral race, introduced originally
+by man. They are generally sociable animals, hunting their
+prey in packs. Many species burrow in the ground; none habitually
+climb trees. Though mostly carnivorous, feeding chiefly on
+animals they have chased and killed themselves, many, especially
+among the smaller species, eat garbage, carrion, insects, and also
+fruit, berries, and other vegetable substances. The species are
+very numerous, and, as in most other large genera, very ill-defined,
+few zoologists agreeing as to which of the many slightly different
+modifications should be considered as local varieties and which true
+species. Perhaps the best cranial character by which the different
+members of the genus can be distinguished is that pointed out by
+Burmeister, viz. that in the animals generally called Dogs, Wolves,
+and Jackals the postorbital process of the frontal bone is regularly
+smooth and convex above, with its extremity bent downwards,
+whereas in Foxes this process is hollowed above, with its outer<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_548"></a>[548]</span>
+margin (particularly of the anterior border) somewhat raised. This
+modification coincides in the main with that upon which Professor
+Huxley<a id="FNanchor_473" href="#Footnote_473" class="fnanchor">[473]</a> has based his division of the group into two parallel series,
+the Thooids or Lupine forms and Alopecoids or Vulpine forms,
+which he characterises by the presence of frontal air-sinuses in the
+former, which not only affect the external contour but to a still greater
+degree the shape of the anterior part of the cranial cavity, and the
+absence of such sinuses in the latter. The pupil of the eye when
+contracted is round in most members of the first group, and vertically
+elliptical in the others, but more observations are required
+before this character can be absolutely relied upon. The form and
+length of the tail is often used for the purposes of classification,
+but its characters do not coincide with those of the cranium, since
+many of the South American <i>Canidæ</i> have the long bushy tails of
+Foxes and the skulls of Wolves. Taking into account various
+combinations of these and other minor characters, the species may
+be arranged in the following groups, which some authors have
+considered as of generic importance.</p>
+
+<p>A. <i>Thooid or Lupine Series.</i>—The typical group, or <i>Canis</i> proper,
+contains the largest members of the genus, the true Wolves of the
+northern parts of both Old and New Worlds (<i>C. lupus</i>, etc.), the
+Jackals of Southern Asia and Africa (<i>C. aureus</i>, <i>mesomelas</i>, etc.), and
+the various breeds of the domestic Dog (<i>C. familiaris</i>). The true
+Wolves are (excluding some varieties of the domestic Dog) the
+largest members of the genus, and have a wide geographical range,
+extending over nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, and North
+America from Greenland to Mexico, but they are not found in
+South America or Africa, being replaced in both of these continents
+by various species of Jackals and Foxes. As might be expected
+from this extensive range, and the varied character of the climatic
+conditions of the countries they inhabit, they present great diversities
+of size, length and thickness of fur, and coloration, although
+resembling each other in all important structural characters. These
+differences have given rise to a supposed multiplicity of species,
+expressed by the names of <i>C. lupus</i>, <i>C. lycaon</i> (Central Europe),
+<i>C. laniger</i> and <i>C. niger</i> (Tibet), <i>C. pallipes</i> (India), <i>C. occidentalis</i>,
+<i>C. nubilis</i>, <i>C. mexicanus</i>, etc., of North America, but it is very doubtful
+whether some of these ought to be distinguished as other than
+local varieties. Mr. W. T. Blanford, in his recent work on the
+mammals of India, regards the two forms from Tibet mentioned
+above as inseparable from <i>C. lupus</i>. In North America there is
+a very distinct smaller species, called the Coyote or Prairie Wolf
+(<i>C. latrans</i>); and perhaps the Japanese Wolf (<i>C. hodophylax</i>) may also
+be distinct, although, except for its smaller size and shorter legs,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_549"></a>[549]</span> it
+is scarcely distinguishable from the common species. Though
+generally distributed throughout the Indian peninsula, the Indian
+Wolf (<i>C. pallipes</i>), which is rather smaller and slighter than <i>C. lupus</i>,
+is not found in Ceylon, nor in Burma and Siam. The ordinary
+colour of the Common Wolf is a yellowish or fulvous gray, but
+specimens have been met with almost pure white and others entirely
+black. In northern countries the fur is longer and thicker, and the
+animal generally larger and more powerful than in the southern portion
+of its range; this being especially the case with the Tibetan
+races. The habits of the Wolf are similar everywhere, and it is still,
+and has been from time immemorial, especially known to man in all
+the countries it inhabits as the devastator of his flocks of sheep. They
+do not catch their prey by lying in ambush, or stealing up close to
+it and making a sudden spring as the Cat tribe do, but by fairly
+running it down in open chase, which their speed and remarkable
+endurance enable them to do; and usually, except during summer,
+when the young families of cubs are being separately provided for
+by their parents, they assemble in troops or packs, and by their
+combined and persevering efforts are able to overpower and kill
+even such great animals as the American Bison. It is singular that
+such closely allied species as the Domestic Dog and the Arctic Fox
+are among the favourite prey of Wolves, and, as is well known,
+children and even full-grown people are not unfrequently the
+objects of their attack when pressed by hunger. Notwithstanding
+the proverbial ferocity of the Wolf in a wild state, many instances
+are recorded of animals taken when quite young becoming perfectly
+tame and attached to the person who has brought them up, when
+they exhibit many of the ways of a Dog. They can, however,
+rarely be trusted by strangers.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the Wolf in the British Isles and its gradual
+extirpation has been thoroughly investigated by Mr. J. E. Harting
+in his work on <i>Extinct British Animals</i>, from which the following
+account is abridged: To judge by the osteological remains which
+the researches of geologists have brought to light, there was perhaps
+scarcely a county in England or Wales in which, at one time
+or another, wolves did not abound, while in Scotland and Ireland
+they must have been still more numerous. The fossil remains
+which have been discovered in Britain are not larger than, nor in
+any way to be distinguished from, those of European wolves of the
+present day. Wolf-hunting was a favourite pursuit of the ancient
+Britons as well as of the Anglo-Saxons. In Athelstan’s reign these
+animals abounded to such an extent in Yorkshire that a retreat was
+built by one Acehorn, at Flixton, near Filey, wherein travellers
+might seek refuge if attacked by them. As is well known, great
+efforts were made by King Edgar to reduce the number of wolves
+in the country, but, notwithstanding the annual tribute of 300<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_550"></a>[550]</span>
+skins paid to him during several years by the king of Wales, he
+was not altogether so successful as has been commonly imagined.
+In the reign of Henry III the number of wolves in some parts of
+the country was sufficient to induce the king to make grants of land
+to various individuals upon the express condition of their taking
+measures to destroy these animals wherever they could be found.
+In Edward II’s time the king’s forest of the Peak, in Derbyshire,
+is especially mentioned as infested with wolves, and it was not
+until the reign of Henry VII (1485-1509) that wolves appear to
+have become finally extinct in England. This, however, is rather
+a matter of inference from the cessation of all mention of them in
+local records than from any definite evidence of their extirpation.
+Their last retreat was probably in the desolate wolds of Yorkshire.
+In Scotland, as might be supposed from the nature of the country,
+the wolf maintained its hold for a much longer period. There is a
+well-known story of the last of the race being killed by Sir Ewen
+Cameron of Lochiel in 1680, but there is evidence of wolves having
+survived in Sutherlandshire and other parts into the following
+century (perhaps as late as 1743), though the date of their final
+extinction cannot be accurately fixed. In Ireland, in Cromwell’s
+time, wolves were particularly troublesome, and said to be increasing
+in numbers, so that special measures were taken for their
+destruction, such as the offering of large rewards for their heads,
+and the prohibition (in 1652) of the exportation of “wolf-dogs,” the
+large dogs used for hunting the wolves. The active measures
+taken then and later reduced their numbers greatly, so that
+towards the end of the century they became scarce, but, as in the
+case of the sister island, the date of their final disappearance cannot
+now be ascertained. It has been placed, upon the evidence of
+somewhat doubtful traditions, as late as 1766.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of <i>C. lupus</i> are common in the European Pleistocene;
+while the Indian Pliocene <i>C. cautleyi</i>, of which the upper teeth
+are shown in <a href="#figure251">Fig. 251</a>, was probably the ancestor of <i>C. pallipes</i>.
+<i>C. neschersensis</i>, of the Upper Pliocene of France, was a smaller
+extinct Wolf. A lower jaw from the French Pleistocene, described
+under the name of <i>Lycorus</i>, has only three premolars, but evidently
+belongs to the Wolf.</p>
+
+<p>The Jackals are smaller than the Wolves, with the bushy tail
+about one-third the length of the head and body, and the carnassials
+relatively shorter as compared with the tubercular molars.
+The Common Jackal (<i>C. aureus</i>, <a href="#figure252">Fig. 252</a>) has a very wide distribution,
+ranging from South-Eastern Europe through South-Western
+Asia to India and Burma, and also occurring in Northern Africa;
+being replaced in the Ethiopian region by closely allied species.
+Remains indistinguishable from <i>C. aureus</i> occur in the Pliocene
+Siwaliks of Northern India. Jackals hunt at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_551"></a>[551]</span> night in packs,
+uttering the piercing cries so well known to all who have resided
+in countries where these animals are found.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the Domestic Dog, with its numerous breeds,
+has been the subject of much controversy. Some naturalists
+believe it to be a distinct species, descended from one that no
+longer exists in a wild state; others have sought to find its progenitors
+in some one of the wild or feral races, either of true Dogs,
+Wolves, or Jackals; while others again believe that it is derived
+from the mingling of two or more wild species or races. It
+was probably the earliest animal domesticated by man, and few if
+any other species have undergone such an extraordinary amount of
+variation in size, form, and proportion of limbs, ears, and tail—variations
+which have been perpetuated and increased by careful
+selective breeding. The Dingo or Australian Dog is met with wild,
+and also as the domestic companion of the aboriginal people. Dogs
+were also in the possession of the natives of New Zealand and other
+islands of the Pacific, where no placental mammals exist naturally,
+on their discovery by Europeans in the last century.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure252" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure252.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 252.</span>—The Jackal (<i>Canis aureus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The second group includes the wild Dogs of the south-east of
+Asia, described as <i>Cyon</i>, and distinguished by slight modifications
+as <i>C. rutilans</i>, <i>C. dukhunensis</i>, and <i>C. javanicus</i>, and differing from
+the above in wanting the small last lower tubercular molar. This
+difference reduces the number of the teeth to the same as in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_552"></a>[552]</span>
+<i>Viverra</i>, and is precisely paralleled by some of the species of the
+extinct genus <i>Cynodictis</i> mentioned below. The muzzle is shorter
+than in other species, and the facial profile is slightly convex
+instead of concave. The mammæ are also 12 or 14 instead of the
+normal 10; while there is long hair between the foot-pads. Wild
+Dogs inhabit not only the whole of the Oriental region, but extend
+into Central Asia as far north as the Altai and Amurland (<i>C. alpinus</i>).
+<i>C. dukhunensis</i> ranges from the forest regions of peninsular India to
+Gilgit and Western Tibet, where it must inhabit open country. In
+their general form, and more especially the shortness of the legs,
+these animals come nearer to the Jackals than to the Wolves. They
+hunt their prey in packs. Remains of species of this group occur
+in the cavern-deposits of the Continent, and have been described
+under the name of <i>C. europæus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A group for which the name <i>Lycalopex</i> has been proposed comprises
+certain South American <i>Canidæ</i>, distinguished from <i>Canis</i>
+proper by their longer tails and Fox-like aspect:—<i>C. cancrivorus</i>,
+<i>C. brasiliensis</i>, <i>C. melampus</i>, <i>C. vetulus</i>, <i>C. fulvicaudus</i>, <i>C. azaræ</i>, <i>C.
+magellanicus</i>, <i>C. griseus</i>. The last three have been further separated
+(under the name of <i>Pseudalopex</i>) on account of slight differences in
+the relative size of the molar teeth, and of their pupil being elliptical
+when contracted. <i>Nyctereutes</i> (one species, <i>C. procyonides</i>, from
+Japan and North-East Asia) has no claims to generic distinction but
+such as are founded upon its long loose fur, short ears, and short
+bushy tail, which give it some superficial resemblance to a Raccoon.</p>
+
+<p>B. <i>Alopecoid or Vulpine Series.</i>—The <i>Vulpine</i> group (<i>Vulpes</i>)
+includes the true Foxes, of which there are numerous varieties and
+species, spread over North America, Eurasia, and Africa, which
+have been described under the names of <i>C. vulpes</i> (<i>Vulpes alopex</i>),
+the common Fox of Europe; <i>C. niloticus</i>, <i>adustus</i>, and <i>variegatus</i>,
+Africa; <i>C. flavescens</i>, <i>montanus</i>, <i>bengalensis</i>, <i>japonicus</i>, <i>corsac</i>, Asia;
+<i>C. fulvus</i>, <i>macrurus</i>, <i>velox</i>, North America. Mr. Blanford<a id="FNanchor_474" href="#Footnote_474" class="fnanchor">[474]</a> concludes,
+however, that the Asiatic <i>C. flavescens</i> and <i>C. montanus</i>, and
+very probably the North American Cross-Fox (<i>C. fulvus</i>) are merely
+local races of <i>C. vulpes</i>, distinguished by certain peculiarities of
+coloration. The English Fox measures about 2 feet in length
+exclusive of the tail, which is about a foot long. Its fur is of a
+reddish-brown colour above, and more or less white beneath; the
+back of the ears and the fore part of the limbs are black, and the
+tip of its bushy tail is white. Its long, sharp muzzle, erect pointed
+ears, and sharp eye, give it the well-known appearance of sagacity
+and cunning. The Fox is a solitary animal, inhabiting a burrow,
+which it either excavates for itself, or obtains by ejecting the
+badger or the rabbit. So averse, indeed, is the Fox to dig for
+itself, that when foiled in its attempts to dispossess the badger, <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_553"></a>[553]</span>it
+has been known to take up its quarters with the latter, and it can be
+induced to make its home in artificial burrows constructed of stone
+and earth for the purpose of facilitating the operation of digging
+out the cubs. The Fox also occurs in woods, and even in the open
+country without burrows, lying in its “cover” by day and stealing
+forth at night in search of its prey. Remains of the Common
+Fox occur not unfrequently in the Pleistocene deposits of Europe.
+The Indian <i>C. bengalensis</i> is a very much smaller and well-marked
+species.</p>
+
+<p>The tail of the above forms is clothed with soft fur and long
+hair, uniformly mixed; from them Baird distinguishes, under the
+name of <i>Urocyon</i>, other species which have a concealed erect mane
+of stiff hairs along the upper line of the tail. These have also a
+shorter muzzle and a wide space between the temporal crests; they
+are <i>C. virginianus</i> and <i>C. littoralis</i>, both from North America. The
+Arctic Fox (<i>C. lagopus</i>, genus <i>Leucocyon</i>, Gray) has the tail very full
+and bushy and the soles of the feet densely furred below. Its
+colour changes according to season from bluish-gray to pure white.</p>
+
+<p>Certain small elegant African Foxes (<i>C. zerda</i>, <i>famelicus</i>, and
+<i>chama</i>), with very large ears and corresponding large auditory
+bullæ, have been separated under the name of <i>Fennecus</i>, and are
+commonly known as Fennecs.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest undoubted occurrence of the genus <i>Canis</i> seems to
+be in the Upper Miocene of Switzerland, where it is represented
+by the Fox-like <i>C. œningensis</i>. In the Upper Pliocene of France
+<i>C. megamastoides</i> is said to be allied to the Foxes and Jackals, but
+with some signs of affinity to the extinct <i>Cynodictis</i>. In the Pliocene
+Siwaliks of India there occurs <i>C. curvipalatus</i>, of the size of a small
+Fox, which appears to have certain resemblances to <i>Otocyon</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lycaon.</i><a id="FNanchor_475" href="#Footnote_475" class="fnanchor">[475]</a>—This genus resembles in most of its characters the
+Dogs of the Lupine series, but the teeth are rather more massive
+and rounded, the skull is shorter and broader, and there are but
+four toes on each limb, as in <i>Hyæna</i>. The one species, <i>L. pictus</i>, the
+Cape Hunting Dog (<a href="#figure253">Fig. 253</a>) from South and East Africa, is very
+distinct externally from all the other <i>Canidæ</i>. It is nearly as large
+as a Mastiff, with large, broadly ovate erect ears, and singularly
+coloured, being not only variable in different individuals, but unsymmetrically
+marked with large spots of white, yellow, and black.
+It presents some curious superficial resemblances to <i>Hyæna crocuta</i>,
+perhaps a case of mimetic analogy. It hunts its prey in large
+packs. A lower jaw from a cave-deposit in Glamorganshire, which
+agrees with that of the existing form in the presence of an anterior
+cusp to the last lower premolar, has been made the type of a distinct
+species (<i>L. anglicus</i>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_554"></a>[554]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Icticyon.</i><a id="FNanchor_476" href="#Footnote_476" class="fnanchor">[476]</a>—The Bush-Dog (<i>I. venaticus</i>), from Guiana and Brazil,
+is a species about the size of a Fox, with close hair, and short legs
+and tail, distinguished from all other Dogs by the reduction of the
+molar teeth to ¹⁄₂, and their comparatively small size. The lower
+carnassial is also characterised by the loss of the inner cusp of the
+blade, and the secant form of its hind talon; both these features
+indicating a specialised type. Remains of the Bush-Dog are found
+in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Brazil, and were originally
+described under the name of <i>Speothos</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp79" id="figure253" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure253.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 253.</span>—The Cape Hunting Dog (<i>Lycaon pictus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Otocyon.</i><a id="FNanchor_477" href="#Footnote_477" class="fnanchor">[477]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁻⁴⁄₄; total 46 or 48.
+The molar teeth are thus in excess of any other living heterodont
+mammal. They have the same general characters as in <i>Canis</i>,
+with very pointed cusps. The lower carnassial shows little of its
+typical characters, having five cusps on the surface; these can,
+however, be identified as the inner cusp, the two greatly reduced
+and obliquely placed lobes of the blade, and two cusps on the talon.
+The skull generally resembles that of the smaller Foxes, particularly
+the Fennecs. The auditory bullæ are very large. The hinder
+edge of the mandible has a very peculiar form, owing to the
+great development of an expanded, compressed, and somewhat
+inverted subangular process. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 7, S 3, C 22.
+Ears very large. Limbs rather long. Toes 5-4. One species,
+<i>O. megalotis</i>, from South Africa, rather smaller than a common Fox.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_555"></a>[555]</span></p>
+
+<p>Professor Huxley looks upon this as the least differentiated or
+most primitive existing form of the family, regarding the presence
+of the four molar teeth as a survival of a condition of the dentition
+exhibited by the common ancestors of the existing <i>Canidæ</i> and the
+existing carnivorous Marsupials. There is, however, at present no
+palæontological proof of this, as none of the numerous fossil forms
+of <i>Canidæ</i> yet discovered have more than the normal number of molars.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—A large number of fossil Carnivora have been
+described from various Tertiary deposits which are more or less
+closely allied to the existing <i>Canidæ</i>, although, as already mentioned,
+connecting the latter so closely on the one hand with the
+<i>Viverridæ</i> and on the other hand with the <i>Ursidæ</i>, that it is almost,
+if not quite impossible to say where one family begins and the other
+ends. A few only of the more important of these annectant types
+will be mentioned here. <i>Temnocyon</i>, of the Miocene of the United
+States, is a true Dog, which agrees with <i>Icticyon</i> in having a secant
+hind talon to the lower carnassial, but preserves a generalised character
+in having an entepicondylar foramen to the humerus. An
+extremely interesting form is <i>Cynodictis</i>, of the Middle Tertiaries
+of Europe and the United States, which (as now restricted by
+Dr. Schlosser) includes a number of species mostly not larger than
+Foxes. The dental formula is generally the same as in <i>Canis</i>, but
+(as in that genus) the last lower molar may be absent. The teeth
+are very like those of <i>Viverridæ</i>, the lower carnassial never being
+greatly elongated antero-posteriorly, and its inner cusp being situated
+immediately on the inner side of the hinder lobe of the blade,
+instead of somewhat behind it, as is the case in most Dogs. In
+the skull the auditory bulla is inflated, but is said to have no
+distinct septum; while the humerus invariably has an entepicondylar
+foramen. It is suggested that <i>Cynodictis</i> is not far removed from
+the ancestral type of many of the Viverroids and Canoids, and may
+itself have been derived from the under-mentioned genus <i>Amphicyon</i>.
+M. Boule considers, indeed, that from the resemblance of the Pliocene
+<i>Canis megamastoides</i> (<a href="#Page_553">p. 553</a>) to <i>Cynodictis</i> we ought to regard
+the Foxes and Jackals as the descendants of <i>Cynodictis</i>, while the
+Wolves have been derived directly from <i>Amphicyon</i>. The last
+named genus, which includes some species as large as a Bear, is
+found in the Upper Eocene and Lower Miocene of Europe, and is
+represented in the Miocene of the United States by the allied
+<i>Daphœnus</i>. It is characterised by the presence of three upper
+molars—thus bringing up the dental formula to the full Eutherian
+number; by the five digits on all the feet, which were plantigrade;
+and by the presence of a third trochanter to the femur and an
+entepicondylar foramen to the humerus. The teeth are essentially
+those of a dog, and the base of the skull is also dog-like, although<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_556"></a>[556]</span>
+it is highly probable that the auditory bulla had no trace of a
+septum. According, however, to Dr. Filhol<a id="FNanchor_478" href="#Footnote_478" class="fnanchor">[478]</a> the minute foramina
+described by Professor Cope<a id="FNanchor_479" href="#Footnote_479" class="fnanchor">[479]</a> in the postparietal and mastoid which
+occur in <i>Ursus</i>, but are said to be absent in <i>Canis</i>, are present in
+<i>Amphicyon</i>. So far, however, as we can see, the presence or absence
+of those foramina cannot be regarded as diagnostic of <i>Ursus</i> and
+<i>Canis</i>, although they are generally more strongly developed in
+the former. <i>Amphicyon</i> may, indeed, be considered as a very
+generalised Dog, with affinities to the Bears in the structure of
+its limbs. <i>Dinocyon</i> is a still larger form,
+from the Middle Miocene of France,
+which, so far as its teeth are concerned,
+connects <i>Amphicyon</i> with the Ursoid
+genus <i>Hyænarctus</i> so closely as to render
+it absolutely impossible to indicate any
+characters of family importance by which
+they can be distinguished. The upper
+carnassial of <i>Dinocyon</i> is unknown. For
+other genera, see <a href="#Page_562">p. 562</a>.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Arctoidea</span>.</h4>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp31" id="figure254" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure254.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 254.</span>—Right half of the palatal
+aspect of the cranium of the Raccoon
+(<i>Procyon lotor</i>). Letters as in <a href="#figure008">Fig. 8</a>,
+p. 38. (From the <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>
+1869, p. 10.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This section includes a considerable
+number of forms which agree in the
+essential characteristics of the structures
+of the base of the cranium and
+reproductive organs, and in the absence
+of a cæcum to the intestinal canal.
+They have no Cowper’s glands, but
+there is a rudimentary prostate and a
+large cylindrical penial bone; while all
+the members of the group have five
+completely developed toes on each foot.
+Considerable diversity is found in the
+characters of the base of the skull in
+the various forms, but the following
+features are common to all. The cavity
+of the auditory bulla is simple, and has
+no trace of a dividing septum; the
+inferior lip of the auditory meatus
+(<i>am</i>, <a href="#figure254">Fig. 254</a>) is considerably prolonged;
+the paroccipital process (<i>p</i>) of
+the exoccipital is more or less triangular, directed backwards,
+outwards, and downwards, and standing quite apart from the
+bulla; the mastoid process (<i>m</i>) of the periotic is always widely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_557"></a>[557]</span>
+separated from the paroccipital, and generally very prominent;
+the carotid foramen (<i>car</i>) is large, and placed on the inner margin
+of the bulla, usually near the middle, but occasionally more
+posteriorly; the condyloid foramen is distinct and exposed, and
+never sunk into a common opening with the foramen lacerum
+posticum; and the glenoid foramen is always present, and usually
+conspicuous. The alisphenoid canal is absent except in <i>Ursus</i>,
+<i>Melursus</i>, and <i>Ælurus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It has been already observed (<a href="#Page_501">p. 501</a>) that the evidence of fossil
+forms, so far as it goes, is not in favour of the Arctoidea being a
+natural group; so that its retention must be regarded as a somewhat
+provisional measure, largely based on its convenience. The
+group may be divided into the three families, <i>Ursidæ</i>, <i>Procyonidæ</i>,
+and <i>Mustelidæ</i>.<a id="FNanchor_480" href="#Footnote_480" class="fnanchor">[480]</a></p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Ursidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>In existing forms the true molars ²⁄₃, with broad, flat tuberculated
+crowns. Typically the three anterior premolars of both
+jaws rudimentary and often deciduous. Fourth upper premolar
+(carnassial) with no third or inner root. An alisphenoid canal
+(except in <i>Æluropus</i>). Skull with the auditory bulla depressed, and
+scarcely at all inflated. Feet plantigrade. No entepicondylar
+foramen to the humerus. Kidneys conglomerate. Geographical
+distribution extensive.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ursus.</i><a id="FNanchor_481" href="#Footnote_481" class="fnanchor">[481]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃; total 42. The three
+anterior premolars above and below one-rooted, rudimentary, and
+frequently wanting. Usually the first (placed close to the canine)
+is present, and after a considerable interval the third, which is
+situated close to the other teeth of the molar series. The second
+is very rarely present in the adult state. The fourth (upper carnassial)
+differs essentially from the corresponding tooth of other
+Carnivores in wanting the inner tubercle supported by a distinct root.
+Its sectorial characters are very slightly marked, and it is much
+smaller than the first molar. The crowns of both the true molars
+are longer than broad, with flattened, tuberculated, grinding surfaces.
+The second has a large backward prolongation or heel. The lower
+carnassial has a small and indistinct blade and greatly developed
+tubercular heel. The second molar is of about the same length,
+but with a broader and more flattened tubercular crown. The
+third is smaller. The milk-teeth are comparatively small, and shed
+at an early age. Skull more or less elongated. Orbits small and
+incomplete behind. Palate prolonged considerably behind the last
+molar tooth. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 5, C 8-10. Body<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_558"></a>[558]</span>
+heavy. Feet broad, completely plantigrade; the five toes on each
+foot all well developed, and armed with long compressed and
+moderately curved non-retractile claws. Palms and soles naked.
+Tail very short. Ears moderate, erect, rounded, hairy. Fur
+generally long, soft, and shaggy.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp92" id="figure255" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure255.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 255.</span>—Head of the Brown Bear (<i>Ursus arctos</i>). From Sclater, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1867, p. 817.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Bears are all animals of considerable bulk, and include
+among them the largest members of the order. Though the species
+are not numerous, they are widely spread over the earth’s surface
+(but absent from the Ethiopian and Australian regions, and only
+represented by one species in the Neotropical region), and differ
+much among themselves in their food and manner of life. They
+are mostly omnivorous or vegetable feeders, and even the Polar
+Bear, usually purely carnivorous or piscivorous, devours grass with
+avidity in summer. The various species maybe arranged in the
+following groups:—</p>
+
+<p><i>Thalassarctine Group.</i>—Head comparatively small, molar teeth
+small and narrow. Soles more covered with hair than in the others.
+This group is represented only by the well-known Polar or White
+Bear (<i>U. maritimus</i>) of the Arctic regions, which is one of the few
+mammals which are completely white at all seasons of the year.</p>
+
+<p>The typical, or <i>Ursine</i>, group includes a number of species, of
+which the Common Brown Bear (<i>U. arctos</i>) is the best known
+example. This species is an exceedingly variable one, and has a
+very wide range in the Palæarctic region; the Syrian form described<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_559"></a>[559]</span>
+as <i>U. syriacus</i>, as well as the Hairy-eared Bear (<i>U. piscator</i>, <a href="#figure255">Fig.
+255</a>) of North-Eastern Asia, and the Snow-Bear (<i>U. isabellinus</i>) of
+Kashmir and Nipal, not being specifically separable. The Brown
+Bear hibernates in cold regions, and in the Himalaya keeps to
+comparatively high regions, emerging from its winter lair in March,
+April, or May, according to the season and elevation, to feed on
+the numerous bulbous plants which abound in the regions it inhabits.
+Both the Syrian and Himalayan varieties are generally of lighter
+colour and smaller size than the typical European form. Bears
+were at one time found in the British Isles, from which, however,
+they have been long since exterminated. They are still found
+in the Pyrenees, and are comparatively abundant in parts of
+Norway, Hungary, and Russia. In the Kashmir Himalaya they
+were very abundant in some districts a few years ago, one of the
+present writers having in 1874 seen no less than seven examples
+at one time from the top of a mountain ridge; of late years their
+numbers have, however, been greatly diminished. The Brown
+Bear, although with strong powers of smelling, is very slow of
+sight and hearing, and in the Himalaya it is easy to approach so
+near that they may be shot with a smooth-bore gun. The Grizzly
+Bear (<i>U. horribilis</i>) of North America is so closely allied to the
+Brown Bear that some writers think it should only rank as a very
+well-marked local variety. The Black Bears of the Himalaya (<i>U.
+torquatus</i>), Japan (<i>U. japonicus</i>), and North America (<i>U. americanus</i>)
+belong to this group. The Himalayan species ranges from Persia
+to Assam, and thence to China and Formosa. In the greater part
+of this area it is essentially a forest animal, and may be found in
+autumn in the forests of the Kashmir valley feeding upon chestnuts
+and other fruits. It is also exceedingly fond of maize, mulberries,
+and walnuts; and a few years ago it was no very uncommon
+sight to see three or even five of these bears up a single mulberry
+or walnut tree in Kashmir. The Spectacled Bear (<i>U. ornatus</i>) of
+the Peruvian Andes is another member of this group.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Helarctine</i> group is represented only by the Malay Bear or
+Sun Bear (<i>U. malayanus</i>), in which the head is short and broad; the
+molar teeth are comparatively broad (but the length still exceeding
+the breadth), the tongue is very long and extensile, and the fur
+short and smooth. This small species inhabits the Malay Peninsula,
+Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Tenasserim, Arakan, Chittagong, and the
+Garo hills of India; it inhabits forest districts, and is an expert
+climber.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest known occurrence of the genus is in the Lower
+Pliocene of the Indian Siwalik Hills; where it is represented by
+<i>U. theobaldi</i>, which was probably the ancestor of the existing
+<i>Melursus</i>. The genus is represented in the Upper Pliocene of
+Europe by the small <i>U. etruscus</i>; and in the Pleistocene <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_560"></a>[560]</span>by the existing
+<i>U. arctos</i>, as well as by the great extinct Cave-Bear (<i>U. spelæus</i>),
+distinguished by the complexity of the crowns of the molars and
+the total loss of the three anterior premolars in the adult condition.
+Remains of Bears are also found in cavern-deposits in the north
+of Africa. The small <i>U. namadicus</i>, from the Pleistocene of the
+Narbada valley, India, may have been allied to <i>U. malayanus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Melursus.</i><a id="FNanchor_482" href="#Footnote_482" class="fnanchor">[482]</a>—This differs from the true Bears in the first upper
+incisor being absent or shed at a very early age, in the very small
+size of the other teeth, in the very large extensile lips, the deep
+concavity of the palate, and other minor characters. The one
+species, <i>M. labiatus</i>, the well-known Sloth-Bear of India, feeds chiefly
+on black ants, termites, beetles, fruit, honey, etc. This species
+inhabits peninsular India, from near the Himalaya to Cape Comorin
+and Ceylon, and its remains are found in the cavern-deposits of
+Madras. The black hair is very long and coarse; there is a light
+horse-shoe-shaped mark on the chest (as in <i>Ursus torquatus</i>), and the
+extremity of the muzzle is of an ashy gray.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure256" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure256.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 256.</span>—<i>Æluropus melanoleucus.</i> (From Milne-Edwards.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Æluropus.</i><a id="FNanchor_483" href="#Footnote_483" class="fnanchor">[483]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃; total 40. Premolars
+large, increasing in size from first to last, and two-rooted except the
+first. First upper molar with quadrate crown, broader than long;
+second larger than the first. Cranium with zygomatic arches and
+sagittal crest immensely developed, and ascending ramus of mandible<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_561"></a>[561]</span>
+very high, giving greater spaces for attachments of temporal muscle
+than in any other existing member of the order. Facial portion
+short. Bony palate not extending behind the last molar tooth.
+No alisphenoid canal. Feet bear-like, but soles more hairy, and
+perhaps less completely plantigrade. Fur long and thick. Tail
+very short. One extremely rare species, <i>A. melanoleucus</i> (<a href="#figure256">Fig.
+256</a>), discovered by Père David in 1869, in the most inaccessible
+mountains of Moupin in Eastern Tibet. Said to feed principally
+on roots, bamboos, and other vegetables. It is of the size of
+a small Brown Bear, of a white colour, with ears, spots round
+the eyes, shoulders and limbs black. In the large size and
+complex crowns of the upper premolars this genus differs very
+markedly from the true Bears. The fourth upper premolar (carnassial)
+makes no approach to the markedly sectorial type presented
+by the corresponding tooth of <i>Hyænarctus</i>, its structure being, on
+the whole, more like that of <i>Ælurus</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp64" id="figure257" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure257.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 257.</span>—Palate of <i>Arctotherium bonariense</i>, Pleistocene,
+South America—¼ natural size. (From the <i>Palæontologia
+Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—The genus <i>Arctotherium</i> includes some very
+large Bear-like animals from the Pleistocene of South America
+and California, in which
+the dentition departs
+less widely from a normal
+carnivorous type
+than in the true Bears.
+Thus the upper carnassial
+(<a href="#figure257">Fig. 257</a>) is
+relatively larger than
+in <i>Ursus</i>; while the
+crowns of the upper
+molars are broader and
+shorter. The humerus
+is said to have an
+entepicondylar foramen.
+<i>Hyænarctus</i>, of
+the Miocene and Pliocene
+of Europe and
+Southern Asia, has the
+crowns of the upper
+molars either square or
+triangular; the upper
+carnassial having three
+distinct lobes to the
+blade, while the lower
+carnassial is practically indistinguishable from that of the Dog-like
+<i>Dinocyon</i> (<a href="#Page_556">p. 556</a>). The proximal extremity of the ulna differs
+from that of <i>Ursus</i> in having a long olecranon, and thereby resembles
+the corresponding bone of the Dogs. Indeed all the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_562"></a>[562]</span>
+characters at present available tend to show a complete passage
+from the Tertiary Dog-like animals, through <i>Dinocyon</i>, <i>Hyænarctus</i>,
+and <i>Arctotherium</i>, to the true Bears. Most of the species of <i>Hyænarctus</i>
+were of very large dimensions, but smaller forms occur in the
+Miocene. <i>Cephalogale</i>, of the Continental Tertiaries, is a genus
+represented by several species of medium size showing evident
+signs of affinity with <i>Hyænarctus</i>. The upper molars have subtriangular
+crowns, while the carnassial is short, and has two comparatively
+low lobes. Here also may be mentioned several other
+genera, apparently more or less closely allied to the present group,
+some of which are regarded by Dr. Schlosser as showing marked
+signs of affinity to the <i>Procyonidæ</i>. Among these are <i>Simocyon</i> from
+the Pliocene of Europe, with <i>p</i> ²⁄₂₋₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; and <i>Enhydrocyon</i> of the
+North American Miocene, with <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂, a secant talon to the
+lower carnassial, and a very short skull. The Miocene <i>Ælurodon</i>
+comprises several large North American forms, having a trilobed
+upper carnassial like that of <i>Hyænarctus</i>, and a dental formula
+similar to that of the latter and <i>Canis Prohyæna</i> is founded upon
+a much-worn jaw of <i>Ælurodon</i>. <i>Hyænocyon</i>, of the Miocene of the
+United States, with <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂, appears to be an allied form, also
+having a trilobed upper carnassial.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Procyonidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>True molars ²⁄₂, tuberculated or multicuspid; upper carnassial
+short and broad. Alisphenoid canal absent, except in <i>Ælurus</i>.
+Feet plantigrade. Tail generally annulated. In some cases an
+entepicondylar foramen to the humerus. Typically American, but
+with the outlying Oriental genus <i>Ælurus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ælurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_484" href="#Footnote_484" class="fnanchor">[484]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 38. First lower
+premolar very minute and deciduous. Molars (<a href="#figure259">Fig. 259</a>) remarkable
+for their great transverse breadth and the numerous cusps of
+their crowns. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 3, C 18. Skull (<a href="#figure259">Fig.
+259</a>) high and compressed, very convex, with the facial portion short,
+the palate convex antero-posteriorly, and the ascending ramus of
+mandible extremely high. Head round. Face short and broad.
+Ears large, erect, pointed. Limbs stout, with large sharp semiretractile
+claws. Tail nearly as long as body, cylindrical, annulated,
+and clothed with long hairs. Fur long and thick. One existing
+species, <i>Æ. fulgens</i>, the Panda (<a href="#figure258">Fig. 258</a>), an animal rather larger
+than a Cat, found in the South-East Himalaya, at heights of from
+7,000 to 12,000 feet above the sea, among rocks and trees, and
+chiefly feeding on fruits and other vegetable substances. Its fur
+is of a remarkably rich reddish-brown colour, darker below.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_563"></a>[563]</span></p>
+
+<p>The genus <i>Ælurus</i> has been made the type of a distinct family,
+but its relationship to the Raccoons is regarded by Mr. W. T.
+Blanford<a id="FNanchor_485" href="#Footnote_485" class="fnanchor">[485]</a> as sufficiently close to admit of its being included in the
+same family. According to this zoölogist the Panda often sleeps
+coiled up like a Cat, with the bushy tail over its head, but at other
+times resting on its legs with the head tucked under the chest and
+between the fore legs, after a manner said to be common with the
+Raccoons. Although by no means strictly nocturnal, these animals
+sleep much during the day, and roam out in search of food in
+the morning and evening. The young are born in a very helpless
+condition, and remain for a long period concealed in the holes of
+trees or rocks.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="figure258" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure258.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 258.</span>—The Panda (<i>Ælurus fulgens</i>). The dark nasal stripe shown in this figure is generally
+absent. (From Sclater, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1869, p. 408.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Fossil remains of a species of <i>Ælurus</i> (<i>Æ. anglicus</i>) have been
+obtained from the English Pliocene Crag deposits which indicate an
+animal of about one and half times the size of <i>Æ. fulgens</i>. The first
+evidence of this fossil species was afforded by part of the mandible
+with the last molar in place, and the subsequent discovery of an
+entire first upper molar renders full confirmation of the generic
+determination. This distribution of <i>Ælurus</i> is very important, as
+showing how its area may have once approximated to that of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_564"></a>[564]</span>
+ancestors of the American representatives of the family. It is
+probable that the genus existed in India during the Siwalik period.</p>
+
+<p>The whole of the under-mentioned genera are American, and are
+characterised by the absence of an alisphenoid canal in the skull.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="figure259" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure259.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 259.</span>—Lateral view of skull and right half of palate of <i>Ælurus fulgens</i>. (From Blanford,
+<i>Mammalia of British India</i>, p. 190.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Procyon.</i><a id="FNanchor_486" href="#Footnote_486" class="fnanchor">[486]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 40. The molar
+teeth broad and tuberculated (<a href="#figure259">Fig. 259</a>). The upper carnassial
+with three cusps along the outer margin, and a very broad bicuspid
+inner tubercle, giving an almost quadrate form to the crown. First
+molar with a large tuberculated crown, rather broader than long;
+second considerably smaller, with transversely oblong crown.
+Lower carnassial with an extremely small and ill-defined blade,
+placed transversely in front, and a large inner cusp and hind talon.
+Second molar as long as the first, but narrower behind, with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_565"></a>[565]</span> five
+obtuse cusps. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 3, C 16-20. Body
+stout. Head broad behind, but with a pointed muzzle. Limbs
+plantigrade, but in walking the entire sole is not applied to the
+ground as it is when the animal is standing. Toes, especially of
+the fore foot, very free, and capable of being spread wide apart.
+Claws compressed, curved, pointed, and non-retractile. Tail moderately
+long, cylindrical, thickly covered with hair, annulated, non-prehensile.
+Fur long, thick, and soft. The well-known Raccoon<a id="FNanchor_487" href="#Footnote_487" class="fnanchor">[487]</a>
+(<i>Procyon lotor</i>, <a href="#figure260">Fig. 260</a>) of North America is the type of this genus.
+It is a clumsy thickly-built animal about the size of a Badger, with
+a coat of long coarse grayish-brown hairs, short ears, and a bushy
+black and white ringed tail. Its range extends over the whole of
+the United States, and stretches on the west northwards to Alaska
+and southwards into Central America, where it attains its maximum
+size. The following notes on the habits of the Raccoon are taken
+from Dr. C. H. Merriam’s <i>Mammals of the Adirondack Region</i>:—</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp85" id="figure260" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure260.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 260.</span>—The Raccoon (<i>Procyon lotor</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>“Raccoons are omnivorous beasts, and feed upon mice, small
+birds, birds’ eggs, turtles and their eggs, frogs, fish, crayfish,
+molluscs, insects, nuts, fruits, maize, and sometimes poultry. Excepting
+the bats and flying squirrels, they are the most strictly
+nocturnal of all our mammals, and yet I have several times seen<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_566"></a>[566]</span>
+them abroad on cloudy days. They haunt the banks of ponds
+and streams, and find much of their food in these places, such as
+crayfish, mussels, and fish, although they are unable to dive and
+pursue the latter under water, like the otter and mink. They are
+good swimmers, and do not hesitate to cross rivers that lie in their
+path.... The Raccoon hibernates during the severest part of the
+winter, retiring to its nest rather early, and appearing again in
+February or March, according to the earliness or lateness of the
+season. It makes its home high up in the hollow of some large
+tree, preferring a dead limb to the trunk itself. It does little in
+the way of constructing a nest, and from four to six young are
+commonly born at a time, generally early in April in this region.
+The young remain with the mother about a year.”</p>
+
+<p>The South-American <i>P. cancrivorus</i>, the Crab-eating Raccoon, is
+very similar to <i>P. lotor</i>, but differs by its much shorter fur, larger
+size, proportionally more powerful teeth, and other minor characters.
+It extends over the whole of South America, as far south as the Rio
+Negro, and is very common in all suitable localities. Its habits are
+similar to those of the North-American species. Fossil remains of
+<i>Procyon</i> have been described from the Pleistocene deposits of the
+United States.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bassaris.</i><a id="FNanchor_488" href="#Footnote_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a>—A form closely allied to <i>Procyon</i>, but of more slender
+and elegant proportions, with a sharper nose, longer tail, and more
+digitigrade feet, and with teeth otherwise like, but smaller, and
+more sharply denticulated. It was formerly, but erroneously, placed
+among the <i>Viverridæ</i>. Two species:—<i>B. astuta</i>, from the southern
+parts of the United States and Mexico, and <i>B. sumichrasti</i>, from
+Central America.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bassaricyon.</i><a id="FNanchor_489" href="#Footnote_489" class="fnanchor">[489]</a>—This name has been given to a distinct modification
+of the Procyonine type of which at present only two examples
+are known, one from Costa Rica and the other from Ecuador, which,
+appearing to be different species, have been named <i>B. gabbi</i> and
+<i>B. alleni</i>. They much resemble the Kinkajou (<i>Cercoleptes</i>) in external
+appearance, but the skull and teeth are more like those of <i>Procyon</i>
+and <i>Nasua</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nasua.</i><a id="FNanchor_490" href="#Footnote_490" class="fnanchor">[490]</a>—Dentition as in <i>Procyon</i>, but the upper canines are
+larger and more strongly compressed, and the molars smaller. The
+facial portion of the skull is more elongated and narrow. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 14, L 6, S 3, C 22-23. Body elongated and rather
+compressed. Nose prolonged into a somewhat upturned, obliquely
+truncated, mobile snout. Tail long, non-prehensile, tapering, annulated.
+These animals, commonly called Coatis or Coati-Mundis,
+live in small troops of eight to twenty, are chiefly arboreal, and feed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_567"></a>[567]</span>
+on fruits, young birds, eggs, insects, etc. Recent researches have
+reduced the number of supposed species to two, <i>N. narica</i> of Mexico
+and Central America, and <i>N. rufa</i> of South America from Surinam
+to Paraguay. Remains of this genus, mostly referable to the
+existing species, occur in the cavern-deposits of Brazil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cercoleptes.</i><a id="FNanchor_491" href="#Footnote_491" class="fnanchor">[491]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 36. Molars
+with low flat crowns, very obscurely tuberculated. Skull short and
+rounded, with flat upper surface. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 3,
+C 26-29. Clavicles present, but in a very rudimentary condition.
+Head broad and round. Ears short. Body long and musteline.
+Limbs short. Tail long, tapering, and prehensile. Fur short and
+soft. Tongue long and very extensile. But one species of this
+somewhat aberrant genus is known, <i>C. caudivolvulus</i>, the Kinkajou,
+found in the forests of the warmer parts of South and Central
+America. It is about the size of a Cat, of a uniform, pale, yellowish-brown
+colour, nocturnal and arboreal in its habits, feeding on
+fruit, honey, eggs, and small birds and mammals, and is of a
+tolerably gentle disposition and easily tamed.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Mustelidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>True molars ¹⁄₂ (or ¹⁄₁ in <i>Mellivora</i><a id="FNanchor_492" href="#Footnote_492" class="fnanchor">[492]</a>). No alisphenoid canal. In
+the upper molar the inner tubercular portion is always longer in
+the antero-posterior direction than the secant external portion; the
+degree of inflation of the auditory bulla is but slight; and the
+palate is generally much produced behind the last molars, as is the
+case with the members of the preceding family. The post-glenoid
+process of the cranium is generally considerably curved over the
+glenoid fossa, so as to hold very tightly the condyle of the mandible.
+The humerus may or may not have an entepicondylar
+foramen. Except in the Otters, the kidneys resemble those of
+the <i>Procyonidæ</i> in being of simple structure.</p>
+
+<p>This family is a large and widely distributed one, especially in
+the northern temperate regions of the earth. The different genera,
+which are very difficult to arrange in any natural order, are rather
+artificially divided, chiefly according to the characters of their feet
+and claws, into the Otter-like (Lutrine), Badger-like (Meline), and
+Weasel-like (Musteline) forms.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Lutrinæ</b>.—Feet short, rounded (except the hind feet of
+<i>Latax</i>). Toes webbed. Claws small, curved, blunt. Head broad
+and much depressed. Upper molar large and quadrate, with its
+inner tubercular portion much expanded antero-posteriorly (<a href="#figure261">Fig.
+261</a>). Kidneys conglomerate. Habits aquatic.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_568"></a>[568]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Lutra.</i><a id="FNanchor_493" href="#Footnote_493" class="fnanchor">[493]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 36. Upper
+carnassial with a trenchant tricuspid blade, and a very large inner
+lobe, hollowed on the free surface, with a raised sharp edge, and extending
+along two-thirds or more of the length of the blade. True
+molar large, with a quadricuspidate
+crown, broader
+than long. First upper
+premolar very small, and
+in some cases absent (<a href="#figure261">Fig.
+261</a>). Skull broad and
+depressed, contracted immediately
+behind the
+orbits. Facial portion
+very short; brain case
+large. Vertebræ: C 7,
+D 14-15, L 6-5, S 3, C
+20-26. Body very long.
+Ears short and rounded.
+Limbs short. Feet more or less completely webbed; claws usually
+well developed on all the toes, although they may be rudimentary
+or absent. Tail long, thick at the base and tapering, rather
+depressed. Fur short and close. The humerus may or may not
+have an entepicondylar foramen. In conformity with the shape
+of the skull, the posterior part of the brain is expanded laterally.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure261" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure261.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 261.</span>—Palate of <i>Lutra cinerea</i>. (From the
+<i>Palæontologia Indica</i>.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Common British Otter (<i>L. vulgaris</i>), as the type of the
+genus, may be described somewhat fully. It has an elongated, low
+body, short limbs, short broad feet, with five toes on each, connected
+together by webs, and all with short, moderately strong,
+compressed, curved, pointed claws. Head rather small, broad, and
+flat; muzzle very broad; whiskers thick and strong; eyes small
+and black; ears short and rounded. Tail a little more than half
+the length of the body and head together, very broad and strong at
+the base, and gradually tapering to the end, somewhat flattened
+horizontally. The fur is of very fine quality, consisting of a short
+soft under fur of a whitish-gray colour, brown at the tips, interspersed
+with longer, stiffer, and thicker hairs, very shining, grayish
+at the base, bright rich brown at the points, especially on the upper
+parts and outer surface of the legs; the throat, cheeks, under parts
+and inner surface of the legs brownish-gray throughout. Individual
+Otters vary much in size; but the total length from the nose to the
+end of the tail averages about 3½ feet, of which the tail occupies
+1 foot 3 or 4 inches. The weight of a full-sized male is from 18 to
+24 lbs., that of a female about 4 lbs. less.</p>
+
+<p>As the Otter lives almost exclusively on fish, it is rarely met
+with far from water, and usually frequents the shores of brooks,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_569"></a>[569]</span>
+rivers, lakes, and, in some localities, the sea itself. It is a most
+expert swimmer and diver, easily overtaking and seizing fish in the
+water, but when it has captured its prey it brings it to shore to
+devour it. When lying upon the bank it holds the fish between its
+forepaws, commences at the head, and then eats gradually towards
+the tail, which it is said always to leave. The female produces
+three to five young ones at a time, in the month of March or April,
+and brings them up in a nest formed of grass or other herbage,
+usually placed in a hollow place in the bank of a river, or under
+the shelter of the roots of some overhanging tree. The Common
+Otter is found in localities suitable to its habits throughout Great
+Britain and Ireland, though far less abundantly than formerly, for,
+being very destructive to fish, and thus coming into keen competition
+with those who pursue the occupation of fishing either for
+sport or for gain, it is rarely allowed to live in peace when once its
+haunts are discovered. Otter-hunting with packs of hounds of a
+special breed, and trained for the purpose, was formerly a common
+pastime in the country. When hunted down and brought to bay
+by the dogs, the Otter is finally despatched by long spears carried
+for the purpose by the huntsmen.</p>
+
+<p>The Common Otter ranges throughout the greater part of
+Europe and Asia, the Indian <i>L. nair</i> not being distinct. A closely
+allied but larger species, <i>L. canadensis</i>, is extensively distributed
+throughout North America, where it is systematically pursued by
+professional trappers for the value of its fur. The Common Otter
+is regularly trained by the natives of some parts of Bengal to assist
+them in fishing, by driving the fish into the nets. In China Otters
+are taught to catch fish, being let into the water for the purpose
+attached to a long cord.</p>
+
+<p>Otters are widely distributed over the earth, and, as they are
+much alike in size and coloration, their specific distinctions are
+by no means well defined.<a id="FNanchor_494" href="#Footnote_494" class="fnanchor">[494]</a> Besides those mentioned above, the
+following may be noticed. In the Oriental region there are <i>L.
+ellioti</i><a id="FNanchor_495" href="#Footnote_495" class="fnanchor">[495]</a> of India, <i>L. sumatrana</i> of the Malay countries, and <i>L. cinerea</i>
+ranging over the greater part of the region. The latter species
+(often known as <i>L. leptonyx</i>) is of small size, with a short head, and
+rudimentary claws, which may be absent; it was at one time
+regarded as generically distinct, under the name of <i>Aonyx</i>. The
+upper true molar (<a href="#figure261">Fig. 261</a>) is characterised by the great development
+of its inner tubercular portion, and the first upper premolar
+is absent. In the Ethiopian region there are two species, <i>L. capensis</i>
+and <i>L. maculicollis</i>. Of the Neotropical forms it will suffice to
+mention the small <i>L. felina</i> and the large <i>L. brasiliensis<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_570"></a>[570]</span></i>. The latter
+is by far the largest of the existing forms, and is characterised by
+the presence of a prominent flange-like ridge along each lateral
+margin of the tail, on which account it was referred by Dr. Gray to
+a distinct genus, with the name of <i>Pteronura sambachi</i>. It should
+be observed that all Otters have a very distinct inner cusp to the
+blade of the lower carnassial, but that the relative size of this cusp
+varies in the different species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Otters.</i>—Several species of fossil Otters have been
+described. Thus in the Indian Siwaliks we have <i>L. palæindica</i>,
+which is closely allied to <i>L. sumatrana</i>, and a larger form described
+as <i>L. bathygnathus</i>. The Pliocene of Hessen-Darmstadt yields
+<i>L. hessica</i>; while <i>L. dubia</i>, of the Middle Miocene of France, is a
+species characterised by the small size of the inner cusp of the
+lower carnassial—a character in which it resembles those Tertiary
+forms described as <i>Trochictis</i>, which are believed to connect <i>Lutra</i>
+with the <i>Mustelinæ</i>. Two very large Otters, respectively from the
+Indian Siwaliks and the Italian Miocene, named <i>L. sivalensis</i> and
+<i>L. campanii</i>, may be regarded either as representing a very distinct
+<i>Enhydriodont</i> group of <i>Lutra</i> or as referable to a separate genus
+<i>Enhydriodon</i>. They are characterised by certain peculiarities in
+the structure of the teeth, and the second upper premolar may be
+absent in the Indian form. Lastly, the genus <i>Potamotherium</i> contains
+a small Otter (<i>P. valetoni</i>) from the Lower Miocene of the
+Continent, which differs from all other known <i>Mustelidæ</i> in having
+a minute second upper true molar. This species is evidently a
+very generalised form approximating to the <i>Viverridæ</i> in its dental
+formula, and also in the characters of the teeth themselves. The
+brain, as recently described by Dr. Filhol, differs from that of <i>Lutra</i>
+and other Mustelines in the great relative width of the anterior
+extremity of the hemispheres and olfactory lobes, and also in the
+disposition of the sulci, in both of which respects it more nearly
+resembles the <i>Viverridæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Latax.</i><a id="FNanchor_496" href="#Footnote_496" class="fnanchor">[496]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 32. Differs
+from all other existing Carnivora in having but two incisors on
+each side of the lower jaw, the one corresponding to the first (very
+small in the true Otters) being constantly absent. Though the
+molar teeth generally resemble those of <i>Lutra</i> in their proportions,
+they differ very much in the exceeding roundness and massiveness
+of their crowns and bluntness of their cusps. Feet webbed. Fore
+feet small, with five subequal toes, furnished with short compressed
+claws; palms naked. Hind feet very large, depressed, and fin-like.
+The phalanges flattened as in the Seals. The fifth toe the
+longest and stoutest, the rest gradually diminishing in size<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_571"></a>[571]</span> to the
+first, all with moderate claws. Tail moderate, cylindrical, and
+obtuse; about one-fourth the length of the head and body.</p>
+
+<p>The Sea-Otter (<i>L. lutris</i>, <a href="#figure262">Fig. 262</a>) is the sole representative of
+this genus. The entire length of the animal from nose to end of
+tail is about 4 feet, so that the body is considerably larger and
+more massive than that of the English Otter. The skin is peculiarly
+loose, and stretches when removed from the animal so as to give
+the idea of a still larger creature than it really is. The pellage is
+remarkable for the preponderance of the beautifully soft woolly
+under fur, the longer stiffer hairs being very scanty. The general
+colour is a deep liver brown, everywhere silvered or frosted with
+the hoary tips of the longer hairs. These are, however, removed
+when the skin is dressed for commercial purposes.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure262" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure262.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 262.</span>—The Sea-Otter (<i>Latax lutris</i>). From Wolf, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1865, pl, vii.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Sea-Otters are only found upon the rocky shores of certain
+parts of the North Pacific Ocean, especially the Aleutian Islands
+and Alaska, extending as far south on the American coast as Oregon;
+but, owing to the unremitting persecution to which they are subjected
+for the sake of their skins, which rank among the most
+valuable known to the furrier, their numbers are greatly diminishing,
+and, unless some restriction can be placed upon their destruction,
+such as that which protects the Fur-Seals of the Pribyloff
+Islands, the species is threatened with extermination, or, at all
+events, excessive scarcity. When this occurs, the occupation of
+five thousand of the half-civilised natives of Alaska, who are
+dependent upon Sea-Otter hunting as a means for obtaining their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_572"></a>[572]</span>
+living, will be gone. The principal hunting grounds at present are
+the little rocky islets and reefs around the island of Saanach and
+the Chernobours, where they are captured by spearing, clubbing, or
+nets, and recently by the more destructive rifle bullet. They do
+not feed on fish, like the true Otters, but on clams, mussels, sea-urchins,
+and crabs, for the mastication of which the blunt cusps of
+their teeth are admirably suited. The female brings forth but a
+single young one at a time, apparently at any season of the
+year. They are excessively shy and wary, and all attempts to
+rear the young ones in captivity have hitherto failed.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Melinæ</b>.—Feet elongated. Toes straight. Claws
+non-retractile, slightly curved, subcompressed, blunt; those of the
+fore foot especially large. Upper molar variable. Kidneys simple.
+Habits mostly terrestrial and fossorial.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mephitis.</i><a id="FNanchor_497" href="#Footnote_497" class="fnanchor">[497]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 34. Upper
+molar larger than the carnassial, subquadrate, rather broader than
+long. Lower carnassial with talon less than half the length of the
+whole tooth. Bony palate terminating posteriorly opposite the
+hinder border of the last molar tooth. Facial portion of skull
+short and somewhat truncated in front. Vertebræ: C 7, D 16,
+L 6, S 2, C 21. Head small. Body elongated. Limbs moderate,
+subplantigrade. Ears short and rounded. Tail long, abundantly
+clothed with very long fine hair. Anal glands largely developed.
+The secretion of these glands, which can be discharged at the will
+of the animal, has an intolerably offensive odour, which circumstance
+has rendered the Skunks, as they are commonly called, proverbial.
+They are strictly nocturnal animals, terrestrial and burrowing, feeding
+chiefly on small mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, worms, roots,
+and berries. All the known species have a prevalent black colour,
+varied by white strips or spots on the upper part (<a href="#figure263">Fig. 263</a>). They
+generally carry the body, much arched, and the tail erect, the long
+loose hair of which waves like a plume over the back. There are
+three species, all inhabitants of the American continent, over which
+they have an extensive range.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure263" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure263.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 263.</span>—The Common Skunk (<i>Mephitis mephitica</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Common Skunk (<i>M. mephitica</i>, <a href="#figure263">Fig. 263</a>) is an animal of
+about the size of a small Cat, ranging from Hudson’s Bay to
+Guatemala. The following account of its habits is given by
+Dr. C. H. Merriam in his <i>Mammals of the Adirondack Region</i>:—</p>
+
+<p>“The skunk preys upon mice, salamanders, frogs, and the eggs
+of birds that nest on or within reach from the ground. At times
+he eats carrion, and if he chances to stumble upon a hen’s nest the
+eggs are liable to suffer; and once in a while he acquires the evil
+habit of robbing the hen-roost, but as a rule skunks are not addicted
+to this vice. Of all our native mammals perhaps no one is so
+universally abused and has so many unpleasant things said about it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_573"></a>[573]</span>
+as the innocent subject of the present biography; and yet no other
+species is so valuable to the farmer. Pre-eminently an insect-eater,
+he destroys more beetles, grasshoppers, and the like than all our
+other mammals together, and in addition to these he devours vast
+numbers of mice. He does not evince that dread of man that is so
+manifest in the great majority of our mammals, and when met during
+any of his circumambulations rarely thinks of running away. He
+is slow in movement and deliberate in action, and does not often
+hurry himself in whatever he does. His ordinary gait is a measured
+walk, but when pressed for time he breaks into a low shuffling
+gallop. It is hard to intimidate a skunk, but when once really
+frightened he manages to get over the ground at a very fair pace.
+Skunks remain active throughout the greater part of the year in
+this region, and hibernate only during the severest portion of the
+winter. They differ from most of our hibernating mammals in that
+the inactive period is apparently dependent solely on the temperature,
+while the mere amount of snow has no influence whatever
+upon their movements. Skunks, particularly when young, make
+very pretty pets, being attractive in appearance, gentle in
+disposition, interesting in manners, and cleanly in habits—rare
+qualities indeed! They are playful, sometimes mischievous, and
+manifest considerable affection for those who have the care of them.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_574"></a>[574]</span>
+Their flesh is white, tender, and sweet, and is delicious eating.
+Skunks have large families, from six to ten young being commonly
+raised each season; and as a rule they all live in the same hole
+until the following spring.”</p>
+
+<p>The two ducts leading from the anal glands open at the tips of
+two small conical papillæ placed in such a position that the
+animal can protrude them externally, and can thus guide the
+direction of the jet of nauseous fluid, which can be propelled
+by the powerful muscles surrounding the glands to a distance of
+from 8 to 12 feet.</p>
+
+<p>The Long-tailed Skunk (<i>M. macrura</i>), from Central and Southern
+Mexico, has two lateral stripes, and a longer and more bushy tail
+than the common species. <i>M. putorius</i>, of the Southern United
+States and thence southwards to Yucatan and Guatemala, is of a
+much smaller size, with four interrupted white lateral stripes, and
+a skull differing considerably in form from that of the type species.
+It is regarded by some writers as representing a distinct genus,
+<i>Spilogale</i>; and has been recently divided by Dr. C. H. Merriam
+into several nominal species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Conepatus.</i><a id="FNanchor_498" href="#Footnote_498" class="fnanchor">[498]</a>—The Skunk of tropical America (<i>C. mapacito</i>),
+ranging from Texas to Chili and Patagonia, differs considerably
+from the true Skunks, although in colour it is almost precisely
+similar to the common species, with which it also agrees in the
+variation of the relative development of the black and white. Its
+build is heavier than that of <i>Mephitis</i>; the snout and head are more
+Pig-like; and the nostrils open downwards and forwards instead of
+laterally on the sides of the muzzle. The skull also has many
+special characters, and the teeth are different in shape and, as, a rule,
+in number also, the first minute premolar of <i>Mephitis</i> being almost
+invariably absent, so that the dental formula is <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃,
+<i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 32.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of <i>Conepatus</i>, which have been referred to three species,
+are found in the cavern-deposits of Brazil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arctonyx.</i><a id="FNanchor_499" href="#Footnote_499" class="fnanchor">[499]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 38. Incisor
+line curved, the outer teeth being placed posteriorly to the others.
+Lower incisors proclivous. First premolars often rudimentary or
+absent. Upper molar much larger than the carnassial, longer in
+the antero-posterior direction than broad; lower carnassial with
+a very large, low, tuberculated talon. Cranium elongated and
+depressed; face long, narrow, and concave above. Bony palate
+extending as far backwards as the level of the glenoid fossa; palatal
+bones dilated; suborbital foramina very large. Vertebræ: C 7,
+D 16, L 4, S 4, C 20. Snout long, naked, mobile, and truncated,
+with large terminal nostrils, much like that of a Pig. Eyes small.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_575"></a>[575]</span>
+Ears very small and rounded. Body compressed rather than
+depressed. Limbs of moderate length and digitigrade in walking.
+Tail moderate, tapering. A full soft under fur, with longer, bristly
+hairs interspersed. The best-known species is <i>A. collaris</i>, the Sand-Badger,
+or <i>Bhálu-soor</i><a id="FNanchor_500" href="#Footnote_500" class="fnanchor">[500]</a> (<i>i.e.</i> Bear-pig) of the natives, found in the
+mountains of the north-east of India and Assam. It is rather
+larger than the English Badger, higher on its legs, and very Pig-like
+in general aspect, of a light gray colour, with flesh-coloured snout
+and feet; and is nocturnal and omnivorous in habits. The imperfectly
+known <i>A. taxoides</i> from Assam and Arakan, and perhaps
+China, is a much smaller species. A third form probably exists in
+Eastern Tibet. Professor Mivart remarks that the brain-case of
+<i>Arctonyx</i> is narrower than in any other Arctoid; while the palate is
+relatively longer than in any other Carnivore except <i>Procyon</i>; and
+the metatarsus is relatively shorter than in any other member of
+the order.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mydaus.</i><a id="FNanchor_501" href="#Footnote_501" class="fnanchor">[501]</a>—Dentition as in the last genus, but the cusps of the
+teeth more acutely pointed. Cranium elongated, face narrow and
+produced. Suborbital foramen small, and the palate, as in all the
+succeeding genera of this group, produced backwards about midway
+between the last molar tooth and the glenoid fossa. Vertebræ: C 7,
+D 14-15, L 6-5, S 3, C 12. Head pointed in front; snout produced,
+mobile, obliquely truncated, the nostrils being inferior. Limbs
+rather short and stout. Tail extremely short, but clothed with
+rather long bushy hair. Anal glands largely developed, and emitting
+an odour like that of the American Skunks. One species, <i>M. meliceps</i>,
+the Teledu, a small burrowing Badger, found in the mountains of
+Java at an elevation of 7000 or more feet above sea-level.</p>
+
+<p><i>Meles.</i><a id="FNanchor_502" href="#Footnote_502" class="fnanchor">[502]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 38. The first
+premolar in both jaws extremely minute and often deciduous.
+Upper molar very much larger than the carnassial, subquadrate, as
+broad as long. Lower carnassial with a broad, low, tuberculated
+talon, more than half the length of the whole tooth. The post-glenoid
+processes of the skull are so strongly developed, and the glenoid
+fossa is so deep, that the condyle of the lower jaw is firmly held in
+its place even after all the surrounding soft parts are removed.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 3, C 18. Muzzle pointed. Ears very
+short. Body stout, broad. Limbs short, strong, subplantigrade.
+Tail short. The best-known species is the common Badger (<i>M. taxus</i>)
+of Europe and Northern Asia, still found in many parts of England,
+where it lives in woods, is nocturnal, burrowing, and very omnivorous,
+feeding on mice, reptiles, insects, fruit, acorns, and roots.
+Other nearly allied species, <i>M. leucurus</i> and <i>M. chinensis</i>, are found in
+continental Asia, <i>M. canescens</i> in Persia, and <i>M.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_576"></a>[576]</span> anakuma</i> in Japan.</p>
+
+<p>The appearance of the common Badger is too well known to
+need description, but, it may be mentioned that a full-grown
+individual stands about a foot in height at the shoulder, and
+measures from 2½ to 3 feet in length. The young are born in
+a naked and blind condition, usually in litters of three or four.
+It appears that the usual period of gestation is about eleven
+and a half months, but instances are recorded where the period
+has been protracted to upwards of fifteen months.</p>
+
+<p>Fossil remains of the common Badger are found in the
+Pleistocene deposits of Europe, while extinct species have been
+described from the Lower Pliocene beds of Maragha, in Persia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Taxidea.</i><a id="FNanchor_503" href="#Footnote_503" class="fnanchor">[503]</a>—Dental formula as in <i>Meles</i>, except that the rudimentary
+anterior premolar appears to be always wanting in the
+upper jaw. The upper carnassial much larger in proportion to the
+other teeth. Upper molar about the same size as the carnassial,
+triangular, with the apex turned backwards. Talon of lower carnassial
+less than half the length of the tooth. Skull very wide in
+the occipital region; the lambdoidal crest very greatly developed,
+and the sagittal but slightly, contrary to what obtains in <i>Meles</i>.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 3, C 16. Body very stoutly
+built and depressed. Tail short. The animals of this genus are
+peculiar to North America, where they represent the Badgers of
+the Old World, resembling them much in appearance and habits.
+<i>T. americana</i> is the common American Badger of the United States;
+<i>T. berlandieri</i>, the Mexican Badger, is perhaps only a local variety.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mellivora.</i><a id="FNanchor_504" href="#Footnote_504" class="fnanchor">[504]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁; total 32. Upper
+carnassial large, with its inner tubercle quite at the anterior end
+of the blade, as in the following genera; molar much smaller and
+transversely extended, having a very small outer and a larger
+rounded inner lobe. Talon of lower carnassial very small, scarcely
+one-fourth of the whole length of the tooth, and with but one cusp;
+lower tubercular molar absent. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 4, S 4, C 15.
+Body stout, depressed. Limbs short, strong. Head depressed, nose
+rather pointed. External ears rudimentary. Tail short. The
+animals of this genus are commonly called Ratels. <i>M. indica</i> from
+India, and, <i>M. ratel</i> (<a href="#figure264">Fig. 264</a>) from South and West Africa, have
+nearly the same general appearance and size, being rather larger
+than a common Badger. Their coloration is peculiar, all the upper
+surface of the body, head, and tail being ashy gray, while the lower
+parts, separated by a distinct longitudinal boundary line, are black.
+The two species may be distinguished by the circumstance that
+the African one has a distinct white line round the body at the
+junction of the gray of the upper side with the black of the lower,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_577"></a>[577]</span>
+while in the Indian form this line is absent; the teeth also of the
+former are, on the whole, larger, rounder, and heavier than those of
+the latter. In spite of these differences the two are, however, so
+nearly allied that they might almost be considered as local races of
+a single widely spread species.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure264" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure264.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 264.</span>—The African Ratel (<i>Mellivora ratel</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The following account of the Indian species is extracted from
+Dr. Jerdon’s <i>Mammals of India</i>: “The Indian badger is found
+throughout the whole of India, from the extreme south to the foot
+of the Himalayas, chiefly in hilly districts, where it has greater
+facilities for constructing the holes and dens in which it lives; but
+also in the north of India in alluvial plains, where the banks of
+large rivers afford equally suitable localities wherein to make its
+lair. It is stated to live usually in pairs, and to eat rats, birds,
+frogs, white ants, and various insects, and in the north of India it
+is accused of digging out dead bodies, and is popularly known as
+the grave-digger. It doubtless also, like its Cape congener,
+occasionally partakes of honey. It is often very destructive to
+poultry, and I have known of several having been trapped and
+killed whilst committing such depredations in Central India and in
+the northern Circars. In confinement the Indian badger is quiet
+and will partake of vegetable food, fruits, rice, etc.”</p>
+
+<p>A fossil species of <i>Millivora</i>, apparently closely allied to the
+existing forms, occurs<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_578"></a>[578]</span> in the Pliocene Siwaliks of India. The same
+deposits have also yielded remains of an extinct genus described as
+<i>Mellivorodon</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure265" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure265.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 265.</span>—<i>Helictis personata.</i> (From Blanford, <i>Mammalia of British
+India</i>, p. 175.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Helictis.</i><a id="FNanchor_505" href="#Footnote_505" class="fnanchor">[505]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 38. Upper
+carnassial with a large bicuspid inner tubercle; upper molar
+smaller, wider transversely than in the antero-posterior direction.
+Lower carnassial with talon about one-third the length of the tooth.
+Skull elongated,
+rather narrow
+and depressed.
+Facial portion
+especially narrow.
+Infraorbital
+foramen
+very large.
+Head rather
+small and produced
+in front,
+with an elongated,
+obliquely
+truncated, naked
+snout. Ears
+small. Body
+elongated. Limbs short. Tail short or moderate, bushy. Several
+species are described (<i>H. orientalis</i>, <i>personata</i> [<a href="#figure265">Fig. 265</a>], <i>moschata</i>,
+<i>subaurantiaca</i>), all from Eastern Asia; they are all small animals
+compared with the other members of the subfamily, climbing trees
+with agility and living much on fruit and berries as well as on
+small mammals and birds. The two first named species occur in
+British India, <i>H. orientalis</i> also ranging into Java; the Chinese
+<i>H. subaurantiaca</i> is brilliantly coloured in the region of the throat.<a id="FNanchor_506" href="#Footnote_506" class="fnanchor">[506]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure266" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure266.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 266.</span>—Left lateral and superior aspect of the brain of <i>Helictis subaurantiaca</i>. (From
+Garrod, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1879, p. 307.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The brain of <i>Helictis</i>, represented in the accompanying figure,
+shows the general type of cerebral structure characteristic of the
+<i>Mustelidæ</i>. The brain of this genus differs, however, from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_579"></a>[579]</span> that
+of every other Carnivore in that the hippocampal gyrus rises to
+the surface on either side of the great longitudinal fissure, in
+consequence of which there is no crucial fissure, and the so-called
+“Ursine lozenge,” so characteristic of the Arctoidea, is incomplete
+behind. The superior gyrus, as in <i>Ictonyx</i> and <i>Mustela</i>, ceases at
+the superior posterior angle of the hemisphere.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ictonyx.</i><a id="FNanchor_507" href="#Footnote_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 34. In general
+characters the teeth much resemble those of the Polecats (<i>Mustela</i>),
+being more delicately cut and sharply cusped than in most of the
+foregoing. Upper molar smaller than the carnassial, narrow from
+before backwards. Lower carnassial with a small narrow talon and
+distinct inner cusp. General form of body Musteline. Limbs short.
+Fore feet large and broad, with five stout, nearly straight, blunt,
+and non-retractile claws, of which the first and fifth are considerably
+shorter than the others. Tail moderate, with longer hairs towards
+the end, giving it a bushy appearance. Hairs generally long and
+loose. The best known species of this genus, <i>I. zorilla</i>, the Cape
+Polecat, was placed by Cuvier in the genus <i>Mustela</i>, and by
+Lichtenstein in <i>Mephitis</i>; and in many characters it forms a
+transition between these genera. It is about the size of an English
+Polecat, but conspicuous by its coloration, having broad, longitudinal
+bands of dark brown, alternating with white. Its odour is said to
+be as offensive as that of the American Skunks. From the Cape of
+Good Hope it ranges as far north as Senegal. Another species,
+<i>I. frenata</i>, from Sennaar and Egypt, has been described.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Mustelinæ</b>.—Toes short, partially webbed; claws
+short, compressed, acute, curved, often semiretractile. Upper molar
+of moderate size, wide transversely. Kidneys simple. Terrestrial
+and arboreal in habits.</p>
+
+<p><i>Galictis.</i><a id="FNanchor_508" href="#Footnote_508" class="fnanchor">[508]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 34. Molars small
+but stout. Upper carnassial with the inner tubercle near the middle
+of the inner border of the tooth. Lower carnassial with talon small,
+and inner cusp small or absent. Body long. Limbs short; claws
+non-retractile. Palms and soles naked. Head broad and depressed.
+Tail of moderate length. The best-known species are <i>G. vittata</i>, the
+Grison (genus <i>Grisonia</i>, Gray), and <i>G. barbara</i>, the Tayra (genus
+<i>Galera</i>, Gray), both South American; <i>G. allamandi</i> is an intermediate
+form.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of <i>Galictis</i> occur in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of
+Brazil, and also in the Pleistocene of North America.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mustela.</i><a id="FNanchor_509" href="#Footnote_509" class="fnanchor">[509]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁻⁴⁄₃₋₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 34 or 38.
+Upper carnassial with inner tubercle close to the anterior edge of
+the tooth. Molar nearly as large as carnassial. Lower carnassial<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_580"></a>[580]</span>
+with small or no inner cusp. Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 3,
+C 18-23. Body long and slender. Limbs short, digitigrade. Feet
+rounded; toes short, with compressed, acute, semiretractile claws.
+Tail moderate or long, more or less bushy.</p>
+
+<p>The genus <i>Mustela</i>, as restricted by Cuvier (<i>Règne Animal</i>,
+1817), contains a very natural assemblage of animals commonly
+called Martens, Sables, Polecats, Stoats, Ermines, and Weasels, all
+closely allied in structure and habits. A structural division, however,
+occurs between the two first-named and all the others, especially
+shown in the presence of an additional small premolar tooth on
+each side of the jaw; and, availing himself of this and some
+other minor characters, Cuvier divided the genus into two subgenera,
+for the first of which he retained the name of <i>Mustela</i>, and to the
+second assigned that of <i>Putorius</i>. Three years later Nilsson (<i>Skand.
+Fauna</i>, 1820) definitely constituted the two groups into genera,
+applying to the first the name of <i>Martes</i>, by which the animals
+composing it had been generally designated by the Latin writing
+zoologists of the preceding century, and keeping <i>Mustela</i> for the
+more typical Weasels and their immediate allies. Later zoologists
+have been divided between the nomenclature of Cuvier, which has
+the priority, and that of Nilsson, which on other grounds is preferable.
+Those who adopt the latter affirm that Cuvier’s names,
+being only used by him in a subgeneric sense, and not binominally,
+need not be applied generically, but this is contrary to the practice
+usually followed in such cases; and therefore, if the original genus
+be divided, the name <i>Mustela</i> should be retained for the Martens,
+and <i>Putorius</i> for the Polecats and Weasels. Here, however, the genus
+will be employed in its wider sense, and divided into two groups.</p>
+
+<p>The typical group of the Martens<a id="FNanchor_510" href="#Footnote_510" class="fnanchor">[510]</a> presents the following
+distinctive features. Body long, slender, and very flexible, though
+less so than in the true Weasels. Head somewhat triangular; muzzle
+pointed, the nose extending a little beyond the lips; eyes large
+and prominent; ears conspicuous, broad, somewhat triangular,
+rounded at the ends, furred outside and in. Limbs short; feet
+rounded; toes short, five on each foot, all with short, compressed,
+curved, sharp-pointed claws; soles densely furred between the
+naked pads. Tail moderately long, more or less bushy. Outer
+fur long, strong, and glossy; a very abundant soft under fur.
+Skull elongated and depressed. Facial portion moderate and
+rather compressed. Zygomata arched and wide, but slender.
+Postorbital processes small. Auditory bullæ large, but not very
+globose. Mandible with a strong triangular vertical coronoid<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_581"></a>[581]</span>
+process and a well-developed angular process. Premolars ⁴⁄₄.
+Upper incisors in a straight transverse line, rather long and
+compressed; first and second subequal, third considerably larger.
+Lower incisors very small, especially the first, and crowded
+together, the second placed rather behind the others. Canines
+long and sharp-pointed. Upper premolars: first very small, with
+simple crown and one root; second and third nearly equal in size
+and two-rooted, with simple compressed sharp-pointed crowns,
+with very slightly developed accessory cusps; fourth (the carnassial)
+with blade consisting chiefly of the central and posterior lobes, the
+anterior being rudimentary, inner tubercle small and confined to
+the anterior part of the tooth. True molar tubercular, about
+twice as wide transversely as in the antero-posterior direction,
+having an outer, more elevated, but smaller portion, bearing three
+blunt tubercles; to the inner side of this the crown is contracted,
+and its surface deeply hollowed; it then expands again into a
+broad low lobe, with the central part elevated, and a raised, even,
+semicircular, slightly crenated internal border. Lower premolars:
+first very small, simple, and one-rooted; second, third, and fourth
+increasing slightly in size, with high compressed pointed crowns
+and posterior accessory cusps, best marked in the third. First
+molar (carnassial) with well-marked bilobed blade, talon scarcely
+more than one-third of the length of the tooth, and a very small
+inner cusp. Second molar small, single-rooted, with a low,
+flattened, subcircular or oval tubercular crown.</p>
+
+<p>In geographical distribution the Martens are limited to the
+northern hemisphere, ranging throughout the greater part of the
+temperate regions of both Old and New Worlds, as far north as
+conditions of existence suited to their habits are met with, and
+southwards in America to 35° N. lat., while in Asia one species is
+met with as far in this direction as the island of Java.</p>
+
+<p>The various species appear to be very similar in their habits.
+They live in woods and rocky places, and are thoroughly arboreal,
+spending most of their time in trees, although descending to the
+ground in quest of prey. They climb with great facility, and are
+agile and graceful in their movements. Some species are said
+occasionally to resort to berries and other fruit for food, but as a
+rule they are strictly carnivorous, feeding chiefly on birds and their
+eggs, small mammals, as squirrels, hares, rabbits, and moles, but
+chiefly mice of various kinds, of which they destroy great numbers,
+and occasionally snakes, lizards, and frogs. In proportion to their
+size they are among the most bloodthirsty of animals, though less
+so than the true Weasels. The female usually makes her nest of
+moss, dried leaves, and grass in the hollow of a tree, but sometimes
+in a hole among rocks or ruined buildings, and produces several
+young at a birth, usually from four to six. Though wild and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_582"></a>[582]</span>
+untameable to a great degree if captured when fully grown, when
+taken young they are very docile, and have frequently been made
+pets of, not having the strong unpleasant odour of the smaller
+<i>Mustelidæ</i>. The common European Marten appears to have been
+partially domesticated by the Greeks and Romans, and to have
+been used to keep houses clear from rats and mice before cats were
+introduced.<a id="FNanchor_511" href="#Footnote_511" class="fnanchor">[511]</a> In the same way, according to Hodgson, the Yellow-bellied
+Weasel (<i>M. cathia</i>) “is exceedingly prized by the Nipalese
+for its service in ridding houses of rats. It is easily tamed; and
+such is the dread of it common to all Murine animals that not one
+will approach a house where it is domiciled.” It is, however, to
+the great value attached to the pelts of these animals that their
+importance to man is chiefly due. Though all yield fur of
+serviceable quality, the commercial value varies immensely, not
+only according to the particular species from which it is obtained,
+but according to individual variation, depending upon age, sex,
+season, and other trifling circumstances. The skins from northern
+regions are more full and of a finer colour and gloss than those
+from more temperate climates, as are those of animals killed in
+winter compared with the same individuals in the summer season.
+The caprices of fashion have, moreover, set wholly factitious values
+upon slight shades of colour, recognised and named by experienced
+furriers, but not indicating any specific or other distinctions of
+which zoologists have any cognisance. Enormous numbers of
+animals are annually caught, chiefly in traps, to supply the demand
+of the fur trade, Siberia and North America being the principal
+localities from which they are obtained.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of the Pekan (<i>M. pennanti</i>) all the Martens
+are so much alike in size, general colouring, and cranial and dental
+characters that the discrimination of the species, and assignment of
+the proper geographical distribution to each, has been a subject
+which has sorely perplexed the ingenuity and patience of zoologists.
+The following description by Dr. Elliott Coues of the external
+characters of the American Pine Marten (<i>M. americana</i>) will apply
+almost equally well to most of the others: “It is almost impossible
+to describe the colour of the Pine Marten, except in general terms,
+without going into the details of the endless diversities occasioned
+by age, sex, season, or other incidents. The animal is ‘brown,’ of
+various shades from orange or tawny to quite blackish; the tail and
+feet are ordinarily the darkest, the head lightest, often quite whitish;
+the ears are usually rimmed with whitish; on the throat there is
+usually a large tawny-yellowish or orange-brown patch, from the
+chin to the fore legs, sometimes entire, sometimes broken<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_583"></a>[583]</span> into a
+number of smaller, irregular blotches, sometimes wanting, sometimes
+prolonged on the whole under surface, when the animal is
+bicolor like a Stoat in summer. The general ‘brown’ has a grayish
+cast, as far as the under fur is concerned, and is overlaid with rich
+lustrous blackish-brown in places where the long bristly hairs prevail.
+The claws are whitish; the naked nose pad and whiskers are black.
+The tail occasionally shows interspersed white hairs, or a white tip.”</p>
+
+<p>The species generally recognised as distinct are the following, the
+first five belonging to the Old and the last two to the New World:—</p>
+
+<p><i>M. foina</i>, the Beech Marten, Stone Marten, or White-breasted
+Marten.—Distinguished from the following by the greater breadth
+of the skull, and some minute but constant dental characters, by
+the dull grayish-brown colour of the fur of the upper parts, and
+the pure white of the throat and breast. It inhabits the greater
+part of the continent of Europe, but is more southern than the
+next in its distribution, not being found in Sweden or Norway,
+nor, according to the investigations of Mr. Alston, in the British
+Isles, although included in their fauna by all earlier writers; to
+the eastward it ranges into Afghanistan and the Himalaya.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure267" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure267.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 267.</span>—The Pine Marten (<i>Mustela martes</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>M. martes</i>, the Pine Marten (<a href="#figure267">Fig. 267</a>).—Outer fur rich dark
+brown; under fur reddish-gray, with clear yellow tips; breast spot
+usually yellow, varying from bright orange to pale cream-colour or
+yellowish-white. Length of head and body 16 to 18 inches; of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_584"></a>[584]</span>
+tail (including the hair) 9 to 12 inches. This species is extensively
+distributed throughout northern Europe and Asia, and was formerly
+common in most parts of Great Britain and Ireland. Though
+commonly called “Pine Marten,” it does not appear to have any
+special preference for coniferous trees, except that, inasmuch as
+they constitute the greater proportion of the forests of the countries
+which it inhabits, it is more often met with in them than in any
+other. With regard to its recent occurrence in the British Isles,
+Mr. Alston writes in the <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1879:—</p>
+
+<p>“Although greatly reduced in numbers by persecution, it still
+maintains its ground in the wilder districts of Scotland, the north
+of England, Wales, and Ireland; and occasionally specimens are
+killed in counties where the species was thought to have been long
+extinct. In Scotland it is still found, though comparatively rarely,
+in the Lews and in most of the Highland mainland counties, being
+perhaps most abundant in Sutherland and Ross-shire, especially in
+the deer forests. In the Lowlands a Marten is now a very great
+rarity; but a fine example was killed in Ayrshire in the winter of
+1875-76. In the north of England Mr. W. A. Durnford says the
+species is still plentiful in the wilder parts of Cumberland, Westmoreland,
+and Lancashire, and in Lincolnshire several have been
+recorded, the latest killed in 1865, by Mr. Cordeaux. In Norfolk
+one was shot last year; and I have myself examined a fine
+example which was shot in Hertfordshire, within 20 miles of
+London, in December 1872. In Dorsetshire the last is said to
+have been killed in 1804; but a specimen occurred in Hampshire
+about forty years ago, and another in Surrey in 1847. In Ireland
+the following counties were enumerated by Thompson as habitats
+of this species: Donegal, Londonderry, Antrim, Down, Armagh,
+Fermanagh, Longford, Galway, Tipperary, Cork, and Kerry. The
+<i>Cat-crann</i> is probably now a rarer animal in Ireland than it was
+when Thompson wrote; but it still exists in various districts,
+especially in County Kerry, whence the society has received several
+living examples; and Professor A. Leith Adams states that it has
+been seen of late years even in county Dublin.”</p>
+
+<p><i>M. zibellina</i>, the Sable (German, <i>Zobel</i> and <i>Zebel</i>; Swedish,
+<i>sabel</i>; Russian, <i>sobel</i>, a word probably of Turanian origin).—Closely
+resembling the last, if indeed differing from it except in the quality
+of the fur, which is the most highly valued of that of all the group.
+Found chiefly in Eastern Siberia.</p>
+
+<p><i>M. flavigula</i>, the Indian Marten.—Inhabits the southern slopes
+of the Himalaya, the Nilgiri Hills, the interior of Ceylon, the
+Malay Peninsula, and Java. The coloration of this species is very
+striking, the upper parts being blackish-brown, and the throat
+and breast yellow or orange, in the bright coloured variety. It
+differs from the other species in having the soles of the feet more
+or less naked.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_585"></a>[585]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>M. melampus.</i>—Japan.</p>
+
+<p><i>M. americana</i>, the North-American Sable or Marten.—A species
+so closely allied to the European Pine Marten and Asiatic Sable
+that it is very difficult to assign constant distinguishing characters
+between them. The importance of the fur of this animal as an
+article of commerce may be judged of from the fact that 15,000
+skins were sold in one year by the Hudson’s Bay Company as long
+ago as 1743, and the more recent annual imports into Great Britain
+have exceeded 100,000. It is ordinarily caught in wooden traps
+of very simple construction, being little enclosures of stakes or
+brush in which the bait is placed upon a trigger, with a short
+upright stick supporting a log of wood, which falls upon its victim
+on the slightest disturbance. A line of such traps, several to a mile,
+often extends many miles. The bait is any kind of meat, a mouse,
+squirrel, piece of fish, or bird’s head. It is principally trapped
+during the colder months, from October to April, when the fur is
+in good condition, as it is nearly valueless during the shedding in
+summer. Dr. Coues tells us that, notwithstanding the persistent
+and uninterrupted destruction to which the American Sable is
+subjected, it does not appear to diminish materially in numbers in
+unsettled parts of the country. It holds its own partly in consequence
+of its shyness, which keeps it away from the abodes of men,
+and partly because it is so prolific, bringing forth six to eight young
+at a litter. Its home is sometimes a den under ground or beneath
+rocks, but oftener the hollow of a tree, and it is said frequently to
+take forcible possession of a squirrel’s nest, driving off or devouring
+the rightful proprietor.</p>
+
+<p><i>M. pennanti</i>, the Pekan or Pennant’s Marten, also called Fisher
+Marten, though there appears to be nothing in its habits to justify
+the appellation.—This is the largest species of the group, the head
+and body measuring from 24 to 30 inches, and the tail 14 to 18
+inches. It is also more robust in form than the others, its general
+aspect being more that of a Fox than a Weasel; in fact, its usual
+name among the American hunters is “Black Fox.” Its general
+colour is blackish, lighter by mixture of brown or gray on the head
+and upper fore part of the body, with no light patch on the throat,
+and unlike the other Martens generally darker below than above.
+It was generally distributed in wooded districts throughout the
+greater part of North America, as far north as Great Slave Lake,
+63° N. lat., and Alaska, and extending south to the parallel of 35°;
+but at the present time it is almost exterminated in the settled parts
+of the United States east of the Mississippi.</p>
+
+<p>Fossil remains of a Marten from the Pliocene Siwaliks of India
+indicate a species which cannot be distinguished from those now
+inhabiting the same region; while remains of <i>M. martes</i> occur in
+European cavern-deposits, and in the fens of Cambridgeshire.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_586"></a>[586]</span></p>
+
+<p>With the <i>Putoriine</i> group (genus <i>Putorius</i>) we come to those
+smaller forms distinguished by having only three premolars in each
+jaw, by the absence of an inner cusp to the blade of the lower
+carnassial, as well as by certain external characters. This group
+contains a few species known as Minks, differing from the rest by
+slight structural modifications, and especially by their semiaquatic
+habits. They are distinguished from the Polecats, Stoats, and
+Weasels, which constitute the remainder of the group, by the facial
+part of the skull being narrower and more approaching in form
+that of the Martens, by the premolar teeth (especially the anterior
+one in the upper jaw) being larger, by the toes being partially
+webbed, and by the absence of hair in the intervals between the
+naked pads of the soles of the feet. The two best-known species,
+so much alike in size, form, colour, and habits that although they
+are widely separated geographically some zoologists question their
+specific distinction, are <i>M. lutreola</i>, the <i>Nörz</i> or <i>Sumpfotter</i> (Marsh-Otter)
+of Eastern Europe, and <i>M. vison</i>, the Mink of North America.
+The former inhabits Finland, Poland, and the greater part of
+Russia, though not found east of the Ural Mountains. Formerly
+it extended westward into Central Germany, but is now very
+rare, if not extinct, in that country. The latter is found in places
+which suit its habits throughout the whole of North America.
+Another form, <i>M. sibirica</i>, from Eastern Asia, of which much less is
+known, appears to connect the true Minks with the Polecats.</p>
+
+<p>For the following description, chiefly taken from the American
+form (though almost equally applicable to that of Europe), we
+are mainly indebted to Dr. Coues’s <i>Fur-bearing Animals of North
+America</i>. In size it much resembles the English Polecat,—the length
+of the head and body being usually from 15 to 18 inches, that of the
+tail to the end of the hair about 9 inches. The female is considerably
+smaller than the male. The tail is bushy, but tapering at the
+end. The ears are small, low, rounded, and scarcely project beyond
+the adjacent fur. The pellage consists of a dense, soft, matted under
+fur, mixed with long, stiff, lustrous hairs on all parts of the body
+and tail. The gloss is greatest on the upper parts; on the tail the
+bristly hairs predominate. Northern specimens have the finest and
+most glistening pellage; in those from southern regions there is less
+difference between the under and over fur, and the whole pellage
+is coarser and harsher. In colour different specimens present a
+considerable range of variation, but the animal is ordinarily of a rich
+dark brown, scarcely or not paler below than on the general upper
+parts; but the back is usually the darkest, and the tail is nearly
+black. The under jaw, from the chin about as far back as the angle
+of the mouth, is generally white. In the European Mink the upper
+lip is also white, but as this occasionally occurs in American specimens<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_587"></a>[587]</span>
+it fails as an absolutely distinguishing character. Besides the
+white on the chin, there are often other irregular white patches
+on the under parts of the body. In very rare instances the tail is
+tipped with white. The fur, like that of most of the animals of
+the group to which it belongs, is an important article of commerce.</p>
+
+<p>The principal characteristic of the Mink in comparison with its
+congeners is its amphibious mode of life. It is to the water what
+the other Weasels are to the land, or Martens to the trees, being as
+essentially aquatic in its habits as the Otter, Beaver, or Musk-Rat,
+and spending perhaps more of its time in the water than it does
+on land. It swims with most of the body submerged, and dives
+with perfect ease, remaining long without coming to the surface to
+breathe. It makes its nest in burrows in the banks of streams,
+breeding once a year about the month of April, and producing five
+or six young at a birth. Its food consists of frogs, fish, freshwater
+molluscs and crustaceans, as well as mice, rats, musk-rats, rabbits,
+and small birds. In common with the other animals of the genus,
+it has a very peculiar and disagreeable effluvium, which, according
+to Coues, is more powerful, penetrating, and lasting than that of
+any animal of the country except the Skunk. It also possesses the
+courage, ferocity, and tenacity of life of its allies. When taken
+young, however, it can be readily tamed, and lately Minks have
+been extensively bred in captivity in America, both for the sake of
+their fur and for the purpose of using them in like manner as
+Ferrets in England, to clear buildings of rats.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp92" id="figure268" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure268.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 268.</span>—The Common Polecat (<i>Mustela putorius</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Polecats include four species confined to the northern
+hemisphere, the best known of which is the Common Polecat<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_588"></a>[588]</span>
+(<i>M. putorius</i>, <a href="#figure268">Fig. 268</a>). The Ferret is a domesticated variety of
+this species, generally of a yellowish-white colour; whereas the Wild
+Polecat is dark brown above and black beneath, the face being
+variegated with dark brown and white markings.</p>
+
+<p>The skull is rough, strongly ridged, and of a far more powerful
+type than that of the Stoats, Weasels, or Martens; being in the
+female much smaller and lighter than in the male. The fur, which
+is long, coarse, and of comparatively small value, changes its colour
+very little, if at all, at the different seasons of the year.</p>
+
+<p>The distribution and habits of this species have been described
+by Blasius, the following being an abstract of his account. The
+Polecat ranges over the greater part of Europe, reaching northwards
+into Southern Sweden, and in Russia to the region of the White
+Sea. It does not occur in the extreme South, but is common everywhere
+throughout Central Europe. In the Alps it ranges far above
+the tree-line during the summer, but retreats in winter to lower
+ground. In fine weather it lives either in the open air, in holes,
+fox-earths, rabbit-warrens, under rocks, or in wood-stacks, while in
+winter it seeks the protection of deserted buildings. During the
+day it sleeps in its hiding-place, sallying forth at night to plunder
+dovecots and hen-houses. It climbs but little, and shows far less
+activity than the Marten. It feeds ordinarily on small mammals,
+such as rabbits, hamsters, rats, and mice, on such birds as it can
+catch, especially poultry and pigeons, and also on snakes, lizards,
+frogs, fish, and eggs. Its prey is devoured only in its lair, but,
+even though it can carry away but a single victim, it commonly
+kills everything that comes in its way, often destroying all the
+inhabitants of a hen-house in order to gratify its passion for
+slaughter. The pairing time is towards the end of the winter, and
+the young, from three to eight in number, are born in April or
+May, after a period of gestation of about two months. The young,
+if taken early, may be easily trained, like Ferrets, for rabbit catching.
+The Polecat is very tenacious of life, and will bear many severe
+wounds before succumbing; it is also said to receive with impunity
+the bite of the adder. Its fetid smell has become proverbial.</p>
+
+<p>Four other species of Polecats are known, viz.—The Siberian
+Polecat (<i>M. eversmanni</i>) of Western and Northern Asia is nearly
+allied to the European species, but the head and back are almost
+white, and the skull is stouter and more constricted behind the
+orbits. The Tibetan <i>M. larvata</i> is distinguished from the last
+by the presence of a process connecting the pterygoid with the
+auditory bulla, and by a difference in the shape of the upper
+molar. The American Polecat (<i>M. nigripes</i>), inhabiting the central
+plateau of the United States, and extending southwards into Texas,
+is another closely allied species, although some zoologists have made
+it the type of the genus <i>Cynomyonax</i>. Finally, the Mottled<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_589"></a>[589]</span> Polecat
+(<i>M. sarmatica</i>) is a species sparsely distributed in Eastern Europe
+and parts of Western Asia, but common in Southern Afghanistan.
+Its skull, although smaller, resembles that of the common species;
+but the coloration is very different, all the upper parts being
+mottled with large irregular reddish spots on a white ground, and
+the under side, limbs, and tail deep shining black. The tail is long.</p>
+
+<p>The Common Polecat occurs in a fossil condition in the cave-deposits
+of Europe.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="figure269" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure269.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 269.</span>—The Common Weasel (<i>Mustela vulgaris</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The remaining members of the genus comprise the true Weasels
+and Stoats, which are of almost cosmopolitan distribution. In the
+Common Weasel (<i>M. vulgaris</i>, <a href="#figure269">Fig. 269</a>) the upper parts, outside of
+limbs and tail, are a uniform reddish-brown, the under parts pure
+white. In very cold regions, both in Europe and America, it turns
+completely white in winter, but less regularly and at a lower
+temperature than the Stoat, from which it is easily distinguished by
+its smaller size, and by its wanting the black end of the tail. The
+length of the head and body of the male is usually about 8 inches,
+that of the tail 2½ inches; the female is smaller.</p>
+
+<p>This species is pretty generally distributed throughout Europe,
+Northern and Central Asia, British North America, and the northern
+portions of the United States. It possesses in a full degree all the
+active, courageous, and bloodthirsty disposition of the rest of the
+genus, but its diminutive size prevents it attacking and destroying<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_590"></a>[590]</span>
+any but the smaller mammals and birds. Mice, rats, voles, moles,
+and frogs constitute its principal food. It is generally found on or
+near the surface of the ground, but it can not only pursue its prey
+through very small holes and crevices of rocks and under dense
+tangled herbage, but follow it up the stems and branches of trees,
+or even into the water, swimming with perfect ease. It constructs
+a nest of dried leaves and herbage, placed in a hole in the ground
+or a bank or hollow tree, in which it brings up its litter of four to
+six (usually five) young ones. The mother will defend her young
+with the utmost desperation against any assailant, having been often
+known to sacrifice her own life rather than desert them.</p>
+
+<p>The Stoat or Ermine (<i>M. erminea</i>) has nearly the same distribution
+as the Weasel, but in Asia it is said to extend into parts of
+the Kashmir Himalaya. Its size, as already mentioned, considerably
+exceeds that of the Weasel; and its most distinctive feature is
+the black tip at the end of the tail, which remains when the rest of
+the pellage turns white. The white winter skins from the northern
+regions of its habitat, where the fur is thick and close, form the
+well-known and valuable ermine of commerce. Remains of the
+Stoat are found in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Europe. The
+other species of Weasels are very numerous and widely distributed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Mustelines.</i>—A number of European Miocene Carnivores
+may be referred to the genus <i>Mustela</i> in its wider sense, and serve to
+confirm the propriety of this use of the term. Thus <i>M. sectoria</i> is
+a species of somewhat larger size than the Stoat, with <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, while in
+<i>M. angustifrons</i> the number of premolars is ³⁄₄, and in <i>M. mustelina</i>
+⁴⁄₃; the latter species agreeing very closely in size with the Stoat.
+The extinct <i>Plesictis</i>, in which there are <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄ and the lower carnassial
+has a large inner cusp, is distinguished from <i>Mustela</i> by the
+circumstance that the temporal ridges of the skull never unite to
+form a sagittal crest. Moreover, the inner tubercular portion of the
+upper molar (as in some of the Miocene species of <i>Mustela</i>) is shorter
+in an antero-posterior direction than the secant outer moiety; and
+the auditory bulla is more inflated than in <i>Mustela</i>, although it has
+no septum. Both these features indicate a decided approximation to
+the Viverroid genus <i>Stenoplesiotis</i> (<a href="#Page_539">p. 539</a>); and since there are no
+well-marked characters of family value by which these two genera
+can be distinguished the available evidence points to a transition from
+the Viverroid to the Musteloid type. <i>Mustela larteti</i>, of the Middle
+Miocene of France, should perhaps be referred to <i>Ictonyx</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pœcilogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_512" href="#Footnote_512" class="fnanchor">[512]</a>—This genus has been made for the reception of the
+South African <i>Mustela albinucha</i>, in which the coloration is similar
+to that of <i>Ictonyx</i>, but the number of cheek-teeth is usually reduced
+to <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁, although there may be a second lower molar. The
+auditory bulla is quite flat.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_591"></a>[591]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Lyncodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_513" href="#Footnote_513" class="fnanchor">[513]</a>—This name has been proposed for a small Musteline
+from Patagonia, with <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁, which Mr. O. Thomas suggests
+may be nothing more than an aberrant southern form of <i>Mustela</i>
+(<i>Putorius</i>) <i>brasiliensis</i>. The auditory bulla is more inflated than in the
+typical Weasels. This animal is somewhat larger than the Stoat.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="figure270" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure270.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 270.</span>—The Wolverene (<i>Gulo luscus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Gulo.</i><a id="FNanchor_514" href="#Footnote_514" class="fnanchor">[514]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 38. Crowns of
+the teeth very stout. Upper molar very much smaller than the carnassial.
+Lower carnassial large, with very small talon and no inner
+cusp. Third upper incisor unusually large, almost like a canine.
+The dentition, though really but a modification of that of the Weasels,
+presents a great general resemblance to that of the Hyæna. Palate
+prolonged somewhat behind the last molar. Humerus with an entepicondylar
+foramen. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 3, C 15. Body
+and limbs stoutly made. Feet large and powerful, subplantigrade,
+with large, compressed, much curved, and sharp-pointed claws.
+Soles of the feet (except the pads of the toes) covered with thick
+bristly hairs. Ears very small, nearly concealed by the fur. Eyes
+small. Tail short, thick, and bushy. Fur full, long, and rather
+coarse. The one species, the Wolverene or Glutton (<i>G. luscus</i>,
+<a href="#figure270">Fig. 270</a>), an inhabitant of the forest regions of Northern Europe,
+Asia, and America, much resembles a small Bear in appearance. It
+is a very powerful animal for its size, climbs trees, and lives on
+grouse, squirrels, hares, foxes, beavers, reindeer, and is said to attack
+even horses and cows. The Wolverene has a curious habit of <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_592"></a>[592]</span>stealing
+and secreting articles of which it can make no possible use, as is
+exemplified in the following instance related by Dr. Coues:
+“A hunter and his family, having left their lodge unguarded
+during their absence, on their return found it completely gutted—the
+walls were there, but nothing else. Blankets, guns, kettles, axes,
+cans, knives, and all the other paraphernalia of a trapper’s tent had
+vanished, and the tracks left by the beast showed who had been the
+thief. The family set to work, and, by carefully following up all his
+paths, recovered, with some trifling exceptions, the whole of the lost
+property.” The pairing season occurs in March, and the female,
+secure in her burrow, produces her young, four or five at a birth,
+in June or July. In defence of these she is exceedingly bold, and
+the Indians, according to Coues, “have been heard to say that they
+would sooner encounter a she-bear with her cubs than a carcajou (the
+Indian name of the glutton) under the same circumstances.”</p>
+
+<p>Fossil remains of the Wolverene are found in cavern and other
+Pleistocene deposits in various parts of Europe.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Pinnipedia</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>The Eared-Seals, Walruses, and Seals differ from the rest of
+the Carnivora mainly in the structure of their limbs, which are
+modified for aquatic progression,—the two proximal segments being
+very short and partially enveloped in the general integument of the
+body; while the third segment, especially in the hinder extremities,
+is elongated, expanded, and webbed. There are always five well-developed
+digits on each limb. In the hind limb the two marginal
+digits (first and fifth) are stouter and generally longer than the
+others. The teeth also differ from those of the more typical
+Carnivora. The incisors are always fewer than ³⁄₃. The cheek
+series consists generally of four premolars and one molar of very
+uniform characters, with never more than two roots, and with
+conical, more or less compressed, pointed crowns, which may have
+accessory cusps, placed before or behind the principal one, but
+are never broad and tuberculated; and there is no differentiated
+carnassial tooth. The milk-teeth are very small and simple, and
+are shed or absorbed at a very early age, usually either before or
+within a few days after birth. The brain is relatively large; the
+cerebral hemispheres being broad in proportion to their length,
+with numerous and complex convolutions. There is a very short
+cæcum. The kidneys are divided into numerous distinct lobules.
+There are no Cowper’s glands. The mammæ are either two or
+four, and abdominal in position. No clavicles. Tail always very
+short. Eyes very large and exposed, with flat cornea.</p>
+
+<p>The animals of this group are all aquatic in their mode of life,
+spending the greater part of their time in the water, swimming<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_593"></a>[593]</span> and
+diving with great facility, feeding mainly on fish, crustaceans, and
+other marine animals, and progressing on land with difficulty.
+They always come on shore, however, for the purpose of bringing
+forth their young. They are generally marine, but they occasionally
+ascend large rivers, and some inhabit inland seas and lakes, as
+the Caspian and Baikal. Though not numerous in species, they
+are widely distributed over the world, but occur most abundantly
+on the coasts of lands situated in cold and temperate zones. The
+suborder is divisible into three well-marked families: the <i>Otariidæ</i>,
+Fur-Seals or Sea-Bears, which form a transition from the Fissiped
+Carnivora to the Seals; the <i>Trichechidæ</i>, containing the Walrus; and
+the <i>Phocidæ</i> or typical Seals.</p>
+
+<p>The resemblances between the skull and other parts of the
+body of the Fur Seals and the Ursoid true Carnivora is suggestive
+of some genetic relationship between the two groups, and Professor
+Mivart<a id="FNanchor_515" href="#Footnote_515" class="fnanchor">[515]</a> expresses the opinion that the one group is the direct
+descendant of the other. The same writer goes on to suggest that
+if the Eared-Seals have been derived from Bear-like Carnivores this
+need not necessarily hold good with the true Seals, which may have
+had another, and possibly Lutrine, origin. The presence of an
+alisphenoid canal in <i>Ursus</i> and the <i>Otariidæ</i>, and its absence in <i>Lutra</i>
+and the <i>Phocidæ</i>, together with other osteological features, are cited
+in support of this view; but although these resemblances and
+differences are certainly remarkable, yet much more evidence is
+required before the hypothesis can be accepted as even a probable
+one. It must, moreover, be borne in mind that the true Bears are
+a very modern group; and there is a possibility that the Pinnipeds
+may prove to have been independently derived from the extinct
+Carnivora noticed below under the name of Creodonta.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Otariidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>When on land the hind feet are turned forwards under the body,
+and aid in supporting and moving the trunk as in ordinary mammals.
+A small external ear. Testes suspended in a distinct external
+scrotum. Skull with postorbital processes, and an alisphenoid canal.
+Angle of mandible inflected. Palms and soles of feet naked.</p>
+
+<p><i>Otaria.</i><a id="FNanchor_516" href="#Footnote_516" class="fnanchor">[516]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁻²⁄₁; total 34 or 36.
+First and second upper incisors small, with the summits of the
+crowns divided by a deep transverse groove into an anterior
+and a posterior cusp of nearly equal height; the third large and
+canine-like. Canines large, conical, pointed, recurved. Molars and
+premolars usually ⁵⁄₅, of which the second, third, and fourth are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_594"></a>[594]</span>
+preceded by milk-teeth shed a few days after birth; sometimes (as
+in <a href="#figure271">Fig. 271</a>) a sixth upper molar (occasionally developed on one
+side and not the other); all with similar characters, generally
+uniradicular; crown moderate, compressed, pointed, with a single
+principal cusp, and sometimes a cingulum, and more or less developed
+anterior
+and posterior
+accessory cusps.
+Vertebræ: C 7,
+D 15, L 5, S 4,
+C 9-14. Head
+rounded. Eyes
+large. Pinna
+of ear small,
+narrow, and
+pointed. Neck
+long. Skin of
+all the feet extended
+far beyond
+the nails and ends of the digits, with a deeply-lobed margin.
+The nails small and often quite rudimentary, especially those of
+the first and fifth toes of both feet, the best developed and most
+constant being the three middle claws of the hind foot, which are
+elongated, compressed, and curved.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure271" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure271.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 271.</span>—Skull of <i>Otaria forsteri</i>. (From Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>
+1872, p. 660.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Eared-Seals, commonly called Sea-Bears or Sea-Lions, are
+widely distributed, especially in the temperate regions of both
+hemispheres, though absent from the coasts of the North Atlantic.
+As might be inferred from their power of walking on all fours,
+they spend more of their time on shore, and range inland to greater
+distances, than the true Seals, especially at the breeding time,
+though they are obliged always to return to the water to seek their
+food. They are gregarious and polygamous, and the males are
+usually much larger than the females, a circumstance which has
+given rise to some of the confusion existing in the specific determination
+of the various members of the genus. Some of the
+species possess, in addition to the stiff, close, hairy covering common
+to all the group, an exceedingly fine, dense, woolly under fur. The
+skins of these, when dressed and deprived of the longer harsh outer
+hairs, constitute the “seal-skin” of commerce, so much valued for
+wearing apparel, which is not the product of any of the true Seals.
+The best-known species are <i>O. stelleri</i>, the Northern Sea Lion, the
+largest of the genus, from the North Pacific, about 10 feet in
+length; <i>O. jubata</i>, the Patagonian or Southern Sea Lion (<a href="#figure272">Fig. 272</a>),
+from the Falkland Islands and Patagonia; <i>O. californiana</i>, from
+California, frequently exhibited alive in menageries in Europe;
+<i>O. ursina</i>, the common Sea-Bear or Fur-Seal of the North Pacific, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_595"></a>[595]</span>
+skins of which are imported in immense numbers from the Prybiloff
+Islands; <i>O. pusilla</i>, from the Cape of Good Hope; <i>O. forsteri</i> and
+others, from the coasts of Australia and various islands scattered
+over the southern hemisphere. These have been grouped by some
+zoologists into many genera, founded upon very trivial modifications
+of teeth and skull. In a recent memoir Mr. Beddard<a id="FNanchor_517" href="#Footnote_517" class="fnanchor">[517]</a> concludes
+that if the genus be split up at all, it should be divided into
+<i>Otaria</i>, containing only <i>O. jubata</i> (with its numerous synonyms), and
+<i>Arctocephalus</i>, comprising all the other species. The latter group is
+distinguished by the more narrow and pointed nose, the longer ears,
+the palate not excavated nor truncated posteriorly, the presence of
+a hook-like process to the pterygoids, and by the posterior border
+of the nasals extending behind the zygoma.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="figure272" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure272.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 272.</span>—The Patagonian Sea-Lion (<i>Otaria jubata</i>). From Sclater, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1866, p. 80.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The following account of <i>O. ursina</i> in the Prybiloff Islands is
+taken, with slight verbal alteration, from Nordenskiöld’s <i>Voyage of
+the Vega</i>: “The Sea-Bears are found year after year during summer
+at certain parts of the coast, known as ‘rookeries,’ where, collected
+in hundreds of thousands, they pass several months without the
+least food. The males or ‘bulls’ come first to the place, most of them
+in the month of May or in the beginning of June. The most
+violent conflicts, often with a deadly issue for one of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_596"></a>[596]</span> parties,
+now arise regarding the space of about a hundred square feet
+which each bull-seal considers necessary for his home. The
+strongest and most successful in fight retain the best places near
+the shore; the weaker have to crawl farther up on land, where the
+chances of getting a sufficient number of spouses are not particularly
+great. The fighting goes on with many feigned attacks and parades.
+At first the contest concerns only the proprietorship of the soil.
+The attacked, therefore, never follows his opponent beyond the
+area he has once taken up, but haughtily lays itself down, when
+the enemy has retired, in order to collect strength for a new
+combat. The animal in such a case grunts with satisfaction, throws
+himself on his back, scratches himself with his fore feet, attends to his
+toilet, or cools himself by slowly fanning with one of his hind feet;
+but he is always on the alert and ready for a new fight, until he is
+tired out and meets his match and is driven farther up from the
+beach. In the middle of June the females come up from the sea.
+At the water’s edge they are received in a very gallant way by
+some strong bulls that have succeeded in securing for themselves
+places next the shore, and now are bent by fair means or foul on
+annexing the females for their harem. But scarcely is the female
+that has come up out of the water established with male No. 1 than
+he rushes towards a new female on the surface of the water. Male
+No. 2 now stretches out his neck and without ceremony lays hold
+of the female of No. 1, to be afterwards exposed to a similar trick
+by No. 3. In such cases the females are quite passive, never fall
+out with each other, and bear with patience the severe wounds they
+often get when they are pulled about by the combatants, now in
+one direction, now in another. All the females are finally distributed
+in this way after furious combats among the males, those
+of the latter who are nearest the beach getting from 12 to 15 consorts
+to their share. Soon after landing the females bring forth their
+young, which are treated with great indifference, and are protected
+by their adopted father only within the limits of the harem. Next
+comes the pairing season, and when it has passed there is an end to
+the arrangement and distribution into families at first so strictly
+maintained. The males, rendered lean by three months’ absolute
+fasting, by degrees leave the rookery, which is left in possession of
+the Walruses and the young Sea Bears, including a number of
+young males that have not ventured to the place before. In the
+middle of September, when the young have learned to swim, the
+place is quite abandoned, with the exception of single animals that
+have for some reason remained behind.”</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Trichechidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>In many characters the single genus representing this family<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_597"></a>[597]</span>
+is intermediate between the <i>Otariidæ</i> and <i>Phocidæ</i>, but it has a
+completely aberrant dentition. It has no external ears, as in the
+<i>Phocidæ</i>; but when on land the hind feet are turned forwards and
+used in progression, though less completely than in the <i>Otariidæ</i>.
+The upper canines are developed into immense tusks, which descend
+a long distance below the lower jaw. All the other teeth (<a href="#figure273">Fig.
+273</a>), including the lower canines, are much alike, small, simple,
+and one-rooted, the molars with flat crowns. The skull is without
+postorbital process, but has an alisphenoid canal.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure273" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure273.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 273.</span>—Diagram of the dentition of the Walrus (<i>Trichechus rosmarus</i>). The denticles
+placed apart from the others are milk-teeth, and disappear soon after birth. The small teeth
+in connection with the jaws frequently persist throughout life.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Trichechus.</i><a id="FNanchor_518" href="#Footnote_518" class="fnanchor">[518]</a>—Dentition of young: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> and <i>m</i> ⁵⁄₄. Many
+of these teeth are, however, lost early or remain through life in a
+rudimentary state concealed by the gums. The teeth which are
+usually developed functionally are <i>i</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ⁰⁄₀; total 18.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 14, L 6, S 4, C 12. Head round. Eyes rather
+small. Muzzle short and broad, with on each side a group of long,
+very stiff, bristly whiskers. The remainder of the hair-covering
+very short and adpressed. Tail very rudimentary. Fore feet with
+subequal toes, carrying five minute flattened nails. Hind feet with
+subequal toes, the fifth slightly the largest, having cutaneous lobes
+projecting beyond the ends as in <i>Otaria</i>; first and fifth with minute
+flattened nails; second, third, and fourth with large, elongated,
+subcompressed pointed nails.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trichechus</i> is the almost universally accepted generic name by
+which the Walrus or Morse<a id="FNanchor_519" href="#Footnote_519" class="fnanchor">[519]</a> is known to zoologists, but some confusion
+has been introduced into literature by the revival of the
+nearly obsolete terms <i>Rosmarus</i> by some authors and <i>Odobænus</i> by
+others. <i>T. rosmarus</i> is the name of the species met with in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_598"></a>[598]</span> the
+Arctic seas; that of the North Pacific, if distinct, is <i>T. obesus</i>. The
+preceding and following descriptions will apply equally to both.
+A full-grown male Walrus measures from 10 to 11 feet from the
+nose to the end of the very short tail, and is a heavy, bulky animal,
+especially thick about the shoulders. The soles of both fore and
+hind feet are bare, rough, and warty. The surface of the skin
+generally is covered with short, adpressed hair of a light, yellowish-brown
+colour, which, on the under parts of the body and base of
+the flippers, passes into dark reddish-brown or chestnut. In old
+animals the hair becomes more scanty, sometimes almost entirely
+disappearing, and the skin shows ample evidence of the rough life
+and pugnacious habits of the animal in the innumerable scars with
+which it is usually covered. It is everywhere more or less wrinkled,
+but especially over the shoulders, where it is thrown into deep and
+heavy folds.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="figure274" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure274.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 274.</span>—The Walrus (<i>Trichechus rosmarus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The tusks are formidable weapons of defence, but their principal
+use seems to be scraping and digging among the sand and shingle
+for the molluscs and crustaceans on which the Walrus feeds. They
+are said also to aid in climbing up the slippery rocks and ledges of
+ice on which so much of the animal’s life is passed. Although this
+function of the tusks is affirmed by numerous authors, some of
+whom appear to have had opportunities of actual observation, it is
+explicitly denied by Malmgren.</p>
+
+<p>Walruses are more or less gregarious in their habits, being met
+with generally in companies or herds of various sizes. They are
+only found near the coast or on large masses of floating ice, and
+rarely far out in the open sea; and, though often moving from one<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_599"></a>[599]</span>
+part of their feeding ground to another, they have no regular
+seasonal migrations. Their young are born between the months of
+April and June, usually but one at a time, never more than two.
+Their strong affection for their young, and their sympathy for each
+other in times of danger, have been particularly noticed by all who
+have had the opportunity of observing them in their native haunts.
+When one of their number is wounded, the whole herd usually
+join in a concerted and intelligent defence. Although harmless and
+inoffensive when not molested, they exhibit considerable fierceness
+when attacked, using their great tusks with tremendous effect
+either on human enemies who come into too close quarters or on
+Polar Bears, the only other adversaries they can meet with in their
+own natural territory. Their voice is a loud roaring, and can be
+heard at a great distance; it is described by Dr. Kane as “something
+between the mooing of a cow and the deepest baying of a
+mastiff, very round and full, with its bark or detached notes repeated
+rather quickly seven or nine times in succession.”</p>
+
+<p>The principal food of the Walrus consists of bivalved molluscs,
+especially <i>Mya truncata</i> and <i>Saxicava rugosa</i>, two species very
+abundant in the Arctic regions, which it digs up from the mud
+and sand in which they lie buried at the bottom of the sea by
+means of its tusks. It crushes and removes the shells by the aid
+of its grinding teeth and tongue, swallowing only the soft part
+of the animal. It also feeds on other molluscs, sand-worms,
+star-fishes, and shrimps. Portions of various kinds of algæ or
+sea-weeds have been found in its stomach, but whether swallowed
+intentionally or not is still doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>The commercial products of the Walrus are its oil, hide (used to
+manufacture harness and sole-leather and twisted into tiller ropes),
+and tusks. The ivory of the latter is, however, inferior in quality
+to that of the Elephant. Its flesh forms an important article of
+food to the Eskimo and Tchuktchis. Of the coast tribes of the
+last-named people the Walrus forms the chief means of support.
+“The flesh supplies them with food, the ivory tusks are made into
+implements used in the chase and for other domestic purposes, as
+well as a affording a valuable article of barter, and the skin furnishes
+the material for covering their summer habitations, harness for their
+dog-teams, and lines for their fishing gear” (Scammon).</p>
+
+<p>Geographically the Walrus is confined to the northern circumpolar
+regions of the globe, extending apparently as far north as
+explorers have penetrated, but its southern range has been much
+restricted of late in consequence of the persecutions of man. On the
+Atlantic coast of America it was met with in the sixteenth century as
+low as the southern coast of Nova Scotia, and in the last century it was
+common in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and on the shores of Labrador.
+It still inhabits the coast round Hudson’s Bay, Davis Straits, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_600"></a>[600]</span>
+Greenland, where, however, its numbers are daily decreasing. It
+is not found on the Arctic coast of America between the 97th and
+158th meridians. In Europe occasional stragglers have reached
+the British Isles, and it was formerly abundant on the coasts of
+Finmark. It is rare in Iceland, but Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, and
+the western part of the north coast of Siberia are still constant
+places of resort, in all of which a regular war of extermination is
+carried on. The North Pacific, including both sides of Behring’s
+Strait, northern Kamschatka, Alaska, and the Pribyloff Islands, are
+also the haunts of numerous Walruses, which are isolated from
+those of the North Atlantic by the long stretches of coast, both
+of Siberia and North America, where they do not occur. The
+Pacific Walrus appears to be as large as, if not larger than, that of
+the Atlantic; its tusks are longer and more slender, and curved
+inwards; the whiskers are smaller, and the muzzle (of the skull)
+relatively deeper and broader. These and certain other minor
+differences have induced some naturalists to consider it specifically
+distinct under the name of <i>Trichechus obesus</i>. Its habits appear to
+be quite similar to those of the Atlantic form. Though formerly
+found in immense herds, it is rapidly becoming scarce, as the
+methods of destruction used by the American whalers, who have
+systematically entered upon its pursuit, are far more certain and
+deadly than those of the native Tchuktchis, to whom, as mentioned
+before, the Walrus long afforded the principal means of subsistence.</p>
+
+<p>Fossil remains of Walruses and closely allied animals have been
+found in the United States, and in England, Belgium, and France,
+in deposits of Pliocene age.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Phocidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>The true Seals are the most completely adapted for aquatic life
+of all the Pinnipeds. When on land the hind limbs are extended
+behind them and take no part in progression, which is effected by
+a series of jumping movements produced by the muscles of the
+trunk, in some species aided by the fore limbs only. The palms
+and soles of the feet are hairy. There is no pinna to the ear, and
+no scrotum, the testes being abdominal. The upper incisors have
+simple, pointed crowns, and vary in number in the different groups.
+All the forms have well-developed canines and ⁵⁄₅ teeth of the cheek-series.
+In those species of which the milk-dentition is known,
+there are three milk molars (<a href="#figure275">Fig. 275</a>), which precede the second,
+third, and fourth permanent molars; the dentition is therefore <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄,
+<i>m</i> ¹⁄₁, the first premolar having as usual no milk-predecessor. The
+skull has no postorbital process and no alisphenoid canal; and the
+angle of the mandible is not inflected. The fur is stiff and
+adpressed, without woolly under fur.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_601"></a>[601]</span></p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Phocinæ</b>.—Incisors ³⁄₂. All the feet with five well-developed
+claws. The toes on the hind feet subequal, the first and
+fifth not greatly exceeding the others in length, and with the
+interdigital membrane not extending beyond the toes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Halichœrus.</i><a id="FNanchor_520" href="#Footnote_520" class="fnanchor">[520]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁; total 34. Crowns
+of molars large, simple, conical, recurved, slightly compressed,
+with sharp anterior and posterior edges, but without accessory
+cusps, except sometimes in the two hinder ones of the lower jaw.
+With the exception of the last one or two in the upper jaw and
+the last in the lower jaw they are all uniradicular. Vertebræ: C
+7, D 15, L 5, S 4, C 14.</p>
+
+<p>One species, <i>H. grypus</i>, the Gray Seal of the coasts of
+Scandinavia and the British Isles (see <a href="#Page_604">page 604</a>.)</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure275" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure275.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 275.</span>—Upper permanent and deciduous dentition of the Greenland Seal (<i>Phoca grœnlandica</i>).
+The first and second deciduous incisors are already absorbed.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Phoca.</i><a id="FNanchor_521" href="#Footnote_521" class="fnanchor">[521]</a>—Dental formula as the last. Teeth smaller and more
+pointed. Molars (<a href="#figure275">Figs. 275 and 276</a>) with two roots (except the first
+in each jaw); and
+their crowns with
+accessory cusps.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D
+15, L 5, S 4, C
+12-15. Head
+round and short.
+Fore feet short,
+with five very
+strong, subcompressed,
+slightly
+curved, rather
+sharp claws, subequal
+in length.
+On the hind feet the claws much narrower and less curved. The
+species of this genus are widely distributed throughout the northern
+hemisphere, and include <i>P. barbata</i>, the Bearded Seal; <i>P. grœnlandica</i>,
+the Greenland Seal; <i>P. vitulina</i>, the Common Seal (<a href="#figure277">Fig.
+277</a>); and <i>P.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_602"></a>[602]</span> hispida</i>, the Ringed Seal of the North Atlantic;
+<i>P. caspica</i>, from the Caspian and Aral Seas; and <i>P. sibirica</i>, from
+Lake Baikal.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure276" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure276.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 276.</span>—Skull of Common Seal, showing form of teeth.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Although the members of this subfamily swim and dive
+with the greatest ease, often remaining as much as a quarter of
+an hour or more below the surface, and are dependent for
+their sustenance entirely on living prey captured in the water,
+yet they frequently resort to sandy beaches, rocks, or ice-floes,
+either to sleep or to bask in the sun, and especially for the purpose
+of bringing forth their young. The latter appears to be the
+universal habit, and, strange as it may seem, the young seals—of
+some species at least—take to the water at first very reluctantly,
+and have actually to be taught to swim by their parents. The
+number of young produced is usually one annually, though
+occasionally two. They are at first covered with a coat of very
+thick, soft, nearly white fur, and until it falls off they do not
+usually enter the water. This occurs in the Greenland and Gray
+Seal when from two to three weeks old, but in the Common Seal
+apparently much earlier. One of this species born in the London
+Zoological Gardens had shed its infantile woolly coat and was
+swimming and diving about in its pond within three hours after its
+birth. The movements of the true Seals upon the ground or ice
+are very different from those of the Eared-Seals. Thus the hinder
+limbs (by which mainly they propel themselves through the water)
+are on land always perfectly passive, stretched backwards, with the
+soles of the feet applied to each other, and often raised to avoid
+contact with the ground. Sometimes the fore limbs are equally
+passive, being placed close to the sides of the body, and motion is
+then effected by a shuffling or wriggling action produced by the
+muscles of the trunk. When, however, there is any necessity for
+a more rapid mode of progression the animals use the fore paws,
+either alternately or simultaneously, pressing the palmar surface
+on the ground and lifting and dragging the body forwards in a
+succession of short jumps. In this way they manage to move so
+fast that a man has to step out beyond a walk to keep up with
+them; but such rapid action costs considerable effort, and they
+very soon become heated and exhausted. These various modes of
+progression appear to be common to all species so far as has been
+observed.</p>
+
+<p>Most kinds of Seals are gregarious and congregate, especially at
+the breeding season, in immense herds. Such is the habit of the
+Greenland Seal (<i>Phoca grœnlandica</i>), which resorts in the spring to
+the ice-floes of the North Sea, around Jan Mayen Island, where
+about 200,000 are killed annually by the crews of the Scotch,
+Dutch, and Norwegian sealing vessels. Others, like the Common
+Seal of the British islands (<i>P. vitulina</i>), though having a wide
+geographical range, are never met with in such large numbers<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_603"></a>[603]</span> or
+far away from land. This species is stationary all the year round,
+but some have a regular season of migration, moving south in
+winter and north in summer. They are usually harmless, timid,
+inoffensive animals, though, being polygamous, the old males often
+fight desperately with each other, their skins being frequently
+found covered with wounds and scars. They are greatly attached
+to their young, and remarkably docile and easily trained when in
+captivity; indeed, although there would seem little in the structure
+or habits of the Seal to fit it by nature to be a companion of man,
+yet there is perhaps no wild animal which attaches itself so readily
+to the person who takes care of and feeds it. Seals appear to
+have much curiosity, and it is a very old and apparently well-attested
+observation that they are strongly attracted by musical
+sounds. Their sense of smell is very acute, and their voice varies
+from a harsh bark or grunt to a plaintive bleat. Seals feed chiefly
+on fish, of which they consume enormous quantities; some, however,
+subsist largely on crustaceans, especially species of <i>Gammarus</i>,
+which swarm in the northern seas, also on molluscs, echinoderms,
+and even occasionally sea-birds, which they seize when swimming
+or floating on the water.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp79" id="figure277" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure277.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 277.</span>—The Common Seal (<i>Phoca vitulina</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Although the true Seals do not possess the beautiful under fur
+(“seal-skin” of the furriers) which makes the skin of the Sea-Bears
+so precious, yet their hides are still sufficiently valuable as articles
+of commerce, together with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_604"></a>[604]</span> oil yielded by their fat, to subject
+them to a devastating persecution, by which their numbers are
+being continually diminished.</p>
+
+<p>Two species of seals only are met with regularly on the British
+coasts, the Common Seal and the Gray Seal. The former (<a href="#figure277">Fig.
+277</a>) is a constant resident in all suitable localities round the
+Scottish, Irish, and English coasts, from which it has not been
+driven away by the molestations of man. Although, naturally,
+the most secluded and out-of-the-way spots are selected as their
+habitual dwelling-places, there are few localities where they may
+not be occasionally met with. Within the writers’ knowledge one
+was seen not many years ago lying on the shingly beach at so
+populous a place as Brighton, and another was caught in the river
+Welland, near Stamford, 30 miles from the sea. They frequent
+bays, inlets, and estuaries, and are often seen on sandbanks or
+mudflats left dry at low tide, and, unlike some of their congeners,
+are not found on the ice-floes of the open sea, nor, though
+gregarious, are very large numbers ever seen in one spot. The
+young are produced at the end of May or beginning of June.
+They feed chiefly on fish, and the destruction they occasion among
+salmon is well known to Scottish fishermen. The Common Seal is
+widely distributed, being found not only on the European and
+American coasts bordering the Atlantic Ocean, but also in the
+North Pacific. It is from 4 to 5 feet in length, and variable in
+colour, though usually yellowish-gray, with irregular spots of dark
+brown or black above and yellowish-white beneath. The Gray
+Seal (<i>Halichœrus grypus</i>) is of considerably larger size, the males
+attaining when fully adult a length of 8 feet from nose to end of
+hind feet. It is of a yellowish-gray colour, lighter beneath, and
+with dark gray spots or blotches, but, like most other Seals, is
+liable to great variations of colour according to age. This species
+appears to be restricted to the North Atlantic, having been rarely
+seen on the American coasts, but not farther south than Nova
+Scotia; it is chiefly met with on the coasts of Ireland, England,
+Scotland, Norway, and Sweden, including the Baltic and Gulf of
+Bothnia, and Iceland, though it does not appear to range farther
+north. It is apparently not migratory, and its favourite breeding
+places are rocky islands; the young being born in the end of
+September or beginning of October.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Monachinæ</b>.—Incisors ²⁄₂. Cheek-teeth two-rooted,
+except the first. On the hind feet the first and fifth toes greatly
+exceeding the others in length, with nails rudimentary or absent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Monachus.</i><a id="FNanchor_522" href="#Footnote_522" class="fnanchor">[522]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁; total 32. Crowns
+of molars strong, conical, compressed, hollowed on the inner side,
+with a strongly marked lobed cingulum, especially on the inner side,
+and slightly developed accessory cusps before and behind. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_605"></a>[605]</span>
+first and last upper and the first lower molar considerably smaller
+than the others. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 2, C 11. All the
+nails of both fore and hind feet very small and rudimentary. One
+species, <i>M. albiventer</i>, the Monk-Seal of the Mediterranean and
+adjacent parts of the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p>The other genera<a id="FNanchor_523" href="#Footnote_523" class="fnanchor">[523]</a> of this section have the same dental formula,
+but are distinguished by the characters of the cheek-teeth and the
+feet. They are all inhabitants of the shores of the southern
+hemisphere.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ogmorhinus.</i><a id="FNanchor_524" href="#Footnote_524" class="fnanchor">[524]</a>—All the teeth of the cheek-series with three
+distinct pointed cusps, deeply separated from each other; of these
+the middle or principal cusp is largest and slightly recurved; the
+other two (anterior and posterior) are nearly equal in size, and
+have their apices directed towards the middle one. Skull much
+elongated. One species, <i>O. leptonyx</i>, the Sea-Leopard, widely distributed
+in the Antarctic and southern temperate seas.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lobodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_525" href="#Footnote_525" class="fnanchor">[525]</a>—Cheek-teeth with much-compressed elongated crowns
+and a principal recurved cusp, rounded and somewhat bulbous at
+the apex, and one anterior, and one, two, or three posterior, very
+distinct accessory cusps. One species, <i>L. carcinophaga</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pœcilophoca.</i><a id="FNanchor_526" href="#Footnote_526" class="fnanchor">[526]</a>—Cheek-teeth small, with simple, subcompressed,
+conical crowns, having a broad cingulum, but no distinct accessory
+cusps. One species, <i>P. weddelli</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ommatophoca.</i><a id="FNanchor_527" href="#Footnote_527" class="fnanchor">[527]</a>—All the teeth very small; those of the cheek-series
+with pointed recurved crowns, and small posterior and still
+less developed anterior accessory cusps. Orbits very large. Nails
+quite rudimentary on front, and absent on hind feet. The skull
+bears a considerable resemblance to that of the members of the
+next subfamily, towards which it may form a transition. There is
+one species, <i>O. rossi</i>, of which very little is known.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Cystophorinsæ</b>.—Incisors ²⁄₁. Teeth of cheek-series
+generally one-rooted. Nose of males with an appendage capable of
+being inflated. First and fifth toes of hind feet greatly exceeding
+the others in length, with prolonged cutaneous lobes, and rudimentary
+or no nails.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cystophora.</i><a id="FNanchor_528" href="#Footnote_528" class="fnanchor">[528]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₁; total 30. The
+last molar has generally two distinct roots. Beneath the skin<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_606"></a>[606]</span> over
+the face of the adult male, and connected with the nostrils, is a
+sac which, when inflated, forms a kind of hood covering the
+upper part of the head. Nails present, though small, on the hind
+feet. One species, <i>C. cristata</i>, the Hooded or Bladder-Nose Seal of
+the Polar Seas.</p>
+
+<p><i>Macrorhinus.</i><a id="FNanchor_529" href="#Footnote_529" class="fnanchor">[529]</a>—Dentition as the last, but cheek-teeth of simpler
+character, and all one-rooted. All the teeth, except the canines,
+very small relatively to the size of the animal. Hind feet without
+nails. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 5, S 3, C 11. Nose of adult
+male produced into a short tubular proboscis, ordinarily flaccid,
+but capable of dilatation and elongation under excitement. One
+species, <i>M. leoninus</i>, the Elephant Seal, or Sea-Elephant of the
+whalers, the largest of the whole family, attaining the length of
+nearly 20 feet. Formerly abundant in the Antarctic Seas, and
+also found on the coast of California.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Seals.</i>—Remains of animals of this group have been
+found in late Miocene and Pliocene strata in Europe and America,
+the most abundant and best-preserved being those of the Pliocene
+Antwerp Crag, the subject of an illustrated monograph by Van
+Beneden. Nothing has, however, yet been discovered which
+throws any light upon the origin of the group, since all the extinct
+forms at present known come within the definition of the existing
+families; and, though annectant forms between these occur, there
+are as yet no transitions to a more generalised type of mammal.
+Indeed, all those of which the characters are best known belong to
+the completely developed Phocine or Trichechine, and not to the
+Otariine, type. The typical genus <i>Phoca</i> occurs in the Antwerp
+Crag, while remains of Seals provisionally referred to this genus
+are found in the Pliocene of the Crimea and the Miocene of Malta
+and Virginia. Of the other Antwerp forms <i>Callophoca</i> is said to
+be allied to <i>Phoca grœnlandica</i>, <i>Platyphoca</i> to <i>Phoca barbata</i>, <i>Phocanella</i>
+to <i>Phoca foetida</i>, <i>Gryphoca</i> to <i>Halichœrus</i>, <i>Palæophoca</i> and <i>Monatherium</i>
+to <i>Monachus</i>, and <i>Mesotaria</i> to <i>Cystophora</i>; while <i>Prophoca</i> does not
+appear to come very close to any existing form. It should be
+observed that it is extremely doubtful whether all these fossil Seals
+are really entitled to generic distinction.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<p><i>Bibliography of Pinnipedia.</i>—J. A. Allen, <i>History of North American
+Pinnipeds</i>, 1880; St. George Mivart, “Notes on the Pinnipedia,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>
+1885, p. 484; P. J. Van Beneden, <i>Ossements fossiles d’Anvers</i>, in the <i>Mém. Acad.
+Roy. d. Belgique</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Creodonta</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>The discovery of fossil remains in Eocene and early Miocene
+formations both in Europe and North America shows that numerous<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_607"></a>[607]</span>
+species of terrestrial carnivorous animals existed upon the earth
+during those periods which cannot be referred to either of the
+sections into which the order has now become broken up. By some
+zoologists these have been supposed to be Marsupials, or at least to
+show transitional characters between the Metatherian and Eutherian
+subclasses. By others they are looked upon as belonging altogether
+to the latter group, and as the common ancestors of existing
+Carnivores and Insectivores, or perhaps rather as descendants or
+relatives of such common ancestors, retaining more of the generalised
+characters than any of the existing species. They shade off almost
+insensibly into numerous other forms less distinctly carnivorous,
+to the whole of which, including the modern Insectivora, Cope
+(to whom we are indebted for much of our knowledge of the
+American extinct species) gives the name of <span class="smcap">Bunotheria</span>, those more
+specially related to the existing Carnivora forming the suborder
+Creodonta. These are instances, however, in which the application
+of the principles of classification adopted in the case of existing
+species, of which the entire structure is known, and which have
+become divided into isolated groups by the extinction of intermediate
+forms, is almost impossible. If the generally accepted view
+of evolution is true, and the extreme modifications pass insensibly
+into each other by minute gradations (a view the palæontological
+proof of which becomes strengthened by every fresh discovery),
+there must be many of these extinct forms which cannot be
+assigned to definitely characterised groups. There are, however,
+some which stand out prominently from the others as formed on
+distinct types, having no exact representatives at present living on
+the earth.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp96" id="figure278" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure278.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 278.</span>—Anterior portion of the skull of <i>Hyænodon leptorhynchus</i>. (After Filhol.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_608"></a>[608]</span></p>
+
+<p>The more typical Creodonts appear, however, to be so closely
+related to the true Carnivora through the extinct <i>Miacidæ</i> (<a href="#Page_539">p. 539</a>),
+that it is on the whole advisable to regard them as representing
+a distinct suborder of Carnivora. In the strong development of the
+canines (<a href="#figure278">Fig. 278</a>) they are distinguished from the modern Insectivora;
+and they also differ from the latter and resemble the true
+Carnivores in the form of the incisors, the second one in the lower
+jaw (when three are present) being thrust up above the level of the
+other two in the manner obtaining in most of the modern Carnivora.
+Some of the most generalised forms included in the present
+group approximate so closely to the Condylarthrous Ungulates as
+to indicate that both groups have probably had a common origin.</p>
+
+<p>The Creodonta as a whole are characterised by the small size
+of the brain, the absence of a single differentiated carnassial tooth,
+and the triangular form or secant character of their upper molars.
+In the carpus the scaphoid and lunar were usually distinct; the
+femur has a third trochanter; the upper or tibial surface of the
+astragalus usually wants the groove found in modern Carnivores:
+and the feet were plantigrade. The curious resemblance of the
+molars of many of these forms to those of the Marsupials may
+indicate a genetic relationship between the two groups; but, on the
+other hand, the presence of a full set of milk-teeth and the absence
+of palatal vacuities, or of an inflection of the angle of the mandible,
+sharply distinguishes them from that order. Space permits of a
+notice only of the more interesting forms.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hyænodontidæ.</i>—This family is taken to include some of the
+more specialised types, such as the European and American
+<i>Hyænodon</i> and <i>Oxhyæna</i> and the European <i>Pterodon</i>. In <i>Hyænodon</i>
+(<a href="#figure278">Fig. 278</a>) the dental formula is <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃; the fourth
+premolar above and the first true molar below being formed upon
+the “carnassial” plan, but the teeth behind these, instead of being
+tuberculated as in all existing Carnivora, repeat the characters of
+the carnassial, and also increase in size, especially in the lower jaw,
+from before backwards. The last lower molar differs from the
+two preceding teeth, and is very like the carnassial of <i>Felis</i>. The
+scaphoid and lunar of the carpus were fused together. Some species,
+as <i>H. leptorhynchus</i>, were as large as a Wolf, while others did not
+exceed a Fox in size. <i>Pterodon</i> is readily distinguished by having
+<i>m</i> ³⁄₃, by the larger size of the inner tubercles of the upper molars,
+and the similarity in the form of the three lower molars. In some
+species there were only two upper incisors, and the first lower premolar
+may be wanting. <i>Oxhyæna</i> is a specialised form with <i>i</i> ²⁻³⁄₀,
+<i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂, and a very long mandibular symphysis.</p>
+
+<p><i>Proviverridæ.</i>—The European and American genus <i>Proviverra</i>
+(<i>Cynohyænodon</i> or <i>Stypolophus</i>) may be regarded as representing a
+second family. The dental formula in this genus is the typical <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_609"></a>[609]</span><i>i</i> ³⁄₃,
+<i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, the upper molars have a large inner tubercle, while
+the lower molars are differentiated into a blade and talon, the
+blade having a large inner cusp. The upper teeth closely resemble
+the molars of <i>Dasyurus</i>, while the lower molars are like the lower
+carnassial of <i>Cynodictis</i> and <i>Viverra</i>; and thus indicate how the
+Creodonts may have passed into the true Carnivores through the
+extinct <i>Miacidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure279" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure279.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 279.</span>—The three right upper molars of <i>Arctocyon
+dueli</i> (<i>a</i>), and the second of <i>A. gervaisi</i> (<i>b</i>); from
+the lowest Eocene of Rheims. <i>pr</i>, protocone; <i>pa</i>,
+paracone; <i>me</i>, metacone; <i>hy</i>, hypocone; <i>ml</i>, metaconule;
+<i>pl</i>, paraconule. (From Osborn.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Arctocyonidæ and Mesonychidæ.</i>—The first of these families is
+represented by <i>Arctocyon primævus</i>, one of the oldest known Tertiary
+mammals, from the lowest Eocene beds of La Fère, department of
+Aisne, France, and also by other species from corresponding beds
+at Rheims. The dental formula is <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i>?⁄₃₋₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. The upper
+molars (<a href="#figure279">Fig. 279</a>) are tritubercular, with an incipient postero-internal
+column (hypocone);
+the lower are quadritubercular;
+and the premolars
+simple. The typical species
+was of large size, but the
+two of which the teeth are
+figured were considerably
+smaller. In the American
+<i>Mesonyx</i> the dental formula
+was the typical one, the jaws
+were comparatively short, the
+mandibular symphysis was elongated, the cheek-teeth were of
+simple structure, and resembled the premolars of many of the true
+Carnivora, and the astragalus had a grooved tibial surface and
+distinct distal facets for the cuboid and navicular, resembling in the
+latter respect the corresponding bone of a Perissodactyle Ungulate.
+The terminal phalanges had deeply fissured extremities, and are said
+to be more like those of Rodents than true Carnivores. <i>Mesonyx
+ossifragus</i> was larger than a Grizzly Bear. <i>Amblyctonus</i>, of the same
+deposits, differs by the smooth tibial face of the astragalus and the
+development of an anterior cusp to the lower molars.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_610"></a>[610]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE ORDER INSECTIVORA</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure280" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure280.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 280.</span>—Right lateral aspect of the anterior portion of the
+cranium of <i>Erinaceus collaris</i>. Enlarged. (From Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool.
+Soc.</i> 1881, p. 403.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Insectivora comprise a number of comparatively small mammals,
+generally of terrestrial, although rarely of arboreal or aquatic
+habits, and presenting the following common features. They are
+unguiculate, and have plantigrade or subplantigrade, and generally
+pentadactylate feet, in which the pollex and hallux are not opposable
+to the other digits. They are diphyodont and heterodont, and
+the teeth are rooted. The molars are studded with sharp cusps,
+the crowns of the upper molars being either quadrangular or triangular;
+there are never less than two incisors in either side of the
+mandible; and in many cases the incisors, canines, and anterior
+premolars are not clearly differentiated from one another (<a href="#figure280">Fig. 280</a>);
+the canines being
+usually weak.
+Clavicles are present,
+except in
+<i>Potamogale</i>. The
+body is clothed
+with fur or protected
+by an
+armature of
+spines; the
+testes are inguinal
+or placed
+near the kidneys,
+and are not received into a scrotum; the penis is pendent or suspended
+from the wall of the abdomen; the uterus is two-horned
+and with or without a distinct corpus uteri; the placenta is discoidal
+and deciduate; and the smooth cerebral hemispheres do not
+extend backwards over the cerebellum (<a href="#figure281">Fig. 281</a>). The projection<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_611"></a>[611]</span>
+of the muzzle far beyond the extremity of the lower jaw is a
+very general feature. The humerus generally has an entepicondylar
+foramen. Certain forms, such as <i>Talpa</i> and <i>Galeopithecus</i>, are unique
+among mammals in having ossified intercentra in the dorso-lumbar
+region of the vertebral column.</p>
+
+<p>Representatives of this order are found throughout the temperate
+and tropical parts of both hemispheres
+(except South America and Australia),
+and exhibit much variety both in
+organisation and in habits. With the
+exception of the <i>Tupaiidæ</i>, all are nocturnal;
+the greater number are cursorial,
+but some (<i>Talpa</i>, <i>Chrysochloris</i>, <i>Oryzorictes</i>)
+are fossorial; some (<i>Potamogale</i>, <i>Nectogale</i>,
+<i>Myogale</i>) are natatorial, and a few
+(<i>Tupaiidæ</i>) arboreal; while the species
+of the aberrant genus <i>Galeopithecus</i> glide
+through the air like the Flying Squirrels.
+To the great majority the term insectivorous
+is strictly applicable, <i>Galeopithecus</i>
+alone being phytophagous; while <i>Potamogale</i>
+is said to feed on fish, and the
+different species of Moles live chiefly on
+worms. The general organisation of the
+Insectivora indicates a very low type,
+and were it not for the specialised
+character of their placentation and the
+tendency to lose the differentiated characters
+of the anterior teeth they might be regarded as closely
+allied to the ancestral type of many of the heterodont mammals.
+The strongly marked distinction of the canines from the incisors
+and anterior premolars in the Mesozoic and most of the Tertiary
+mammals (excepting some of the Ungulates) points, however, very
+decidedly to the conclusion that the want of definition between
+these teeth in many of the modern Insectivora is an acquired
+feature. Fossil forms apparently indicate a relationship on the
+one hand with the Creodont Carnivora, and on the other with
+the Lemuroid Primates; indeed it is in some instances impossible
+to say whether extinct genera are really Insectivores or Lemuroids.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp42" id="figure281" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure281.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 281.</span>—Upper surface of the
+brain of <i>Tupaia ferruginea</i>. (From
+Garrod, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1879, p. 304.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In most Insectivora the cranial cavity is of small relative size,
+and in none is the brain-case elevated to any considerable extent
+above the facial line. The facial part of the skull is generally
+much produced, and the premaxillary and nasal bones are well
+developed. The zygomatic arch is usually slender or deficient, the
+latter being the case in most of the species; and postorbital processes
+of the frontals are found only in the <i>Galeopithecidæ</i>, <i>Tupaiidæ</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_612"></a>[612]</span>
+and <i>Macroscelididæ</i>. The number of dorsal vertebræ varies from 13
+in <i>Talpa</i> to 19 in <i>Centetes</i>; that of the lumbar from 3 in <i>Chrysochloris</i>
+to 6 in <i>Talpa</i> and <i>Sorex</i>; and of the caudal from the rudimentary
+series of 8 in <i>Centetes</i> to the 40 or more of <i>Microgale</i>. Not
+less variable are the characters of the vertebræ themselves; the
+spinous processes often being very long in one and short in another
+species of the same genus. In the <i>Soricidæ</i> and <i>Myogale</i> the neural
+arches of the cervical vertebræ are very slender. In the <i>Soricidæ</i>
+and <i>Gymnura</i> the four anterior vertebræ develop large single hypapophyses.
+In <i>Galeopithecus</i> the centrum of each vertebra supports
+posteriorly a pair of intercentral ossifications; while in <i>Erinaceus</i>,
+<i>Myogale</i>, and <i>Talpa</i> small oval ossicles are found on the inferior
+surfaces of the lumbar interspaces. In <i>Erinaceus</i>, owing to the
+thickness of the neural cord in the cervical region and its abrupt
+termination, the diameter of the neural canal in the cervical and
+first two dorsal vertebræ greatly exceeds that of any of the succeeding
+vertebræ. The sternum is variable, but generally narrow,
+bilobate in front, and divided into segments. The pectoral girdle
+presents some remarkable adaptive modifications, most fully expressed
+in <i>Talpa</i>, having relation to the use of the fore limbs in
+burrowing; but in the Golden Moles (<i>Chrysochloris</i>) the forearm
+and manus alone become specially modified for this purpose. In
+<i>Galeopithecus</i> and <i>Macroscelides</i> the bones of the forearm (radius
+and ulna) are distally united. The manus has generally five digits,
+but in <i>Rhynchocyon</i> and in one species of <i>Oryzorictes</i> the pollex is
+wanting, while in the true Moles it is extremely modified. The
+femur has, in most species, a prominent ridge below the greater
+trochanter representing a third trochanter. In <i>Galeopithecus</i>, <i>Tupaia</i>,
+<i>Centetes</i>, <i>Hemicentetes</i>, <i>Ericulus</i>, and <i>Solenodon</i> the tibia and fibula
+are distinct, but in all the other genera more or less united
+together. The pes usually possesses five digits (rarely four by
+reduction of the hallux); and in some forms, as in the leaping
+species (<i>Macroscelides</i>, <i>Rhynchocyon</i>), the tarsal bones are greatly
+elongated. The form of the pelvis, and especially of the symphysis
+pubis, varies within certain limits; and these differences
+have been proposed by Leche as a basis for the classification of the
+families. Thus in the <i>Galeopithecidæ</i>, <i>Tupaiidæ</i>, and <i>Macroscelididæ</i>
+there is a long symphysis; in the <i>Erinaceidæ</i>, <i>Centetidæ</i>, and <i>Potamogalidæ</i>
+the symphysis is short; and in the <i>Soricidæ</i>, <i>Talpidæ</i>, and
+<i>Chrysochloridæ</i> there is none.</p>
+
+<p>Space does not admit of attempting a sketch of the modifications
+of the muscular system, which will be found fully described
+in Dr. Dobson’s <i>Monograph</i>, referred to in the bibliography. As to
+the nervous system, it has been already mentioned that the brain
+throughout the order presents a low type of organisation; in none
+of the members do the cerebral hemispheres present any trace of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_613"></a>[613]</span>
+convolutions, nor do they extend backwards so as to cover the
+cerebellum, while the olfactory lobes are large and project in front,
+and the corpus callosum is short and thin. In the Hedgehogs
+(<i>Erinaceus</i>) the spinal column ends abruptly opposite the third or
+fourth dorsal vertebra in a slender filament, and the dorsal and
+lumbar nerves, given off in front of this point, are carried backwards
+in two compressed bundles occupying the suddenly narrowed
+spinal canal as far as the sacrum.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the similarity in the character of the food, the truly
+insectivorous species, forming more than nine-tenths of the order,
+present little variety in the structure of their digestive organs.
+Except in <i>Galeopithecus</i> the stomach is a simple, thin-walled sac;
+but in some, as in <i>Centetes</i> and allied genera, the pyloric and
+œsophageal openings are very close together. The intestinal canal
+has much the same calibre throughout, and varies from three (in
+the Shrews) to twelve times (in the Hedgehogs) the length of the
+head and body. In the arboreal genera, <i>Galeopithecus</i> and <i>Tupaia</i>,
+as well as in the <i>Macroscelididæ</i>, all of which probably feed in
+part on vegetable substances, most of the species possess a cæcum.
+The liver is deeply divided into lobes, the right and left lateral
+being cut off by deep fissures; and both the caudate and Spigelian
+lobes being generally well developed. The gall-bladder, which is
+usually large and globular, is placed on the middle of the posterior
+surface of the right central lobe.</p>
+
+<p>In most of the members of the order (<i>Soricidæ</i>, <i>Centetidæ</i>, <i>Chrysochloridæ</i>)
+the penis is capable of being more or less completely
+retracted within the fold of integument surrounding the anus; in
+some (<i>Galeopithecidæ</i>, <i>Talpidæ</i>) it is pendent in front of the anus;
+while in others (<i>Macroscelididæ</i>, <i>Erinaceidæ</i>, <i>Solenodontidæ</i>) it is
+carried forwards and suspended from the abdominal wall. In the
+subfamily <i>Centetinæ</i> and <i>Chrysochloris</i> the testes lie immediately
+behind the kidneys, but in others more or less within the pelvis.
+During the rutting season they become greatly enlarged, forming
+protrusions in the inguinal region. Except in <i>Rhynchocyon</i> the
+uterine cornua are long and open into a short corpus uteri, which
+in many species (<i>Soricidæ</i>, <i>Talpidæ</i>, <i>Centetidæ</i>, <i>Chrysochloridæ</i>) is not
+separated from the vagina by a distinct os uteri. With the
+exception of <i>Galeopithecus</i> all Insectivora appear to be multiparous,
+the number of young at a birth varying from two to eight in
+<i>Erinaceus</i>, and from twelve to twenty in <i>Centetes</i>. The position
+of the mammary glands and the number of the teats vary greatly.
+Thus in <i>Galeopithecus</i> there are two pairs of axillary teats, and in
+<i>Solenodon</i> a single post-inguinal pair; but in most species they range
+from the thorax to the abdomen, varying from two pairs in <i>Gymnura</i>
+to twelve in <i>Centetes</i>. In <i>Chrysochloris</i> the thoracic and inguinal teats
+are lodged in deep cup-shaped depressions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_614"></a>[614]</span></p>
+
+<p>Odoriferous glands exist in many species. In most Shrews
+these glands occur on the sides of the body at a short distance
+behind the axilla, and their exudation is probably protective, since
+few carnivorous animals will eat the dead bodies of these creatures.
+In both species of <i>Gymnura</i> and in <i>Potamogale</i> large pouches are
+situated on either side of the rectum and discharge their secretions
+by ducts, opening in the first-named genus in front of, and in the
+latter within the margin of the anus. In <i>Centetes</i> the ducts of
+similarly situated racemose glands open by pores at the bottom of
+deep pits placed at either side of the anus.</p>
+
+<p>The integument is thin, but in many species is lined by a
+muscular coat, which is probably more developed in the Hedgehogs
+(<i>Erinaceidæ</i>) than in any other mammal. In this family
+and the <i>Centetidæ</i> most of the species are protected by spines
+implanted in the panniculus carnosus muscle, and more or less
+replacing the fur of the upper surface of the body.</p>
+
+<p>The order is usually divided into two suborders, but the very
+aberrant genus which constitutes the first might well be raised to
+ordinal rank. It has little in common with the true Insectivora,
+but as it certainly belongs to no other of the recognised mammalian
+orders it is retained among them chiefly to avoid the inconvenience
+of increasing the number of ordinal divisions for the sake of a
+single isolated form.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Dermoptera</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>Upper and lower incisors compressed, multicuspidate, the lower
+deeply pectinated; fore and hind limbs connected by a broad
+integumentary expansion forming a parachute.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Galeopithecidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>In addition to the characters given under the head of the suborder
+it may be mentioned that the orbit is nearly surrounded by
+bone, the zygomatic arches are well developed, the tympanic forms
+a bulla, the ulna is distally united with the radius, the tibia and
+fibula are distinct, the pubic symphysis is long, the penis is pendent,
+the testes are received into inguinal pouches, the mammæ are
+axillary, the uterus is two-horned, and there is a large cæcum.</p>
+
+<p><i>Galeopithecus.</i><a id="FNanchor_530" href="#Footnote_530" class="fnanchor">[530]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34. Second
+upper incisor and canine with two roots. Two species—<i>G. volans</i>
+and <i>G. philippinensis</i>. The former, which is distinguished from the
+latter by the form of the upper incisors, has a total length of nearly
+2 feet. The long and slender limbs are connected by a broad
+integumentary expansion extending outwards from the sides of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_615"></a>[615]</span>
+neck and body, and forming also a web between the fingers and
+toes as far as the base of the claws (<a href="#figure282">Fig. 282</a>); the hind limbs are
+further connected by a similar expansion passing outwards along
+the back of the feet to the base of the claws, and, inwardly, involving
+the long tail to the tip, forming a true interfemoral membrane,
+as in the Bats.</p>
+
+<p>The two species of Flying Lemurs, as the representatives of this
+genus are commonly but erroneously called, live in the forests of the
+Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippine Islands, where
+they feed chiefly on the leaves and fruits of trees. Their habits are
+nocturnal, and during the daytime they cling to the trunks or limbs
+of trees, head downwards, in a state of repose. With the approach
+of night their season of activity commences, when they may be
+seen gliding from tree to tree supported on their cutaneous
+parachute, and they have been observed to traverse in this way a
+space of 70 yards with a descent of only about one in five.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure282" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure282.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 282.</span>—Feet of <i>Galeopithecus philippinensis</i>.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Galeopithecus</i> was referred by some of the older zoologists and
+anatomists to the Bats, and by others to the Lemurs, but Professor
+Peters’s view, that it belongs to neither of these orders, and should
+be considered an aberrant Insectivore, has been very generally
+accepted, although, as mentioned above, the association is by no
+means a close one. Besides differing from the Bats in the form of
+the anterior limbs and of the double-rooted outer incisor and canine,
+it also contrasts strongly with them in the presence of a large sacculated
+cæcum, and in the great length of the colon, which is so
+remarkably short in all the Chiroptera. From the Lemurs, on the
+other hand, the form of the brain, the characters of the teeth, the
+structure of the skull, and the deciduate discoidal placenta completely
+separate it. In a recent elaborate memoir on the myology
+and affinities of <i>Galeopithecus</i> Dr. Leche<a id="FNanchor_531" href="#Footnote_531" class="fnanchor">[531]</a> considers that we<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_616"></a>[616]</span> have in
+this genus an indication of the mode in which the Insectivora were
+modified into the Chiroptera, although it is completely off the direct
+line of descent. The deeply pectinated crowns of the lower incisors
+of <i>Galeopithecus</i> are quite unique in the class, and the only approach
+to the double-rooted canine, except in <i>Erinaceus</i> and <i>Talpa</i>, is found
+among the Marsupials in <i>Perameles</i>, where the root of the canine is
+grooved.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Insectivora Vera</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>Upper and lower incisors conical, unicuspidate or with basal
+cusps only, the lower not pectinated; limbs free, formed for
+terrestrial progression.</p>
+
+<p>The following table gives a key to the distinctive characters of
+the existing families:—</p>
+
+<ul>
+  <li>I. Upper molars broad, multicuspidate, with more or less well-defined
+  W-shaped crowns.
+    <ul>
+      <li>A. Symphysis pubis long; generally a cæcum; cerebral cavity
+      comparatively large.
+        <ul>
+          <li><i>a.</i> Orbit encircled by bone; metatarsus moderate;
+          arboreal. <i>Tupaiidæ</i>.</li>
+          <li><i>b.</i> Orbit not encircled by bone; metatarsus greatly
+          elongated; terrestrial. <i>Macroscelididæ.</i></li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+      <li>B. Symphysis pubis short or none; no cæcum; cerebral cavity
+      small; skull without postorbital processes.
+        <ul>
+          <li><i>a.</i> First and second upper molars with a central
+          fifth cusp.
+            <ul>
+              <li><i>a′.</i> Tympanic annular, not forming a bulla.
+              <i>Erinaceidæ.</i></li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+          <li><i>b.</i> No central fifth cusp to upper molars.
+            <ul>
+              <li><i>a′.</i> Tympanic annular, not forming a bulla;
+              no zygomatic arch. <i>Soricidæ.</i></li>
+              <li><i>b′.</i> Tympanic forming a bulla; zygomatic arch
+              developed. <i>Talpidæ.</i></li>
+            </ul>
+          </li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </li>
+  <li>II. Upper molars narrow, with V-shaped crowns.
+    <ul>
+      <li><i>a′.</i> Tympanic annular, not forming a bulla; zygomatic
+      arch imperfect.
+        <ul>
+          <li><i>a″.</i> No clavicles. <i>Potamogalidæ.</i></li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+      <li><i>b″.</i> Clavicles well developed.
+        <ul>
+          <li><i>a‴.</i> Skull constricted between the orbits; penis
+          suspended. <i>Solenodontidæ.</i></li>
+          <li><i>b‴.</i> Skull not constricted; penis pendent,
+          retractile. <i>Centetidæ.</i></li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+      <li><i>b′.</i> Tympanic forming a bulla; zygomatic arch well
+      developed. <i>Chrysochloridæ.</i>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+  </li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>The second section, in which the molars are of the primitive
+tritubercular type, should probably be regarded as containing the
+most generalised representatives of the order; and it is noteworthy
+that the whole of them are confined to Africa, Madagascar, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_617"></a>[617]</span>
+the West Indies, whereas most of the first section are widely
+distributed over the Palæarctic and Oriental regions. None of the
+existing families of the second section are known in a fossil condition,
+although it is suggested that the extinct <i>Leptictidæ</i> includes allied
+types.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Tupaiidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Skull with comparatively large brain-case, orbit surrounded by
+bone, well-developed zygomatic arch, perforated jugal, and a tympanic
+bulla. Upper molar broad, with cusps arranged in a W. Pubic
+symphysis long; radius and ulna, and tibia and fibula separate;
+metatarsus only slightly longer than tarsus. Usually a short cæcum.
+Habits arboreal and diurnal. Confined to the Oriental region.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp63" id="figure283" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure283.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 283.</span>—The Pentailed Tree-Shrew (<i>Ptilocercus lowi</i>). From Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1848.
+½ natural size.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Tupaia.</i><a id="FNanchor_532" href="#Footnote_532" class="fnanchor">[532]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 38. Feet naked
+beneath, the sole furnished with projecting pads; claws moderate,
+curved, and sharp; head pointed; ears rounded; tail bushy,
+distichous, with short hair below. The Tree-Shrews, of which there
+are some nine species, are found in India, Burma, the Malay<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_618"></a>[618]</span>
+Peninsula, the Nicobars, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. The species
+closely resemble one another, differing chiefly in size and in the
+colour and length of the fur. Their general appearance is very
+Squirrel-like. Their food consists of insects and fruit, which they
+usually seek in the trees, but also occasionally on the ground.
+When feeding they often sit on their haunches, holding the food,
+after the manner of Squirrels, between their forepaws.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ptilocercus.</i><a id="FNanchor_533" href="#Footnote_533" class="fnanchor">[533]</a>—Represented only by the Pentailed Tree-Shrew
+(<i>P. lowi</i>, <a href="#figure283">Fig. 283</a>) of Borneo, in which the tail is of extraordinary
+length, with the proximal two-thirds naked, and the remaining third
+furnished with a bilateral fringe of long hairs, from which the genus
+takes its name.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—An Insectivore from the Middle Miocene of
+France, described as <i>Lantanotherium</i>, is said to be nearly allied to
+<i>Tupaia</i>. The genus <i>Parasorex</i>, from strata of similar age, has the
+dental formula <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, and is regarded as connecting the
+present with the following family.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Macroscelididæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Skull with comparatively large brain-case, strong zygomatic
+arch, a tympanic bulla, orbit surrounded by bone, imperforate
+jugal, and usually no postorbital process. Molars broad, with
+four cusps arranged in a W. Pubic symphysis long; proximal end
+of tibia and fibula united; radius and ulna united or separate;
+metatarsus much longer than tarsus. A large cæcum. Habits
+terrestrial, saltatorial, and nocturnal. The family is confined to
+Africa.</p>
+
+<p><i>Macroscelides.</i><a id="FNanchor_534" href="#Footnote_534" class="fnanchor">[534]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂₋₃; total 40 or 42.
+Distal extremity of radius and ulna united. Five digits in manus,
+and five or four in pes. This genus, which is taken to include
+<i>Petrodromus</i>, comprises ten species widely distributed throughout the
+African continent. All are closely related, resembling one another
+in general form, and even in the colour of the fur. They fall into
+two groups, distinguished by the presence or absence of a small
+third lower molar.<a id="FNanchor_535" href="#Footnote_535" class="fnanchor">[535]</a> <i>M. tetradactylus</i> (<a href="#figure284">Fig. 284</a>), the type of the
+genus <i>Petrodromus</i>, differs from all the other species in the absence
+of the hallux, and of the third lower molar. These animals are
+commonly known as Jumping Shrews, and, like the following
+genus, have the muzzle much produced.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_619"></a>[619]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Rhynchocyon.</i><a id="FNanchor_536" href="#Footnote_536" class="fnanchor">[536]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 36. Upper
+incisor frequently shed in the adult. Radius and ulna distinct;
+hind limbs relatively shorter, and proboscis longer than in the type
+genus; four digits in each foot. Four closely allied species have
+been described from East Africa. The head and body of the type
+species measures about 8 inches in length; and the long tail is
+covered with a ringed skin, sparsely haired. Its habits are fossorial.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="figure284" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure284.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 284.</span>—<i>Macroscelides tetradactylus.</i> × ½. (From Peters, <i>Reise nach Mossambique.</i>)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Erinaceidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Skull with a small brain-case; no postorbital process; slender
+and occasionally imperfect zygomatic arch, and an annular tympanic,
+which does not form a bulla. Upper molars with four principal
+cusps and a small central median cusp. Acromion of scapula bifid;
+pubic symphysis short; radius and ulna free, but tibia and fibula
+united proximally. No cæcum; penis carried forward and suspended
+from the wall of the abdomen. Habits terrestrial. Found
+in the Palæarctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Gymnurinæ</b>.—Palate completely ossified; pelvis
+very narrow; fur without spines.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_620"></a>[620]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Gymnura.</i><a id="FNanchor_537" href="#Footnote_537" class="fnanchor">[537]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 44. This
+genus, if <i>Hylomys</i> is rightly included, is represented by the two
+species, <i>G. rafflesi</i> and <i>G. suilla</i>, from the Malay Peninsula and Indian
+Archipelago. The former has the appearance of a large Rat with a
+long tail and head and projecting mobile snout; the latter, which is
+much smaller, with a short tail and small third upper premolar, has
+long been known under the name of <i>Hylomys suillus</i>, and classed
+with the <i>Tupaiidæ</i>. Both species present a very generalised type
+of dentition, in this respect occupying an almost central position in
+the order. <i>G. suilla</i> is represented in Mount Kina-Balu, Borneo, by
+a variety characterised by the presence of a dark dorsal streak.
+Many zoologists prefer to retain <i>Hylomys</i> as a distinct genus.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Erinaceinæ</b>.—Palate imperfectly ossified; pelvis
+wide; fur with spines.</p>
+
+<p><i>Erinaceus.</i><a id="FNanchor_538" href="#Footnote_538" class="fnanchor">[538]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 36. The first pair
+of upper incisors (<a href="#figure285">Fig. 285</a>) are considerably larger than the others,
+and are widely
+separated from one
+another in the
+middle line; the
+canine is very similar
+to the third incisor;
+and, except
+in <i>E. europæus</i> (<a href="#figure285">Fig.
+285</a>), each of these
+teeth is inserted by
+two distinct roots
+(<a href="#figure280">Fig. 280</a>, <a href="#figure280">p. 610</a>).
+The first lower incisor
+is large and
+proclivous. The
+number of vertebræ is C 7, D 15, L 6, S 3, C 11.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure285" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure285.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 285.</span>—Right lateral aspect of the anterior portion of the
+skull of the Hedgehog (<i>Erinaceus europæus</i>). Enlarged. (From
+Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1881, p. 403.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Hedgehogs comprise nearly twenty species, distributed
+throughout Europe, Africa, and the greater part of Asia, but not
+found in Madagascar, Ceylon, Burma, Siam, the Malay Peninsula,
+or Australia. All the species resemble one another in the armature
+of spines investing the upper surface and sides of the body; and
+all possess the power of rolling themselves up into the form of
+a ball, protected on all sides by the strong spines; the dorsal
+integument being brought downwards and inwards over the head
+and tail, so as to include the limbs also, by the action of special
+muscles. The common Hedgehog (<i>E. europæus</i>) is the most aberrant
+species, differing from all the rest in the peculiarly shaped and
+single-rooted third upper incisor and canine (<a href="#figure285">Fig. 285</a>), and in its
+very coarse, harsh fur. The dentition of the long-eared North<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_621"></a>[621]</span>
+Indian form, <i>E. collaris</i> (<a href="#figure280">Fig. 280</a>), may be considered characteristic
+of all the other species, the only important differences being found
+in the variable size and position of the second upper premolar,
+which is very small, external, and deciduous in the Indian
+<i>E. micropus</i> and <i>pictus</i>. The former species, limited to South India,
+is further distinguished by the absence of the jugal bone. Of the
+African species, <i>E. diadematus</i>, with long frontal spines, is probably
+the commonest; while <i>E. albiventris</i> has been made the type of a
+separate genus on account of the total absence of the hallux.</p>
+
+<p>The well-known European species feeds on insects, worms, slugs,
+mice, rats, lizards, snakes, etc., as well as on eggs, fruit, and roots.
+It hibernates during the winter. The young are usually produced
+in July or August in litters of not more than four, but there may
+be a second litter in October; and the period of gestation is believed
+not to exceed a month. The Indian, and probably also the
+African species, do not hibernate.</p>
+
+<p>The existing <i>E. europæus</i> dates from the Pleistocene period, and
+extinct species of the genus are found in the Upper and Middle
+Miocene of the Continent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—The French Lower Miocene genus, <i>Palæoerinaceus</i>,
+appears to be allied to <i>Erinaceus</i>, but is distinguished by the
+wider and completely ossified palate. In the Upper Eocene of
+Central France there are two genera, which appear to be most
+nearly allied to <i>Gymnura</i>, although connected by <i>Palæoerinaceus</i> with
+<i>Erinaceus</i>. Of these <i>Necrogymnurus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_539" href="#Footnote_539" class="fnanchor">[539]</a> with which <i>Cayluxotherium</i> is
+apparently identical, has teeth like <i>Gymnura</i>, but an imperfectly
+ossified palate like <i>Erinaceus</i>; and the skull is remarkable for the
+peculiar rugose structure of the parietal and temporal regions.
+<i>Comphotherium</i> is distinguished by the presence of a cingulum to
+the lower molars, like that found in <i>Gymnura</i>.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Soricidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Skull (<a href="#figure286">Fig. 286</a>) long and narrow, with no zygomatic arch or
+postorbital process, and the tympanic ring-like and not forming
+a bulla. Upper molars with the cusps arranged in a distinct W.
+No pubic symphysis. The tibia and fibula united. No cæcum.
+Habits usually terrestrial, rarely aquatic. Distribution extensive.</p>
+
+<p>The Shrews are Rat-like or Mouse-like insectivores, with the
+body covered with hair, and the muzzle long and pointed. Their
+dentition (<a href="#figure286">Fig. 286</a>) is peculiar and characteristic. Thus the first
+upper incisor is large and hook-like, with a more or less developed
+basal cusp on the posterior border. Between this and the last premolar
+there are a variable number of small teeth, representing the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_622"></a>[622]</span>
+other incisors, the canine, and the anterior premolars; although,
+owing to the early obliteration of the maxillo-premaxillary suture,
+their homology is exceedingly difficult to determine. Three molars
+are invariably present, of which the third is much the smallest. In
+the mandible there are always six teeth, but in one species of
+<i>Myosorex</i> there may be a seventh.
+The first lower incisor is usually
+directed horizontally forwards; the
+second incisor (formerly reckoned as
+the canine) is the smallest tooth of
+the series, the fourth premolar being
+slightly larger.</p>
+
+<p>This family, which includes considerably
+more than half the representatives
+of the order, has a
+distribution coextensive with the
+latter. Many classifications of this
+difficult group have been attempted,
+but according to the latest proposal
+of Dr. Dobson,<a id="FNanchor_540" href="#Footnote_540" class="fnanchor">[540]</a> the genera may be
+divided into two subfamilies, distinguished
+by the apparently trivial
+character of the colour of the teeth.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp75" id="figure286" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure286.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 286.</span>—Left lateral view of the
+cranium and mandible of <i>Sorex veræpacis</i>.
+In the cranium—<i>i</i>, first incisor; <i>c</i>, fourth
+incisor; <i>p</i>, canine; <i>m</i>, fourth premolar:
+in the mandible—<i>i</i>, first incisor; <i>c</i>, second
+incisor; <i>p</i>, fourth premolar; <i>m</i>, first molar.
+(From Alston, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1877.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Soricinæ</b>.—Summits of the teeth coloured red.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sorex.</i><a id="FNanchor_541" href="#Footnote_541" class="fnanchor">[541]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁴⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32. Openings of
+male and female generative organs separated from the anal orifice;
+penis cylindrical or tapering; ear well developed; tail long,
+covered with equal or subequal hairs.</p>
+
+<p>It has been shown by Brandt that the position of the premaxillo-maxillary
+sutures in the type of the genus is between the
+fourth and fifth tooth, so that it appears that we must regard this
+genus as differing from all other Eutherian mammals in having four
+upper incisors. Dr. Dobson, in his paper quoted, classes the tooth
+here reckoned as the upper canine with the premolar series in all
+the Shrews. Habits terrestrial. Species numerous, inhabiting the
+Palæarctic and Nearctic regions.</p>
+
+<p>Of the two species found in the British Isles the Common
+Shrew (<i>S. vulgaris</i>, <a href="#figure287">Fig. 287</a>) is by far the most common in England,
+and is about the size of the House Mouse, to which it approximates
+in general form. The body is clothed with close long fur, very
+soft and dense, and varying in colour from light reddish to dark
+brown above, rarely speckled or banded with white. The under
+surface of both the body and the tail is grayish. The basal four-fifths
+of all the hairs above and beneath are dark bluish-gray; the
+hairs of the tail are less densely set and coarser. On each side of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_623"></a>[623]</span>
+the body, at a point about one-third of the distance between the
+elbow and the knee, may be found, especially in the rutting season,
+a gland covered by two rows of coarse hairs. This secretes a
+peculiar fluid, on which the odour of the animal depends; this
+odour being evidently protective, and rendering the creature secure
+against the attacks of many predaceous animals.</p>
+
+<p>The geographical range of the Common Shrew is exceedingly
+wide, extending eastwards through Europe and Asia (north of the
+Himalayas) to North America.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure287" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure287.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 287.</span>—The Common Shrew (<i>Sorex vulgaris</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Lesser Shrew (<i>S. pygmæus</i><a id="FNanchor_542" href="#Footnote_542" class="fnanchor">[542]</a>) is far less common in England
+and Scotland, although more abundant in Ireland, where <i>S. vulgaris</i>
+is unknown. It is distinguished from the latter not only by its
+inferior dimensions, but also by the circumstance that the third
+upper incisor is not longer than the fourth, and by the considerably
+shorter length of the forearm and manus. This species extends
+through Europe and Asia as far as the inland of Saghalin. Both
+this and the preceding species generally live in wooded districts,
+making their nests under the roots of trees, or in slight hollows.
+The great mortality noticeable among the Shrews in the early part
+of the autumn is probably due to insufficiency of food. The breeding
+season extends from the latter part of April to the beginning
+of August. The young, which are blind, naked, and toothless at
+birth, are very quickly developed. The number in a litter is
+usually from five to seven, but may be as many as ten.</p>
+
+<p>The Alpine Shrew (<i>S. alpinus</i>), which is restricted to the Alpine
+region of Central Europe, is slightly larger than the common
+species, from which it is distinguished by the longer tail, the length
+of which exceeds that of the head and body, by the fur being dark
+on both surfaces of the body, and also by the larger size of the
+upper canine.</p>
+
+<p>In North America <i>S. bendirei</i> is by far the largest species of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_624"></a>[624]</span>
+genus; and, as in many other species of the same country, the
+fourth upper incisor is relatively small. In <i>S. hoyi</i> (separated by
+some writers as <i>Microsorex</i>), of the same country, this tooth is
+rudimentary.</p>
+
+<p>Other North American Shrews, which are regarded by some
+zoologists as generically distinct under the name of <i>Neosorex</i>, are
+aquatic, and thus take the place of the Old World genus <i>Crossopus</i>.
+These are <i>S. palustris</i> of the Rocky Mountains and <i>S. hydrodromus</i> of
+Unalaska Island, both of which resemble <i>Crossopus</i> in having the
+feet provided with swimming fringes, but agree with the other
+species of <i>Sorex</i> in their dentition and the character of the tail.
+The former species is about the size of <i>Crossopus fodiens</i>, while the
+latter is scarcely larger than <i>S. pygmæus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Soriculus.</i><a id="FNanchor_543" href="#Footnote_543" class="fnanchor">[543]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁴⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ¹⁻²⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 30, or rarely
+32. Opening of male or female generative organs forming with the
+anal orifice a shallow cloaca. Ear and tail as in <i>Sorex</i>. First upper
+incisor with an internal cusp. Habits terrestrial.</p>
+
+<p>This genus is the only representative in the Oriental region of
+the <i>Soricinæ</i>, which are otherwise confined to the Palæarctic and
+Nearctic regions. The Indian and Burmese species comprise
+<i>S. nigrescens</i>, <i>S. caudatus</i>, and <i>S. macrurus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Notiosorex.</i><a id="FNanchor_544" href="#Footnote_544" class="fnanchor">[544]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 28. Tail
+moderate; first upper incisor without an inner cusp; other
+characters as in <i>Soriculus</i>. Habits terrestrial.</p>
+
+<p>This American genus is represented by <i>S. crawfordi</i> and <i>S. evotis</i>,
+which are found in Central America and Mexico, and are thus some
+of the most southerly representatives of the Shrews in that continent.
+Their external appearance is very similar to that of the
+Old World genus <i>Crocidura</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Blarina.</i><a id="FNanchor_545" href="#Footnote_545" class="fnanchor">[545]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁴⁻³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32 or 30. Ear
+truncated above; tail short; otherwise as in <i>Soriculus</i>. This group of
+so-called Earless or Short-tailed Shrews is mainly North American, the
+common forms being <i>B. dekayi</i> and <i>B. brevicauda</i>. The species vary
+considerably in size; and <i>B. mexicana</i> and <i>micrura</i> extend the
+range of the genus into Mexico and Guatemala. The following
+account of the habits of <i>B. brevicauda</i> is taken from Dr. Merriam’s
+<i>Mammals of the Adirondack Region</i>: “The rigours of our northern
+winters seem to have no effect in diminishing its activity, for
+it scampers about on the snow during the severest weather,
+and I have known it to be out when the thermometer indicated
+a temperature of -20° Fahr. It makes long journeys
+over the snow, burrowing down whenever it comes to an<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_625"></a>[625]</span>
+elevation that denotes the presence of a log or stump, and I am
+inclined to believe that at this season it must feed largely upon
+the chrysalides and larvæ of insects that are always to be found in
+such places.” Dr. Merriam has made the interesting discovery
+that the common short-tailed North American Shrew supplements
+its insectivorous fare by feeding on beech-nuts, which will account
+for the generally very worn state of the teeth in this species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crossopus.</i><a id="FNanchor_546" href="#Footnote_546" class="fnanchor">[546]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 30. Opening
+of male or female generative organs enclosed within the same ring
+as the anal orifice; penis broad, with lateral processes. Ears small,
+not truncated. Tail long, with an inferior fringe of elongated
+hair; feet also fringed. Habits aquatic. The Palæarctic Water-Shrew
+(<i>C. fodiens</i>) is considerably larger than the Common Shrew,
+from which it is readily distinguished externally by its shorter and
+much broader muzzle, comparatively smaller eyes, and larger feet
+adapted for swimming,—the sides of the feet and toes being provided
+with comb-like fringes of stiff hairs. The tail is longer than
+the body, and possesses a well-developed swimming fringe of
+moderately long, regularly arranged hairs, which extend along the
+middle of the flat under surface from the end of its basal third to
+its extremity. The fur of the body is long and very dense, varying
+much in colour in different individuals, and this has given rise to
+descriptions of many nominal species; the prevailing shades are
+dark brown, almost black, above, and more or less bright ashy
+tinged with yellowish beneath; sometimes in the same litter there
+are individuals with the under surface more or less dark coloured.
+In the number as well as in the shape of the teeth the Water-Shrew
+differs from the Common Shrew: there is a premolar
+less on each side above; the bases of the teeth are much more
+prolonged posteriorly; and their cusps are much less stained brown,
+so that in old individuals with worn teeth they often appear altogether
+white. This species resembles the otter in its aquatic
+habits, swimming and diving with great agility. It frequents
+rivers and lakes, making its burrows in the overhanging banks,
+from which when disturbed it escapes into the water. Its food
+consists of insects and their larvæ, small crustaceans, and probably
+the fry of small fishes. It is generally distributed throughout
+England, is less common in Scotland, and as yet it has not been
+recorded in Ireland; specimens have been obtained from many parts
+of Europe, and also from Asia as far eastward as the Altai Mountains.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Crocidurinæ</b>.—Teeth completely white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Myosorex.</i><a id="FNanchor_547" href="#Footnote_547" class="fnanchor">[547]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₁₋₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 30 or 32.
+Penis cylindroid and tapering; male or female generative organs
+opening close to anal orifice, but not forming a cloaca. Ears well
+developed; tail long, clothed with equal or subequal hairs. Habits
+terrestrial.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_626"></a>[626]</span></p>
+
+<p>This genus is typically represented by <i>M. varius</i>, a very small
+Shrew from the Cape, which is quite unique among the whole
+family in having a rudimental seventh pair of lower teeth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crocidura.</i><a id="FNanchor_548" href="#Footnote_548" class="fnanchor">[548]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁻¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 28 or 30.
+Male or female generative organs forming a short cloaca with the
+anal orifice. Tail long, with a mixture of long and short hairs.
+Other characters as in <i>Myosorex</i>. Habits terrestrial.</p>
+
+<p>This Old World genus includes over seventy nominal species,
+which have been divided into four subgenera, <i>C. aranea</i> and <i>C.
+suaveolens</i> of Continental Europe, and <i>C. cœrulea</i> of India, being well-known
+forms. The species are very variable and difficult to discriminate.
+<i>C. aranea</i> has a very wide distribution, ranging from
+Central and Southern Europe to North Africa and Central Asia.
+The name Musk-Rat is popularly applied in India to <i>C. cœrulea</i>,
+which frequents houses at night, hunting round rooms for cockroaches
+and other insects, and occasionally uttering a sharp shrill cry. The
+strong musky odour of this animal arises from large glands situated
+beneath the skin of the side of the body, a short distance behind
+the fore limbs. This odour is so powerful and penetrating that it
+is popularly believed in India that if the animal runs over a corked
+bottle of wine or beer it will infect the fluid within. Jerdon says
+that certainly many bottles are met with quite undrinkable from
+the peculiar musky odour of their contents, but, rejecting the
+possibility of its passing through the glass, he attributes it to
+the corks having been infected previously to bottling, stating in
+corroboration of this view that he has never found the odour in
+liquors bottled in England.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diplomesodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_549" href="#Footnote_549" class="fnanchor">[549]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 26. Tail
+moderate; soles of the feet hairy. Other characters as in <i>Crocidura</i>.
+Habits terrestrial.</p>
+
+<p>This genus is represented only by <i>D. pulchellus</i> of the Kirghiz
+steppes, which is allied to the following form, although retaining
+the normal Shrew-like external contour.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anurosorex.</i><a id="FNanchor_550" href="#Footnote_550" class="fnanchor">[550]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 26. Ear
+very short; tail rudimental or short; soles of feet naked. Other
+characters as in <i>Diplomesodon</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The two species of this genus are Mole-like terrestrial forms, of
+which the typical <i>A. squamipes</i> occurs in Tibet, while <i>A. assamensis</i>
+is found in Assam. The latter species has the longer tail. The
+habits of both are probably fossorial.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chimarrogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_551" href="#Footnote_551" class="fnanchor">[551]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_627"></a>[627]</span> <i>p</i>
+    ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 28. Penis
+broad, with lateral processes; male or female generative organs
+opening within the same integumentary ring as the anal orifice.
+Tail long, with an inferior fringe of elongated hairs; ears small;
+plantar callosities simple; toes free. Habits aquatic.</p>
+
+<p>This genus includes <i>C. himalayica</i> of the Himalaya and <i>C. platycephalus</i>
+of Japan. Both have the feet fringed, and, together with
+the next genus, may be regarded as the eastern analogues of <i>Crossopus</i>
+among the red-toothed series; their structural resemblances to
+the latter, if Dr. Dobson’s classification is a natural one, being
+probably due to adaptation for a similar mode of life.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nectogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_552" href="#Footnote_552" class="fnanchor">[552]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 28. External
+ears not forming a conch, valvular. Plantar callosities forming
+adhesive pads; toes webbed. Other characters as in <i>Chimarrogale</i>.
+Habits aquatic.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp84" id="figure288" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure288.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 288.</span>—<i>Nectogale elegans.</i> (From Milne-Edwards, <i>Mammif. Tibet</i>.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The sole representative of this genus is the Tibetan Water-Shrew
+(<i>N. elegans</i>, <a href="#figure288">Fig. 288</a>), which differs from all other members
+of the family by the webbed toes and the presence of the disc-like
+adhesive pads on the under surface of the feet, which are believed
+to enable the creature to hold on to smooth rocks or stones in the
+beds of the streams it inhabits. This species is probably more
+completely aquatic in its habits than the allied <i>Chimarrogale</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fossil Soricidæ.</i>—Remains of existing species of <i>Sorex</i> or <i>Crossopus</i>
+occur in the Norfolk Forest bed, while an extinct species has<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_628"></a>[628]</span>
+been found in the Pleistocene of Sardinia. <i>Crocidura</i> occurs in the
+cavern-deposits of Madras. Shrews from the Miocene and Upper
+Eocene of Europe have been referred to <i>Sorex</i> and the genus <i>Amphisorex</i>,
+which is a synonym of <i>Crossopus</i>.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Talpidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Allied to the <i>Soricidæ</i>, but distinguished by the presence of a
+zygomatic arch and auditory bulla in the skull, and by the form of
+the teeth. The eyes are very small, and in some species covered
+with skin; the ears are short and concealed by the fur; the fore
+limbs are generally more or less modified for digging; there is no
+symphysis pubis; the intestine has no cæcum; the tibia and fibula
+are united; and the unicuspidate first upper and lower incisors
+are not extended horizontally forwards.</p>
+
+<p>This family is connected with the <i>Soricidæ</i> by <i>Urotrichus</i> and
+<i>Uropsilus</i>. All the members are limited to the temperate regions
+of Europe, Asia, and North America; and the majority of them
+are of fossorial habits, although a few are aquatic or cursorial. The
+family has been divided into two subfamilies by Professor Mivart,
+and since this arrangement has been very generally adopted it will
+be followed here. From the presence of intermediate forms like
+<i>Scaptonyx</i> Dr. Dobson, in the second part of his <i>Monograph of the
+Insectivora</i>, has proposed a different arrangement, which, with the
+omission of some forms which are of not more than subgeneric
+value, is as follows:—</p>
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Myogalæ</span>—<i>Myogale</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Condyluræ</span>—<i>Condylura</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="valign"><span class="smcap">Scalopes</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr">{</td>
+    <td><i>Scapanus</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">{</td>
+    <td><i>Scalops</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Talpæ</span>—<i>Talpa</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="valign"><span class="smcap">Urotrichi</span></td>
+    <td class="tdr">{</td>
+    <td><i>Scaptonyx</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdr">{</td>
+    <td><i>Urotrichus</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Uropsili</span>—<i>Uropsilus</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Myogalinæ</b>.—Clavicles and humerus moderately
+elongated; manus without falciform bone.</p>
+
+<p><i>Myogale</i>.<a id="FNanchor_553" href="#Footnote_553" class="fnanchor">[553]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 44. Feet
+webbed. Habits aquatic. This genus is represented by the two
+species <i>M. moschata</i> (<a href="#figure289">Fig. 289</a>) and <i>M. pyrenaica</i>, of which the former
+is by far the largest member of the family, its total length being
+about 16 inches. Its long proboscis-like snout projects far beyond
+the margin of the upper lip; the toes are webbed as far as the bases
+of the claws; and the long scaly tail is laterally flattened, so as to
+form a powerful instrument of propulsion when swimming. This<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_629"></a>[629]</span>
+species inhabits the banks of streams and lakes in South-East Russia,
+where its food consists of various aquatic insects. <i>M. pyrenaica</i>,
+living in a similar manner in the region of the Pyrenees, is very
+much smaller, has a round tail, and a proportionally longer snout.
+Fossil remains of <i>M. moschata</i> occur in the Norfolk Forest bed, and
+were originally described under the name of <i>Palæospalax</i>. The
+genus is also represented in the Middle and Lower Miocene of the
+Continent.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="figure289" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure289.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 289.</span>—The Desman (<i>Myogale moschata</i>). ¹⁄₃ natural size.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Urotrichus.</i><a id="FNanchor_554" href="#Footnote_554" class="fnanchor">[554]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₃ or ³⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 36. Feet
+not webbed; manus broad. Habits fossorial. The Mole-Shrews,
+as these animals are called, are represented by <i>U. talpoides</i> of the
+mountains of Japan and <i>U. gibbsi</i> of North America. These two
+species are small and closely allied animals; the American form
+(which it has been proposed to separate subgenerically as <i>Neurotrichus</i>)
+having <i>p</i> ³⁄₄.</p>
+
+<p><i>Uropsilus.</i><a id="FNanchor_555" href="#Footnote_555" class="fnanchor">[555]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34. Manus
+narrow; tail naked and scaly. Habits cursorial. The single<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_630"></a>[630]</span>
+species, <i>U. soricipes</i>, from the borders of Tibet, is a slate-coloured
+animal with the external form of a Shrew but the skull of a Mole.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Talpinæ</b>.—Clavicle and humerus very short and
+broad; manus with a large falciform bone.</p>
+
+<p>A. First upper incisor much larger than the second (New
+World Moles).</p>
+
+<p><i>Scalops.</i><a id="FNanchor_556" href="#Footnote_556" class="fnanchor">[556]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 36. Extremity
+of muzzle simple; hind feet webbed; tail short and nearly naked.
+Represented by three species in the United States.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scapanus.</i><a id="FNanchor_557" href="#Footnote_557" class="fnanchor">[557]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 44. Extremity
+of muzzle simple. The two North American species of this genus
+resemble <i>Scalops</i> in general characters, but have a dentition like
+<i>Condylura</i>. The habits are like those of the latter, and the right
+to generic distinction is doubtful.</p>
+
+<p><i>Condylura.</i><a id="FNanchor_558" href="#Footnote_558" class="fnanchor">[558]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 44. Extremity
+of muzzle surrounded by filiform appendages. The Star-nosed
+Mole (<i>C. cristata</i>) derives its name from the star-like ring of
+appendages at the extremity of the muzzle, with the nostrils in the
+centre. The general contour is Mole-like, but the tail is nearly as
+long as the body, and the manus is somewhat less powerful, with
+its terminal phalanges not cleft. The length of the head and body
+is about 5 inches. This species is common in parts of North
+America, and forms tunnels in the ground like the Common Mole.</p>
+
+<p>B. First upper incisor scarcely larger than the second (Old
+World Moles).</p>
+
+<p><i>Scaptonyx.</i><a id="FNanchor_559" href="#Footnote_559" class="fnanchor">[559]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 42. Manus
+moderately broad, as in <i>Urotrichus</i>. Represented only by <i>S. fusicaudatus</i>
+of Eastern Tibet, which may be regarded as connecting
+<i>Talpa</i> with <i>Urotrichus</i>, having the head of the former and the limbs
+of the latter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Talpa.</i><a id="FNanchor_560" href="#Footnote_560" class="fnanchor">[560]</a>—Dentition (usually): <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 44.
+Manus extremely broad.</p>
+
+<p>This genus includes the true Moles, of which the common
+English Mole<a id="FNanchor_561" href="#Footnote_561" class="fnanchor">[561]</a> (<i>T. europæa</i>) is the type. This animal is about 6
+inches in total length, of which rather more than one inch is occupied
+by the tail. The body is elongated and cylindrical, and, owing
+to the very anterior position of the fore limbs, the head appears to
+rest between the shoulders; the muzzle is long and obtusely
+pointed, terminated by the nostrils, which are close together; the
+minute eye is almost hidden by the fur; the ear is without a conch,
+and opens on a level with the surrounding integument. The fore<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_631"></a>[631]</span>
+limbs are rather short and very muscular, terminating in broad,
+naked, shovel-shaped feet, with the palms normally directed outwards,
+and each with five subequal digits armed with strong flattened
+claws. The hind feet are long and narrow, and the toes are provided
+with slender claws. The body is densely covered with soft,
+erect, velvety fur, the hairs being uniform in length and thickness,
+except on the muzzle and short tail. The colour of the fur is
+generally black, with a more or less grayish tinge, or brownish-black,
+but various paler shades up to pure white have been observed.</p>
+
+<p>The food of the Mole consists chiefly of the earth-worm, in
+pursuit of which it forms its well-known underground excavations.
+Its habits were many years ago studied and described by M. Henri
+le Court. Like many other mammals, the Mole has a lair to which
+it may retire for security. This consists of a central nest formed
+under a hillock, placed in some protected situation, as under a bank,
+or between the roots of trees. The nest, which is lined with dried
+grass or leaves, communicates with the main run by four passages,
+of which only one joins it directly, leading downwards for a short
+distance and then ascending again. The other three are directed
+upwards and communicate at regular intervals with a circular
+gallery constructed in the upper part of the hillock, which in turn
+communicates by five passages leading downwards and outwards
+with another much larger gallery placed lower down on a level
+with the central nest, from which passages proceed outwards in
+different directions, one only communicating directly with the main
+run, while the others, curving round, either soon join or end blindly.
+The main run is somewhat wider than the animal’s body: its walls
+are smooth, and formed of closely compressed earth, the depth
+varying according to the nature of the soil, but ordinarily from 4
+to 6 inches. Along this tunnel the animal passes backwards and
+forwards several times daily, and here traps are laid by mole-catchers
+for its capture. From the main run numerous passages are formed
+on each side, along which the animal hunts its prey, throwing
+out the soil in the form of mole-hills. The Mole is one of the
+most voracious of mammals, and, if deprived of food, is said to die
+in from ten to twelve hours. Almost any kind of flesh is eagerly
+devoured by captive Moles, which have been seen by various
+observers, as if maddened by hunger, to attack animals nearly as
+large as themselves, such as birds, lizards, frogs, and even snakes;
+toads, however, they will not touch, and no form of vegetable food
+attracts their notice. If two Moles be confined together without
+food, the weaker is invariably devoured by the stronger. Moles
+take readily to the water, in which respect they resemble their
+representatives on the North American continent. Bruce, writing
+in 1793, remarks that he saw a Mole paddling towards a small
+island in the Loch of Clunie, 180 yards from land, on which he
+noticed mole-hills.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_632"></a>[632]</span></p>
+
+<p>The sexes come together about the second week in March, and
+the young—generally from four to six in number—which are
+brought forth in about six
+weeks, quickly attain their
+full size.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp34" id="figure290" style="max-width: 20.3125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure290.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 290.</span>—Skeleton of Mole × ⅔ (lower jaw
+removed to show base of skull). <i>c</i>, Calcaneum;
+<i>c.h.</i>, clavicular articulation of the humerus; <i>cl.</i>,
+clavicle; <i>e.c</i>, external condyle of humerus; <i>f.</i>,
+femur; <i>fb</i>, fibula; <i>fc</i>, falciform bone (radial sesamoid);
+<i>h</i>, humerus; <i>i.c</i>, internal condyle of
+humerus; <i>il</i>, left ilium; <i>i.p</i>, ramus of the ilium
+and pubis; <i>is.</i>, ischium; <i>l.d</i>, ridge of insertion of
+latissimus dorsi muscle; <i>l.t</i>, lesser trochanter; <i>m</i>,
+manubrium sterni; <i>o</i>, fourth intercentral ossicle;
+<i>ol</i>, olecranon; <i>p.</i>, pubis widely separated from that
+of the opposite side; <i>pa.</i>, patella; <i>p.m.</i>, ridge for
+insertion of pectoralis major muscle; <i>pt.</i>, pectineal
+eminence; <i>r</i>, radius; <i>rb</i>, first rib; <i>s</i>, plantar sesamoid
+ossicle corresponding to the radial sesamoid
+(os falciforme) in the manus; <i>sc.</i>, scapula; <i>s.h.</i>,
+scapular articulation of the humerus; <i>t</i>, tibia; <i>u</i>,
+ulna.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Mole exhibits in the
+whole of its organisation a
+perfect adaptation to its
+peculiar mode of life. In
+the structure of the skeleton
+(<a href="#figure290">Fig. 290</a>) very striking departures
+from the typical
+mammalian form are noticeable.
+Thus the presternum
+is so much produced anteriorly
+as to extend forward as far as
+a vertical line from the second
+cervical vertebra, carrying
+with it the very short and
+almost quadrate clavicle, which
+is articulated with its anterior
+extremity and distally with
+the humerus; being also connected
+ligamentously with the
+scapula. The fore limbs are
+thus brought opposite the
+sides of the neck, and from
+this position a threefold advantage
+is derived: in the
+first place, as this is the
+narrowest part of the body,
+they add but little to the
+general width, which if increased,
+would lessen the
+power of movement in a
+confined space; secondly, this
+position allows of a longer
+fore limb than would otherwise
+be possible, and so increases
+its power; and, thirdly,
+although the entire limb is
+relatively very short, its anterior
+position enables the
+animal, when burrowing, to
+thrust the claws so far forward<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_633"></a>[633]</span>
+as to be in a line with the
+end of the muzzle, the importance
+of which is evident. Posteriorly, the hind limbs are similarly
+removed out of the way by approximation of the hip-joints to the
+centre line of the body. This is effected by inward curvature of
+the innominate bones at the acetabula to such an extent that they
+almost meet in the centre, while the pubic bones are widely separated
+behind. The shortness of the fore limb is caused by the great
+reduction in the length of the humerus, which has lost all resemblance
+to its normal shape. In addition to the usual articulation with the
+glenoid cavity of the scapula, the humerus also has a separate
+articulation with the extremity of the clavicle. The bones of the
+manus are enormously expanded laterally; this expansion being
+increased by the large sickle-like bone on the radial side of the
+carpus, which is considered by some anatomists to represent the
+prepollex. The skull is long and tapering, with very slender
+zygomatic arches and elongated nasals, which are ankylosed
+together, and in advance of which the mesethmoid is more or
+less ossified. The vertebræ are usually C 7, D 13, L 6, S 6,
+C 10-12; all having very strong surfaces for mutual articulation.
+The upper incisors are chisel-like, and the canine has two roots;
+the first three upper premolars are simple and conical, but the
+fourth is much larger, and canine-like. In the mandible the
+incisors are small and somewhat proclivous, while the canine can
+only be distinguished from them by its position: the first lower
+premolar is larger than the others.</p>
+
+<p>The Common Mole has an exceedingly wide distribution,
+ranging over the greater part of the Palæarctic region, where it is
+met with in places so widely sundered as England and Japan. It
+occurs in both the Himalaya and Altai mountains. In Ireland it
+is unknown, and in Scotland it extends as far north as Caithness.
+Eight species of the genus are recognised, which may be grouped,
+from the characters of their dentition, as follows, viz.: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄,
+<i>m</i> ³⁄₃, <i>T. wogura</i>; <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, <i>T. europæa</i>, <i>cæca</i>, <i>longirostris</i>,
+<i>micrura</i>; <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, <i>T. leucura</i>, <i>leptura</i>; <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃,
+<i>T. moschata</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Except in <i>T. europæa</i>, the eyes are covered by a membrane. In
+<i>T. micrura</i> the short tail is concealed by the fur. <i>T. cæca</i> is found
+south of the Alps; the remaining species are Asiatic, and two only—<i>T.
+micrura</i> and <i>T. leucura</i>—occur south of the Himalaya. <i>T.
+moschata</i>, of Tibet, is regarded by some zoologists as generically
+distinct under the name of <i>Scaptochirus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of <i>T. europæa</i> occur in the Norfolk Forest bed, while
+extinct species are found in the European Tertiaries as far down as
+the Lower Miocene, although it has been proposed to separate
+some of these forms generically. <i>Protalpa</i>, of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_634"></a>[634]</span> Upper Eocene
+Phosphorites of Central France, is very closely allied, but the
+structure of the humerus is somewhat less specialised.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—A number of extinct Insectivora from the
+European Tertiaries more or less closely allied to the Moles have
+been described, but since our knowledge of most of them is
+extremely imperfect their precise affinities are in many instances
+problematical. Of these, the Lower Miocene <i>Tetracus</i> is said to have
+affinity both with <i>Myogale</i> and <i>Erinaceus</i>; while the forms
+described as <i>Mysarachne</i> and <i>Echinogale</i>, are considered to connect
+the present with the two preceding families. <i>Plesiosorex</i> is another
+Lower Miocene type known only by the mandible, in which there
+are ten teeth; it is generally referred to the <i>Myogalinæ</i>. The minute
+<i>Amphidozotherium</i>, of the French Phosphorites, is considered to be
+allied to <i>Urotrichus</i>.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Adapisoricidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>This extinct family is represented by the genera <i>Adapisorex</i> and
+<i>Adapisoriculus</i>, of the lowest Eocene of Rheims, which are regarded
+as allied to the <i>Soricidæ</i>, but somewhat more specialised. In the
+type genus the formula of the lower teeth is <i>i</i> 2, <i>c</i> 1, <i>p</i> 4, <i>m</i> 3;
+the incisors and canine being proclivous, and the molars (of which
+the last is small and without a third lobe) quadritubercular.
+<i>Adapisoriculus</i> is a smaller form with differently shaped molars.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure291" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure291.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 291.</span>—The last left upper cheek-teeth
+of <i>Pleuraspidotherium aumonieri</i>;
+from the Lowest Eocene of Rheims. <i>pr</i>,
+protocone; <i>me</i>, metacone; <i>pa</i>, paracone;
+<i>b</i>, cingulum-cusp. (From Osborn.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Here also may be mentioned the genera <i>Orthaspidotherium</i> and
+<i>Pleuraspidotherium</i>, from the above-mentioned
+deposits, which are probably
+members of the present order.
+They appear to have been animals
+somewhat smaller than a Hedgehog,
+with quadritubercular upper molars
+(<a href="#figure291">Fig. 291</a>), and the hinder premolars
+more complex than those of the
+<i>Erinaceidæ</i>. In the first-named genus
+the dental formula is <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; the third and fourth upper
+premolars having one outer column. <i>Pleuraspidotherium</i> has apparently
+only three premolars, of which the third and fourth
+(<a href="#figure291">Fig. 291</a>) have two outer columns. The humerus in both has
+no entepicondylar foramen, the femur has a third trochanter, and
+the astragalus is vertically perforated.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Potamogalidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Skull with a small brain-case, no zygomatic arch or postorbital
+process, and the tympanic annulate and not forming a bulla.
+Upper molars with the cusps arranged in a broad V, and somewhat<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_635"></a>[635]</span>
+intermediate in structure between those of the preceding and
+succeeding families. No clavicle; pubic symphysis ligamentous;
+tibia and fibula typically united distally. No cæcum. Confined to
+the Ethiopian region.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp96" id="figure292" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure292.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 292.</span>—<i>Potamogale velox.</i> × ¼. (From Allman, <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. vi. pl. i.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Potamogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_562" href="#Footnote_562" class="fnanchor">[562]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 40. Represented
+only by <i>P. velox</i> of Western Equatorial Africa. This animal
+(<a href="#figure292">Fig. 292</a>) inhabits the banks of streams, and is thoroughly adapted
+for an aquatic life; it is nearly 2 feet in length, the tail measuring
+about half. The long cylindrical body is continued uninterruptedly
+into the thick laterally compressed tail, the legs are very short, and
+the toes are not webbed, progression through the water evidently
+depending wholly on the action of the powerful tail, while the
+limbs are folded inwards and backwards. The muzzle is broad and
+flat, and the nostrils are protected by valves. The fur is dark
+brown above, the extremities of the hairs on the back being of a
+metallic violet hue by reflected light, beneath whitish. This curious
+animal was discovered by M. du Chaillu.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geogale.</i><a id="FNanchor_563" href="#Footnote_563" class="fnanchor">[563]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34. This genus
+is known solely by <i>G. aurita</i>, a small Mouse-like species from Madagascar,
+agreeing closely with <i>Potamogale</i> in the general form of the
+skull and teeth. The tibia and fibula are distinct, but it is not
+known whether a clavicle exists; and the material at present available
+is insufficient to definitely fix the natural position of the genus.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_636"></a>[636]</span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Solenodontidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Skull with a small brain-case constricted between the orbits, no
+zygomatic arch or postorbital process, and the tympanic annulated
+and not forming a bulla. Upper molars tritubercular, the cusps
+being arranged in a V. Pubic symphysis short; tibia and fibula
+distinct. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 4, S 5, C 23. No cæcum. The
+penis is carried forwards and suspended from the abdomen; the
+testes are received into perineal pouches; the mammary glands are
+post-inguinal; the uterine cornua end in cæcal sacs.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure293" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure293.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 293.</span>—<i>Solenodon cubanus.</i> × ⅕ (From Peters, <i>Abh. Akad. Berlin</i>.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Solenodon.</i><a id="FNanchor_564" href="#Footnote_564" class="fnanchor">[564]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 40. This genus,
+with <i>S. paradoxus</i> and <i>S. cubanus</i> (<a href="#figure293">Fig. 293</a>), from Hayti and Cuba
+respectively, alone represents the family. These species, which
+differ chiefly in the colour and quality of the fur, have a remarkably
+long cylindrical snout, a long naked tail, feet formed for
+running, and the body clothed with long, coarse fur.</p>
+
+<p>The position of the mammæ quite behind on the buttocks is
+unique among Insectivora. The first upper incisor is much enlarged,
+and this and the other incisors, canines, and premolars, closely
+resemble those of <i>Myogale</i>; the second lower incisor is, as in
+<i>Potamogale</i>, much larger than the anterior one, and is deeply
+hollowed out internally. While thus<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_637"></a>[637]</span> apparently showing relationship
+with the <i>Talpidæ</i>, the form of the crowns of the molar teeth
+connects them with the next family.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Centetidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Skull (<a href="#figure294">Fig. 294</a>) with a small cylindrical brain-case not constricted
+between the orbits, no zygomatic arch or postorbital process,
+and the
+tympanic annulate
+and not
+forming a bulla.
+Upper molars
+tritubercular.
+Pubic symphysis
+short;
+and the tibia
+and fibula either
+united or free.
+No cæcum. The
+penis is pendent and retractile within the fold of the integument
+surrounding the anus; the testes are abdominal; the mammæ are
+thoracic and ventral; and the uterine cornua are terminated by
+the Fallopian tubes. All the species are limited to Madagascar.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure294" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure294.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 294.</span>—Left lateral view of the skull of the Tenrec (<i>Centetes
+ecaudatus</i>). Reduced.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Centetinæ</b>.—Tibia and fibula distinct; testes near
+kidneys; fur with spines.</p>
+
+<p><i>Centetes.</i><a id="FNanchor_565" href="#Footnote_565" class="fnanchor">[565]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 38. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 19, L 5, S 3, C 8. The single species is the well-known
+Tenrec (<i>C. ecaudatus</i>), characterised by the absence of a tail; it
+reaches a total length of from 12 to 16 inches, and is the largest
+known Insectivore. The adult males have long canines, the
+extremities of the lower pair being received into pits in front of
+the upper ones (<a href="#figure294">Fig. 294</a>). It is probably the most prolific of all
+mammals, since as many as twenty-one young are said to have been
+brought forth at a birth. The young have strong white spines
+arranged in longitudinal lines along the back, but these are lost in
+the adult animal, which is provided only with a nuchal crest of
+long rigid hairs. In rare instances a fourth upper molar may be
+developed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hemicentetes.</i><a id="FNanchor_566" href="#Footnote_566" class="fnanchor">[566]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 40. This
+genus is represented by the two species <i>H. semispinosus</i> (of which
+the skull is shown in <a href="#figure295">Fig. 295</a>) and <i>H. nigriceps</i>. It differs from
+<i>Centetes</i> by the presence of the third upper incisor, the much smaller
+canines, and by the form of the skull. Both species<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_638"></a>[638]</span> are very much
+smaller than <i>C. ecaudatus</i>, and the dorsal spines are retained in the
+adult state. Vertebræ: C 7, D 16, L 5, S 3, C 9.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ericulus.</i><a id="FNanchor_567" href="#Footnote_567" class="fnanchor">[567]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 36. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 17, L 6, S 4, C 9. The single species, <i>E. setosus</i>, is a
+Hedgehog-like animal, having the whole upper surface and the
+short tail densely covered with close-set spines. The facial bones
+are much shorter than in any of the preceding genera, and the
+first upper incisor is elongated, as in <i>Erinaceus</i>. Judging from
+the slight development of the cutaneous muscles compared with
+those of the true Hedgehogs, it is probable that complete involution
+of the body does not take place.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Oryzorictinæ</b>.—Tibia and fibula united; testes near
+urethra; fur without spines.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure295" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure295.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 295.</span>—Skull of <i>Hemicentetes semispinosus</i>. × 2. (From Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1871.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Microgale.</i><a id="FNanchor_568" href="#Footnote_568" class="fnanchor">[568]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 40. This genus
+includes <i>M. longicaudata</i> and <i>M. cowani</i>, both of which are small
+Mouse-like species, the former with a tail double the length of the
+head and body, and having 43 caudal vertebræ; teeth like those of
+<i>Centetes ecaudatus</i>, but, owing to the comparatively much shorter
+muzzle, not separated by wide spaces, and the last premolar and
+molar with internal basal processes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oryzorictes.</i><a id="FNanchor_569" href="#Footnote_569" class="fnanchor">[569]</a>—Represented by two species, <i>O. hova</i> and <i>O. tetradactylus</i>,
+the latter distinguished by the presence of only four digits
+in the manus, the three inner having long laterally compressed
+fossorial claws. The general form of the head and body of the
+two species known is like that of a Mole. These animals burrow
+in the rice-fields and do much damage to the crops.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_639"></a>[639]</span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Chrysochloridæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Skull conical, not constricted between the orbits, without postorbital
+process, but with well-developed zygomatic arch and tympanic
+bulla. Upper molars tritubercular, with the crowns very tall.
+No pubic symphysis; the tibia and fibula united. The eyes are
+covered by the hairy integument; the ears short and concealed by
+the fur; the internal generative organs are as in <i>Centetinæ</i>; the
+mammæ are thoracic and inguinal and placed in cup-shaped depressions.
+Habits fossorial. Confined to the southern part of the
+Ethiopian region, not extending to Madagascar.</p>
+
+<p>This family is closely allied to the <i>Centetidæ</i>, occupying the
+same relative position with respect to that family that the <i>Talpidæ</i>
+does to the <i>Soricidæ</i>. Compared with the <i>Talpidæ</i>, we find the
+following differences in the structural adaptation to a fossorial life;
+the manubrium sterni is not anteriorly elongated, neither are the
+clavicles shortened; but this is compensated for by a deep hollowing
+out of the antero-lateral walls of the thorax, the ribs in these parts
+and the sternum being convex inwards. The long clavicles have
+their distal extremities pushed forward, and the concavities on the
+sides and inferior surface of the thorax lodge the thick muscular
+arms.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp96" id="figure296" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure296.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 296.</span>—The Golden Mole (<i>Chrysochloris obtusirostris</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Chrysochloris.</i><a id="FNanchor_570" href="#Footnote_570" class="fnanchor">[570]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ³⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁻²⁄₃₋₂; total 40 or 36.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 19, L 3, S 5, C 8. This genus includes some
+seven or eight South African species, commonly known as Golden
+Moles (<a href="#figure296">Fig. 296</a>). Those species, in which the molars are reduced
+to ²⁄₂, with a basal talon to the lower ones, and without a prominence
+in the temporal fossa, have been placed in a separate genus,
+<i>Chalcochloris</i>, by Professor Mivart. Nearly all the species<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_640"></a>[640]</span> have the
+fur of the upper surface of a brilliant metallic lustre, varying from
+golden bronze to green and violet of different shades. The manus
+has four digits, of which the two outer are small, while the middle
+ones are large, with immensely powerful claws.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Types.</i>—The only fossil forms which can be referred to
+the section of the Insectivora with tritubercular molars are the
+<i>Leptictidæ</i>, of the Eocene and Miocene of North America. This
+family includes the genera <i>Leptictis</i>, <i>Mesodectes</i>, and <i>Ictops</i>, all of
+which are regarded by Dr. Schlosser as true Insectivora, although
+they were placed by Professor Cope with the Creodont Carnivora.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<p><i>Bibliography of Insectivora.</i>—Peters, <i>Reise nach Mossambique—Säugeth.</i> 1852;
+Id. “Ueber die Classification der Insectivora,” <i>Monatsb. Akad. Wissensch.
+Berlin</i>, 1865, and other papers; Mivart, “On the Osteology of Insectivora,”
+<i>Journ. Anat. and Phys.</i> 1867, 1868, and <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1871; Gill, “Synopsis of
+Insectivorous Mammals,” <i>Bull. Geol. and Geog. Survey, U.S.A.</i> Washington,
+1875 (includes a general bibliography of the order); Dobson, <i>Monograph of the
+Insectivora, Systematic and Anatomical</i>, London, 1882-90.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_641"></a>[641]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE ORDER CHIROPTERA.</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Mammals, having their fore limbs specially modified for flight.
+The forearm consists of a rudimentary ulna, and a long curved
+radius. The carpus has six bones supporting a small pollex and
+four greatly elongated fingers, between which and the sides of
+the body and the hinder extremities a thin expansion of the
+integument (the wing-membrane or patagium) is extended. The
+knee is directed backwards, owing to the rotation of the hind limb
+outwards by the wing membrane; a peculiar elongated cartilaginous
+process (the calcar), rarely rudimentary or absent, arising from the
+inner side of the ankle-joint, is directed inwards, and supports part
+of the posterior margin of an accessory membrane of flight, extending
+from the tail or posterior extremity of the body to the hinder limbs
+(the interfemoral membrane). The penis is pendent; the testes are
+abdominal or inguinal; the mammary glands thoracic and generally
+postaxillary; the uterus is simple or with more or less long cornua;
+the placenta discoidal and deciduate; and the smooth cerebral
+hemispheres do not extend backwards over the cerebellum. The
+dental series includes incisors, canines, premolars, and molars and
+never exceeds <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 38.</p>
+
+<p>The animals comprised in this order are at once distinguished
+by the presence of true wings, and this peculiarity is accompanied
+by other modifications of bodily structure having special relation to
+flight. Thus, in contrast to most other mammals, in which the hind
+limbs greatly preponderate in size over the fore, in the present
+order the fore limbs immensely exceed the short and weak hinder
+extremities. The thorax, as giving origin to the great muscles
+which sustain flight, and containing the proportionately large lungs
+and heart, is remarkably capacious, and the ribs are flattened and
+close together; the shoulder-girdle is also greatly developed in
+comparison with the weak pelvic bones.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_642"></a>[642]</span></p>
+
+<p>Linnæus included the Bats among the Primates, mainly on
+account of the number of their upper incisors, supposed to be
+always four, the thoracic position of the mammæ, and the pendent
+condition of the penis. Many other zoologists, taking into consideration
+the placental characters and the form of the uterus, have
+followed him; but it is evident that the situation of the mammæ
+is related to the necessarily central position of the young during
+flight, the shortness of the uterine cornua, observable in so many
+species, to the generally uniparous gestation requiring less room,
+while the discoidal deciduate placenta is equally present in and
+characteristic of the Insectivora, many species of which also have
+the penis pendent. Thus, the reasons for maintaining the Bats in
+this high position being disposed of, we find in the low organisation
+of their brain a proof of their inferior status; while furthermore,
+although they differ widely from all other mammals in external
+form, it is evident that this is only the result of special adaptation
+to aerial locomotion; and, taking into account their whole bodily
+structure, we may accept the view of Professor Huxley that they
+should merely be regarded as exceedingly modified Insectivora.</p>
+
+<p>So thoroughly, however, has this adaptation for flight been
+carried out that of all animals the Bats are the least terrestrial, not
+one of them being equally well fitted for progression on the earth.
+This is due to the hind as well as the fore limbs being pressed into
+the service of aerial locomotion. Thus the hind limb is so rotated
+outwards by the wing-membrane that, contrary to what obtains in all
+other vertebrates, the knee is directed backwards, and corresponds
+in position to its serial homologue the elbow. It necessarily follows
+from this arrangement that when a Bat is on the ground it rests on
+all fours, having the knees directed upwards; while, in order to
+bring it into a position for forward progression, the foot rotates
+forwards and inwards on the ankle. Walking under these circumstances
+is at best only a kind of shuffle, and that this is fully
+recognised by the animal is evidenced by its great anxiety to take
+wing, or, if this be impracticable, to ascend to some point where it
+can hitch itself up by the claws of the hind legs in its usual position
+when at rest.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure297" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure297.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 297.</span>—Skeleton and flying-membranes of
+the Noctule Bat (<i>Vesperugo noctula</i>). × ⅓. <i>c</i>, Clavicle;
+<i>h</i>, humerus; <i>r</i>, radius; <i>u</i>, ulna (rudimentary);
+<i>d¹</i>, pollex; <i>d²</i>, <i>d³</i>, <i>d⁴</i>, <i>d⁵</i>, other
+digits of the manus supporting <i>wm</i>, the wing-membrane; <i>m</i>,
+<i>m</i>, metacarpal bones; <i>ph¹</i>, first phalanx; <i>ph²</i>, second
+phalanx; <i>ph³</i>, third phalanx; <i>am</i>, antebrachial membrane;
+<i>f</i>, femur; <i>t</i>, tibia; <i>fb</i>, fibula (rudimentary);
+<i>c</i>, calcar supporting <i>im</i>, the interfemoral membrane;
+<i>pcl</i>, postcalcaneal lobe.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The bones of the skeleton are characterised by their slenderness
+and the great size of the medullary canals in those of the
+extremities. The vertebral column is short, and the vertebræ differ
+very slightly in number and form throughout the species. The
+general number of the dorso-lumbar vertebræ is 17, of which 12
+are dorsal; the cervicals are very broad, but short from before
+backwards, their breadth being due to the great transverse
+diameter of the spinal canal rendered necessary by the comparatively
+large size of the spinal cord, which, after giving off the nerves<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_643"></a>[643]</span>
+to the fore limbs and thorax, rapidly diminishes in size, and in the
+lumbo-sacral region is reduced to a fine thread. Except in the
+frugivorous <i>Pteropodidæ</i>, the vertebræ, from the third cervical backwards,
+are devoid of neural spines. From the first dorsal to the
+last lumbar vertebra the spinal column forms a single curve backwards,
+which is most pronounced in the lumbar region. The centra
+of the vertebræ are but slightly movable upon each other, and in
+old individuals appear to become partially ankylosed together.
+The caudal vertebræ are simple cylindrical bones without processes;
+their number and length being extremely variable even in closely
+allied species; and the anterior caudals are generally united to the
+ischial tuberosities. The relative development of the caudal
+vertebræ is, indeed, intimately correlated to the habits of the
+animals; the long tail in the insectivorous forms supporting and
+controlling the position of the large interfemoral membrane, which
+appears not only to aid their rapid motions when in pursuit of their
+prey by acting as a rudder, but also to assist in the capture and
+retention of the larger insects. In the frugivorous types, on the
+other hand, this is not required, and the tail is accordingly <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_644"></a>[644]</span>rudimentary
+or absent. In all Bats the presternum has a prominent
+keel for the attachment of the great pectoral muscles. In most
+species the ribs are much flattened, and in some they are partially
+ankylosed by their contiguous margins.</p>
+
+<p>The skull is subject to considerable structural variations,
+even within the limits of a single family. Postorbital processes
+to the frontals are found only in the <i>Pteropodidæ</i>, and some
+<i>Nycteridæ</i> and <i>Emballonuridæ</i>. <i>Pteropus leucopterus</i> and <i>Pteralopex</i>
+are peculiar in having the orbit completely surrounded by
+bone. A slender zygomatic arch is present, except in some of the
+<i>Phyllostomatidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The milk-teeth are peculiar in that they are utterly unlike those
+of the permanent series. They are slender, with sharp recurved
+cusps; and as a rule are shed at an early period (in the <i>Rhinolophidæ</i>
+before birth), but may coexist with some of the fully
+developed permanent teeth. The permanent teeth are subject to
+great variation of form, although they always have distinct roots.
+In the Insectivorous types they are acutely cusped, the cusps in
+those of the upper jaw being arranged in a more or less distinct W;
+but in the frugivorous forms, like the <i>Pteropodidæ</i> and some of the
+<i>Phyllostomatidæ</i>, the molars are longitudinally grooved or hollowed
+out.</p>
+
+<p>The pectoral girdle maintains a very constant type. Thus the
+clavicle is very long, strong, and curved; and the scapula large,
+oval, triangular, with a long curved coracoid process. The humerus,
+though long, is scarcely two-thirds the length of the radius. The
+ulna is rudimentary, its proximal extremity, which articulates with
+but a small part of the humerus, being ankylosed to the radius;
+and immediately beyond the joint it is reduced to a slender splint-like
+bone, extending about as far as the middle of the radius. In
+all species a detached sesamoid bone exists in the tendon of the
+triceps muscle. The radius is very long, in some species actually
+equal to the length of the head and body. The proximal row of
+the carpus consists of a single bone formed by the united scaphoid,
+lunar, and cuneiform; which, with the extremity of the radius,
+forms the radio-carpal joint. In the distal row the trapezium,
+trapezoid, and magnum vary in size in the different families, the
+unciform appearing to be the most constant, and the pisiform being
+generally very small.</p>
+
+<p>The manus is always furnished with five digits. The first,
+fourth, and fifth digits consist of a metacarpal and two phalanges;
+but in the second and third digits the number of phalanges is
+different in certain families. The pollex always terminates in a
+claw, which—like the proximal phalanx—is best developed in the
+frugivorous species. In most of the frugivorous <i>Pteropodidæ</i> the
+second digit is provided with a claw; but in all other Bats this<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_645"></a>[645]</span> and
+the remaining digits are unarmed. In the genus <i>Triænops</i> alone a
+very peculiar short bony process projects from the outer side of
+the proximal extremity of the terminal phalanx of the fourth digit.
+The relative development of the digits and their phalanges will be
+noticed under each family.</p>
+
+<p>As might be expected from the small size of the posterior
+limbs, the pelvic girdle is relatively weak. The ilia are long and
+narrow. In the males of most species the pubic bones of opposite
+sides are very loosely united in front, while in females they are
+widely separated; and in the family <i>Rhinolophidæ</i> alone do these
+bones form a symphysis. The ileo-pectineal eminence develops a
+long pectineal process, which in the subfamily <i>Hipposiderinæ</i> is continued
+forwards to the anterior extremity of the ilium enclosing a
+preacetabular foramen unique among mammals. The acetabulum
+is small and directed outwards and slightly upwards; and with
+this is related the peculiar position of the hind limb already noticed
+as one of the chief characteristics of the order. The femur is
+slender and cylindrical, with a small head and very short neck, and
+scarcely differs in form throughout the order. The bones of the
+leg and foot are variable; in the subfamily <i>Molossinæ</i> alone is there
+a well-developed fibula, while in all other species this bone is either
+very slender, or cartilaginous and ligamentous in its upper third, or
+reduced to a small bony process above the heel, as in <i>Megaderma</i>,
+or altogether absent, as in <i>Nycteris</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The foot consists of a very short tarsus, and of slender, laterally
+compressed toes, with much curved claws. The hallux is
+composed of a metacarpal, a proximal and an ungual phalanx, and
+is slightly shorter than the other four toes, each of which has an
+additional phalanx, except in the subfamily <i>Hipposiderinæ</i> and in
+the anomalous genera <i>Thyroptera</i> and <i>Myxopoda</i>, where all the toes
+have the same number of phalanges as the first digit, and are equal
+to it in length. In the genus <i>Chiromeles</i> the first digit is thumb-like
+and separated from the others, and in the typical <i>Molossinæ</i>
+the first and fifth digits are much thicker than the intermediate
+toes.</p>
+
+<p>The most noticeable peculiarities in the myology of the order
+consist in the separated bands or slips into which the platysma is
+divided, and in the presence of the remarkable muscle termed
+occipito-pollicalis, which extends from the occipital bone to the base
+of the terminal phalanx of the pollex.</p>
+
+<p>Although, as already mentioned, the brain presents a low type
+of organisation, yet probably no animals possess so delicate a sense of
+touch as the Chiroptera. It is undoubtedly this perceptive power
+which enabled the individuals deprived of sight, hearing, and smell,
+in Spallanzani’s well-known experiments, to avoid the numerous
+threads hung across the rooms in which they were permitted to fly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_646"></a>[646]</span>
+about. In the common Bats the tactile organs evidently exist, not
+only in the delicate vibrissæ which spring from the sides of the
+muzzle, but also in the highly sensitive and widely extended integumentary
+structures entering into the formation of the wing-membranes
+and ear-conchs; while in many other species, notably in the
+tropical Rhinolophine and Phyllostomatine Bats, peculiar foliaceous
+cutaneous expansions surrounding the nasal apertures or extending
+backwards behind them are added. These structures, collectively
+known as the “nose-leaf” (whence the term “leaf-nosed Bats”),
+have been shown by Dr. Dobson to be made up partly of the
+extended and thickened marginal integument of the nostrils, and
+partly of the highly differentiated glandular eminences occupying
+the sides of the muzzle, in which, in all the common Bats, the
+vibrissæ are implanted.</p>
+
+<p>In all species of leaf-nosed Bats, and especially in the <i>Rhinolophidæ</i>,
+where the nasal appendages reach their highest development,
+the superior maxillary division of the fifth nerve is of remarkably
+large calibre. The nasal branch of this nerve, which is given off
+immediately beyond the infraorbital foramen, is by far the largest
+portion; the palpebral and labial branches consisting of a few
+slender nerve-fibres only. This branch passes forwards and upwards
+on the side of the maxilla, but soon spreads out into numerous
+filaments extending into the muscles and integument above, and
+into the base of the nose-leaf. The nerve supply of the nose-leaf is
+further augmented by the large nasal branch of the ophthalmic
+division of the fifth nerve. While the many foliations, elevations,
+and depressions which vary the form of the nose-leaf greatly increase
+the sensory surface supplied by the fifth nerve, and during rapid
+flight intensify the vibrations conveyed to it, the great number of
+sweat and oil glands which enter into its structure perform a function
+analogous to that of the glands of the auditory canal in relation
+to the membrana tympani in maintaining its surface in a highly
+sensitive condition. The nasal appendages of the Chiroptera may
+thus be regarded as performing the office of an organ of a very
+exalted sense of touch standing in the same relation to the nasal
+branches of the fifth nerve as the aural apparatus to the auditory
+nerve; for, as the latter organ collects and transmits the waves of
+sound, so the former receives impressions arising from vibrations
+communicated to the air by approaching objects.</p>
+
+<p>In no order of mammals is the ear-conch so greatly developed or
+so variable in form. Thus in most of the insectivorous species the
+ears are longer than the head, while in some, as in the common
+Long-eared Bat (<i>Plecotus auritus</i>), their length nearly equals that of
+the head and body. The form of the conch is very characteristic of
+the various families; in most the tragus is remarkably large, in
+some extending nearly to the outer margin of the conch; and its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_647"></a>[647]</span>
+function appears to be to cause undulations in the waves of sound,
+and so intensify and prolong them. It is worthy of notice that in
+the <i>Rhinolophidæ</i>, the only family of insectivorous Bats wanting the
+tragus, the auditory bullæ reach their greatest size, and the highly
+sensitive nasal appendages their highest development; and that in the
+typical group of the <i>Molossinæ</i> the ear-conch
+is divided by a prominent keel;
+and the antitragus is unusually large
+in those species in which the tragus is
+minute (see <a href="#figure298">Fig. 298</a>, <i>a</i>). In the frugivorous
+Bats the form of the ear-conch
+is very simple, and but slightly variable,
+throughout the various types.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp68" id="figure298" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure298.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 298.</span>—Head of <i>Molossus glaucinus</i>.
+(From Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1876.) <i>a</i>,
+Antitragus; <i>b</i>, keel of the ear-conch; <i>c</i>,
+notch behind antitragus.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In all Bats the ears are extremely
+mobile, each moving independently at
+the will of the animal. This has been
+observed even in the frugivorous <i>Pteropodidæ</i>,
+in which the peculiar vibratory
+movements first noticed in <i>Artibeus
+perspicillatus</i> may also be seen when
+the animals are alarmed.</p>
+
+<p>The opening of the mouth is anterior in most species, but in
+many it is inferior, the extremity of the nose being more or less
+produced beyond the lower lip,—so much so indeed in the small
+South-American species <i>Rhynchonycteris naso</i> as to resemble that of
+the Shrews. The lips exhibit the greatest variety in form, which
+will be referred to under each family. The absence of a fringe
+of hairs is characteristic of all fruit-eating Bats, and probably
+always distinguishes them from the insectivorous species, which they
+may resemble in the form of their teeth and other respects.</p>
+
+<p>The œsophagus is narrow in all species, and especially so in the
+sanguivorous Desmodont <i>Phyllostomatidæ</i>. The stomach presents two
+principal types of structure, which correspond respectively to the
+two great divisions of the order, the Megachiroptera and the Microchiroptera;
+in the former (with the exception of <i>Harpyia</i>) the
+pyloric extremity is more or less elongated and folded upon itself,
+in the latter it is simple, as in the Insectivora Vera; a third
+exceptional type is met with in the Desmodont <i>Phyllostomatidæ</i>,
+where the left or cardiac extremity is greatly elongated, forming a
+long narrow cæcum-like appendage. The intestine is comparatively
+short, varying from one and a half to four times the length of the
+head and body, being longest in the frugivorous and shortest in the
+insectivorous species. Only in <i>Rhinopoma microphyllum</i> and <i>Megaderma
+spasma</i> has a very small cæcum been found.</p>
+
+<p>The liver is characterised by the great size of the left lateral
+lobe, which occasionally equals half the size of the whole organ;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_648"></a>[648]</span> the
+right and left lateral fissures are usually very deep; in the Megachiroptera
+(<i>Harpyia</i> excepted) the Spigelian lobe is ill-defined or
+absent, and the caudate is generally very large; but in the Microchiroptera,
+on the other hand, the Spigelian lobe is very large, while
+the caudate is small, in most species forming a ridge only. The
+gall-bladder is generally well developed and attached to the right
+central lobe, except in the <i>Rhinolophidæ</i>, where it is connected with
+the left central.</p>
+
+<p>In most species the hyoids are simple, consisting of a chain of
+slender, elongated, cylindrical bones connecting the small basi-hyoid
+with the cranium, while the pharynx is short, the larynx shallow
+with feebly developed
+vocal
+cords, and
+guarded by a
+short, acutely-pointed
+epiglottis,
+which in
+some genera
+(<i>Harpyia</i>, <i>Vampyrus</i>)
+is almost
+obsolete. In
+<i>Epomophorus</i>,
+however, we
+find a remarkable
+departure
+from the general
+type. Thus
+the pharynx is
+long and very
+capacious; the
+aperture of the
+larynx is far removed
+from
+the fauces, and,
+opposite to it,
+opens a canal,
+leading from the narial chambers, and extending along the back
+of the pharynx; the laryngeal cavity is spacious and its walls are
+ossified; the hyoid bone is quite unconnected, except by muscle,
+with the cranium; the ceratohyals and epihyals are cartilaginous
+and greatly expanded, entering into the formation of the walls of
+the pharynx, and in the males of three species at least, supporting
+the orifices of a large pair of air-sacs communicating with the
+pharynx (<a href="#figure299">Fig. 299</a>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp80" id="figure299" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure299.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 299.</span>—Head and neck of <i>Epomophorus franqueti</i> (adult male,
+natural size). The anterior (<i>a.ph.s</i>) and posterior (<i>p.ph.s</i>) pharyngeal
+sacs are opened from without, the dotted lines indicating the points
+where they communicate with the pharynx; <i>s</i>, thin membranous septum
+in middle line between the anterior pharyngeal sacs of opposite sides;
+<i>s.m.</i>, sterno-mastoid muscle separating the anterior from the posterior
+sac. (Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1881.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In extent, peculiar modifications, and sensitiveness the cutaneous<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_649"></a>[649]</span>
+system reaches its highest development in this order. As a sensory
+organ its chief modifications in connection with the external ear
+and with the nasal and labial appendages have been described when
+referring to the nervous system. It remains therefore to consider
+its relative development as part of the organs of flight.</p>
+
+<p>The extent and shape of the flying-membranes depend mainly
+on the form of the bones of the anterior extremities, and on the
+presence or absence of the tail. Certain modifications of these
+membranes, however, are met with which do not depend on the
+skeleton, but are related to the habits of the animals, and to the
+manner in which the wing is folded in repose.</p>
+
+<p>These membranes consist of the “antebrachial membrane,”
+extending from the point of the shoulder along the humerus and more
+or less of the forearm to the base of the pollex, the metacarpal bone
+of which is partially or wholly included in it; the “wing-membrane,”
+which is spread out between the greatly elongated fingers, and
+extends along the sides of the body to the posterior extremities,
+generally reaching to the feet; and the “interfemoral membrane,”
+the most variable of all, which is supported between the extremity
+of the body, the legs, and the calcar (<a href="#figure297">Fig. 297</a>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure300" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure300.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 300.</span>—Frontal sac and nose-leaf in male
+and female of <i>Hipposiderus larvatus</i>. (Dobson,
+<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1873.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The antebrachial and wing-membranes are most developed in
+those species fitted only for aerial locomotion, which when at
+rest hang with the body enveloped in the wings; but in the family
+<i>Emballonuridæ</i>, and especially in the subfamily <i>Molossinæ</i> (the species
+of which are the best fitted of all Bats for terrestrial progression),
+the antebrachial membrane is reduced to the smallest size, and
+is not developed along the forearm, leaving also the pollex quite
+free, and the wing-membrane is very narrow and folded in repose
+completely under the forearm.
+The relative development of the
+interfemoral membrane has been
+referred to above in describing
+the caudal vertebræ. Its small
+size in the frugivorous and sanguivorous
+species, in which its presence
+would be injurious as impeding
+their motions when searching for
+food as they hang suspended by
+their feet, is easily understood.
+Odoriferous glands and pouches opening on the surface of the outer
+skin are developed in many species, but in most cases more so in
+males than in females, and thus constitute secondary sexual characters,
+which will be referred to when treating of the peculiarities
+of certain species.</p>
+
+<p>All the fossil Chiroptera at present known are true Bats in every
+sense of the word, and therefore throw<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_650"></a>[650]</span> no light on the origin of the
+order. The earliest representatives of the order occur in beds
+of Upper Eocene (Lower Oligocene) age.</p>
+
+<p>The order is divided by Dobson into the suborders Megachiroptera
+and Microchiroptera.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Megachiroptera</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>Frugivorous Bats, generally of large size. Crowns of molars
+smooth, marked with a longitudinal groove (cuspidate in <i>Pteralopex</i>);
+bony palate continued behind the last molar, narrowing
+slowly backwards; three phalanges in the index finger, the third
+phalanx generally terminated by a claw; sides of the ear-conch
+forming a complete ring at the base; tail, when present, inferior
+to (not contained in) the interfemoral membrane; pyloric extremity
+of the stomach generally much elongated; the Spigelian lobe of
+the liver ill-defined or absent, and the caudate well developed.</p>
+
+<p>Limited to the tropical and subtropical parts of the eastern
+hemisphere.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. O. Thomas<a id="FNanchor_571" href="#Footnote_571" class="fnanchor">[571]</a> considers that the ordinary type of molar
+dentition found in this suborder is a specialised adaptation from
+the cuspidate type of the Microchiroptera; the genus <i>Pteralopex</i>
+retaining the ancestral form of teeth.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Pteropodidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Since all the forms are included in this family its characters
+may be taken to be the same as those of the suborder.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Pteropodinæ</b>.—Tongue moderate; molars well developed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Epomophorus.</i><a id="FNanchor_572" href="#Footnote_572" class="fnanchor">[572]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁻¹⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, <i>m</i> ¹⁄₂; total 28 or
+26. Tail absent or very short, when present free from interfemoral
+membrane; second digit of manus clawed; premaxillæ
+united. This genus includes some seven species inhabiting Africa
+south of the Sahara. The head is large and long, and the lips are
+expansible, and frequently with peculiar folds. The ears have a
+white tuft of hair on the margin; and in the males of most species
+there are large glandular pouches in the skin of the side of the
+neck near the shoulder, from the mouth of which project long and
+coarse yellowish hairs, forming tufts on the shoulders, from which
+the genus takes its name. Another male secondary sexual
+character consists in the presence of a pair of large air-sacs
+extending outwards on each side from the pharynx beneath the
+integument of the neck, in the position shown in <a href="#figure299">Fig. 299</a>. These<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_651"></a>[651]</span>
+sacs are evidently capable of being greatly distended at the will of
+the animal, and their inflation probably occurs under the same
+circumstances that the wattles of male gallinaceous birds swell up,
+namely, when engaged in courting the females. Other remarkable
+conditions in which these Bats appear to differ from all other species
+occur in the form of the hyoid bones and larynx. These Bats
+appear to live principally on figs, the juicy contents of which
+their large lips and capacious mouths enable them to swallow
+without loss.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp90" id="figure301" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure301.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 301.</span>—Head of Fox-Bat (<i>Pteropus personatus</i>).
+From Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1866.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Pteropus.</i><a id="FNanchor_573" href="#Footnote_573" class="fnanchor">[573]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃; total 34. This
+genus has more than forty species, and thus includes more than
+half the members of the family. All are of large size, and the
+absence of a tail, the long pointed
+muzzle (<a href="#figure301">Fig. 301</a>), and the woolly
+fur covering the neck render
+their recognition easy. They
+are commonly known as “Flying
+Foxes,” or Fox-Bats; and one
+of the species (<i>P. edulis</i>) inhabiting
+Java measures 5 feet
+across the fully extended wings,
+and is thus the largest known
+species of the order. All the
+species closely resemble one
+another in dentition, and are
+mainly distinguished by the
+form of the ears and the quality of the fur. <i>P. scapulatus</i>, from
+North-East Australia, approaches the species of the second subfamily
+in the remarkable narrowness of its molars and premolars.</p>
+
+<p>The range of this genus extends from Madagascar and the
+neighbouring islands through the Seychelles to India, Ceylon,
+Burma, the Malay Archipelago, Southern Japan, New Guinea,
+Australia, and Polynesia (except the Sandwich Islands, Ellice’s
+Group, Gilbert’s Group, Tokelau, and the Low Archipelago). Of
+the islands inhabited by it some are very small and remote from
+any continent, such as Savage Island in the South Pacific and
+Rodriguez in the Indian Ocean. Although two species inhabit the
+Comoro Islands, which are scarcely 200 miles from the African
+coast, not a single species is found in Africa; but in India,
+separated by thousands of miles of almost unbroken ocean, a
+species exceedingly closely allied to the common Madagascar
+Fox-Bat is abundant. The Malay Archipelago and Australia are
+their headquarters; and in some places they occur in countless
+multitudes. Mr. Macgillivray remarks of <i>P. conspicillatus</i>: “On
+the wooded slope of a hill on Fitzroy Island I one day fell in with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_652"></a>[652]</span>
+this Bat in prodigious numbers, looking while flying in the bright
+sunshine (so unusual for a nocturnal animal) like a large flock of
+rooks. On close approach a strong musky odour became apparent,
+and a loud incessant chattering was heard. Many of the branches
+were bending under their load of Bats, some in a state of inactivity,
+suspended by their hind claws, others scrambling along among the
+boughs, and taking to wing when disturbed.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp62" id="figure302" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure302.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 302.</span>—Female and young of <i>Xantharpyia collaris</i>. (From Sclater,
+<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1870, p. 127.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_653"></a>[653]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Xantharpyia.</i><a id="FNanchor_574" href="#Footnote_574" class="fnanchor">[574]</a>—Dentition as in <i>Pteropus</i>, but a short tail present,
+and the fur on the back of the neck similar to that of the body.
+This genus is represented by some nine species, which have a
+distribution very similar to that of <i>Pteropus</i>, except that they
+extend into Africa, and are not found in Australia and Polynesia.
+<i>X. ægyptiaca</i> inhabits the chambers of the Great Pyramid
+and other deserted buildings in Egypt, and is probably the species
+so generally figured in Egyptian frescoes. <a href="#figure302">Fig. 302</a> exhibits an
+African species of this genus in the attitude assumed by the Fox-Bats
+when at rest.</p>
+
+<p><i>Boneia.</i><a id="FNanchor_575" href="#Footnote_575" class="fnanchor">[575]</a>—This genus, as represented by <i>B. bidens</i> of Borneo,
+differs from <i>Xantharpyia</i> in having only a single pair of upper
+incisors.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cynopterus.</i><a id="FNanchor_576" href="#Footnote_576" class="fnanchor">[576]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂₋₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 32 or 30.
+Muzzle short, grooved like <i>Pteropus</i> in front; tail and fur generally
+as in <i>Xantharpyia</i>, but the former sometimes wholly absent. This
+genus, with seven species, is almost limited to the Oriental region.
+<i>C. marginatus</i> is very common in India, and extremely destructive
+to ripe fruit of every description. Dr. Dobson states that “he
+gave to a specimen of this Bat obtained at Calcutta a ripe banana,
+which, with the skin removed, weighed exactly 2 ounces; the
+animal immediately, as if famished with hunger, fell upon the
+fruit, seizing it between the thumbs and the index fingers, and took
+large mouthfuls out of it, opening the mouth to the fullest extent
+with extreme voracity. In the space of three hours the whole
+fruit was consumed. Next morning the Bat was killed, and found
+to weigh one ounce, or half the weight of the food eaten in three
+hours. Indeed the animal when eating seemed to be a kind of
+living mill, the food passing from it almost as fast as devoured,
+and apparently unaltered, eating being, as it were, performed only
+for the pleasure of eating.”</p>
+
+<p><i>Harpyia.</i><a id="FNanchor_577" href="#Footnote_577" class="fnanchor">[577]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 24. Premaxillæ
+well developed and united in
+front; facial bones much elevated
+above the margin of
+the jaw, nostrils tubular (<a href="#figure303">Fig.
+303</a>); body and limbs as in
+<i>Cynopterus</i>. Includes two
+species from the Austro-Malayan
+sub-region, readily
+recognised by the peculiar
+tubular and projecting
+nostrils, as shown in the
+accompanying woodcut.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure303" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure303.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 303.</span>—Head of <i>Harpyia major</i>. (From Dobson,
+<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1877.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_654"></a>[654]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Cephalotes.</i><a id="FNanchor_578" href="#Footnote_578" class="fnanchor">[578]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃; total 28. Premaxillæ
+separate in front; nostrils simple; muzzle short; index
+finger without a claw; tail short. Includes one species, having
+the same distribution as <i>Harpyia</i>. The wing-membrane arises from
+the middle line of the back, to which it is attached by a longitudinal
+very thin process of the integument; the wings are quite naked,
+but the back covered by them is clothed with hair.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pteralopex.</i><a id="FNanchor_579" href="#Footnote_579" class="fnanchor">[579]</a>—External characters as in <i>Pteropus</i>; ears short and
+hairy; wings arising from the middle line of the back. Muzzle
+very short; plane of orbit directed more upwards than in <i>Pteropus</i>;
+orbit surrounded by bone; sagittal crest strongly developed. Teeth
+cuspidate; upper incisors with broad posterior ledges; upper
+canine short and thick, with a stout secondary cusp in the middle
+of the posterior border, and two smaller postero-internal basal
+cusps; cheek-teeth short and broad, with their anterior and
+posterior basal ledges so developed and the main cusps so nearly
+conical as to obliterate the longitudinal grooving of <i>Pteropus</i>.
+Lower incisors very disproportionate, the outer pair being nearly
+twenty times the bulk of the inner; lower canine stout, with a simple
+posterior basal ledge. Represented by <i>P. atrata</i> of the Solomon
+Islands. As already mentioned, Mr. Thomas regards the dentition
+of this genus as the most generalised type found in the suborder.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Carponycterinæ</b>.—Facial part of skull much produced;
+molars narrow, and scarcely raised above the gum; and
+the tongue exceedingly long, attenuated in the anterior third, and
+armed with long recurved papillæ near the tip.</p>
+
+<p><i>Notopteris.</i><a id="FNanchor_580" href="#Footnote_580" class="fnanchor">[580]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 28. Index
+finger without a claw; wings arising from the middle line of the
+back; tail long; first upper premolar long, with two roots. The
+single representative of the genus, <i>N. macdonaldi</i>, inhabits the Fiji
+Islands, Aneiteum Island, and New Guinea. It is at once distinguished
+from all other Bats of this family by the length of its tail,
+which is nearly as long as the forearm.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eonycteris.</i><a id="FNanchor_581" href="#Footnote_581" class="fnanchor">[581]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃; total 34. First upper
+premolar small, with a single root. This genus is likewise represented
+by a single species (<i>E. spelæa</i>), from the Farm Caves, Moulmein,
+Burma, which has somewhat the appearance of <i>Xantharpyia</i>;
+but the absence of a claw to the index finger and the characteristic
+tongue and teeth at once distinguish it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carponycteris</i><a id="FNanchor_582" href="#Footnote_582" class="fnanchor">[582]</a> and <i>Melonycteris</i>,<a id="FNanchor_583" href="#Footnote_583" class="fnanchor">[583]</a>
+    each with a single species,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_655"></a>[655]</span> are
+closely allied; the index finger in both has a claw, and the number
+of the teeth is the same as in <i>Eonycteris</i>. <i>Carponycteris minima</i> is
+the smallest known species of the suborder, being much smaller than
+the common Noctule Bat of Europe, and its forearm scarcely longer
+than that of the Long-eared Bat. It is nearly as common in certain
+parts of India as <i>Cynopterus marginatus</i> (compared with which it is
+proportionally equally destructive to fruit), and extends eastward
+through the Malay Archipelago as far as New Ireland, where it is
+associated with <i>Melonycteris melanops</i>, distinguished from it by its
+larger size and the total absence of the tail.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nesonycteris.</i><a id="FNanchor_584" href="#Footnote_584" class="fnanchor">[584]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃; total 32. Allied to
+<i>Melonycteris</i>, but distinguished by the absence of the inner pair of
+lower incisors, and of a claw to the index finger. Tail wanting.
+Represented by <i>N. woodfordi</i>, of the Solomon Islands.</p>
+
+<p><i>Callinycteris.</i><a id="FNanchor_585" href="#Footnote_585" class="fnanchor">[585]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32. Allied
+to the preceding, but with a short tail; no claw to index. One
+species from Celebes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trygenycteris.</i><a id="FNanchor_586" href="#Footnote_586" class="fnanchor">[586]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃; total 34. No
+external tail; a claw on index. One species from West Africa.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Microchiroptera</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>Insectivorous (rarely frugivorous or sanguivorous) Bats, of comparatively
+small size. Crowns of molars acutely cusped, marked
+by transverse grooves; bony palate narrowing abruptly, not continued
+backwards laterally behind the last molar; one rudimentary
+phalanx (rarely two phalanges or none) in the index finger, which
+is never terminated by a claw; outer and inner sides of ear-conch
+commencing inferiorly from separate points of origin; tail, when
+present, contained in the interfemoral membrane, or appearing upon
+its upper surface; stomach simple (except in the Desmodont <i>Phyllostomatidæ</i>);
+Spigelian lobe of the liver very large, and the caudate
+generally small. Inhabit the tropical and temperate regions of
+both hemispheres. The members of this suborder may be divided
+into two sections.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Vespertilionina</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Tail contained within the interfemoral membrane; the middle
+pair of upper incisors never large, and separated from each other
+by a more or less wide space. Middle finger with two osseous
+phalanges only (except in <i>Myxopoda aurita</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_656"></a>[656]</span> <i>Thyroptera tricolor</i>, and
+<i>Mystacops tuberculatus</i>). First phalanx of the middle finger extended
+(in repose) in a line with the metacarpal bone.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Rhinolophidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>In all the species of this family the nasal appendages are highly
+developed, and surround the sides of the nasal apertures, which are
+situated in a depression on the upper surface of the muzzle; the
+ears are large and generally separate, without trace of a tragus; the
+premaxillæ are rudimentary, suspended from the nasal cartilages,
+and supporting a pair of very small incisors; the molars have acute
+W-shaped cusps; the skull is large, and the nasal bones which support
+the large nasal cutaneous appendages are much expanded vertically
+and laterally; in the females a pair of teat-like appendages are
+found in front of the pubis; and the tail is long and produced to
+the posterior margin of the interfemoral membrane. This family is
+found in the temperate and tropical parts of the eastern hemisphere.</p>
+
+<p>From whatever point of view the <i>Rhinolophidæ</i> may be considered,
+they are evidently the most highly organised of insectivorous
+Bats. In them the osseous and cutaneous systems reach the
+most elaborate development. Compared with those of the present
+family the bones of the extremities and the flying-membranes of
+other Bats appear coarsely formed, and even their teeth seem less
+perfectly fitted to crush the hard bodies of insects. The very complicated
+nasal appendages, which evidently act as delicate organs of
+special perception, here reach their highest development, and the
+differences in their form afford valuable characters in the discrimination
+of the species, which resemble one another very closely in
+dentition and in the colour of the fur.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Rhinolophinæ</b>.—First toe with two, other toes with
+three, phalanges each; ilio-pectineal spine
+not connected by bone with the antero-inferior
+surface of the ilium.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp62" id="figure304" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure304.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 304.</span>—Head of Indian
+Horse-shoe Bat (<i>Rhinolophus
+mitratus</i>). (From Dobson,
+<i>Monogr. Asiat. Chiropt.</i>)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Rhinolophus.</i><a id="FNanchor_587" href="#Footnote_587" class="fnanchor">[587]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃,
+<i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32. Nose-leaf (<a href="#figure304">Fig. 304</a>) with a
+central process behind and between the nasal
+orifices, posterior extremity lanceolate, antitragus
+large. Includes more than twenty
+species. <i>R. luctus</i>, in which the forearm has a
+length of 3 inches, is the largest species, inhabiting
+elevated hill tracts in India and Malayana;
+<i>R. hipposiderus</i> of Europe, extending into
+South England and Ireland, forearm 1·5
+inches, is one of the smallest; and <i>R. ferrum-equinum</i>,
+with the forearm 2·3 inches in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_657"></a>[657]</span>
+length, represents the average size of the species, which are mainly
+distinguished from one another by the form of the nose-leaf. The
+last-named species extends from England to Japan, and southward to
+the Cape of Good Hope. The genus is represented in the Himalaya
+by the closely allied <i>R. tragatus</i>, distinguished by having three
+vertical grooves on the lower lip, in place of the single groove found
+in <i>R. ferrum-equinum</i>. <i>Rhinolophus</i> is represented in the Upper
+Eocene Phosphorites of Central France by <i>R. antiquus</i> and <i>R.
+dubius</i>; the former appears to have the same dental formula as in
+the existing species, but differs slightly in the structure of some of
+the lower molars, so that it is separated generically by some writers
+under the name of <i>Pseudorhinolophus</i>. The face is also longer than
+in existing forms, and there are certain differences in the structure
+of the skull. <i>Alastor</i>, from the same deposits, differs from <i>Rhinolophus</i>
+by the extreme shortness of the nasal region. <i>Palæonycteris</i>,
+from the Lower Miocene of France, is said to be allied to <i>Rhinolophus</i>,
+but the premolars are ³⁄₃, and the limb bones are stated to
+resemble those of <i>Molossus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Hipposiderinæ</b>.—Toes equal, of two phalanges each;
+ilio-pectineal spine united by a bony isthmus with a process derived
+from the antero-inferior surface of the ilium.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp90" id="figure305" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure305.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 305.</span> Head of <i>Hipposiderus calcaratus</i>.
+(From Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>
+1877.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Hipposiderus.</i><a id="FNanchor_588" href="#Footnote_588" class="fnanchor">[588]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁻¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 30 or 28.
+Tail well developed. This genus, of which more than twenty
+species have been described, differs
+from <i>Rhinolophus</i> in the form of the
+nose-leaf, which is not lanceolate
+behind and is unprovided with a central
+process covering the nostrils. The
+largest species, <i>H. armiger</i>, appears
+to be the most northerly, having
+been taken at Amoy in China, and
+in the Himalaya at an elevation of
+5,500 feet. Many of the species are
+provided with a peculiar frontal sac
+behind the nose-leaf, rudimentary
+in females (<a href="#figure305">Fig. 305</a>), which the
+animal can evert at pleasure; the sides of this sac secrete a
+waxy substance, and its extremity supports a pencil of straight
+hairs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anthops.</i><a id="FNanchor_589" href="#Footnote_589" class="fnanchor">[589]</a>—Like <i>Hipposiderus</i>, but with the tail rudimentary,
+consisting merely of three or four vertebræ hidden in the base of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_658"></a>[658]</span>
+the interfemoral membrane. Nose-leaf very complicated, its upright
+transverse portion emarginate above, and the projections rounded
+and hollowed behind, and their substance quite thin. Premolars ²⁄₂.
+Represented by <i>A. ornatus</i> of the Solomon Islands.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. O. Thomas, the describer of this Bat, remarks that it is
+evidently more nearly allied to the preceding than to the succeeding
+genera, although it agrees with <i>Cœlops</i> in the rudimentary tail.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rhinonycteris</i><a id="FNanchor_590" href="#Footnote_590" class="fnanchor">[590]</a> and <i>Triænops</i>.<a id="FNanchor_591" href="#Footnote_591" class="fnanchor">[591]</a>—These
+    are two allied genera with
+well-developed tails; the former
+being represented by <i>R. aurantia</i>
+from Australia, and the latter by
+<i>T. persicus</i> from Persia and Eastern
+Africa. <i>Triænops</i> (<a href="#figure306">Fig. 306</a>) is
+characterised by the remarkable
+form of its nasal appendages and
+ears, and the presence of a peculiar
+osseous projection from the
+proximal extremity of the second
+phalanx of the fourth finger.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp75" id="figure306" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure306.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 306.</span>—Head of <i>Triænops persicus</i>. × 2.
+(From Dobson, <i>Monogr. Asiat. Chiropt.</i>)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Cœlops.</i><a id="FNanchor_592" href="#Footnote_592" class="fnanchor">[592]</a>—This genus is known
+only by a single species, <i>C. frithi</i>,
+from the Bengal Sunderbans,
+Java, and Siam (in the roof of
+the great pagoda at Laos); and
+is distinguished, not only by the form of its nose-leaf, but also by
+the great length of the metacarpal of the index finger, as well as
+by the shortness of the calcar and interfemoral membrane and the
+rudimental tail.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Nycteridæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>This small family, including only two genera of Bats of peculiar
+aspect, limited to the tropical and subtropical parts of the eastern
+hemisphere, is distinguished from the <i>Rhinolophidæ</i> by the presence
+of a distinct tragus to the ear, and by the premaxillæ being cartilaginous
+or small and separated from one another in front by a distinct
+space.</p>
+
+<p><i>Megaderma.</i><a id="FNanchor_593" href="#Footnote_593" class="fnanchor">[593]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ⁰⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁻¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 28 or 26.
+This genus, which is represented by five species, is readily recognised
+by the absence of upper incisors, the cylindrical narrow muzzle
+surmounted by an erect naked cutaneous nose-leaf, the base of
+which conceals the nasal orifices, by the immense connate ears with
+large bifid tragi, and by the great extent of the interfemoral<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_659"></a>[659]</span>
+membrane, in the base of which the very short tail is concealed.
+<i>M. gigas</i> (<a href="#figure307">Fig. 307</a>), from Central Queensland (length of forearm 4·2
+inches), is not only the largest species of the genus but also of the
+suborder. <i>M. lyra</i>, common in India (forearm 2·7 inches), has been
+caught in the act of sucking the blood, while flying, from a small
+species of <i>Vesperugo</i>, which it afterwards devoured, so that it is
+probable that the Bats of this genus do not confine themselves to
+insect prey alone, but also feed, when they can, upon the smaller
+species of Bats and other small mammals.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp63" id="figure307" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure307.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 307.</span>—<i>Megaderma gigas.</i> × ½. (From Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1880.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Oriental <i>M. spasma</i> and <i>M. lyra</i> differ from the Ethiopian
+<i>M. cor</i> and <i>M. frons</i> in having two upper premolars instead of one,
+and also in the shape of the frontals and nasals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nycteris.</i><a id="FNanchor_594" href="#Footnote_594" class="fnanchor">[594]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32. This genus,
+of which there are seven species, differs so much from <i>Megaderma</i>
+that it may be considered the type of a separate subfamily. As in
+that genus, the frontal bones are deeply hollowed out and expanded
+laterally, the muzzle presents a similar cylindrical form, and the
+lower jaw also projects, but the single elevated nose-leaf<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_660"></a>[660]</span> is absent,
+and instead of it the face is marked by a deep, longitudinal, sharp-edged
+groove extending from the nostrils (which are on the upper
+surface of the muzzle, near its extremity) to the low band connecting
+the bases of the large ears, the sides of this depression being
+margined as far back as the eyes by small horizontal cutaneous
+appendages. All the species resemble one another closely, and are
+mainly distinguished by the form of the tragus and the size and
+relative position of the second lower premolar. With the exception
+of <i>N. javanica</i>, they are all limited to the Ethiopian region.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Vespertilionidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Nostrils opening by simple crescentic or circular apertures at
+the extremity of the muzzle, not surrounded by distinct foliaceous
+cutaneous appendages; premaxillæ small, lateral, and separated by
+a wide space in front; tragus distinct. In addition to these characters,
+it may be observed that the skull is of moderate size, the
+nasal and frontal bones not being much extended laterally or vertically,
+nor furrowed by deep depressions. The number of incisors
+varies from ²⁄₃ to ¹⁄₃, rarely (in <i>Antrozous</i> only) ¹⁄₂, premolars ³⁄₃, or ²⁄₂,
+or ¹⁄₂, rarely (in <i>Vesperugo noctivagans</i> of North America) ²⁄₃; the
+upper incisors are small, separated by a wide space in the middle
+line, and placed in pairs or singly near the canine; the molars are
+well-developed, with acute W-shaped cusps.</p>
+
+<p>This family, which may be regarded as occupying a central
+position in the suborder, includes the common simple-faced Bats of
+all countries, of which the well-known Pipistrelle and the Whiskered
+Bat (<i>Vespertilio mystacinus</i>) may be taken as familiar types, and its
+species number more than 150, or considerably more than one-third
+the total number of the known species of the entire order. The
+various genera may be conveniently grouped into the <i>Plecotine</i>,
+<i>Vespertilionine</i>, <i>Miniopterine</i>, and <i>Thyropterine</i> divisions.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Plecotine</i> division, of which the common Long-eared Bat
+(<i>Plecotus auritus</i>) is the type, the crown of the head is but slightly
+raised above the face-line, the outermost upper incisor is close to
+the canine, and the nostrils are margined behind by grooves on the
+upper surface of the muzzle, or by rudimentary nose-leaves; the
+ears also are generally very large and united.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plecotus.</i><a id="FNanchor_595" href="#Footnote_595" class="fnanchor">[595]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 36. Outer
+margin of ear-conch ending abruptly near the angle of the mouth,
+the inner margin with a more or less prominent rounded projection
+directed inwardly above the base; tragus very large, tapering upwards,
+with a lobe at the base of its outer margin, rounded, and
+placed half horizontally. This genus is represented by the European<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_661"></a>[661]</span>
+Long-eared Bat (<i>P. auritus</i>), and <i>P. macrotis</i>, restricted to
+North America. The latter is distinguished by the great size of
+the glandular prominences of the sides of the muzzle, which meet
+in the centre above and behind the nostrils. <i>P. auritus</i> extends
+over the greater part of the Palæarctic region, occurring in Ireland
+in the west and the Himalaya in the east.</p>
+
+<p><i>Synotus.</i><a id="FNanchor_596" href="#Footnote_596" class="fnanchor">[596]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34. This genus
+is distinguished from the preceding by the loss of one lower premolar
+and by the outer margin of the ear being carried forwards
+above the mouth and in front of the eye; it includes the European
+Barbastelle Bat (<i>S. barbastellus</i>) and <i>S. darjilingensis</i> from the Himalaya.</p>
+
+<p><i>Otonycteris.</i><a id="FNanchor_597" href="#Footnote_597" class="fnanchor">[597]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 30. The
+reduction in the number of upper incisors readily characterises this
+genus, which appears to connect the typical representatives of the
+section, through <i>Scotophilus</i>, with the Vespertilionine division. It is
+represented by a single species, <i>O. hemprichi</i>, from North Africa and
+the Himalaya.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nyctophilus.</i><a id="FNanchor_598" href="#Footnote_598" class="fnanchor">[598]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 30. This
+and the following genera are distinguished from all the preceding
+by the presence of a rudimentary nose-leaf. The present genus
+contains <i>N. timoriensis</i> of the Australian region, and <i>N. microtis</i> of
+New Guinea.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antrozous.</i><a id="FNanchor_599" href="#Footnote_599" class="fnanchor">[599]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 28. Readily
+distinguished from the other members of the whole family by
+having but two lower incisors, and from the other species of the
+section by the separate ears. The single species, <i>A. pallidus</i>, inhabits
+California.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Vespertilionine</i> division includes some nine-tenths of all the
+representatives of the family. They are distinguished from the
+preceding section by the simple nostrils, opening by crescentic or
+circular apertures at the extremity of the muzzle, the generally
+small size of the ears, and the absence of grooves on the forehead.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vesperugo.</i><a id="FNanchor_600" href="#Footnote_600" class="fnanchor">[600]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁻¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁻¹⁄₂₋₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34, 30,
+or 36. This large genus comprises about one-third of the section,
+and is divided into groups or subgenera, according to the number
+of premolars and incisors; the latter varying from ²⁄₃ to ¹⁄₃ in the
+subgenera <i>Scotozous</i> and <i>Rhogeëssa</i>, and the premolars from ²⁄₂ to ¹⁄₂ (in
+the subgenus <i>Lasionycteris</i> ²⁄₃). The Bats of this genus are generally
+easily distinguished by their comparatively thickly formed bodies,
+flat broad heads and obtuse muzzles, short, broad, and triangular
+obtusely-pointed ears, obtuse and usually slightly incurved tragus,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_662"></a>[662]</span>
+short legs, and by the presence in most species of a well-developed
+post-calcaral lobule. This lobule (which is supported by a cartilaginous
+process derived from the calcar) may act as a kind of
+adhesive disc in securing the animal’s grasp when climbing over
+smooth surfaces. <i>Vesperugo</i> probably contains the greatest number
+of individuals among the genera of Chiroptera, and, with the exception
+of <i>Vespertilio</i>, its species have also the widest geographical
+range, being almost cosmopolitan; and one of the species, the well-known
+Serotine (<i>V. [Vesperus] serotinus</i>) is remarkable as the only
+species of Bat known to inhabit both the Old and the New World;
+one (<i>V. borealis</i>) has been found close to the limits of the Arctic
+circle, and another (<i>V. magellanicus</i>) inhabits the cold and desolate
+shores of the Straits of Magellan, being doubtless the Bat referred
+to by Mr. Darwin in the <i>Naturalist’s Voyage</i>. The Common Pipistrelle
+(<i>V. pipistrellus</i>), ranging over the greater part of the Palæarctic
+region, is the best known species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chalinolobus.</i><a id="FNanchor_601" href="#Footnote_601" class="fnanchor">[601]</a>—This genus agrees with <i>Vesperugo</i> in the dental
+formula, but is readily distinguished by the presence of a well-defined
+lobe projecting near the angle of the mouth from the lower
+lip, and by the unicuspidate first upper incisor. The species fall
+into two subgenera—<i>Chalinolobus</i> proper, with <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, represented by
+<i>C. morio</i> from New Zealand, Tasmania, and Australia, and three
+other species from Australia; and <i>Glauconycteris</i>, with <i>p</i> ¹⁄₂, limited
+to Southern and Equatorial Africa, and known by <i>C. argentatus</i> and
+two other species, the Bats of this subgenus being especially remarkable
+for their peculiarly thin membranes, traversed by very distinct
+reticulations and parallel lines.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp93" id="figure308" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure308.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 308.</span>—Head of <i>Scotophilus
+emarginatus</i>. (Dobson,
+<i>Monogr. Asiat. Chiropt.</i>)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Scotophilus.</i><a id="FNanchor_602" href="#Footnote_602" class="fnanchor">[602]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 30. This
+genus comprises a comparatively small number of species nearly
+allied to <i>Vesperugo</i>, and some of which
+approach so closely to the aberrant types of
+the latter ranged under the subgenus <i>Scotozous</i>,
+as to render the definition of the present genus
+almost impossible.<a id="FNanchor_603" href="#Footnote_603" class="fnanchor">[603]</a> The species are restricted
+to the tropical and subtropical regions of the
+eastern hemisphere, though widely distributed
+within these limits. The more typical species
+are distinguished especially by the single pair
+of unicuspidate upper incisors separated by a
+wide space and placed close to the canines, by
+the small transverse first lower premolar squeezed in between the
+canine and second premolar, and, generally, by their conical nearly
+naked muzzles and remarkably thick leathery membranes. <i>S. kuhli<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_663"></a>[663]</span></i>
+is probably the commonest species of Bat in India, and appears
+often on the wing even before the sun has touched the horizon,
+especially when the white-ants are swarming, feeding eagerly upon
+them as they rise in the air. <i>S. gigas</i>, from Equatorial Africa,
+with the forearm measuring 3·4 inches, is by far the largest
+species. <i>S. albofuscus</i>, from the Gambia, which is readily distinguished
+from the other species by its white wings, is an aberrant
+form, in which the lower premolars are long and not crowded
+together, and thereby so closely resembles <i>Vesperugo</i> (<i>Scotozous</i>)
+<i>dormeri</i> as to render it almost impossible to distinguish <i>Scotophilus</i>
+and <i>Vesperugo</i>. The figured species is from India.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nycticejus.</i><a id="FNanchor_604" href="#Footnote_604" class="fnanchor">[604]</a>—This genus, with the same dental formula as
+<i>Scotophilus</i>, is distinguished by the first lower premolar not being
+squeezed in between the adjoining teeth, and by the comparatively
+much greater size of the last upper molar. It includes only the
+common North American <i>N. humeralis</i> (<i>crepuscularis</i>), a small Bat
+scarcely larger than the Pipistrelle. It seems, however, as pointed
+out by Mr. O. Thomas, that the discovery of <i>Scotophilus albofuscus</i>
+renders the generic distinctness of <i>Nycticejus</i> no longer tenable, and
+that the species should be known as <i>Scotophilus humeralis</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Atalapha.</i><a id="FNanchor_605" href="#Footnote_605" class="fnanchor">[605]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁻¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32 or 30.
+The five species of this genus, which are confined to the New
+World, are generally characterised by the interfemoral membrane
+being more or less covered with hair (in the two commonest species,
+<i>A. noveboracensis</i> and <i>A. cinerea</i>, wholly covered), and by the peculiar
+form of the tragus, which is expanded above and abruptly curved
+inwards. These species have two upper premolars, of which the
+first is extremely small and quite internal to the tooth-row.</p>
+
+<p><i>Harpyiocephalus.</i><a id="FNanchor_606" href="#Footnote_606" class="fnanchor">[606]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34. This
+genus includes some eight species of small Bats distinguished by
+their prominent tube-like nostrils and hairy interfemoral membrane.
+<i>H. suillus</i>, from Java and neighbouring islands, is the best-known
+species, and another closely allied (<i>H. hilgendorfi</i>)has been described
+by Professor Peters from Japan. The remaining six species are
+known only from the Himalaya and Tibet. All appear to be
+restricted to the hill tracts of the countries in which they are found.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vespertilio.</i><a id="FNanchor_607" href="#Footnote_607" class="fnanchor">[607]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 38. Next
+to <i>Vesperugo</i>, this genus includes by far the largest number of species,
+amounting to over forty; it has, however, rather a wider geographical
+distribution in both hemispheres, one species at least
+being recorded from the Navigators’ Islands. The species are
+easily recognised by the peculiar character of the upper incisors,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_664"></a>[664]</span>
+the crowns of which diverge from each other; by the large number
+of premolars, of which the second upper one is always very small;
+and by the oval elongated ear and narrow attenuated tragus. In
+the British Isles this genus is represented by four species, viz.
+Bechstein’s Bat (<i>V. bechsteini</i>); the Reddish-Gray Bat (<i>V. nattereri</i>),
+of very local occurrence; Daubenton’s Bat (<i>V. daubentoni</i>); and the
+Whiskered Bat (<i>V. mystacinus</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Cerivoula.</i><a id="FNanchor_608" href="#Footnote_608" class="fnanchor">[608]</a>—This genus, which has the same dental formula
+as <i>Vespertilio</i>, is distinguished by the parallel upper incisors,
+and the comparatively large size of the second
+upper premolar. Some ten species have been
+described from the Ethiopian and Oriental
+regions, of which <i>C. picta</i>, from India and the
+Indo-Malayan sub-region, is the best-known,
+being well characterised by its brilliantly
+coloured orange fur and conspicuously marked
+membranes, which are variegated with orange
+and black. This genus includes the most delicately
+formed and most truly insectivorous,
+tropical, forest-haunting Bats, which appear to
+stand as regards the species of <i>Vespertilio</i> in a
+position similar to that occupied by <i>Chalinolobus</i>
+with respect to <i>Vesperugo</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp42" id="figure309" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure309.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 309.</span>—Side and
+front views of the head
+of <i>Cerivoula hardwickei</i>.
+(Dobson, <i>Monogr. Asiat.
+Chiropt.</i>)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The <i>Miniopterine</i> division includes only two
+genera, and is characterised by the great elevation
+of the crown of the head above the facial
+line, and also by the upper incisors being separated from the canine
+and also in the middle line.</p>
+
+<p><i>Natalus.</i><a id="FNanchor_609" href="#Footnote_609" class="fnanchor">[609]</a>—This genus, while having the divisional characters
+mentioned above, agrees in the dental formula and its general
+external form with <i>Cerivoula</i>, from
+which it is distinguished by the
+short triangular tragus. It includes
+three species, restricted to
+South and Central America and
+the West Indies; the head of <i>N.
+micropus</i> being shown in <a href="#figure310">Fig. 310</a>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure310" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure310.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 310.</span>—Head of <i>Natalus micropus</i>. × 3.
+(Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1880.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Miniopterus.</i><a id="FNanchor_610" href="#Footnote_610" class="fnanchor">[610]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃,
+<i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 36. In
+addition to the difference in the
+number of the teeth, this genus is
+distinguished by the shortness of
+the first phalanx of the middle finger and the great length of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_665"></a>[665]</span>
+tail, which is wholly contained within the interfemoral membrane;
+it includes four species, restricted to the eastern hemisphere. Of
+these the best-known, <i>M. schreibersi</i>, is very widely distributed, being
+found almost everywhere throughout the tropical and warmer
+temperate regions of the eastern hemisphere; specimens from
+Germany, Madagascar, Japan, and Australia differing in no
+appreciable respect from one another.</p>
+
+<p>The last or <i>Thyropterine</i> division, which likewise comprises only
+two genera, is characterised by the presence of an additional osseous
+phalanx in the middle finger and an equal number of phalanges in
+the toes, and also by peculiar accessory clinging organs attached
+to the extremities.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thyroptera.</i><a id="FNanchor_611" href="#Footnote_611" class="fnanchor">[611]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 38. In the
+single species <i>T. tricolor</i> of Brazil the clinging organs have the
+appearance of small, circular, pedunculated, hollow discs (<a href="#figure311">Fig. 311</a>),
+resembling in miniature the sucking cups of cuttle-fishes, and are
+attached to the inferior surfaces of the thumbs and soles of the
+feet. With these the animal is enabled to maintain its hold when
+creeping over smooth vertical surfaces.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure311" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure311.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 311.</span>—Suctorial discs in <i>Thyroptera tricolor</i>. <i>a</i>, Side and <i>b</i>, concave surface, of thumb-disc;
+<i>c</i>, foot with disc, and calcar with projections (all much enlarged). Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool.
+Soc.</i> 1876.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Myxopoda.</i><a id="FNanchor_612" href="#Footnote_612" class="fnanchor">[612]</a>—The second genus is likewise represented only by
+a single species—<i>M. aurita</i> of Madagascar—and is distinguished
+from the preceding by the characters of the teeth and the form of
+the ears. The whole inferior surface of the pollex supports a
+large sessile horse-shoe-shaped adhesive pad, with the circular
+margin directed forwards and notched along its edge, and a
+smaller pad occupies part of the sole of the foot.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fossil Vespertilionidæ.</i>—It is not improbable that <i>Vesperugo</i> is
+represented in the Upper Eocene of the Paris basin by <i>V. parisiensis</i>,
+which appears to be allied to <i>V. serotina</i>, although it has
+been regarded by some writers as generically distinct, under the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_666"></a>[666]</span>
+name of <i>Nyctitherium</i>. <i>Vesperugo</i> (<i>Nyctitherium</i>) also occurs in the
+Bridger Eocene of the United States; <i>Nyctilestes</i> from the same
+deposits being an allied extinct genus. A number of European
+Miocene species have been referred to <i>Vespertilio</i>, but the term in
+these cases must be used in a somewhat wide sense. <i>Vespertiliavus</i>,
+of the Phosphorites of Central France, differs from <i>Vespertilio</i> in the
+proportions of its premolars.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Section</i> <span class="smcap">Emballonurina</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Tail perforating the interfemoral membrane and appearing on
+its upper surface, or produced considerably beyond the truncated
+membrane; the middle pair of upper incisors generally large and
+close together.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Emballonuridæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>First phalanx of the middle finger folded (in repose) on the
+dorsal surface of the metacarpal bone (except in <i>Noctilio</i> and
+<i>Mystacops</i>). Nostrils opening by simple circular or valvular apertures
+at the extremity of the muzzle, not surrounded or margined
+by foliaceous cutaneous appendages; tragus distinct.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Emballonuridæ</i> are generally easily distinguished by the
+peculiar form of the muzzle, which is obliquely truncated, the
+nostrils projecting more or less in front beyond the lower lip; by
+the first phalanx of the middle finger being folded in repose
+forwards on the upper surface of the metacarpal bone; by the tail,
+which either perforates the interfemoral membrane or is produced
+far beyond it; and by the upper incisors, which are generally a
+single pair separated from the canine and also in the middle line.
+The family is cosmopolitan like the <i>Vespertilionidæ</i>, but rarely
+extends north or south of the thirtieth parallel of latitude.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Emballonurinæ</b>.—Tail slender, perforating the interfemoral
+membrane, and appearing upon its upper surface, or
+terminating in it; legs long, fibula very slender; upper incisors
+weak.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Furipterine</i> division the tail terminates in the interfemoral
+membrane; the crown of the head is greatly elevated above the
+face-line; the thumb and first phalanx of the middle finger are very
+short; and the dentition is <i>i</i> ²⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 38.</p>
+
+<p>Represented by two genera, <i>Furipterus</i><a id="FNanchor_613" href="#Footnote_613" class="fnanchor">[613]</a>
+    and <i>Amorphochilus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_614" href="#Footnote_614" class="fnanchor">[614]</a> each
+including one species of peculiar aspect; the latter distinguished
+from the former by the widely separated nostrils and the great
+extension backwards of the bony palate. Habitat South America.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_667"></a>[667]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the typical or <i>Emballonurine</i> division part of the tail is
+included in the basal half of the interfemoral membrane, the remaining
+part passing through and appearing upon its upper surface;
+the crown of the head is slightly elevated; the pollex and first
+phalanx of the middle finger are moderately
+long; and the number of the premolars is
+always ²⁄₂.</p>
+
+<p><i>Emballonura.</i><a id="FNanchor_615" href="#Footnote_615" class="fnanchor">[615]</a>—Incisors ²⁄₃. Extremity of
+the muzzle more or less produced beyond the
+lower lip, forehead flat. Contains some five
+species, inhabiting islands from Madagascar
+through the Malay Archipelago to the Navigators’
+Islands.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp83" id="figure312" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure312.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 312.</span>—Ear of <i>Emballonura
+raffrayana</i>, × 2. (Dobson,
+<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1878.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Coleüra.</i><a id="FNanchor_616" href="#Footnote_616" class="fnanchor">[616]</a>—Incisors ¹⁄₃. Extremity of the
+muzzle broad, forehead concave. Has two
+species from East Africa and the Seychelles Islands.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rhynchonycteris.</i><a id="FNanchor_617" href="#Footnote_617" class="fnanchor">[617]</a>—This genus is distinguished from <i>Coleüra</i> by
+the much-produced extremity of the muzzle. The single species, <i>R.
+naso</i>, from Central and South America, is very common in the
+vicinity of streams throughout the tropical parts of these countries;
+it is usually found during the day resting on the vertical faces of
+rocks, or on the trunks of trees growing over the water, and, owing
+to the peculiar grayish colour of the fur covering the body and
+growing in small tufts from the antebrachial membrane, so as to
+counterfeit the weathered surfaces of rocks and the bark of trees,
+easily escapes notice. As the shades of evening approach it appears
+early on the wing, flying close to the surface of the water, and
+seizing the minute insects that hover over it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Saccopteryx.</i><a id="FNanchor_618" href="#Footnote_618" class="fnanchor">[618]</a>—Incisors ¹⁄₃. Antebrachial membrane with a pouch
+opening on its upper surface. This genus contains six species from
+Central and South America. In the adult males a valvular longitudinal
+opening is found on the upper surface of the membrane,
+varying in position in different species. This opening leads into a
+small pouch (in some species large enough to hold a pea), the
+interior of which is lined with a glandular membrane secreting an
+unctuous substance of a reddish colour with a strong ammoniacal
+odour. The presence of this sac only in males indicates that it
+is a secondary sexual character analogous to the shoulder-pouches
+of <i>Epomophorus</i> and the frontal sacs of <i>Hipposiderus</i>. It is quite
+rudimentary in the females.</p>
+
+<p><i>Taphozous.</i><a id="FNanchor_619" href="#Footnote_619" class="fnanchor">[619]</a>—Incisors ¹⁄₂; upper pair deciduous. This genus,
+represented by some ten species, inhabiting the tropical and subtropical<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_668"></a>[668]</span>
+parts of all the eastern hemisphere except Polynesia, forms
+the second group of this division, distinguished by the cartilaginous
+premaxillaries, deciduous upper incisors, and the presence of only
+two lower incisors. Most of the species have a peculiar glandular
+sac (<a href="#figure313">Fig. 313</a>) placed between the angles of the lower jaw. This
+is a sexual character, for, while always more developed in males
+than in females, in some species, although distinct in the male,
+it is quite absent in the female. An open gular sac is wanting
+in both sexes in <i>T. melanopogon</i>, but about its usual position the
+openings of small pores may be seen, the secretion exuding from
+which probably causes the hairs to grow very long, forming the
+black beard found in many male specimens of this species.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure313" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure313.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 313.</span>—Heads of <i>Taphozous longimanus</i>, showing relative development of gular sacs in
+male and female. (Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1873.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the <i>Diclidurine</i> division there is but a single genus, represented
+by two species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diclidurus.</i><a id="FNanchor_620" href="#Footnote_620" class="fnanchor">[620]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32. Both
+species are from the Neotropical region, the typical <i>D. albus</i> ranging
+as far north as Central America. This Bat resembles the species
+of <i>Taphozous</i> in the form of the head and ears, but, besides other
+characters, differs from all other Bats in possessing a peculiar pouch,
+opening on the centre of the inferior surface of the interfemoral
+membrane; the extremity of the tail enters this, and perforates its
+fundus.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Noctilionine</i> division is likewise represented only by a single
+genus, with two species. This genus connects the present with the
+following family, possessing characters common to both, but also so
+many remarkable special peculiarities as almost to warrant the
+formation of a separate family for its reception.</p>
+
+<p><i>Noctilio.</i><a id="FNanchor_621" href="#Footnote_621" class="fnanchor">[621]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 28. The two
+species <i>N. leporinus</i> and <i>N. albiventer</i> inhabit Central and South
+America. The typical <i>N. leporinus</i> is a Bat of very curious aspect,
+with strangely folded lips, erect cutaneous processes on the chin,
+and enormous feet and claws. The first upper incisors are close
+together, and so large as to conceal the small outer ones, while in
+the lower jaw there is one pair of small incisors. This apparent<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_669"></a>[669]</span>
+resemblance to a Rodent actually led Linnæus to remove this species
+from the Bats and place it in the Rodents. This Bat is remarkable
+for feeding on fish—a circumstance which has only recently
+been fully authenticated.</p>
+
+<p>The remaining genus of this subfamily is regarded as representing
+another division, which may be known as the <i>Rhinopomatine</i>
+division.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rhinopoma.</i><a id="FNanchor_622" href="#Footnote_622" class="fnanchor">[622]</a>—This genus, represented by the single species
+<i>R. microphyllum</i>, might also be elevated to the rank of a family, for it
+is difficult to determine its exact
+affinities, a kind of cross relationship
+attaching it to the <i>Nycteridæ</i> on the
+one hand and to this family, in which
+it is here placed provisionally, on the
+other. This species, distinguished
+from all other Microchiroptera as well
+by the presence of two phalanges in
+the index finger as by its remarkably
+long and slender tail projecting far
+beyond the narrow interfemoral membrane, inhabits the subterranean
+tombs in Egypt and deserted buildings generally from North-East
+Africa to Burma.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure314" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure314.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 314.</span>—Skull of <i>Rhinopoma microphyllum</i>.
+× 2. (Dobson, <i>Monogr. Asiat.
+Chiropt.</i>)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Molossinæ</b>.—Tail thick, produced far beyond the
+posterior margin of the interfemoral membrane (except in <i>Mystacops</i>);
+legs short and strong, with well-developed fibula; upper
+incisors strong. This subfamily includes all the species of <i>Emballonuridæ</i>
+with short and strong legs and broad feet (whereof the
+first toe, and in most species the fifth also, is much thicker than
+the others, and furnished with long curved hairs), well-developed
+callosities at the base of the thumbs, and a single pair of large
+upper incisors occupying the centre of the space between the
+canines. In all the species the feet are free from the wing-membrane,
+which folds up perfectly under the forearm and legs; the
+interfemoral membrane is retractile, being movable backwards and
+forwards along the tail, and this power of varying its superficial
+extent must confer upon these Bats great dexterity in quickly
+changing the direction of their flight, as when obliged to double in
+pursuing their swift insect prey, which their extremely expansible
+lips evidently enable them to secure with ease. Like the preceding
+subfamily, the genera may be arranged in divisions, of which there
+are two.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Molossine</i> division is characterised by the production of the
+tail beyond the posterior margin of the interfemoral membrane; it
+includes three genera.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_670"></a>[670]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Chiromeles.</i><a id="FNanchor_623" href="#Footnote_623" class="fnanchor">[623]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 26. Hallux
+much larger than the other toes and separable from them, ears
+separate. This genus is represented by a single species, <i>C. torquatus</i>,
+of large size (forearm 3·1 inches) and peculiar aspect, inhabiting
+the Indo-Malayan sub-region. This Bat is nearly naked, a collar
+only of thinly spread hairs half surrounding the neck; and is
+further remarkable for its enormous throat-sac and curious nursing-pouches.
+The former consists of a great semicircular fold of skin
+forming a deep pouch round the neck beneath, and concealing the
+orifices of large subcutaneous pectoral glands, which discharge an
+oily fluid of insufferably offensive smell. The nursing-pouch is
+formed on each side by an extension of a fold of skin from the side
+of the body to the inferior surfaces of the humerus and femur. In
+the anterior part of this pouch the mammæ are placed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Molossus.</i><a id="FNanchor_624" href="#Footnote_624" class="fnanchor">[624]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₁₋₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ¹⁻²⁄₁, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 24 or 28.
+Upper incisors close together in the middle line. There are some
+ten species, restricted to the tropical
+and subtropical regions of the New
+World. The woodcut of the head of
+<i>M. glaucinus</i> (<a href="#figure315">Fig. 315</a>) exhibits the
+general physiognomy of the Bats of
+this genus. <i>M. obscurus</i>, a small species,
+is very common in tropical America. It
+inhabits the hollow trunks of palms and
+other trees, and also the roofs of houses.
+The males and females live apart (as,
+indeed, appears to be the case in most,
+if not in all, species of Bats). In the
+hollow trunk of a palm two colonies
+were discovered, one consisting of from
+150 to 200 individuals, exclusively males, while the other was
+composed almost entirely of females.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp75" id="figure315" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure315.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 315.</span>—Head of <i>Molossus glaucinus</i>.
+(Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1876.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Nyctinomus.</i><a id="FNanchor_625" href="#Footnote_625" class="fnanchor">[625]</a>—Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₃₋₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁻¹⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32 or
+28. Upper incisors separated in the middle line. The genus contains
+about twenty-five species, inhabiting the tropical and subtropical
+parts of both hemispheres. The lips of the Bats of this
+genus are even more expansible than in <i>Molossus</i>, in many of the
+species (as in the woodcut of the head of <i>N. macrotis</i>, <a href="#figure316">Fig.
+316</a>) showing vertical wrinkles. <i>N. tæniotis</i>, one of the largest
+species, alone extends into Europe, and has been taken as
+far north as Switzerland. <i>N. johorensis</i>, from the Malay Peninsula,
+is remarkable from the extraordinary form of its ears.
+<i>N. brasiliensis<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_671"></a>[671]</span></i> is nearly as common as <i>Molossus obscurus</i> in tropical
+America, and extends farther north (California) and south than
+that species.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Mystacopine</i> division the tail perforates the interfemoral
+membrane and appears upon the upper surface.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp83" id="figure316" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure316.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 316.</span>—Head of <i>Nyctinomus
+macrotis</i>. (Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>
+1876.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Mystacops.</i><a id="FNanchor_626" href="#Footnote_626" class="fnanchor">[626]</a>—This genus includes only <i>M. tuberculatus</i> of New
+Zealand, where, together with <i>Chalinolobus tumorio</i>, it represents
+the whole indigenous mammalian fauna of
+the islands. There are three distinct
+phalanges in the middle finger; the
+greater part of the wing-membrane is
+exceedingly thin, but a narrow portion
+along the forearm, the sides of the body,
+and the legs is remarkably thick and
+leathery; beneath this thickened portion
+the wings are folded. With the wings
+thus encased, this species is the most
+quadrupedal of Bats. Other peculiarities
+of structure are found in the remarkable
+form of the claws of the thumbs and toes,
+which have each a small talon projecting from its concave surface
+near the base, also in the sole of the foot and inferior surface of
+the leg, as shown in <a href="#figure317">Fig. 317</a>. The plantar surface, including the
+toes, is covered with soft and very lax integument deeply wrinkled,
+and each toe is marked by a central longitudinal groove with short
+grooves at right angles to it. The lax wrinkled integument is
+continued along the inferior flattened surface of the ankle and leg.
+These peculiarities appear to be related to climbing habits in the
+species.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure317" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure317.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 317.</span>—Pollex and leg and foot of <i>Mystacops tuberculatus</i>, enlarged. (Dobson,
+<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1876.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Fossil Emballonuridæ.</i>—In the cavern-deposits of Madras remains
+of the existing <i>Taphozous saccolæmus</i> are not uncommon; while in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_672"></a>[672]</span>
+the corresponding beds of Brazil bones of a <i>Molossus</i>, probably referable
+to <i>M. temmincki</i>, now inhabiting the same region, are met with.
+It has been suggested that remains from the Upper Eocene Phosphorites
+of Central France may indicate the existence of the genus
+<i>Taphozous</i> at that early epoch.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Phyllostomatidæ</span>.</h5>
+
+<p>Middle finger with three well-developed bony phalanges; first
+phalanx of the middle finger short; nostrils in the front part of the
+cutaneous nasal appendages, or opening by simple apertures at
+the extremity of the muzzle; chin with warts or erect cutaneous
+ridges; premaxillæ well developed, united in front.</p>
+
+<p>The members of this family are readily distinguished by the
+third phalanx in the middle finger, associated either with distinct
+cutaneous nasal appendages, or with well-developed first upper
+incisors, or with both. Unlike the <i>Rhinolophidæ</i>, their eyes are
+generally large; and the tragus is well developed, maintaining
+almost the same form throughout the species, however much the
+other parts of the body may vary. The fur is of a dull colour, and
+the face and back (in the <i>Stenodermatine</i> division especially) are often
+marked with white streaks, as in the <i>Pteropodidæ</i>, of which these
+Bats take the place in the western hemisphere. A few species,
+probably all those with the tail and interfemoral membrane well
+developed, feed principally on insects, while the greater number of
+the species of the <i>Vampirine</i> and <i>Glossophagine</i> divisions appear to
+live on a mixed diet of insects and fruits; and the <i>Desmodontine</i>
+division, of which two species only are known, are true blood-suckers,
+and have their teeth and intestinal tract specially modified
+in accordance with their habits. The family is restricted to the
+tropical and subtropical parts of Central and South America.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Chilonycteriinæ</b>.—Nostrils opening by simple apertures
+at the extremity of
+the muzzle in front, not
+margined by a distinct nose-leaf;
+chin with expanded
+leaf-like appendages. It
+includes two genera.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure318" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure318.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 318.</span>—Head of <i>Mormops blainvillei</i>. (Dobson,
+<i>Cat. Chiropt. Brit. Mus.</i>)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Chilonycteris.</i><a id="FNanchor_627" href="#Footnote_627" class="fnanchor">[627]</a>—Dentition:
+<i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34.
+The crown of the head is
+moderately elevated above
+the facial line, and the basicranial
+axis is almost in the
+same plane as the facial. There are about half a dozen species.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_673"></a>[673]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Mormops.</i><a id="FNanchor_628" href="#Footnote_628" class="fnanchor">[628]</a>—The two species of this genus are distinguished
+from <i>Chilonycteris</i> by the great elevation of the crown of the head
+above the line of the face, as well as by the basicranial plane being
+nearly at right angles to the facial. Both species are noticeable
+for their peculiar physiognomy, as is shown in the accompanying
+woodcut (<a href="#figure318">Fig. 318</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Phyllostomatinæ</b>.—Nostrils opening on the upper
+surface of the muzzle, the nasal apertures more or less surrounded
+or margined by well-developed cutaneous appendages, forming a
+distinct nose-leaf; chin with warts. The numerous genera, most
+of which can only be mentioned here by name, may be arranged
+under four divisions.</p>
+
+<p>In the first or <i>Vampirine</i> division the muzzle is long and narrow
+in front; the distance between the eyes is generally less than, rarely
+equal to, that from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle; the
+nose-leaf is well developed, horse-shoe shaped in front, and lanceolate
+behind; interfemoral membrane well developed; tail generally
+distinct, rarely absent; inner margin of the lips not fringed. The
+dentition is: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂₋₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂₋₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32. The cusps of the
+upper molars are usually well developed, and arranged in a W.
+Nearly all the species of this division appear to be insectivorous, so
+that the name applied to them must not be considered as having
+any relation to their habits. <i>Vampyrus spectrum</i>, a large Bat
+inhabiting Brazil, of forbidding aspect, which was long considered
+by naturalists to be sanguivorous in its habits, and named accordingly
+by Geoffroy, has been shown by the observations of modern
+travellers to be mainly frugivorous, and is considered by the
+inhabitants of the countries in which it is found to be perfectly
+harmless. It is the largest Bat in America, the length of the
+forearm being 4·2 inches. <i>Otopterus waterhousei</i> appears to prey
+occasionally on small species of Bats, like <i>Megaderma lyra</i> of the
+eastern hemisphere, which it resembles in many respects.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lonchorhina</i>,<a id="FNanchor_629" href="#Footnote_629" class="fnanchor">[629]</a> <i>Otopterus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_630" href="#Footnote_630" class="fnanchor">[630]</a>
+    <i>and Dolichophyllum</i>.<a id="FNanchor_631" href="#Footnote_631" class="fnanchor">[631]</a>—These three genera
+are characterised by the tail continuing to the hinder margin of the
+interfemoral membrane. <i>Lonchorhina</i> is represented by the single
+species <i>L. aurita</i>, in which the nose-leaf is much elongated, and the
+ear-conch and tragus are unusually large.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vampyrus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_632" href="#Footnote_632" class="fnanchor">[632]</a> <i>etc.</i>—In
+    all the remaining genera of this division the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_674"></a>[674]</span>
+tail perforates the interfemoral membrane, so as to appear upon its
+upper surface. These genera are <i>Vampyrus</i>, <i>Lophostoma</i>, <i>Micronycteris</i>,<a id="FNanchor_633" href="#Footnote_633" class="fnanchor">[633]</a>
+<i>Trachyops</i>, <i>Phylloderma</i>, <i>Phyllostoma</i>, <i>Anthorhina</i>,<a id="FNanchor_634" href="#Footnote_634" class="fnanchor">[634]</a> <i>Mimon</i>,
+    <i>Hemiderma</i><a id="FNanchor_635" href="#Footnote_635" class="fnanchor">[635]</a>
+and <i>Rhinophylla</i>; all, with the exception of the last, being distinguished
+from one another chiefly by the form of the skull and the presence
+or absence of the second lower premolar.
+<i>Trachyops</i>, <i>Phylloderma</i>, and the three
+last-named genera are each represented
+by a single species. <i>Phyllostoma hastatum</i>,
+in which the forearm has a
+length of 3·2 inches, and next in point
+of size to <i>Vampyrus spectrum</i>, is a well-known
+species in South America; <i>P.
+elongatum</i> (<a href="#figure319">Fig. 319</a>) differs in its smaller
+size and much larger nose-leaf. <i>Hemiderma
+brevicauda</i> is a small species,
+which forms a connecting link between
+this and the next division. <i>Rhinophylla
+pumilio</i>, the smallest known species
+of the family, is further distinguished by the narrowness of its
+molars, which do not form W-shaped cusps, and by the very small
+size of the last upper molar; characters connecting it with the
+<i>Stenodermatine</i> division.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp83" id="figure319" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure319.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 319.</span>—Head of <i>Phyllostoma elongatum</i>.
+(From Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>
+1866.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the second or <i>Glossophagine</i> division of the subfamily the
+muzzle is long and narrow; the tongue remarkably long and extensible,
+much attenuated towards the tip, and beset with very long
+filiform recurved papillæ; lower lip with a wide groove above, and
+in front margined by small warts; nose-leaf small; tail short or
+absent. Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>c</i> ²⁄₂, <i>p</i> ²⁻³⁄₃₋₂, <i>m</i> ²⁄₃₋₂; teeth very narrow;
+molars with narrow W-shaped cusps, sometimes indistinct or absent;
+lower incisors very small or deciduous.</p>
+
+<p>The ten species included in this division are arranged under
+seven genera,<a id="FNanchor_636" href="#Footnote_636" class="fnanchor">[636]</a> distinguished principally by differences in the form
+and number of the teeth and the presence or absence of the
+zygomatic arch. The form and position of the upper incisors are
+extremely variable. In <i>Glossophaga</i> and <i>Phyllonycteris</i> the upper
+incisors form, as in the <i>Vampyrine</i> division, a continuous row between
+the canines; in <i>Monophylla</i> and <i>Leptonycteris</i><a id="FNanchor_637" href="#Footnote_637" class="fnanchor">[637]</a> they are separated
+into pairs by a narrow interval in front; while in <i>Lonchoglossa</i>,
+<i>Glossonycteris</i>, and <i>Chœronycteris</i> they are widely separated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_675"></a>[675]</span> and placed
+in pairs near the canines. In the first four genera the lower incisors
+are present (at least up to a certain age), while in the last three
+they are deciduous even in youth. The zygomatic arch is wanting
+in <i>Phyllonycteris</i>, <i>Glossonycteris</i>, and <i>Chœronycteris</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The typical species is <i>Glossophaga soricina</i>, which so closely
+resembles <i>Hemiderma brevicauda</i>, both in external form and dentition,
+that it has frequently been confounded with it. Its long fimbriated
+tongue, which it possesses in common with other species of the
+division, led Spix to
+describe it as a blood-sucker,
+believing that
+this organ was used to
+increase the flow of
+blood. This view is,
+however, without foundation,
+and from later
+observations it is evident
+that the peculiarly
+shaped tongue is used
+by the animal to lick out the pulpy contents of fruits having hard
+rinds. The food of the species of this division appears to consist
+of both fruit and insects, and the long tongue may also be used for
+extracting the latter from the deep corollæ of certain flowers. This
+type of tongue is shown in the woodcut of the head of <i>Chœronycteris</i>
+(<a href="#figure320">Fig. 320</a>); and it is paralleled among the Megachiroptera by the
+Carponycteriine <i>Pteropodidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure320" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure320.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 320.</span>—Head of <i>Chœronycteris mexicana</i>, showing
+fimbriated tongue. (Dobson, <i>Cat. Chiropt. Brit. Mus.</i>)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The <i>Stenodermatine</i> division is characterised by the muzzle being
+very short and generally broad in front, the distance between the
+eyes nearly always exceeding (rarely equal to) that from the eye to
+the extremity of the muzzle; nose-leaf short, horse-shoe shaped in
+front, lanceolate behind (except in <i>Brachyphylla</i> and <i>Centurio</i>);
+interfemoral membrane always concave behind; tail none; inner
+margin of the lips fringed with conical papillæ. Dentition:
+<i>i</i> ²⁄₂₋₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁻²⁄₃₋₂; the number of the molars being either ³⁄₃, ²⁄₃,
+or ²⁄₂ in different species; premolars and molars very broad (except
+in <i>Sturnira</i>), the latter with concave or flat crowns margined externally
+by raised cutting-edges. Although the members of this division
+are usually distinguished from those of the Vampirine division by
+the peculiar shortness and breadth of the muzzle and the form of
+the molars, yet certain species of the latter closely resemble those
+of the former in external appearance, agreeing almost absolutely in
+the form of the nose-leaf, of the ears and tragus, and of the warts
+on the chin. These resemblances indicate that, while the form of
+the teeth and jaws has become modified to suit the nature of the
+food, the external characters, being but slightly affected by this
+cause, have remained much the same. The food of these Bats<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_676"></a>[676]</span>
+appears to be wholly or in great part fruit. The twenty species
+have been grouped into nine genera, distinguished by the form of
+the skull and teeth. <i>Artibeus</i>, with six species, includes the well-known
+frugivorous Bat, <i>A. perspicillatus</i>. Waterton believed that
+<i>A. planirostris</i>, a common Bat in British Guiana, usually found in
+the roofs of houses, and now known to be frugivorous, was the true
+blood-sucking Vampire. <i>Stenoderma achradophilum</i>, found in Jamaica
+and Cuba, associated with <i>Artibeus perspicillatus</i>, from which it is
+scarcely distinguishable externally except by its much smaller size,
+differs altogether in the absence of the horizontal plate of the
+palatal bones. <i>Sturnira lilium</i>, while
+agreeing with the above in the form of
+the nose-leaf and ears, differs from all
+the species of the family in its longitudinally-grooved
+molars, which resemble
+those of the <i>Pteropodidæ</i> more closely than
+those of any other Bats; and the presence
+of tufts of long differently coloured hairs
+over glands in the sides of the neck shows
+another common character still more
+remarkable, which can scarcely be considered
+the result of adaptive change. <i>Centurio senex</i> is the type
+of a genus distinguished from <i>Stenoderma</i> and other genera of this
+division by the absence of a distinct nose-leaf; its facial aspect, as
+shown in <a href="#figure321">Fig. 321</a>, is altogether bizarre.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure321" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure321.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 321.</span>—Head of <i>Centurio senex</i>.
+(Dobson, <i>Cat. Chiropt. Brit. Mus.</i>)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the last or <i>Desmodont</i> division the muzzle is conical and
+short; there is a distinct nose-leaf; the interfemoral membrane is
+very short; and the tail is wanting. Dentition: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₃,
+<i>m</i> ¹⁻⁰⁄₁₋₀; total 24 or 20. Upper incisors very large, trenchant,
+occupying the whole space between the canines; premolars very
+narrow, with sharp-edged longitudinal crowns; molars rudimentary
+or wanting; stomach greatly elongated, intestiniform. There are only
+two genera, the single species of each of which are the true blood-sucking
+Vampires. They appear to be confined chiefly to the
+forest-clad parts, and their attacks on men and other warm-blooded
+animals were noticed by some of the earliest writers. Thus Peter
+Martyr (Anghiera), who wrote soon after the conquest of South
+America, says that in the Isthmus of Darien there were Bats which
+sucked the blood of men and cattle when asleep to such a degree
+as to kill them. Condamine, a writer of the eighteenth century,
+remarks that at Borja (Ecuador) and in other places they had
+entirely destroyed the cattle introduced by the missionaries. Sir
+Schomburgk relates that at Wicki, on the river Berbice, no
+fowls could be kept on account of the ravages of these creatures,
+which attacked their combs, causing them to appear white from loss
+of blood. Although these Bats were known thus early to Europeans,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_677"></a>[677]</span>
+the species to which they belonged were not determined until about
+sixty years ago, several of the large frugivorous species having been
+wrongly set down as blood-suckers and named accordingly; and it
+fell to the lot of Darwin to determine at least one of the blood-sucking
+species, the following being his account of the circumstances
+under which the discovery of the sanguivorous habits of <i>Desmodus
+rufus</i> was made: “The Vampire Bat is often the cause of much
+trouble by biting the horses on their withers. The injury is generally
+not so much owing to the loss of blood as to the inflammation
+which the pressure of the saddle afterwards produces. The whole
+circumstance has lately been doubted in England; I was therefore
+fortunate in being present when one was actually caught on a horse’s
+back. We were bivouacking late one evening near Coquimbo, in
+Chili, when my servant, noticing that one of the horses was very
+restive, went to see what was the matter, and, fancying he could
+detect something, suddenly put his hand on the beast’s withers
+and secured the Vampire.”</p>
+
+<p>These Bats present, in the extraordinary differentiation of the
+manducatory and digestive apparatus, a departure from the type of
+other members of the family unparalleled in any of the other orders
+of Mammalia, standing apart from all other mammals as being fitted
+only for a diet of blood, and capable of sustaining life upon that
+alone. Travellers describe the wounds inflicted by the large sharp-edged
+incisors as similar to those caused by a razor when shaving:
+a portion of the skin being shaved off and a large number of
+severed capillary vessels thus exposed, from which a constant flow
+of blood is maintained. From this source the blood is drawn
+through the exceedingly narrow gullet—too narrow for anything
+solid to pass—into the intestine-like stomach, whence it is probably
+gradually drawn off during the slow process of digestion, while the
+animal, sated with food, is hanging in a state of torpidity from the
+roof of a cave or the inner side of a hollow tree.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure322" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure322.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 322.</span>—Head of Vampire Bat
+(<i>Desmodus rufus</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Desmodus.</i><a id="FNanchor_638" href="#Footnote_638" class="fnanchor">[638]</a>—No true molar, and no calcar. The Common
+Vampire (<i>D. rufus</i>) is widely spread over the tropical and subtropical
+parts of Central and South
+America from Oaxaca to Southern Brazil
+and Chili. It is a comparatively small
+species, a little larger than the common
+Noctule, the head and body being about
+3 inches in length, the forearm 2½, with
+a remarkably long and strong thumb;
+it is destitute of a tail, and has a
+peculiar physiognomy, well represented
+in <a href="#figure322">Fig. 322</a>. The body is covered with
+rather short fur of a reddish-brown colour, but varying in shade;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_678"></a>[678]</span>
+the extremities of the hairs being sometimes ashy. The teeth
+are peculiar and admirably adapted for the purposes for which they
+are employed. The upper incisor is greatly enlarged, and of somewhat
+triangular shape (<a href="#figure323">Fig. 323</a>); the canine, although smaller
+than the incisor, is large and sharp; but the cheek-teeth are very
+small, with laterally compressed crowns rising but slightly above
+the level of the gum, their longitudinally disposed cutting-edges
+being continuous with the base of the canine and with each other.
+The lower incisors are small, bifid, and separated from the canine,
+with a space in front. The
+lower cheek-teeth are narrow,
+like those in the upper
+jaw, but the anterior tooth
+is slightly larger than the
+others, and separated by a
+small space from the canine.
+Behind the lower incisors
+the jaw is deeply hollowed
+out to receive the extremities
+of the large upper
+incisors. The exceedingly
+narrow œsophagus opens at
+right angles into the slender, intestine-like stomach, which almost
+immediately terminates on the right, without a distinct pylorus,
+in the duodenum, but on the left forms a greatly elongated fundus,
+bent and folded upon itself, appearing at first sight like part of the
+intestines. This cardiac extremity of the stomach is, for a short
+distance, to the left of the entrance of the œsophagus, still very
+narrow, but soon increases in size, till near its termination it
+attains a diameter quite three times that of the short pyloric
+portion. The length of this cardiac diverticulum of the stomach
+appears to vary from 2 to 6 inches, the size in each specimen
+probably depending on the amount of food obtained by the animal
+before it was captured.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure323" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure323.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 323.</span>—Dentition of <i>Desmodus rufus</i>. <i>a</i>, Front
+view of upper teeth; <i>b</i>, left lateral view of upper and
+lower teeth.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Diphylla.</i><a id="FNanchor_639" href="#Footnote_639" class="fnanchor">[639]</a>—A small true molar in each jaw, and a rudimentary
+calcar. The single species <i>D. ecaudata</i> inhabits Brazil, and appears
+to be much less abundant than <i>Desmodus rufus</i>, from which, in
+addition to the characters already mentioned, it is distinguished by
+its slightly smaller size, the absence of a groove in the front of the
+lower lip, the non-development of the interfemoral membrane in the
+centre, and the peculiar form of the lower incisors, which are much
+expanded in the direction of the jaws and pectinated, forming a
+semicircular row touching each other, the outer pair being wider
+than the inner ones, and having six notches, the inner pair having
+only three notches.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_679"></a>[679]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Fossil Phyllostomatidæ.</i>—Remains of <i>Vampyrus spectrum</i>, as well
+as of several species of <i>Phyllostoma</i> or closely allied types, are found
+in the cavern deposits of Brazil. The mandible of a large Bat from
+the Upper Eocene Phosphorites of Central France, described as
+<i>Necromantis</i>, has been referred to this family—a determination
+which, if confirmed, will be of great interest from a distributional
+point of view.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<p><i>Bibliography of Chiroptera.</i>—G. E. Dobson, <i>Catalogue of the Chiroptera in the
+Collection of the British Museum</i>, 1878, including descriptions of all the species
+of Bats then known; subsequent papers by the same author in <i>Rep. Brit. Assoc.</i>,
+<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i>, and <i>Bull. Soc. Zool. de France</i>; by
+Peters in <i>Monatsb. Akad. Wiss. Berlin</i>; by O. Thomas in <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i>,
+<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, and <i>Ann. Mus. Genova</i>; and by J. Scully in <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i>
+and <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>; H. A. Robin, <i>Recherches Anatomiques sur les Mammifères
+de l’Ordre des Chiroptères</i>, Paris, 1881; W. T. Blanford, “Notes on Indian
+Chiroptera,” <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. lviii. (1888). See also papers by Jentink,
+Bocage, and others.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_680"></a>[680]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE ORDER PRIMATES</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>This order in the system of Linnæus includes Man, the Monkeys,
+the Lemurs, and the Bats. By common consent of all zoologists
+the last-named animals have been removed into a distinct order;
+but with regard to the association of the others there has been,
+and still is, much difference of opinion.</p>
+
+<p>That all the Monkeys, from the highest Anthropoid Apes to
+the lowest Marmosets, form a natural and tolerably homogeneous
+group seems never to have been questioned; but whether the
+Lemurs on the one hand and Man on the other should be united
+with them in the same order are points of controversy. If, in
+accordance with the traditional views of zoologists, the former are
+still considered to be members of this order, they must form a suborder
+apart from all the others, with which they have really very
+little in common except the opposable hallux of the hind foot, a
+character also met with in the Opossums, and which is therefore of
+very secondary importance.<a id="FNanchor_640" href="#Footnote_640" class="fnanchor">[640]</a></p>
+
+<p>Using the term Primates in this wider sense it is not easy to
+give any precise definition of the order. The dentition is diphyodont
+and heterodont; the number of incisors being very generally
+²⁄₂, and that of the molars, with the exception of the <i>Hapalidæ</i>,
+being ³⁄₃. The cheek-teeth are adapted for grinding, the molars
+being more complex than the premolars, and usually having four<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_681"></a>[681]</span>
+main tubercles, which may be either subconical or more or less
+compressed. The orbit is invariably surrounded by a ring of bone;
+the clavicles are well developed; and the radius and ulna are never
+united. The scaphoid and lunar of the carpus, and commonly also
+the centrale, remain distinct from one another. There are usually
+five digits furnished with well-developed nails in both the manus
+and the pes; but the pollex may be rudimentary or wanting. The
+hallux, except in Man, is opposable to the other digits, and has a
+flat nail (absent in <i>Simia</i>); and the pollex,
+when present, is usually also more or less
+opposable. The terminal phalanges of
+the digits are flattened (except in the
+second digit of the pes of the Lemuroidea),
+and not cleft at their extremities.
+The fingers and toes generally do not
+taper towards their extremities, but (except
+in <i>Chiromys</i>) are dilated, flattened,
+and rounded at their tips. The humerus
+has no entepicondylar foramen, nor the
+femur a third trochanter. In the alimentary
+canal (<a href="#figure324">Fig. 324</a>) the stomach is
+generally simple, although sacculated in
+the subfamily <i>Semnopithecinæ</i> of the
+<i>Cercopithecidæ</i>; and there is always a
+cæcum, which is generally of large size.
+The placenta may be either non-deciduous,
+or discoidal and deciduous. There are
+always two mammæ in the pectoral
+region, except in <i>Chiromys</i>; and the
+testes descend into a scrotum.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp37" id="figure324" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure324.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 324.</span>—Alimentary canal of
+<i>Galago</i>, the greater part of the small
+intestine being omitted. <i>d</i>, duodenum;
+<i>i</i>, ileum; <i>cm</i>, cæcum; <i>r</i>,
+rectum.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Lemuroidea are decidedly low in
+the scale of organisation, their placentation
+being of a lower type than that
+of the Insectivora; and all the Primates retain generalised features
+in their pentadactylate limbs and more or less bunodont cheek-teeth.
+In respect to cerebral characters and other features the higher
+representatives of the order have, however, acquired a specialisation
+clearly indicating their right to occupy the highest position in the
+animal kingdom. So far as the available material admits of forming
+an opinion, fossil forms appear to indicate an intimate connection
+between the Lemuroidea and Insectivora, so that in some cases it is
+almost impossible to determine whether an extinct type should be
+referred to the former or to the latter group. It is noteworthy
+that while in all existing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_682"></a>[682]</span> Primates the upper molars are of a quadrituberculate
+type, in the extinct Lemuroid genus <i>Anaptomorphus</i>
+they are trituberculate.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Lemuroidea</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>The Latin term <i>Lemur</i> was applied by Linnæus to the typical
+representatives of the present group of Primates, having been suggested
+by the nocturnal habits and strange ghost-like appearance
+of some of its members. As these animals had previously no
+vernacular appellation in English, this name has been generally
+adopted, and is now completely anglicised, making “Lemurs” in
+the plural. The French call them <i>Makis</i>, and the Germans <i>Halbaffen</i>,
+in allusion to their forming a transition from monkeys to ordinary
+quadrupeds. For the same reason they are called <i>Prosimiæ</i> by
+some systematic writers. When the name was bestowed by
+Linnæus only five species were known, of which one, <i>L. volans</i>,
+Linn. (<i>Galeopithecus volans</i> of modern writers), is now removed by
+common consent from the group. Notwithstanding the discovery
+of many new and curious forms, the Lemurs remain a very natural
+and circumscribed division of the animal kingdom, though no longer
+considered a single genus, but divided up into many genera and
+even families.</p>
+
+<p>The existing species are not numerous, and do not diverge
+widely in their organisation or habits, being all of small or moderate
+size, all adapted to an arboreal life, climbing with ease, and, as they
+find their living, which consists of fruits, leaves, birds’ eggs, small
+birds, reptiles, and insects, among the branches of the trees, they
+rarely have occasion to descend to the ground. None are aquatic,
+and none burrow in the earth. Many of the species, although by no
+means all, are nocturnal in their habits, spending the day in sleeping
+in holes, or rolled up in a ball, perched on a horizontal branch,
+or in the fork of a tree, and seeking their food by night. Their
+geographical distribution is very peculiar; by far the larger proportion
+of species, including all those to which the term “Lemur”
+is now especially restricted, being exclusively inhabitants of Madagascar,
+where they are so abundant and widely distributed that it
+is said by M. Grandidier, who has contributed more than any other
+traveller to enrich our knowledge of the structure and manners of
+these animals, that there is not a little wood in the whole island
+in which some of them cannot be found. From Madagascar as a
+centre a few species less typical in character extend through the
+African continent westward as far as Senegambia, and others are
+found in the Oriental region as far east as the Philippine Islands
+and Celebes.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the essential characters by which the suborder
+as a whole is distinguished from the Anthropoidea. Skull<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_683"></a>[683]</span>
+with the orbit opening freely into the temporal fossa beneath the
+postorbital bar (except in <i>Tarsius</i>); and the lachrymal foramen
+situated externally to the margin of the orbit (<a href="#figure327">Fig. 327</a>). The
+pollex and hallux are always well developed, the latter being
+especially large; the second or index digit of the manus may be
+rudimentary; while in the pes the second digit invariably terminates
+in a long pointed claw. The cerebral hemispheres do not
+completely overlap the cerebellum, and are but slightly convoluted.
+The uterus is bicornuate. The placenta is non-deciduate, and either
+diffused or bell shaped—the whole of the chorion except the
+cephalic pole being covered with villi; and the allantois is of very
+great size. There may be abdominal mammæ. Except in <i>Chiromys</i>,
+the first pair of upper incisors are separated in the middle line.
+In marked contrast to the Anthropoidea, the middle or transverse
+portion of the colon is almost always folded or convoluted on
+itself. (See <a href="#figure324">Fig. 324</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>In subdividing the group for the purpose of a more detailed
+description of the different animals of which it is composed it must
+first be noted that there are two very aberrant forms, each represented
+by a single species—the little <i>Tarsius</i> of the Indian archipelago,
+and the singular <i>Chiromys</i> or Aye-aye, which, though an
+inhabitant of Madagascar, the headquarters of the suborder, and living
+in the same forests and under the same external conditions as the
+most typical Lemurs, exhibits a most remarkable specialisation in
+the structure of its limbs and teeth, the latter being modified so as
+to resemble, at least superficially, those of the Rodents, in which
+order it was once placed. The differences between these two forms
+and the remaining Lemurs are so great that the whole suborder
+naturally divides itself into three families, the first of which may
+be again divided into four subfamilies.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Lemuridæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Upper incisors two on each side, small and separated by an
+interval in the middle line. Upper canine large, conical, compressed,
+and pointed. Premolars two or three, molars three on
+each side above and below, with numerous more or less pointed
+cusps. In the front of the lower jaw are on each side two or three
+closely approximated, long, slender teeth lying almost horizontally
+and projecting forwards. These are generally considered to represent
+the incisors and canine, but there is some doubt about their
+homologies, and they may be all considered as incisors, the canine
+being absent. The first lower premolar larger than those behind
+it, and shaped like a canine, of which it performs the function
+(<a href="#figure327">Fig. 327</a>). The orbit and temporal fossa widely continuous beneath
+the bar of bone (formed by the frontal and jugal) constituting the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_684"></a>[684]</span>
+posterior boundary of the former cavity. The fibula well developed
+and distinct from the tibia. All the digits of both feet (except the
+second of the hind foot) with flat nails, and corresponding form of
+ungual phalanges.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Indrisinæ</b>.—The dentition of the adult consists of
+thirty teeth, usually expressed by the formula <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃;
+but, as indicated above, they may be <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. In the
+milk-dentition there are twenty-two teeth, the true molars of course
+not being represented, but there are two additional teeth in the
+fore part of the lower jaw which have no successors in the permanent
+series. Hind limbs greatly developed, but the tarsus normal.
+Hallux of large size, and very opposable. The other toes united
+at their base by a fold of skin, which extends as far as the end of
+the first phalanx. Mammæ two, pectoral. Cæcum very large, and
+colon extremely long and spirally coiled.</p>
+
+<p>The animals of this group are, as their organisation indicates,
+essentially arboreal, and feed exclusively on fruit, leaves, buds, and
+flowers. They are restricted geographically to the island of
+Madagascar. Among them are the largest members of the suborder.
+A detailed and beautifully illustrated account of their
+characters, external and internal, and distribution and habits,
+is given in the <i>Histoire Naturelle de Madagascar</i>, by A. Grandidier
+and Alphonse Milne-Edwards (1875). The species are not numerous
+and are distributed into three genera.</p>
+
+<p><i>Indris.</i><a id="FNanchor_641" href="#Footnote_641" class="fnanchor">[641]</a>—Upper incisors subequal in size. Upper canine larger
+than the first premolar. Muzzle moderately long. Ears exserted.
+Carpus without an os centrale. Tail rudimentary. Vertebræ:
+C 7, D 12, L 9, S 4, C 9.</p>
+
+<p>The only well-established species is the Indris (<i>I. brevicaudata</i>,
+<a href="#figure325">Fig. 325</a>), discovered by Sonnerat in 1780. It is the largest of
+the Lemurs, the length of the head and body being about 2 feet,
+and the tail 2 inches. It is very variable in colour, for although
+usually nearly black, marked with whitish spots principally in the
+lumbar region and forearm, individuals have been found quite
+white. It inhabits exclusively the forests of a part of the east
+coast of Madagascar, living in small troops of four or five in number,
+and resembling in most of its habits the animals of the next genus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Propithecus.</i><a id="FNanchor_642" href="#Footnote_642" class="fnanchor">[642]</a>—Second upper incisor much smaller than the first.
+Upper canine larger than the first premolar. Muzzle rather short.
+Ears short, concealed by the fur. An os centrale in the carpus.
+Tail long. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 8, S 3, C 28.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="figure325" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure325.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 325.</span>—Indris (<i>Indris brevicaudata</i>). From Milne-Edwards and Grandidier,
+<i>Mammifères de Madagascar</i>, pl. 12.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The species are all subject to great variations in colour, which
+has led to much difficulty in discriminating them, and to much
+confusion of synonymy. Grandidier and Milne-Edwards recognise<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_685"></a>[685]</span>
+three as certainly distinct—<i>P. diadema</i>, <i>P. verreauxii</i>, and <i>P.
+coronatus</i> (<a href="#figure326">Fig. 326</a>). Some of these are to be found in almost
+every part of the island of Madagascar, living in the woods in small
+bands of six or eight together, and feeding exclusively on buds,
+flowers, and berries. Their powerful hind limbs enable them to
+leap from tree to tree, often to a distance of 10 yards, without any
+apparent effort, and thus seeming to fly through the air. When
+obliged to descend to the ground to pass from one clump of trees
+to another they do not run on all fours, but stand erect, and
+throwing their arms above their heads progress by a series of short
+jumps, producing an effect which is described by travellers who
+have seen them thus in their native haunts as exceedingly ludicrous.
+They are not nocturnal, but most active in the morning and evening,
+remaining seated or coiled up among the branches during the
+heat of the day. They are naturally of a quiet and gentle disposition,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_686"></a>[686]</span>
+and do not show much intelligence. All the species are also
+less vociferous than the true Lemurs, only when alarmed or angered
+making a noise which has been compared to the clucking of a fowl.
+Like the rest of the subfamily they never have more than a single
+young one at a time.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp51" id="figure326" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure326.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 326.</span>—<i>Propithecus coronatus.</i> (From Milne-Edwards and Grandidier, <i>Mammifères de
+Madagascar</i>, pl. 7.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Avahis.</i><a id="FNanchor_643" href="#Footnote_643" class="fnanchor">[643]</a>—Second upper incisor larger than the first. Upper
+canine scarcely larger than the first premolar. Muzzle very short.
+Ears very small and hidden in the fur, which is very soft and
+woolly. Carpus without an os centrale. Tail long. Vertebræ: C 7,
+D 11, L 9, S 3, C 23.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_687"></a>[687]</span></p>
+
+<p>One species, <i>A. laniger</i>, the Woolly Lemur, or Avahis, considerably
+smaller than any of the last genus. It differs from them in
+its habits, being quite nocturnal, and not associating in small troops,
+but being always met with either alone or in pairs. It is very
+slow in its movements, and rarely descends to the ground, but
+when it does it walks upright like the other <i>Indrisinæ</i>. It is found
+throughout the forests which clothe the mountains on the east coast
+of Madagascar, and also in a limited district on the north-west
+coast, the specimens from the latter locality being of smaller size
+and rather different in colour.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Lemurinæ</b>.—The dentition in the adult consists of
+thirty-six teeth, which, as usually enumerated, are <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃.
+In the fore part of the lower jaw are on each side three elongated,
+compressed, procumbent teeth, of which the outer, usually considered
+the homologue of the canine, is larger than the others. All
+the forms have long tails. Hind limbs not of the same disproportionate
+size as in the last group; and the cæcum much less developed.
+Tarsus but slightly elongated, the calcaneum being always
+less than one-fourth the length of the tibia. Toes of the hind feet
+free to the base. Habitat, Madagascar, and some of the adjacent
+Comoro Islands.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure327" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure327.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 327.</span>—Skull of Ring-tailed Lemur (<i>Lemur catta</i>). × ⅓; <i>uc</i>,
+Upper canine; <i>lc</i>, lower canine; <i>pm</i>, premolars; <i>m</i>, molars.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This group contains the typical Lemurs, or rather those to
+which the term is now chiefly restricted. Two somewhat aberrant
+members make it necessary to divide it into three genera.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lemur.</i><a id="FNanchor_644" href="#Footnote_644" class="fnanchor">[644]</a>—Upper incisors separated by an interval in the middle,
+and not in contact with each other or the canine, in front of which
+they are both placed. Muzzle elongated. Ears conspicuous and
+tufted. Mammæ two, pectoral. Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 7 (or D
+13, L 6), S 3, C 27.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp56" id="figure328" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure328.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 328.</span>—The Ring-tailed Lemur (<i>Lemur catta</i>).</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Animals much about the size of a common Cat, with Fox-like
+faces, soft thick fur, and long tails well clothed with hair. Not
+having the same
+disproportionate
+size of the limbs
+as the last group,
+they are much
+more quadrupedal
+in their
+actions, walking
+on the ground
+or running along
+the branches of
+trees on all four
+feet, but also
+jumping with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_688"></a>[688]</span>
+marvellous agility. They are gregarious, living in small troops,
+are diurnal in their habits, but most active towards evening, when
+they make the woods resound with their loud cries. They feed
+not only on fruits and buds, but also on eggs, young birds,
+and insects. When at rest or sleeping they generally coil
+their long, bushy tails around their bodies, apparently for the
+sake of the warmth it affords. They have either one or two
+young ones at a birth, which are at first nearly naked, and are
+carried about, hanging close to and almost concealed by the hair of
+the mother’s belly. After a while they change their position and
+mount upon the mother’s back, where they are carried about until
+they are able to climb and leap by themselves. Though no member
+of the <i>Indrisinæ</i> has as yet lived long enough in captivity to be
+brought alive to Europe, various species of <i>Lemurinæ</i> are commonly
+seen in menageries, and often breed in England. They present a
+great tendency to variation in their colouring, in consequence of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_689"></a>[689]</span>
+which many nominal species have been made. The most distinct, and
+at the same time most beautiful, is the Ring-tailed Lemur (<i>L. catta</i>,
+<a href="#figure328">Fig. 328</a>), of a delicate gray colour, and with a long tail marked
+with alternating rings of black and white. This is said by Mr. G.
+A. Shaw<a id="FNanchor_645" href="#Footnote_645" class="fnanchor">[645]</a> to be an exception to all the other Lemurs in not being
+arboreal, but living chiefly among rocks and bushes. Pollen, however,
+says that it inhabits the forests of the south-west parts of
+Madagascar, living, like its congeners, in considerable troops, and
+not differing from them in its habits. He adds that it is extremely
+gentle, and active and graceful in its movements, and utters at
+intervals a little plaintive cry like that of a domestic cat. All the
+others have the tail of uniform colour. The largest species is <i>L.
+varius</i>, the Ruffed Lemur, sometimes black and white, and sometimes
+reddish-brown, the variation apparently not depending on
+sex or age, but on the individual. In <i>L. macaco</i> the male is black
+and the female red. <i>L. mongoz</i>, <i>L. collaris</i>, and <i>L. albifrons</i> are
+other well-known species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hapalemur.</i><a id="FNanchor_646" href="#Footnote_646" class="fnanchor">[646]</a>—Upper incisors very small, subequal, separated
+widely in the middle line. Those of either side in contact with each
+other and with the canine, the posterior one being placed on the
+inside, and not in front of the latter. Muzzle very short and
+truncated. Mammæ four. There is apparently but one species,
+<i>H. griseus</i>, smaller than any of the true Lemurs, of a dark gray
+colour, with round face and short ears. It is quite nocturnal, and
+lives chiefly among bamboos, subsisting on the young shoots. A
+second species has been named <i>H. simus</i>, but it is doubtful if it is
+more than a variety.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lepidolemur.</i><a id="FNanchor_647" href="#Footnote_647" class="fnanchor">[647]</a>—Upper incisors absent or rudimentary. Muzzle
+more elongated than in the last. No distinct os centrale in the
+carpus. <i>L. mustelinus</i> is the best-known species. It has, at all
+events when adult, no upper incisors. It is rare, and like
+<i>Hapalemur</i> nocturnal in its habits. A second closely allied species,
+but with better developed premaxillæ, containing a pair of small
+styliform incisors, has been described by Peters<a id="FNanchor_648" href="#Footnote_648" class="fnanchor">[648]</a> under the name
+of <i>Myxocebus caniceps</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Galaginæ</b>.—Dentition as in <i>Lemurinæ</i>, from which
+the members of this subfamily are distinguished by the elongation
+of the tarsus, caused by a peculiar modification of the calcaneum
+and the navicular, the distal portion of the former and the whole
+of the latter having the form of almost cylindrical rods placed side
+by side, while the other bones retain nearly their normal form and
+proportion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_690"></a>[690]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Chirogaleus.</i><a id="FNanchor_649" href="#Footnote_649" class="fnanchor">[649]</a>—Last upper premolar very much smaller than the
+first molar, with only one external cusp. The animals included
+under this name appear to form a transition between the true
+Lemurs and the Galagos. The genus was originally established by
+Geoffroy St. Hilaire in 1812 for the reception of three species
+only known at that time by drawings made in Madagascar by the
+traveller Commerson. Subsequent discoveries have brought to
+light several others that may be referred to it, including one or
+two which are sometimes considered as forming a genus apart under
+the name of <i>Microcebus</i>. They are all small, some being less than
+a rat in size, long-tailed, and nocturnal in their habits. One of the
+largest, <i>C. furcifer</i>, is of a reddish-gray colour, and distinguished
+by a dark median stripe on its back which divides on the top of
+the head into two branches, one of which passes forwards above
+each eye. The most interesting peculiarity of these animals, a
+knowledge of which we owe to M. Grandidier, is that certain species
+(<i>C. samati</i>, <i>C. gliroides</i>, <i>C. milii</i>, etc.) during the dry season coil themselves
+up in holes of trees and pass into a state of torpidity like
+that of the hibernating animals in the winter of northern climates.
+Before this takes place an immense deposit of fat accumulates
+upon certain parts of the body, especially upon the basal portion of
+the tail, which has then dimensions corresponding to that of the
+well-known fat-tailed Sheep of the Cape, but which by the time
+they emerge from their torpor has acquired its normal proportions.
+The smallest species, to which many names have been given
+(<i>C. pusillus</i>, <i>rufus</i>, <i>smithi</i>, etc.), lives among the small branches on
+the tops of the highest trees, feeding on fruit and insects, and
+making nests which resemble those of birds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Galago.</i><a id="FNanchor_650" href="#Footnote_650" class="fnanchor">[650]</a>—Last upper premolar with two large external cusps,
+and nearly equalling the first molar in size. Calcaneum about one-third
+the length of the tibia, and the navicular much longer than
+the cuboid. Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 3, C 22-26. Tail long,
+and generally bushy. Ears large, rounded, naked, and capable of
+being folded at the will of the animal. Mammæ four, two pectoral
+and two inguinal.</p>
+
+<p>The Galagos differ from all the Lemuroids previously mentioned,
+inasmuch as they are inhabitants, not of Madagascar, but of the
+African continent, being widely distributed in the wooded districts
+from Senegambia in the west to Abyssinia in the east, and as far
+south as Natal. They pass the day in sleep, but are very active at
+night, feeding on fruit, insects, and small birds. When they
+descend to the ground they sit upright, and move about by jumping
+with their hind legs, like jerboas and kangaroos. They are
+pretty little animals, varying in size from that of a small cat to less
+than a rat, with large eyes and ears, soft woolly fur, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_691"></a>[691]</span>long tails.
+There are several species, of which <i>G. crassicaudatus</i>, from Mozambique,
+is the largest. A similar species, or perhaps variety, from
+Angola is <i>G. montieri</i>. <i>G. garnetti</i>, <i>alleni</i>, <i>maholi</i>, <i>demidoffi</i>, and
+<i>senegalensis</i> are other recognised species. The last-mentioned was
+the first known to science, having been brought from Senegal by
+Adanson, and described in 1796 by Geoffroy, who adopted the
+name <i>Galago</i>, by which it was said to be called by the natives.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Lorisinæ</b>.—Dental formula as in <i>Lemurinæ</i>. Index
+finger very short, sometimes rudimentary and nailless. Fore and
+hind limbs nearly equal in length. Tarsus not specially elongated.
+Pollex and hallux diverging widely from the other digits, the hallux
+especially being habitually directed backwards. Tail short or quite
+rudimentary. Mammæ two, pectoral.</p>
+
+<p>A small group of very peculiar animals, of essentially nocturnal
+habits, and remarkable for the slowness of their movements. They
+are completely arboreal, their limbs being formed only for climbing
+and clinging to branches, not for jumping or running. They have
+rounded heads, very large eyes, short ears, and thick, short, soft
+fur. They feed not only on vegetable substances, but, like many
+of the <i>Lemuridæ</i>, on insects, eggs, and also birds, which they steal
+upon while roosting at night. None of the species are found in
+Madagascar. One of the greatest anatomical peculiarities of these
+animals is the breaking up of the large arterial trunks of the limbs
+into numerous small parallel branches, constituting a <i>rete mirabile</i>,
+which is found also in the Sloths, with which the Loris are sometimes
+confounded on account of the slowness of their movements.
+The animals of this group are usually divided into four genera,
+though the characters by which they are separated are very trivial.
+There are more properly two natural divisions.</p>
+
+<p><i>A.</i> Characterised by the index finger being small, but having
+the complete number of phalanges, and by their Asiatic habitat.</p>
+
+<p>These form the genus <i>Loris</i> of Geoffroy St. Hilaire (1796),
+<i>Stenops</i> of Illiger (1811), but they were in 1812 divided by Geoffroy
+into two genera, <i>Nycticebus</i> and <i>Loris</i>, a division which has been
+accepted by most modern zoologists.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nycticebus.</i><a id="FNanchor_651" href="#Footnote_651" class="fnanchor">[651]</a>—First upper incisor larger than the second, which
+is often early deciduous. Inner margins of the orbits separated
+from each other by a narrow flat space. Nasal and premaxillary
+bones projecting but very slightly in front of the maxillæ. Body
+and limbs stout. No external tail. Vertebræ: C 7, D 17, L 6, S 3,
+C 12. The species are <i>N. tardigradus</i>, the common Slow Lemur or
+Loris, of the Malay Countries, Sumatra, and Borneo; <i>N. javanicus</i>,
+of Java; and <i>N. cinereus</i> (<a href="#figure329">Fig. 329</a>) of Siam and Cochin China. The
+habits of all are much alike. They lead a solitary life in the
+recesses of large forests, chiefly in mountainous districts, where<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_692"></a>[692]</span> they
+sleep during the day in holes or fissures of large trees, rolled up
+into a ball, with the head between the hind legs. On the approach
+of evening they awake; and during the night they ramble among
+the branches of trees, slowly and quietly, in search of their food,
+which consists of tender leaves and fruit, small birds, insects, and
+mice. When in quest of living prey they move noiselessly till quite
+close, and then suddenly seize it with one of their hands. The
+female produces but one young one at a time. <i>L. tardigradus</i> was
+placed by Linnæus at the head of the list of species of his genus
+<i>Lemur</i>, and its habits doubtless suggested the generic name which
+was transferred by Geoffroy to the less nocturnal and spectre-like
+Madagascar members of the group.<a id="FNanchor_652" href="#Footnote_652" class="fnanchor">[652]</a></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp96" id="figure329" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure329.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 329.</span>—The Gray Loris (<i>Nycticebus cinereus</i>). From A. Milne-Edwards, <i>N. Archives
+du Muséum</i>, vol iii. pl 3.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Loris</i>.<a id="FNanchor_653" href="#Footnote_653" class="fnanchor">[653]</a>—Upper incisors very small and equal. Orbits very large,
+and only separated in the middle line above by a thin vertical plate
+of bone. Nasals and premaxillæ produced forwards considerably
+beyond the anterior limits of the maxillæ, and supporting a pointed
+nose. Body and limbs slender. No external tail. Vertebræ: C 7,
+D 14, L 9, S 3, C 6. This genus is represented only by the Slender
+Loris (<i>L. gracilis</i>) of Southern India and Ceylon (<a href="#figure330">Fig. 330</a>). This
+species is common in some of the forest regions of Southern India,
+and may be purchased in the bazaars at Madras, its eyes being
+regarded as a remedy by the natives for ophthalmic diseases. It is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_693"></a>[693]</span>
+a strange-looking creature, about the size of a squirrel, of a
+yellowish-brown colour, with large, prominent eyes, pointed nose,
+long thin body, long, angularly bent, slender limbs, and no tail.
+Its habits, according to Mr. W. T. Blanford,<a id="FNanchor_654" href="#Footnote_654" class="fnanchor">[654]</a> are “very similar
+to those of
+<i>Nycticebus tardigradus</i>,
+except
+that the Slender
+Loris is rather
+quicker in its
+movements,
+though still slow
+in general. Like
+its ally, it is
+purely nocturnal
+and arboreal,
+living upon
+shoots and young
+leaves, insects,
+birds’ eggs, birds,
+and lizards. It
+is said to be very
+fond of honey or
+syrup. It sleeps
+rolled up in a
+ball with its head between its legs, grasping its perch with its arms.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp81" id="figure330" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure330.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 330.</span>—The Slender Loris (<i>Loris gracilis</i>). From Blanford,
+<i>Mammalia of British India</i>, p. 47.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>B.</i> Index fingers reduced to a mere tubercle without nail. Both
+the known species are from West Africa.</p>
+
+<p><i>Perodicticus.</i><a id="FNanchor_655" href="#Footnote_655" class="fnanchor">[655]</a>—A short tail, about a third of the length of the
+trunk. Two or three of the anterior dorsal vertebræ have very
+long slender spinous processes which in the living animal project
+beyond the general level of the skin, forming distinct conical prominences,
+covered only by an exceedingly thin and naked integument.
+The Potto, <i>P. potto</i>, is one of the oldest known members of
+the lemuroid group, having been described in 1705 by Bosman,
+who met with it in his voyage to Guinea. It was, however, lost
+sight of until 1825, when it was rediscovered in Sierra Leone, and
+fully described by Bennett in 1830 under the name of <i>Perodicticus
+geoffroyi</i>. Bennett’s generic name has been retained, but the specific
+name bestowed by Gmelin, adopted from Bosman, has been restored.
+It is also found in the Gaboon. It is strictly nocturnal, and slower
+in its movements even than <i>Nycticebus tardigradus</i>, which otherwise
+it much resembles in its habits.</p>
+
+<p>A second species, the Awantibo (<i>P. calabarensis</i>), rather smaller<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_694"></a>[694]</span>
+and more delicately made, with smaller hands and feet and rudimentary
+tail, constitutes the genus <i>Arctocebus</i> of Gray. It is found
+at Old Calabar, and is very rare, only a few individuals having as
+yet been met with. Vertebræ: C 7, D 15, L 7, S 3, C 9.<a id="FNanchor_656" href="#Footnote_656" class="fnanchor">[656]</a></p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Tarsiidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 34. The first upper
+incisor large, and in contact with its fellow of the opposite side.
+Canine of moderate size. Molars with numerous pointed cusps.
+Lower canine semi-erect, its apex diverging from that of the single
+incisor. First lower premolar smaller than those behind it. Orbit
+to a large extent separated from the temporal fossa by a bony
+partition. Fibula slender, with its lower half confluent with the
+tibia. Second and third digits of the hind foot with compressed
+claws; all the other digits of both feet with flat nails. Calcaneum
+and navicular bone of the foot elongated as in the Chirogales and
+Galagos, but to a still greater extent. Colon short and not folded.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 13, L 6, S 3, C 27.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tarsius.</i><a id="FNanchor_657" href="#Footnote_657" class="fnanchor">[657]</a>—The family contains the single genus <i>Tarsius</i>, of
+which but one species is known, <i>T. spectrum</i>, the Tarsier, a very
+singular little animal, rather smaller than an English squirrel, with
+very large eyes and ears, a long thin tail, tufted at the end, and
+immensely elongated tarsal portion of the foot, in allusion to which
+its generic name was given to it. It inhabits the forests of many
+of the islands of the Indo-Malayan archipelago, including Sumatra,
+Borneo, Celebes, and some of the Philippines, feeds chiefly on insects
+and lizards, sleeps during the day, but is tolerably active at night,
+moving chiefly by jumping from place to place, an action for which
+the structure of its hind legs, which present a curious resemblance
+to those of a frog, seems particularly well adapted. It is rare, not
+more than two being generally found together, and only brings
+forth one young at a time.<a id="FNanchor_658" href="#Footnote_658" class="fnanchor">[658]</a></p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Chiromyidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Dentition of adult: <i>i</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>c</i> ⁰⁄₀, <i>p</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 18. Incisors very
+large, compressed, curved, with persistent pulps and enamel only in
+front, as in Rodents. Teeth of cheek series with flat, very indistinctly
+tuberculated crowns. In the young the first set of teeth
+more resemble those of the normal lemurs, being <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_695"></a>[695]</span></i> ¹⁄₀, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂, all
+very small. Orbit surrounded by a ring of bone posteriorly, beneath
+which it communicates freely with the temporal fossa. Fibula well
+developed and distinct from the tibia. All the digits of both feet
+with pointed rather compressed claws, except the hallux, which has
+a flattened nail. Middle digit of the hand excessively attenuated.
+Vertebræ: C 7, D 12, L 6, S 3, C 27.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure331" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure331.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 331.</span>—Skull of Aye-aye (<i>Chiromys madagascariensis</i>). × ⅙
+Mus. Roy. Coll. Surgeons.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Chiromys.</i><a id="FNanchor_659" href="#Footnote_659" class="fnanchor">[659]</a>—This family, like the last, is formed for the reception
+of a single genus, <i>Chiromys</i>,<a id="FNanchor_660" href="#Footnote_660" class="fnanchor">[660]</a> containing one species, <i>C. madagascariensis</i>,
+the Aye-aye, an animal about the size of a cat, with a
+broad rounded head, short face, and large and naked ears. It has
+very large hands and long thin fingers with pointed claws, one of
+which (the middle
+or third) is remarkable
+for its extreme
+slenderness. The
+foot resembles that
+of the other lemurs
+in its large opposable
+hallux, with a flat
+nail, but all the
+other toes have
+pointed compressed
+claws, like that of
+the second toe in
+the <i>Lemurinæ</i> and
+the second and third
+in the <i>Tarsiidæ</i>. Tail
+long and bushy. General colour dark brown, the outer fur being
+long and rather loose, with a woolly undercoat. Mammæ two,
+inguinal in position. It is a native of Madagascar, where it was
+discovered by Sonnerat in 1780. The specimen brought to Paris by
+that traveller was the only one known until 1860. Since then many
+others have been obtained, and they may frequently be seen living in
+the gardens of the Zoological Society of London. Like so many of
+the Lemurs, the Aye-aye is completely nocturnal in its habits, living
+either alone or in pairs, chiefly in the bamboo forests. Observations
+upon captive specimens have led to the conclusion that it feeds principally
+on succulent juices, especially of the sugar-cane, which it obtains
+by tearing open the hard woody circumference of the stalk with its
+strong incisor teeth. It is said also to devour certain species of
+wood-boring caterpillars, which it obtains by first cutting down<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_696"></a>[696]</span>
+with its teeth upon their burrows, and then picking them out
+of their retreat with the claw of its attenuated middle finger. It
+constructs large ball-like nests of dried leaves, lodged in a fork
+of the branches of a tree with the opening on one side. The
+resemblance of its teeth to those so characteristic of the Rodentia
+caused it to be placed formerly in that order, and it was only when
+its anatomical characters were fully known that its true affinities
+with the Lemurs became apparent.<a id="FNanchor_661" href="#Footnote_661" class="fnanchor">[661]</a></p>
+
+<h4><i>Extinct</i> <span class="smcap">Lemuroids</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>The discoveries of the last few years have revealed the former
+existence, both in Europe and North America, of a number of
+extinct animals more or less closely allied to the living Lemurs,
+which are of especial interest as showing in some instances characters
+of a more generalised type than is the case with the living
+representatives of the suborder. It is, however, in some cases very
+difficult to determine whether these extinct forms should be referred
+to the Lemuroidea or Insectivora; and if those naturalists are right
+who regard these groups as survivors of a very generalised ancestral
+type of mammalian organisation, it is to be expected that as we
+recede in time we should find that the two groups show more and
+more marked signs of a natural connection. The earliest reference
+of one of these extinct Upper Eocene types to the Primates was
+made in 1862 by Professor L. Rütimeyer, of Basle, who described
+part of an upper jaw with three teeth from the so-called Bohnerz
+of Egerkingen, near Soleure in Switzerland, under the name of
+<i>Cænopithecus lemuroides</i>, regarding the animal to which the specimen
+belonged as partaking of the characters both of the Lemurs and the
+American Monkeys. Most other palæontologists refused, however,
+to accept this determination, and it was not until many years
+later that the researches of Gaudry and Filhol showed not only
+that <i>Cænopithecus</i> was indeed a true Lemuroid, but also that it was
+either identical with or closely allied to a form described by Cuvier
+in the early part of this century under the name of <i>Adapis</i> and
+regarded as referable to the Ungulata. Later researches have
+brought to light other Lemuroids in the Tertiaries of both the Old
+and the New World; and it is very noteworthy that all these types
+seem to have disappeared from both regions with the close of the
+upper portion of the Eocene period.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure332" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure332.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 332.</span>—The last five right upper cheek-teeth of <i>Microchœrus
+antiquus</i> (<i>A</i>) and <i>Microchœrus erinaceus</i> (<i>B</i>). Twice
+natural size, and natural size.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Among the more interesting of the forms which are generally
+regarded as true Lemuroids we may first mention a small species
+from the Quercy Phosphorites, of which the hinder cheek-teeth are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_697"></a>[697]</span>
+shown in <a href="#figure332">Fig. 332</a>, <i>A</i>, which was originally described as <i>Necrolemur
+antiquus</i>, but appears to be generically identical with <i>Microchœrus
+erinaceus</i>, of the upper Eocene of Hampshire, of which the corresponding
+teeth are shown in <i>B</i> of the same figure. In this genus,
+according to Dr. Schlosser, the dental formula is <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃,
+or the same as in the existing <i>Tarsius</i>; but it is not improbable that
+in some instances the first lower premolar may have been developed.
+The upper molars of <i>M. erinaceus</i> differ from those of <i>M. antiquus</i>
+by the simpler structure of their columns and the smaller size of
+the external cingulum, which lacks the median cusp found in the
+latter. The angle of the mandible is produced into a large hook-like
+flange which at once
+distinguishes the genus
+from all existing Lemurs;
+and the anterior lower
+premolar is not canine-like.
+<i>M. antiquus</i> is of
+very small size, but the
+larger <i>M. edwardsi</i> of the
+same deposits comes
+nearer in dimensions to
+<i>M. erinaceus</i>. The upper
+molars decrease in size
+from the first to the third, the first and second having a median
+cusp in the external cingulum, by which they are readily distinguished
+from the corresponding teeth of the under-mentioned
+genus <i>Hyopsodus</i>. The third upper molar differs from that of
+<i>Hyopsodus</i> by its small size and the abortion of its posterior columns.
+The skull approximates to that of the living genus <i>Galago</i>, exhibiting
+the same inflation of the auditory bulla. The upper molars
+are also not unlike one species of that genus, but the fourth upper
+premolar has but one outer cusp, as in <i>Chirogaleus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The small <i>Anaptomorphus</i>, from the North American Eocene,
+has a skull of about the same size as that of the smallest species of
+<i>Microchœrus</i>, but the dental formula is <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, and the
+upper molars are of the tritubercular type.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp100" id="figure333" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure333.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 333.</span>—The left upper cheek-teeth
+of <i>Adapis magna</i>, from the Upper Eocene
+of Hampshire.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The well-known <i>Adapis</i> (<i>Aphelotherium</i> or <i>Palæolemur</i>), of the
+Upper Eocene of France and England, differs from all existing
+Lemuroids in possessing four premolars<a id="FNanchor_662" href="#Footnote_662" class="fnanchor">[662]</a>; the dental formula being
+<i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. The fourth upper premolar has two outer cusps,
+and the upper molars (<a href="#figure333">Fig. 333</a>) resemble those of <i>Lepidolemur</i> and
+<i>Hapalemur</i>, while the lower canine is a well-developed tooth performing
+the usual function of biting against the canine of the upper
+jaw. The lower incisors have upright, spatulate crowns, as in the
+true Apes. The skull is said to approximate in contour to that of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_698"></a>[698]</span>
+<i>Propithecus</i>. The typical <i>A. parisiensis</i> is of comparatively small
+size, but the species of which the upper cheek-teeth are shown in
+the woodcut is of much larger dimensions. The skull of <i>A. magna</i>,
+which measures upwards of 4 inches in length, resembles that of
+<i>A. parisiensis</i> in its general characters, but is modified much in the
+way that the skulls of larger animals differ from the smaller ones of
+the same natural group. Thus the brain-chamber and orbits are
+relatively smaller, the face larger, the muscular crests more
+developed, and the constriction between
+the cerebral and the facial
+portion of the skull more marked.
+These modifications remove the skull
+in its general characters still farther
+from the existing Lemurs—so much
+so that M. Filhol refers it and the
+other species of <i>Adapis</i> to a distinct
+zoological type, intermediate between
+the lemurs and the pachyderms, to
+which he gives the name of <i>Pachylemuriens</i>,
+but later researches do not support this view. As
+mentioned above, it has been suggested that <i>Cænopithecus lemuroides</i>
+is inseparable from <i>Adapis parisiensis</i>, but the postero-internal
+column of the upper molars is said to be larger. The genera
+<i>Tomitherium</i> and <i>Notharctus</i>, of the Eocene of the United States,
+appear to be allied to <i>Adapis</i>, but the second has a larger lower
+canine. The same deposits have also yielded more or less imperfect
+remains of other forms departing more widely from the existing
+Lemuroid type. Of these <i>Hyopsodus</i>, of the Wasatch and Bridger
+Eocene of the United States, has the dental formula <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ⁴⁄₄,
+<i>m</i> ³⁄₅. The quadrituberculate upper molars have well-developed
+accessory intermediate columns (protoconule and metaconule), and
+thus resemble those of <i>Microchœrus</i>; the external surfaces of the
+outer columns of their teeth being flattened, with vertical ridges
+and a distinct cingulum. The third upper molar has its postero-internal
+column (hypocone) partly aborted, but is otherwise as well
+developed as the preceding molars. <i>Microsyops</i>, of the North
+American Eocene, appears to have been
+an allied form in which there were probably
+only three premolars.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="figure334" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure334.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 334.</span>—The right upper
+cheek-teeth of <i>Plesiadapis remensis</i>;
+from the Lowest Eocene of
+Rheims. × ³⁄₂. <i>p</i>, 3, 4, premolars;
+<i>m</i>, 1, 2, 3, molars. (From Osborn.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The genera <i>Protoadapis</i> and <i>Plesiadapis</i>,
+from the lowest Eocene of Rheims, may
+not improbably be regarded as primitive
+Lemuroids. The lower molars are quinquetubercular,
+and not unlike those of
+<i>Microsyops</i>; the dental formula of the
+lower jaw is <i>i</i> 2, <i>c</i> 1, <i>p</i> 3-4, <i>m</i> 3 in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_699"></a>[699]</span>
+first-named genus, but in the second the
+dentition is reduced to <i>i</i> ²⁄₁, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₀, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃. In <i>Plesiadapis</i> the lower
+and the first upper incisor are enlarged, the upper molars
+(<a href="#figure334">Fig. 334</a>) tritubercular, and the lower quadritubercular. <i>Indrodon</i>,
+of the lowest Eocene of the United States, resembles <i>Plesiadapis</i> in
+its tritubercular upper molars, and appears to have a nearly similar
+dental formula. <i>Mixodectes</i>, of the same deposits, was probably a
+more or less closely allied type. <i>Pelycodus</i> of the Wasatch Eocene
+of North America, in which the hallux was not opposable, and
+<i>Cryptopithecus</i> of the German Eocene, may be regarded as very
+generalised Lemuroids.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<p><i>Bibliography.</i>—Besides the works and memoirs on particular families and genera
+referred to above, see St. G. Mivart, “Notes on the Crania and Dentition of
+the <i>Lemuridæ</i>,” in <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1864 (pp. 611-648) and 1867 (pp. 960-975);
+Mivart and Murie, “On the Anatomy of the <i>Lemuroidea</i>,” in <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i>
+1872, vol. vii. pp. 1-113; W. Turner, “On the Placentation of the Lemurs,” in
+<i>Phil. Trans.</i> vol. clxvi. pp. 569-587; F. Pollen and D. C. Van Dam, <i>Recherches
+sur la Faune de Madagascar</i>. 2ᵐᵉ parte, “Mammifères,” 1868. For the fossil
+types see M. Schlosser, “Die Affen, Lemuren, etc., des Europäischen Tertiärs,”
+in <i>Beitr. Pal. Œstr-Ungar</i>, 1888.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<h3><i>Suborder</i> <span class="smcap">Anthropoidea</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>This suborder includes the whole of the remaining members of
+the Primates, namely, those animals commonly known as Marmosets,
+Monkeys, Baboons, and Apes, together with Man himself. The
+characters by which the Anthropoidea are distinguished as a whole
+from the Lemuroidea may be summarised as follows. Skull with
+the orbit separated from the temporal fossa by a vertical plate of
+bone joining the postorbital bar, and the lachrymal foramen situated
+within the margin of the orbit. Pollex sometimes rudimentary or
+absent; second digit of manus always well developed, and that of
+the pes usually with a flattened nail (not so in <i>Hapalidæ</i>). The
+cerebral hemispheres of the brain either completely or almost
+completely cover the cerebellum, and are much convoluted.
+Uterus not bicornuate. The placenta is deciduate and discoidal;
+and the allantois is small. There are never abdominal mammæ. As
+additional points of distinction from the Lemuroidea, it may be
+mentioned that the anterior cornu of the hyoid is shorter than the
+posterior; the inner pair of upper incisors are in contact in the
+middle line; and the transverse portion of the colon extends uninterruptedly
+across the abdomen.</p>
+
+<p>The Anthropoidea may be divided into the five families—<i>Hapalidæ</i>,
+<i>Cebidæ</i>, <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>, <i>Simiidæ</i>, and <i>Hominidæ</i>, of which the
+first and second are confined to the New, and the third and fourth
+to the Old World.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_700"></a>[700]</span></p>
+
+<p>In noticing some of the salient features in the external and
+internal structure of the Anthropoidea it will be found convenient
+to allude to all the members of the first four families as Apes, in
+contradistinction to Man. In respect to relative size the extremes
+are found in the Gorilla on the one hand and <i>Hapale</i> on the other;
+the difference in this respect between these two forms being greater
+than that between Man and a Squirrel. The relative proportions
+between the limbs and the body, and also between the fore and
+hind limbs, are subject to great variation. Thus in <i>Hylobates</i> and
+<i>Ateles</i> both pairs of limbs are much elongated; in the former case
+the pectoral being much longer than the pelvic pair (<a href="#figure335">Fig. 335</a>).
+In other cases, as in the Orang (<a href="#figure354">Fig. 354</a>), while the arms are very
+long, the legs are short; but in the subfamily <i>Cercopithecinæ</i> both
+pairs are short and subequal. Only in the <i>Hapalidæ</i> and some of
+the <i>Cebidæ</i> are the legs proportionately as long as in Man.</p>
+
+<p>The tail is as much as three times the length of the body in
+<i>Ateles</i>; while in the <i>Simiidæ</i> it is totally absent. In the majority
+of genera it is long in all the species; but in some cases, as in
+<i>Macacus</i>, it may be either long, short, or absent in the different
+species of a single genus.</p>
+
+<p>Equally marked variations occur in the shape of the head.
+Thus in <i>Ateles</i> it is rounded; while in the Orang it is elevated
+vertically; in <i>Chrysothrix</i> it is produced posteriorly; and in the
+Baboons (<i>Cynocephalus</i>) it is characterised by the great production
+of the muzzle and the terminal position of the nostrils, whereby a
+characteristic Dog-like form is assumed. The eyes are always
+directed forwards, and are never more separated from one another
+than in Man, although, as in <i>Chrysothrix</i>, they may be closer
+together. They are of very large size in <i>Nyctipithecus</i>, while in the
+Baboons they are relatively small in proportion to the size of the
+head. The ears are invariably well developed, and are usually
+pointed at their postero-superior angle. Those of man are characterised
+by the soft depending portion known as the “lobule,” of
+which there is a rudiment in the Gorilla. In the majority of Apes
+the nose is but very slightly prominent; but it attains an extraordinary
+development in <i>Nasalis larvatus</i>, and is scarcely less
+remarkable in <i>Semnopithecus roxellanæ</i> (<a href="#figure349">Fig. 349</a>). Among the
+Gibbons the Hoolock has a distinctly aquiline nose. The nostrils
+are terminal in the true Baboons; and while in all the Old World
+Apes they are approximated, in those of the New World they are
+separated by a broad septum. With the exception of the Orang,
+the lips of the Apes are thin.</p>
+
+<p>The pollex makes a nearer approach in form to the human
+thumb in the Chimpanzee than in any other Ape. Man differs
+from all the Apes in having the hallux frequently longer instead of
+shorter than the other digits of the foot. The hallux of the Orang<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_701"></a>[701]</span>
+is peculiar in having no nail, but in other cases the nail is flat; the
+nails of the other digits of the Apes are never quite flat, and in
+some of the <i>Cebidæ</i> they are decidedly compressed laterally, while
+in the <i>Hapalidæ</i> they assume the form of sharp and curved claws.</p>
+
+<p>All the Apes have the greater part of the body well clothed
+with hair. In the Gibbons and the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i> the buttocks have
+naked ischiatic callosities, which attain their greatest development
+in <i>Cynocephalus</i> and its allies. The male of the Orang has a well-developed
+beard, and in <i>Cercopithecus diana</i> there is long hair on the
+cheeks and chin, while in <i>Macacus silenus</i> the face is surrounded by
+a fringe of long hair, separated by an interval on the forehead.
+Long hair is found on the head in <i>Hapale œdipus</i> and in some species
+of <i>Semnopithecus</i>; while in the Bonnet Monkey (<i>Macacus sinicus</i>) it
+radiates in all directions from a central point on the vertex. Long
+hair clothes the shoulders in <i>Cynocephalus hamadryas</i> and <i>Hapale
+humeralifer</i>; and the end of the tail has a tuft in two species of
+<i>Cynocephalus</i> and in <i>Macacus sinicus</i>. Many of the African <i>Colobi</i>
+and some species of the Howlers have very long hair on the flanks;
+and in <i>Pithecia</i> this development of hair extends to the greater part
+of the body and the tail, <i>P. satanas</i> also having a long beard. In
+all the lower Apes the hairs on the arm and forearm are directed
+towards the hand quite down to the wrist; and the same arrangement
+obtains in <i>Hylobates</i>. In the other <i>Simiidæ</i>, however (as in
+man), the points of the hairs of the arm and forearm converge
+at the elbow. Darwin’s explanation of this peculiarity is that these
+Apes are accustomed to sit with the arms bent, so that the rain is
+thus enabled to run off at the elbow.</p>
+
+<p>In one species of <i>Hapale</i> the hair is of a silky texture, and in
+the South American <i>Eriodes</i>, and <i>Macacus tibetanus</i> (as in all the
+mammals inhabiting the arid and severe climate of Tibet) it becomes
+woolly.</p>
+
+<p>The development of very brilliant colours on the naked parts of
+the body, such as the face, sexual organs, and ischiatic callosities is
+a marked feature of many of the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i> and some other Apes.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of the long tail found in most forms, the
+general structure of the skeleton of the Apes is very similar to
+that of man, but there are marked differences in the form of the
+jaws and of the innominate bones. The proportion of the facial to
+the cranial region of the skull varies with the shape of the head,
+of which brief mention has already been made; the greatest
+development of the facial portion being in the Baboons. Curiously
+enough, some of the lower American Monkeys, and more especially
+<i>Chrysothrix</i>, have the greatest relative development of the cranial
+part of the skull of all the Apes; this character being, however,
+one common to all the smaller representatives of particular groups,
+and obviously necessary to provide the requisite amount of brain-space.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_702"></a>[702]</span>
+In the convexity of the frontal region of the skull the
+American forms, and more especially <i>Pithecia</i>, make the nearest
+approximation to man, and the same is true with regard to the
+occipital production, which is most developed in <i>Chrysothrix</i>. Most
+of the <i>Simiidæ</i> exhibit, however, a distinct convexity of the occiput,
+and thereby differ markedly from the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>, in which this
+region is flat. The rotundity of the cranium is obscured in the
+larger Apes, such as the Orang (<a href="#figure353">Fig. 353</a>) and Gorilla, by the
+development of prominent bony ridges for muscular attachment;
+these attaining their maximum in the males of the species last
+named, where the sagittal crests and the supraorbital ridges are
+very prominent. The mastoid process is always smaller in the
+Apes than in Man, and as it diminishes in size the petrosal tends
+to assume an inflated or bullate condition. The orbits in shape
+are most like that of Man in the Gorilla; and, in accordance with
+the size of the eyes, they are of enormous dimensions in <i>Nyctipithecus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The angle formed by the plane of the foramen magnum with
+that of the basicranial axis is subject to variation according to the
+degree of convexity of the occiput, but is generally smaller than in
+Man, although larger in <i>Chrysothrix</i>. There is an external bony
+meatus auditorius in Man, the <i>Simiidæ</i>, and the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>, but
+none in the <i>Cebidæ</i> and <i>Hapalidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The premaxillæ of the Apes are always large; and, except in
+the Chimpanzee, the premaxillo-maxillary suture persists until after
+the permanent dentition has been developed. The nasals are
+smaller and flatter than in Man, but are largest in <i>Mycetes</i>. The
+two rami of the mandible are invariably completely ankylosed at
+the symphysis in the adult. The Siamang (<i>Hylobates syndactylus</i>) is
+the only ape in which the mandibular symphysis slows a slight
+projection in front corresponding to the human chin. In <i>Mycetes</i>
+the angle of the mandible attains an enormous development (<a href="#figure338">Fig.
+338</a>) to protect the huge inflated basihyal. The frontal sinuses,
+though present, in the <i>Simiidæ</i>, are generally replaced in the
+<i>Cercopithecidæ</i> by a coarse diploë, but they are present in the
+<i>Cebidæ</i> and <i>Hapalidæ</i>, being especially large in <i>Cebus</i>. In fully
+adult individuals the cranial sutures become obliterated, the internasal
+suture disappearing at an early age in the <i>Simiidæ</i> and most
+of the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>. As in many Carnivora, the tentorium, or
+membrane separating the cerebrum from the cerebellum, may
+become ossified in some of the American forms.</p>
+
+<p>The number of the teeth in the Old World Apes is invariably the
+same as in Man, namely <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, total 32; but in the
+<i>Cebidæ</i> the cheek-teeth are <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃, and in the <i>Hapalidæ</i> <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂.
+It is probable that the two pairs of incisors correspond to the first
+and third of the typical series of three. In all Apes the dental
+series is interrupted by a diastema, and the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_703"></a>[703]</span> canines of the males
+are large. Man alone has an uninterrupted dental series of a
+horse-shoe-form, without prominent canines.</p>
+
+<p>According to recent researches the Chimpanzee and some of the
+other <i>Simiidæ</i> exhibit a more or less close approximation to the
+sigmoid curvature of the vertebral column which is so characteristic
+of Man, and there is also some approach to it in the Baboons.
+The number of dorsal vertebræ in the Apes may vary from eleven,
+as in some species of <i>Cercopithecus</i> and <i>Macacus</i>, to fourteen in
+certain forms of <i>Hylobates</i>, and to fifteen in <i>Nyctipithecus</i>. The
+<i>Cebidæ</i> generally have thirteen; and the same number obtains in
+the Chimpanzee and Gorilla, while the Orang resembles Man in
+having but twelve. The lumbar vertebræ show a range in number
+of from four to seven. In the <i>Simiidæ</i> there are four or five of
+these vertebræ, the length of the lumbar region being shorter in
+this family than in the other Apes, with the exception of <i>Ateles</i>.
+The shortness of the lumbar region in the last-named genus is
+compensated by the relative length of the dorsal region, as is
+shown in <a href="#figure335">Fig. 335</a>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp93" id="figure335" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure335.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 335.</span>—Skeleton of the Black-handed Spider Monkey (<i>Ateles geoffroyi</i>). From De Blainville.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The sacrum is longest in the <i>Simiidæ</i> and Man, its greatest
+absolute length occurring in the Gorilla, and the relative greatest
+length being found in <i>Hylobates</i>. The <i>Simiidæ</i> never have less than
+five, and may have six sacral vertebræ; while in the lower forms
+there are generally only two or three, although occasionally four in
+some of the American forms. The Orang and some of the Baboons
+make the nearest approximation to Man in the marked angle
+formed at the junction of the sacrum with the lumbar vertebræ.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_704"></a>[704]</span>
+Except in the <i>Simiidæ</i> and <i>Macacus inuus</i>, the number of caudal
+vertebræ in the Apes always exceeds four, but they may be
+reduced to five in the Mandrill (<i>Cynocephalus maimon</i>). In <i>Macacus</i>
+and <i>Uacaria</i> the shortness of the tail is attained by the small
+size of the vertebræ themselves, the number of which may be
+from fifteen to seventeen. Other forms usually have from twenty
+to thirty-three caudals, the latter number occurring in <i>Ateles</i>
+(<a href="#figure335">Fig. 335</a>), where the tail is relatively the longest. The tail is,
+however, absolutely longest in <i>Semnopithecus</i>, <i>Colobus</i>, and their
+allies, the length being partly due to the size of the component
+vertebræ. Chevron bones are present in all forms having a distinct
+tail; and, together with other processes for muscular attachment,
+attain their greatest development in <i>Ateles</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The vertebral processes known as metapophyses and anapophyses,
+which are generally inconspicuous in Man, and are but small in the
+<i>Simiidæ</i>, attain a large development in the lower forms. The
+metapophyses generally commence in the eighth or ninth dorsal,
+and continue to the anterior caudals, where they gradually merge
+in the prezygapophyses. The anapophyses, which are most developed
+in the <i>Cebidæ</i>, project outwards and backwards from one
+vertebra to embrace the prezygapophyses of the succeeding one.
+They occur generally in the same region as the metapophyses, but
+usually cease at the penultimate lumbar, although in some cases
+they can be traced on to the posterior cervicals and anterior
+caudals, in the latter region passing into the transverse processes.</p>
+
+<p>In most Apes the sternum is narrow, and consists of a more or
+less enlarged manubrium, followed by a chain of subequal and
+antero-posteriorly elongated bones, from three to six in number. In
+the <i>Simiidæ</i> alone is there a broad sternum, or one consisting of a
+manubrium, followed by a single bone only, as in <i>Hylobates</i>. The
+Orang presents a peculiarity, in that the sternum long remains
+made up of ossifications arranged in pairs, side by side, successively.
+The true ribs are seven in number on each side in the highest
+forms, but in <i>Hylobates</i> there are sometimes eight. In <i>Ateles</i> there
+are sometimes nine pairs. In <i>Hapale</i> the number varies from six
+to eight, and it is seven or eight in the other genera. The angles
+of the ribs are never so marked as in Man; although most marked
+in <i>Hylobates</i>. <i>Pithecia</i> is distinguished by the greater relative
+breadth of the ribs. In no Ape is the thorax half as broad again
+as it is deep from back to breast; but in the <i>Simiidæ</i> its transverse
+diameter exceeds its depth by from about one-fourth to a little
+under one-third of the latter. In <i>Ateles</i>, and sometimes in <i>Mycetes</i>,
+the thorax is wider than deep, but in all the rest it is deeper than
+wide.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the appendicular skeleton it may be observed that
+the Gorilla and Orang make the nearest approach to Man in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_705"></a>[705]</span>
+form of the scapula; and that the supraspinous fossa of this bone is
+largest in <i>Gorilla</i> and <i>Mycetes</i>, being remarkably small in <i>Simia</i>.
+The <i>Cebidæ</i> have a distinct suprascapular notch which is often
+converted by a bar of bone into a foramen; this bar in <i>Mycetes</i>
+giving rise to a peculiar flat process. The acromion and coracoid
+processes are most developed in the <i>Simiidæ</i> and <i>Ateles</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The relative length of the fore and hind limbs has been already
+briefly touched upon. The humerus closely resembles that of
+Man throughout the suborder; the nearest approximation occurring
+in the <i>Simiidæ</i>. As in the Lemuroidea, this bone never has an
+entepicondylar foramen, but in many of the American forms it has
+a supracondylar perforation. The radius and ulna, like the tibia
+and fibula, are always perfectly distinct throughout their length;
+and the hand can be pronated and supinated upon the forearm.
+Man, the Gorilla, and the Chimpanzee differ from other forms in
+having no os centrale in the carpus.</p>
+
+<p>The brain of Apes is always much smaller in absolute dimensions
+than in Man. Thus, according to Professor Mivart,<a id="FNanchor_663" href="#Footnote_663" class="fnanchor">[663]</a> “the cranial
+capacity is never less than 55 cubic inches in any normal human
+subject, while in the Orang and Chimpanzee it is but 26 and 27½
+cubic inches respectively. The relative size of the brain varies
+inversely with the size of the whole body, but this is the case in
+warm-blooded vertebrates generally. The extreme length of the
+cerebrum never exceeds, as it does in Man, two and a quarter times
+the length of the basicranial axis. The proportion borne by the
+brain to its nerves is less in the Apes than in Man, as also is that
+borne by the cerebrum to the cerebellum. In general structure
+and form the brain of Apes greatly resembles that of Man. Each
+half of the cerebrum contains a triradiate lateral ventricle, and
+though in some <i>Cercopithecidæ</i> the posterior cornu is relatively
+shorter than in man, it again becomes elongated in the <i>Cebidæ</i>, and
+in many of the latter it is actually longer relatively than it is in
+man. The posterior lobes of the cerebrum are almost always so
+much developed as to cover over the cerebellum, the only exceptions
+being the strangely different forms <i>Mycetes</i> and <i>Hylobates syndactylus</i>.
+In the latter the cerebellum is slightly uncovered, but it is so considerably
+in the former. In <i>Chrysothrix</i> the posterior lobes are much
+more largely developed relatively than they are in man. The
+cerebrum has almost always a convoluted external surface. In this
+group, however, as in mammals generally, a much-convoluted cerebrum
+is correlated with a considerable absolute bulk of body. Thus
+in <i>Hapale</i> (and there only) we find the cerebrum quite smooth, the
+only groove being that which represents the Sylvian fissure. In
+<i>Simia</i> and <i>Gorilla</i> and <i>Anthropopithecus</i>, on the contrary, it is very
+richly convoluted. A hippocampus minor is present in all Apes,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_706"></a>[706]</span>
+and in some of the <i>Cebidæ</i> it is much larger relatively than it is in
+Man, and is absolutely larger than the hippocampus major. Of all
+Apes, the Orang has a brain which is most like that of Man;
+indeed, it may be said to be like Man’s in all respects, save that it
+is much inferior in size and weight, and that the cerebrum is more
+symmetrically convoluted and less complicated with secondary and
+tertiary convolutions. If the brain of <i>Simia</i> be compared with that
+of <i>Gorilla</i> and <i>Anthropopithecus</i>, we find the height of the cerebrum
+in front greater in proportion in the former than in the latter; also
+the bridging convolutions, though small, are still distinguishable,
+while they are absent in the Chimpanzee. Nevertheless this
+character cannot be of much importance, since it reappears in <i>Ateles</i>,
+while two kinds of the genus <i>Cebus</i> (so closely allied as to have been
+sometimes treated as one species) differ strangely from each other
+in this respect. The corpus callosum, in Apes generally, does not
+extend so far back as in Man, and it is very short in <i>Pithecia</i>. In the
+Orang and Chimpanzee there are, as in Man, two corpora albicantia,
+while in the lower Monkeys there is but one. The vermis of the
+cerebellum is larger in the <i>Cebidæ</i> than in the <i>Simiidæ</i> and <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>.
+In all Apes below the <i>Simiidæ</i> each lateral lobe of the
+cerebellum gives off a small lobule, which is received into a special
+fossa of the petrous bone. Certain prominences of the medulla
+oblongata, termed corpora trapezoidea, which are found in lower
+mammals, begin to make their appearance in the <i>Cebidæ</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>The organs connected with the functions of alimentation, circulation,
+and excretion, as well as the muscles, conform generally to
+the type obtaining in Man, of which full description will be found
+in works on human anatomy. The tongue is longer in Apes than
+in Man; and a uvula is generally present, although rudimentary in
+the <i>Cebidæ</i>. The peculiar sacculation of the stomach in the subfamily
+<i>Semnopithecinæ</i> has been already mentioned; this sacculation
+is most developed at the cardiac extremity, where it somewhat
+resembles a colon spirally coiled. In <i>Hylobates</i> the stomach is very
+like that of Man, differing only in the more elongated and distinct
+pylorus. <i>Pithecia</i> has a more globular stomach, while in <i>Hapale</i>
+the cardiac and pyloric apertures are approximated. The intestine
+of Apes is devoid of valvulæ conniventes, and it is only in Man and
+the <i>Simiidæ</i> that the colon is furnished with a vermiform appendage.
+The colon varies from a fully sacculated form in <i>Hylobates</i> to a
+smooth one in <i>Cebus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The liver of Apes is subject to a considerable amount of variation.
+In the <i>Simiidæ</i> it comes more or less close to the human
+type; that of the Orangs being usually divided only into two
+principal lobes by the umbilical vein, and showing no trace of
+lateral fissures. In the Gorilla these fissures are present, so as to
+produce right and left lateral and central lobes. <i>Hylobates</i> has a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_707"></a>[707]</span>
+liver (<a href="#figure352">Fig. 352</a>) which perhaps is nearer to the human than that of
+any of the other <i>Simiidæ</i>. In the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i> the liver differs
+from that of the <i>Simiidæ</i> by the deeply cleft lateral fissures, and
+has a comparatively small and pointed caudate lobe. The enormous
+size of the stomach in <i>Colobus</i> causes the liver to be very narrow,
+and pushed to the left side. The liver of the <i>Cebidæ</i> (<a href="#figure336">Fig. 336</a>)
+and <i>Hapalidæ</i>, in addition
+to the deeply
+cleft lateral fissures, is
+characterised by the
+great size and quadrangular
+form of the
+caudate lobe (<i>c</i>), which
+attains its maximum
+development in <i>Ateles</i>.
+The gall-bladder is
+always present.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp79" id="figure336" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure336.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 336.</span>—Under surface of the liver of the Black-handed
+Spider Monkey (<i>Ateles melanochir</i>). <i>u</i>, Umbilical fissure;
+<i>vc</i>, vena cava; <i>ll</i>, left lateral lobe; <i>lc</i>, left central lobe; <i>rc</i>,
+right central lobe; <i>rl</i>, right lateral lobe; <i>s</i>, Spigelian lobe;
+<i>c</i>, caudate lobe; <i>g</i>, gall-bladder.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The larynx is in many
+Apes furnished with sac-like
+appendages, which
+are variable in different
+species as regards
+number, size, and situation.
+They may be
+dilatations of the laryngeal
+ventricle, as in
+<i>Simia</i>, <i>Gorilla</i>, and
+<i>Anthropopithecus</i>, or they may open above the false vocal chords
+so as to be extensions of the thyro-hyoid membrane, as in <i>Hylobates</i>.
+There may be but a single median opening in the front part of
+that membrane at the base of the epiglottis, as in the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>.
+There may be a single median opening at the back of the trachea,
+just below the cricoid cartage, as in <i>Ateles</i>; there may be but a
+single sac, or there may be five, as sometimes in <i>Mycetes</i>. These
+may be enormous, meeting in the middle line in front and extending
+down to the axillæ, as in the Gorilla and Orang. A sac may
+occupy the cavity of the expanded body of the hyoid, as in <i>Mycetes</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The hyoid has its basilar part generally somewhat more convex
+and enlarged than in Man; but in <i>Mycetes</i> it becomes greatly enlarged
+and deeply excavated, so as to form a great bony bladder-like structure.
+The posterior cornua of the hyoid (thyrohyals) are never entirely
+absent, but the anterior or lesser cornua may be so, as in <i>Mycetes</i>.
+The anterior cornua never exceed the posterior cornua in length;
+but they may be (<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Cercopithecus</i>) more largely developed
+relatively than in Man, and may even be jointed, as in <i>Lagothrix</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The lungs have generally the form of those of man; but the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_708"></a>[708]</span>
+right lung may have four lobes, as in <i>Hylobates</i>. The great arterial
+trunks in <i>Simia</i>, <i>Gorilla</i>, and <i>Anthropopithecus</i> are arranged as in
+Man. In <i>Hylobates</i> and the lower Apes, however, the left carotid
+artery may take its origin from the innominate artery.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to their distribution in time the earliest record that
+we as yet have of the occurrence of Apes is in the Middle Miocene
+of Europe, where forms are met with apparently so closely allied to
+some of the higher existing types that it is evident we must look
+much farther back before we can get any clue to the origin of the
+suborder. Since all the known fossil Old World Apes are referable
+to the <i>Simiidæ</i> or <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>, and no representatives of these
+families have been obtained from the Tertiaries of America, it would
+appear that the distinction of the Apes of the Old World from
+those of the New is of very old standing.</p>
+
+<p>At the present day Apes are mainly confined to tropical and
+subtropical regions. In the Old World <i>Macacus inuus</i> is found as
+far north as Gibraltar, <i>M. tibetanus</i> and <i>Semnopithecus roxellanæ</i>
+inhabit western Tibet, while in Japan we have <i>M. speciosus</i>. In the
+New World one species of <i>Ateles</i> is known to occur as far north as
+latitude 19° in Southern Mexico, and may range a few degrees
+higher. To the southward species are found near the Cape, in
+Timor, and the Malay Archipelago; while in America they range
+in Brazil and Paraguay to about latitude 30°. The Tibetan species
+are found at a very high elevation; and in the outer Himalaya the
+Langurs (<i>Semnopithecus</i>) may be seen in winter and spring leaping
+from bough to bough of snow-covered pines.</p>
+
+<p>Apes are very abundant in the Ethiopian and Oriental regions,
+as well as in that part of America which extends from Panama to
+Southern Brazil. Ceylon, Borneo, Sumatra, and Java may be
+mentioned as islands where Ape-life attains great development; but
+they are unknown in Madagascar and the West Indian Islands, and
+of course in the Australasian region.</p>
+
+<p>We have already alluded to the circumstance that while the
+<i>Simiidæ</i> and <i>Cercopithecidæ</i> are exclusively confined to the Old World,
+the <i>Cebidæ</i> and <i>Hapalidæ</i> are equally restricted to the New, and we
+may accordingly proceed to notice a few points in relation to generic
+distribution. Of the larger <i>Simiidæ</i> the Gorilla and Chimpanzee
+are confined to Equatorial Africa, and the Orang to Malayana; but
+there is evidence of the former existence of a species of Chimpanzee
+(<i>Anthropopithecus</i>) and not improbably of an Orang (<i>Simia</i>) in Northern
+India. The Gibbons (<i>Hylobates</i>) are now exclusively Oriental.
+Europe has only <i>Macacus inuus</i> of Gibraltar, also found in Africa
+north of the Sahara, and therefore strictly Palæarctic in distribution.
+The Ethiopian region includes in the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i> the genus
+<i>Colobus</i> (the African analogue of <i>Semnopithecus</i>), <i>Cercopithecus</i>, and
+the Baboons (<i>Cynocephalus</i>, etc.) The Baboons range, however, into<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_709"></a>[709]</span>
+Arabia and Syria, and also existed during the Pliocene epoch in
+Northern India. <i>Semnopithecus</i> and <i>Macacus</i> are very characteristic
+of the Oriental region; but, as already mentioned, outlying species
+extend into various parts of the Palæarctic region. <i>Macacus</i> has
+indeed a very wide distribution, extending from Gibraltar and
+North Africa to Japan. The allied <i>Cynopithecus</i>, represented only
+by <i>C. niger</i> of Celebes, approximates to the Baboons; while the one
+species of <i>Nasalis</i> is peculiar to Borneo. Remains of <i>Semnopithecus</i>
+and <i>Macacus</i> occur in the Tertiaries of India and Europe, which also
+yield allied extinct types noticed in the sequel.</p>
+
+<p>In America, north of Panama, the genera known to be represented
+are <i>Chrysothrix</i>, <i>Nyctipithecus</i>, <i>Cebus</i>, <i>Ateles</i>, <i>Mycetes</i> and
+<i>Hapale</i> in Veragua; <i>Nyctipithecus</i>, <i>Cebus</i>, <i>Ateles</i>, and <i>Mycetes</i> in
+Costa Rica and Nicaragua; <i>Ateles</i> and <i>Mycetes</i> in Guatemala; and
+<i>Ateles</i> in Southern Mexico. Brazil is the headquarters of the
+American Apes; but different portions of that vast region have a
+somewhat distinct Ape fauna. Thus the genus <i>Eriodes</i> appears in
+South-Eastern Brazil to represent the species of <i>Ateles</i> inhabiting the
+more northern and western parts of the empire. Southwards, the
+genera <i>Cebus</i>, <i>Mycetes</i>, <i>Chrysothrix</i>, and <i>Callithrix</i> extend farthest;
+but they do not probably all extend to the farthest limit yet known,
+namely 30° S. The species found farthest south are <i>Mycetes caraya</i>,
+<i>Cebus fatuellus</i>, and <i>Callithrix personatus</i>.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hapalidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ²⁄₂; total 32. No bony external
+auditory meatus, a broad internarial septum, and no cheek-pouches.
+Tail non-prehensile; no ischiatic callosities. Pollex not opposable;
+a long, curved, and pointed claw to all the digits except the hallux.</p>
+
+<p>This family, which includes the smallest representatives of the
+suborder, commonly known as Marmosets, is confined to the New
+World. In addition to the diagnostic characters given above, it may
+be mentioned that the pollex is elongated and the hallux very
+small, while the pectoral limbs are not longer than the pelvic pair;
+and the tail is long and more or less thickly covered with elongated
+hairs.</p>
+
+<p>The dentition of the Marmosets sufficiently distinguishes them
+from all other members of the suborder, although they are evidently
+nearly allied to the <i>Cebidæ</i>. The small size of the hallux, and the
+total incapacity of the pollex to oppose itself in the least degree to
+the other digits, as well as the presence of claws on all the digits of
+the manus, are, however, equally characteristic features. These
+animals (<a href="#figure337">Fig. 337</a>) are not larger than Squirrels, and are of active
+arboreal habits, living in small companies, and adding insects to the
+ordinary fruit diet. Frequently, as in the figured species,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_710"></a>[710]</span> the head
+is furnished on either side with a long tuft of hair projecting outwards
+and backwards. They give birth to as many as three young
+ones at a time, and thereby differ from all other members of the
+suborder, in which one is the normal number. They are divided
+into two genera, according to the proportionate size of the lower
+canine to the incisors; but some species present an intermediate
+condition, so as to render this distinction of somewhat doubtful
+value.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hapale.</i><a id="FNanchor_664" href="#Footnote_664" class="fnanchor">[664]</a>—Lower canine not longer than the incisors. A number
+of species have been described, among which may be mentioned
+<i>H. jacchus</i>, <i>H. albicollis</i>, <i>H. aurita</i>, and <i>H. humeralifer</i>. Remains of
+species of this genus have been found in the cavern-deposits of
+Brazil.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp62" id="figure337" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure337.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 337.</span>—The Golden Marmoset (<i>Midas chrysoleucas</i>). From <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1868, pl. 24.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Midas.</i><a id="FNanchor_665" href="#Footnote_665" class="fnanchor">[665]</a>—Lower canine considerably longer than the incisors. No
+less than twenty-four species of this genus have been named, among
+which the Silky Marmoset (<i>M. rosalia</i>) of Columbia, the Pinche<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_711"></a>[711]</span>
+Monkey (<i>M. œdipus</i>) of South-Eastern Brazil, and the Golden
+Marmoset (<i>M. chrysoleucas</i>, <a href="#figure337">Fig. 337</a>) are well-known types.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Cebidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ³⁄₃, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 36. Tail frequently
+prehensile; digits with nails; other characters as in the <i>Hapalidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The members of this American family are at once distinguished
+by the dental formula, which is numerically higher than in any
+other Apes. The various species range over the whole of tropical
+America, but are most abundant in the dense forest regions
+of Brazil, where they live a completely arboreal life, to which the
+prehensile tails of many of them are so specially adapted. They
+are in most respects closely
+allied to the <i>Hapalidæ</i>, but
+the pollex diverges somewhat
+from the plane of the
+other digits; while the retention
+of the third molar
+is a very distinctive feature.
+None of the species attain
+the dimensions of the larger
+<i>Cercopithecidæ</i> of the Old
+World. The genera are
+usually arranged in five
+subfamilies.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Mycetinæ</b>.—Lower
+incisors vertical;
+hyoid bones enormously
+inflated; tail long and prehensile,
+naked beneath at
+the end; pollex well developed.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp46" id="figure338" style="max-width: 23.4375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure338.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 338.</span>—Side view of skull and hyoid bone of the
+Red Howling Monkey (<i>Mycetes seniculus</i>). From De
+Blainville.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Mycetes.</i><a id="FNanchor_666" href="#Footnote_666" class="fnanchor">[666]</a>—The sole representatives
+of this subfamily
+are the well-known
+Howling Monkeys, all of
+which are included in the
+genus <i>Mycetes</i>. They are
+of more bulky build, and
+have more produced muzzles
+than the other members of the family. The truncated occipital
+region, and the extraordinary development of the rami of the
+mandible, especially of their angular and ascending portions, are
+the chief peculiarities by which the skulls (<a href="#figure338">Fig. 338</a>) of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_712"></a>[712]</span> the
+members of this genus are characterised. The last named character,
+which is more marked in the male than in the female sex,
+is related to the enormous size of the vocal organs, which the rami
+of the mandible enclose and protect. The inflated hyoid bone,
+which forms a deep cup, is shown in the figure. The Howlers are
+subject to great individual and sexual variation of colours, so that
+the discrimination of species from local races is difficult. In one
+species the male is black and the female straw-coloured; and several
+of the species have bright red or golden hair on the flanks. In
+disposition these creatures are sluggish and stupid, but their chief
+characteristic is their prodigious power of voice. Mr. Bates, in his
+<i>Naturalist on the Amazons</i>, observes that “when Howlers are seen in
+the forest there are generally three or four of them mounted on the
+topmost branches of a tree. It does not appear that their harrowing
+roar is emitted from sudden alarm; at least it was not so in
+captive individuals. It is probable, however, that the noise serves
+to intimidate their enemies.”</p>
+
+<p>Several species have been described, the Red Howler (<i>M. seniculus</i>)
+and the Ursine Howler (<i>M. ursinus</i>) being well-known forms.
+Remains of this genus probably referable to existing types are found
+fossilised in the cavern-deposits of Brazil. An allied fossil form
+from the South American Pleistocene has been described as
+<i>Protopithecus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Pitheciinæ</b>.—Lower incisors inclined forward at their
+summits; hyoid bone normal; tail long or short, non-prehensile;
+pollex well developed. Two genera are included in this subfamily,
+readily distinguished by the length of the tail.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pithecia.</i><a id="FNanchor_667" href="#Footnote_667" class="fnanchor">[667]</a>—The Sakis, as the representatives of this genus are
+commonly termed, are readily characterised by the length of the
+tail; the angle of the mandible is expanded, although less so than
+in <i>Mycetes</i>. A number of species have been described, the Black
+Saki (<i>P. satanas</i>) of the Lower Amazons, being one of the best
+known. While some species, like <i>P. hirsuta</i>, have long hair covering
+the whole of the head, body, and tail, in others only the head, or
+the cheeks and chin, are so clothed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Uacaria.</i><a id="FNanchor_668" href="#Footnote_668" class="fnanchor">[668]</a>—The Uakari Monkeys differ from all the other
+<i>Cebidæ</i> by their short Baboon-like tail. The Bald Uakari (<i>U. calva</i>)
+of the Rio Negro, and the closely allied <i>U. rubicunda</i> of the Upper
+Amazons, are remarkable for their scarlet face, which forms a striking
+contrast to the long, silky, whitish hair covering the body. According
+to Mr. Bates, the Uakaris live in forests which are inundated
+during a great part of the year, and never descend to the ground;
+they appear to be rare and of local distribution. The third species,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_713"></a>[713]</span>
+<i>U. melanocephala</i>, differs considerably from both the others. The
+cæcum of <i>U. calva</i>, according to Mr. F. E. Beddard, measures
+upwards of “10 inches along the greater curvature; it is separated
+from the colon by a very marked constriction; it is not sacculated,
+and when fully distended with air is curved on itself into a little
+less than a circle; it is furnished with a well-developed median
+frenum carrying blood-vessels.” A similar type of cæcum is also
+found in <i>Callithrix</i> and <i>Pithecia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Nyctipithecinæ</b>.—Lower incisors vertical; hyoid
+normal; tail long, non-prehensile; pollex well developed.</p>
+
+<p>Three genera are included in this subfamily, the species being
+partly insectivorous.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp62" id="figure339" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure339.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 339.</span>—The Moloch Teetee (<i>Callithrix moloch</i>). From <i>Archives du Muséum</i>, vol. iv. pt. 3.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Callithrix.</i><a id="FNanchor_669" href="#Footnote_669" class="fnanchor">[669]</a>—Head small, depressed, and not elongated; nares
+widely separated; canines small; angle of mandible expanded as in
+<i>Pithecia</i>; tail with long hair.</p>
+
+<p>This genus comprises several small species, mostly from Brazil
+and the Amazons, and commonly known as Teetees, one of the
+best-known species (<i>C. moloch</i>, <a href="#figure339">Fig. 339</a>) being represented in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_714"></a>[714]</span>
+accompanying woodcut. The smaller eyes and the more widely
+separated nostrils distinguish them from <i>Nyctipithecus</i>; while the
+small canines and the bushy tail readily mark their distinction from
+<i>Chrysothrix</i>. Remains of <i>Callithrix</i> have been found in the Brazilian
+caves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chrysothrix.</i><a id="FNanchor_670" href="#Footnote_670" class="fnanchor">[670]</a>—Head greatly elongated; orbits large and closely
+approximated; canines well developed; tail with comparatively
+short hair.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp67" id="figure340" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure340.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 340.</span>—The Lemurine Douroucouli (<i>Nyctipithecus lemurinus</i>). From <i>Archives du Muséum</i>,
+vol. iv, pl. 2.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The small Squirrel Monkeys, of which four species have been
+described, are characterised by the great backward projection of the
+occipital region of the skull, and by orbits approximating in size to
+those of the next genus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nyctipithecus.</i><a id="FNanchor_671" href="#Footnote_671" class="fnanchor">[671]</a>—Head rounded; orbits very large, separated by
+a narrow septum; nares somewhat approximated.</p>
+
+<p>The Douroucoulis (<a href="#figure340">Fig. 340</a>), as the members of this genus are
+called, are of nocturnal habits, in association with which the eyes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_715"></a>[715]</span>
+are of enormous dimensions, as in the Lemuroid genus <i>Loris</i>. The
+following account, of two species of this genus is taken from Mr.
+Bates’s <i>Naturalist on the Amazons</i>: “They sleep all day long in
+hollow trees, and come forth to prey on insects and eat fruit only
+in the night. They are of small size, the body being about a foot
+long, and the tail 14 inches, and are thickly clothed with soft gray
+and brown fur, similar in substance to that of the Rabbit. Their
+physiognomy reminds one of the Owl or Tiger-Cat; the face is
+rounded and encircled by a ruff of whitish fur; the muzzle is not
+at all prominent; the mouth and chin are small; the ears are very
+short, scarcely appearing above the hair of the head; and the eyes
+are large and yellowish in colour, imparting the staring expression
+of nocturnal birds of prey. The forehead is whitish, and decorated
+with black stripes, which in one of the species (<i>N. trivirgatus</i>)
+continue to the crown, and in the other (<i>N. felinus</i>) meet on the
+top of the forehead. <i>N. trivirgatus</i> was first described by Humboldt,
+who discovered it on the banks of the Cassiquiare, near the headquarters
+of the Rio Negro.”</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Cebinæ</b>.—Lower incisors vertical; hyoid bone
+normal; tail long and prehensile; pollex present or absent.</p>
+
+<p>This subfamily includes the typical members of the family,
+which are arranged in four genera.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ateles.</i><a id="FNanchor_672" href="#Footnote_672" class="fnanchor">[672]</a>—Form slender; limbs very long; fur not woolly;
+pollex absent; tail naked beneath distally; nails not much laterally
+compressed and pointed.</p>
+
+<p>This genus includes the well-known Spider Monkeys (<a href="#figure341">Fig. 341</a>),
+which by their long limbs and tail are admirably adapted to a
+purely arboreal life, although they lack the active and agile habits
+of the Old World Gibbons. The tail with the under surface of its
+extremity naked affords the most completely prehensile type of
+this organ, and can sustain the weight of the whole body.
+Objects are not unfrequently grasped by it and brought within
+reach of the hand or mouth. Owing to the absence of the pollex
+the power of grasping is very imperfect in the hand. At least
+fourteen species of this genus have been described, among the
+best-known being <i>A. melanochir</i> (<a href="#figure341">Fig. 341</a>), <i>A. paniscus</i> of Guiana,
+<i>A. geoffroyi</i> of Central America, <i>A. ater</i> of Eastern Peru, and
+<i>A. hybridus</i> of Colombia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eriodes.</i><a id="FNanchor_673" href="#Footnote_673" class="fnanchor">[673]</a>—Form slender; limbs very long; fur woolly; internasal
+septum narrower than usual in the family; pollex rudimentary;
+tail naked beneath distally; nails exceedingly compressed laterally,
+and pointed.</p>
+
+<p>This genus is represented by three species from South-East
+Brazil, which, while closely allied to the true Spider Monkeys,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_716"></a>[716]</span>
+differ by their woolly hair, the narrow internasal septum, the
+presence of a rudimentary pollex, and the great compression of the
+nails. The species are <i>E. arachnoides</i>, <i>E. hemidactylus</i>, and <i>E.
+hypoxanthus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lagothrix.</i><a id="FNanchor_674" href="#Footnote_674" class="fnanchor">[674]</a>—Form rather robust; limbs moderate; fur woolly;
+pollex well developed; tail distally naked beneath.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="figure341" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure341.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 341.</span>—The Black-handed Spider Monkey (<i>Ateles melanochir</i>).
+From <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1871, pl. 15.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Woolly Monkeys differ from the preceding genera by the
+presence of a well developed pollex. They resemble <i>Eriodes</i> in
+their fur and compressed nails, but differ in the more widely
+separated nares. The tail resembles that of the preceding genera.
+Speaking of these Monkeys Mr. Bates observes that “the Barrigudos
+are very bulky animals, whilst the Spider Monkeys are remarkable
+for the slenderness of their bodies and limbs. I obtained specimens
+of what have been considered two species, one (<i>L. olivaceus?</i>)<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_717"></a>[717]</span>
+having the head clothed with gray, the other (<i>L. humboldti</i>, <a href="#figure342">Fig.
+342</a>) with black fur. They both live together in the same places,
+and are probably only differently coloured individuals of one and
+the same species. I sent home a very large male of one of these
+kinds, which measured 27 inches in length of trunk, the tail being
+26 inches long; it was the largest monkey I saw in America, with
+the exception of a black Howler, whose body was 28 inches in
+height. The skin of the face in the Barrigudo is black and
+wrinkled, the forehead is low, with the eyebrows projecting....
+In the forests the Barrigudo is not a very active animal; it lives
+exclusively on fruits, and is much persecuted by the Indians on
+account of the excellence of its flesh as food.” Five species are
+usually recognised, viz. <i>L. canus</i>, <i>L. humboldti</i>, <i>L. castelnaui</i>, <i>L.
+tschudii</i>, and <i>L. geoffroyi</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="figure342" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure342.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 342.</span>—Humboldt’s Lagothrix (<i>Lagothrix humboldti</i>). From <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1863, pl. 31.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Cebus.</i><a id="FNanchor_675" href="#Footnote_675" class="fnanchor">[675]</a>—Form rather robust; limbs moderate; fur not woolly;
+pollex well developed; tail not naked beneath distally.</p>
+
+<p>This, the typical, genus includes the Sapajous or Capuchins
+(<a href="#figure343">Fig. 343</a>), which are so commonly seen in this country in captivity,
+being the favourite Monkeys of itinerant musicians. They are
+smaller and stouter in build than the Spider Monkeys, from which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_718"></a>[718]</span>
+they are readily distinguished by the well-developed pollex, and
+the absence of a naked under surface to the extremity of the tail.
+At least twenty species have been described (<i>C. fatuellus</i>, <i>C. lunatus</i>,
+<i>C. capucinus</i>, <i>C. albifrons</i>, <i>C. hypoleucus</i>, etc.), but it is probable that
+some of these are not entitled to stand, since there is a large
+amount of individual variation. Fossil remains of species of <i>Cebus</i>
+have been described from the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Brazil.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="figure343" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure343.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 343.</span>—The White-cheeked Sapajou (<i>Cebus lunatus</i>). From <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1865, pl. 45.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Cercopithecidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Dentition: <i>i</i> ²⁄₂, <i>c</i> ¹⁄₁, <i>p</i> ²⁄₂, <i>m</i> ³⁄₃; total 32. Crowns of molars elongated
+antero-posteriorly, with the tubercles forming a pair of
+imperfect transverse ridges, and the last lower molar usually with
+a hind talon. A bony external auditory meatus. A narrow internarial
+septum. Tail non-prehensile. Ischiatic callosities present.
+Cheek-pouches present or absent. Pollex, when present, opposable.
+Pelvic limbs never much longer than pectoral. Sternum narrow.
+Cæcum without vermiform appendage.</p>
+
+<p>This family includes all the Old World Apes, with the exception
+of the <i>Simiidæ</i>, and may be divided into the subfamilies <i>Cercopithecinæ</i>
+and <i>Semnopithecinæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_719"></a>[719]</span> <b>Cercopithecinæ</b>.—Pelvic and pectoral limbs approximately
+equal; tail variable; cheek-pouches present; stomach
+simple.</p>
+
+<p>This subfamily comprises, the African Baboons, the common
+Indian Monkeys constituting the genus <i>Macacus</i>, together with the
+African <i>Cercopithecus</i> and <i>Cercocebus</i> and a few allied types.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cynocephalus.</i><a id="FNanchor_676" href="#Footnote_676" class="fnanchor">[676]</a>—Muzzle much elongated (<a href="#figure344">Fig. 344</a>), with the
+nostrils terminal; ischial callosities very large; tail more or less
+short; muzzle swollen by enlargement of the maxillæ. Now confined
+to Africa and Arabia.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure344" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure344.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 344.</span>—Skeleton of the Chacma Baboon (<i>Cynocephalus porcarius</i>). From De Blainville.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This genus comprises the typical Baboons, and we may select
+the well-known Mandrill (<i>C. maimon</i>), of tropical West Africa, as a
+good illustrative example. It may be mentioned in passing that
+the name Mandrill appears to have been first introduced into
+English literature by William Smith in his <i>New Voyage to Guinea</i>,
+published in 1744, wherein he mentions among the animals of
+Sierra Leone one “called by the white men in this country Mandrill,”
+but adds, “why it is so called I know not.”<a id="FNanchor_677" href="#Footnote_677" class="fnanchor">[677]</a> Smith gives
+sufficiently accurate details to show that his animal is not <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_720"></a>[720]</span>that now
+called Mandrill, but the Chimpanzee. Buffon, however, while
+quoting Smith’s description, transferred the name to the very
+different species now under consideration, and to that it has been
+attached ever since.</p>
+
+<p>The Baboons generally are distinguished from most other
+Monkeys by the comparative equality of the length of their limbs,
+which with the structure of the vertebral column adapts them
+rather for quadrupedal progression on the ground than for climbing
+among the branches of trees; and some of them, like the South
+African Chacma (<i>C. porcarius</i>), of which the skeleton is shown
+in <a href="#figure344">Fig. 344</a>, live habitually among rocks, and are much less
+completely frugivorous than other Apes. They are also remarkable
+for the great size of their face and jaws as compared with
+the part of the skull which encloses the brain. The Mandrill,
+in addition to these characters, is distinguished by the heaviness
+of its body, stoutness and strength of its limbs, and exceeding
+shortness of its tail, which is a mere stump, not 2 inches long,
+and usually carried erect. It is, moreover, remarkable for the
+prominence of its brow ridges, beneath which the small and
+closely approximated eyes are deeply sunk; the immense size of
+the canine teeth; the great development of a pair of oval bony
+prominences on the maxillary bones in front of the orbits, rising on
+each side of the median line of the face, and covered by a longitudinally
+ribbed naked skin; and more especially for the extraordinarily
+vivid colouring of some parts of the skin. The body
+generally is covered with a full soft coating of hair of a light olive-brown
+above and silvery-gray beneath, and the chin is furnished
+underneath with a small pointed yellow beard. The hair of the
+forehead and temples is directed upwards so as to meet in a point
+on the crown, which gives the head a triangular appearance. The
+ears are naked and of a bluish-black colour. The hands and feet
+are naked and black. A large space around the greatly developed
+ischial callosities, as well as the upper part of the insides of the
+thighs, are naked and of a crimson colour, shading off on the sides to
+lilac or blue, which, depending not upon pigment but upon injection
+of the superficial blood-vessels, varies in intensity according to
+the condition of the animal—increasing under excitement, fading
+during sickness, and disappearing after death. But it is in the face
+that the most remarkable disposition of vivid hues occur, more
+resembling those of a brilliantly coloured flower than what might
+be expected in the cutaneous covering of a mammal. The cheek-prominences
+are of an intense blue, the effect of which is heightened
+by deeply sunk longitudinal furrows of a darker tint, while the
+central line and termination of the nose are a bright scarlet. Notwithstanding
+the beauty of these colours in themselves, the whole
+combination, with the form and expression<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_721"></a>[721]</span> of features, quite
+justifies Cuvier’s assertion that “il serait difficile de se figurer un
+être plus hideux que le Mandrill.”</p>
+
+<p>It is only to fully adult males that this description applies.
+The female is of much smaller size, and of more slender make;
+and, though the general tone of the hairy parts of the body is
+the same, the prominences, furrows, and colouring of the face are
+very much less marked. The young males have black faces. At
+the age of three the blue of the cheeks begins to appear, but it is
+not until they are about five, when they cut their great canine
+teeth, that they acquire the characteristic red of the end of the
+nose.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp96" id="figure345" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure345.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 345.</span>—The Yellow Baboon (<i>Cynocephalus babuin</i>). From <i>Archives du Muséum</i>,
+Vol. ii. pl. 34.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The Mandrills, especially the old males, are remarkable for the
+ferocity of their disposition, as well as for other disagreeable qualities,
+which are fully described in Cuvier’s account of the animal in
+<i>La Ménagerie du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle</i> (1801), but when
+young they can easily be tamed. Like the rest of the Baboons,
+they appear to be rather indiscriminate eaters, feeding upon fruit,
+roots, reptiles, insects, scorpions, etc., and inhabit open rocky
+ground rather than forests. Not much is known of the Mandrill’s
+habits in the wild state, nor of the exact limits of its geographical
+distribution. The specimens brought to Europe all come from the
+west coast of tropical Africa, from Guinea to the Gaboon.</p>
+
+<p>An allied species, the Drill (<i>C. leucophæus</i>), which resembles the
+Mandrill in size, general proportions, and shortness of tail, but
+wants the bright colouring of the face which makes that animal so
+remarkable, inhabits the same district. Other well-known species
+are the Yellow Baboon (<i>C. babuin</i>), of West<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_722"></a>[722]</span> Africa (<a href="#figure345">Fig. 345</a>); the
+Arabian Baboon (<i>C. hamadryas</i>), of Arabia and Abyssinia; and the
+Anubis Baboon (<i>C. anubis</i>), of West Africa.</p>
+
+<p>It is very noteworthy from a distributional point of view, as
+showing the former intimate connection between the faunas of the
+Oriental and Ethiopian regions, that fossil remains of Baboons have
+been found in the Pleistocene cavern-deposits of Madras, and also
+in the older Pliocene beds of the Siwalik Hills in Northern India;
+the two species from the latter deposits having been described as
+<i>C. subhimalayanus</i> and <i>C. falconeri</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Theropithecus.</i><a id="FNanchor_678" href="#Footnote_678" class="fnanchor">[678]</a>—Distinguished from <i>Cynocephalus</i> by the nostrils
+not being terminal, but situated as in <i>Macacus</i>. This genus is
+represented by the Abyssinian Gelada (<i>T. gelada</i>) and the allied
+<i>T. obscurus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cynopithecus.</i><a id="FNanchor_679" href="#Footnote_679" class="fnanchor">[679]</a>—The Black Ape of Celebes (<i>C. niger</i>) forms a
+connecting link between the Baboons and the genus <i>Macacus</i>; the
+skull differing from that of the latter in the development of longitudinal
+ridges on the sides of the upper surface of the maxillæ, as
+in some of the species of <i>Cynocephalus</i>. The muzzle is also more
+produced than in <i>Macacus</i>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp96" id="figure346" style="max-width: 28.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure346.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 346.</span>—The Tibetan Macaque (<i>Macacus tibetanus</i>). From Milne-Edwards, <i>Recherches des
+Mammifères</i>, pl. 34.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Macacus.</i><a id="FNanchor_680" href="#Footnote_680" class="fnanchor">[680]</a>—Muzzle considerably produced; nostrils not terminal;
+cheek-pouches and ischial callosities well developed; tail long, short,
+or absent; a distinct talon to the third lower molar.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of the Barbary Ape (<i>M. inuus</i>) of Northern<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_723"></a>[723]</span>
+Africa and Gibraltar, the Macaques are now exclusively Asiatic,
+one species (<a href="#figure346">Fig. 346</a>) occurring in Tibet, and another (<i>M. speciosus</i>)
+being found in Japan. All these Monkeys are of stout build, and
+it is chiefly by the greater production of the muzzle, the larger
+ischiatic callosities, and the frequent shortness of the tail that they
+are distinguished from the under-mentioned African genera. The
+transition from the longer-tailed to the short-tailed forms is so
+complete that the proposed generic separation of the latter as <i>Innus</i>
+is impracticable. In <i>M. innus</i> the tail is wanting; in <i>M. tibetanus</i>
+(<a href="#figure346">Fig. 346</a>) and <i>M. nemestrinus</i> of Tenasserim it is short; in the
+common Bengal Monkey (<i>M. rhesus</i>) it is about one-half the length
+of the head and body, while in <i>M. cynomolgus</i> and its allies it is
+still longer. In the Indian Lion-tailed Monkey (<i>M. silenus</i>) it is
+tufted at the end.</p>
+
+<p>The following summary of the habits of the Macaques is taken
+from Mr. W. T. Blanford’s <i>Mammals of British India</i>: “The species
+of the present genus resemble each other in their habits; they are
+found in flocks, often of considerable size, and generally composed
+of individuals of both sexes and of all ages. They are active
+animals, though less rapid in their movements, whether on trees
+or on the ground than the <i>Semnopitheci</i>. Their food is varied,
+most of the species, if not all, eating insects as well as seeds, fruits,
+etc., and one kind feeding partly on crustacea. They have occasionally
+been known to devour lizards, and, it is said, frogs also.
+All have the habit of cramming food into their cheek-pouches for
+mastication at leisure—a practice that must be familiar to any one
+who has fed monkeys in confinement. The voice and gestures of
+all the species are similar, and differ entirely from those of both
+the Gibbons and <i>Semnopitheci</i>.... The majority of the species are
+very docile when young. They thrive well, and several of them
+have bred in confinement. The period of gestation is almost seven
+months, only a single young one, as a rule, being produced at a
+birth. They become adult at the age of four or five years, but
+breed earlier.”</p>
+
+<p>The Common Indian <i>M. rhesus</i> is found in the Himalaya at an
+elevation of over 8000 feet.</p>
+
+<p>Fossil remains of <i>Macacus</i> are found in India in the Pleistocene
+of Madras and the Pliocene of the Punjab; and they also occur in
+the Pliocene of France and Italy, those from the latter deposits
+having been incorrectly separated as <i>Aulaxinuus</i>. Part of the jaw
+of a Monkey from the Pleistocene of Essex has been described as
+<i>Macacus pliocenus</i>, and is very interesting as showing the presence
+of Apes in Europe at that late period.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cercocebus.</i><a id="FNanchor_681" href="#Footnote_681" class="fnanchor">[681]</a>—An African genus agreeing with <i>Macacus</i> in the
+presence of a hind talon to the third lower molar, but with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_724"></a>[724]</span> the
+other characters of <i>Cercopithecus</i>. The species of this genus are
+known as Mangabeys, or White-eyelid Monkeys, and include
+<i>C. collaris</i>, <i>C. fuliginosus</i>, <i>C. æthiops</i>, and <i>C. albigena</i>; all being
+from West Africa.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cercopithecus.</i><a id="FNanchor_682" href="#Footnote_682" class="fnanchor">[682]</a>—Muzzle more or less short; ischial callosities
+moderate; tail long; no talon to third lower molar. Build more
+slender than in <i>Macacus</i>. Confined to Africa.</p>
+
+<p>The members of this and the last genus include those Monkeys
+which in their comparative slender build and length of tail make
+the nearest approach
+to the next subfamily.
+There are numerous
+species, among which
+the Green Monkey (<i>C.
+cullitrichus</i>), the Grivet
+(<i>C. griseo-viridis</i>), the
+Vervet (<i>C. lalandi</i>), the
+Pluto Monkey (<i>C. pluto</i>,
+<a href="#figure347">Fig. 347</a>). The Patas
+(<i>C. ruber</i>), the Diana
+Monkey (<i>C. diana</i>), and
+the Mona Monkey (<i>C.
+mona</i>) are well-known
+types.</p>
+
+<p>Subfamily <b>Semnopithecinæ</b>.<a id="FNanchor_683" href="#Footnote_683" class="fnanchor">[683]</a>—Pelvic
+limbs longer than the
+pectoral, tail very
+long; no cheek-pouches;
+stomach sacculated.
+Build slender.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp52" id="figure347" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure347.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 347.</span>—The Pluto Monkey (<i>Cercopithecus pluto</i>). From
+Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1848, p. 57.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This subfamily is represented by three
+genera, of which one is
+African and two are
+Asiatic. Mr. W. T.
+Blanford, in his <i>Mammals
+of British India</i>, observes that “the members of this subfamily
+are readily distinguished by their slender form, and by the absence
+of cheek-pouches. They are more purely herbivorous than the
+Macaque Monkeys, and a considerable portion of their food consists
+of leaves and young shoots. In consequence probably of the nature
+of their food, these Monkeys are more delicate than the species of
+<i>Macacus</i>, and are thus less easily kept in captivity. They are consequently
+far less well represented in European museums, and have<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_725"></a>[725]</span>
+been less studied by European naturalists. Very little is known of
+their general life-history or of their feeding habits.”</p>
+
+<p>Their digestive organs are much modified, the stomach attaining
+an extraordinary complexity, which may be described as follows.
+An ordinary stomach must be supposed to lie immensely elongated,
+and gradually tapering from the
+cardiac end to a very prolonged,
+narrow, pyloric extremity. Then
+two longitudinal muscular bands,
+corresponding in situation to the
+greater and lesser curvatures of
+an ordinary stomach—the former
+commencing just below the fundus,
+and the latter at the cardiac
+orifice, and both proceeding
+towards the pylorus—are developed,
+so as to pucker up the
+cavity into a number of pouches,
+exactly in the same principle as
+the human colon is puckered up
+by its three longitudinal bands.
+These pouches are largest and
+most strongly marked at the
+œsophageal end, and becoming
+less and less distinct, quite cease
+several inches before the pylorus
+is reached, the last part of the
+organ being a simple smooth-walled
+tube. The fundus, or
+cardiac end of the stomach, is
+formed by a single large sac,
+slightly constricted on its under
+surface by the prolongation of
+the interior longitudinal band,
+or that corresponding to the
+great curvature. The œsophagus
+enters into the upper part of the left, or pyloric end of this sac, or
+rather at the point of junction between it and the second (also a
+very large) sacculus. Furthermore, the whole of this elongated
+sacculated organ is, by the brevity, as it were, of the lesser curvature,
+coiled upon itself in an irregularly spiral manner, so that
+when <i>in situ</i> the pylorus comes to be placed very near the œsophageal
+entrance.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp37" id="figure348" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure348.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 348.</span>—Lateral view of the skull and palatal
+aspect of the cranium of <i>Semnopithecus nemæus</i>.
+(From De Blainville.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Nasalis.</i><a id="FNanchor_684" href="#Footnote_684" class="fnanchor">[684]</a>—Skull resembling that of the <i>Cercopithecinæ</i> in that
+the lower border of the nasal bones extends considerably below<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_726"></a>[726]</span> the
+lower border of the orbits, whereas in the other <i>Semnopithecinæ</i> the
+aperture of the nares extends upwards between the orbits. Nose
+produced into a large proboscis. Other characters as in <i>Semnopithecus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This genus includes only the Proboscis Monkey (<i>N. larratus</i>) of
+Borneo, remarkable for the great prolongation of the nose in the
+adult. In young animals the nose is relatively much shorter, and
+bent upwards after the manner of that of <i>Semnopithecus roxellanæ</i>
+(<a href="#figure349">Fig. 349</a>).</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="figure349" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure349.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 349.</span>—<i>Semnopithecus roxellanæ.</i> (From Milne-Edwards, <i>Recherches des
+Mammifères</i>, pl. 36.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Semnopithecus.</i><a id="FNanchor_685" href="#Footnote_685" class="fnanchor">[685]</a>—Pollex small; narial aperture extending upwards
+between the orbits. Now confined to Asia.</p>
+
+<p>This genus is characteristic of South-Eastern Asia from the
+Himalaya southwards, the Oriental region being its headquarters.
+The development of the muzzle is less than in the Macaques, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_727"></a>[727]</span>
+the facial angle is higher, but it does not appear that this indicates
+greater intellectual capacity. The outlying <i>S. roxellanæ</i><a id="FNanchor_686" href="#Footnote_686" class="fnanchor">[686]</a> (<a href="#figure349">Fig. 349</a>),
+of the highlands of Eastern Tibet and Kansu, is remarkable for the
+peculiar upturned nose, in which respect, as already mentioned,
+it recalls the young of <i>Nasalis larvatus</i>. The genus is represented
+in India and Burma by no less than fourteen species, of which the
+common Indian Langur, or Hanuman Monkey (<i>S. entellus</i>) and
+the larger Himalayan Langur (<i>S. schistaceus</i>) are two of the best
+known. In the former the length of the head and body is about
+24, and that of the tail 38 inches in adult males. This monkey,
+owing to the veneration in which it is held by the Hindus, is a
+great pest in many parts of India, frequently pilfering grain from
+the shops in the native bazaars. According to Mr. Blanford,
+it “is usually found in smaller or larger communities, composed
+of individuals of both sexes and of all ages, the youngest clinging
+to their mothers and being carried by them, especially when
+alarmed. An old male is occasionally found solitary, as with so
+many other mammals.... Apart from villages, the high trees
+on the banks of streams or of tanks, and, in parts of Central
+India, rocky hills are the favourite haunts of these monkeys.
+Whether on trees, on rocks, or on the ground, they are exceedingly
+active.” The closely allied <i>S. schistaceus</i> attains a larger average
+size, full grown males attaining a length of 30 inches, the tail
+measuring 36 inches. In the spring and winter this species may
+be observed in the Kashmir Himalaya leaping among the snow-laden
+trees of the forest. In a fossil state <i>Semnopithecus</i> occurs in the
+Pleistocene and Pliocene of India, and it has also been recorded
+from the Pliocene of France and Italy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Colobus.</i><a id="FNanchor_687" href="#Footnote_687" class="fnanchor">[687]</a>—This African genus differs from <i>Semnopithecus</i> in that
+the pollex is absent or reduced to a small tubercle, which may or may
+not carry a nail. About eleven species have been described, some
+of which are remarkable for the beautiful mantle of long silky
+hair which hangs down from each side of the body, and for their
+tufted tails. In <i>C. guereza</i> from Abyssinia these are white, and the
+rest of the body and limbs black. Others (as <i>C. satanas</i>) are entirely
+black. The skins of the long-haired species are largely imported
+into Europe for the manufacture of ladies’ muffs, etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extinct Genera.</i>—Certain types of Apes from the European
+Tertiaries indicate genera referable to the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>, but
+distinct from any of those now living. Of these <i>Mesopithecus</i>,<a id="FNanchor_688" href="#Footnote_688" class="fnanchor">[688]</a> from
+the Lower Pliocene Pikermi beds of Attica, is known by almost
+complete skeletons, and resembles <i>Macacus</i> in the shortness and
+stoutness of the limbs, but agrees with <i>Semnopithecus</i> in the characters
+of the skull and teeth. An allied Monkey from the Lower Pliocene<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_728"></a>[728]</span>
+of Perpignan, in France, differs from <i>Mesopithecus pentelici</i> by its
+superior size, proportionately more produced muzzle, and larger
+hind talon to the last lower molar; it has been described under
+the name of <i>Dolichopithecus</i>.<a id="FNanchor_689" href="#Footnote_689" class="fnanchor">[689]</a></p>
+
+<p>The genus <i>Oreopithecus</i><a id="FNanchor_690" href="#Footnote_690" class="fnanchor">[690]</a> was founded upon the remains of an
+Ape from the Middle Miocene of Monte Bamboli, in Tuscany, of
+somewhat larger size than a Gibbon, and apparently presenting
+characters connecting the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i> and <i>Simiidæ</i>. According
+to Dr. Ristori,<a id="FNanchor_691" href="#Footnote_691" class="fnanchor">[691]</a> it resembles the former, especially <i>Cynocephalus</i> and
+<i>Semnopithecus</i>, in the long dental series and the elongation of the
+last molars; but in the shortness of the face, rounding of the chin,
+and the diagonal arrangement of the molar tubercles, it approximates
+to the <i>Simiidæ</i>, of which it may have been an ancestral type.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Simiidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>Crowns of molars relatively wide, with the angles more or
+less rounded off, the tubercles not forming transverse ridges, and
+the last lower molar without a hind talon. No tail. No cheek-pouches.
+Ischiatic callosities, if present, small. Pectoral limbs
+much longer than pelvic. Sternum broad. Cæcum with vermiform
+appendage. Centrale of carpus sometimes absent. Other characters
+as in <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This family contains the true Anthropoid Old World Apes,
+namely the Gibbons, Orangs, Chimpanzees, and Gorillas, which
+are the most highly organised of all the Apes, and thus make the
+nearest approach to Man.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hylobates.</i><a id="FNanchor_692" href="#Footnote_692" class="fnanchor">[692]</a>—Skull not produced at the vertex; body and limbs
+slender, the pectoral limbs being so elongated that the hands reach
+the ground when walking upright; hallux well developed; a centrale
+in the carpus; and small ischiatic callosities. Size smaller than in
+the following genera, the height of the largest species (<i>H. syndactylus</i>)
+not much exceeding 3 feet. Now confined to Asia.</p>
+
+<p>The Gibbons, or Long-armed Apes (<a href="#figure350">Figs. 350, 351</a>), are readily
+distinguished from the remaining members of the family by the
+characters given above, as well as by the circumstance that they
+are the only Apes which habitually walk in an upright position.
+It is in these animals that we meet with the last traces of the
+ischial callosities so largely developed in the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>. The
+species are now restricted to South-Eastern Asia, being especially
+abundant in the Malay Archipelago and adjacent regions.</p>
+
+<p>The largest species is the Sumatran Siamang (<i>H. syndactylus</i>),<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_729"></a>[729]</span>
+which attains a height of 3 feet, and has been generically
+separated by some writers as <i>Siamanga</i>. It is remarkable as
+having a better developed chin and wider sternum than any other
+Ape, and differs from the other members of the genus by the
+circumstance that the second and third digits of the pes are united
+by skin as far as
+their last joints.
+Exclusive of this
+species, the Gibbons
+differ but little from
+one another in size
+and general conformation,
+and since
+the colour of individuals
+undoubtedly
+referable to a single
+species is remarkably
+variable, there is
+much uncertainty
+about the number of
+species, and much
+confusion in the
+nomenclature.
+Among well-marked
+species we may
+mention the Hoolock
+(<i>H. hoolock</i>), ranging
+from the South of
+Assam through
+Sylhet and Cachar to
+the Irawadi Valley
+near Bhamo, the
+White-handed Gibbon
+(<i>H. lar</i>, <a href="#figure350">Fig.
+350</a>), which is found
+in Tenasserim and
+throughout Malayana,
+the Dun-coloured Gibbon (<i>H. entelloides</i>, <a href="#figure351">Fig. 351</a>) of Malayana,
+and the Tufted Gibbon (<i>H. pileatus</i>) of Siam and Cambogia.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp46" id="figure350" style="max-width: 23.4375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure350.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 350.</span>—The White-handed Gibbon (<i>Hylobates
+lar</i>). From Blanford, <i>Mammals of British India</i>, p. 8.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The following account of the habits of the Gibbons is taken
+from Mr. W. T. Blanford’s <i>Mammals of British India</i>. “Gibbons
+are thoroughly arboreal, and Hoolocks are almost, if not entirely,
+confined to hill-forest. They move chiefly by means of their long
+arms, by which they swing themselves for prodigious distances from
+branch to branch and from tree to tree. They descend hillsides
+at a surprising pace, their descent being accomplished by grasping<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_730"></a>[730]</span>
+bamboos or branches that bend beneath their weight, and allow
+them to drop until they can seize the ends of other bamboos or
+branches lower on the slope, and take another mighty swing downwards.
+They also ascend with great rapidity, swinging themselves
+from tree to tree. When walking on the ground the Hoolock rests
+on its hind feet alone, with the sole flat on the ground, and the
+great toe widely separated from the other digits. The arms are
+usually held upwards, sometimes horizontally, their great length
+giving the animal a very peculiar aspect. Gibbons walk rather
+quickly, with a waddling gait, and can easily be overtaken by men
+when on the ground. The food of these Apes consists of fruit,
+leaves, young shoots, spiders (of which they are very fond), insects,
+birds’ eggs, and almost certainly of young birds, if not of any birds
+they can capture. Anderson found that small birds were killed
+and devoured by Hoolocks in confinement with a method and
+eagerness that showed this prey to be the natural food of the Apes.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_731"></a>[731]</span>
+The Hoolock drinks with its lips, putting its head down to the
+water as Monkeys do. All species of <i>Hylobates</i> have a powerful
+voice, and the common name of the Hoolock is taken from its
+peculiar double call, which is repeated several times. At a distance
+the sound much resembles a human voice; it is a peculiar wailing
+note, audible from afar, and in the countries inhabited by these
+animals is one of the most familiar forest sounds. The calls commence
+at daybreak, and are continued till 9 or 10 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span>, several of
+the flock joining in the cry, like hounds giving tongue. After 9 or
+10 o’clock in the morning the animals feed or rest, and remain
+silent throughout the middle of the day, but recommence calling
+towards evening, though to a less extent than in the earlier part of
+the day.”</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp62" id="figure351" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure351.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 351.</span>—The Dun-coloured Gibbon (<i>Hylobates
+entelloides</i>). From <i>Archiv. du Muséum</i>, vol. ii. pl. 29.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The skull of the Gibbons, although agreeing with that of other
+Apes in its prognathism, presents a somewhat human appearance,
+and the molar teeth are also very like diminutive human molars.
+In the anterior inward inclination of the two series of cheek-teeth
+and the inward
+position of the
+upper premolars
+the Gibbons make
+an approach to the
+human type unknown
+in other
+Apes.</p>
+
+<p>The figure of
+the liver of one
+species of this
+genus is introduced
+to show the general
+absence of lateral
+fissures and the
+small size of the caudate lobe (<i>c</i>) characteristic of the liver of all the
+<i>Simiidæ</i>, except <i>Gorilla</i> (see <a href="#Page_706">p. 706</a>), as well as that of Man. Another
+specimen of the liver of the same species showed scarcely any trace
+of a caudate lobe.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="figure352" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure352.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 352.</span>—Under surface of the liver of <i>Hylobates lar.</i> <i>u</i>, Umbilical
+fissure; <i>p</i>, portal fissure; <i>vc</i>, vena cava; <i>l</i>, left lobe; <i>r</i>, right
+lobe; <i>s</i>, Spigelian lobe; <i>c</i>, caudate lobe; <i>g</i>, gall-bladder.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A fossil Ape from the Middle Miocene of France, originally
+described as <i>Pliopithecus</i>, indicates an extinct Gibbon which does
+not appear to be generically separable from <i>Hylobates</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Simia.</i><a id="FNanchor_693" href="#Footnote_693" class="fnanchor">[693]</a>—Skull (<a href="#figure353">Fig. 353</a>) produced at the vertex; body and
+limbs massive; the pectoral limbs reaching to the ankle; a centrale
+in the carpus; hallux very small; sixteen dorso-lumbar vertebræ, and
+twelve pairs of ribs; no ischiatic callosities. Oriental.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp64" id="figure353" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure353.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 353.</span>—Side view of the skull of adult Orang (<i>Simia
+satyrus</i>). From <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. i. pl. 53.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This genus includes the large red-haired Apes from Sumatra<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_732"></a>[732]</span>
+and Borneo commonly known as Orangs, or Orang-Utans,<a id="FNanchor_694" href="#Footnote_694" class="fnanchor">[694]</a> of which
+there is probably only a single species (<i>S. satyrus</i>). These animals
+inhabit the swampy forests near the coasts; and the males attain a
+height of about 4 feet 4 inches. The body is very bulky and the
+legs exceedingly short, but the arms are very long, reaching in the
+erect posture down to the
+ankles. The Orang walks
+resting on the knuckles of
+the hands and the outer
+sides of the feet, with the
+soles of the latter turned
+mainly inwards, as in <a href="#figure354">Fig.
+354</a>. Its movements
+appear to be slow and
+deliberate, and in those
+specimens which have been
+kept in captivity in this
+country the demeanour is
+languid and melancholy,
+although this is far from
+being the case with those
+shown in the more congenial
+climate of the Zoological
+Gardens at Calcutta. The
+habits of these animals are
+arboreal, and they build a
+kind of shelter or nest of boughs and leaves; their food appears
+to consist mainly of fruits, and is exclusively of a vegetable nature.
+The whole of the body is clothed with long hair of a reddish-brown
+colour, and full-grown males have a well developed beard; the
+males not unfrequently also develop a large warty protuberance,
+formed of fibro-cellular tissue, on either side of the face. The
+hands are long, and are characterised by the small size of the
+pollex, which does not reach to the end of the metacarpal of
+the index finger. The feet have a similar structure, the hallux
+only reaching to the middle of the proximal phalange of the
+adjacent toe, and being often destitute not only of a nail, but
+likewise of the terminal phalange. The presence of a centrale in
+the carpus is a feature in which <i>Simia</i> agrees with <i>Hylobates</i> and
+the lower Apes, and differs from the two following genera and Man.
+With very rare exceptions the number of dorso-lumbar vertebræ is
+sixteen, of which twelve carry ribs, and therefore belong to the
+dorsal series, while the remaining four are lumbar. The distinction
+between the last lumbar and the first sacral vertebræ is clearly
+marked in young skeletons by the additional pleurapophysial
+ossifications (sacral ribs) in the transverse processes of the latter.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_733"></a>[733]</span>
+Thus though <i>Simia</i> presents a closer resemblance to Man than does
+<i>Anthropopithecus</i> in the number of ribs, it differs in the more
+important characters of that of the whole series of trunk-vertebræ.<a id="FNanchor_695" href="#Footnote_695" class="fnanchor">[695]</a>
+The hemispheres of the brain are much convoluted; the whole
+brain being more human-like than in any other Ape. The larynx is
+remarkable for having a prolongation from each ventricle, which in
+the adult become of enormous dimensions, and unite in front of
+the trachea to form one large sac extending downwards between
+the muscles to the axilla.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp66" id="figure354" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure354.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 354.</span>—The Orang-Utan (<i>Simia satyrus</i>). From Mr. Wolf’s sketch at the
+Zoological Gardens.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The skull of the Orang (<a href="#figure353">Fig. 353</a>) is characterised by its highly
+vaulted cranial portion, which is comparatively short (brachycephalic).
+The sagittal crest is well developed on the vertex, and
+has a highly convex contour; the superciliary ridges are but
+moderately developed, and do not stand out in the prominent
+manner so characteristic of the Gorilla. The aperture of the nares
+in the skull is more pear-shaped than in the two following<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_734"></a>[734]</span> genera.</p>
+
+<p>The canines of the male Orang attain a great development;
+and the molars are characterised by the complex structure of their
+cusps and the numerous rugosities on the crown surface. The
+outer border of the upper premolars is placed in the same line as
+that of the molars.</p>
+
+<p>The broken canine tooth of a large Anthropoid Ape from the
+Lower Pliocene of the Siwalik Hills
+probably indicates the existence at
+that period of a species of <i>Simia</i> in
+Northern India.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gorilla.</i><a id="FNanchor_696" href="#Footnote_696" class="fnanchor">[696]</a>—Skull not produced at the
+vertex; body and limbs massive, the
+pectoral limb not reaching below the
+middle of the lower leg (<a href="#figure355">Fig. 355</a>);
+no centrale in the carpus: hallux well
+developed; seventeen dorso-lumbar
+vertebræ, of which thirteen carry ribs;
+no ischiatic callosities. Male much
+larger than female, and with very
+strongly marked cranial ridges, which
+are wanting in the latter. Mandibular
+symphysis long. Ethiopian.</p>
+
+<p>The well-known Gorilla (<a href="#figure356">Fig. 356</a>),
+of which there seems to be only one
+species (<i>G. savagei</i>), is found in Western
+Equatorial Africa, chiefly or entirely
+in the district enclosed by the
+Cameroon and Congo rivers. It is
+the largest of all the Apes, its bulk
+considerably exceeding that of man,
+although from the shortness of the
+legs it appears never to attain a greater
+height than 5½ feet. The first introduction
+of this animal to the notice
+of zoologists was made in 1847 by
+Dr. Thomas Savage, but it was not fully known till many years later.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp31" id="figure355" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure355.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 355.</span>—Skeleton of the Gorilla.
+(From De Blainville.)</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The skin of the Gorilla is entirely black, the hair being blackish,
+but turning more or less gray in old individuals. The arms reach
+down as far as the middle of the lower leg; while the pollex
+extends only a short distance beyond the base of the first phalange
+of the index finger, and the hallux reaches nearly as far as the
+distal extremity of the corresponding digit of the foot. The digits
+of both the hand and foot are united together by integument as
+far as the distal extremities of the first phalanges. The larynx<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_735"></a>[735]</span>
+has very capacious air-sacs, which meet in front of the trachea and
+communicate with the ventricles; and in advanced age these sacs
+may extend to the axilla. The ears are relatively small. The
+skull is of an elongated or dolichocephalic type; that of the adult
+male being characterised by the enormous development of the
+supraorbital ridges, which form a kind of penthouse over the eyes,
+and contribute to the peculiarly ferocious appearance of the animal.
+The sagittal crest is also very large. The canine teeth of the male
+are very large, and are inclined outwards in both jaws. In the
+cheek-teeth the upper premolars are of considerable antero-posterior
+extent, with their outer border placed in the same line as that of
+the molars; and the third upper molar is larger than either of the
+others.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="figure356" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure356.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 356.</span>—The Gorilla (<i>Gorilla savagei</i>). From <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. iv. pl. 43.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The posterior cervical vertebræ are characterised by the great
+height of their neural spines, which thus form a strong basis for
+the powerful cervical muscles supporting the massive skull. In
+some instances the fourth lumbar vertebra becomes ankylosed to
+the sacrum, as is occasionally found to be the case in some of the
+lower human races.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_736"></a>[736]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the absence of a centrale to the carpus, and also in the
+number of the dorso-lumbar vertebræ, the present and following
+genus resemble man; although they both differ in having thirteen
+in place of twelve pairs of ribs.</p>
+
+<p>The brain of the Gorilla, according to Dr. Hartmann, resembles
+that of the Orang in the complexity of its convolutions, and is
+thereby distinguished from that of the Chimpanzee. In form it is
+of the long oval characteristic of Man; the brain of the Chimpanzee
+and Orang being more rounded.</p>
+
+<p>Gorillas live in family parties in the depths of the dense forests
+of Western Equatorial Africa, seeking their food during the day,
+while at night it is said that the female and young ascend a tree
+at the foot of which the male sleeps. They walk with the backs
+of their closed hands and the flat soles of the feet placed on the
+ground. Although there has been much exaggeration on this
+point, it appears certain that the male Gorilla is an extremely
+ferocious and dangerous animal when brought to bay, but the
+statements as to its making unprovoked assaults on men do not
+appear authentic. They utter deep guttural sounds, which on
+some occasions may be described as grunts and at others as a
+roar.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anthropopithecus.</i><a id="FNanchor_697" href="#Footnote_697" class="fnanchor">[697]</a>—One of the most important differences of
+this genus from the preceding is the absence of any marked
+disparity between the two sexes, either in the size or the conformation
+of the skull, although the male can always be distinguished
+by the larger size of the canine teeth. The mandibular
+symphysis is also much shorter. Differences in the characters of
+the teeth are described below. The genus is confined at the present
+day to the Ethiopian region.</p>
+
+<p>The Chimpanzees (<a href="#figure357">Fig. 357</a>) inhabit Western and Central
+Equatorial Africa; and there has been much discussion whether
+they should all be included under one specific name (<i>A. troglodytes</i>), or
+whether there are really two or more species. A female specimen
+now living in the London Zoological Gardens, characterised among
+other distinctive features by the nearly bald head, clearly indicates,
+however, a second species, which probably corresponds to the
+imperfectly defined <i>A. calvus</i> of Du Chaillu.</p>
+
+<p>The region inhabited by the Chimpanzees extends from the
+Gambia to the Benguela, reaching as far inland as 28° E. long.
+The Common Chimpanzee is a smaller animal than the Gorilla, its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_737"></a>[737]</span>
+height not exceeding 5 feet. In colour it is darker than the
+latter, and the ears are relatively larger. In the upright position
+the arms reach only a short distance below the knee, in which
+respect the Chimpanzee is more human-like than any of the other
+Apes. The face is furnished with distinct whiskers, eyebrows, and
+eyelashes. The pollex reaches nearly or quite to the base of the
+first phalange of the index finger, and the hallux to the base of
+the second phalange of the corresponding digit of the foot. The
+laryngeal sacs are as largely developed as in the Gorilla.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="figure357" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/figure357.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 357.</span>—The Chimpanzee (<i>Anthropopithecus troglodytes</i>). From Mr. Wolf’s drawing of a young
+individual in the Zoological Society’s Gardens.</p></figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Although the skull of the Chimpanzee has distinct superciliary
+ridges, yet the high bony crests of the calvarium of the male
+Gorilla are wanting, and the whole coronal region of the skull is
+more rounded and far less rugged.</p>
+
+<p>The canine teeth of the male Chimpanzee are relatively much
+smaller than in the Gorilla and Orang. The upper molars are
+characterised by the third one being smaller than either of the
+other two, as well as by the presence of an indistinct cingulum on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_738"></a>[738]</span>
+their inner surfaces. The upper premolars differ from those of the
+other genera of the family by the shortness of their antero-posterior
+diameter, and also by the larger size of their external as compared
+with their internal cusps; while the outer border of these teeth is
+placed internally to that of the upper molars. In all these respects
+the teeth of the Chimpanzee make a decided approximation to the
+human type.</p>
+
+<p>Many young individuals of the Chimpanzee have been brought
+to Europe, but they appear to succumb sooner or later to the effects
+of an unsuitable climate. All these examples show that the disposition
+of this Ape is gentle, lively, and intelligent, and in all
+respects markedly opposite to that of the Orang. In a wild state
+these Apes are essentially forest-dwellers, and are more arboreal in
+their habits than the Gorilla. They live either in families, or in
+small parties of several families. Frequently at least they construct
+a kind of nest in the trees as a sleeping-place; the male being said
+to sleep on a forked branch below the level of this nest. In walking
+the Chimpanzee usually supports himself on the backs of his
+closed fingers, and either on the soles of the feet or on the closed
+toes.</p>
+
+<p>From a distributional point of view the discovery of a fossil
+Ape in the Pliocene of the Punjab, apparently closely allied to the
+Chimpanzee, is of great interest. This determination rests upon
+the evidence of an imperfect palate originally described under the
+name of <i>Palæopithecus</i>, but subsequently referred to the present
+genus. The teeth of this jaw present all the essential characters
+of those of the Chimpanzee, but the two series of cheek-teeth have
+a slight anterior convergence, the premolars are shorter in the
+antero-posterior direction than is usually the case in that species,
+and the outer incisor is relatively narrower than in the latter. In
+these features the extinct <i>A. sivalensis</i> makes a nearer approximation
+to the human type than is the case with its living congeners.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dryopithecus.</i><a id="FNanchor_698" href="#Footnote_698" class="fnanchor">[698]</a>—The extinct <i>Dryopithecus</i> of the Middle Miocene
+of France is represented by a single species of the approximate
+size of the Chimpanzee, and appears to be the most generalised
+member of the family. According to the recent observations of
+Professor Gaudry,<a id="FNanchor_699" href="#Footnote_699" class="fnanchor">[699]</a> while it resembles the Gorilla in that the two
+series of lower cheek-teeth diverge anteriorly and the penultimate
+premolar is larger than the last of that series, it differs in having a
+much longer and narrower mandibular symphysis, and thus indicates
+a transition to the <i>Cercopithecidæ</i>. A gradual transition in the form
+of the mandible may, indeed, be traced from <i>Dryopithecus</i>, through
+<i>Gorilla</i>, to <i>Anthropopithecus</i>; the latter having a short and wide
+symphysis, with the two series of cheek-teeth slightly converging<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_739"></a>[739]</span>
+anteriorly, and the penultimate premolar being not larger than the
+last. In all these specialised characters the jaw of the Chimpanzee
+approximates to that of Man, in which the symphysis is still further
+shortened and widened, and the anterior convergence of the cheek-teeth
+so much increased as to produce a horse-shoe-like form in the
+whole dental series.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Family</i> <span class="smcap">Hominidæ</span>.</h4>
+
+<p>In the <i>Systema Naturæ</i> of Linnæus Man was separated only
+generically from the Apes, but in the next great work which exercised
+a widespread influence over the progress of zoological science,
+the <i>Règne Animal</i> of Cuvier, he forms a distinct order under the
+name of Bimana, the Monkeys and Lemurs being associated together
+as Quadrumana. This has been the prevailing arrangement in the
+zoological systems of the present century, though in the classification
+of Owen his position is still farther removed from that of the
+Monkeys, as in it the genus <i>Homo</i> forms one of the four primary
+divisions or subclasses of the Mammalia, called Archencephala, the
+Quadrumana being united with the Carnivora, Ungulata, and others
+in another division called Gyrencephala. On the other hand, the
+tendency of most modern systematists, for reasons which have been
+fully stated by Professor Huxley,<a id="FNanchor_700" href="#Footnote_700" class="fnanchor">[700]</a> is to revert towards the Linnæan
+position.</p>
+
+<p>Considering solely the facts of Man’s bodily structure, it can be
+clearly demonstrated that the points in which he differs from the
+Ape most nearly resembling him are not of greater importance than
+those by which that Ape differs from other universally acknowledged
+members of the group; and therefore, in any natural system, if
+Man is to be made a subject of zoological classification upon the
+same principles as those applied elsewhere, he must be included in
+the order which comprises the Monkeys. We say upon the same
+principles as are applied elsewhere, since zoological classification has
+never taken into consideration the psychological characteristics
+which distinguish the subjects of its investigations, but only their
+tangible and physical structure, otherwise endless confusion would
+result, at all events with our very imperfect knowledge of animal
+psychology. The essential attributes which distinguish Man, and
+give him a perfectly isolated position among living creatures, are
+not to be found in his bodily structure, and should therefore either
+be left entirely out of consideration, or have such weight given to
+them as would remove him completely out of the region of zoological
+classification. To profess to classify Man as if he were one of <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_740"></a>[740]</span>the
+animals (as in all points of the structure and functions of his organs
+he undoubtedly is), to place him in the class Mammalia, and then
+to allow other considerations to influence the judgment as to the
+particular position he should occupy in the class, is most illogical.</p>
+
+<p>Man, therefore, considered from a zoological point of view, must
+be included in the order Primates, even if the Lemurs be removed
+from it, since his structural affinities with the Monkeys are far
+closer than are those of the so-called “Half-Apes.” We may, without
+treading upon debatable ground, go farther, and say that the
+differences between Man and the Anthropoid Apes are really not
+so marked as those which separate the latter from the American
+Monkeys. This being admitted, perhaps the best exposition relating
+to the present condition of the order will be to regard Man as
+representing a fifth family of the Anthropoidea, which should be
+known as the <i>Hominidæ</i>. In thus ranking Man as one of the five
+principal families or sections of the suborder it should, however, be
+observed that this course does not in the least degree imply that
+such families are precisely equivalent to one another, or that the
+intervals by which they are separated are of equal importance; all
+that we commit ourselves to being that they are five perfectly
+distinct groups, all branches from a common stem, and in the
+present state of nature not united by any intermediate types.</p>
+
+<p>The distinctions between the <i>Hominidæ</i> and <i>Simiidæ</i> are chiefly
+relative, being greater size of brain and of brain-case as compared
+with the facial portion of the skull, smaller development of the
+canine teeth of the males, complete adaptation of the structure of the
+vertebral column to the vertical position, greater length of the lower
+as compared with the upper extremities, and greater length of the
+hallux or great toe, with almost complete absence of the power of
+bringing it in opposition to the other four toes. The last feature
+together with the small size of the canine teeth are perhaps the
+most marked and easily defined distinctions that can be drawn
+between the two groups.</p>
+
+<p>Man is universally admitted to form a single genus, <i>Homo</i> of
+Linnæus, but a question of considerable importance in treating of
+him from a zoological point of view, and one which has been a subject
+of much controversy, is whether all men should be considered
+as belonging to a single or to several species. This question is
+perhaps of less importance now than formerly, when those who
+maintained a plurality of species associated with the hypothesis
+plurality of origin. One of the strongest arguments against the
+view that the various races of Man represent more than one species
+is that none of those who have maintained it have been able to
+agree as to how many distinct specific modifications can be defined,
+almost every number from three to twenty or more having been
+advocated by different authors. If the distinguishing characters of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_741"></a>[741]</span>
+the so-called species had been so marked, there could not be such a
+remarkable diversity of opinion upon them. Again, the two facts—(1)
+that, however different the extremes of any two races may
+be in appearance (and it must be admitted that, as advocated by
+many polygenists, the differences are greater than many which are
+considered specific among other animals), every intermediate gradation
+can be found through which the one passes into the other,
+and (2) that all races are fertile <i>inter se</i>—are quite conclusive in
+favour of considering Man as representing a single species in the
+ordinary sense in which the word is now used, and of treating of
+all his various modifications as varieties or races.</p>
+
+<p>The great problem at the root of all zoology, the discovery of a
+natural classification which shall be an expression of our knowledge
+of the real relationship or consanguinity of different forms, is also
+applicable to the study of the races of Man. When we can satisfactorily
+prove that any two of the known groups of mankind are
+descended from the same common stock, a point is gained. The
+more such points we have acquired the more nearly shall we be
+able to picture to ourselves, not only the present, but also the past
+distribution of the races of Man upon the earth, and the mode and
+order in which they have been derived from one another. But the
+difficulties in the way of applying zoological principles to the classification
+of Man are vastly greater than in the case of most animals.
+When groups of animals become so far differentiated from each
+other as to represent separate species, they remain isolated; they
+may break up into further subdivisions—in fact, it is only by
+further subdivision that new species can be formed; but it is of
+the very essence of species, as now universally understood by
+naturalists, that they cannot recombine, and so give rise to new
+forms. With the varieties of Man it is otherwise. They have
+never so far separated as to answer to the physiological definition
+of species. All races, as said above, are fertile with one another,
+though perhaps in different degrees. Hence new varieties have
+constantly been formed, not only by the segmentation of portions
+of one of the old stocks, but also by various combinations of those
+already established.</p>
+
+<p>Without entering into the difficult question of the method of
+Man’s first appearance upon the world, we must assume for it vast
+antiquity,—at all events as measured by any historical standard.
+Of this there is now ample proof. During the long time Man
+existed in a savage state—a time compared to which the dawn of
+our historical period is as yesterday—he was influenced by the
+operation of those natural laws which have produced the variations
+seen in other regions of organic nature. The first Men may very
+probably have been all alike; but when spread over the face of
+the earth and subjected to all kinds of diverse external conditions,—climate,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_742"></a>[742]</span>
+food, competition with members of their own species or
+with wild animals,—racial differences began slowly to be developed
+through the potency of various kinds of selection acting upon the
+slight variations which appeared in individuals in obedience to the
+tendency planted in all living things. These differences manifested
+themselves externally in the colour of the skin, the colour, quality,
+and distribution of the hair, the form of the head and features, and
+the proportions of the limbs, as well as in the general stature.</p>
+
+<p>Geographical position must have been one of the main elements
+in determining the formation and permanence of races. Groups of
+Men isolated from their fellows for long periods, such as those
+living on small islands, to which their ancestors may have been
+accidentally drifted, would naturally, in course of time, develop a
+new type of features, of skull, of complexion, or hair. A slight set
+in one direction in any of these characters would constantly tend
+to intensify itself, and so new races would be formed. In the same
+way different intellectual or moral qualities would be gradually
+developed or transmitted in different groups of Men. The longer
+a race thus formed remained isolated the more strongly impressed
+and the more permanent would its characteristics become, and less
+liable to be changed or lost when the surrounding circumstances
+were altered or under a moderate amount of intermixture from
+other races—the more “true,” in fact, would it be. On the other
+hand, on large continental tracts, where no mountain ranges or
+other natural barriers form obstacles to free intercourse between
+tribe and tribe, there would always be a tendency towards uniformity,
+from the amalgamation of races brought into close relation
+by war or by commerce. Smaller or feebler races would be
+destroyed or absorbed by others impelled by superabundant population
+or other causes to spread beyond their original limits; or
+sometimes the conquering race would itself disappear by absorption
+into the conquered.</p>
+
+<p>Thus for untold ages the history of Man has presented a shifting
+kaleidoscopic scene: new races gradually becoming differentiated
+out of the old elements, and, after dwelling a while upon the
+earth, becoming either suddenly annihilated or gradually merged
+into new combinations; a constant destruction and reconstruction;
+a constant tendency to separation and differentiation, and a tendency
+to combine again into a common uniformity—the two tendencies
+acting against and modifying each other. The history of these
+processes in former times, except in so far as they may be inferred
+from the present state of things, is a difficult study, owing to the
+scarcity of evidence. If we had any approach to a complete
+palæontological record, the history of Man could be reconstructed;
+but nothing of the kind is forthcoming. Evidence of the anatomical
+characters of Man as he lived on the earth during the time<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_743"></a>[743]</span>
+when the most striking racial characteristics were being developed,
+during the long ante-historic period in which the Negro, the Mongolian,
+and the Caucasian were being gradually fashioned into their
+respective types, is entirely wanting, or if any exists it is at present
+safely buried in the earth, perhaps to be revealed at some unexpected
+time and in some unforeseen manner. Even the materials
+from which a history of the modifications of the human species as
+known to our generation must be constructed are rapidly passing
+away, since the age in which we live is an age in which, in a far
+greater degree than any previous one, the destruction of races, both
+by annihilation and absorption, is going on. Owing to the rapid
+extension of maritime discovery and commerce, changes such as
+have never been witnessed before are now taking place in the
+ethnology of the world—changes especially affecting the island
+populations among which, more than elsewhere, the solution of
+many of those problems may be looked for. The subject is, however,
+attracting the attention of observers of all countries to a
+greater degree than it ever has before, and such progress has been
+made in perfecting the methods of investigation of racial characteristics
+that we are beginning to learn what lines of research are
+profitable and what are barren, so that we may hope the time is
+not far distant when we may get some clear insight into the knowledge
+of the natural classification and relationships of the races of
+Man.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a brief summary of the principal results
+which appear to have been attained up to the present time by the
+study of this somewhat difficult subject.<a id="FNanchor_701" href="#Footnote_701" class="fnanchor">[701]</a></p>
+
+<p>The most ordinary observation is sufficient to demonstrate the
+fact that certain groups of men are strongly marked from others by
+definite characters common to all members of the group, and transmitted
+regularly to their descendants by the laws of inheritance.
+Thus the Chinaman and the Negro, the native of Patagonia and the
+Andaman Islander, are as structurally distinct from each other as
+are many of the so-called species of any natural group of animals.
+Indeed, it may be said with truth that their differences are even
+greater than those which mark the groups called genera by many
+naturalists of the present day. Nevertheless the difficulty of
+parcelling out all the individuals composing the human species into
+certain definite groups, and of saying of each man that he belongs
+to one or other of such groups, is insuperable. No such classification
+has ever been, or, indeed, can ever be obtained. There is not
+one of the most characteristic and most extreme forms, like those
+just named, from which transitions cannot be traced by almost<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_744"></a>[744]</span>
+imperceptible gradations to any of the other equally characteristic
+and equally extreme forms. Indeed, a large proportion of mankind
+is made up, not of extreme or typical, but of more or less generalised
+or intermediate forms, the relative numbers of which are
+continually increasing, as the long-existing isolation of nations and
+races breaks down under the ever-extending intercommunication
+characteristic of the period in which we live.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulties of framing a natural classification of Man, or
+one really representing the relationship of the various minor groups
+to each other, are well exemplified by a study of the numerous
+attempts which have been made from the time of Linnæus and
+Blumenbach onwards. Even in the first step of establishing certain
+primary groups of equivalent rank there has been no accord. Thus
+four primitive types were sketched out by Linnæus—the European,
+Asiatic, African, and American. These were expanded into five
+by Blumenbach by the addition of the Malay,<a id="FNanchor_702" href="#Footnote_702" class="fnanchor">[702]</a> and reduced by
+Cuvier to three by the suppression of the last two. Many later
+writers have largely increased the number of these so-called primary
+divisions, but the conclusion, so often arrived at by various anthropologists,
+and so often abandoned for some more complex system,
+that the primitive man, whatever he may have been, has in the
+course of ages divaricated into three extreme types, represented by
+the Caucasian of Europe, the Mongolian of Asia, and the Ethiopian
+of Africa, and that all existing individuals of the species can be
+ranged around these types, or somewhere or other between them,
+seems, on the whole, to give the clearest view of the facts of the
+case. Large numbers are doubtless the descendants of direct
+crosses in varying proportions between well-established extreme
+forms; for, notwithstanding opposite views formerly held by some
+authors on this subject, there is now abundant evidence of the
+wholesale production of new races in this way. Others may be
+the descendants of the primitive stock before the strongly marked
+existing distinctions had taken place, and therefore present, though
+from a different cause from the last, equally generalised characters.
+In these cases it can only be by most carefully examining and
+balancing all characters, however minute, and finding out in what
+direction the preponderance lies, that a place can be assigned to
+them. It cannot be too often insisted on that the various groups
+of mankind, owing to their probable unity of origin, the great
+variability of individuals, and the possibility of all degrees of
+intermixture of races at remote or recent periods of the history of
+the species, have so much in common that it is extremely difficult
+to find distinctive characters capable of strict definition by which
+they may be differentiated. It is more by the preponderance of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_745"></a>[745]</span>
+certain characters in a large number of members of a group, than
+by the exclusive or even constant possession of these characters
+in each of its members, that the group as a whole must be
+characterised.</p>
+
+<p>Bearing these principles in mind, we may endeavour to formulate,
+as far as they have as yet been worked out, the distinctive
+features of the typical members of each of the three great divisions,
+and then show into what subordinate groups each of them seems to
+be divided.</p>
+
+<p>We begin with the Ethiopian, Negroid, or Melanian, or “black”
+type. It is characterised by a dark, often nearly black, complexion;
+black hair, of a kind called “frizzly” or, incorrectly, “woolly,” <i>i.e.</i>
+each hair is closely rolled up on itself, a condition always associated
+with a more or less flattened or elliptical transverse section; a
+moderate or scanty development of beard, an almost invariably
+dolichocephalic skull; small and moderately retreating jugal bones
+(mesopic face); a very broad and flat nose, platyrhine in the
+skeleton; moderate or low orbits; prominent eyes; thick, everted
+lips; prognathous jaws; large teeth (macrodont); a narrow pelvis
+(index in the male 90 to 100); a long forearm (humero-radial
+index 80); and certain other proportions of the body and limbs
+which are being gradually worked out, and reduced to numerical
+expression as material for so doing accumulates.</p>
+
+<p>The most characteristic examples of the second great type, the
+Mongolian or Xanthous, or “yellow,” have a yellow or brownish
+complexion; black coarse straight hair, without any tendency to curl,
+and nearly round in section; on all other parts of the surface except
+the scalp scanty and late in appearing; a skull of variable form,
+mostly mesocephalic (though extremes both of dolichocephalism and
+brachycephalism are found in certain groups of this type); a broad
+and flat face, with prominent, anteriorly-projecting jugal bones
+(platyopic face); nose small, mesorhine or leptorhine; orbits high
+and round, with very little development of glabella or supraciliary
+ridges; eyes sunken, and with the aperture between the lids narrow;
+in the most typical members of the group with a vertical fold of
+skin over the inner canthus, and with the outer angle slightly
+elevated; jaws mesognathous; teeth of moderate size (mesodont).
+The proportions of the limbs and form of the pelvis have yet to be
+worked out, the results at present obtained showing great diversity
+among different individuals of what appear to be well-marked races
+of the group, but this is perhaps due to the insufficient number of
+individuals as yet examined with accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>The last type, which, for want of a better name, we must still
+call by the misleading one that has the priority, Caucasian, or
+“white,” has usually a light-complexioned skin (although in some, in
+so far aberrant cases, it is as dark as in the Negroes); hair <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_746"></a>[746]</span>fair or
+black, soft, straight, or wavy, in section intermediate between the
+flattened and cylindrical form; beard fully developed; form of
+cranium variable, mostly mesocephalic; jugal bones retreating; face
+narrow and projecting in the middle line (pro-opic); orbits moderate;
+nose narrow and prominent (leptorhine); jaws orthognathous; teeth
+small (microdont); pelvis broad (pelvic index of male 80); forearm
+short, relatively to humerus (humero-radial index 74).</p>
+
+<p>In endeavouring to subdivide into minor groups the numerous
+and variously-modified individuals which cluster around one or
+other of these great types—a process quite necessary for many
+practical or descriptive purposes—the distinctions afforded by the
+study of physical characters are often so slight that it becomes
+necessary to take other considerations into account, among which
+geographical distribution and language hold an important place.</p>
+
+<p>I. The Ethiopian or Negroid races may be primarily arranged as
+follows:—</p>
+
+<p>A. African or Typical Negroes.—Inhabitants of all the central
+portion of the African continent, from the Atlantic on the west to
+the Indian Ocean on the east, greatly mixed all along their
+northern frontier with Hamitic and Semitic Melanochroi, a mixture
+which, taking place in various proportions and under varied conditions,
+has given rise to many of the numerous races and tribes
+inhabiting the Sudan.</p>
+
+<p>A branch of the African Negroes are the Bantu—distinguished
+chiefly, if not entirely, by the structure of their language. Physically
+indistinguishable from the other negroes with whom they come in
+contact in the Equatorial regions of Africa, the Southern Bantu, or
+Kaffirs, as they are generally called, show a marked modification of
+type, being lighter in colour, having a larger cranial capacity, less
+marked prognathism, and smaller teeth. Some of these changes
+are probably due to crossing with other races.</p>
+
+<p>B. The Negrillos—diminutive sub-brachycephalic tribes, inhabiting
+the dense forests of Central and Western Equatorial Africa—represent
+a distinct section of the Negro race. They form the
+only exceptions to the general dolichocephaly of the African branch
+of the Negroid division, and when found in a pure state are the
+smallest of all known human races, averaging scarcely more than
+4 feet in height. The colour of their skin is yellowish rather than
+black.</p>
+
+<p>C. The Bushmen (Bosjesmen, men of the woods, of the Dutch
+colonists of South Africa) constitute a very distinct modification of
+the Negro type. The hair shows the extreme of the frizzly
+character; being shorter and less abundant than that of the
+ordinary Negro, it has the appearance of growing in separate tufts,
+which coil up together into rounded balls compared to “peppercorns.”<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_747"></a>[747]</span>
+In their yellow complexion, wide cheek-bones, and
+peculiar form of the eyes they so much resemble some of the
+Mongolian races that anthropologists have been inclined to trace
+affinities to or admixture with them, although the character of the
+hair makes such a supposition almost inadmissible. The width of the
+cheek-bones and the narrowness of the forehead and chin give
+a lozenge shape to the front view of the face. The forehead is
+prominent and straight; the nose extremely flat and broad, more
+so than in any other race; the lips prominent and thick, although
+the jaws are less prognathous than in the true Negro races. The
+cranium has many special characters by which it can be easily
+distinguished from that of any other race. The average height of
+the males is about 4 feet 8 inches. There is every reason to
+believe that the Bushmen represent the earliest race of which we
+have any knowledge inhabiting the southern part of the African
+continent, but that long before the advent of Europeans upon the
+scene they had been invaded from the north by Negro tribes, who,
+being superior in size, strength, and civilisation, had taken possession
+of the greater part of their territories, and, mingling freely
+with the aborigines, had produced the mixed race called Hottentots,
+who retained the culture and settled pastoral habits of the Negroes,
+with many of the physical features of the Bushmen. These in
+their turn, encroached upon by the Kaffirs from the north and by
+Europeans from the south, are now greatly diminished, and
+threatened with the same fate which will surely soon befall the
+scanty remnant of the early inhabitants who still retain their
+primitive type.</p>
+
+<p>D. Oceanic Negroes or Melanesians.—These include the Papuans
+of New Guinea and the majority of the inhabitants of the islands of
+the Western Pacific, and form also a substratum of the population,
+greatly mixed with other races, of regions extending far beyond
+the present centre of their area of distribution.</p>
+
+<p>They are represented, in what may be called a hypertypical
+form, by the extremely dolichocephalic Kai Colos, or mountaineers
+of the interior of the Fiji Islands, although the coast population of
+the same group has lost the distinctive characters by crossing. In
+many parts of New Guinea and the great chain of islands extending
+eastwards and southwards ending with New Caledonia they are
+found in a more or less pure condition, especially in the interior and
+more inaccessible portions of the islands, almost each of which
+shows special modifications of the type recognisable in details of
+structure. Taken altogether, their chief physical distinction from
+the African Negroes lies in the fact that the glabella and supraorbital
+ridges are generally well developed in the males, whereas in
+Africans this region is usually smooth and flat. The nose also,
+especially in the northern part of their geographical range,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_748"></a>[748]</span> New
+Guinea, and the neighbouring islands, is narrower (often mesorhine)
+and prominent. The cranium is generally higher and narrower.
+It is, however, possible to find African and Melanesian skulls quite
+alike in essential characters.</p>
+
+<p>The now extinct inhabitants of Tasmania were probably pure,
+but aberrant, members of the Melanesian group, which had
+undergone a modification from the original type, not by mixture
+with other races, but in consequence of long isolation, during which
+special characters had been gradually developed. Lying completely
+out of the track of all civilisation and commerce, even of the most
+primitive kind, they were little liable to be subject to the influence
+of any other race; and there is in fact nothing among their
+characters which could be accounted for in the way above
+suggested, as they were intensely, even exaggeratedly, Negroid
+in the form of nose, projection of mouth, and size of teeth,
+typically so in character of hair, and aberrant chiefly in the width
+of the skull in the parietal region. A cross with any of the
+Polynesian or Malay races sufficiently strong to produce this
+would, in all probability, have also left some traces on other parts
+of their organisation.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, in many parts of the Melanesian region
+there are distinct evidences of large admixture with Negrito, Malay,
+and Polynesian elements in varying proportions, producing numerous
+physical modifications. In many of the inhabitants of the great
+island of New Guinea itself and of the islands lying around it this
+mixture can be traced. In the people of Micronesia in the north
+and New Zealand in the south, although the Melanesian element
+is present, it is completely overlaid by the Polynesian, but there
+are probably few, if any, of the islands of the Pacific in which
+it does not form some factor in the composite character of the
+natives.</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants of the continent of Australia have long been
+a puzzle to ethnologists. Of Negroid complexion, features, and
+skeletal characters, yet without the characteristic frizzly hair, their
+position has been one of great difficulty to determine. They have,
+in fact, been a stumbling-block in the way of every system proposed.
+The solution, supported by many considerations too lengthy to enter
+into here, appears to lie in the supposition that they are not a
+distinct race at all, that is, not a homogeneous group formed by the
+gradual modification of one of the primitive stocks, but rather a
+cross between two already-formed branches of these stocks. According
+to this view, Australia was originally peopled with frizzly-haired
+Melanesians, such as those who still do, or did before the European
+invasion, dwell in the smaller islands which surround the north,
+east, and southern portions of the continent, but that a strong
+infusion of some other race, probably a low form of Caucasian<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_749"></a>[749]</span>
+Melanochroi, such as that which still inhabits the interior of the
+southern parts of India, has spread throughout the land from the
+north-west, and produced a modification of the physical characters,
+especially of the hair. This influence did not extend across Bass’s
+Straits into Tasmania, where, as just said, the Melanesian element
+remained in its purity. It is more strongly marked in the northern
+and central parts of Australia than on many portions of the southern
+and western coasts, where the lowness of type and more curly hair,
+sometimes closely approaching to frizzly, show a stronger retention
+of the Melanesian element. If the evidence should prove sufficiently
+strong to establish this view of the origin of the Australian natives,
+it will no longer be correct to speak of a primitive Australian, or
+even Australoid, race or type, or look for traces of the former
+existence of such a race anywhere out of their own land. Absolute
+proof of the origin of any race is, however, very difficult, if not
+impossible, to obtain, and there is nothing to exclude the possibility
+of the Australians being mainly the direct descendants of a very
+primitive human type, from which the frizzly-haired Negroes may
+be an offset. This character of hair is probably a specialisation,
+for it seems very unlikely that it was the attribute of the common
+ancestors of the human race.</p>
+
+<p>E. The fourth branch of the Negroid race consists of the
+diminutive round-headed people called Negritos, still found in a
+pure or unmixed state in the Andaman Islands, and forming a
+substratum of the population, though now greatly mixed with invading
+races, especially Malays, in the Philippines, and many of
+the islands of the Indo-Malayan Archipelago, and of some parts
+of the southern portion of the mainland of Asia. They also contribute
+to the varied population of New Guinea, where they appear
+to merge into the taller, longer-headed, and longer-nosed Melanesians
+proper. They show in a very marked manner some of the most
+striking anatomical peculiarities of the Negro race, such as the
+frizzly hair, the proportions of the limbs, especially the humero-radial
+index, and the form of the pelvis; but they differ in many
+cranial and facial characters, both from the African Negroes on the
+one hand, and the typical Oceanic Negroes, or Melanesians, on the
+other, and thus form a very distinct and well-characterised group.
+Wherever they are still found they are obviously holding their
+own with difficulty, if not actually disappearing, and there is much
+about their condition of civilisation and the situations in which
+they occur to induce us to look upon them, as in the case of the
+Negrillos of Central and the Bushmen of South Africa, as the
+remains of a population which occupied the land before the incoming
+of the present dominant races.</p>
+
+<p>II. The principal groups that can be arranged round the Mongolian
+type are as follows:—</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_750"></a>[750]</span></p>
+
+<p>A. The Eskimo appear to be a branch of the typical North
+Asiatic Mongols, who in their wanderings northwards and eastwards
+across the American continent, where they have been isolated
+almost as perfectly as an island population would be, hemmed
+in on one side by the eternal Polar ice, and on the other by hostile
+tribes of American Indians, with which they rarely, if ever, mingled,
+have gradually developed characters, most of which are strongly-expressed
+modifications of those seen in their allies who still remain
+on the western side of Behring Strait. It has also been shown
+that these special characteristics gradually increase from west to
+east, and are seen in their greatest perfection in the inhabitants
+of Greenland, at all events in those where no crossing with the
+Danes has taken place. A typical Eskimo skull presents a combination
+of characters by which it can be at once distinguished
+from that of any other of the groups of mankind. Such scanty
+remains as have yet been discovered of the earliest inhabitants of
+Europe do not present any structural affinities to this type, and
+there is therefore no justification for the supposition that they
+belonged to the same race, although it is not unlikely that similar
+external conditions may have led them to adopt similar modes of life.</p>
+
+<p>B. The typical Mongolian races constitute the present population
+of Northern and Central Asia. They are not very distinctly,
+but still conveniently for descriptive purposes, divided into a
+Northern and a Southern group.</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> The members of the former, Mongolo-Altaic or Sibiric group,
+are united by the affinities of their language. These people, from
+the cradle of their race in the great plateau of Central Asia, have
+at various times poured out their hordes upon the lands lying to the
+west, and thence penetrated almost to the heart of Europe. The
+Lapps, Finns, the Magyars, and the Turks are each the descendants
+of one of these waves of incursion, but they have for so many generations
+intermingled with the peoples through whom they have passed
+in their migrations, or whom they have found in the countries in
+which they have ultimately settled, that their original physical
+characters have been completely modified. Even the Lapps, that
+diminutive tribe of nomads inhabiting the most northern parts of
+Europe, supposed to be of Mongolian descent, show so little of the
+special attributes of that branch that it is difficult to assign them
+a place in it in a classification based upon physical characters.
+The Japanese are said by their language to be allied rather to the
+Northern than to the following branch of the Mongolian stock.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> The southern Mongolian or Sinitic group, divided from the
+former chiefly by language and habits of life, includes the greater
+part of the population of China, Tibet, Burma, and Siam.</p>
+
+<p>C. The next great division of Mongoloid people is the Malay,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_751"></a>[751]</span>
+forming the bulk of the population of the Indo-Malayan Archipelago
+and (mixed with the Negro) of Madagascar, subtypical it is true,
+but to which an easy transition can be traced from the most characteristic
+members of the type.</p>
+
+<p>D. The brown Polynesians, Malayo-Polynesians, Mahoris,
+Sawaioris, or Kanakas, as they have been variously called, seen
+in their greatest purity in the Samoan, Tongan, and Eastern Polynesian
+Islands, are still more modified, and possess less of the
+characteristic Mongolian features; but yet it is difficult to place
+them anywhere else in the system. The large infusion of the
+Melanesian element throughout the Pacific must never be forgotten
+in accounting for the characters of the people now inhabiting the
+islands—an element in many respects so diametrically opposite to
+the Mongolian that it would materially alter the characters, especially
+of the hair and beard, which has been with many authors a
+stumbling-block to the affiliation of the Polynesian with the Mongolian
+stock. This mixture is physically a fine one, and in some proportions
+produces a combination, as seen, for instance, in the Maories
+of New Zealand, which in all definable characters approaches quite
+as near, or nearer, to the Caucasian type than to either of the
+stocks from which it may be presumably derived. This resemblance
+has led some ethnologists to infer a real extension of the Caucasian
+element at some very early period into the Pacific Islands, and to
+look upon their inhabitants as the product of a mingling of all the
+three great types of men. Though this is a very plausible theory,
+it rests on little actual proof, since the combination of Mongolo-Malayan
+and Melanesian characters in different degrees, together
+with the local variations certain to arise in communities so isolated
+from each other and exposed to such varied conditions as the inhabitants
+of the Pacific Islands, would probably account for all the
+modifications observed among them.</p>
+
+<p>E. The native population (before the changes wrought by the
+European conquest) of the great continent of America, excluding
+the Eskimo, present, considering the vast extent of the country
+they inhabit and the great differences of climate and other surrounding
+conditions, a remarkable similarity of essential characters
+with much diversity of detail.</p>
+
+<p>The construction of the numerous American languages, of which
+as many as twelve hundred have been distinguished, is said to point
+to unity of origin, as, though widely different in many respects,
+they are all, or nearly all, constructed on the same general grammatical
+principle—that called <i>polysynthesis</i>—which differs from that
+of the languages of any of the Old World nations. The mental
+characteristics of all the American tribes have much that is in
+common, and the very different stages of culture to which they
+had attained at the time of the conquest, as that of the Incas and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_752"></a>[752]</span>
+Aztecs and the hunting or fishing tribes of the north and south,
+which have been quoted as evidence of diversities of race, were not
+greater than those between different nations of Europe, as Gauls and
+Germans on the one hand, and Greeks and Romans on the other, in
+the time of Julius Cæsar. Yet all these were Aryans, and in treating
+the Americans as one race it is not intended to imply that they
+are more closely allied than the different Aryan peoples of Europe
+and Asia. The best argument that can be used for the unity of
+the American race—using the word in a broad sense—is the great
+difficulty of forming any natural divisions in it founded upon physical
+characters. Thus there is no difference throughout the whole continent
+in the important character of the hair, this being always straight
+and lank, long and abundant on the scalp, but sparse elsewhere.
+The colour of the skin, notwithstanding the enormous differences of
+climate under which many members of the group exist, varies but
+little. It is true that in the features and cranium certain special
+modifications prevail in different districts, but the same forms
+reappear at widely separated parts of the continent. Thus skulls
+almost undistinguishable from one another may be met with from
+Vancouver’s Island, from Peru, and from Patagonia.</p>
+
+<p>Naturalists who have admitted but three primary types of the
+human species have always found a difficulty with the Americans,
+hesitating between placing them with the Mongolian or so-called
+“yellow” races, or elevating them to the rank of a primary group.
+Cuvier, indeed, does not seem to have been able to settle this point
+to his own satisfaction, and leaves it an open question. Although
+the large majority of Americans have in the special form of the
+nasal bones, leading to the characteristic high bridge of the nose of
+the living face, in the well-developed superciliary ridge and retreating
+forehead, characters which distinguish them from the typical
+Asiatic Mongol, yet in many other respects they resemble them so
+closely that, while still admitting the difficulties of the case, we are
+inclined to include them as aberrant members of the Mongolian
+type.<a id="FNanchor_703" href="#Footnote_703" class="fnanchor">[703]</a> It is, however, quite open to any one adopting the Negro,
+Mongolian, and Caucasian groups as primary divisions to place the
+Americans apart as a fourth.</p>
+
+<p>Now that the high antiquity of man in America—perhaps as
+high as that which he has in Europe—has been discovered, the
+puzzling problem, from which part of the Old World the people of
+America have sprung, has lost its significance. It is, indeed, quite
+as likely that the people of Asia may have been derived from
+America as the reverse. However this may be, the population of
+America, except at the extreme north, was, before the time of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_753"></a>[753]</span>
+Columbus, practically isolated from the rest of the world. Such
+visits as those of the early Norsemen to the coasts of Greenland,
+Labrador, and Nova Scotia, or the occasional accidental stranding
+of a canoe containing survivors of a voyage across the Pacific or
+the Atlantic, can have had little appreciable effect upon the characteristics
+of the people. It is difficult, therefore, to look upon the
+anomalous and special characters of the American people as the
+effects of crossing, as was suggested in the case of the Australians—a
+consideration which gives more weight to the view of treating
+them as a distinct primary division.</p>
+
+<p>III. The Caucasian, Eurafrican, or white division, includes the
+two groups called by Professor Huxley Xanthochroi and Melanochroi,
+which, though differing in colour of eyes and hair, agree so
+closely in all other anatomical characters, so far, at all events, as has
+at present been demonstrated, that it seems preferable to consider
+them both as modifications of one great type than as primary divisions
+of the species. Whatever their origin may have been, they are now
+intimately blended, though in different proportions, throughout the
+whole of the region of the earth they inhabit; and it is to the
+rapid extension of both branches of this race that the great changes
+now taking place in the ethnology of the world are mainly due.</p>
+
+<p>A. The Xanthochroi, or blonde type, with fair hair, eyes, and
+complexion, chiefly inhabit Northern Europe (Scandinavia, Scotland,
+and North Germany), but, although much mixed with the next
+group, they also extend as far as Northern Africa and Afghanistan.
+Their mixture with Mongoloid people has given rise to the Lapps,
+Finns, and some of the tribes of Northern Siberia.</p>
+
+<p>B. Melanochroi, with black hair and eyes, and skin of almost
+all shades from white to black. They comprise the great majority
+of the inhabitants of Southern Europe, Northern Africa, and South-West
+Asia, and consist mainly of the Aryan, Semitic, and Hamitic
+families. The Dravidians of India, the Veddahs of Ceylon, and
+probably the Ainos of Japan, and the Maoutze of China, also
+belong to this race, which may have contributed something to the
+mixed character of some tribes of Indo-China and the Polynesian
+Islands, and, as before said, have given at least the characters of
+the hair to the otherwise Negroid inhabitants of Australia. In
+Southern India they are largely mixed with a Negrito element,
+and in Africa, where their habitat becomes coterminous with that
+of the Negroes, numerous cross-races have sprung up between them
+all along the frontier line. The ancient Egyptians were nearly pure
+Melanochroi, though often showing in their features traces of their
+frequent intermarriages with their Ethiopian neighbours to the
+south. The Copts and fellahs of modern Egypt are their little-changed
+descendants.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_754"></a>[754]</span></p>
+
+<p>In offering this scheme of classification of the varieties of the
+human species, it is not suggested that it is one universally accepted
+by anthropologists, or that it is likely to be final. Whatever care
+be bestowed upon the arrangement of already acquired details, or
+whatever judgment be shown in their due subordination one to
+another, the acquisition of new knowledge may at any time call for
+a complete or partial rearrangement of the system. The difficulties
+which encompass the subject have, indeed, been already indicated,
+and will be found abundantly illustrated in the writings of those
+authors who have specially devoted themselves to its elucidation.</p>
+
+<div class="bibliography">
+
+<p><i>Bibliography.</i>—P. Topinard, <i>Éléments d’Anthropologie Générale</i>, 1885; A. de
+Quatrefages, <i>Histoire Générale des Races Humaines</i> (1. <i>Questions Générales</i>, 1887;
+2. <i>Classification des Races Humaines</i>, 1889); Quatrefages and Hamy, <i>Crania
+Ethnica</i> (1873-1879); D. G. Brinton, <i>Races and Peoples</i>, 1890.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Galton’s <i>South Africa</i>, p. 187.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> L. F. E. Rousseau, <i>Anatomie comparée du Système dentaire chez l’Homme et
+chez les principaux Animaux</i>, 2d ed., 1839; F. Cuvier, <i>Des Dents des Mammifères
+considérées comme caractères zoologiques</i>, 1822-25; R. Owen, <i>Odontography</i>,
+1840-45; C. G. Giebel, <i>Odontographie</i>, 1855; C. S. Tomes, <i>Manual of Dental
+Anatomy, Human and Comparative</i>, 3d ed., 1889.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> The lower incisors of some species of Shrews are, however, said to become
+ankylosed to the jaw in adult age.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> The teeth of the extinct Dinosaurian reptile <i>Triceratops</i> have two distinct
+roots, placed transversely to the axis of the jaws.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> This and other questions concerning the homologies, notation, and succession
+of the teeth of mammals are more fully developed in two memoirs by one
+of the present writers:—“Remarks on the Homologies and Notation of the Teeth
+of the Mammalia,” in the <i>Journal of Anatomy and Physiology</i>, vol. iii. p. 262,
+1869; and “Notes on the First or Milk Dentition of the Mammalia,” in the
+<i>Trans. Odontological Society of Great Britain</i>, 1871. See also an important
+memoir by Oldfield Thomas on the “Homologies and Succession of the teeth
+in the Dasyuridæ,” <i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1887, pp. 443-462.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> By many writers the letters indicating the different kinds of teeth are
+printed in capitals, as <i>I</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>P</i>, and <i>M</i>; while very frequently the symbol <i>Pm</i> is
+employed in place of <i>p</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> According to Mr. G. E. Dobson there are four upper incisors in some of
+the <i>Soricidæ</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> See for the principal modifications of the skeleton of the class, the large
+and beautifully illustrated <i>Ostéographie</i> of De Blainville, 1835-54; the section
+devoted to the subject in Bronn’s <i>Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs</i>, by
+Giebel, 1874-79; and <i>An Introduction to the Osteology of the Mammalia</i>, by
+W. H. Flower, 3d ed., 1885.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> This and many of the following figures in this chapter are taken from Flower’s
+<i>Osteology of the Mammalia</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> For the sake of uniformity, in all the following descriptions of the vertebral
+column, the long axis of the body is supposed to be in the horizontal position.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> The opinion has recently been expressed by Baur that bone termed
+radiale in <a href="#figure017">Fig. 17</a> is really a second centrale, and that the radiale is represented
+by a minute bone generally known as the radial sesamoid. The mammalian
+scaphoid is accordingly also regarded as a second centrale. In the same communication,
+Dr. Baur expresses his disbelief in the existence of remnants of a
+prepollex and of a seventh digit in mammals and other vertebrates. (See <i>Anat.
+Anzeiger</i>, vol. iv. pp. 49-52, 1889.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> On the Præpollex and Præhallux, etc., <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1889, pp. 259-262.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> Cope and Baur consider that the astragalus corresponds only with the intermedium,
+and that the tibiale may exist as a distinct element.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> For further details of these modifications, see Flower’s “Lectures on the
+Comparative Anatomy of the Organs of Digestion of the Mammalia,” <i>Medical
+Times and Gazette</i>, Feb.-Dec. 1872.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> G. Gulliver, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, 1862, p. 91.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> The modifications of these bones are fully described by A. Doran, “Morphology
+of the Mammalian <i>Ossicula auditus</i>,” <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> ser. 2, vol. i. pp.
+371-497, pl. lviii.-lxiv. (1878).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> See B. H. Caldwell—“The Embryology of Monotremata and Marsupialia,”
+<i>Phil. Trans.</i> for 1887, p. 463.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> <i>Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia</i>, 1881, p. 468.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> “<i>Studien ueber Entwickelungeschichte der Thiere</i>,” pt. 4, Wiesbaden, 1886.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> <i>Journal of Morphology</i>, vol. i. p. 373 (1887).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> For a full exposition of the present state of knowledge on this subject, see
+the various memoirs of Sir William Turner, also F. M. Balfour’s <i>Treatise on
+Comparative Embryology</i>, vol. ii. (1881), and J. A. Ryder in <i>American Naturalist</i>,
+vol. xxi. p. 780 (1887).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of London</i>, vol. xxviii. p. 395 (1879).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> “The Relations between the Theromorphous Reptiles and the Monotreme
+Mammalia,” <i>Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of
+Science</i>, vol. xxxiii. p. 471 (1885).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> “On the Phylogenetic Arrangement of the Sauropsida,” <i>Journal of
+Morphology</i>, vol. i. pp. 93-104 (1887).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> The names of the groups containing only extinct forms are printed in heavier
+type than those which contain species still existing.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> On this subject see A. Murray, <i>Geographical Distribution of Mammals</i>, 1866;
+and especially A. R. Wallace, <i>The Geographical Distribution of Animals</i>, 2 vols.,
+1876, and <i>Island Life</i>, 1881; also A. Heilprin, <i>The Geographical and Geological
+Distribution of Animals</i>, 1887.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> <i>Distribution of Animals.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> Generally known, as <i>Hyomoschus</i>, but first described as an extinct form
+under the above name.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> The fore limb from S. Africa described as <i>Theriodesmus</i>, which appears to
+be mammalian, and may belong to <i>Tritylodon</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> The subjects referred to under this heading are mostly described and figured
+in detail in Owen’s “Monograph of the Fossil Mammalia of the Mesozoic Formations,”
+<i>Palæontographical Society’s Publications</i>, 1871; and in various papers by
+Marsh, in the <i>American Journal of Science and Arts</i>, 1878-89. Important contributions
+to our knowledge of these forms have also been made by Professors Cope
+and Osborn, and the reader should especially consult the memoir by the latter
+writer on the “Structure and Affinities of the Mesozoic Mammals,” published in
+the <i>Journal of the Philadelphia Academy</i> (1888), vol. ix.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> The whole discussion is contained in the following memoirs: (1) H.
+Falconer, “Description of Two Species of the Fossil Mammalian genus
+<i>Plagiaulax</i>, from Purbeck,” <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> vol. xiv. 1857; (2) R. Owen,
+art. “Palæontology,” <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, 8th ed., 1859; (3) H. Falconer,
+“On the Disputed affinity of the Mammalian genus <i>Plagiaulax</i>,” <i>Quart. Journ.
+Geol. Soc.</i> vol. xviii. 1862; (4) R. Owen, “Monograph of the Fossil Mammalia
+of the Mesozoic Formation,” <i>Palæontographical Society</i>, 1871.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> Blumenbach, <i>Voigts Magazin</i>, vol. ii. p. 205 (1800).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of London</i>, vol. xliii. p. 353 (1888).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> <i>Ibid.</i> vol. xlvi. p. 126 (1889).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> Cuvier, <i>Tableau Élémentaire d’Hist. Nat.</i> p. 143 (1798).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> Gervais, <i>Ostéographie des Monotremes</i>, p. 43 (1877).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> For the detailed characters of all the genera and species of Marsupials the
+reader should consult the British Museum <i>Catalogue of Marsupialia and Monotremata</i>,
+by Oldfield Thomas, 1888.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> Except in <i>Petaurus (Belideus) breviceps</i> (Forbes, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1881,
+p. 188).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> Including the transitional Austro-Malayan region.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> Illiger, <i>Prod. Syst. Mamm. et Aves</i>, p. 76 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> Ed. 12, vol. i. p. 71 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> Temminck, <i>Monographies de Mammalogie</i>, vol. i. p. 60 (1827).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Hist. Nat. des Mammifères</i>, iv. (1837).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> vol. i. p. 106 (1796).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> Temminck, <i>Monographies de Mammalogie</i>, vol. i. p. 56 (1827).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> Thomas, <i>Ann. Mus. Genov.</i> sér. 2, vol. iv. p. 503 (1887).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> Krefft, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1866, p. 434.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> Waterhouse, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1836, p. 69.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> vol. iii. p. 249 (1803).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> Grey, in <i>Grey’s Australia</i>, vol. ii, p. 401 (1841).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> Ogilby, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1838, p. 25.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. ii. p. 365 (1803).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> Owen, <i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1872, p. 257.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> Gervais and Verraux, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1842, p. 1.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> Storr, <i>Prodromus Meth. Mamm.</i> p. 33 (1780). Syn. <i>Phalangista</i>, Geoffroy,
+<i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> vol i. p. 106 (1796).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> Lesson, <i>Dict. Class. d’Hist. Nat.</i> vol. xiii. p. 333 (1828).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> Ogilby, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1836, p. 26.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> Thomas, <i>Cat. Marsupials Brit. Mus.</i> p. 163 (1888).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1858, p. 109.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> Shaw, <i>Naturalist’s Miscellany</i>, vol. ii. pl. lx. (1791).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> M’Coy, <i>Ann. Mag. N. H.</i> (3) xx. p. 287 (1867).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> Grey, in <i>Grey’s Australia</i>, appendix, vol. ii. p. 407 (1841).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> Peters, <i>Ann. Mus. Genov.</i> vol. vi. p. 303 (1874).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> Desmarest, <i>Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat.</i> sér. 2, vol. xxv. p. 405 (1817).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> <i>Cf.</i> W. A. Forbes, “Anatomy of the Koala,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1881, p. 180.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 116.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> Owen, in <i>Gervais’s Zool. et Pal. françaises</i>, 1st ed. pt. i. p. 192 (1849-52).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> Ramsay, <i>Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales</i>, vol. i. p. 33 (1876).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> De Vis, <i>Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland</i>, ser. 2, vol. iii. p. 8 (1888).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> Desmarest, <i>Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat.</i> sér. 1, vol. xxiv. <i>Table Méth.</i> p. 20
+(1804). Syn. <i>Hypsiprymnus</i>, Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm.</i> p. 79 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> Gray, <i>Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. i. p. 584 (1837).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> Thomas, <i>Cat. Marsup. Brit. Mus.</i> p. 114 (1888).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> Garrod, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1875, p. 59.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> Thomas, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1886, p. 544.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> Schlegel and Müller, <i>Verh. Nat. Ges. Nederland</i>, p. 138 (1839-44).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> Schlegel and Müller, <i>Verh. Nat. Ges. Nederland</i>, p. 130 (1839-44).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> Gould, <i>Monograph of Macropodidæ</i>, pl. xiii. (1841).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> Grey, in <i>Grey’s Australia</i>, vol. ii. appendix, p. 402 (1841).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> Gray, <i>Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. i. p. 583 (1837).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> Shaw, <i>Naturalist’s Miscellany</i>, vol. i. pl. xxxiii. (1790).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> For the characters of these species and the under-mentioned distinct genera,
+see Owen’s <i>Extinct Mammals of Australia</i> (1877), and Lydekker’s <i>Catalogue of
+Fossil Mammalia in the British Museum</i>, pt. v. (1887).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> Owen, <i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1874, p. 264.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> Owen, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 788.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> Owen, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 797.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> Owen, in <i>Mitchell’s Eastern Australia</i>, 2d ed. vol. ii. p. 362 (1838).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> Owen, <i>Cat. Mamm. and Aves, Mus. R. Coll. Surgeons</i>, p. 314 (1845).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> The characters of the chief groups of the Eutheria here given are, in some
+measure, a fuller recapitulation of those already detailed in Chapter III., <a href="#Page_83">pp.
+83-88</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">[88]</a> The name Paratheria has been suggested for this proposed subclass.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">[89]</a> In some few Armadillos the suture between the premaxilla and maxilla
+passes behind the first upper tooth; but in all other known members of the order
+all the teeth are implanted in the maxilla.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">[90]</a> See Flower, “On the Mutual Affinities of the Animals composing the
+Order Edentata,” <i>Proceedings of the Zoological Society</i>, 1882, p. 358.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">[91]</a> An attempt has been made to represent these views by the following
+classification:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Order EDENTATA.
+  <ul>
+    <li>Suborder <span class="smcap">Pilosa</span>.
+      <ul>
+        <li><i>Bradypodidæ.</i></li>
+        <li><i>Megatheriidæ.</i></li>
+        <li><i>Myrmecophagidæ.</i></li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Suborder <span class="smcap">Loricata</span>.
+      <ul>
+        <li><i>Dasypodidæ.</i></li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Suborder <span class="smcap">Squamata</span>.
+      <ul>
+        <li><i>Manidæ.</i></li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Suborder <span class="smcap">Tubulidentata</span>.
+      <ul>
+        <li><i>Orycteropodidæ.</i></li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+  </ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>It may be objected to this arrangement that the <i>present</i> divergence between
+the Sloths and Anteaters is hardly sufficiently indicated by their association in
+one suborder.—Flower, “On the Arrangement of the Orders and Families of
+Mammals,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1883, p. 178.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">[92]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 50 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">[93]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 108 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">[94]</a> Burmeister, <i>Sitzb. Ak. Berlin</i>, vol. xxviii. p. 613 (1882).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">[95]</a> Lydekker, in Nicholson and Lydekker’s <i>Manual of Palæontology</i>, vol. ii.
+p. 1299 (1889). Originally described under the preoccupied name <i>Cœlodon</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">[96]</a> Cuvier, <i>Tableau Élém. d’Hist. Nat. des Animaux</i>, p. 146 (1798).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">[97]</a> An excellent figure of this skeleton, which unfortunately was incorrectly
+articulated, and wanted the greater part of the tail, was published by Pander
+and D’Alton in 1821, and has been frequently reproduced in subsequent
+works.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">[98]</a> See E. D. Cape, <i>Amer. Naturalist</i>, vol. xxiii. p. 152 (1889).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">[99]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 51 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">[100]</a> Professor Cope has recently come to the conclusion that there are three
+species; but further evidence is required in support of this view.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">[101]</a> Gray, <i>Annals of Philosophy</i>, new series, vol. x. p. 343 (1825).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">[102]</a> Gray, <i>Annals of Philosophy</i>, new series, vol. x. p. 343 (1825).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">[103]</a> Harlan, <i>Ann. New York Lyceum Nat. Hist.</i> vol. i. p. 237 (1824).—Amended
+from <i>Chiamyphorus</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">[104]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i>, 12th ed. vol. i. p. 54 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">[105]</a> Wagler, <i>Syst. Amphibien</i>, etc., p. 36 (1830).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">[106]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Hist. Nat. des Mammifères</i> (1822).—<i>Priodontes.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">[107]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 111 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">[108]</a> Lesson, <i>Man. de Mammalogie</i>, p. 309 (1827); <i>ex.</i> F. Cuvier, <i>Tatusie</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">[109]</a> A single imperfect skin, brought from the province of Ceara in Brazil, indicates
+a very remarkable form of Armadillo, named by A. Milne-Edwards <i>Scleropleura
+brunetti</i> (<i>Ann. Sc. Nat.</i> xvi. p. 8, 1872). The dermal scutes are said to
+be much less developed than in other members of the family, and confined to the
+sides, all the median portion of the back being clothed with a flexible hairy skin.
+The head is broad and short, the ears small and far apart. The tail is long, and
+almost entirely devoid of scutes. The feet are unknown.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">[110]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 52 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">[111]</a> <i>Mammalian Descent</i>, p. 95.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="label">[112]</a> <i>Mammalian Descent</i>, p. 99.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="label">[113]</a> Forsyth-Major, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, vol. cvii. p. 1180 (1888).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="label">[114]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Décade Philosophique</i>, 1795 (<i>teste</i> Agassiz).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="label">[115]</a> <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society</i>; vol. xlvii. p. 246 (1890).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="label">[116]</a> Storr, <i>Prodromus Meth. Mamm.</i> p. 41 (1780).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="label">[117]</a> <i>Zool. Jahrbuch</i>, vol. i. p. 1 (1886).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="label">[118]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 140 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="label">[119]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 141 (1811).—Amended from
+<i>Rytina</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="label">[120]</a> Nordenskiöld, during his voyage in the <i>Vega</i>, obtained some information
+from the natives of Behring Island which led him to believe that a few individuals
+may have survived to a much later date, even to 1854; but this conclusion
+is disputed by later writers.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="label">[121]</a> Kaup, <i>Neues Jahrbuch</i>, 1838, pp. 319 and 536.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="label">[122]</a> This is an important distinction from the Sirenia, but a character common
+to nearly all other mammals. It is doubtful whether there is any foundation
+for the statement that these epiphyses remain ununited for an exceptionally long
+period in the Cetacea.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="label">[123]</a> A character repeated in some of the Seals.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="label">[124]</a> These have been described in detail by Professor Struthers in the <i>Journal of
+Anatomy and Physiology</i>, 1881.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="label">[125]</a> The ankylosed mass of cervical vertebræ, on which the genus <i>Palæocetus</i> was
+established, was regarded by its describer as having probably come from the
+Kimeridge Clay, but the mineral condition of the specimen points to the Red
+Crag as the place of origin.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="label">[126]</a> There is much resemblance in the larynx of the Hippopotamus, but none
+in that of the Seal, to the same organ in the Cetacea.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="label">[127]</a> German <i>Meerschwein</i>, whence the French <i>Marsouin</i>. “Porpoise” is said
+to be derived from “<i>Porc-poisson</i>.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="label">[128]</a> Icel. <i>hvalr</i>; Dan. and Swed. <i>hval</i>; Anglo-Saxon <i>hwæl</i>; Germ. <i>wal</i>,
+<i>walfisch</i>. The meaning apparently is “roller,” the word being closely allied to
+“wheel” (Skeat).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="label">[129]</a> These were discovered in the Greenland Whale by Geoffroy St. Hilaire,
+whose observations were confirmed and extended to other genera by Eschricht.
+They have been very fully described in <i>Balænoptera rostrata</i> by Julin (<i>Archives
+de Biologie</i>, i. 1880).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="label">[130]</a> For the structure of whalebone see Hunter, “Observations on the Structure
+and Economy of Whales,” <i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1787; Eschricht and Reinhardt, <i>On the
+Greenland Right Whale</i>, English translation by the Ray Society, 1866, pp. 67-78;
+and Sir W. Turner, in <i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.</i> 1870.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="label">[131]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 105 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="label">[132]</a> Gray, <i>Suppl. Cat. Seals and Whales in Brit. Mus.</i> p. 39 (1871).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="label">[133]</a> Cope, <i>Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad.</i> 1869, p. 15.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="label">[134]</a> Gray, <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, p. 16 (1846).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="label">[135]</a> See J. Struthers, “On the Anatomy of <i>Megaptera
+longimana</i>,” <i>Journ. Anatomy and Physiology</i>, 1887-89.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="label">[136]</a> Lacépède, “Table des Ordres,” <i>Hist. Nat. des Cétacés</i>,
+p. xxxvi. (1804).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="label">[137]</a> See P. J. Van Beneden, “Histoire Naturelles des Balénoptères,” <i>Mém. Acad.
+Belgique</i>, xli. 1887.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="label">[138]</a> In a recent memoir Professor D’Arcy Thompson has brought forward some
+arguments to show that the Zeuglodonts have no direct affinities with the Cetacea,
+but have on the other hand the strongest possible relation with the Pinnipede
+Carnivora. “On the Systematic position of Zeuglodon,” <i>Studies from the Museum
+of Zoology, Dundee</i>, vol. i. No. 9, 1890.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="label">[139]</a> An appearance in one specimen has been described by C. G. Carus as indicating
+a vertical succession of the teeth, but the evidence upon which this rests
+is by no means satisfactory, and appears to admit of another explanation.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="label">[140]</a> A mutilated humerus of <i>Zeuglodon cetoides</i> has given rise to many conjectures,
+appearing to some anatomists to indicate seal-like freedom of motion
+at the elbow-joint, while to others its characters appear to be truly Cetacean.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="label">[141]</a> See <i>Trans. Geol. Soc.</i> ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 67.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="label">[142]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 107 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="label">[143]</a> Gray, <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, p. 22 (1846). Usually spelt <i>Kogia</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="label">[144]</a> Lacépède, “Table des Ordres,” <i>Hist. Nat. des Cétacés</i>, p. xliv. (1804).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="label">[145]</a> See the figures in the <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, pp. 728, 729.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="label">[146]</a> Cuvier, <i>Ossemens Fossiles</i>, 2d ed. vol. v. p. 352 (1823).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="label">[147]</a> Gervais, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> ser. 3, vol. xiv. p. 16 (1850). For the very complicated
+synonymy of this genus, see <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. viii. p. 208.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="label">[148]</a> Duvernoy, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.-Zoologie</i>, sér. 3, vol. xv. p. 41 (1851).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="label">[149]</a> Duvernoy, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 61.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="label">[150]</a> Grateloup, <i>Act. Ac. R. Sci. Bordeaux</i>, 1840, p. 208.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="label">[151]</a> Wagler, <i>Syst. Amphib.</i> etc., p. 35 (1830).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="label">[152]</a> The anatomy of <i>Platanista</i> is fully described by J. Anderson, <i>Zoological
+Results of Two Expeditions to Western Yunnan</i>, 1878.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="label">[153]</a> D’Orbigny, <i>Nouv. Ann. Mus. Paris</i>, vol. iii. p. 31 (1834).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="label">[154]</a> Gray, <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, p. 46 (1846).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="label">[155]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 105 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="label">[156]</a> Lacépède, <i>Hist. Nat. des Cétacés</i>, p. xli. (1804).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="label">[157]</a> Cuvier, <i>Règne Animal</i>, vol. i. p. 279 (1817).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="label">[158]</a> <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, p. 30 (1846). The name is preoccupied by
+Lamarck for a genus of Polyzoa (1816).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="label">[159]</a> Gray, <i>Cat. Cetacea Brit. Mus.</i> p. 106 (1850).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="label">[160]</a> Gray, <i>Cat. Seals and Whales in Brit. Mus.</i> p. 285 (1866).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="label">[161]</a> <i>Anatomical and Zoological Researches, comprising an Account of the Zoological
+Results of the two Expeditions to Western Yunnan, in 1868 and 1875</i> (1878).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="label">[162]</a> Gray, <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, p. 33 (1846).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="label">[163]</a> Reinhardt, <i>Overs. Dan. Sezsk. Forh.</i> 1862, p. 151.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="label">[164]</a> Lesson, <i>N. Tab. d. Règne Animal—Mamm.</i> p. 200 (1842).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="label">[165]</a> Gray, <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, p. 30 (1846).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="label">[166]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1870, p. 77.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="label">[167]</a> Gray, <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, p. 35 (1846).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="label">[168]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 108 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="label">[169]</a> Gervais, <i>Hist. Nat. des Mammifères</i>, vol. ii. p. 323 (1855).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="label">[170]</a> Gervais, <i>Ostéographie des Cétacés</i>, p. 604 (1880).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="label">[171]</a> Gray, <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, p. 43 (1846).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="label">[172]</a> Gray, <i>Cat. Seals and Whales Brit. Mus.</i> 2d ed. p. 393 (1866).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="label">[173]</a> Since this was in type the discovery of transient rudimentary clavicles in
+the embryo of the Sheep has been announced by Wineza (<i>Morpholog. Jahrb.</i> xvi.
+p. 647).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="label">[174]</a> Also known as Diplarthra.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="label">[175]</a> The pollex is present in the manus of the extinct <i>Cotylops</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="label">[176]</a> In the table on p. 89 the Peccaries are included in the <i>Suidæ</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="label">[177]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 101 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="label">[178]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 102 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="label">[179]</a> If from any accidental circumstances these teeth are not constantly worn
+down by friction, they grow into a complete circle, the point penetrating the
+bone of the jaw close to the root of the tooth. The natives of the Fiji Islands
+avail themselves of this circumstance to produce one of their most valued ornaments—a
+circular boar’s tusk: the upper canines being extracted, the lower ones
+are allowed to grow to the desired form.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="label">[180]</a> See Garson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.</i> 1883, p. 413.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="label">[181]</a> Lesson, <i>Man. d. Mamm.</i>, p. 337 (1827), “Babirusa.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="label">[182]</a> Cuvier, <i>Règne-Animal</i>, vol. i. p. 236 (1817).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="label">[183]</a> Cuvier, <i>Règne Animal</i>, vol. i. p. 237 (1817).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="label">[184]</a> Professor Cope considers that there is a third species, for which he has proposed
+the name <i>D. angularis</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="label">[185]</a> This name (Leidy, 1851) is preoccupied by <i>Orodus</i> (Agassiz, 1838).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="label">[186]</a> The stomach of the Camel inhabiting the Arabian desert is commonly
+looked upon as a striking example of specialised structure, adapted or modified
+in direct accordance with a highly specialised mode of life; it is therefore very
+remarkable to find an organ exactly similar, except in some unessential details,
+in the Llamas of the Peruvian Andes and the Guanacos of the Pampas. No
+hypothesis except that of a common origin will satisfactorily account for this,
+and, granting that this view is correct, it becomes extremely interesting to
+find for how long a time two genera may be isolated and yet retain such close
+similarities in parts which in other groups appear readily subject to adaptive
+modifications.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="label">[187]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 90 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="label">[188]</a> There is much confusion as to the proper use of the names Camel and
+Dromedary. It is now generally accepted that the former is the common term
+for all the members of the genus, and that Dromedary should be confined to the
+lighter and swifter breeds of the one-humped species. One of the oldest pictures of
+the two-humped Camel extant, painted on the wall of the Chapter House of
+Westminster Abbey, has, however, “Dromedary” inscribed under it.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189" class="label">[189]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm.</i> p. 103 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190" class="label">[190]</a> <i>Natural History of the Strait of Magellan</i>, 1871.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191" class="label">[191]</a> Pallas, <i>Spicilegia Zoologica</i>, vol. xiii. p. 27 (1779).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192" class="label">[192]</a> Kaup, <i>Ossemens Fossiles de Darmstadt</i>, pt. 5, p. 92 (1836). This name,
+which was proposed for a fossil species, antedates <i>Hyomoschus</i>, Gray, applied to
+the living form.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193" class="label">[193]</a> For the anatomy of this group see A. H. Garrod, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1877, p. 2.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194" class="label">[194]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 91 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195" class="label">[195]</a> For the anatomy of <i>Moschus</i> see Flower, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1875, p. 159;
+and Garrod, <i>ibid.</i> 1877, p. 287.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196" class="label">[196]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1878, p. 889.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197" class="label">[197]</a> De Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 74.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198" class="label">[198]</a> Milne-Edwards, <i>Nouv. Arch. du Muséum</i>, vol. vii. Bull. p. 93 (1872).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199" class="label">[199]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 92 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200" class="label">[200]</a> Hamilton-Smith, in <i>Griffith’s Animal Kingdom</i>, vol. v. p. 304 (1827).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201" class="label">[201]</a> Hamilton-Smith, in <i>Griffith’s Animal Kingdom</i>, vol. v. p. 303 (1827).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202" class="label">[202]</a> Scott, <i>Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad.</i> 1885, p. 181.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203" class="label">[203]</a> Hamilton-Smith, in <i>Griffith’s Animal Kingdom</i>, vol. v. p. 313 (1827).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204" class="label">[204]</a> Swinhoe, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1870, p. 90.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205" class="label">[205]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1850, p. 237.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206" class="label">[206]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1850, p. 242.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207" class="label">[207]</a> This accessory column is shown in the figure of the molar of <i>Boselaphus</i> on
+<a href="#figure123">p. 311</a>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208" class="label">[208]</a> Zimmermann, <i>Geograph. Geschichte</i>, vol. ii. p. 125 (1780).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209" class="label">[209]</a> Ord. <i>Journ. de Physique</i>, vol. lxxxvii. p. 149 (1818).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210" class="label">[210]</a> Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 75.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211" class="label">[211]</a> Lichtenstein, <i>Berlin Ges. Natuforsch. Freunde Magazin</i>, vol. vi. pp. 152, 165
+(1814).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212" class="label">[212]</a> F. E. Blaauw, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1889, p. 2.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213" class="label">[213]</a> Hamilton-Smith, in <i>Griffith’s Animal Kingdom</i>, vol. iv. p. 258 (1827).
+Taken to include <i>Grimmia</i>, <i>Terphone</i>, etc., of Gray.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214" class="label">[214]</a> Leach, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xiv. p. 524 (1823).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215" class="label">[215]</a> Hamilton-Smith, in <i>Griffith’s Animal Kingdom</i>, vol. iv. p. 269 (1827).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_216" href="#FNanchor_216" class="label">[216]</a> <i>Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia</i>, p. 268.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_217" href="#FNanchor_217" class="label">[217]</a> Sundevall, <i>Kongl. Vetensk. Akad. Handl.</i> for 1844, p. 191. Taken to
+include <i>Calotragus</i>, <i>Scopophorus</i>, <i>Nesotragus</i>, <i>Pediotragus</i>, and <i>Oreotragus</i> of Gray.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_218" href="#FNanchor_218" class="label">[218]</a> See V. Brooke, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1872, pp. 642 and 875.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_219" href="#FNanchor_219" class="label">[219]</a> Gray, <i>Cat. Ungulate Mamm. Brit. Mus.</i> p. 90 (1852).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_220" href="#FNanchor_220" class="label">[220]</a> Andrew Smith, <i>Illustrations of Zoology of South Africa</i>, No. 12 (1840),
+“Kobus.” Is taken to include <i>Adenota</i> and <i>Onotragus</i> of Gray.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_221" href="#FNanchor_221" class="label">[221]</a> De Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 75. Syn. <i>Eleotragus</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_222" href="#FNanchor_222" class="label">[222]</a> Pallas, <i>Spicilegia Zoologica</i>, vol. i. p. 3 (1767).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_223" href="#FNanchor_223" class="label">[223]</a> Sundevall, <i>Kongl. Vetensk. Akad. Handl.</i> for 1845, p. 271.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_224" href="#FNanchor_224" class="label">[224]</a> Gray, <i>List Mamm. Brit. Mus.</i> p. 160 (1843).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_225" href="#FNanchor_225" class="label">[225]</a> Hodgson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1834, p. 81.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_226" href="#FNanchor_226" class="label">[226]</a> De Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 75. Is taken to include <i>Procapra</i>
+and <i>Tragops</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_227" href="#FNanchor_227" class="label">[227]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1873, p. 537. Three species subsequently described are
+here added to the list.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_228" href="#FNanchor_228" class="label">[228]</a> Sundevall, <i>Kongl. Vetensk. Akad. Handl.</i> for 1844, p. 196.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_229" href="#FNanchor_229" class="label">[229]</a> De Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 75.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_230" href="#FNanchor_230" class="label">[230]</a> Rafinesque, <i>Anal. Nat.</i> 1815, p. 56.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_231" href="#FNanchor_231" class="label">[231]</a> De Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 75. Syn. <i>Portax</i>, Hamilton-Smith.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_232" href="#FNanchor_232" class="label">[232]</a> De Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 75. Includes <i>Euryceros</i>, Gray.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_233" href="#FNanchor_233" class="label">[233]</a> Gray, <i>List. Mamm. Brit. Mus.</i> p. 155 (1843).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_234" href="#FNanchor_234" class="label">[234]</a> Desmarest, <i>Mammalogie</i>, p. 471 (1822).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_235" href="#FNanchor_235" class="label">[235]</a> De Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 75.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_236" href="#FNanchor_236" class="label">[236]</a> Hamilton-Smith, in <i>Griffith’s Animal Kingdom</i>, vol. v. p. 352 (1827).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_237" href="#FNanchor_237" class="label">[237]</a> Hamilton-Smith, in <i>Griffith’s Animal Kingdom</i>, vol. v. p. 354 (1827).
+Amended from “Aplocerus.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_238" href="#FNanchor_238" class="label">[238]</a> Hodgson, <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. xix. p. 65 (1850).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_239" href="#FNanchor_239" class="label">[239]</a> See A. O. Hume, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1887, pp. 483-486.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_240" href="#FNanchor_240" class="label">[240]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 94 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_241" href="#FNanchor_241" class="label">[241]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1886, p. 314; and 1887, p. 552.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_242" href="#FNanchor_242" class="label">[242]</a> Specimens referred by Dinnik to <i>C. caucasica</i> have been made the types of
+another species—<i>C. severtzovi</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_243" href="#FNanchor_243" class="label">[243]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 97 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_244" href="#FNanchor_244" class="label">[244]</a> There may be a beard on the throat, as in <i>O. cycloceros</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_245" href="#FNanchor_245" class="label">[245]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1884, p. 326.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_246" href="#FNanchor_246" class="label">[246]</a> De Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1816, p. 76.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_247" href="#FNanchor_247" class="label">[247]</a> <i>Zoologist</i>, September 1877.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_248" href="#FNanchor_248" class="label">[248]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 98 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_249" href="#FNanchor_249" class="label">[249]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1873, p. 474.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_250" href="#FNanchor_250" class="label">[250]</a> Sir V. Brooke states that this species is distinguished from <i>B. pumilus</i> by
+the absence of a fringe to the ears, but specimens in the British Museum show
+that this is not the case.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_251" href="#FNanchor_251" class="label">[251]</a> <i>The Extirpation of the American Bison</i>, 1889.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_252" href="#FNanchor_252" class="label">[252]</a> The late Mr. Alston, <i>Fauna of Scotland</i>, “Mammalia” (Glasgow, 1880), p. 25,
+considers that the Chillingham cattle are descendants of a race which had escaped
+from domestication.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_253" href="#FNanchor_253" class="label">[253]</a> Wanting in the aberrant <i>Chalicotherium</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_254" href="#FNanchor_254" class="label">[254]</a> See W. N. Parker, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 775.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_255" href="#FNanchor_255" class="label">[255]</a> Cuvier, <i>Tableau Élément. de l’Hist. Nat.</i> p. 152 (1798); <i>ex</i> Brisson.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_256" href="#FNanchor_256" class="label">[256]</a> See J. Murie, <i>Journ. Anat. and Physiol.</i> vol. vi. p. 131, 1871; W. N. Parker.
+<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 768; and F. E. Beddard, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1889, p. 252.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_257" href="#FNanchor_257" class="label">[257]</a> The Swiss <i>P. siderolithicus</i> has only one cusp in the last upper premolar.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_258" href="#FNanchor_258" class="label">[258]</a> Leidy, <i>Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad.</i> 1858, p. 26.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_259" href="#FNanchor_259" class="label">[259]</a> Christol, <i>Ann. Sci. Indust. Mid. France</i>, vol. i. p. 180 (1832).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_260" href="#FNanchor_260" class="label">[260]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 100 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_261" href="#FNanchor_261" class="label">[261]</a> Darwin, <i>Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication</i>, 1868, vol.
+i. chap. ii.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_262" href="#FNanchor_262" class="label">[262]</a> See <i>Nature</i>, 21st August 1884, and <i>Zool. Garten.</i> vol. xxviii. p. 453.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_263" href="#FNanchor_263" class="label">[263]</a> See Sclater, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1884, p. 542.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_264" href="#FNanchor_264" class="label">[264]</a> See Blanford, <i>Zoology and Geology of Eastern Persia</i> (<i>Journeys of the Persian
+Boundary Commission</i>), p. 84.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_265" href="#FNanchor_265" class="label">[265]</a> This must not be confounded with the navicular of the tarsus.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_266" href="#FNanchor_266" class="label">[266]</a> Want of space and of the necessary illustrations rendered it impossible to
+give an account of mammalian myology in the earlier chapters of this work.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_267" href="#FNanchor_267" class="label">[267]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 104 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_268" href="#FNanchor_268" class="label">[268]</a> Many authors use Cuvier’s name, <i>R. indicus</i>, in preference to this, on the
+ground that there are more than one species with one horn, forgetting that the
+name substituted is equally inconvenient, as more than one species live in India.
+The fact of a specific name being applicable to several members of a genus is no
+objection to its restriction to the first to which it was applied; otherwise
+changes in old and well-received names would constantly have to be made in
+consequence of new discoveries.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_269" href="#FNanchor_269" class="label">[269]</a> <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. xii.; see also <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1889, p. 9.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_270" href="#FNanchor_270" class="label">[270]</a> See Beddard and Treves, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1889, p. 9.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_271" href="#FNanchor_271" class="label">[271]</a> For the internal anatomy of <i>R. sumatrensis</i> see Garrod, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>
+1873, p. 92; and Beddard and Treves, <i>loc. cit.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_272" href="#FNanchor_272" class="label">[272]</a> Those external points of distinction from <i>R. simus</i> are taken from a paper
+by Sclater in the <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1886, p. 143.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_273" href="#FNanchor_273" class="label">[273]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1881, p. 726.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_274" href="#FNanchor_274" class="label">[274]</a> This name is the earliest, but is preoccupied.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_275" href="#FNanchor_275" class="label">[275]</a> Hermann, <i>Tab. Affinit. Anim.</i> p. 115 (1783). It has recently been proposed
+to substitute the earlier name <i>Procavia</i> in lieu of <i>Hyrax</i>. The anatomy of
+Hyrax was first described by Pallas (<i>Spicilegia Zoologica</i>). Besides minor
+memoirs, two detailed accounts of its structure have appeared—one by Brandt,
+in <i>Mém. Acad. Nat. Scien. St. Pétersbourg</i>, 7ⁱᵉᵐᵉ sér. vol. xiv. No. 2, 1869; and
+another by George, in <i>Annales des Sciences Naturelles</i>, 6ⁱᵉᵐᵉ sér. tom. i. 1874, in
+which references to all the previous literature will be found. The mechanism
+by which the sole of the foot is enabled to adhere to smooth surfaces is fully
+described by G. E. Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1876, p. 526.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_276" href="#FNanchor_276" class="label">[276]</a> Gray, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 4. vol. i. p. 48 (1868).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_277" href="#FNanchor_277" class="label">[277]</a> See a paper by J. V. Barboza du Bocage, in the <i>Jorn. Sci. Phys. Nat. Lisboa</i>
+(2), vol. i. p. 186 (1889), where a list of all the known species will be found.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_278" href="#FNanchor_278" class="label">[278]</a> These teeth are by some writers classed as canines, as their roots are implanted
+in the maxillæ; but, as in Rodents, they are originally developed in the
+gum covering the premaxillæ, in which bones their primitive alveoli are sunk.
+As growth proceeds, however, firm support for such massive and weighty bodies
+can only be obtained by their roots gradually sinking through the premaxillæ
+into the great and specially modified alveolar processes of the maxillæ, but this
+does not vitiate their homology with the incisors of other mammals.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_279" href="#FNanchor_279" class="label">[279]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 48 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_280" href="#FNanchor_280" class="label">[280]</a> In the Gulf of Cambay,—not the island of the same name in the Red Sea.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_281" href="#FNanchor_281" class="label">[281]</a> The word Mammoth was introduced into the languages of Western Europe
+about two centuries ago from the Russian, and is thought by Pallas and Nordenskiöld
+to be of Tartar origin, but others, as Witzen, Strahlenburg, and Howorth,
+have endeavored to prove that it is a corruption of the Arabic word <i>Behemoth</i>,
+or great beast.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_282" href="#FNanchor_282" class="label">[282]</a> The best known of these is the etching upon a portion of tusk found in the
+cave of La Madelaine in the Dordogne, figured in Lartet and Christy’s <i>Reliquiæ
+Aquitanicæ</i>, and in many other works bearing on the subject of the antiquity of
+man.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_283" href="#FNanchor_283" class="label">[283]</a> Cuvier, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. viii. p. 270 (1806).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_284" href="#FNanchor_284" class="label">[284]</a> This, and the larger number of ridges in the latter, are the only absolute
+distinctions which Falconer could find between <i>Mastodon</i> and <i>Elephas</i> (<i>Palæont.
+Memoirs</i>, ii. p. 9), and it is clear that they are somewhat arbitrary. The line
+between the two genera is drawn at this point more as a matter of convenience
+for descriptive purposes than as indicating any great natural break in the
+sequence of modifications of the same type.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_285" href="#FNanchor_285" class="label">[285]</a> Also found beyond the extreme north-western frontier of India.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_286" href="#FNanchor_286" class="label">[286]</a> Kaup, <i>Isis</i>, vol. xxii. p. 401 (1829).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_287" href="#FNanchor_287" class="label">[287]</a> Leidy, <i>Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad.</i> 1872, p 169.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_288" href="#FNanchor_288" class="label">[288]</a> For detailed descriptions and figures of this group, see Marsh, “Monograph
+of the Dinocerata,” <i>Rep. U.S. Geol. Surv.</i> vol. x. (1884).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_289" href="#FNanchor_289" class="label">[289]</a> Owen, <i>Brit. Foss. Mamm. and Birds</i>, p. 299 (1846).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_290" href="#FNanchor_290" class="label">[290]</a> See G. E. Dobson, <i>Journ. Anat. Phys.</i> vol. xvii.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_291" href="#FNanchor_291" class="label">[291]</a> Waterhouse, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1842, p. 124.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_292" href="#FNanchor_292" class="label">[292]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1882, p. 8.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_293" href="#FNanchor_293" class="label">[293]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 86 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_294" href="#FNanchor_294" class="label">[294]</a> Gray, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 3, vol. xx. p. 272 (1867).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_295" href="#FNanchor_295" class="label">[295]</a> Hemprich and Ehrenberg, <i>Symbol. Phys. Mamm.</i> vol. i. (1832).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_296" href="#FNanchor_296" class="label">[296]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm.</i> p. 83 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_297" href="#FNanchor_297" class="label">[297]</a> Some American zoologists have recently proposed to raise a large number of
+the forms usually regarded as local races to the rank of species.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_298" href="#FNanchor_298" class="label">[298]</a> Cuvier, <i>Leçons d’Anatomie Comp.</i> (1800).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_299" href="#FNanchor_299" class="label">[299]</a> Cuvier, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. x. p. 126 (1825).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_300" href="#FNanchor_300" class="label">[300]</a> O. Thomas, <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. lvii. p. 256 (1888).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_301" href="#FNanchor_301" class="label">[301]</a> Schreber, <i>Säugethiere</i>, vol. iv. p. 721 (1792).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_302" href="#FNanchor_302" class="label">[302]</a> Rafinesque, <i>Amer. Monthly Mag.</i> vol. ii. p. 45 (1817).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_303" href="#FNanchor_303" class="label">[303]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Mém. du Muséum</i>, vol. vi. p. 293 (1822).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_304" href="#FNanchor_304" class="label">[304]</a> Richardson, <i>Zool. Journ.</i> vol. iv. p. 334 (1829). Amended.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_305" href="#FNanchor_305" class="label">[305]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 78 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_306" href="#FNanchor_306" class="label">[306]</a> For a monograph of the <i>Myoxidæ</i>, see C. L. Reuvens, <i>Die Myoxidæ</i>, etc.,
+4to, Leyden, 1890.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_307" href="#FNanchor_307" class="label">[307]</a> Schreber, <i>Säugethiere</i>, vol. iv. p. 824 (1792).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_308" href="#FNanchor_308" class="label">[308]</a> Wagner, <i>Abh. baier. Akad.</i> vol. iii. p. 179 (1843).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_309" href="#FNanchor_309" class="label">[309]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Mammifères</i>, 60ᵐᵉ livr. (1845).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_310" href="#FNanchor_310" class="label">[310]</a> Jentink, <i>Notes Leyd. Mus.</i> vol. x. p. 41 (1888).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_311" href="#FNanchor_311" class="label">[311]</a> Kaup, <i>Entwickl. Europ. Thierwelt</i>, p. 139 (1829).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_312" href="#FNanchor_312" class="label">[312]</a> A. Milne-Edwards, <i>L’Institut</i>, vol. xxxv. p. 46 (1867).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_313" href="#FNanchor_313" class="label">[313]</a> <i>Sminthus</i> is referred to the <i>Dipodidæ</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_314" href="#FNanchor_314" class="label">[314]</a> Geoffrey, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. vi. p. 81 (1805).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_315" href="#FNanchor_315" class="label">[315]</a> For the anatomy of this animal see B. C. A. Windle, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1887,
+p. 53.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_316" href="#FNanchor_316" class="label">[316]</a> O. Thomas, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1889, p. 247.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_317" href="#FNanchor_317" class="label">[317]</a> Blyth, <i>Proc. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. xxviii. p. 289 (1859).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_318" href="#FNanchor_318" class="label">[318]</a> Desmarest, <i>Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat.</i> vol. xxiv. p. 22 (1804).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_319" href="#FNanchor_319" class="label">[319]</a> Lataste, <i>Le Nat.</i> vol. i. p. 314 (1880).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_320" href="#FNanchor_320" class="label">[320]</a> Wagner, <i>Wiegmann’s Archiv</i>, 1841, p. 132.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_321" href="#FNanchor_321" class="label">[321]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Dents des Mammifères</i>, p. 168 (1825).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_322" href="#FNanchor_322" class="label">[322]</a> Peters, <i>Monatsber. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1875, p. 12.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_323" href="#FNanchor_323" class="label">[323]</a> A. Milne-Edwards, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> sér. 6, vol. xi. p. 9 (1877).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_324" href="#FNanchor_324" class="label">[324]</a> <i>Nesocia</i> was included by Alston in this subfamily.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_325" href="#FNanchor_325" class="label">[325]</a> Waterhouse, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1839, p. 108.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_326" href="#FNanchor_326" class="label">[326]</a> Andrew Smith, <i>S. African Quart. Journ.</i> vol. ii. p. 158 (1834).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_327" href="#FNanchor_327" class="label">[327]</a> Peters, <i>Reise n. Mossambique</i>, vol. i. p. 162 (1852).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_328" href="#FNanchor_328" class="label">[328]</a> Peters, <i>Monatsber. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1874, p. 234.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_329" href="#FNanchor_329" class="label">[329]</a> Cuvier, <i>Règne Animal</i>, vol. i. p. 198 (1817).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_330" href="#FNanchor_330" class="label">[330]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1888, p. 133.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_331" href="#FNanchor_331" class="label">[331]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1884, p. 451.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_332" href="#FNanchor_332" class="label">[332]</a> Brandt, <i>Mém. Acad. Imp. St. Pétersbourg</i>, sér. 3, iii. p. 428 (1835).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_333" href="#FNanchor_333" class="label">[333]</a> Say and Ord, <i>Journ. Acad. Philad.</i> vol. iv. p. 352 (1825).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_334" href="#FNanchor_334" class="label">[334]</a> Waterhouse, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1837, p. 29.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_335" href="#FNanchor_335" class="label">[335]</a> Coues, <i>Proc. Acad. Philad.</i> 1874, p. 184.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_336" href="#FNanchor_336" class="label">[336]</a> Say and Ord, <i>Journ. Acad. Philad.</i> vol. iv. p. 346 (1825).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_337" href="#FNanchor_337" class="label">[337]</a> Grandidier, <i>Rev. and Mag. Zool.</i> 1869, p. 388.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_338" href="#FNanchor_338" class="label">[338]</a> Peters, <i>Sitzber. Ges. Nat. Freunde</i>, 1870, p. 54 (1871).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_339" href="#FNanchor_339" class="label">[339]</a> Günther, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1875, p. 79.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_340" href="#FNanchor_340" class="label">[340]</a> Jentink, <i>Notes Leyd. Mus.</i> vol. i. p. 107, note 27 (1879).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_341" href="#FNanchor_341" class="label">[341]</a> Milne-Edwards, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> sér. 6, vol. xx. art. 1, <i>bis</i>, p. 1 (1886).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_342" href="#FNanchor_342" class="label">[342]</a> Merriam, <i>Fauna of North America</i>, No. 2, p. 28 (1889).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_343" href="#FNanchor_343" class="label">[343]</a> Lacépède, <i>Mém. de l’Institut</i>, vol. iii. p. 495 (1801). Many writers employ
+the earlier name <i>Microtus</i> for the true Voles.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_344" href="#FNanchor_344" class="label">[344]</a> Baird, <i>Mamm. North America</i>, pp. xliv. 558 (1857).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_345" href="#FNanchor_345" class="label">[345]</a> Pallas, <i>Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat.</i> vol. i. p. 173 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_346" href="#FNanchor_346" class="label">[346]</a> Wagler, <i>Isis</i>, 1832, p. 1220.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_347" href="#FNanchor_347" class="label">[347]</a> Cuvier, <i>Leçons d’Anatomie Compar.</i> tab. 1 (1800).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_348" href="#FNanchor_348" class="label">[348]</a> True, <i>Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.</i> vol. vii. p. 170 (1884).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_349" href="#FNanchor_349" class="label">[349]</a> Fischer, <i>Zoognosia</i>, vol. iii. p. 72 (1814).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_350" href="#FNanchor_350" class="label">[350]</a> Brants, <i>Het. Geslact der Muizen</i>, p. 20 (1827).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_351" href="#FNanchor_351" class="label">[351]</a> O. Thomas. <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1888, p. 130.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_352" href="#FNanchor_352" class="label">[352]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 79 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_353" href="#FNanchor_353" class="label">[353]</a> Gray, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. x. p. 264 (1842). Amended from <i>Nesokia</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_354" href="#FNanchor_354" class="label">[354]</a> Gray, Charlesworth’s, <i>Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. i. p. 586 (1837). Syn. <i>Pelomys</i>,
+Peters (1852).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_355" href="#FNanchor_355" class="label">[355]</a> Peters, <i>Monatsber. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1867, p. 343.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_356" href="#FNanchor_356" class="label">[356]</a> O. Thomas, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1888, p. 237.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_357" href="#FNanchor_357" class="label">[357]</a> Lichtenstein, <i>Darst. neu. Säugethiere</i>, pt. iv. pl. 29 (1829).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_358" href="#FNanchor_358" class="label">[358]</a> O. Thomas, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 5, vol. ix. p. 413 (1882).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_359" href="#FNanchor_359" class="label">[359]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> sér. 2, vol. x. p. 126 (1840). <i>Acomys.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_360" href="#FNanchor_360" class="label">[360]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1867, p. 599. Amended from <i>Echimys</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_361" href="#FNanchor_361" class="label">[361]</a> Milne-Edwards, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> sér. 6, vol. xi. p. 9 (1877).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_362" href="#FNanchor_362" class="label">[362]</a> Waterhouse, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1840, p. 2.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_363" href="#FNanchor_363" class="label">[363]</a> Peters, <i>Monatsber. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1846, p. 258.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_364" href="#FNanchor_364" class="label">[364]</a> Güldenstädt, <i>Nov. Comment. Petrop.</i> vol. xiv. art. i. p. 409 (1770).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_365" href="#FNanchor_365" class="label">[365]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1830, p. 95.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_366" href="#FNanchor_366" class="label">[366]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm.</i> p. 86 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_367" href="#FNanchor_367" class="label">[367]</a> Illiger, <i>loc. cit.</i> p. 87.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_368" href="#FNanchor_368" class="label">[368]</a> O. Thomas, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1890, p. 448 = <i>Heliophobius</i>; Peters, <i>Monatsber.
+Ak. Berlin</i>, 1846, p. 243.—Preoccupied.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_369" href="#FNanchor_369" class="label">[369]</a> Rüppel, <i>Mus. Senkenb.</i> vol. i. Säugeth. p. 99 (1834).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_370" href="#FNanchor_370" class="label">[370]</a> Including the <i>Saccomyidæ</i> of Coues.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_371" href="#FNanchor_371" class="label">[371]</a> Rafinesque, <i>Amer. Monthly Mag.</i> vol. ii. p. 45 (1817).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_372" href="#FNanchor_372" class="label">[372]</a> Wied, <i>Nova Acta Ac. Cæs. Leop.-Car.</i> vol. xix. pt. i. p. 383 (1839).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_373" href="#FNanchor_373" class="label">[373]</a> Gray, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. vii. p. 521 (1840).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_374" href="#FNanchor_374" class="label">[374]</a> Wied, <i>Nova Acta Ac. Cæs. Leop.-Car.</i> vol. xix. pt. i. p. 369 (1839).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_375" href="#FNanchor_375" class="label">[375]</a> Desmarest, <i>Mammalogie</i>, p. 313 (1820).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_376" href="#FNanchor_376" class="label">[376]</a> Keyserling und Blasius, <i>Wirbelthiere Europ.</i> p. 38 (1840).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_377" href="#FNanchor_377" class="label">[377]</a> Coues, <i>Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv. Terrs.</i> ser. 2, No. 5, p. 253 (1873). Syn.
+<i>Jaculus</i>, Wagler.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_378" href="#FNanchor_378" class="label">[378]</a> Gmelin, <i>Syst. Nat.</i>, vol. i. p. 157 (1788).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_379" href="#FNanchor_379" class="label">[379]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1836, p. 141.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_380" href="#FNanchor_380" class="label">[380]</a> Brandt, <i>Bull. Ac. St. Pétersbourg</i>, 1844, p. 209.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_381" href="#FNanchor_381" class="label">[381]</a> = <i>A. jaculus</i>, Auct.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_382" href="#FNanchor_382" class="label">[382]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm.</i> p. 81 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_383" href="#FNanchor_383" class="label">[383]</a> Gray, <i>Spicilegia Zoologica</i>, p. 10 (1830).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_384" href="#FNanchor_384" class="label">[384]</a> Blyth, <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. xxxiv. p. 294 (1855).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_385" href="#FNanchor_385" class="label">[385]</a> Bennett, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1832, p. 46.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_386" href="#FNanchor_386" class="label">[386]</a> Waterhouse, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1837, p. 30. Amended from <i>Abrocoma</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_387" href="#FNanchor_387" class="label">[387]</a> Waterhouse, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1841, p. 91.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_388" href="#FNanchor_388" class="label">[388]</a> De Blainville, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> 1826, p. 62.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_389" href="#FNanchor_389" class="label">[389]</a> Wagler, <i>ibid.</i> p. 1219.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_390" href="#FNanchor_390" class="label">[390]</a> Andrew Smith, <i>S. African Quart. Journ.</i> vol. ii. p. 2 (1831).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_391" href="#FNanchor_391" class="label">[391]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. vi. p. 81 (1805).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_392" href="#FNanchor_392" class="label">[392]</a> Desmarest, <i>Mém. Soc. d’Hist. Nat.</i> vol. i. p. 44 (1822).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_393" href="#FNanchor_393" class="label">[393]</a> For description and anatomy of this species see Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>
+1884, p. 233.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_394" href="#FNanchor_394" class="label">[394]</a> Temminck, <i>Monographies des Mammifères</i>, vol. i. p. 245 (1827).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_395" href="#FNanchor_395" class="label">[395]</a> Cuvier, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> sér. 2, vol. vi. p. 347 (1836). Amended.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_396" href="#FNanchor_396" class="label">[396]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm.</i> p. 90 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_397" href="#FNanchor_397" class="label">[397]</a> Desmarest, <i>Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat.</i> vol. x. p. 45 (1817). Amended from
+<i>Echimys</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_398" href="#FNanchor_398" class="label">[398]</a> Wagner, <i>Wiegmann’s Archiv</i>, 1845, pt. 2, p. 145.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_399" href="#FNanchor_399" class="label">[399]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> sér. 2, vol. x. p. 126 (1838).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_400" href="#FNanchor_400" class="label">[400]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Mammifères</i>, 6ᵐᵉ livr. (1829).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_401" href="#FNanchor_401" class="label">[401]</a> Waterhouse, <i>Nat. Hist. of Mamm.</i> vol. ii. p. 351 (1848).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_402" href="#FNanchor_402" class="label">[402]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Dents des Mammifères</i>, p. 256 (1825).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_403" href="#FNanchor_403" class="label">[403]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Mém. du Muséum</i>, vol. ix. p. 413 (1822). “Sinéthère.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_404" href="#FNanchor_404" class="label">[404]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1843, p. 21.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_405" href="#FNanchor_405" class="label">[405]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 76 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_406" href="#FNanchor_406" class="label">[406]</a> Cuvier, <i>Règne-Animal</i>, 2d ed. vol. i. p. 215 (1829). “Atherure.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_407" href="#FNanchor_407" class="label">[407]</a> Günther, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1876, p. 739.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_408" href="#FNanchor_408" class="label">[408]</a> Bennett, <i>Gardens, etc. Zool. Soc.</i> pt. i. p. i. (1829).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_409" href="#FNanchor_409" class="label">[409]</a> Meyer, <i>Nova Acta Ac. Cæs. Leop.-Car.</i> vol. xvi. p. 576 (1833).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_410" href="#FNanchor_410" class="label">[410]</a> Brooks, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xvi. p. 102 (1828).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_411" href="#FNanchor_411" class="label">[411]</a> Foster, <i>Second Rep. Geol. of Ohio</i>, p. 81 (1838).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_412" href="#FNanchor_412" class="label">[412]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm.</i> p. 93 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_413" href="#FNanchor_413" class="label">[413]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. x. p. 203 (1807).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_414" href="#FNanchor_414" class="label">[414]</a> Peters, <i>Monatsber. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1873, p. 551.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_415" href="#FNanchor_415" class="label">[415]</a> Pallas, <i>Misc. Zool.</i> p. 30 (1766); <i>ex</i> Klein.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_416" href="#FNanchor_416" class="label">[416]</a> Desmarest, <i>Mammalogie</i>, p. 360 (1822).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_417" href="#FNanchor_417" class="label">[417]</a> Erxleben, <i>Syst. Règ. Animal</i>, p. 191 (1777); <i>ex</i> Brisson.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_418" href="#FNanchor_418" class="label">[418]</a> Cuvier, <i>Tabl. Élément. de l’Hist. Nat.</i> p. 132 (1798).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_419" href="#FNanchor_419" class="label">[419]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 77 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_420" href="#FNanchor_420" class="label">[420]</a> From the absence of the Common Hare in Scandinavia it is considered
+probable that the name <i>L. timidus</i> was really applied to the Mountain Hare,
+and some writers accordingly use the name <i>L. europæus</i> for the former.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_421" href="#FNanchor_421" class="label">[421]</a> <i>Variations of Animals and Plants</i>, 2d ed. vol. i. p. 119.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_422" href="#FNanchor_422" class="label">[422]</a> The Feræ of Linnæus included all the then known species of the modern
+orders Carnivora, Insectivora, and Marsupialia.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_423" href="#FNanchor_423" class="label">[423]</a> The tusks of the Walrus, altogether so aberrant in its dentition, are partial
+exceptions to this statement, but in old individuals the pulp-cavity fills up, and
+they cease to grow.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_424" href="#FNanchor_424" class="label">[424]</a> See Flower, “On the Value of the Characters of the Base of the Cranium
+in the Classification of the Order <i>Carnivora</i>,” <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1869, p. 4; Mivart,
+“On the Classification and Distribution of the <i>Æluroidea</i>,” <i>ibid.</i> 1882, pp. 135
+and 459; see also <i>The Cat, an Introduction to the Study of Backboned Animals,
+especially Mammals</i>, by the same author, 1881.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_425" href="#FNanchor_425" class="label">[425]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 60 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_426" href="#FNanchor_426" class="label">[426]</a> <i>The Cat</i>, pp. 392-426 (1881).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_427" href="#FNanchor_427" class="label">[427]</a> <i>Fauna of British India</i>, “Mammalia,” pp. 56-90 (1888).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_428" href="#FNanchor_428" class="label">[428]</a> <i>Zoology and Geology of Eastern Persia</i> (1876).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_429" href="#FNanchor_429" class="label">[429]</a> See Blanford, <i>Fauna of British India</i>, “Mammalia,” p. 57 (1883).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_430" href="#FNanchor_430" class="label">[430]</a> <i>Transactions of the Zoological Society</i>, vol. i. p. 165 (1835).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_431" href="#FNanchor_431" class="label">[431]</a> <i>A Hunter’s Wanderings in Africa</i>, 1881, p. 258.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_432" href="#FNanchor_432" class="label">[432]</a> Mr. Selous, whose opportunities for obtaining evidence upon this subject
+were very large, says that in the region of South Africa, between the Zambesi
+and the Limpopo rivers, he never saw a lion with any long hair under the body,
+and that the manes of the wild lions of that district are far inferior in development
+to those commonly seen in menageries in Europe.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_433" href="#FNanchor_433" class="label">[433]</a> <i>The Lion and the Elephant</i>, 1873, p. 19.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_434" href="#FNanchor_434" class="label">[434]</a> Hon. W. H. Drummond, <i>The Large Game and Natural History of South
+and South-East Africa</i>, 1875, p. 278.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_435" href="#FNanchor_435" class="label">[435]</a> <i>Fauna of British India</i>, “Mammalia,” p. 59 (1888).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_436" href="#FNanchor_436" class="label">[436]</a> See W. T. Blanford, <i>Fauna of British India</i>, “Mammalia,” p. 69 (1888).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_437" href="#FNanchor_437" class="label">[437]</a> <i>Monographs of the Palæontographical Society</i>, 1872.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_438" href="#FNanchor_438" class="label">[438]</a> Syn. <i>F. macrocelis</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_439" href="#FNanchor_439" class="label">[439]</a> Syn. <i>F. maniculata</i> and <i>caligata</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_440" href="#FNanchor_440" class="label">[440]</a> Wagler, <i>Syst. Amphib.</i> etc. p. 30 (1830).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_441" href="#FNanchor_441" class="label">[441]</a> Bennett, <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. i. p. 137 (1833).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_442" href="#FNanchor_442" class="label">[442]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 63 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_443" href="#FNanchor_443" class="label">[443]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1864, p. 518.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_444" href="#FNanchor_444" class="label">[444]</a> Cuvier, <i>Règne-Animal</i>, vol. i. p. 156 (1817).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_445" href="#FNanchor_445" class="label">[445]</a> Horsfield, <i>Zool. Research. Java</i> (1824).—<i>Prionodontidæ.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_446" href="#FNanchor_446" class="label">[446]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1864, p. 520.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_447" href="#FNanchor_447" class="label">[447]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Hist. Nat. des Mammifères</i>, No. 186 (1821).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_448" href="#FNanchor_448" class="label">[448]</a> See W. T. Blanford, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1885, p. 780.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_449" href="#FNanchor_449" class="label">[449]</a> <i>Fauna of British India</i>, “Mammalia,” p. 108 (1888).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_450" href="#FNanchor_450" class="label">[450]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1864, p. 542, <i>ex</i> Petero.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_451" href="#FNanchor_451" class="label">[451]</a> Jourdan, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, vol. v. p. 442 (1837). Amended.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_452" href="#FNanchor_452" class="label">[452]</a> Temminck, <i>Prospectus de Monographies des Mammifères</i>, March 1824;
+<i>Monographies</i>, vol. i. p. xxi. (1827).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_453" href="#FNanchor_453" class="label">[453]</a> Gray, <i>List of Mamm. Brit. Mus.</i> p. 54 (1843).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_454" href="#FNanchor_454" class="label">[454]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1836, p. 88.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_455" href="#FNanchor_455" class="label">[455]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm.</i> p. 135 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_456" href="#FNanchor_456" class="label">[456]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1861, p. 308.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_457" href="#FNanchor_457" class="label">[457]</a> Peters, <i>Mith. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin</i>, 19th November 1850.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_458" href="#FNanchor_458" class="label">[458]</a> Ogilby, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1833, p. 48.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_459" href="#FNanchor_459" class="label">[459]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1864, p. 573.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_460" href="#FNanchor_460" class="label">[460]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Hist. Nat. des Mammifères</i>, No. 199 (1825).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_461" href="#FNanchor_461" class="label">[461]</a> Desmarest, “Tabl. Méth. Mamm.” in <i>Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat.</i> vol. xxiv.
+(1804).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_462" href="#FNanchor_462" class="label">[462]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, 1837, p. 578.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_463" href="#FNanchor_463" class="label">[463]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Mag. de Zool.</i> 1839, pp. 27, 37.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_464" href="#FNanchor_464" class="label">[464]</a> Doyère, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> vol. iv. p. 281 (1835).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_465" href="#FNanchor_465" class="label">[465]</a> Jourdan, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, 1837, p. 422. Amended.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_466" href="#FNanchor_466" class="label">[466]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Mém. du Muséum</i>, vol. xi. p. 354 (1824).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_467" href="#FNanchor_467" class="label">[467]</a> For Anatomy of <i>Proteles</i> see Flower, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1869, p. 474.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_468" href="#FNanchor_468" class="label">[468]</a> Zimmermann, <i>Specimen Zoologiæ Geographicæ</i>, p. 365 (1777).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_469" href="#FNanchor_469" class="label">[469]</a> <i>Fauna of British India</i>, “Mammalia,” p. 133 (1888).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_470" href="#FNanchor_470" class="label">[470]</a> The anatomical peculiarities of <i>Hyæna crocuta</i> have been fully elucidated in
+a series of papers by Morrison Watson in the <i>Proceedings of the Zoological Society</i>
+for 1877, 1878, 1879, and 1881, in which references to previous authors on the
+subject will be found.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_471" href="#FNanchor_471" class="label">[471]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 56 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_472" href="#FNanchor_472" class="label">[472]</a> In Domestic Dogs a hallux is frequently developed, though often in a rudimentary
+condition, the phalanges and claw being suspended loosely in the skin,
+without direct connection with the other bones of the foot; it is called by dog-fanciers
+the “dew claw.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_473" href="#FNanchor_473" class="label">[473]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.</i>, 1880, p. 238. See also Mivart, <i>Dogs, Jackals, Wolves,
+and Foxes; a Monograph of the Canidæ</i> (1890).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_474" href="#FNanchor_474" class="label">[474]</a> <i>Fauna of British India</i>, “Mammalia,” pp. 153, 154 (1888).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_475" href="#FNanchor_475" class="label">[475]</a> Brookes, <i>Griffith’s Animal Kingdom</i>, vol. v. p. 151 (1827).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_476" href="#FNanchor_476" class="label">[476]</a> Lund, <i>K. Danks. Vid. Selsk. Afhand.</i> vol. xi. p. 62 (1845).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_477" href="#FNanchor_477" class="label">[477]</a> Lichtenstein, <i>Wiegmann’s Archiv.</i> 1838, vol. i. p. 290.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_478" href="#FNanchor_478" class="label">[478]</a> <i>Arch. Mus. Lyon.</i> vol. iii. art. 1, p. 85 (1881).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_479" href="#FNanchor_479" class="label">[479]</a> <i>Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc.</i> vol. xviii. p. 452 (1880).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_480" href="#FNanchor_480" class="label">[480]</a> For full details of the Arctoidea see Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1885, p. 340.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_481" href="#FNanchor_481" class="label">[481]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 69 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_482" href="#FNanchor_482" class="label">[482]</a> Meyer, <i>Uebersicht d. neu. Zool. Entdeckungen</i>, etc. p. 155 (1793).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_483" href="#FNanchor_483" class="label">[483]</a> A. Milne-Edwards, <i>Nouv. Arch. du Muséum</i>, vol. vii. <i>Bull.</i> p. 88 (1871).
+Amended from “Ailuropus.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_484" href="#FNanchor_484" class="label">[484]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Hist. Nat. des Mammifères</i> (1825). Amended from “Ailurus.”
+For anatomy, see Flower, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, 1870, p. 752.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_485" href="#FNanchor_485" class="label">[485]</a> <i>Fauna of British India</i>, “Mammalia,” p. 189 (1888).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_486" href="#FNanchor_486" class="label">[486]</a> Storr, <i>Prodromus Meth. Mamm.</i> p. 35 (1780).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_487" href="#FNanchor_487" class="label">[487]</a> A corruption of the North American Indian “arrathkune” or “arathcone.”
+The French <i>raton</i> or <i>raton laveur</i>, German <i>Waschbär</i>, and other European names
+are derived from a curious habit the Raccoon has of dipping or washing its food in
+water before eating it.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_488" href="#FNanchor_488" class="label">[488]</a> Lichtenstein, <i>Isis</i>, 1831, p. 512.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_489" href="#FNanchor_489" class="label">[489]</a> Allen, <i>Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad.</i> 1876, p. 20.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_490" href="#FNanchor_490" class="label">[490]</a> Storr, <i>Prodromus Meth. Mamm.</i> p. 35 (1780).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_491" href="#FNanchor_491" class="label">[491]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 127 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_492" href="#FNanchor_492" class="label">[492]</a> Also in two other species noticed below. One extinct Otter has two upper
+molars.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_493" href="#FNanchor_493" class="label">[493]</a> Erxleben, <i>Syst. Règn. Animal</i>, p. 445 (1777).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_494" href="#FNanchor_494" class="label">[494]</a> See Thomas, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1889, p. 190.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_495" href="#FNanchor_495" class="label">[495]</a> The synonymy of this species is not settled, and the adoption of the name
+given here only preliminary.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_496" href="#FNanchor_496" class="label">[496]</a> Gloger, <i>Nova Acta Ac. Cæs. Leop.-Car.</i> vol. xiii. pt. 2, p. 511 (1827): Syn.
+<i>Enhydra</i>; Fleming, <i>Philosophy of Zoology</i>, vol. ii. p. 187 (1822). Preoccupied by
+<i>Enhydris</i>, Merrem, <i>Tent. Syst. Amphib.</i> p. 140 (1820).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_497" href="#FNanchor_497" class="label">[497]</a> Cuvier, “Tabl. de Classif.” in <i>Leçons d’Anat. Compar.</i> vol. i. (1800).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_498" href="#FNanchor_498" class="label">[498]</a> Gray, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 2, vol. i. p. 581 (1837).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_499" href="#FNanchor_499" class="label">[499]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Hist. Nat. des Mammifères</i> (1825).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_500" href="#FNanchor_500" class="label">[500]</a> Possibly the name should be Bálu-soor (Sand-pig).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_501" href="#FNanchor_501" class="label">[501]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Hist. Nat. des Mammifères</i> (1825).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_502" href="#FNanchor_502" class="label">[502]</a> Storr, <i>Prodromus Meth. Mamm.</i> p. 34 (1780).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_503" href="#FNanchor_503" class="label">[503]</a> Waterhouse, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1838, p. 154.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_504" href="#FNanchor_504" class="label">[504]</a> Storr, <i>Prodromus Meth. Mamm.</i> p. 34 (1780).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_505" href="#FNanchor_505" class="label">[505]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1831, p. 94.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_506" href="#FNanchor_506" class="label">[506]</a> Garrod, <i>ibid.</i> 1879, pl. xxix.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_507" href="#FNanchor_507" class="label">[507]</a> Kaup, <i>Thierreich</i>, vol. i. p. 352 (1835).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_508" href="#FNanchor_508" class="label">[508]</a> Bell, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1837, p. 45.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_509" href="#FNanchor_509" class="label">[509]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 66 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_510" href="#FNanchor_510" class="label">[510]</a> By all old authors of authority, as Ray, Pennant, Shaw, and Fleming, the
+word is written “Martin,” but this form of spelling is now generally reserved by
+way of distinction for the bird. The term “Marten-Cat,” often used, is a
+misnomer.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_511" href="#FNanchor_511" class="label">[511]</a> See Rolleston, “On the Domestic Cats, <i>Felis domesticus</i> and <i>Mustela foina</i>,
+of Ancient and Modern Times,” <i>Journal of Anatomy and Physiology</i>, vol. ii. p.
+47, 1868.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_512" href="#FNanchor_512" class="label">[512]</a> O. Thomas, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 5, vol. xi. p. 370 (1883).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_513" href="#FNanchor_513" class="label">[513]</a> Gervais, <i>Dict. Univ. d’Hist. Nat.</i> t. iv. p. 685 (1849).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_514" href="#FNanchor_514" class="label">[514]</a> Storr, <i>Prodromus Meth. Mamm.</i> p. 34 (1780).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_515" href="#FNanchor_515" class="label">[515]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1885, p. 497.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_516" href="#FNanchor_516" class="label">[516]</a> Péron, <i>Voyage aux Terres Australes</i>, vol. ii. p. 37 note (1816).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_517" href="#FNanchor_517" class="label">[517]</a> “On the structure of Hooker’s Sea-Lion (<i>Arctocephalus hookeri</i>),” <i>Trans.
+Zool. Soc.</i> vol. xii. p. 369 (1890).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_518" href="#FNanchor_518" class="label">[518]</a> Linn, <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 49 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_519" href="#FNanchor_519" class="label">[519]</a> The former word is a modification of the Scandinavian <i>vallross</i> or <i>hvalros</i>
+(“whale-horse”), the latter an adaptation of the Russian name for the animal.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_520" href="#FNanchor_520" class="label">[520]</a> Nilsson, <i>Faun. Scandinav.</i> vol. i. p. 377 (1820).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_521" href="#FNanchor_521" class="label">[521]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 55 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_522" href="#FNanchor_522" class="label">[522]</a> Fleming, <i>Philosophy of Zoology</i>, vol. ii. p. 187 (1822).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_523" href="#FNanchor_523" class="label">[523]</a> For details of these and the other genera see Mivart, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1885,
+p. 486, <i>et seq.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_524" href="#FNanchor_524" class="label">[524]</a> Peters, <i>Monatsb. K. P. Akad. Wissensch. zu Berlin</i>, p. 393 (1875), substituted
+for <i>Stenorhynchus</i>, F. Cuvier; preoccupied for a genus of Crustacea.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_525" href="#FNanchor_525" class="label">[525]</a> Gray, <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, vol. i. p. 5 (1844).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_526" href="#FNanchor_526" class="label">[526]</a> New name, <i>Syn. Leptonyx</i>, Gray, <i>Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. i. p.
+582 (1837); preoccupied by Swainson, 1821.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_527" href="#FNanchor_527" class="label">[527]</a> Gray, <i>Zoology of Erebus and Terror</i>, vol. i. p. 7 (1844).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_528" href="#FNanchor_528" class="label">[528]</a> Nilsson, <i>Faun. Scandinav.</i> vol. i. p. 382 (1820).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_529" href="#FNanchor_529" class="label">[529]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Mém. du Muséum</i>, vol. xi. p. 200 (1824), “Macrorhine.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_530" href="#FNanchor_530" class="label">[530]</a> Pallas, <i>Acta Acad. Sci. Imp. Petropolis</i>, vol. iv. pt. 1, p. 208 (1780).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_531" href="#FNanchor_531" class="label">[531]</a> <i>Ueber die Säugethiergattung Galeopithecus.</i> <i>Sv. Ak. Handl.</i> vol. xxi. pt. xi.
+(1886).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_532" href="#FNanchor_532" class="label">[532]</a> Raffles, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xiii. p. 256 (1822).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_533" href="#FNanchor_533" class="label">[533]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1848, p. 23.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_534" href="#FNanchor_534" class="label">[534]</a> Andrew Smith, <i>S. African Quart.
+Journ.</i> vol. ii. No. 1, p. 64 (1833).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_535" href="#FNanchor_535" class="label">[535]</a> The above correct formula of the dentition of this family has been recently
+worked out by O. Thomas, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1890, pp. 445, 446.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_536" href="#FNanchor_536" class="label">[536]</a> Peters, <i>Bericht k. preuss. Ak. Wiss.</i> 1847, p. 36.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_537" href="#FNanchor_537" class="label">[537]</a> Horsfield and Vigors, <i>Zool. Journ.</i> vol. iii. p. 246 (1828).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_538" href="#FNanchor_538" class="label">[538]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 75 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_539" href="#FNanchor_539" class="label">[539]</a> Originally given incorrectly as <i>Neurogymnurus</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_540" href="#FNanchor_540" class="label">[540]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1890, p. 49.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_541" href="#FNanchor_541" class="label">[541]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 73 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_542" href="#FNanchor_542" class="label">[542]</a> Syn. <i>S. minutus</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_543" href="#FNanchor_543" class="label">[543]</a> Blyth, <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. xxiv. p. 36 (1855).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_544" href="#FNanchor_544" class="label">[544]</a> Coues, <i>Bull.
+U.S. Geol. Surv. Terrs.</i> vol. iii. p. 646 (1877).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_545" href="#FNanchor_545" class="label">[545]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>
+1837, p. 124.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_546" href="#FNanchor_546" class="label">[546]</a> Wagler, <i>Isis</i>, 1832, p. 275.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_547" href="#FNanchor_547" class="label">[547]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1837, p. 124.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_548" href="#FNanchor_548" class="label">[548]</a> Wagler, <i>Isis</i>, 1832, p. 275.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_549" href="#FNanchor_549" class="label">[549]</a> Brandt, in <i>Lehmann’s Reise.-Zool. Anh.</i>
+p. 299 (1852).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_550" href="#FNanchor_550" class="label">[550]</a> Milne-Edwards, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, vol lxx. p. 341 (1870).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_551" href="#FNanchor_551" class="label">[551]</a> Anderson, <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. xlvi. p. 262 (1877).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_552" href="#FNanchor_552" class="label">[552]</a> Milne-Edwards, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, vol. lxx. p. 341 (1870).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_553" href="#FNanchor_553" class="label">[553]</a> Cuvier, “Tabl. de Classif.” in <i>Leçons d’Anat. Compar.</i> vol. i. (1800).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_554" href="#FNanchor_554" class="label">[554]</a> Temminck, <i>Fauna Japonica</i>, vol. i. p. 22 (1842).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_555" href="#FNanchor_555" class="label">[555]</a> Milne-Edwards,
+<i>Arch. du Muséum</i>, vol. vii. Bull. p. 92 (1872).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_556" href="#FNanchor_556" class="label">[556]</a> Cuvier, “Tabl. de Classif.” in <i>Leçon d’Anat. Comp.</i> vol. i. (1800).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_557" href="#FNanchor_557" class="label">[557]</a> Pomel, <i>Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat.</i> vol. ix. p. 247 (1848).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_558" href="#FNanchor_558" class="label">[558]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>. p. 125 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_559" href="#FNanchor_559" class="label">[559]</a> Milne-Edwards, <i>N. Arch. du Muséum</i>, vol. vii.
+Bull. p. 92 (1872).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_560" href="#FNanchor_560" class="label">[560]</a> Linn, <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. p. 73 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_561" href="#FNanchor_561" class="label">[561]</a> The following
+account is taken almost entirely from Dr. Dobson.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_562" href="#FNanchor_562" class="label">[562]</a> Du Chaillu, <i>Proc. Boston Soc. Hist. Nat.</i> vol. vii. p. 363 (1860).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_563" href="#FNanchor_563" class="label">[563]</a> Milne-Edwards, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> vol. xv. p. 5 (1872).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_564" href="#FNanchor_564" class="label">[564]</a> Brandt, <i>Mém. Ac. Imp. St. Pétersbourg</i>, 1833, vol. ii. p. 459.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_565" href="#FNanchor_565" class="label">[565]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 124 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_566" href="#FNanchor_566" class="label">[566]</a> Mivart,
+<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1871, p. 72.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_567" href="#FNanchor_567" class="label">[567]</a> I. Geoffroy, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> sér. 2, vol. viii. p. 60 (1837).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_568" href="#FNanchor_568" class="label">[568]</a> Thomas,
+<i>Journ. Linn. Soc.—Zool.</i> vol. xvi. p. 319 (1882).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_569" href="#FNanchor_569" class="label">[569]</a> Grandidier, <i>Rev. and
+Mag. Zool.</i> 1870, p. 50.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_570" href="#FNanchor_570" class="label">[570]</a> Lacépède, <i>Mém. de l’Institut</i>, vol. iii. p. 493 (1801—read 1799).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_571" href="#FNanchor_571" class="label">[571]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1888, p. 473.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_572" href="#FNanchor_572" class="label">[572]</a> Bennett, <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. ii. p. 38 (1835).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_573" href="#FNanchor_573" class="label">[573]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xv. p. 90 (1810).—<i>Ex.</i> Brisson.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_574" href="#FNanchor_574" class="label">[574]</a> Gray, <i>List. Spec. Mamm. Brit. Mus.</i> pp. 37, 38 (1843): Syn. <i>Cynonycteris</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_575" href="#FNanchor_575" class="label">[575]</a> Jentink, <i>Notes Leyd. Mus.</i> vol. i. p. 117 (1879).—Amended.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_576" href="#FNanchor_576" class="label">[576]</a> F. Cuvier,
+<i>Dents des Mammifères</i>, p. 39 (1825).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_577" href="#FNanchor_577" class="label">[577]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et
+Avium</i>, p. 118 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_578" href="#FNanchor_578" class="label">[578]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xvi. p. 99 (1810).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_579" href="#FNanchor_579" class="label">[579]</a> O. Thomas, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 6, vol. i. p. 155 (1888).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_580" href="#FNanchor_580" class="label">[580]</a> Gray,
+<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1859, p. 36.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_581" href="#FNanchor_581" class="label">[581]</a> Dobson, <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. xlii.
+p. 204 (1873).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_582" href="#FNanchor_582" class="label">[582]</a> New name: Syn. <i>Macroglossus</i>, F. Cuvier, <i>Dents des
+Mammifères</i>, p. 40 (1825). Preoccupied by <i>Macroglossum</i>, Scopoli, 1777.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_583" href="#FNanchor_583" class="label">[583]</a> Dobson, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1877, p. 119.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_584" href="#FNanchor_584" class="label">[584]</a> O. Thomas, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 5, vol. xix. p. 417 (1887).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_585" href="#FNanchor_585" class="label">[585]</a> Jentink, <i>Notes Leyd. Mus.</i> vol. xi. p. 209 (1889).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_586" href="#FNanchor_586" class="label">[586]</a> New name: Syn. <i>Megaloglossus</i>; Pagenstecher, <i>J. B. Mus. Hamburg</i>, vol.
+ii. p. 125 (1885). Preoccupied by <i>Megaglossa</i>, Rond., 1865.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_587" href="#FNanchor_587" class="label">[587]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat.</i> vol. xix. p. 383 (1803).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_588" href="#FNanchor_588" class="label">[588]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1834, p. 53. The Bats of this genus are usually
+described as <i>Phyllorhina</i>, but this use has been shown to be incorrect; see Blanford,
+<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1887, p. 637.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_589" href="#FNanchor_589" class="label">[589]</a> O. Thomas, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> ser. 6, vol. i. p. 156 (1888).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_590" href="#FNanchor_590" class="label">[590]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1847, p. 16.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_591" href="#FNanchor_591" class="label">[591]</a> Dobson, <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>,
+vol. xl. p. 455 (1871).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_592" href="#FNanchor_592" class="label">[592]</a> Blyth, <i>Journ. As. Soc. Bengal</i>, vol. xvii. p. 251 (1848).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_593" href="#FNanchor_593" class="label">[593]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xv. p. 197 (1810).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_594" href="#FNanchor_594" class="label">[594]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Nouv. Dict. d’Hist. Nat.</i> vol. xv. p. 501 (1803).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_595" href="#FNanchor_595" class="label">[595]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Descript. de l’Egypte</i>, vol. ii. p. 112 (1812).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_596" href="#FNanchor_596" class="label">[596]</a> Keyserling and Blasius, <i>Wirbelthiere Europ.</i> p. 55 (1840).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_597" href="#FNanchor_597" class="label">[597]</a> Peters,
+<i>Monatsber. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1859, p. 222.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_598" href="#FNanchor_598" class="label">[598]</a> Leach, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xiii.
+p. 78 (1822).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_599" href="#FNanchor_599" class="label">[599]</a> Allen, <i>Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad.</i> 1862, p. 247.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_600" href="#FNanchor_600" class="label">[600]</a> Keyserling and Blasius, <i>Wiegmann’s Archiv</i>, 1839, p. 312.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_601" href="#FNanchor_601" class="label">[601]</a> Peters, <i>Monatsber. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1866, p. 672.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_602" href="#FNanchor_602" class="label">[602]</a> Leach, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xiii. p. 71 (1822).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_603" href="#FNanchor_603" class="label">[603]</a> See O. Thomas, <i>Ann. Mus. Genova</i> (2), vol. ix. pp. 84-88 (1890).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_604" href="#FNanchor_604" class="label">[604]</a> Rafinesque, <i>Journ. de Physique</i>, vol. lxxxviii. p. 417 (1819).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_605" href="#FNanchor_605" class="label">[605]</a> Rafinesque,
+<i>Précis des Decouvértes et Trav. Somiol.</i> p. 12 (1814).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_606" href="#FNanchor_606" class="label">[606]</a> Gray, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat.
+Hist.</i> vol. x. p. 259 (1842).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_607" href="#FNanchor_607" class="label">[607]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 46 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_608" href="#FNanchor_608" class="label">[608]</a> Gray, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. x. p. 258 (1842), <i>Kerivoula</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_609" href="#FNanchor_609" class="label">[609]</a> Gray, <i>Mag. Zool. Bot.</i> vol. ii. p. 496 (1838).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_610" href="#FNanchor_610" class="label">[610]</a> Bonaparte, <i>Fauna Italica</i>, fasc. xxi. (1837).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_611" href="#FNanchor_611" class="label">[611]</a> Spix, <i>Sim. and Vesp. Bresil</i>, p. 61 (1823).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_612" href="#FNanchor_612" class="label">[612]</a> A. Milne-Edwards, <i>Bull. Soc. Philom.</i> sér. 7, vol. ii. p. 1 (1878).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_613" href="#FNanchor_613" class="label">[613]</a> Bonaparte, <i>Faun. Ital.</i> vol. i. (1832-41): Syn. <i>Furia</i>, F. Cuvier, <i>Mém. du
+Muséum</i>, vol. xvi. p. 150 (1828). Preoccupied by Linn. 1766.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_614" href="#FNanchor_614" class="label">[614]</a> Peters, <i>Monatsber. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1877, p. 185.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_615" href="#FNanchor_615" class="label">[615]</a> Temminck (Van der Hoeven), <i>Tijdsch. Nat. Ges.</i> 1839, p. 22.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_616" href="#FNanchor_616" class="label">[616]</a> Peters, <i>Monatsber. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1867, p. 479.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_617" href="#FNanchor_617" class="label">[617]</a> Peters, <i>loc. cit.</i> p. 477.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_618" href="#FNanchor_618" class="label">[618]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 121 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_619" href="#FNanchor_619" class="label">[619]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Descript. de l’Egypte</i>, vol. ii. p. 126 (1812).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_620" href="#FNanchor_620" class="label">[620]</a> Wied, <i>Isis</i>, 1819, p. 1629.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_621" href="#FNanchor_621" class="label">[621]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 88 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_622" href="#FNanchor_622" class="label">[622]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Descript. de l’Egypte</i>, vol. ii. p. 123 (1812).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_623" href="#FNanchor_623" class="label">[623]</a> Horsfield, <i>Zool. Research Java</i> (1824).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_624" href="#FNanchor_624" class="label">[624]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. vi. p. 154 (1805).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_625" href="#FNanchor_625" class="label">[625]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Descript. de l’Egypte</i>, vol. ii. p. 114 (1812).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_626" href="#FNanchor_626" class="label">[626]</a> New name: Syn. <i>Mystacina</i>; Gray, <i>Voyage of the “Sulphur,”</i> “Mamm.”
+p. 23 (1843). Preoccupied by <i>Mystacina</i>, Boie, 1822.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_627" href="#FNanchor_627" class="label">[627]</a> Gray, <i>Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. iv. p. 4 (1839).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_628" href="#FNanchor_628" class="label">[628]</a> Leach, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xiii. p. 76 (1820-22).—Amended.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_629" href="#FNanchor_629" class="label">[629]</a> Tomes, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1863, p. 81.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_630" href="#FNanchor_630" class="label">[630]</a> New name: Syn. <i>Macrotus</i>;
+Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1843, p. 21. Preoccupied by <i>Macrotis</i>, Dej. 1833.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_631" href="#FNanchor_631" class="label">[631]</a> New name: Syn. <i>Macrophyllum</i>; Gray, <i>Mag. Zool. Bot.</i> vol. ii. p. 489 (1838).
+Preoccupied by <i>Macrophylla</i>, Hope, 1837.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_632" href="#FNanchor_632" class="label">[632]</a> Leach, <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol.
+xiii. pp. 74, 75 (1822). For the references to the other genera see Dobson, <i>Cat.
+Chiropt. Brit. Mus.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_633" href="#FNanchor_633" class="label">[633]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1866, p. 113. Syn. <i>Schizostoma</i>;
+Gervais, 1855. Preoccupied by Broun, 1835.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_634" href="#FNanchor_634" class="label">[634]</a> New name: Syn. <i>Tylostoma</i>; Gervais, 1855. Preoccupied by Sharpe, 1849.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_635" href="#FNanchor_635" class="label">[635]</a> Gervais, Castlenau’s <i>Exped.-Zool.</i> p. 43 (1855): Syn. <i>Carollia</i>, Gray, 1838.
+Preoccupied by <i>Carolia</i>, Cantraine, 1837.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_636" href="#FNanchor_636" class="label">[636]</a> The references to the genera of
+this and the following division will be found in Dobson’s <i>Catalogue</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_637" href="#FNanchor_637" class="label">[637]</a> New
+name: Syn. <i>Ischnoglossa</i>, Saussure, 1860. Preoccupied by Kraatz, 1856.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_638" href="#FNanchor_638" class="label">[638]</a> Wied, <i>Beitr. Natgesch. Brasil</i>, vol. ii. p. 231 (1826).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_639" href="#FNanchor_639" class="label">[639]</a> Spix, <i>Sim. et Vesp. Brasil</i>, p. 68 (1823).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_640" href="#FNanchor_640" class="label">[640]</a> For the arguments in favour of placing the Lemurs in a separate order
+see Milne-Edwards, “Observations sur quelques points de l’embryologie des
+Lemuriens et sur les affinités zoologiques de ces animaux,” in the <i>Ann. des
+Sciences Nat.</i> October 1871; and P. Gervais, “Encephale des Lemures,” in
+<i>Journ. de Zoologie</i>, tom. i. p. 7. For those for retaining them among the
+Primates, see Mivart, “On <i>Lepilemur</i> and <i>Chirogaleus</i>, and on the Zoological
+Rank of the Lemuroidea,” in <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1873, p. 484.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_641" href="#FNanchor_641" class="label">[641]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Mag. Encyclop.</i> 2d ann. vol. i. p. 46 (1796), “Indri.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_642" href="#FNanchor_642" class="label">[642]</a> Bennett, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1832, p. 20.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_643" href="#FNanchor_643" class="label">[643]</a> Jourdan, <i>Mém. de l’Institut</i>, vol. ii. p. 231 (1834).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_644" href="#FNanchor_644" class="label">[644]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 44 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_645" href="#FNanchor_645" class="label">[645]</a> <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1879, p. 132.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_646" href="#FNanchor_646" class="label">[646]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1870, p. 829.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_647" href="#FNanchor_647" class="label">[647]</a> I. Geoffroy, <i>Cat. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris</i>, p. 75 (1851). Amended from
+<i>Lepilemur</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_648" href="#FNanchor_648" class="label">[648]</a> <i>Monatsb. Ak. Berlin</i>, 1874, p. 690.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_649" href="#FNanchor_649" class="label">[649]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xix. p. 171 (1812).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_650" href="#FNanchor_650" class="label">[650]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Mag. Encyclop.</i> 2d ann. vol. i. p. 49 (1796).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_651" href="#FNanchor_651" class="label">[651]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xix. pp. 162, 163 (1812).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_652" href="#FNanchor_652" class="label">[652]</a> For the anatomy of this genus, see J. L. C. Shroeder van der Kolk and
+W. Vrolik, “Recherches d’Anatomie comparée sur le genre <i>Stenops</i> d’Illiger,” in
+<i>Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde</i>, Part 1, Amsterdam, 1848-54.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_653" href="#FNanchor_653" class="label">[653]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Mag. Encyclop.</i> 2d ann. vol. i. p. 48 (1796).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_654" href="#FNanchor_654" class="label">[654]</a> <i>Mammalia of British India</i>, p. 48 (1888).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_655" href="#FNanchor_655" class="label">[655]</a> Bennett, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1839, p. 109.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_656" href="#FNanchor_656" class="label">[656]</a> For the anatomy of <i>P. potto</i>, see Van der Hoeven and Van Campen (<i>Ontleedkundige
+Onderzoek van den Potto van Bosman</i>, 1859) for <i>P. calabarensis</i>, Huxley,
+<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1864, p. 314.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_657" href="#FNanchor_657" class="label">[657]</a> Storr, <i>Prodromus Meth. Mamm.</i> (1780).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_658" href="#FNanchor_658" class="label">[658]</a> H. Burmeister, <i>Beiträge zur nähreren Kenntniss der gattung Tarsius</i>, 1846.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_659" href="#FNanchor_659" class="label">[659]</a> Cuvier, “Table de Class.” in <i>Leçons d’Anat. Comp.</i> vol. i. (1800).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_660" href="#FNanchor_660" class="label">[660]</a> It was first named <i>Daubentonia</i> by Geoffroy; but this name was withdrawn
+by its author in favour of <i>Chiromys</i>, as it had been previously given to a genus
+in the vegetable kingdom. This would not, however, constitute preoccupation
+according to the modern rules of nomenclature.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_661" href="#FNanchor_661" class="label">[661]</a> R. Owen, “On the Aye-aye,” in <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> 1862, vol. v. p. 33;
+W. Peters, “Ueber die Säugethiergattung <i>Chiromys</i>,” in <i>Abhand. Königl.
+Akad. der Wissenschaften</i>, Berlin, 1865, p. 79.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_662" href="#FNanchor_662" class="label">[662]</a> One specimen has been seen with only three lower premolars.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_663" href="#FNanchor_663" class="label">[663]</a> Article Ape, <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, ninth edition.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_664" href="#FNanchor_664" class="label">[664]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 71 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_665" href="#FNanchor_665" class="label">[665]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xix. p. 120 (1812).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_666" href="#FNanchor_666" class="label">[666]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 70 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_667" href="#FNanchor_667" class="label">[667]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xix. p. 115 (1812).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_668" href="#FNanchor_668" class="label">[668]</a> Gray, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1849, p. 9. Amended from <i>Ouakaria</i>: Syn. <i>Brachyurus</i>;
+Spix, <i>Sim. et Vesp. Brasil</i>, p. 11 (1823). Preoccupied by Fischer, 1814.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_669" href="#FNanchor_669" class="label">[669]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xix. p. 112 (1812).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_670" href="#FNanchor_670" class="label">[670]</a> Kaup, <i>Thierreich</i>, vol i. p. 51 (1835).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_671" href="#FNanchor_671" class="label">[671]</a> Spix, <i>Sim. et Vesp. Brasil</i>, p. 25 (1823).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_672" href="#FNanchor_672" class="label">[672]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. vii. p. 260 (1806).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_673" href="#FNanchor_673" class="label">[673]</a> I. Geoffroy, <i>Dict. Class.</i> vol. xv. p. 443 (1829).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_674" href="#FNanchor_674" class="label">[674]</a> Geoffrey, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xix. p. 106 (1812).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_675" href="#FNanchor_675" class="label">[675]</a> Erxleben, <i>Syst. Règne Animal</i>, p. 44 (1777).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_676" href="#FNanchor_676" class="label">[676]</a> Lacépède, “Nouv. tabl. méth.” (1799) in <i>Mém. de l’Institut</i>, vol. iii. p. 490
+1801.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_677" href="#FNanchor_677" class="label">[677]</a> “‘Mandrill’ seems to signify a ‘man-like Ape,’ the word ‘Drill’ or ‘Dril’
+having been anciently employed in England to denote an Ape or Baboon. Thus
+in the fifth edition of Blount’s ‘<i>Glossographia</i>, or a dictionary interpreting the
+hard words of whatsoever language now used in our refined English tongue ...
+very useful for all such as desire to understand what they read,’ published in
+1681, I find ‘Dril, a stonecutter’s tool wherewith he bores little holes in marble,
+etc. Also a large overgrown Ape and Baboon, so called.’ ‘Drill’ is used in the
+same sense in Charlton’s <i>Onomasticon Zoicon</i>, 1668. The singular etymology
+of the word given by Buffon seems hardly a probable one.”—Huxley’s <i>Man’s
+Place in Nature</i>, p. 10, 1863.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_678" href="#FNanchor_678" class="label">[678]</a> I. Geoffroy, <i>Arch. du Muséum</i>, vol. ii. p. 576 (1841).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_679" href="#FNanchor_679" class="label">[679]</a> I. Geoffroy, <i>Voyage de Belanger</i>, p. 66 (1834).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_680" href="#FNanchor_680" class="label">[680]</a> Lacépède, <i>Mém. de l’Institut</i>, vol. iii. p. 450 (1801). Amended.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_681" href="#FNanchor_681" class="label">[681]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xix. p. 97 (1812).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_682" href="#FNanchor_682" class="label">[682]</a> Erxleben, <i>Syst. Règne. Animal</i>, p. 22 (1777).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_683" href="#FNanchor_683" class="label">[683]</a> Or <i>Colobinæ</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_684" href="#FNanchor_684" class="label">[684]</a> Geoffroy, <i>Ann. du Muséum</i>, vol. xix. p. 90 (1812).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_685" href="#FNanchor_685" class="label">[685]</a> F. Cuvier, <i>Hist. Nat. des Mammifères</i> (1821), “Semno-pithèque.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_686" href="#FNanchor_686" class="label">[686]</a> Separated generically by some writers as <i>Rhinopithecus</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_687" href="#FNanchor_687" class="label">[687]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 69 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_688" href="#FNanchor_688" class="label">[688]</a> Wagner, <i>Gelehrte Anzeigen</i>, vol. viii. No. 38, p. 310 (1839).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_689" href="#FNanchor_689" class="label">[689]</a> Depéret, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, vol. cix. p. 982 (1889); see also <i>Mém. Soc. Géol.
+France</i>, “Palæontologie,” vol. i. (1890).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_690" href="#FNanchor_690" class="label">[690]</a> Gervais, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, vol.
+lxxiv. p. 1217 (1872).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_691" href="#FNanchor_691" class="label">[691]</a> Scimmie Fossili Italiane, <i>Boll. Comm. Geol.</i> 1890.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_692" href="#FNanchor_692" class="label">[692]</a> Illiger, <i>Prodromus Syst. Mamm. et Avium</i>, p. 67 (1811).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_693" href="#FNanchor_693" class="label">[693]</a> Linn. <i>Syst. Nat.</i> 12th ed. vol. i. p. 34 (1766).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_694" href="#FNanchor_694" class="label">[694]</a> A Malay word, signifying “Man of the Woods.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_695" href="#FNanchor_695" class="label">[695]</a> One skeleton in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons has five
+lumbar vertebræ, and has thus given rise to the statement that the number of
+vertebræ in the Orang is the same as in Man.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_696" href="#FNanchor_696" class="label">[696]</a> I. Geoffroy, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, vol. xxxiv. p. 84 (1852).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_697" href="#FNanchor_697" class="label">[697]</a> De Blainville, <i>Leçons Orales</i> (1839). The Chimpanzees have been very
+generally described under the name of <i>Troglodytes</i>, but since this name is
+preoccupied for a genus of birds, it is incumbent to follow the strict rule, and
+adopt the name <i>Anthropopithecus</i>, although both the present writers have
+elsewhere expressed the opposite opinion.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_698" href="#FNanchor_698" class="label">[698]</a> Lartet, <i>Comptes Rendus</i>, vol. xliii. p. 219 (1856).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_699" href="#FNanchor_699" class="label">[699]</a> <i>Mém. Soc. Géol. France</i>, “Palæontologie,” vol. i. Mém. No. 1 (1890).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_700" href="#FNanchor_700" class="label">[700]</a> <i>Man’s Place in Nature</i>, 1863, and <i>Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals</i>, 1871.
+See also the more recent investigations of Broca into the comparative structure
+of Man and the higher Apes, published mostly in the <i>Revue d’Anthropologie</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_701" href="#FNanchor_701" class="label">[701]</a> “On the Classification of the Varieties of the Human Species,” by W. H.
+Flower, <i>Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland</i>,
+May 1885.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_702" href="#FNanchor_702" class="label">[702]</a> The Malay of Blumenbach was a strange conglomeration of the then little
+known Australian, Papuan, and true Malay types.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_703" href="#FNanchor_703" class="label">[703]</a> No<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_755"></a>[755]</span> one can have seen a group of Botocudos from Brazil or of natives of
+Tierra del Fuego without being struck by their markedly Mongolian external
+characteristics.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Aard-Wolf, <a href="#Page_540">540</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aard-Vark, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Absorbent system, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Acanthoglossus</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Acanthomys</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Aceratherium</i>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Achænodon</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Achyrodon</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Acrobates</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Acrotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Adapis</i>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Adapisorex</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Adapisoricidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Adapisoriculus</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Addax</i>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Adenota</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Adinotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ælurictis</i>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ælurodon</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Æluroidea</i>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Æluropus</i>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ælurus</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Æpyceros</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Æpyprymnus</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Agabelus</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agouti, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Agriochœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ai, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Air-sacs, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Alactaga</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Albinism, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Alcelaphus</i>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Alces</i>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Allantois, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Allodon</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Allops</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Allotheria, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alpaca, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Amblotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amblypoda, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Amorphochilus</i>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Amphictis</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Amphicyon</i>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Amphidozotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Amphilestes</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Amphiperatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Amphisorex</i>, <a href="#Page_628">628</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Amphitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Amphitragulus</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Amynodon</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Anaptomorphus</i>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Anchilophus</i>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Anchippodus</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Anchitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ancylopoda, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ancylotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Anoa</i>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Anomaluridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Anomalurus</i>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Anoplotheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Anoplotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anteater, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Scaly, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antebrachium, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Antechinomys</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antelopes, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Anthops</i>, <a href="#Page_657">657</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Anthorhina</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Anthracotheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anthropoidea, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Anthropopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_736">736</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Antilocapra</i>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Antilocapridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Antilope</i>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antlers, <a href="#Page_308">308</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Antrozous</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Anurosorex</i>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aoudad, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Apar, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ape, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Aphelops</i>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Aphelotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Archælurus</i>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Archæoceti, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Archæomys</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Archizonurus</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Arctictis</i>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Arctocebus</i>, <a href="#Page_693">693</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Arctocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_595">595</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Arctocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_609">609</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Arctocyonidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_609">609</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Arctogale</i>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arctoidea, <a href="#Page_556">556</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arctomyinæ, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Arctomys</i>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Arctonyx</i>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Arctotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Argali, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Armadillo, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Artibeus</i>, <a href="#Page_676">676</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Artiodactyla, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Arvicola</i>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arvicolinæ, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ass, <a href="#Page_383">383</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Atalapha</i>, <a href="#Page_663">663</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ateles</i>, <a href="#Page_715">715</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Atherura</i>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Auchenia</i>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Aulacodus</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Aulaxinuus</i>, <a href="#Page_723">723</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aurochs, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Australasian region, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Avahis</i>, <a href="#Page_686">686</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Axis, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aye-aye, <a href="#Page_695">695</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst"><i>Babirusa</i>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Baboon, <a href="#Page_719">719</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Bachitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Badger, <a href="#Page_575">575</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">American, <a href="#Page_576">576</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Sand, <a href="#Page_575">575</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Balæna</i>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Balænidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Balænodon</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Balænoidea, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_756"></a>[756]</span><i>Balænoptera</i>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Balænotus</i>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bandicoot, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Banteng, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Bassaricyon</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Bassaris</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bats, <a href="#Page_641">641</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Bathyergus</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Bdeogale</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bear, <a href="#Page_558">558</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beaver, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beisa, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beluga, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Berardius</i>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Bettongia</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bharal, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Bibos</i>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bighorn, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Binturong, <a href="#Page_534">534</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bison, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Black-Fish, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bladder, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Blarina</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Blastomeryx</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blaubok, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blessbok, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blood, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Bolodon</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Boncia</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bontebok, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bosch-Vark, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Boselaphus</i>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Bothriolabis</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bottlenose, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Bovidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brachium, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Brachyphylla</i>, <a href="#Page_675">675</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Brachytarsomys</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Brachyurus</i>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Bradypodidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Bradypus</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brain, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Bramatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brocket, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Brontotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bruta, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Bubalus</i>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Budorcas</i>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buffalo, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bush-dog, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Cachalot, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cadurcotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cæcum, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cælogenys</i>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cænopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cænotheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cænotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Callinycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Callithrix</i>, <a href="#Page_713">713</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Callophoca</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Calomys</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Caloprymnus</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Calotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Camel, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Camelidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Camelus</i>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Canidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_544">544</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Canis</i>, <a href="#Page_546">546</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Capra</i>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Capreolus</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Capromys</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Capybara, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caracal, <a href="#Page_518">518</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cardiatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cardiomys</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cariacus</i>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Caribou, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carnivora, <a href="#Page_496">496</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Carollia</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Carponycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carpus, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Carterodon</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Castor</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Castoridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Castoroididæ</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Castoroides</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cat, <a href="#Page_517">517</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cavia</i>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Caviidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cavy, <a href="#Page_490">490</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cayluxotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cebidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cebochœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cebus</i>, <a href="#Page_717">717</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cement, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Centetes</i>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Centetidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Centurio</i>, <a href="#Page_676">676</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cephalogale</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cephalophus</i>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cephalorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cephalotes</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cercocebus</i>, <a href="#Page_723">723</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cercoleptes</i>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cercomys</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cercopithecidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_718">718</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cercopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_724">724</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Cerivoula"><i>Cerivoula</i>, <a href="#Page_664">664</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cervalces</i>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cervicapra</i>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cervidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cervinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cervulus</i>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cervus</i>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cetacea</i>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cetotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chænohyus</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chætomys</i>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chalcochloris</i>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chalicomys</i>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chalicotheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chalicotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chalinolobus</i>, <a href="#Page_662">662</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chamois, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Champsodelphis</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cheeta, <a href="#Page_523">523</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chevrotain, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Water, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chilonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chimarrogale</i>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_736">736</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chinchilla</i>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chinchillidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chirogaleus</i>, <a href="#Page_689">689</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chiromeles</i>, <a href="#Page_669">669</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chiromyidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chiromys</i>, <a href="#Page_695">695</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chironectes</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chiroptera, <a href="#Page_641">641</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chiru, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chiruromys</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chlamydophorinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chlamydophorus</i>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chlamydotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chœronycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chœropotamidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chœropotamus</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chœropsis</i>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chœropus</i>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cholœpus</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chorion, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chrysochloridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chrysochloris</i>, <a href="#Page_639">639</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Chrysothrix</i>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cimoliomys</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Circulation, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Civet, <a href="#Page_526">526</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Palm, <a href="#Page_532">532</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Classification, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Claviglis</i>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Claws, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coati, <a href="#Page_566">566</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Cobus"><i>Cobus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cœlodon</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cœlops</i>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Cogia"><i>Cogia</i>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Coleüra</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Colobus</i>, <a href="#Page_727">727</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colour, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Comphotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Condylarthra, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Condylura</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Conepatus</i>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Connochætes</i>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Contracavia</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Coryphodon</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Coryphodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cotylophora, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cotylopidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cotylops</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coypu, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cranium, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_757"></a>[757]</span><i>Crassitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Creodonta, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cricetodipus</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cricetodon</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cricetomys</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cricetus</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Criotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Crocidura</i>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Crossarchus</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Crossopus</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crusta Petrosa, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cryptophractus</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cryptopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cryptoprocta</i>, <a href="#Page_525">525</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ctenacodon</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ctenodactylus</i>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ctenomys</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cuniculus</i>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cuscus</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cyclopidius</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cycloturus</i>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cynælurus</i>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cynictis</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cynocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_719">719</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cynodictis</i>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cynogale</i>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cynohyænodon</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cynoidea, <a href="#Page_544">544</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cynomys</i>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cynonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cynopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_722">722</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cynopterus</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cyon</i>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Cystophora</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst"><i>Dacrytherium</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dactylomys</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dactylopsila</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Damalis</i>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Daphœnus</i>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dasymys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dasypodidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dasypodinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dasypotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dasyprocta</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dasyproctidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dasypus</i>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dasyuridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dasyurus</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Daubentonia</i>, <a href="#Page_695">695</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Deer, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Delphinapterus</i>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Delphinidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Delphinoidea, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Delphinus</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dendrohyrax</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dendrolagus</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dendromys</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dental system, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dentine, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Deomys</i>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dermoptera, <a href="#Page_614">614</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Desman, <a href="#Page_629">629</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Desmodus</i>, <a href="#Page_677">677</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Desmotylus</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diaphragm, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Diceratherium</i>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dichobunus</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dichodon</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dichodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Diclidurus</i>, <a href="#Page_668">668</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dicolpomys</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dicotyles</i>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dicotylidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Didelphia, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Didelphyidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Didelphys</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Didymictis</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Digestive system, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dinictis</i>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dinoceras</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dinocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dinomyidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dinomys</i>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dinotheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dinotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dinoziphius</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Diobroticus</i>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dioplotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Diphylla</i>, <a href="#Page_678">678</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diphyodont, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diplarthra, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Diplomesodon</i>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dipodidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dipodomys</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dipodops</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Diprotodon</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diprotodontia, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Diprotodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dipus</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Distœchurus</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dœdicurus</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dog, <a href="#Page_551">551</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dolichophyllum</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dolichopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_728">728</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dolichotis</i>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dolphin, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dorcatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dorcopsis</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dormouse, <a href="#Page_459">459</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Douroucouli, <a href="#Page_714">714</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dremotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dromatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dromicia</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dryolestes</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Dryopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_738">738</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duck-bill, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ductless glands, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dugong, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duikerbok, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duplicidentata, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst"><i>Echidna</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Echidnidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Echinogale</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Echinomys</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Echinothrix</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edentata, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Effodientia, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eland, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Elaphodus</i>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Elasmognathus</i>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Elasmotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eleotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elephant, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Elephantidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Elephas</i>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eleutherocercus</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eliomys</i>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eliurus</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elk, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ellobius</i>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Elotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Emballonura</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Emballonuridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Enamel, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Enhydra</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Enhydriodon</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Enhydrocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Entomophaga, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eohippus</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eomys</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Epiblema</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Epiglottis, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Epihippus</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Epomophorus</i>, <a href="#Page_650">650</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eporeodon</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Equidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Equus</i>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Erethizon</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ericulus</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Erinaceidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_619">619</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Erinaceus</i>, <a href="#Page_620">620</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eriodes</i>, <a href="#Page_715">715</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ermine, <a href="#Page_590">590</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eschatius</i>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ethiopian region, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eucastor</i>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eucetus</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eupetaurus</i>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eupleres</i>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Euryceros</i>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Euryurus</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eusmilus</i>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Eutatus</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eutheria, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Evotomys</i>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eye, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Fallow Deer, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Felidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_758"></a>[758]</span><i>Felis</i>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Felsinotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fennec, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Fennecus</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Feresia</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Fiber</i>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flying Fox, <a href="#Page_651">651</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Lemur, <a href="#Page_615">615</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Squirrel, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Foot, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Fossa</i>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Foussa, <a href="#Page_525">525</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fox, <a href="#Page_552">552</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fox-Bat, <a href="#Page_651">651</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Furia</i>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Furipterus</i>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst"><i>Galago</i>, <a href="#Page_690">690</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Galeopithecidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_614">614</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Galeopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_614">614</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Galera</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Galictis</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Galidea</i>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Galidictis</i>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gaur, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gayal, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Gazella</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Gelocus</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gemsbok, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Genet, <a href="#Page_528">528</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Genetta</i>, <a href="#Page_528">528</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Geogale</i>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geographical distribution, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Geological distribution, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Geomyidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Geomys</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Georychus</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gerbillinæ, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Gerbillus</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gibbon, <a href="#Page_728">728</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Giraffa</i>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Giraffidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Glands, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Glauconycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_662">662</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Globicephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Glossonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Glossophaga, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Glutton, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Glyptodon</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Glyptodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gnu, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Golunda</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Goat, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gopher, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Goral, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Gorilla</i>, <a href="#Page_734">734</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grampus, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Grampus</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Graphiurus</i>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greenland Whale, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Grimmia</i>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Grisonia</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ground Sloth, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Gryphoca</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Grypotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guanaco, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guib, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guinea-Pig, <a href="#Page_490">490</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Gulo</i>, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Gymnobelideus</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Gymnoptychus</i>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Gymnura</i>, <a href="#Page_619">619</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst"><i>Habrocoma</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Habrothrix</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hair, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Halichœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_601">601</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Halicore</i>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Halicoridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Halitheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Halitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hallomys</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hamster, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hapale</i>, <a href="#Page_710">710</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hapalemur</i>, <a href="#Page_689">689</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hapalidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_709">709</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hapalotis</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Haploceros</i>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Haplodon</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Haplodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hare, <a href="#Page_492">492</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Harpyia</i>, <a href="#Page_653">653</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Harpyiocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_663">663</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harte-beest, <a href="#Page_335">335</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hearing, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heart, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hedgehog, <a href="#Page_620">620</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Helicophora</i>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Helictis</i>, <a href="#Page_578">578</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Heliophobius</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Helladotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Helogale</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hemiauchenia</i>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hemicentetes</i>, <a href="#Page_637">637</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hemiderma</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hemigale</i>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hemigalidea</i>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hemitragus</i>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Herpestes</i>, <a href="#Page_535">535</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Herpetocetus</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Herpetotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Heterocephalus</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Heterocetus</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heterodont, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Heterohyrax</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Heteromys</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hipparion</i>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hippodactylus</i>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hippohyus</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hippopotamidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hippopotamus</i>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hipposiderus</i>, <a href="#Page_657">657</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hippotigris</i>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hippotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Holochilus</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Holomeniscus</i>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Homalodontotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hominidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_740">740</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Homo</i>, <a href="#Page_739">739</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Homodont, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hoofs, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hoolock, <a href="#Page_729">729</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hoplocetus</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hoplophoneus</i>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hoplophorus</i>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Horns, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Horse, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hunting dog, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hyæna</i>, <a href="#Page_540">540</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hyænarctus</i>, <a href="#Page_561">561</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hyænidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_540">540</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hyænocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hyænodon</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hyænodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hydaspitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hydrochœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hydromyinæ, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hydromys</i>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hydropotes</i>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hylobates</i>, <a href="#Page_728">728</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hylomys</i>, <a href="#Page_619">619</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hyoid, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hyomoschus</i>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hyopotamus</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hyopsodus</i>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hyotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hypertragulus</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hypogeomys</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hypsiprymnodon</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hypsiprymnodontinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hypsiprymnopsis</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hypsiprymnus</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hyrachyus</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hyracidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hyracodon</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hyracodontotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hyracoidea, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hyracotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hyrax</i>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hystricidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hystricomorpha, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Hystrix</i>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Ibex, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ichneumon, <a href="#Page_535">535</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Icticyon</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ictitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ictonyx</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ictops</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Indris</i>, <a href="#Page_684">684</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_759"></a>[759]</span><i>Indrodon</i>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Inia</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Insectivora, <a href="#Page_610">610</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Intestine, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Inuus</i>, <a href="#Page_723">723</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ischnoglossa</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Isectolophus</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Issiodoromys</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ivory, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ixacanthus</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Jackal, <a href="#Page_550">550</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jaguar, <a href="#Page_521">521</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jerboa, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Kangaroo, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Kerivoula</i> = <a href="#Cerivoula"><i>Cerivoula</i></a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kidney, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Killer, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kinkajou, <a href="#Page_567">567</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Koala, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Koalemus</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Kobus</i> = <a href="#Cobus"><i>Cobus</i></a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Kogia</i> = <a href="#Cogia"><i>Cogia</i></a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kudu, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kusimanse, <a href="#Page_538">538</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst"><i>Lagenorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lagidium</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lagomyidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lagomys</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lagorchestes</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lagostomus</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lagostrophus</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lagothrix</i>, <a href="#Page_716">716</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lambdotheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lambdotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Langur, <a href="#Page_727">727</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lantanotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Larynx, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lasionycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Latax</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leg, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lemming, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lemur</i>, <a href="#Page_687">687</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lemuridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_683">683</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lemuroidea, <a href="#Page_682">682</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leopard, <a href="#Page_514">514</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lepidolemur</i>, <a href="#Page_689">689</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Leporidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Leptictidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Leptictis</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Leptobos</i>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Leptomeryx</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Leptonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Leptonyx</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Leptotragulus</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lepus</i>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lestodon</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Leucocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Limnosyops</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Linsang, <a href="#Page_530">530</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lion, <a href="#Page_504">504</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Liotomus</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Listriodon</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Liver, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Llama, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lobodon</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Loncheres</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lonchoglossa</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lonchorhina</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lophiodon</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lophiodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lophiomeryx</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lophiomyidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lophiomys</i>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lophiotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lophocetus</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lophostoma</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Loricata, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Loris</i>, <a href="#Page_692">692</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Loxolophodon</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lungs, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lutra</i>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lycalopex</i>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lycaon</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lymphatics, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Lyncodon</i>, <a href="#Page_590">590</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lynx, <a href="#Page_518">518</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst"><i>Macacus</i>, <a href="#Page_722">722</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Machærodus</i>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Macrauchenia</i>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Macraucheniidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Macroglossus</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Macrophyllum</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Macropodidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Macropodinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Macropus</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Macrorhinus</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Macroscelides</i>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Macroscelididæ</i>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Macrotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Macrotus</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Malacomys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mammary glands, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mammoth, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Man, <a href="#Page_739">739</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manatee, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Manatidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Manatus</i>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mandrill, <a href="#Page_719">719</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Manidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Manis</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manus, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maral, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Markhoor, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marmoset, <a href="#Page_709">709</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marmot, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Prairie, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marsupialia, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marten, <a href="#Page_580">580</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Martes</i>, <a href="#Page_580">580</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mastacomys</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mastodon</i>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Megachiroptera, <a href="#Page_650">650</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Megaderma</i>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Megaloglossus</i>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Megamys</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Megaptera</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Megatheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Megatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Melanism, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Meles</i>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mellivora</i>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Melonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Melursus</i>, <a href="#Page_560">560</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Menacodon</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Meniscoëssus</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Meniscomys</i>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Meniscotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Menodus</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mephitis</i>, <a href="#Page_572">572</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Merychippus</i>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Merycochœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mesodectes</i>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mesohippus</i>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mesomys</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mesonychidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_609">609</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mesonyx</i>, <a href="#Page_609">609</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mesopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_727">727</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mesoplodon</i>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mesotaria</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mesotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mesozoic mammals, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Metacarpus, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Metamynodon</i>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Metatheria, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Metriotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Miacidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Miacis</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Microcavia</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Microcebus</i>, <a href="#Page_690">690</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Microchœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Microchiroptera</i>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Microconodon, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Microgale</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Microlestes</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Micromeryx</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Micronycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Microsorex</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Microsyops</i>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Microtus</i>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Midas</i>, <a href="#Page_710">710</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Milk-teeth, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mimon</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Miniopterus</i>, <a href="#Page_664">664</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mink, <a href="#Page_586">586</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Miohippus</i>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Miosiren</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mixodectes</i>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mole, <a href="#Page_630">630</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Golden, <a href="#Page_639">639</a></li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_760"></a>[760]</span>Star-nosed, <a href="#Page_630">630</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mole-Rat, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Molossus</i>, <a href="#Page_670">670</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Monachus</i>, <a href="#Page_604">604</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Monatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Monkey, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Monodelphia, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Monodon</i>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Monophylla</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Monophyodont, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moose, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Morenia</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mormops</i>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Moropus</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Morotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Morse, <a href="#Page_597">597</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Moschinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Moschus</i>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moufflon, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mouse, <a href="#Page_475">475</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mouth, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mulita, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Multituberculata, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mungoose, <a href="#Page_535">535</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muntjac, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Muridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mus</i>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Muscardinus</i>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Musk Deer, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Ox, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Rat, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Musquash, <a href="#Page_470">470</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mustela</i>, <a href="#Page_579">579</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mustelidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mycetes</i>, <a href="#Page_711">711</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mydaus</i>, <a href="#Page_575">575</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mylodon</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Myodes</i>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Myogale</i>, <a href="#Page_628">628</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Myolagus</i>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Myomorpha, <a href="#Page_459">459</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Myopotamus</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Myoscalops</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Myosorex</i>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Myoxidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Myoxus</i>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Myrmecobiinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Myrmecobius</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Myrmecophaga</i>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Myrmecophagidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mysarachne</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mystacina</i>, <a href="#Page_671">671</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mystacoceti, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mystacops</i>, <a href="#Page_671">671</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Mystromys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Myxocebus</i>, <a href="#Page_689">689</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Myxopoda</i>, <a href="#Page_665">665</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Nails, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nakong, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nandinia</i>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nanotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nares, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Narwhal, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nasalis</i>, <a href="#Page_725">725</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nasua</i>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Natalus</i>, <a href="#Page_664">664</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nearctic region, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Necrogymnurus</i>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Necrolemur</i>, <a href="#Page_696">696</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Necromantis</i>, <a href="#Page_679">679</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nectogale</i>, <a href="#Page_627">627</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nectomys</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nemorhædus</i>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Neobalæna</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Neofiber</i>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Neomeris</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Neoplagiaulax</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Neosorex</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Neotoma</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Neotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Neotropical region, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nerves, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nesocerodon</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nesocia</i>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nesodon</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nesomys</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nesonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nesotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Neurotrichus</i>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nilghai, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nimravus</i>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Noctilio</i>, <a href="#Page_668">668</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nostrils, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Notharctus</i>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nothropus</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nothrotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Notiosorex</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Notopteris</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nototheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nototherium</i>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nyctereutes</i>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nycteridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_659">659</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nycticebus</i>, <a href="#Page_691">691</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nycticejus</i>, <a href="#Page_662">662</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nyctilestes</i>, <a href="#Page_665">665</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nyctinomus</i>, <a href="#Page_670">670</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nyctipithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nyctitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_665">665</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Nyctophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Ocelot, <a href="#Page_521">521</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ochetodon</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Octodon</i>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Octodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Odobænus</i>, <a href="#Page_597">597</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Odontoceti, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ogmorhinus</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ommatophoca</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Onotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Onychogale</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Onychomys</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Opossum, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Orang, <a href="#Page_731">731</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Orca</i>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Orcella</i>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Oreas</i>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Oreodon</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Oreopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_728">728</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Oreotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oriental region, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ornithodelphia, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ornithorhynchidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Orohippus</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Orotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Orthaspidotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Orthomys</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Orycteropodidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Orycteropus</i>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Oryx</i>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Oryzomys</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Oryzorictes</i>, <a href="#Page_638">638</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Otaria</i>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Otariidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Otocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_554">554</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Otomys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Otonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Otopterus</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Otter, <a href="#Page_568">568</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Sea, <a href="#Page_571">571</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ounce, <a href="#Page_517">517</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ovaries, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ovibos</i>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oviduct, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ovis</i>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oxen, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Oxhyæna</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Oxymycterus</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Paca, <a href="#Page_489">489</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pachyacanthus</i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pachydermata, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pachynolophus</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pachyuromys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Paciculus</i>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Palæarctic region, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palæocastor</i>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palæocetus</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palæoerinaceus</i>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palæolemur</i>, <a href="#Page_697">697</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palæomanis</i>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palæomeryx</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palæonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_657">657</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palæophoca</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palæopontoporia</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palæoprionodon</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palæoreas</i>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palæoryx</i>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palæospalax</i>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palæosyops</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palæotapirus</i>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_761"></a>[761]</span><i>Palæotheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palæotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palæotragoceros</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palauchenia</i>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palhyæna</i>, <a href="#Page_544">544</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Palla, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Palm-Civet, <a href="#Page_532">532</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Paloplotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Palorchestes</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Panda, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pangolin, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Panochthus</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Panther, <a href="#Page_514">514</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pantholops</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Paradoxurus</i>, <a href="#Page_532">532</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Paramys</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Parasorex</i>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peccary, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pecora, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pectinator</i>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pedetes</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pediotragus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pelea</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pellegrinia</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pelvis, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pelycodus</i>, <a href="#Page_699">699</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Peragale</i>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Peralestes</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Peramelidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Perameles</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Peratherium</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Periptychus</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Perissodactyla, <a href="#Page_368">368</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Perodicticus</i>, <a href="#Page_693">693</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Perognathus</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pes, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Petauroides</i>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Petaurus</i>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Petrodromus</i>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Petrogale</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Petromys</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phacochœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phalanger</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phalangeridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phalangerinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phalanges, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phalangista</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phascolarctinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phascolarctus</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phascologale</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phascolomyidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phascolomys</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phascolonus</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phascolotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phenacodus</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phenacomys</i>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phlœomyinæ, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phlœomys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phloramys</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phoca</i>, <a href="#Page_601">601</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phocæna</i>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phocanella</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phocidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_600">600</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phylloderma</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phyllonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phyllophaga, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phyllorhina</i>, <a href="#Page_657">657</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phyllostoma</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Phyllostomatidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Physeter</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Physeteridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Physeterinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Physeterula</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Physetodon</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Physodon</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pica, <a href="#Page_492">492</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pichiciago, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pig, <a href="#Page_282">282</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pilosa, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pinnipedia, <a href="#Page_592">592</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pithanotomys</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pithechirus</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pithecia</i>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Placenta, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Plagiaulacidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Plagiaulax</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Plagiodon</i>, <a href="#Page_483">483</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Platacanthomyinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Platacanthomys</i>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Platanista</i>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Platanistidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Platycercomys</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Platygonus</i>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Platyonyx</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Platyphoca</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Platypus</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Plecotus</i>, <a href="#Page_660">660</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Plesiadapis</i>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Plesiarctomys</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Plesictis</i>, <a href="#Page_590">590</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Plesiocetus</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plesiometacarpalia, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Plesiosorex</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Plesispermophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pleuraspidotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pleurolichus</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Plexochœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pliauchenia</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pliolagostomus</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pliolophus</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pliopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_731">731</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Poëbrotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pœcilogale</i>, <a href="#Page_590">590</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pœcilophoca</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Poëphagus</i>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pogonodon</i>, <a href="#Page_524">524</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Poiana</i>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polecat, <a href="#Page_587">587</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Polymastodon</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Polyprotodontia, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pontistes</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pontoporia</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Porcupine, <a href="#Page_486">486</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Tree, <a href="#Page_485">485</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Porpoise, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Potamarchus</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Potamochœrus</i>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Potamogale</i>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Potamogalidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Potamophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_534">534</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Potamotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Potoroinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Potoroo, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Potorous</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pouched-Rat, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Praopus</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prehallux, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prepollex, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Primates, <a href="#Page_680">680</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Priodon</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Prionodon</i>, <a href="#Page_530">530</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Priscodelphinus</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Proælurus</i>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Proboscidea, <a href="#Page_418">418</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Probubalus</i>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Procamelus</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Procapra</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Procavia</i>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Procoptodon</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Procyon</i>, <a href="#Page_564">564</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Procyonidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Prodelphinus</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Prodremotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Proechidna</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Prohalicore</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Prohyæna</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Prolagostomus</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Promegatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Promylodon</i>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prong-buck, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Prophoca</i>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Propithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_684">684</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Prorastomatidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Prorastomus</i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Protechinomys</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Proteleidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Proteles</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Proterotheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Proterotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Protoadapis</i>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Protohippus</i>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Protolabis</i>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Protoreodon</i>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prototheria, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Protoxodon</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Protragelaphus</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Protragoceros</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Proviverra</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Proviverridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Prox</i>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pseudælurus</i>, <a href="#Page_523">523</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pseudalopex</i>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pseudochirus</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_762"></a>[762]</span><i>Pseudois</i>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pseudorca</i>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pseudorhinolophus</i>, <a href="#Page_657">657</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pseudosciurus</i>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Psittacotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pteralopex</i>, <a href="#Page_654">654</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pterodon</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pteromys</i>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pteropodidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_650">650</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pteropus</i>, <a href="#Page_651">651</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ptilocercus</i>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ptilodus</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Pudua</i>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Puma, <a href="#Page_520">520</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Putorius</i>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Quagga, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Rabbit, <a href="#Page_494">494</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Bandicoot, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Raccoon, <a href="#Page_565">565</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rangifer</i>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rasse, <a href="#Page_527">527</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rat, <a href="#Page_474">474</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ratel, <a href="#Page_576">576</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rat-Kangaroo, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Red Deer, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rehbok, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reitbok, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reproductive organs, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Respiratory system, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhabdosteus</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhachianectes</i>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhinoceros</i>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhinocerotidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhinogale</i>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhinolophidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_656">656</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhinolophus</i>, <a href="#Page_656">656</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhinonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhinophylla</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhinopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_726">726</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhinopoma</i>, <a href="#Page_669">669</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhipidomys</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhithrodon</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhithrosciurus</i>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhizomys</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhizoprion</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhogeëssa</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhynchocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhynchonycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhytina</i>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rhytinidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ribs, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">River-Hog, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rock-Wallaby, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rodentia, <a href="#Page_443">443</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Roe, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rorqual, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rosmarus</i>, <a href="#Page_597">597</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ruminants, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rupicapra</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Rytiodus</i>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Sable, <a href="#Page_584">584</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Saccomys</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Saccopteryx</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Saccostomus</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sacrum, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Saiga</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saki, <a href="#Page_712">712</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Salivary glands, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sambur, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Samotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sapajou, <a href="#Page_717">717</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Sarcophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Scaldicetus</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scales, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Scalops</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Scapanus</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Scapteromys</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Scaptochirus</i>, <a href="#Page_633">633</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Scaptonyx</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Scelidotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Schizodelphis</i>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Schizodon</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Schizostoma</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Sciuravus</i>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Sciuridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Sciurodon</i>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Sciuroides</i>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sciuromorpha, <a href="#Page_448">448</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Sciuropterus</i>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Sciurus</i>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Scopophorus</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Scotophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_662">662</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Scotozous</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sea-Leopard, <a href="#Page_605">605</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sea-otter, <a href="#Page_571">571</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seal, <a href="#Page_600">600</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Eared, <a href="#Page_594">594</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Selenacodon</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Semnopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_726">726</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sense organs, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Serow, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sheep, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shoulder-girdle, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shrew, <a href="#Page_622">622</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Tree, <a href="#Page_617">617</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Water, <a href="#Page_625">625</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Siamang, <a href="#Page_728">728</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Siamanga</i>, <a href="#Page_728">728</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sight, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Sigmodon</i>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Simia</i>, <a href="#Page_731">731</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Simiidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_728">728</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Simocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_562">562</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Simplicidentata, <a href="#Page_448">448</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Siphneus</i>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sirenia, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Sivatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skeleton, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skull, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skunk, <a href="#Page_572">572</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sloth, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sloth, Ground, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Smell, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Sminthopsis</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Sminthus</i>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Solenodon</i>, <a href="#Page_636">636</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Solenodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Sorex</i>, <a href="#Page_622">622</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Soricidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_621">621</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Soriculus</i>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Sotalia</i>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Souslik, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Spalacidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Spalacopus</i>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Spalacotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Spalax</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Spaniotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Spermophilus</i>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sperm Whale, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spider Monkey, <a href="#Page_715">715</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Spilogale</i>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spiny Anteater, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spleen, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Squalodon</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Squalodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Squamata, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Squirrel, <a href="#Page_451">451</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Stegodon</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Steneofiber</i>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Steno</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Stenoderma</i>, <a href="#Page_676">676</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Stenoplesictis</i>, <a href="#Page_539">539</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Stenops</i>, <a href="#Page_691">691</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Stenorhynchus</i>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Stereognathus</i>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sternum, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Sthenurus</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stoat, <a href="#Page_590">590</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stomach, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Strepsiceros</i>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Sturnira</i>, <a href="#Page_676">676</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Stylacodon</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Stylinodon</i>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Styloceros</i>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Stylodon</i>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Stypolophus</i>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Subungulata, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Suidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suina, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Suricata</i>, <a href="#Page_538">538</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Sus</i>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Syllophodus</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Symborodon</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Synaptomys</i>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Synetheres</i>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Synotus</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Systemodon</i>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Takin, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Talpa</i>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_763"></a>[763]</span><i>Talpidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_628">628</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tamandua</i>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tamias</i>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Taphozous</i>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tapir, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tapiridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tapirulus</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tapirus</i>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tardigrada, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tarsiidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tarsipedinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tarsipes</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tarsius</i>, <a href="#Page_694">694</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Taste, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tatouay, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tatusia</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tatusiinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Taxidea</i>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tayra, <a href="#Page_579">579</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Teetee, <a href="#Page_713">713</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Teeth, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tegument, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Teledu, <a href="#Page_575">575</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Telemetacarpalia, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Temnocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_555">555</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tenrec, <a href="#Page_637">637</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Terphone</i>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tertiary mammals, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tetraceros</i>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tetraconodon</i>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tetracus</i>, <a href="#Page_634">634</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tetrastylus</i>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Theridomyidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Theridomys</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Theropithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_722">722</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thigh, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Thomomys</i>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Thoracophorus</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thylacine, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Thylacinus</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Thylacoleo</i>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thymus gland, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thyroid body, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Thyroptera</i>, <a href="#Page_665">665</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tiger, <a href="#Page_511">511</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tillodontia, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tillotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tinoceras</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Titanomys</i>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Titanotheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Titanotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tolypeutes</i>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tomitherium</i>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Toxodon</i>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Toxodontia, <a href="#Page_439">439</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Touch, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trachea, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Trachyops</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Trachytherium</i>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tragelaphus</i>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tragoceros</i>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tragops</i>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tragulidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tragulina, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tragulus</i>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Trechomys</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Triacanthodon</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Triænops</i>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Trichechidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_596">596</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Trichechus</i>, <a href="#Page_597">597</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Trichosurus</i>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Trichys</i>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Triclis</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Triconodon</i>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Trilodon</i>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trituberculism, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tritylodon</i>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Trochictis</i>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Troglodytes</i>, <a href="#Page_736">736</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Trogontherium</i>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Trygenycteris</i>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tubulidentata, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tupaia</i>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tupaiidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tursiops</i>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tylopoda, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Tylostoma</i>, <a href="#Page_674">674</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Typhlomys</i>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Typotherium</i>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst"><i>Uacaria</i>, <a href="#Page_712">712</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Uakari, <a href="#Page_712">712</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Uintatheriidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Uintatherium</i>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Umbilical vesicle, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Unau, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ungulata, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Urinary organs, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Urocyon</i>, <a href="#Page_553">553</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Uromys</i>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Uropsilus</i>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Urotrichus</i>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ursidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ursus</i>, <a href="#Page_557">557</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Urus, <a href="#Page_367">367</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Uses of mammals, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Uterus, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Vampyre, <a href="#Page_676">676</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Vampyrus</i>, <a href="#Page_673">673</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vertebræ, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Vesperimus</i>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Vespertiliavus</i>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Vespertilio</i>, <a href="#Page_663">663</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Vespertilionidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_660">660</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Vesperugo</i>, <a href="#Page_661">661</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vicugna, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Viscacha, <a href="#Page_488">488</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Vishnutherium</i>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Viverra</i>, <a href="#Page_526">526</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Viverricula</i>, <a href="#Page_527">527</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Viverridæ</i>, <a href="#Page_525">525</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vole, <a href="#Page_465">465</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Vulpes</i>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vulpine Phalanger, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Wallaby, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Walrus, <a href="#Page_597">597</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wapiti, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wart-Hog, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Weasel, <a href="#Page_589">589</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Whale, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">White Whale, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wolf, <a href="#Page_548">548</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wolverene, <a href="#Page_591">591</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wombat, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst"><i>Xantharpyia</i>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Xenurus</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Xeromys</i>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Xerus</i>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Xiphodon</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Yak, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yapock, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yolk-sac, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst"><i>Zapus</i>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zebra, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Zeuglodon</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Zeuglodontidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ziphiinæ</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><i>Ziphius</i>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zoological regions, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+<p class="titlepage">THE END</p>
+
+<p class="center smaller"><i>Printed by <span class="smcap">R. &amp; R. Clark</span>, Edinburgh</i></p>
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75947 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
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diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
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@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This book, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this book outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+book #75947 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/75947)