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diff --git a/75882-0.txt b/75882-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6cf36e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/75882-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,22913 @@ + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75882 *** + + +------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + Transcriber’s Note: + +This version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects. +Italics are delimited with the ‘_’ character as _italic_. In the front +matter, blackletter font is delimited by ‘=’. A diacritical mark, a +comma above a ‘C’ or ‘X’, is represented here as a quotation mark, e.g. +‘C̓echwayo’ or ‘X̓osa’. + +Footnotes have been moved to follow the chapters in which they are +referenced. + +Any text employed in the maps also have been moved to fall on a +paragraph break. + +Errors, attributable to the printer, have been corrected. Please see the +transcriber’s note at the end of this text for details regarding the +handling of any issues encountered during its preparation. + + + =Cambridge Historical Series= + + EDITED BY G. W. PROTHERO, F.B.A., LITT.D. + + HON. LL.D. OF EDINBURGH AND HARVARD, AND HONORARY FELLOW + OF KING’S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE + + + + + + + + + THE + + COLONIZATION OF AFRICA + + + + + CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS + =London=: FETTER LANE, E.C. + C. F. CLAY, MANAGER + +[Illustration] + + =Edinburgh=: 100, PRINCES STREET + =Berlin=: A. ASHER AND CO. + =Leipzig=: F. A. BROCKHAUS + =New York=: G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS + =Bombay and Calcutta=: MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD. + + + + + + + + + _All rights reserved_ + + + A HISTORY OF THE + + COLONIZATION OF AFRICA + + BY ALIEN RACES + + + BY + + SIR HARRY H. JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., + HON. SC.D. CANTAB. + + _WITH EIGHT MAPS_ + + NEW EDITION, REVISED THROUGHOUT AND + CONSIDERABLY ENLARGED + + + + + + + + + Cambridge: + at the University Press + 1913 + + + + + + + + + _First Edition 1899. Reprinted 1899, 1905._ + + _Second and enlarged Edition 1913._ + + + + + GENERAL PREFACE + +_The aim of this series is to sketch the history of Modern Europe, with +that of its chief colonies and conquests, from about the end of the +fifteenth century down to the present time. In one or two cases the +story commences at an earlier date: in the case of the colonies it +generally begins later. The histories of the different countries are +described, as a rule, separately; for it is believed that, except in +epochs like that of the French Revolution and Napoleon I, the connection +of events will thus be better understood and the continuity of +historical development more clearly displayed._ + +_The series is intended for the use of all persons anxious to understand +the nature of existing political conditions. “The roots of the present +lie deep in the past”; and the real significance of contemporary events +cannot be grasped unless the historical causes which have led to them +are known. The plan adopted makes it possible to treat the history of +the last four centuries in considerable detail, and to embody the most +important results of modern research. It is hoped therefore that the +series will be useful not only to beginners but to students who have +already acquired some general knowledge of European History. For those +who wish to carry their studies further, the bibliography appended to +each volume will act as a guide to original sources of information and +works of a more special character._ + +_Considerable attention is paid to political geography; and each volume +is furnished with such maps and plans as may be requisite for the +illustration of the text._ + + G. W. PROTHERO. + + + + + ERRATA + + p. 69, _for_ Motawakkiq _read_ Motawakkil + p. 371, _for_ Boz _read_ Bor + + + + + PREFATORY NOTE + + +The Editor of this Historical series asked me in 1898 to compile this +work on the History of African Colonization. Even at that date there +existed a number of standard books on the history of African Exploration +(Dr J. Scott Keltie and Dr Robert Brown), on the history of South Africa +(M^cCall Theal and Sir Charles Lucas), and on the Map of Africa by +Treaty (Sir Edward Hertslet). But no attempt had yet been made to +summarise and review in a single book the general history of the +attempts of Asia and Europe to colonize Africa during the historical +period. The original edition of this book published in 1898 was +exhausted by the following year, and in the next reprint certain +additions were made; while to the reprint of 1905 a new chapter was +contributed giving the latest developments in the European colonization +of Africa. + +A further issue of the work having been contemplated seven years later, +the Cambridge University Press agreed that I should rewrite the whole +book from beginning to end and enlarge it considerably, so that it might +be brought level with our more complete knowledge of African history in +1912, and at the same time continue the story down to the present year. + +Much has happened since 1905 which forms an essential part of the +history of the colonization and development of Africa by alien races. +The old maps have been revised and new ones drawn. + +The first edition of this work contained the antique feature of a +dedication. I hesitate to repeat this formally, yet I might mention that +the names I associated in 1898 with my treatise on the Colonization of +Africa were those of SIR GEORGE TAUBMAN GOLDIE (Nigeria); VISCOUNT +KITCHENER OF KHARTŪM (Anglo-Egyptian Sudan); MONSIEUR RENÉ MILLET +(formerly French Resident-General in Tunis), “who has shown how well a +Frenchman can administer a great dependency when allowed liberty of +action”; and MAJOR HERMANN VON WISSMANN (formerly German Imperial +Commissioner in Africa), “who founded the State of German East Africa, +and who has done more than any living German to establish and uphold the +prestige of that great nation in the darkest parts of the Dark +Continent”. I still think that under the guise of a dedication I chose +notable instances of strong and wise men doing good work in Africa, not +only for the colonizing nations, but equally for the subject peoples of +backward race. Their work in its importance has stood the test of time. +What Mons. Millet did in Tunis has been—or should be—made the model of +an administration under which France may succeed in regenerating +Morocco. It is tempting to add other great names to this list, but if, +for example, one inserts that of CECIL RHODES, then in common justice +one must mention DAVID LIVINGSTONE, JOHN KIRK, H. M. STANLEY, JOSEPH +THOMSON, FREDERICK LUGARD, GEORGE GRENFELL, E. N. ROUME, and FRANZ +STUHLMANN, and many others who have brought about the recent opening-up +of Africa by the white man. + + H. H. JOHNSTON. + + POLING, + _December, 1912_. + + + + + CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER I + + + PREHISTORIC RACE MOVEMENTS IN AFRICA + + + The origin of African man—Principal Negro types—The + Bushman—Negroids (Fula, Songhai, Tibu, Hausa)—The Mystery of the + Zimbabwe ruins of Rhodesia—Probable distribution of native races + ten thousand years ago—The Dynastic Egyptians—The early + Semites—The Hamites—The Malay Colonization of Madagascar 1 + + + CHAPTER II + + + THE MEDITERRANEAN COLONIZATION OF AFRICA + + + The Phoenicians and their foundation of Sidonian and Tyrian cities + along the north coast of Africa—Carthage—Hanno’s voyage to West + Africa—The Greeks in Cyrenaica—In Egypt, Abyssinia, East + Africa—The Romans in Egypt—In North Africa and the + Sahara—Christian Abyssinia 32 + + + CHAPTER III + + + THE ARAB CONQUEST OF AFRICA + + + The condition of North Africa in the 6th and 7th centuries of the + Christian era before the Arab invasion—Muhammad and + Muhammadanism—Arabs invade Egypt—The Khariji sect—Arabs invade + North Africa—Spain, Morocco, and the Berbers—The Jews and their + relations with North Africa—The Fatimite Khalifs—The “Hilalian” + invasion—The Almoravides—The Almohades—St Louis—The death of Dom + Sebastião—The Sharifian dynasties of Morocco—The Turks in + Africa—Arab Egypt—Turkish Egypt—The Arabs of East Africa—Arab + influence on Africa 52 + + + CHAPTER IV + + + THE PORTUGUESE IN AFRICA + + + Origin of the State of Portugal—Prince Henry the + Navigator—Portuguese explorations of West African coast—Diogo + Cam and the Congo—Rounding of Cape of Good Hope—East African + conquests—Portuguese in Abyssinia—in the Congo Kingdom—in + Angola—Paulo Diaz—The benefits the Portuguese conferred on + Africa—Their struggles with the Dutch—Progress of their rule in + West Africa—in East Africa—Monomotapa—Dr Lacerda e + Almeida—Livingstone’s journeys—Present state of + Moçambique—Delagoa Bay—Beira—Mouzinho de Albuquerque—Moçambique + Company—The future of the Portuguese Colonies 76 + + + CHAPTER V + + + SPANISH AFRICA + + + The Canary Islands—Spain invades Morocco in 1490—Algeria and Tunis + nearly conquered in 16th century—Spanish sphere in North + Morocco—Rio de Oro—Fernando Pô and Rio Muni 116 + + + CHAPTER VI + + + THE DUTCH IN AFRICA + + + Dutch traders on the Gold Coast—Dutch settle at the Cape of Good + Hope—St Helena—Mauritius—The Netherland East India Co.—Huguenot + colonists—Governor Tulbagh—extensions of Dutch influence—First + hostile British expedition under Commodore Johnstone—First Dutch + war with the Kafirs—First British occupation of the Cape of Good + Hope—Interregnum of Dutch rule—British finally annex Cape + Colony—Their rulers come into conflict with the sentiments of + the Dutch colonists (Boers)—The Boer Treks—Origin of Transvaal + and Orange Free State republics—Annexation and revolt of + Transvaal—Sir Charles Warren’s expedition—Gold in the + Transvaal—Jews in South Africa—Johannesburg, the Outlanders, and + Jameson’s raid—The war of 1899-1902—Union of South Africa 123 + + + CHAPTER VII + + + THE SLAVE TRADE + + + Negro predisposition for slavery—Slave trade in the Roman world, + in Muhammadan countries and India—Great development consequent + on the exploitation of America—English slave traders—English + Anti-Slavery movement—Author’s own experiences of slave + trade—Steps taken by various European countries to abolish Slave + Trade—By Great Britain in particular—Rev. S. W. Koelle—Zanzibar + slave trade—Wadai and Tripoli—Ethics of slavery—A word of + warning to the Negro—The foundation and history of Liberia—Dr + Blyden 151 + + + CHAPTER VIII + + + THE BRITISH IN AFRICA, I + + (_West Coast, Morocco, North-Central_) + + + The English in West Africa—The Gambia—Sierra Leone—Gold + Coast—Ashanti—Northern Territories—Lagos—Niger + Delta—Beecroft—Benin—E. H. Hewett—H. H. Johnston—J. R. + Phillips—Northern Nigeria—Dr Baikie—Sir G. Taubman Goldie—Lugard + and Morland—Bornu—Fulas—Great Britain and Tripoli—and Morocco 168 + + + CHAPTER IX + + + THE FRENCH IN WEST AND NORTH AFRICA + + + The Dieppe adventurers—Jannequin de Rochefort and the Senegal—Brüe + and the foundation of the colony of Senegal—Campagnon—Progress + of French rule over Senegambia—Seul Faidherbe—the Fula + Empires—Advance to the Niger—Samori and Ahmadu—Timbuktu—Binger + and the Ivory Coast—Samori—Timbuktu definitely occupied—Busa and + the Anglo-French Convention—Administrative divisions of French + W. Africa—France and Egypt—Algiers—Development of + Algeria—Tunis—The Sahara—Voulet and Chanoine—Morocco + Protectorate—Abyssinia—Marchand—Somaliland—French + Congo—Gaboon—The Shari and Mubangi—Cessions to Germany—Bagirmi + and Wadai—Senussi—Trans-Sahara Railway 196 + + + CHAPTER X + + + CHRISTIAN MISSIONS + + + Their work the antithesis to the slave trade—Portuguese missions + to Congoland, to the Zambezi, to Abyssinia—First Protestant + missions—Church Missionary Society—Dr Krapf—Wesleyans, + Methodists, Society for Propagation of the Gospel—Roman Catholic + missions to Algeria, Congoland, the Nile—Cardinal Lavigerie—The + ‘White Fathers’—The Jesuits on the Zambezi—in Madagascar—The + London Missionary Society—Swiss and German Protestant + Missions—French Evangelical Missions—Presbyterian (Scotch) + Missions—Norwegian and American Missions—Linguistic work of + latter—Universities’ Mission—Plymouth Brethren—Baptists—North + African Mission—Zambezi Industrial Mission—Abyssinian + Christianity 239 + + + CHAPTER XI + + + THE BRITISH IN AFRICA, II + + (_South and South-Central_) + + + Great Britain’s seizure of the Cape of Good Hope—Permanent + establishment there—Abolition of slavery—Dutch grievances—Kaffir + Wars—Lord Glenelg and intervention of Downing Street—Boer + Treks—Responsible government in Cape Colony—Kaffir delusions as + to expected resurrection of their forefathers and expulsion of + English—St Helena, Ascension and Tristan d’Acunha—Discovery of + diamonds in Grikwaland—Notable Jewish pioneers in South + Africa—History of Natal—Kuli labour and Indian + immigration—Delagoa Bay arbitration—Damaraland—Origin of German + entrance into South African sphere—Walfish + Bay—Bechuanaland—Zambezia—Nyasaland—British Central Africa—The + African Lakes Co.—African Trans-continental Telegraph—South + African federation—The Transvaal—Sir Bartle Frere—Zululand and + the Zulu War—Boer revolt—Rhodes and Rhodesia—Matebele Wars and + Dr Jameson—Kruger and the Drifts—Jameson Raid—Viscount + Milner—The War of 1899-1902—Peace and Chinese Labour—The Union + of South Africa—The Basuto and Native Question—Mauritius and the + Seychelles 254 + + + CHAPTER XII + + + GREAT EXPLORERS + + + Old-time travellers—Herodotos—Strabo—Pliny—Ptolemy—The Arab + geographers—The Portuguese explorers—Andrew Battel—British on + the Gambia—French on the Senegal—James Bruce and the Blue + Nile—Timbuktu—Mungo Park and the Niger—South African + explorations—Portugal and Dr Lacerda—Captain Owen—Tuckey and the + Congo—Major Laing—René Caillé—British Government expeditions in + Tripoli,—Bornu, Lake Chad, and Sokoto—Lander and the Niger + mouth—Barth and, the Western Sudan—the Jewish explorer + Mordokhai—Krapf, Rebmann, and the Snow + Mountains—Livingstone—Burton and Speke, Speke and Grant—Samuel + Baker—Livingstone and Kirk—French explorers in North-West + Africa—Livingstone and Central + Africa—Cameron—Rohlfs—Nachtigal—Alexandrine Tinne—Paul du + Chaillu—Winwood Reade—Stanley and the Congo—Portuguese + explorers—Schweinfurth and the Wele—Nile explorers—Nyasaland + explorations—Pogge, Reichard, Boehm, and von Bary—Dr + Felkin—Joseph Thomson—George Grenfell—von Wissmann—Emin + Pasha—Cameroons explorers—Nigerian and Chad + explorations—Tanganyika, Somaliland, and East African + discoveries—Kilima-njaro—Morocco—Marchand—Madagascar—Remarkable + 20th century exploring work 297 + + + CHAPTER XIII + + + BELGIAN AFRICA + + + The work of Cambier and Storms—Comité d’Études du Haut Congo—H. M. + Stanley founds the Congo Independent State—its subsequent + history—Long struggle with the Arabs—Captain Hinde—Baron + Dhanis—Rumoured atrocities—Katanga—Extension to the White + Nile—Murder of Mr Stokes—Railway to Stanley Pool—Denunciation of + King Leopold’s maladministration by E. D. Morel—Congo Reform + movement—Belgian annexation of Congo State 342 + + + CHAPTER XIV + + + THE BRITISH IN AFRICA, III + + (_Egypt and Eastern Africa_) + + + England wrests Egypt from the French—Rise of Muhammad Ali—Suez + Canal—Arabi’s rebellion—Tel-el-Kebir—Mahdi’s revolt—Gordon’s + death—Lord Cromer—Lord Kitchener and the reconquest of the + Sudan—Fashoda—Egypt in the 20th century—Nationalism—Development + of the Sudan—Sudd-cutting—Aden and Somaliland—The ‘mad’ + Mullah—Zanzibar—Sir John Kirk—Kilima-njaro—British East African + Company—Sir Frederick Lugard and Uganda—Sir Gerald Portal—The + Sudanese mutiny in Uganda—The Special Commission—Sleeping + Sickness—Zanzibar Government—Dissolution of British East Africa + Company—Mubarak’s rising—Ogadein Somalis—Big Game—‘White’ East + Africa 359 + + + CHAPTER XV + + + THE ITALIANS IN AFRICA + + + Italian commercial intercourse with North Africa during Crusades + and Renaissance—The Popes and geographical research—Italy in + Tunis and Tripoli—Assab Bay—Abyssinia—Eritrea—Italian reverse at + Adua—Italy in Somaliland—The Italian invasion and annexation of + the Tripolitaine 390 + + + CHAPTER XVI + + + GERMAN AFRICA + + + The Brandenburg traders and the West Coast—German aspirations after + colonies in the forties and sixties of the 19th century—German + missionaries in South-West Africa—Herr Lüderitz—Angra + Pequena—British indecision—German South-West Africa Protectorate + founded—Germany in the Cameroons—in East Africa—Anglo-German + partition of the Sultan of Zanzibar’s dominions—Rising against + German rule in East Africa—Germany in the Cameroons—Hottentot + and Damara rebellions in South-West Africa—Prospects of German + South-West Africa—Togoland 403 + + + CHAPTER XVII + + + THE FRENCH IN MADAGASCAR + + + First rumours of the existence of Madagascar—Confusion with + Zanzibar and the Komoro Islands—Portuguese discovery—French + Company of the East founded to colonize the Island—Fort + Dauphin—Pronis, the immoral governor—Vacher de Rochelle, + King-Consort of a Malagasy Queen—French East India Company + founded. Île de Bourbon colonized—The Madagascar Pirates—French + found settlement of St Marie de Madagascar—Send scientific + expeditions to Madagascar which first make known its peculiar + fauna—Benyowski, the Polish adventurer—The Malagasy—The + Hovas—English capture Mauritius and Bourbon and turn the French + out of Madagascar—French regain Bourbon and re-occupy St Marie + de Madagascar—First missionaries of the London Missionary + Society arrive in Madagascar (1818)—Rise of Radama and the Hova + power—French repulse in 1829—The shipwrecked sailor, + Laborde—Queen Ranaválona and persecutions of the Christians—The + Sakalavas—Prince Rakoto and Lambert’s frustrated coup + d’état—Accession of Rakoto (Radama II)—Deposition and + death—French concession repudiated and indemnity paid—The + Laborde succession—Quarrel with France in 1883—The Shaw + incident—General Willoughby—England recognizes French + protectorate over Madagascar—final invasion, conquest and + annexation of the Island by the French—Réunion and Komoro + Islands 423 + + + CHAPTER XVIII + + + CONCLUSIONS AND FORECASTS + + + The European partition of Africa—Only Liberia and Abyssinia remain + independent—Three classes into which Africa falls from + colonization standpoint—Healthy Africa—Yellow Africa—Black + Africa—Prognostications as to future race movements—Predominant + European races in the future—The eight great languages of New + Africa—Paganism will disappear—Muhammadan zeal will eventually + decay—The Negro may become identified in national interests with + his diverse European rulers, and not unite to form a universal + Negro nation with the cry of ‘Africa for the Africans,’ if he is + well treated—White nations may also arise in Africa—Yet future + of Africa remains very uncertain 442 + + + APPENDIX I. Notable events and dates in the history of African + colonization 452 + + + APPENDIX II. Bibliography 467 + + + INDEX 472 + + + + + LIST OF MAPS + + 1. Africa as known to the Ancients; showing + distribution of native races and lines of Bantu + invasion _To face_ p. 50 + + + 2. Muhammadan Africa _To face_ p. 74 + + + 3. Portuguese Africa _To face_ p. + 114 + + + 4. French Africa _To face_ p. + 238 + + + 5. British Africa _To face_ p. + 388 + + + 6. German Africa _To face_ p. + 422 + + + 7. Colonizable Africa _At end_ + + + 8. Political Africa, 1912 _At end_ + + +_Note._ The spelling of African names adopted throughout this book is +the system sanctioned by the Royal Geographical Society, by which all +consonants are pronounced as in English and all vowels as in Italian. Ñ, +ñ represents the nasal sound of ‘ng’ in ‘ri_ng_i_ng_,’ ‘so_ng_,’ as +distinguished from the ‘ng’ in ‘a_ng_er.’ No consonants are doubled +unless pronounced twice in succession: thus ‘Massowah’ is properly +written Masawa. But where old established custom has sanctioned a +spelling diverging from these rules the official spelling of the name is +adopted. Thus: Moçambique instead of Msambiki; Quelimane instead of +Kelimān; Uganda as well as the more correct Buganda; Bonny instead of +Obani. + + ERRATUM + +p. 306, last line, _for_ Truster _read_ Truter, _and similarly in Index_ + + + CHAPTER I + + PREHISTORIC RACE MOVEMENTS IN AFRICA + + +THE theme of this book obviously deals rather with the invasion and +settlement of Africa by foreign nations than with the movements of +people indigenous in their present types to the African continent; +nevertheless, it may be well to preface this sketch of the history of +African colonization by a few remarks explaining the condition and +inhabitants of the continent—so far as we can deduce them from indirect +evidence—before it was subjected to invasion and conquest by races and +peoples from Europe and Asia. + +In all probability man first entered Africa from the direction of Syria. +He penetrated into tropical Africa in the train of those large mammals +which still form the most striking feature in the African fauna; many of +which however were evolved not in tropical Africa but in southern Europe +or western Asia as well as in Egypt and Cis-Saharan Africa. These great +apes, elephants, giraffes, and antelopes sought a refuge in tropical +Africa not only from the cold of the glacial pleistocene, but from the +incessant attacks of carnivorous man. Later on, but still in most remote +times, there were (no doubt) migrations of European man from the +northern side of the Mediterranean. But it seems more likely that the +bulk of African humanity as represented by its modern types passed from +Syria and Persia into Arabia, and thence into north-eastern Africa. + +Did the Neanderthal species of humanity—_Homo primigenius_, with his big +head, big brain, short neck, long trunk and arms, and shambling legs, +his ape-like jaws and possibly hairy body—ever populate any part of +Africa? So far, no trace of him in an unmixed form has been found beyond +the limits of Europe, either living or fossil. But no farther away from +Africa than Gibraltar there has been obtained from the layers of deposit +below the floor of a cave the famous neanderthaloid Gibraltar skull, +Which in cranial capacity is lower than any other type of _Homo +primigenius_ as yet discovered. Yet there is nothing of the negro about +this and other types of _Homo primigenius_. The nose was quite +differently formed and was very large and prominent. The great brow +ridges characteristic of _Homo primigenius_ and of his collateral +relation the modern Australoid are an un-negro-like feature, though +occasionally they appear sporadically in the negroes of Equatorial +Africa and even in the northern Bushmen. Some French anthropologists +have thought that North Africa was first colonized by the Neanderthal +species of man, and that this type has even left traces of its presence +there in tribes like the Mogods of north-west Tunisia and certain +peoples of the Atlas mountains. + +The successor and supplanter of _Homo primigenius_ in western Europe was +a generalized type of _Homo sapiens_, represented by the Galley-Hill man +inhabiting south-east England, France, and central Europe some 150,000 +years ago—to judge by the approximate age of the strata in which his +earliest remains have been discovered. This man of the Thames estuary +(Galley-Hill is in north Kent, near Dartford) resembled somewhat closely +in skull-form and skeleton the Tasmanian aborigines and like them +possessed considerable negroid affinities. There is some slight evidence +that the Galley-Hill type co-existed for ages with the more specialized +and divergent _Homo primigenius_ (perhaps mingling his blood and +producing hybrid types), but gradually supplanted this big-brained +though brutish being and spread over Africa and southern Asia, +penetrating finally to remote Tasmania, where his last direct +descendants were exterminated in the middle of the 19th century by the +British settlers in that genial island. Certain “Strandlooper” skulls of +unknown age found in southernmost Africa seem to suggest affinities with +the Tasmanian or Galley-Hill type who may have been the first real man +to colonize Africa. + +The actual evolutionary area of the negro sub-species of _Homo sapiens_ +is unknown to us at present. At one time it was thought likely to have +been India. There is a strong underlying negroid element in the mass of +the Indian population; and in the southernmost part of the great +peninsula there are forest tribes of dark skin and strikingly negro +physiognomy, with frizzled or woolly hair. There is a negroid element in +the gentle Burmese; and in the Andaman Islands—geologically little more +than a depressed peninsula of Further India—the dwarfish people are +absolute negroes of the Asiatic type. In the Malay Peninsula, here and +there in Sumatra, above all in the Philippine archipelago, there are +Negrito tribes or types akin to the Andaman islanders. In the more +eastern among the Malay islands—especially in Buru, Jilolo, and +Timor—the interior tribes are of obvious negro stock. Still more marked +is this in the case of New Guinea, and most of all in the Bismarck +archipelago and northern Solomon Islands. In these last the resemblance +of the natives to the average negro of Africa is most striking, although +the distance from Africa is something like 8000 miles. Negroid +affinities extend east of the Solomon archipelago to Fiji and Hawai, and +south to New Caledonia, Tasmania and even New Zealand. On the other +hand, Africa for many thousand years has been obviously the chief domain +of the negro. Did the negro subspecies originate in, say, North Africa, +and thence spread eastwards to Persia (southern Persia has vestiges of +an ancient negroid population—the Elamites of the Hebrew scriptures), +India, Further India, Malaysia, and Oceania? Or was Europe—southern +Europe—the region where the negro specialized from some basic type like +the Tasmanian Galley-Hill man? Or Arabia[1], Syria, or India? The +evidence as yet before us is too slight to justify any positive theory. +The probability is that some region of western Asia such as Syria was +the birth-place of the negro of a generalized type, who from this centre +migrated into northern Africa, southern Europe, and southern Asia. The +discoveries made by Dr Verneaux and others in southern and western +France and in Italy would seem to show that from 30,000 to 40,000 years +ago the population of these regions was of negroid aspect, and that they +were succeeded by the tall Cro-Magnon race of totally different type, +more recalling Caucasian man and the taller Mongoloids, such as the +Amerindian. A glance however at the populations of Italy, France, Spain, +Wales, and southern Ireland shows the observant anthropologist that both +in nigrescence and in facial features the ancient negroid strain has +never been completely eliminated in these lands. + +There are certain anatomical differences between the existing negroes of +Asia and Oceania on the one hand and the negroes of modern Africa on the +other[2]. Whether the African negro was the first human colonizer of +Africa, or was preceded by more brutish or more generalized types, such +as the Galley-Hill man, is not yet known to us. But from the little we +possess in the way of fossil human remains and other evidence it seems +probable that every region of Africa, even Algeria and Egypt, once +possessed a negro population. In Mauretania (Morocco to Tripoli) these +ancient negroes were partly driven out by prehistoric Caucasian invaders +and partly absorbed by intermarriage, the mixture resulting in the +darkened complexions of so many of the North African peoples. In Egypt a +dwarfish type of negro seems to have inhabited the Nile delta some +10,000 years ago; and big black negroes formed the population of upper +Nubia and Dongola so late as about 4000 years ago. + +Yet there are reasons for thinking that not all parts of Tropical Africa +were colonized by negroes, or rather by the typical big black negro, +until 2000 or 3000 years ago. Although the fringe of the Congo basin, +for example, has been inhabited for a very considerable period (as is +testified by the presence of stone implements somewhat deeply buried in +the soil), the central part of that area would seem to have been invaded +quite recently by man; while in South Africa beyond the Zambezi there +have been periods in which the only human type was the Bushman, rather +than the big black negro. The comparatively recent human colonization of +the forests of the southern Cameroons and the inner Congo basin may have +been due to the density of tree growth and the opposition of the +gorilla; and (in Congoland) to the swamps and the presence of large +shallow lakes now dried up into river-courses. Several French and German +pioneers have described to the writer of this book the way in which, +when attempting to explore the forests of South Cameroons, far back from +the coast, their caravans of negro porters were attacked by the +gorillas; and the utterly uninhabited character of considerable areas +along the Congo-Cameroons water-parting is said to be due to the terror +inspired in the native mind by these enormous, fierce, and resolute +creatures. The same fact may have hindered at one time the populating of +similar forest countries between the Mubangi and the main Congo. South +of the main Congo there are no gorillas; but a good deal of this central +Congo region has been under water until quite recent times, and even now +its inhabitants are often compelled to live in pile dwellings raised +above flood level. + +The African negro is divisible into two main types, very distinct one +from the other, the Negro proper and the Bushman. The former is of +fairly tall stature (except in its few dwarf tribes), dark, almost black +of skin, and long-headed, has abundant head-hair and an inclination to +hairiness of face and body, is prognathous and large jawed, and has no +marked tendency to fleshiness of the buttocks. His sweat glands emit a +rank and most characteristic odour, absent—in this very marked form—from +either the Asiatic negro or the Bushman. The Bushman on the other hand +is yellow-skinned, short of stature (though of well-proportioned limbs), +has a round head rather than a long one, is not markedly prognathous (in +his southern types), has no hair on face or body—or at most a very +scanty beard in the old men—has the hair arranged in segregated tufts on +the head, and is especially distinguished by his marked steatopygy—the +growth of fat and muscle on the buttocks. This steatopygy is much more +marked in women than in men and is absent altogether in very young +children. Both sexes amongst the Bushmen have peculiarities in their +external genitalia absent from the true negro type[3]. + +The average and typical Bushman is, as I have said, orthognathous rather +than prognathous, and usually, like the negro, is noteworthy for the +bulging forehead and the absence of strongly marked brow ridges. Yet +there are types of Bush race still living, more especially in German +south-west Africa, in which there is either a strongly marked brow ridge +and much prognathism, or even a degree of prognathism more extreme and +ape-like than is to be seen anywhere else in the world, unless it be +here and there amongst the Congo pygmies. These exceptional Bushman +types (which resemble somewhat similar sporadic “simian” individuals +amongst the Berg-Damara negroes and the helot tribes along the northern +Limpopo) have sometimes been identified with a certain class of +“Strandlooper” skull found in caves on the South African coasts and +exhibiting a low cranial capacity and much prognathism. But, again, +among the Strandloopers[4] there were other types of great antiquity +which scarcely seem negro at all—they are of good cranial development +and recall the skulls of a generalized Caucasian in form—so that South +Africa may have been invaded by “white men,” somewhat akin to the modern +Hamite, many thousand years ago. + +The modern Bushman is singled out from other African races by his +extraordinary gift for delineating and painting. He has painted or +engraved many pictures on the rocks in past times, illustrating thus his +customs, superstitions, battles, and above all the wild animals of which +he has long been an adroit and fearless hunter. No existing tribe of +true negro stock has possessed such a gift for drawing or such a desire +to display it. To find some parallel to the artistic work of the Bushmen +we must cross the Zambezi and travel northwards to the Sahara desert +between Lake Chad and the northernmost Niger on the one hand and the +coast regions of Algeria on the other. In all this vast region of desert +or stony plateau there are many engravings and pictures on the rocks; +but from such slight indications as we possess (some of them are so +ancient that they depict extinct beasts) we are inclined to attribute +them to a primitive white race, to some such people as covered the walls +of caverns in France and Spain with splendid pictures of bison, horses, +mammoths, reindeer, salmon, eels, lions, ibexes, and boars. So far no +examples of Bushman paintings have been discovered in the far west of +South Africa or to the north of the Zambezi. Yet there is some slight +traditional and historical evidence to show that Bushmen still lingered +in Nyasaland and in the interior of Moçambique down to a period of +perhaps three hundred years ago. + +Another distinguishing mark of the Bushman type is its peculiar +language. This is almost unwritable, so much is it compounded of +inarticulate and beast-like sounds—clicks with the tongue, gasps, and +nasal grunts. There is very little discoverable syntax in Bushman +speech. Its peculiar phonology is shared to some extent by the +Hottentot; but, on the other hand, Hottentot has a well-marked syntax as +clearly defined as that of any European language, and discriminates +between the masculine, feminine and neuter genders. In short in its +construction and grammar it recalls very markedly the Hamitic language +family of north-east Africa; and there is—remarkable to relate—a +language, the Sandawi of German East Africa, south of the Victoria +Nyanza, which resembles Hottentot in possessing clicks and also in a few +of its word-roots, and in its syntax. This speech is used by a +semi-nomadic tribe of hunters, who, however, in physique seem to be +negroid with some tinge of Hamitic blood. + +So far as the slight indications of their legendary history go, the +Hottentots of south-west Africa seem in their origin to have come from +the same direction—Unyamwezi—to have wandered with cattle and sheep +(both of a north-east African type) between Tanganyika and Nyasa, and +across the Congo water-parting into Upper Zambezia, whence they made +their way slowly, pushed on by other people, into eastern Damaraland. +Here they settled for a time, and then again moved on to the Atlantic +coast between Mossamedes and the Orange River. For hundreds or thousands +of years, no doubt, they warred and yet mingled with the Bushmen, until +at last they had acquired many of their physical characteristics and a +large element of their language. At the present day they exhibit all the +points of a cross between the true negro and the Bushman, with perhaps +some attenuated element of the Caucasian, more in their minds and +legends than in their bodies. + +To return to the true negro. He again may be subdivided into three main +types, and a fourth compounded of a mixing of the three others. The +first three are (1) the Congo pygmy, (2) the Forest negro, and (3) the +Nilotic negro. The Congo pygmy is a dwarfed form of the most ancient +negro type, with some affinities to the Asiatic negro, distinguished by +a very flat, large nose, much prognathism, long upper lips, turned-in +toes, short legs, and a tendency to hairiness on the body. The Forest +negro is a slightly improved pygmy, of taller stature, with exaggerated +negro facial features, long arms, and legs that are disproportionately +short. The Nilotic negro, on the other hand, is remarkable for his long, +stilt-like legs, short arms, and a greater likeness to the Caucasian in +his facial lineaments. The Nilotic negro in his finest developments +(such as the Turkana of Lake Rudolf) is perhaps the tallest race in the +world. A mixture of all these types one with the other, and no doubt +with the vanished Bushmen of East and North Africa, has produced the +“average” negro which is the commonest type to be met with in West, +East, Central, and South Africa. The ordinary Kafir or Zulu, dressed +appropriately, or the average Swahili or Munyamwezi of East Africa, or +the Mubangi or Muluba of Congoland, would pass muster as a Mandingo, a +Mosi, an Ashanti or a Nupe negro in West Africa, or even as a Hausa or a +Senegalese. + +From whatever direction the negro entered Africa—if he did not arise +there—he seems to have settled most thickly to the north of the Equator, +in that broad belt below the 15th degree of north latitude which +stretches across the continent from Senegal and Liberia to Abyssinia and +the Victoria Nyanza. In the great western prolongation of Africa, above +all, between Kordofan and Senegambia, especially in Nigeria, the negro +must have been established for many thousand years to permit of the +enormous variety and diversity of the languages therein spoken having +arisen. In some parts of West Africa, such as Liberia and French Guinea, +there are six or seven absolutely distinct language-families, some of +which are confined in their use to an area no larger than Rutland or +Bedfordshire. + +On the other hand, over the great southern third of Africa, beyond the +Equator, there are at most only eleven distinct language-families (as +compared to the forty-two or forty-three farther north). Of these +eleven, one, the Bantu, predominates vastly over the others; which +others are the Bushman and Hottentot in the extreme south, three +unclassified Sudanese language-families in Northern Congoland, three +small patches of non-Bantu speech in Northern German East Africa, and in +the same region and in British East Africa the intrusive Nilotic and +Hamitic speech-groups. + +At the present day nearly all Africa south of the Equator is the domain +of but one language-family, the Bantu. The other negro languages are +fast dying out. The Bantu conquest has all the appearance of having been +a recent event, not beginning perhaps more than 2500 years ago. The +Bantu language-family is distinguished by its use of distinctive +prefixes, to which correspond a concord of pronouns and adjectival +prefixes. Nouns are divided into a number of classes (say seventeen), +and each class is marked by a special prefix and concord. But the +classes do not correspond to the masculine and feminine of the +sex-denoting languages, or masculine, feminine, and neuter. No +discrimination in prefix or pronouns takes place to indicate sex; but +nouns are allotted arbitrarily to classes which in most cases have lost +any special meaning but originally undoubtedly corresponded with a +division of objects into natural categories, each distinguished by some +special feature. Thus there was the ‘living’ or ‘human’ class, the +‘tree’ class, the ‘long’ or ‘river’ class, the classes of diminutive +objects, of ‘gigantic,’ of collective like ‘water’ and ‘tribe,’ of +‘strong’ and ‘weak.’ + +This principle of numerous classes not based on sex distinctions, but +each class having its distinctive particle and concord, is by no means +confined to Bantu in Africa, but is shared by an important group of West +African languages in Senegambia and Sierra Leone (Timne, etc.), and by +Fula. Except that the Fula speech (with some allied groups between the +Niger bend, the northern Gold Coast and Dahomé) is governed by suffixes +instead of prefixes, it offers much resemblance in structure to the +Bantu. Other prefix-governed languages (but without a distinct concord) +have been found recently in Southern Kordofan. From some such direction +as this the Bantu language-family—which in vocabulary, though not in +syntax, bears signs of relationship with some of the Lower Niger +languages—must have taken its origin in a region between the basins of +the Nile, Congo, and Shari. It may have been called into existence in +the moulding of a number of negro tribes by some semi-Caucasian invader, +of which the Hima of the Victoria Nyanza basin, the Mañbettu and the +Nyamnyam of the Bahr-al-Ghazal and Wele-Mubangi are vestiges. After a +special development in the Mountain Nile basin, this language-type was +carried all over the southern projection of Africa by a series of +strenuous invasions proceeding west to the Cameroons, east to the shore +of the Indian Ocean, and south over the Great Lakes region, Zambezia, +and Congoland. + +Fula[5], a form of speech of cognate origin, was the language of the +mysterious light-complexioned Fūl people who first came within the scope +of world-history when they rose into power as a conquering Muhammadan +nation of the Western Sudan (Senegambia and Upper Niger) in the +eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Before that they had wandered more +or less as a cattle-keeping gypsy-like folk, scattered over Nigeria from +the basin of the Gambia and the Senegal to the confines of Bornu and the +Shari river; to the Benue, to Nupe, Borgu, and Dahomé. According to Arab +tradition they came into Senegambia originally from the Adrar country, +far south of Morocco. Some of their own traditions derive them from +Fezzan, south of Tripoli. Other slight indications lead us to suppose +that they formerly dwelt in Morocco and Algeria as—quite possibly—the +predecessors of the Libyans or Berbers, who will be dealt with +presently. The nearest affinities of the Fulde or Fula speech at the +present day are with the group of Mosi-Gurunsi negro tongues spoken at +the back of Ashanti and of Togoland. There are also faint resemblances +to Wolof, the language of the handsome black-skinned Jolofs of Senegal, +a mixed race with an ancient Caucasian strain in their blood. In any +case the pure Fula is a handsome hybrid type, obviously an early cross +(in North Africa most likely) between the invading Caucasian of Europe +and some ancient negro stock of North Africa. The purer types of Fula +have a skin no darker than the average Berber, the face-features of a +European, and hair that is in curly ringlets. Their gradual invasion of +the Western Sahara, Nigeria, and Senegambia—in the south they reached +down to the Lower Niger and Yoruba-land, to Baghirmi, and across the +Benue to within a few days’ journey of the Cameroons coast—may have been +caused by the peopling of North Africa some ten or more thousand years +ago by the Libyans or Berbers, a Caucasian people related in speech and +origin to the Gala and other Hamites of N.E. Africa, and to the ancient +Egyptians. + +Four other negroid peoples require to be considered in their effect on +the colonization of Africa before we can deal with the more clearly +alien races. These are the Songhai of Central Nigeria, the Mandingo of +Western Nigeria, the Hausa, and the Tibus or Teda. + +The Songhai (Sughai, Songhoi—the _gh_ is like the French _r_ _grasséyé_) +are something like the Wolofs in appearance, in that, though +black-skinned and woolly-haired, their features are often of Caucasian +cast, and their characteristics generally those of negroids rather than +negroes. Their language (the common speech of Timbuktu) is at present an +unsolved mystery, its affinities are unguessed at. The Songhai seem to +have dwelt first (where they still live under Tuareg influence) in the +Oasis of Agades, a country on the southern verge of the Sahara, due east +of the great Niger bend. Here they appear to have received immigrants +from Ptolemaic or Roman Egypt, who brought with them Egyptian domestic +animals and the Egyptian style of architecture. This last they applied +to building in mud instead of stone. But, although much modified since +by Berber or Arab (Saracenic) influence from the north, this massive +Egyptian style of mud-built walls, palaces, and mosques still prevails +throughout northern Nigeria from the Upper Niger to the vicinity of the +Shari River. + +While the Songhai were extending their influence to the northern bend of +the Niger, the Mandingo peoples, from some unknown place of origin, were +fighting their way westwards along the Upper Niger towards Senegambia. +The Mandingos and the Songhai met somewhere about the junction of the +Niger and the Bani, near the celebrated Jenné, which became a great +Songhai city in the 8th century. The Mandingo negroids, who may have +been connected with the ancient N.W. African Kingdom of Ghana, early +attained wealth and power by opening up the salt and gold mines of the +arid country bordering on or within the Western Sahara. They possibly +carried on a trade thence with Romanized North Africa. Southwards they +got into touch with the gold-bearing country of Ashanti; and it was +perhaps through them that Roman and Byzantine beads first found their +way to Ashanti and the Gold Coast. Sometimes the Mandingo empire +prevailed over the Songhai; latterly the Songhai dominated the northern +Mandingos, until both were swamped by the Moorish invasion of the +sixteenth century. Both alike showed themselves very ready to receive +Arab traders and the Muhammadan religion. + +The Hausa people are much more negro in their physical appearance than +the Mandingos or Songhai. But their language, on the other hand, is +imprinted with the white man’s influence. Not only is it sex-denoting, +but in pronouns and in the peculiarity of indicating the feminine gender +by the consonant _t_ it offers so many indications of ancient Hamitic +influence that we are entitled to assume that it arose through an early +invasion of Eastern Nigeria by people speaking a Hamitic language. If +there is any veracity in Hausa legends, these Hamitic civilisers of the +regions between the Niger and Lake Chad came from Egypt; apparently they +likewise penetrated as far south as Baghirmi on the Shari and westward +to the Logone, where they assisted to create the sex-denoting Musgu +tongue. At one time it was thought that the evident “Libyan” element in +Hausa came from the invasion of Central Nigeria by the Berbers or +Tuaregs[6]; but it now seems much more probable that it was a Hamitic +rather than a Berber influence, and more probably came from the regions +of Nubia and Dongola where at one time a Hamitic language was spoken. +The Hausa people were probably already in existence, and their +“compromise” trading language had already been formed before the Tuaregs +or desert Berbers of North Africa had found their way to the regions +east of the Niger. + +Indeed this region south of the Tripolitaine, from Fezzan across the +Tibesti mountains and the eastern Sahara to Lake Chad, had become the +domain of another remarkable negroid race which has had much to do with +the opening up and the closing of negro Africa, the Tibu or Teda. +Physically they are an exact hybrid between Hamite and negro, and +resemble very much the more negro-like types of Somali; but their +language, which is cognate with the Kanuri of Bornu, a kingdom first +semi-civilized by the Tibu, offers no indications of affinity with other +African forms of speech; like Songhai it is (so far as our existing +knowledge goes) quite isolated. The Tibu had much to do with the +introduction of iron weapons and implements and iron-working into negro +Africa. They seem to have reproduced the boomerang or throwing-stick in +iron, and thus to have originated those wonderful throwing-knives which +attained their highest development in the north-central basin of the +Congo. A notable stream of Tibu culture (no doubt largely derived from +ancient Egypt) entered Congoland about 1500 to 2000 years ago, finding +its way up the Shari from Lake Chad, across the Mubangi and main Congo, +and so down into the Bushongo country of central Congoland. The old +Bushongo language (now extinct) was not a Bantu speech, but an +unclassified tongue with relationships to the forms of speech still +current on the Upper Shari. + +Other civilizing negroid immigrants, Tibu or Hamite in origin, appear to +have drifted from the north-east into the Bahr-al-Ghazal region and +thence into N.E. Congoland, where by mixture with the negroes they +formed the remarkable Nyamnyam and Mañbettu peoples, or at any rate the +aristocracies of those tribes. Farther east still we have the remarkable +Hima aristocracies of cattle-keeping semi-nomads, very like the Fula in +appearance and customs, but always speaking pure Bantu languages. They +would seem to have been derived from an ancient Egyptian or Gala origin. + +Putting together the slender evidence we have as to the prehistoric past +of Africa at a period of, let us say, 10,000 years ago—evidence +represented by stone implements, a few skulls of ancient date, rock +engravings in Mauretania, the earliest archaeological remains in Lower +Egypt—we may hazard the following conclusions. At that period the +coastal fringe of North Africa from Morocco to Egypt was inhabited by +Caucasian or semi-Caucasian races allied in the west, perhaps, to the +Fula type, and in the east (Cyrenaica and Egypt) to the Libyan or +Berber. There may even then have been the beginning of Semitic +settlements on the Isthmus of Suez and the Suez coast of the Red Sea. +These same Libyans or Hamites, at that period not strongly +differentiated from the Proto-Semites in race and language, and +emphatically “white men,” had probably also penetrated to the highlands +of Abyssinia, and by mixture with the precedent negroes and bushmen were +forming the modern Hamitic races. Some of these white men (besides the +more negroid Galas) had found their way down the more open, less +densely-forested east coast of Africa to Zambezia and South Africa[7]. +But beyond this white fringe of Northern and North-eastern Africa, the +rest of the Dark continent was then the domain of the negro in his +Bushman and black-skinned types. The Sahara desert was not such a +rainless region then as now, but was more habitable and inhabited. On +the other hand, much of Central and some of Southern Africa was still +under water, covered with as yet undrained, unevaporated shallow lakes. +The vast forests of the centre and parts of the west may have been +uninhabited by man, afraid to encounter the chimpanzees and gorillas, +the leopards, pythons, and elephants which tenanted them. Then, 10,000 +years ago, more or less, there came into the Nile valley from the +direction of Abyssinia the wonderful race of the Dynastic Egyptians[8], +whose original home seems to have been, first, South-West Arabia, and +next, the Danákil country, the coast-line of Abyssinia. The Dynastic +Egyptians were apparently a composite type, mainly of Hamitic stock, +impregnated with an ancient negroid strain and tinged to some extent +with Mongol blood from the early Mongolian invaders of Mesopotamia. +Their language remains an unsolved problem to this day. It offers +decided affinities with both Hamitic and Proto-Semitic, and yet contains +puzzling elements of its own which may be due both to negro and to +Mongolian influence. In the main it is an aberrant Hamitic tongue; but +with no very close resemblance to Gala or Somali, or to the Bisharin +dialects of Eastern Nubia. These (be it remarked) seem to have been +spoken for an enormously long period of time; and possibly the Bisharin +(Hamitic) natives of the Red Sea coast-lands—Rudyard Kipling’s +“Fuzzie-wuzzies”—were living where they now are when the dynastic +Egyptians poured as a Neolithic conquering host into the Nile valley in +Lower Nubia and made their way along the narrow ribbon of habitable +Egypt on either side of the Desert Nile. + +The dynastic Egyptians found the Delta occupied by a Libyan people, akin +to the modern Berbers of North Africa. At that period the distinction +already existed between the Libyan or Berber and the Ethiopian or Gala +branches of the Hamitic family. Amongst these Berbers of the Nile Delta +were still lingering Bushman or negro serfs. The dynastic Egyptians +mingled much with these Libyans of North Egypt; indeed occasionally, in +the early days of organized Egypt, the Libyan race from the Western +Desert (which still lingers little altered in the Oasis of Siwah) +invaded Egypt and gave dynasties to that country. The dynastic Egyptians +ruled and populated the narrow valley of the Desert Nile as far south as +the first cataract, and also its broad delta to the shores of the +Mediterranean. South of the First Cataract there was a mixed population +of Egyptians, Hamites and negroes of the Nubian race. Above the Second +Cataract the country of the Nile valley was, whilst dynastic Egyptian +rule lasted, entirely negro in population. It was not invaded and +settled by Hamites of the Bisharin stock until about the period of +Ptolemaic rule. + +The dynastic Egyptians governed a small portion only of the Red Sea +coast, between the Gulf of Suez and Ras Benās (Berenike). From ports at +Kosseir and Berenike they sent their fleets of galleys down the Red Sea +and out into the Gulf of Aden; and at a relatively late period of their +long (perhaps 6000 years) rule over Egypt, in about 1500 B.C., they +despatched the first of several expeditions to the Danákil coast and to +Somaliland, in search of incense trees. Whether Egyptian influence in +unrecorded voyages proceeded further down the east coast of Africa is +doubtful; at any rate it is not, so far, supported by any evidence. The +Egyptians seem to have been somewhat timid navigators. Their sea-going +galleys depended more on oarsmen than on lateen sails; and, although +they may have found it comparatively safe to coast along the Red Sea, +they would be perturbed by the much rougher, stormier waters of the Gulf +of Aden; while the Indian Ocean, with its strong monsoon winds and big +billows, would prove very unsafe for their unseaworthy ships. Their +civilizing, “Caucasianizing” influence over negro Africa was however +considerable, though probably not exercised with any effect until the +real Egyptian dynasties were passing away and the land of Egypt was +becoming a region doomed to be ruled by foreigners—Assyrians, Persians, +Greeks, Romans, Byzantines[9]. Egyptian trade, even as far back as 3000 +or 4000 years before the Christian era, was penetrating through Nubia to +Kordofan and Darfur, Bornu, Tibesti, Agadés and the Niger; or down into +the Bahr-al-ghazal and the countries of the Mountain Nile where the +pygmies still dwelt. Hamitic peoples and Semitic colonists in Abyssinia +and Northern Galaland were in touch with the Egypt of the last dynasties +and the Egypt of the Ptolemies, and pushed a trade in Egyptian goods +inland as far as Mt Elgon and the shores of the Victoria Nyanza. Their +ancient, blue, Egyptian beads are dug up occasionally in the sub-soil of +Kavirondo. Egyptian or Gala adventurers appeared (outcasts, criminals, +or mutinous soldiers in origin, it may be) in the lands of savage +negroes about the sources of the Nile. They were looked upon as +demi-gods; and their descendants to this day (with a strikingly +Pharaonic physiognomy) are often called by a name which means “spirits,” +“white men,” or “gods.” They, or traders whom they attracted, brought +with them the domestic animals of Egypt and the cultivated plants, +besides a knowledge of metal working. + +Is it generally realized that the whole of negro Africa, south of the +Northern Sahara, received its first and its principal domestic animals +and cultivated plants from Egypt, and Egypt only? The ox, long-horned +and straight-backed, or shorter-horned and humped, an Asiatic, and not a +European ordanese goat (not the long-eared, polled, fleecy Nubian goat +of after-development); one or more breeds of dog; the domesticated +Nubian ass; the domestic fowl—all came from Egypt. In vegetable +food-stuffs there were the jowari or sorghum grain (_Andropogon_), the +eleusine, the _Pennisetum_ millets, the taro “yam” (_Colocasia_ aroid), +various peas and beans, and gourds and pumpkins. From Egypt came ideas +as to boat-building which penetrated as far south and west as the +Victoria Nyanza, Lake Chad, and the Northern Niger; also methods of +hut-building and the ambitious mud-architecture of the Nigerian Sudan, a +hint or reflection of which penetrated even to the Niger delta, the +Northern Cameroons and Congo. Simple articles of furniture, such as +carved stools, head-rest pillows, musical instruments (lyres, drums, +harps, xylophones, zithers), games of the cat’s-cradle and backgammon +type, weapons (shields, improved bows, slings, lances and battle-axes), +found their way into the heart of negroland; though many of these +inventions got no farther south than Uganda and the central basin of the +Congo, or south of the northern Niger. + +Two other elements in the pre-historic colonization of Africa require +mention at this stage—the Semitic and the Malay. “Semitic” and “Hamitic” +are useful terms which apply exactly to two distinct types of +sex-denoting languages; languages which conceivably had a common origin +very far back in time—12,000 years ago or more?—somewhere in southwest +Asia, perhaps not far from Caucasia or Armenia. But in a looser sense we +apply Semitic and Hamitic to physical types, and speak of a Semitic +profile and the dark Hamitic complexion and curly hair. “Hamite”—or, +more correctly, Kushite—applies without much inconsistency to the +physical type which speaks the Eastern Hamitic languages[10]—yellow or +brown in skin colour, with the handsome features and straight, thin +noses of the better-looking Caucasian, and bushy, black hair which +betrays the ancient negro intermixture by its curliness. The Kushites +are in fact descended from Libyans (Berbers) who have mingled in +North-East Africa with negro races. The whiter Libyans passed on +westwards to colonize the southern and north-western shores of the +Mediterranean, while the Hamites populated Middle and Eastern Egypt, +Abyssinia, and Galaland; from which direction their nomad wanderers as +hunters and herdsmen permeated all Eastern Africa in ancient times. The +Hamitic languages are akin to the Libyan, though the two groups are +widely separated in affinities of vocabulary, and must have diverged +from a common origin in North-Western Arabia ten or more thousand years +ago. + +It is far less easy in the case of the Semites to define a physical type +associated with the speaking of Semitic languages; as difficult, indeed, +as to postulate the corporeal form of the men who originated the Aryan +tongues. The Aramaic type so familiar to us in the typical Jew is akin +to the old Assyrian; and the Assyrian was probably a compound of +Armenian and Mediterranean man mixed with the old negroid peoples of +Southern Persia. The Arabs of Arabia are in the north very “Nordic” in +appearance, and evidently exhibit the results of ancient invasions of +Syria by peoples akin to the Teutonic or blond Aryan type; others again +show the hooked “Semitic” nose of the Armenian or the long nasal organ +of the average Persian; while in the natives of Southern Arabia there is +a Hamitic, Gala-like strain, besides the general underlying stratum of +that hypothetical small-bodied, big-nosed white Neolithic race which is +associated with stone-worship and megalithic stone-building, and is +perhaps the basis of the Mediterranean type of man. Curiously enough, +there is not any evidence as yet of an ancient _negro_ peopling of +Arabia, such as exists in regard to Algeria and Egypt, and Southern +(Elamite) Persia. + +These varying and composite races speaking Semitic tongues appear to +have travelled south and west from Syria and Arabia on the heels of both +Libyans (Amorites) and Hamites, and even to have settled on the Red Sea +coast of Egypt at a very early period before the dynastic Egyptians had +conquered the Nile valley. Much later they invaded Lower Egypt in force +as the Haqshu (Hikushahu) or Shepherd kings—if these are rightfully +identified as speaking a Semitic tongue. Still later they began to cross +the Red Sea farther south and colonized Abyssinia and even Somaliland. +In these regions (Abyssinia and Harrar) their Semitic tongues remain to +this day. Perhaps as early as 1000 years before the time of Christ (at a +guess) their ships, more seaworthy than those of the Egyptians, found +their way from the ports of the Sabaean, Minaean and Himyarite kingdoms +to India, to the Zanzibar coast of Africa, and to the north end of +Madagascar and the Comoro Islands. Later, in all probability, than the +first Minaean ventures along the East African coast was a more authentic +voyage of the Phoenicians, which will be mentioned in the next chapter. + +Attention should be given at this stage in our survey of the ancient +colonization of Africa to the unsolved mystery of the Rhodesian +ruins—the stone-built forts, the aqueducts, round towers, stone-embanked +hill-terraces, stone-lined pits, rock-mines, and buildings which suggest +the name of “temple.” These ruins (in and under which have been found +beautiful gold ornaments, ingot-moulds, strange, sculptured birds—eagles +or vultures—at the ends of long soap-stone monoliths, and stone +_phalli_) dot the surface of Southern Rhodesia somewhat thickly. They +seem to radiate, as it were, from the head streams of the Sabi River, in +fact from where the most wonderful of all these ruins, Great Zimbabwe, +is situated. The northernmost of the clusters of ruins of stone +buildings is to the north of Mt Hampden and the modern town of +Salisbury; but none of these strange remains of an unexplained +civilization are found anywhere near the Zambezi. It would seem that the +unknown people to whom the really antique and skilfully built among +these towers, temples, and labyrinthine fortifications (and not their +more modern, negro-made clumsy imitations) are to be ascribed, entered +south-east Africa at or near the old Arab port of Sofala and made their +way up the Sabi river. The ruins are all situated on lofty tablelands or +mountain ridges, in healthy, cool country. Their existence was noted by +Arab writers so early as the 10th century A.C.; and they were described +as old and partly in decay when first seen by the Portuguese in the 16th +century. The name “Zimbaoe,”—like the modern Zimbabwe—applied to them in +Portuguese writings is simply a local Bantu plural word meaning +“stones”; but these Zimba or Zimbabwe came to be specially associated +with the remarkable negro kingdom or empire of Monomotapa[11] which +existed in this part of south-east Africa from the time the Islamite +Arabs settled anew at Sofala in the 10th century A.C. down to the early +19th century, when it was apparently finally extinguished by the +invading Zulus from the south. From this region may have come the +conquering hordes of the “Ba-zimba” who are thought to have crossed over +into west Madagascar, and who passed ravaging and slaying up the east +coast of Africa—very much after the style of the later Angoni-Zulu +raids—in the late 16th century, temporarily effacing the Portuguese hold +over Mombasa. + +The Rhodesian stone buildings are obviously associated with gold-mining; +but they must have been centres of somewhat elaborate agriculture, and +of a phallic worship (the _phallus_ being, together with the associated +cylinder or _lingam_, a sacred symbol of a religious belief which +prevailed once in Egypt, India, and ancient Arabia and Syria). Phallic +worship, for example, was carried by the Phoenicians to southern +Tunis—no doubt to Carthage and elsewhere; but its symbols happen to have +survived in actual use in southern Tunis to the present day. The masonry +of the Zimbabwe type of building (the real old kind, not the modern +negro imitation) displays remarkable skill in the shaping and placing of +stones in courses, all much of the same size. The masonry is without +mortar, but the stones fit fairly closely in their horizontal, +accurately-laid courses; and in the round buildings the symmetry is +remarkable. + +What race raised such monuments and was gifted with so much civilization +at a period which is certainly antecedent (in the really ancient types +of building) to the 10th century A.C.? Was it the Arabs from southern +Arabia, who were settled on the East African coast before the Christian +era? This seems probable. The Zimbabwe ruins yield no ornament, no +detail whatever of the Saracenic style, and (so far) no inscription of +any kind in any language. There is nothing whatever about them to +suggest their having been built by Islamic Arabs; everything to the +contrary, as certainly these Arabs would not have carved either birds or +phalli. There are suggestions here and there of Indian influence. The +buildings of the true Zimbabwe style are certainly pre-Islamic or have +been associated with a people which ignored Islam. They resemble most +nearly the works of the Phoenicians and the southern Arabians, from any +date between 1000 B.C. and the early part of the Christian era. The +round conical towers are like those of Sardinia and Ireland and other +ancient haunts of the enterprising Phoenicians. Yet there is nowhere any +inscription in the Phoenician, Hebrew, Sabaean or Kufic or other ancient +eastern alphabets, though according to Portuguese traditions +inscriptions in unknown characters did exist at Zimbabwe; and no skull +has so far been dug up from beneath the ruins or in close association +with them or the ancient gold-workings which is not of the ordinary +Bantu negro type. No ancient coin has been found; all the pottery, +porcelain, and glass fragments indicate comparatively modern oriental +ware which might have been introduced at any date between the 15th and +the 17th centuries. Yet most of these last discoveries, though made at a +considerable depth below the surface under the oldest ruins, come from +places where they might have been buried in recent times, and do not +really militate against the theory that the finest masonry work of +Zimbabwe and kindred establishments dates from a period of 2000 years +ago or earlier. + +No one who really knows the negro of Africa, south of the Sahara desert, +can easily believe that the hundreds of stone-built towns, villages and +forts of ancient appearance in southern Rhodesia were built, unaided and +uninspired, by a pure negro race, or doubt even that these works (I am +referring to those of perfect construction) were the outcome of some +foreign invasion of south-east Africa at a period of unfixed history +prior to the 7th century of the Christian era. We know of no negro, +scarcely any negroid, race of Africa which, left to itself and of its +own inspiration, has taken to building in stone. The great metal-working +tribes of the Congo basin which developed a really remarkable native +art—the Bushongo, for example, a race more negroid than +negro—nevertheless ignored stone as a building material or an object of +worship. Between southern Congoland or Nyasaland on the north and +Mashonaland on the south nothing has ever been discovered hitherto which +indicates the existence in former times of a stone-building race of +negroes or negroids, or of the path followed through the, until +recently, barbarous regions of Zambezia and Moçambique by the possible +ancestors of the people who built the Zimbabwe and similar monuments. + +The resemblance between the round towers of Rhodesia and the primitive, +conical, round minarets of the old mosques at Lamu, Malindi, Mombasa, +and other places on the East African coast (dominated by Arabs for at +least 2000 years) is very striking. Both may date from the pre-Islamic +period. There are other analogies between the Rhodesian ruins and the +ancient buildings of pre-Islamic Arabia which suggest, as the most +probable explanation of this mystery in African colonization, that the +ancient gold-miners, _phallus-_ and sun-worshippers, irrigators, +terrace-cultivators of Matebele- and Mashonaland, were likewise Arabs +from some part of western or southern Arabia who penetrated inland from +Sofala attracted by the signs of gold. After a century or so of +profitable gold-mining in a land which had only then a spare Bushman +population, the Bantu hordes from the north descended on these Semitic +colonies and eventually exterminated or drove away the Arabs, taking +their place clumsily as gold-miners and builders. Although the Arabs +never regained their position in the interior, they continued or resumed +their occupancy of the south-east African coast-line down to the arrival +of the Portuguese. Probably also the Tsetse fly, by its interference +with the means of transport, was another deterrent factor in the history +of this colonization which failed to spread. It is possible, +nevertheless, that Madagascar and Bantu East Africa owe to these +hypothetical, unnamed, prehistoric Arab colonizers not only the +introduction (indirectly from India) of the edible banana or plantain, +which afterwards spread right across the continent, but also the +long-horned, straight-backed Egyptian ox, and the domestic fowl; hemp +perhaps likewise, a “smoking mixture” which preceded tobacco by many +centuries. + +One of the greatest mysteries in the prehistoric past of Man is the +Malayan colonization of the large island of Madagascar. Madagascar lies +off the east coast of Africa at a minimum distance of 300 miles. Between +the north-west corner of the island and the East African mainland lies +the archipelago of the Comoro islands, which assist to some extent to +bridge the interval. So far as our researches go, there is no evidence +in Madagascar of ancient human inhabitants. The island was probably +uninhabited by man until the arrival of the Malagasy from Sumatra or +Java, though, more or less simultaneously, negroes from eastern Africa +were arriving on the west coast of Madagascar, either in their own +canoes, or more probably in the sailing vessels of the Arabs who were +trading up and down the east coast of Africa from perhaps as early as +1000 B.C. But the unsolved problem is, How did the Malagasy tribes reach +this island at different periods between an approximate 500 B.C. and 500 +A.C.? Their language affinities[12] show that they must have come from +Sumatra or Java. Physically the Malagasy of pure race—like the Hova +tribes—unmixed (as so many of them are along the eastern side of the +central plateau) with negro, Indian, or Arab blood, resemble pretty +closely the Malay types of Sumatra and Java. We can understand the Malay +and Indonesian conquest of Oceania. In the relatively calm, +island-studded Pacific Ocean it is not an impossible task for men to +sail on from island to island in large canoes with outriggers and decks, +and with masts and sails, and thus to reach in their migrations to +within 2000 or 3000 miles of North or South America, and 5000 or 6000 +miles from their starting-point. But it is a different matter to cross +in a direct line the whole breadth of the Indian Ocean from Java or +Sumatra to Madagascar, with no convenient islands to halt at by the way. +It is true that there is the little Chagos group, leading to the +Mascarene archipelago of Mauritius, Réunion and Rodriguez; but on no one +of these islands has there been found any trace of the former presence +of human inhabitants before the arrival of the Portuguese, Dutch, and +French. It seems more probable therefore that the excursions and +adventures of the Sumatran and Javan Malays (inspired to some extent as +they may have been by the mysterious Indonesians coming from Indo-China, +who settled at some unknown date in Sumatra and the more eastern islands +of the Malay archipelago, and were the progenitors of the Polynesians) +first took a western direction in crossing the Bay of Bengal to Ceylon +and southern India; thence passing on to the Maldiv archipelago, and so +to the Seychelles and farther to the Almirante Islands and the north end +of Madagascar. But there is very little evidence of a positive nature to +support this theory, except it be the slightly “Malay” look about the +people of the Maldiv group and the scanty remains of ancient human +settlement which are undoubtedly to be found in the larger Seychelles +Islands; though these had long been uninhabited when rediscovered by the +Portuguese and French. It seems, however, almost impossible, that +repeated colonizations of Madagascar should have taken place by direct +voyages from Sumatra or Java (at a period from 2500 to 1500 years ago) +by adventurous Malays starting forth in outrigger canoes for an ocean +journey of about 4000 miles. How did they know Madagascar awaited them +on the other side of that tremendous interval? It is much more likely +that they passed on by degrees from point to point in their western +migrations; first to Ceylon, then to the Maldiv Islands (this name, like +some other place and tribal names in South India, suggests affinity with +“Malay,” “Malagasy”), and so on to the Seychelles, Almirante, Aldabra +and the Comoros. But, if so adventurous, why did not these Malagasy +Malays also colonize the east coast of Africa? If they ever did so, +there remains not the slightest trace of their presence in either the +physique or the languages of the present inhabitants. There are, it is +true, outrigger canoes in use at Zanzibar which may derive from some +occupation of that island by Malagasies on their way to Madagascar; but +Zanzibar, though only twenty miles from the mainland, is very distinct +from East Africa. Its original inhabitants, when it was first examined +by Europeans, belonged to only three types—negroes, Arabs, and Indians. +There is evidence, however, of a scattered and varied character, that +intercourse for trading purposes between China, India and Persia on the +one hand, and South Arabia and Zanzibar on the other is as old as the +beginning of the Christian era. Himyaritic-Arab intercourse with the +Malagasy of north Madagascar must be at least as old as that; to judge +by a variety of indications, it is certainly pre-Islamic. + +The west coast of Madagascar may have been already peopled by negroes +from East Africa who had crossed over by the route of the Comoro +archipelago[13]. But, if so, these last must have been assisted or +compelled to make the attempt by some superior seafaring race coming +from the north, Arab or Phoenician, because there is no evidence that +the East African negroes have ever been great navigators or have +possessed in earlier times any means of embarkation better than dug-out +canoes propelled by paddles; and it is difficult to believe that in such +unstable vessels they could cross a broad strait of rough sea between +East Africa and the Comoro Islands. It is easier to suppose that the +large negro element of Bantu origin which exists in north-west +Madagascar was brought there within the last 2000 years by Arab ships, +before and after the days of Islam. The negro colonization of this large +island could not have been helped by the persistence of some +land-bridge, some Comoro isthmus which has since broken down; for along +such an isthmus would have come many African beasts, birds, and snakes, +which are totally absent from Madagascar[14]. With only a narrow strait +to cross, negroes or Bushmen might have passed over to Madagascar in +canoes or on rafts. The Comoro Islands, when first discovered by +Europeans, were (as now) inhabited by Arabs and a race of Bantu negroes, +speaking dialects related to the Swahili of Zanzibar. But these may have +been brought there centuries before by the Arab ships. It is probable +that there was no Malagasy settlement of the Comoro archipelago until +the 19th century. + +Another curious feature in this Malay colonization of Madagascar is +that, once having reached this great island, the Malagasy immigrants +appear to have completely renounced their seafaring life, to have +maintained no sea-going vessels of any size (though they had and have +still neatly made outrigger boats), and never to have voyaged anywhere +from the coasts of their new home. Otherwise they could not have failed +to discover and colonize Mauritius or Réunion. In many of its aspects +the colonization of Madagascar in prehistoric times by a race coming +obviously from Sumatra or Java and allied in physical type and language +less to the Malays than to the Malayo-Polynesians and even to the darker +Melanesians is perhaps the most puzzling of the unsolved enigmas to be +found in the study of the peopling of Africa by foreign immigrants. +Judging from local traditions, from time to time fleets of canoes +containing Malays were blown right across the Indian Ocean to the east +coast of Madagascar. Such was—it is said—the history of the Imérina or +Hova tribes who originated mainly from the last accidental Malay +colonization of Madagascar. These Hovas found the coast belt so +unhealthy that they made their way inland to the high plateaus of +Imérina. Here, after long isolation, they acquired strength from their +invigorating climate and, obtaining arms from the Europeans in the 17th +and 18th centuries, spread over Madagascar as conquerors and brought +nearly the whole island under their rule. Yet the Sakalavas, the +dark-skinned remnant of a far earlier Malaysian invasion, spoke a +dialect nearer to the actual Malay than that of the Hova. It remains to +be said that the strong negroid element of Madagascar is attributed by +some authorities to Melanesian colonists from Malaysia of a relatively +ancient date and not to negroes from Africa. There are numerous +Melanesian words in the Malagasy language. + +----- + +Footnote 1: + + A hundred thousand years ago the Red Sea may have been a long, + isolated lake filling up a great Rift Valley, and the south-western + extremity of Arabia have been joined across the narrow straits of + Bab-al-Mandib to Somaliland. There is an Arab tradition that in the + remote past these straits were formed by a series of earthquakes and + land-slides. But if this were the case why is not the west of Arabia, + in fertile, well-watered regions, more “African” in its mammalian, + bird, and insect fauna? Arabia is a great enigma still in these + questions of geographical distribution. It would be convenient to + regard it as the evolutionary area of the negro, if, for example, + there were any evidence of a positive character—as there is in + southern Persia—to show that it was ever the home of a negro race in + ancient times. But there is no such evidence, and its present negro or + negroid population only dates from the trade in negro slaves which + began about the commencement of the Christian era, and flourished + exceedingly after the eruption of Islam. + + “Lemuria”—the hypothetical isthmus which once united Madagascar and + East Africa with India and Ceylon—could not have been the negro’s + birth-place, as some have suggested, inasmuch as it ceased to exist in + the early Tertiaries, long before Man had been evolved. + +Footnote 2: + + They can be gleaned—most of them—from the recent writings of Dr Arthur + Keith, and Mr W. L. H. Duckworth, and are to some extent summarized in + the preliminary chapter of the present writer’s book on _The Negro in + the New World_. + +Footnote 3: + + These will be found described in Mr W. L. H. Duckworth’s _Morphology + and Anatomy_, and also in studies of the Bushmen and Hottentots + recently published by Dr Péringuey of the State Library and Museum, + Capetown. It is true that the researches of German and Italian + anthropologists have shown that the hypertrophy of the external + genitalia characteristic of the Bushwoman, together with steatopygy, + not only occur amongst the East African negroes, but even in + Somaliland, Abyssinia and Egypt; but this is only an additional piece + of evidence showing the previous existence of the Bushman in these + regions, perhaps also in Southern Europe. + +Footnote 4: + + The name is Dutch and means “shore-runners,” there being a legend + amongst the Boers derived from the Hottentots that the present race of + Bushmen was preceded by a vanished type of humanity which derived its + living from the shellfish on the sea-shore. + +Footnote 5: + + It is more convenient to refer to this speech family and racial type + as “Fula,” but the actual name applied by the “Ful-be” people to their + language is “Fulful-de.” + +Footnote 6: + + It is more correct to spell this tribal name _Tawareq_, the plural of + Tarqi, “a raider.” But the modern pronunciation of this Arab term (it + is unknown to the Berbers themselves) is “Tuareg.” Wherever in this + book _q_ is used in transliterating African words it stands for the + faucal “k” of the Arabs and other Semites, a guttural which is more + commonly pronounced as a _g_ in North Africa. + +Footnote 7: + + In which region they may have been preceded by Bushmen, and by a more + generalized, Tasmanian-like type of man, similar to the Galley-Hill + man who inhabited Kent and Central Europe approximately 100,000 years + ago. + +Footnote 8: + + So called by Professor W. F. Petrie and others because the type is + illustrated in the many portraits of the Pharaohs of Egyptian + dynasties. + +Footnote 9: + + To be followed, with no return to sovereigns of real Egyptian race, by + Arabs, Turks, Circassians, Albanians, Macedonians, Armenians, French, + and British. + +Footnote 10: + + Some writers reserve “Hamite” and “Hamitic” for the general name of + the language family which includes the Libyan and the eastern Hamitic + tongues, and employ Kushite as a special designation for the great + eastern branch of Hamitic speech-forms which extends its range through + North-east Africa from Egypt to the Equator. The main groups of these + eastern Hamitic or Kushite languages are the _Beja_ or _Bisharin_ of + the Red Sea north-west coast and the country between the Nile and + Suakin; the _Saho_ of the Abyssinian coast-lands; the + _Afar-Danakil-Somali_ group; the _Agau-Bilin_ of the Abyssinian + highlands; the _Gala_, stretching from central Abyssinia to the Juba + and Tana rivers; and the _Kafa_ of south-west Galaland, reaching + southward to near Lake Rudolf. In the south-west of the Ethiopian + Empire there are many unclassified Hamitic dialects (as there are in + northern German East Africa) which are much mixed with negro + word-roots and syntax. These almost merge into the Masai and Nilotic. + +Footnote 11: + + This word is evidently derived from the Zambezi Bantu words + _Mwene-mutapa_ = Lord of the Mine. Another form “Bena mutapa” for the + people might be translated “Brothers of the mine”—Bena (Baina) in Old + Bantu = brothers, or “clan.” + +Footnote 12: + + Although the people of west and south Madagascar are very negroid in + appearance and those of the north are evidently mixed with Arab and + Indian blood, the Malay-like Malagasy language is the one universal + speech throughout the whole island. It contains, however, loan words + from Himyaritic Arabic and from East African Bantu. + +Footnote 13: + + Some evidence, chiefly traditional, is adduced to show that Madagascar + was once inhabited by a yellow-skinned dwarfish race of Bushman stock + known as the “Kimo.” But it is still more difficult to imagine a + Bushman race possessing canoes sufficiently large and seaworthy for + the crossing of the Moçambique channel; or to ascribe to the + prehistoric Arabs, who may have traded with south-east Africa, the + motiveless transportation of Bushmen to south-west Madagascar. The + supposed negro aborigines, apart from the dwarfish Kimo, are known + traditionally by the Malagasy as “Ba-zimba” or “Va-zimba,” and their + burial places are pointed out. The Ba-zimba may have been the + mysterious race which built Zimbabwe. + +Footnote 14: + + Yet from two to ten thousand years ago, the Comoro island chain was + probably larger and approached much nearer to the mainland, thus + permitting Madagascar to be reached (by swimming) by two or three + species of hippopotamus (now extinct) and by the bush-pig which still + exists there. It is very improbable that either of these mammals could + have swum the distance of 200 miles which now separates East Africa + from the nearest Comoro Island. + + + + + CHAPTER II + + THE MEDITERRANEAN COLONIZATION OF AFRICA + + +The historical colonization of Africa by alien peoples (if we regard the +dynastic Egyptians as autochthonous) commences with the exploits of the +Phoenicians in Mauretania. This remarkable Semitic people, no doubt akin +to the ancestors of the Jews in race and language, is believed to have +originated on the S.W. shores of the Persian Gulf, and at a period of +some remoteness—perhaps four thousand years ago—to have made its way up +the Euphrates and across the Syrian Desert to the coast of the +Mediterranean, where eventually the great trading cities of Tyre (Tsur +or Ṣor), Akko, Saida or Sidon, Sarepta, Arvad or Ruad, Biruta or Biruna +(Beirūt), etc., were established mostly on islets off the Syrian coast +which eventually grew into peninsulas. From these strongholds their +galleys ranged the Mediterranean and reached the North African coast, +the Straits of Gibraltar, and the open Atlantic Ocean. By about the +twelfth century before Christ the Phoenicians from Sidon had established +trading stations at Utica (Atiqa) at the mouth of the Majerda River in +North-East Tunisia, and at Lixus on the coast of Morocco (perhaps mouth +of River Draa, opposite to the Canary Islands). At the same +period—perhaps earliest of all—Gades (Cadiz) was founded as a Sidonian +colony at the mouth of the Guadalquivir in Southern Spain. Carthage +(Kart-hadshat or Kart-hadasht = the New City), afterwards the Phoenician +metropolis in North Africa, did not come into existence till about 822 +B.C. It was a settlement of the Tyrians on the west side of the Gulf of +Tunis not far from Utica on the Majerda River, and was called the New +City in contrast to Utica the “Ancient” (Atiqa). The Tyrians and perhaps +the Phoenicians from other sea-cities also created trading depôts on the +Cyrenaic and Tripolitan coast, thus coming into contact with the +Egyptians. But from the seventeenth to the twelfth century before Christ +the Phoenicians had been under the overlordship of Egypt; and it was +only when the Egyptian power began to weaken that the great ships built +at Sidon and at Tyre from the timber of Cyprus and the Lebanon dared to +found African colonies immediately to the westward of Egypt. + +Long afterwards, in the days when the strength of the Phoenicians was +itself to decline in the grip of the Assyrian kings, these bold +navigators hired themselves and their ships to the rulers of Egypt for +naval transport and geographical discovery. In about 600 B.C., according +to the story of Herodotos, the last but three of the native Egyptian +Pharaohs, Niku (Necho) II, summoned a captain of the Phoenicians whose +ships were stationed in the Gulf of Suez (perhaps conveyed thither from +the Mediterranean through some canal between the Nile and the Bitter +Lakes), and despatched him in command of an expedition of two or three +vessels, with the order to attempt to sail round the peninsular +continent of Africa and through the Straits of Gibraltar back to the +Nile Delta. Very likely the ship-masters from South Arabia had already +spread the news that the east coast of Africa trended steadily westwards +beyond the equator, and had guessed that Africa was circumnavigable from +the land of the negroes on the east back to that land of black men on +the west of which the Carthaginians were beginning to spread some dim +foreknowledge from their journeys southward along the Morocco and Sahara +coasts. + +This Phoenician expedition accordingly set out, and in about three +years’ time had circumnavigated Africa and re-entered the Mediterranean +through the strait which separates Morocco from Spain. Somewhere off the +southern coast of Africa they had landed, sown grain and waited in the +southern summer (our winter) till it matured and ripened. Then they +reaped their harvest and continued the voyage, not willingly losing +sight of the coast, no doubt, yet landing as seldom as possible (we may +imagine) in their justifiable terror of savage tribes and fierce wild +beasts. The account given in Herodotos is very bare. Only one experience +of these Phoenician pioneers is given, other than the corn-growing; they +are said during the (northern) summer season to have had the sun on +their right hand—that is to say, in the north of the sky at mid-day. +This observation shows at any rate that these Phoenicians had sailed far +enough south to have reached the south temperate zone wherein the sun +would always be in the northern sky at mid-day; while the ship’s general +east-to-west course round the southern extremity of Africa would place +the sun on the right hand of a spectator facing the west. + +All the minor geographical discoveries of this expedition have been lost +to us, if any were recorded. No mention is made of the gold of +south-east Africa, of any Arab settlements along the east coast, of the +negro inhabitants of these wild regions, or the means by which the +Phoenician mariners supplied themselves with food to supplement the corn +which they grew and reaped. It would not have been difficult for them, +coming from the east, to reach the southern extremity of Africa, and +still less difficult if there really were Arab stations at which they +could recruit in the vicinity of Sofala and Inyambane. The story, by no +means an incredible one, rests almost entirely on a statement of +Herodotos, but was thought to have received fresh support from records +of the events of the reign of Niku II which were said to have been +discovered in the collection of a French Egyptologist. These inscribed +scarabs are however now believed to be clear forgeries[15]. There is +nothing improbable about this legend of the Phoenician east-to-west +circumnavigation of Africa. The winds and currents, be it observed, +would make it much easier for sailing ships to circumnavigate Africa +from the east coast round to the west coast, and then north, than in the +reverse direction; and it is curious to note, among other shreds of +historical record, that a Persian nobleman of Egypt in the sixth century +B.C. and the Carthaginians of the same period both tried to sail round +Africa from Morocco past the West coast, and gave up the enterprise as +too difficult and tedious. + +There has been transmitted to us through the diligence of ancient Greek +geographers the Greek version of what is supposed to be the original +description in Punic of the voyage of Hanno the Carthaginian. This Punic +explorer started from Carthage some time in the sixth century before +Christ (perhaps about 520 B.C.) with a fleet of 60 ships, and a +multitude of men and women (said to have been 30,000 in number), on a +voyage of discovery mainly, but also for the purpose of replenishing +with settlers the Carthaginian stations along the coast of Morocco. In +the account given of the journey it is stated that, after passing the +Straits of Hercules and stopping at the site of the modern Sebu, they +rounded Cape Cantin and came to a marsh in which a large number of +elephants were disporting themselves[16]. They then continued their +journey along the coast till they came to the river Lixus, which has +been identified with the river Draa. From here they coasted the desert +till they reached what we now call the Rio de Oro, and on an islet at +the head of this inlet they founded the commercial station of Kerne. +From Kerne they made an expedition as far south as a river which has +been identified as the river Senegal, having first visited the Lagoon of +Teniahir. Once more setting out from Kerne, they passed Cape Verde, the +river Gambia, and the Sierra Leone coast as far as the Sherboro inlet, +which was the limit of their voyage of discovery. Here they encountered +“wild men and women covered with hair”—probably the chimpanzees, which +are found there to this day, and not the gorilla, which is an ape, +restricted in its westward range to the Cameroons. As Hanno’s +interpreter called these creatures “gorilla,” that name was fancifully +given in the nineteenth century to the huge anthropoid ape discovered by +American missionaries in the Gaboon. When Hanno’s expedition visited the +neighbourhood of the Senegal river they were attacked by the natives, +who were described as “wild men wearing the skins of beasts and +defending themselves with stones.” So far as we know, this was the first +sight that civilized man had of his wild Palaeolithic brother since the +two had parted company in Neolithic times, except for glimpses of the +Troglodytes, whom the Carthaginians appear to have met with in the +valley of the river Draa[17]. + +At Kerne and other trading stations on the coast to the south of +Morocco, the Carthaginians did no doubt a little trade with the Berber +natives in the produce of the Sudan, south of the Sahara, but after a +time the weakening of the power of Carthage and the attacks of the +natives must have destroyed most of these West African settlements; for +the Romans in replacing the Carthaginians do not seem to have gone +further south than the river Draa. + +During the eighth century before the Christian era the Tyrian and +Sidonian colonies in North Africa and Spain began to detach themselves +from any political submission to the Phoenician State in Syria, a +kingdom then much harassed by the Assyrians and henceforth doomed to +lose its independence under the alternate sway of Egypt, Assyria, +Chaldaea, Persia, and Macedonia. Carthage became the metropolis of +Western Phoenicia, of the Canaanite[18] settlements in Berberland and +Iberia. The North African coast was dotted at frequent intervals, from +Leptis (Lebda) in Tripoli to the mouth of the Draa on the Atlantic coast +of Morocco, with Canaanite trading or governing cities. More especially +was the Tunisian or African[19] coast under their domination, from the +Island of Meninx-Jerba (the land of date-palms and Lotos-eaters) to what +is now called Bona in Algeria; this last being one of the several towns +anciently named Ubbo or Hippo. One such was the modern Benzert +(Bizerta), the Hippo-Diarrhytos of the Greeks and the Hippon-Zaryt of +late Roman and Byzantine times. + +From Carthage, the metropolis, there ran a causeway, of which traces +still remain, up the valley of the Majerda river (the Bagradas of old +times) to the date-palm country, the fruitful land of the shallow +salt-lakes and the hot springs—a region which is some day going to be of +the greatest importance in North Africa for its medicinal waters, its +never-failing springs of sweet water, its fertile soil and genial +climate. The Carthaginians also held from time to time desert cities of +commanding position in what is termed the Matmata country, between the +land of the “Shatts” or lakes and the Tripolitan frontier. But it is +doubtful even here if Carthaginian rule extended as much as 100 miles +inland; and elsewhere in North Africa, away from Tunisia, the +Carthaginians only held what they occupied. At the least weakening of +their power the Berber tribes were ready to revolt and take part with +their enemies. The Carthaginian troops were mainly recruited in Barbary, +and were mercenaries. They frequently mutinied and turned against their +Syrian employers. Yet occasionally Carthage produced a man like Hannibal +who could win the confidence of these Berber soldiers and lead them to +fight the battles of Carthage in Spain, Sicily, and Italy. But in the +outlying districts of North Africa, especially in Morocco, tradition +states that the Berbers occasionally rose as a nation and destroyed the +Carthaginian settlements. + +The Phoenicians introduced Syrian ideas of religion into North Africa, +more especially the worship of Baal-hammana (the Lord Ammon) or Milk +(Moloch, the “King”), to whom human sacrifices were offered; Tanit, the +“Face of Baal,” the virgin goddess of the moon, a variant of the Syrian +Astarte; Ashmun, the God of Healing (Æsculapius); Rashūf, the Flame, +Fire, or Lightning God (= Apollo); Baal Milkkart, the “King of the City” +identified with Hercules; Tammuz or Adonis (a beautiful young man); +Pateχ, a hideous dwarf god; Rabbat Amma, the “Lady Mother,” a goddess +like the Greek Cybele. These religious ideas became associated in +southern Tunis and Tripoli with the worship of the _phallus_ as a symbol +of life-giving, creative power, and so powerfully tinged the mentality +of the indigenes of this region that down to the present day there are +schismatics in Islam (especially in the Island of Jerba) that erect +small phallic temples and shrines, or crown with a phallic symbol every +minaret. It is here, as well as in the fifth- and sixth-century +buildings of south-eastern Syria, dating from the early days of +Byzantine architecture, that one may trace the evolution of the _mahrab_ +(mihrab) or holy shrine of the Muhammadan mosque from the hollow +phallus, into which the country people of Jerba enter to say their +prayers. This cult once existed in western Arabia, and it is remarkable +to find such distinct traces of it in the ruins of Zimbabwe in +south-east Africa. + +The Phoenicians being used to the tamed “Indian” elephant in Syria—a +region in which there were wild Indian elephants down to about the time +of the Phoenician settlement of the Syrian coast—brought about the +taming of the smaller African elephant in North Africa. Probably they +also introduced Syrian breeds of horses, cattle, and pigs, though the +sheep and goats of Mauretania seem rather to have been derived from +Spain. They brought thither the Syrian greyhound and perhaps some other +breeds of dogs; but not the white, wolfish dog of the Berber nomads, +which came from Europe. To these beauty-loving Tyrian mariner-merchants +is due the early introduction of the peacock into North Africa. It is +still a common domestic bird in Tunisia, and figures on old inscribed +stones, even far away in the desert, which date, seemingly, back to +Carthaginian times. The Phoenicians probably brought with them, likewise +from Syria, the cultivated vine, olive, fig, and pomegranate. + +Compared with the Romans, the Carthaginians did little to open up the +interior of North Africa, except in what is now called Tunisia. Trade +with the outer world was restricted by jealous monopolies; but the +Phoenician language was nevertheless much impressed on North Africa, and +became the accepted means of intercommunication among the more civilized +tribes between Tripoli and Western Morocco. Indeed the Phoenician +tongue, closely akin to Hebrew and not very far removed from Arabic, is +believed to have lingered all through the subsequent Roman occupation of +Africa and only to have disappeared completely under the invasion of +Arabic, the immediate consequence of the Arab conquest in the seventh +century of our era. Even then it is considered that some Phoenician +words remain incorporated in the Arabic dialects of Tripoli and Tunis +and especially in Maltese; Malta having also been occupied by the +Carthaginians. The Jews, who settled so abundantly in North Africa both +before and after the fall of Jerusalem, brought thither the influence of +Hebrew and of Aramaic, and contributed to Semiticise North Africa in +language and religion. So that Carthaginian rule paved the way for the +Judaizing of certain tribes, before and after the Roman empire ousted +Syria for a time as a colonizing agency; and the use of the Phoenician +tongue down to the seventh century A.C. in the villages and smaller +towns of the Tunisian coast-belt undoubtedly prepared the way for the +rapid and wide-spread acceptance of Arabic a hundred years later. Amid +all their wrangles, throughout all the recorded history of North Africa, +Berber and Semite seem unconsciously to have recognized that by descent +and language they had more kinship with each other than with the Aryan +peoples. + +The Jews, after the first century of the Christian era, settled +numerously in North Africa from Cyrenaica to Western Morocco. They are +believed to have preceded the Berbers in settling the oasis of Twat in +mid-Sahara, and other oases of the desert also; though they probably +found these habitable regions still retaining a negroid population. + +The earliest _historical_ connection between Aryan Europe and Africa was +brought about by the Greeks, commencing some 600 years B.C.[20], who +settled in the country of Kurene (Cyrene), the modern province of Barka. +After the repulse of the Persians there was a great expansion of Greece. +Prior to the historical establishment of settlements in the Ionian +Islands, in Sicily, at Marseilles and on the east coast of Spain, Greek +seamen had no doubt ranged the coasts of the Mediterranean; and from +their adventures were evolved the fascinating stories of the Argonauts +and Ulysses. Prehistoric settlements of Greeks on the coast of Tunis are +believed by modern French ethnologists to have taken place, on the +strength of the well-marked Greek type to be found amongst the present +population, for instance, in the Cape Bon peninsula; but these Greek +types may also be descended from the Byzantine occupation of the country +in the Christian era. The Island of Lotos-Eaters, of Greek mythology, +would seem with likelihood to take its origin in the island of Jerba, +where the date palm is indigenous[21]. But about 631 B.C. an expedition +of Dorians from the island of Thera[22] founded the colony of Kurene on +the north coast of Africa, where that continent approaches closest to +the Greek Archipelago. The settlement of Kurene was situated about ten +miles from the sea at an altitude of nearly 1800 ft. on the forest-clad +Aχdar mountains. Around Kurene (a name corrupted to Grenna by the Arabs) +were grouped four other cities—Barke, Teuχeira, Euesperides, and +Apollonia. This Greek colony continued to exist with varying +fortunes—threatened at times with dissolution through the civil wars of +the colonists and the intermittent attacks of the Berbers—till it came +under the control of Rome 100 years before Christ. It was occasionally +dominated by the Greek dynasty of the Ptolemies in Egypt. Though the +civilization of the Cyrenaica was finally extinguished by the disastrous +Arab invasion in the seventh century of the Christian era, it had +nevertheless received a death-blow in 117 A.C. by an uprising of the +Jewish settlers, who attacked the Graeco-Roman colonists with the help +of the native Libyans and slew more than 200,000 of the descendants of +the Greek and Italian invaders. The Jews in their turn were massacred, +and after that most of the Cyrenaic cities fell into decay. + +In the adjoining country of Egypt the Greeks began to appear as +merchants and travellers in the seventh century B.C. A Pharaoh, +Psammetik I, the father of the Niku who sent Phoenician ships to +circumnavigate Africa, had employed Greek mercenaries to assist him in +establishing his claims to the throne of Egypt. He rewarded their +services by allowing their countrymen to trade with the ports of the +Nile delta. The city of Naukratis was founded not far from the modern +Rosetta, and became almost a Greek colony. Nearly 200 years later +Herodotos, a native of Halikarnassos (a Greek settlement in Asia Minor), +visited Egypt and Kurene. It is probable that he ascended the Nile as +far as the First Cataract. He found his fellow-countrymen settled as +merchants and mechanics and also as soldiers in the delta of the Nile, +and he records that the whole coast of Cyrenaica between Dernah, near +the borders of Egypt, and Benghazi (Euesperides) was wholly occupied by +Greek settlements. + +Through Herodotos and even earlier Greek writers, like Hekataios (who +derived his information from the Phoenicians), vague rumours reached the +Greek world of the Niger River, of ostriches[23], the dwarf races of +Central Africa (then perhaps lingering about the Bahr-al-Ghazal and +Nigeria), and baboons, described as “men with dogs’ heads[24].” + +The great development of the Persian Empire under Cyrus brought that +power into eventual conflict with Egypt; and under Kambujiya (Cambyses) +the Persians conquered Egypt (in 525 B.C.), besides then and +subsequently dominating the western and southern parts of Arabia, from +which they occasionally meddled with Ethiopia. The Persians were +followed more than two hundred years later by their great conqueror, +Alexander of Macedonia, who added Egypt to his empire in 332 B.C., and +founded in that year in the westernmost reach of the Nile delta the +great city which bears his name, and which has been at times the capital +of Egypt. Alexander’s conquest was succeeded in 323 by the rule of his +general, Ptolemaios Soter, who founded in 308 the famous Greek monarchy +of the Ptolemies over Egypt, which lasted till near the commencement of +the Christian era, when it was replaced by the domination of Rome. + +Subsequently the sceptre passed from Rome to Byzantium, and Egypt again +became subject to Greek influence. During the Ptolemies’ rule Abyssinia +was Egyptianized, and much Greek influence penetrated that country of +Hamites ruled by Semites, resulting in the foundation of the +semi-civilized kingdom of Axum in north-eastern Abyssinia with a port +(Adulis) on Annesley Bay. This Hellenized and, later on, Christian State +flourished for about six centuries from the commencement of the +Christian era, and conquered in the 6th century the opposite Arab +country of Yaman. Under the Roman and Byzantine Empire the Red Sea, the +coast of Somaliland, and Equatorial East Africa were much more carefully +explored and even charted; and it is said that the Greeks settled on the +island of Sokotra. The extent of knowledge which the Roman world +possessed at the beginning of the Christian era is displayed by the +celebrated Periplus of the Red Sea, written by a Greek merchant of +Alexandria about 80 A.C. This work shows that Greek commerce extended to +Zanzibar and Dar-es-Salaam; for by Rhapta is obviously indicated a port +on the east coast of Africa which can only be Dar-es-Salaam, the modern +capital of German East Africa. Opposite to this was the Island of +Menouthias, intended (as described in the Periplus) for Zanzibar, and +mentioned even then as being a region under the suzerainty of the Kings +of Yaman, and much resorted to by Arab merchants from the port of Muza, +no doubt the abandoned harbour of Uda, some distance north of Mokha. +Beyond this the knowledge of the Greek writer of the Periplus did not +extend; but further allusions to Menouthias or other islands near the +east coast of Africa, to be found in later Greek and Latin writers on +geography, seem to apply much more to Madagascar than to Zanzibar. + +Among the Greek merchants of the first century trading with India was a +certain Diogenes, who may have supplied the unknown Alexandrian author +of the Periplus with some of his information. Diogenes, returning from a +voyage to India in about 50 A.C., landed at Rhapta or Rhaptum. From some +such point—Rhaptum in this instance may be distinct from Rhapta and +equivalent to Pangani, a trading-post at the mouth of the Rufu River, +opposite Pemba Island—Diogenes travelled inland for twenty-five days—so, +at least, he stated—and arrived in the vicinity of two great lakes and a +snowy range of mountains whence the Nile drew its twin sources. +Twenty-five days’ journey might have brought a Greek traveller easily +within sight of Kilimanjaro, but certainly not of the Victoria Nyanza. +It is more likely that Diogenes saw Kilimanjaro and added to his +impressions, of that mighty dome of snow and ice the statements of the +Arab traders who may at that period have penetrated inland as far as the +Victoria Nyanza and even ascertained the existence of Ruwenzori and the +Albert Nyanza. If pre-historic Arab trade permeated these countries at +that time, it was no doubt afterwards driven back to the coast by the +tumultuous movements of the Bantu and Nilotic negroes. + +Though the information of Diogenes may have reached the author of the +Periplus, it was, so far as the semi-legendary history goes, told to a +Syrian geographer, Marinus of Tyre, who published it at Alexandria about +the same time that the Periplus was being written. The writings of +Marinus disappeared with the dispersal of the Alexandrian Library. But +that portion dealing with the sources of the Nile was quoted almost word +for word by a later writer, Claudius Ptolemaeus, a latinized +Egyptian-Greek who resided in Alexandria. Ptolemy (as he is commonly +called in English) wrote his works about the year 150 A.C.; and to him +is commonly attributed the first clearly expressed theory as to the main +origin of the White Nile. He believed that this mysterious river found +its ultimate source in two great lakes, the waters of which were derived +from a great snowy range called the Mountains of the Moon. It is, +however, clear from the writings of Eratosthenes (an African Greek who +published his geographical works about 200 B.C.) and Pliny the Elder +(Caius Plinius Secundus, whose principal book was published in 77 A.C.) +that before the Christian era a glimmering of the geography of the Upper +Nile basin had already reached Greek Egypt. Perhaps earlier still it had +come to the knowledge of the Persian rulers of Egypt, and may have been +brought to them by Ethiopian slave and ivory traders, akin to the modern +Abyssinians and Galas, who at that period seem to have freely penetrated +through the lands of the negro savages. + +Not long after the Romans had annexed Egypt to their Empire, they had +begun to push their control of the Nile beyond the First to the Second +Cataract. Ahead of them went Greek explorers, mainly from Kurene or Asia +Minor, who traced the Nile upstream about as far as Khartum, perhaps +even beyond. All this region beyond the Second Cataract was known either +as the Nubian Kingdom of Napata (which was then peopled by Ethiopians +speaking Hamitic languages) or as Meroe (Merawi). The term Meroe applied +not only to a city but also to the supposed island, a considerable tract +of land nearly enclosed by the courses and tributaries of the Blue Nile, +White Nile, and Atbara, a region formerly of great fertility which +played a considerable part in the civilizing of Inner Africa, especially +westwards towards Lake Chad. The Emperor Nero was temporarily interested +in the mystery of the Nile sources and despatched an expedition under +two centurions about the year 66 A.C., to discover the origin of the +White Nile. This Roman expedition was organized in the principality of +Meroe and furnished with boats and men by the Nubian or the Ethiopian +chiefs. These boats were subsequently exchanged higher up the Nile for +dug-out canoes; and in these the two centurions apparently travelled as +far south as the confluence of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and the Kir or White +Nile. Their further explorations seem to have been stopped by the +accumulation of water vegetation called the sudd. Discouraged by the +natural obstacles to their penetration of this desolate region, by the +hostility of the naked Nile negroes, and no doubt also by the +unendurable attacks of the mosquitoes, the two centurions returned to +Egypt; and their discouraging reports apparently put an end to further +Roman enterprise in this direction. + +The wars with Carthage in the second century before the Christian era +drew the Romans into the occupation of Tunisia. They were enabled +finally to conquer and destroy Carthage by allying themselves with the +Numidian and Mauretanian kings, who, in their desire to establish +complete home rule in North Africa, were anxious to destroy the +Carthaginian power. But after the destruction of Carthage in 146 B.C. +Rome picked quarrels, first with the Kings of Numidia, and next with +those farther west in what are now called Algeria and Morocco, with the +result that between 104 and 50 B.C. the region equivalent to Tunisia and +western Tripoli became the Roman province of Africa; while all the coast +region of Algeria and Morocco was annexed to the Roman Empire in 46 B.C. +and 42 A.C. respectively. Some time previous to this, in 96 B.C., the +Romans had annexed the old Greek colonies in Cyrenaica, to which—as a +Roman province—was added Egypt in 30 B.C.; while Roman armies +established Roman influence in Fezzan by 19 B.C. Consequently, by the +middle of the first century of the Christian era, the Roman power was +predominant over the whole coast-belt of North Africa. Roman explorers +even penetrated far into Morocco, examined the High Atlas range, and +crossed it into the Sahara Desert near Figuig; in fact, a Roman general, +Suetonius Paulinus, afterwards a conqueror of Britain, penetrated in 50 +A.C. to the palm-fringed river valleys south of the Atlas range, which +would seem to have been in Pliocene times the head-waters of streams +flowing far south into the Niger basin. One such stream was called by +Roman geographers the Ger, and is still known as Gir by the Berbers. + +Even before the Christian era began—if we may place any reliance on the +stories collected by Marinus Tyrius and cited in the works of Ptolemy +the Alexandrian—the Romans had despatched in 19 B.C. an expedition from +Fezzan (then a semi-civilized kingdom of the Tibus or Garamantes, far to +the south of Tripoli) to reach the country of the Blacks, reports of +which, together with some of its products, had come under Roman notice +even before the conquest of Carthage. Setting out from Garama (Jerma, in +Fezzan) and escorted by Tibu chieftains and their men, a Roman general +named Septimus Flaccus is said to have reached the black man’s country +across the Desert in three months’ marching. It is possible that camels +were already employed on this expedition, but horses would also have +been available; and even oxen seem to have been used as late as this +period by the desert peoples to draw carts. It is very probable that +1800 years ago this portion of the Sahara was much less arid, and that +there were more numerous wells and sources of water supply and a greater +amount of forage. What happened to Septimus Flaccus, and whether he +really reached the land of the negroes, afterwards to be known by an +Arab name, Sudan, we are not told; but about the beginning of the +Christian era another Roman explorer, Julius Maternus, also started from +Garama and reached a land which he named Agisymba, after a march of four +months. This was possibly Kanem, or even Bornu near Lake Chad, and is +described as a country swarming with rhinoceroses—beasts still to be +found there, though in much reduced numbers. + +These are the only recorded attempts of the Romans to reach the Sudan +across the Sahara Desert; but that intercourse had been going on for +hundreds, if not thousands, of years between the Libyans and Hamites of +Northern and North-Eastern Africa on the one hand, and the negroids and +negroes of the Lake Chad and Benue regions and of the whole Niger basin +on the other, there can be little doubt, from a variety of evidence[25]. +Roman beads are dug up in Hausaland and are obtained even from the +graves of Ashanti chiefs; and some of these differ but little from Roman +beads found in the mud of the Thames or amidst the ashes of Pompeii. +Even ideas of Roman and Greek Christianity filtered through the Libyan +and Sahara Deserts and reached countries beyond the Niger. + +The Niger River had been vaguely known to classical geographers for two +or three centuries before and two centuries after the commencement of +the Christian era. These writers, as far back as the time of Herodotos, +recorded legends of Libyan adventurers from southern Tunisia who +penetrated through the Sahara Desert to lands of running rivers, open +waters, and tropical vegetation. The Senegal River, under the name of +Bambotus, is described by Polybius (about 140 B.C.) as a great stream +far beyond the Sahara Desert which contained crocodiles and hippopotami. +To such a river, or even, it may be, to this dimly realized Niger, was +applied a Berber name for a stream, Gir, or Ni-gir. I have already +mentioned the Gir River which rises to the south of the Great Atlas +range in Morocco, and which was discovered by the Roman general +Suetonius Paulinus about the year 50 A.C. This was confused with the +real Nigir or Niger, of which it may have been a million years ago one +of the ultimate tributaries. Lamps of Roman design in metal penetrated +as far into the interior of Africa as the Northern Cameroons, as did +also imitations in clay architecture of Greek or Roman fortresses. But +the remarkable clay architecture now associated with the Fulas and which +is ascribed in its origins to the Songhai of Agades, would seem rather +to have come from Egypt than across the Sahara Desert from Roman Africa. + +Actual posts erected and even garrisoned by Roman soldiers may have +extended as far south as Ghadames (Cydames) or Murzuk (Phazania). Direct +Roman rule, however, was chiefly notable in what is now the Regency of +Tunis and in Egypt. Tunisia and western Tripoli almost surpass Italy in +the number and magnificence of their Roman remains. All along the actual +coast of Algeria and Northern Morocco existing ruins testify to the +great number of Roman cities which once flourished there. Eastern +Algeria shared with Western Tunisia a most notable degree of Roman +civilization. The present writer has been much impressed with the fact +that from Gafsa in the south of Tunis to Tebessa in Algeria the +traveller can ride along about a hundred miles of ancient Roman road +scarcely ever out of sight of the ruins of former cities, some of which +must have been of great magnificence, though their culmination of +splendour was not attained until the rule of Byzantium had replaced that +of Rome. + + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + + AFRICA AS KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS + BEFORE THE MUHAMMADAN INVASION OF THE SEVENTH CENTURY, B. C. + + Plate I. + +[Illustration] + + Sir H.H. Johnston del^t W. & A.K. Johnston Limited Edinburgh & London + + Explanatory Note + + [blue] _Probable site of Bantu mother country_ + [brown] ” _area of distribution of Black Negroes 2000 years + ago_ + [tan] ” ” ” _Pygmies, Bushmen, and + Hottentots_ + [yellow] ” ” ” _Hamites and Semites_ + [pink] ” ” ” _Malay races_ + +_This map shows also the probable distribution of races about the + commencement of the Christian Era and the lines of Bantu invasion_ + +_The Blue lines give the directions of the principal Bantu invasions_ + +_The mingling of race tints indicates mixture of races_ + +_A Red line indicates the limits of more or less certainly known + country; a red dotted line gives the limits of vaguely known + regions. Red shading indicates the approximate area of country well + known to Europe or civilised Asia_ + + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + + Nevertheless, all through the period between 146 B.C. and 415 A.C., + when the Vandals invaded Roman Africa[26], the Romans were + constantly warring with the Berbers, who no doubt to a great extent + were pushed out of Tunisia by colonists more or less of Italian + origin. The most prosperous and brilliant period of Roman rule was + between 50 A.C. and 297 A.C. In 297 A.C. began the establishment of + definite Christianity. Between about 50 and 530 A.C., Latin replaced + Punic as the tongue most commonly spoken in the Roman province of + Africa and even in the coast-lands of Algeria and Morocco. Still the + Berbers were there all the time. Only a few became Christianized, + the bulk of the indigenous tribes showing disgust at the way in + which the different Christian sects attacked and slew each other. + The Jews, having settled numerously in North Africa, won over a + number of Berber chieftains to the Jewish religion. Hatred of Roman + rule and of Roman Christianity impelled the Berbers of Morocco and + Algeria to make common cause with the invading Vandals, and led to + the rapid overthrow of Roman rule and Roman civilization. But in 531 + A.C. Byzantine generals from Constantinople conquered the Vandals + and established the rule of the Eastern Empire over Roman North + Africa from Tangier (Tingis) to Egypt. There was once again a + revival of Mediterranean civilization throughout all this region, + though the Berber tribes still remained recalcitrant. + + Abyssinia between 350 and 500 A.C. accepted Christianity from the + teaching of Egyptian Greek missionaries, and developed a + considerable degree of strength from the civilization which followed + in the track of the Christian faith. Not only did Abyssinian kings + rule over the opposite parts of Western Arabia, but their armies and + slave raids penetrated far south from Galaland towards Equatorial + Africa. A debased edition of the Christian faith was carried almost + to the shores of Lake Rudolf; while the kingdom of Merawi, before + the Arab invasions of this stronghold of the Ethiopian negroids, + became a Christian state, which retained its Christianity well into + the 12th century of our era. Through the Abyssinian traders, + Graeco-Roman commerce began again to get indirectly into touch with + the Upper Nile and East Africa. But the Christian-Abyssinian + conquest of South-west Arabia seems to have arrested for a time the + Arab trade with Madagascar and the East African coast, and may have + contributed to the overthrow (by the invading hordes of Bantu + negroes) of the Zimbabwe civilization of South-east Africa. It was + however just as Graeco Roman rule in northern Africa was coming to + an end that its effects on Negro Africa became apparent. The great + racial movements in the northern Sudan, which led to the creation of + the Mandingo, Songhai, and Bornu kingdoms of the 8th century, were + undoubtedly due to impulses coming across the desert from Greek or + Roman Egypt, Tripoli, or Tunis. Christianized Berbers from North + Africa even carried Jewish and Christian ideas of religion as far + into the Dark Continent as Borgu, to the west of the Lower Niger. + +----- + +Footnote 15: + + The alleged records on stone scarabs are discussed by Prof. Flinders + Petrie in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, Nov. 1908. + +Footnote 16: + + This is an interesting observation. Not only does the statement + repeatedly occur in the writings of ancient Greek and Roman + geographers that the African elephant was found wild in Mauretania in + these times, but this animal is pictured in the remarkable rock + engravings in the Sus country in the extreme south of Morocco and in + the central and south-eastern part of Algeria, besides being + represented in the Roman mosaics of Tunisia, now exhibited at the + Bardo Museum near Tunis. (See for this the travels of the Moroccan + Jewish Rabbi, Mordokhai, the various works recently published by Mons. + Gautier of the University of Algiers, and the researches of Professor + A. Pomel.) The Phoenicians tamed the African elephant, found wild in + the forests of Western Tunisia, which was a somewhat smaller breed + than the Indian elephant or the elephant of tropical Africa, yet a + typical African elephant in its large ears. It was more often figured + on Roman medals and in Roman sculpture than the Indian type. + +Footnote 17: + + It does not follow, however, that these Troglodytes were dwarfs or + negroes, or palæolithic in culture, or greatly different in race from + the Berbers. They may have been akin to the Troglodytes still to be + seen in the Tunisian Sahara, a Berber people living in caves, which + are either natural hollows in the limestone rock or have been + artificially excavated. Other allusions and incidents connected with + the story of Hanno and an analysis of that story are fully discussed + in the first volume of the present writer’s book on Liberia, published + in 1906. It is remarkable to note that the little islet at the head of + the Rio de Oro Gulf is still called “Herne” by the Moors. + +Footnote 18: + + The national name for the Phoenicians was _χnā_ (_Khna_, _Kinah_, + _Kinahni_, ‘Canaan’). The Greeks invented for them the name + _Phoinike_, _Phoinikes_, which the Latins adopted as _Punica_, _Poeni_ + or _Puni_, from _Phoinix_ = red; the Phoenicians appearing to the + fair-skinned Greeks as “red” men. Very often they went by the name of + Sidonoi (Sidonians), from the name of their oldest city Sidunnu + (Sidon, Saida). + +Footnote 19: + + The Phoenicians may have first brought into vogue the word “Africa.” + This would seem to have been derived (see note on p. 10 of Victor + Piquet’s _Les Civilisations de l’Afrique du Nord_: Paris, 1909) from a + Berber tribe named Afarik, Awarigha—or latterly, Awuraghen—which + occupied the north-east coast of Tunisia in pre-Roman times, but which + with other Berber peoples retreated by degrees into the interior till + at length it became a Tuareg or desert people. Under the name of + Awuraghen, dwelling in Asjer, west of Ghat, this tribe, which has + given its name to the whole continent, still exists. + +Footnote 20: + + The computation given by Eusebius would, according to the late Sir E. + H. Bunbury, date the founding of the colony at 631 B.C. In laying + stress on the word _historical_ I wish to impress on the reader that + European immigration into Africa from Sicily and Spain stretches far + back beyond the records of written history to ages quite remote in the + existence of man. + +Footnote 21: + + The fruit of the date-palm was almost certainly the lotos of the + ancients. It is much more likely to have made a profound impression on + them by its honey-sweet pulp than the insipid berries of the Zizyphus. + +Footnote 22: + + The modern Santorin or Thira, the most southern of the Cyclades. + +Footnote 23: + + The ‘cranes’ with whom the pygmies fought. + +Footnote 24: + + Other evidence goes to show that baboons were found wild in the + southern parts of Mauretania in ancient days. + +Footnote 25: + + This evidence has been fully discussed by the present writer in other + works, such as, for example, _The Nile Quest_, London, 1904, _The + Opening-up of Africa_, 1911, _Liberia_, 1906, _George Grenfell and the + Congo_, 1908, and _Pioneers in West Africa_, 1911, in which works + references to the opinions and researches of other writers are also + given. + +Footnote 26: + + The Vandals were a Gothic people supposed to be not far from the + Angles and Saxons in origin. After sweeping down on France and + Italy and settling in Baetica or southern Spain—a region to which + they are supposed to have given their name, Vandalusia, corrupted + by the Arabs into Andalusia—they built ships, on the Spanish + coast, crossed over with a host of Spanish camp followers into + Morocco, and with the aid of the Berbers swept the Roman power + before them till they conquered the whole country to the frontiers + of Tripoli. They also acquired Sardinia. By degrees they + concentrated their settlement on northern Tunisia, and here, + mingling with the Roman colonists and the Berber indigenes, they + gradually lost all their fighting spirit. But probably they added + a not unimportant element of European (Aryan) blood to the mixed + populations of North Africa, a region more or less ruled by their + Teutonic kings for 116 years. + + + + + CHAPTER III + + THE ARAB CONQUEST OF AFRICA + + + At the beginning of the 7th century of our era the condition of + affairs in North Africa stood thus. In Egypt, which continued to be + governed from Greek Alexandria, the semblance of Roman rule was + wielded, in things temporal as well as spiritual, by the Greek + Orthodox Patriarch, who was usually appointed by the Emperor at + Byzantium to be Prefect as well. He occupied himself chiefly in + persecuting non-orthodox Christian churches, such as the Monophysite + or Jacobite Church, which, arising first in Syria, had become the + national church of the Egyptians or Copts, as contrasted with the + people of Greek race. The outposts of Upper Egypt were abandoned or + left but feebly garrisoned; the Hamitic Blemmyes or Bisharin, the + “Fuzzie-wuzzies” of the Red Sea coast-lands, and the negroid Nubians + overwhelmed the Nabatæan kingdom of Ethiopia and burst into Upper + Egypt, and, although they were once or twice severely chastised, + remained, and barbarized a land which at the beginning of the Roman + empire over Egypt had attained a high degree of culture. + + In 616 A.C. the Persian armies once more entered Egypt, assisted in + their easy conquest by the disaffection of the Copts; at the same + period they drove the Abyssinians out of western Arabia and even + followed them up into eastern Abyssinia. Then the Persian power + became paralysed in its turn. In 626 Heraclius sent an army into + Egypt which drove out the Persians; and for a few years Egypt was + fairly well governed by a Greek governor sent from Byzantium. Then + once more the rule passed into ecclesiastical hands; and Kuros, the + last Greek patriarch, ruled Egypt from 630 till the invasion of the + Arabs, excepting for one short period of exile due to his fierce + persecution of the Jacobite Copts. Cyrenaica had been practically + abandoned to the Libyans after the terrible Jewish uprising and the + massacre of Greek colonists in 117 A.C. Along the rest of the + littoral of North Africa there were still flourishing Roman colonies + and cities under Byzantine rulers or Berber chiefs, from Leptis + Magna and Tripolis (Oea) on the east to Tangis (Tangier) on the + west; while other Roman or Byzantine towns still persisted far + inland in Tunisia and Algeria, notably Gafsa, Thala, Tebessa, and + Timgad. Elsewhere, beyond the walls of the Roman cities, the Berber + tribes had regained their independence and ruled over Romans and + Berbers alike. + + At this period the great Libyan or Berber race of North Africa, + which inhabited the whole region between the western frontiers of + Egypt (Siwa) on the east and the Atlantic coast of Morocco on the + west (practically but one language, the Libyan, being spoken + throughout this vast breadth of Africa) were divided into three main + branches: (1) the Berbers of the East or Libyans proper (Luata, + Huara, Aurigha, Nefusa) occupying the Cyrenaica, Tripolitaine, + Tunisia and a portion of eastern Algeria; (2) the Berbers of the + West, or Sanhaga (Sanhaja), who peopled the Algerian coast-lands and + western Algeria and all Morocco as far down as the limits of the + Sahara; and (3) the Zeneta, a darker race, the descendants of the + Getulians, perhaps in origin akin to the Fula, who in the 7th + century A.C. peopled the more or less desert regions at the back of + eastern Algeria, southern Tunis and Tripoli. From these Zeneta are + descended the modern Mzab Berbers, the Wargli people, and the + Beni-Merīn who founded one of the ruling dynasties of mediaeval + Barbary. Several of these Zeneta dark-skinned Berber peoples pushed + down to the Mediterranean coast in later times. On the other hand, + many of the Eastern Berbers or Libyans were thrust back into the + desert by the Arab invaders; and some of them have become the semi + nomad “Tuareg” (Tawareq)[27] of to-day. Sections of the Western + Berbers of the Sanhaga group also passed down into the Sahara from + the 7th century onwards (though no doubt Berber invasions of Negro + Africa had occurred in previous times), and settled on or near the + northern Niger and the northern Senegal coast. In fact from Sanhaga + comes no doubt the Berber tribal name of “Zenaga” which the + Portuguese corrupted into “Senegal.” + + In the 7th century, also, the negroid Garamantes, who shared + Phazania with the incoming Berbers and were no doubt identical with + the modern Tibu or Teda (whose language is utterly unlike Libyan, + and belongs to an unclassified negro speech-group), carried on a + good deal of trading intercourse south and eastward across the + Libyan Desert with Kanem and Lake Chad, Darfur and Kordofan, and no + doubt in this way facilitated the subsequent Arab penetration of the + Sudan and the Tripolitaine. The domesticated camel had been + introduced into North Africa before this period, and greatly + facilitated these race movements across the Desert. + + In the year 623 A.C. an Arab of the Quraish Tribe of Western Arabia, + probably born in Mecca (anciently known as Bakka and really called + Makka at the present day), and named Muhammad or the Praiser, + attracted attention by establishing himself at the Palm Oasis of + Yathrib or Medina, not only as a bandit who led masterless men to + the attack of trading caravans, but also as a mystic who was + conceiving and promulgating a new form of religion, one which was + largely based on Jewish teaching and the Jewish Scriptures and yet + incorporated a few ideas from Christianity and perhaps even from the + Zoroastrian faiths of Persia. Muhammad opposed the degraded beliefs + in a variety of gods and goddesses which still lingered in Western + Arabia and, above all, at Mecca itself, where a wonderful fetish + stone—the remains of an immense meteorite—was exhibited for + reverence, and where, together with the rude representations of old + Semitic gods and a goddess named Allat[28], existed—as in + Coelo-Syria and Ancient Phoenicia—the idea of the Mahrab or Sacred + Shrine. This last was a sexual symbol and a relic of the + nature-worship of Phoenicia. It has also been the parent of the + horseshoe arch. The Sacred Shrine is an essential feature in all + Muhammadan mosques, though its original purport has long since been + forgotten. + + Muhammad prevailed partly by his successes in warfare and the rich + booty they brought to his Arab adherents, partly by his sweetness of + disposition, the magnetism of his appearance and manner, and his + gift for pouring out conceptions of God and religion and garbled + versions of the Jewish Scriptures and Christian beliefs in rhyming + couplets easily committed to memory. He united gradually under his + sceptre, as a religious teacher and legist, all the clans of + fighting men in Western Arabia; and, in search of greater spoil than + the poverty-stricken peninsula of that day could afford, he marched + northwards to convert the Roman world and the great kingdom of + Persia to his new faith. Almost like another Moses, he died on the + threshold of the promised land; for within a few years of his death + (632 A.C.) the Arab armies had not only smashed the Byzantine rule + over Syria but were pouring into Byzantine Egypt and were rapidly + conquering for the Muhammadan faith the states of South-west, South + and East Arabia, and the whole kingdom of Persia, to the very heart + of Asia. + + In 640-2 Amr-bin-al-As (an early opponent and a later convert of + Muhammad) invaded Egypt from Arabia; and he or his lieutenants + pushed thence into Tripoli, and even into Fezzan. A little later + (647-8), under Abdallah-bin-Abu-Sarh and Abdallah-bin-Zubeir, the + Arabs invaded Tripoli, and fought with a Byzantine governor known as + Gregory the Patrician, who had just before rebelled from Byzantium, + and proclaimed himself Emperor of Africa, with his seat of + government in central Tunisia. The battle lasted for days, but + Gregory was overmastered by a ruse and killed. The Arabs pursued his + defeated army into the heart of Tunisia, and even into Algeria. For + a payment of 300 quintals of gold they agreed to evacuate Tunisia, + but they left behind an agent or representative at Suffetula (the + modern Sbeitla), which had been Gregory’s capital. + + In 661 the first dissenting sect of Islam arose, the Khariji. These + schismatics preached the equality of all good Muslims—a kind of + communism—the need for a Puritan life and the cessation of the + hereditary Khalifat (Caliphate) with the death of Ali. As they were + much persecuted, some of the Khariji fled at this period to the + coast of Tunis, and in the island of Jerba their descendants remain + to this day; while their doctrines were adopted by the bulk of the + Berber population of that island[29], and spread thence right across + inner North Africa to the Atlantic coast of Morocco, becoming after + 720 almost a national religion of the Berbers as contrasted with the + orthodox Sunni Muhammadanism of the Arab governors or the Omaiyad + dynasties of Spain, or the Shia faith of the Fatimites of Tunis and + Egypt. The industrious Mzab Berbers of south central Algeria and the + Nefusa tribes of western Tripoli are also Khariji still at the + present day. + + In 669 the Arab invasions of North Africa were resumed. + Oqba-bin-Nafa overran Fezzan, and was appointed by the Omaiyad + Khalif governor of “Ifriqiah” (modern Tunis). The Byzantines were + defeated in several battles, and Kairwan[30] was founded as a + Muhammadan capital about 673. Oqba was replaced for a time by Dinar + Bu’l-Muhajr, who pushed his conquests as far west as Tlemsan, on the + borders of modern Morocco. Oqba resumed command in 681, and advanced + with his victorious army to the Sūs country and shore of the + Atlantic Ocean, afterwards receiving a somewhat friendly reception + from Count Julian at Ceuta[31] (Septa). + + But now the Berbers began to turn against the Arab invaders, finding + them worse for rapacity than Roman or Greek. A quondam ally, the + Berber prince Kuseila, united his forces with the Greek and Roman + settlers, and inflicted such a severe defeat on Oqba near Biskra + that he was enabled afterwards to rule in peace as king over + Mauretania for five years, being accepted as ruler by the European + settlers. Kuseila, however, was defeated and killed by other Arab + invaders in 688, though the victors subsequently retired and + suffered a defeat at the hands of the Byzantines in Barka. Queen + Dahia-al-Kahina[32] succeeded her relative Kuseila. The Arab + general, Hassan-bin-Numan, was successful in taking Carthage (698), + but afterwards was defeated and driven out of Tunisia by Queen + Kahina. Unfortunately this brave woman ordered a terrible + devastation of the fertile district or sub-province of Byzacene, so + that the want of food supply might deter the Arabs from returning; + and this action on her part was the beginning of the marked + deterioration of this magnificent country, the southern half of + Tunisia. Kahina was finally defeated and slain by the Arabs under + Hassan-bin-Numan in 705. Arab conquests then once more surged ahead + under Musa-bin-Nusseir. The whole of Morocco was conquered except + Ceuta, where the Arabs were repelled by Count Julian. To some extent + also Morocco was Muhammadanized; and no doubt through all these + invasions the Arabs experienced little difficulty in converting the + Berbers to Islam, even though they might subsequently enrage them by + their depredations. Before the arrival of the Arabs the Berbers in + many districts had strong leanings towards Judaism[33]. Amongst the + Berber chiefs converted to Muhammadanism by the invasion of Morocco + was a man of great gallantry known as Tarik, who became a general in + the Arab army. Tarik was left in charge of Tangiers by Musa, and + entered into friendly relations with Count Julian at Ceuta. Count + Julian, having quarrelled with the last Gothic king of Spain, urged + Tarik to invade that country. After a reconnaissance near the modern + Tarifa, Tarik invaded Spain at or near Gibraltar[34] with 13,000 + Berbers officered by 300 Arabs, and was shortly afterwards followed + by Musa with reinforcements; and Spain was thus conquered. + + For a few years longer all North Africa remained loosely connected + with the Khalifs (Caliphs) of Baghdad; then Idris, a descendant of + Ali, and consequently of Muhammad, established himself in Morocco as + an independent sultan, afterwards asserting his claim to be Khalif + and Imam, though he and his successors were of the Sunni, not the + Shia faith. At his death he was succeeded by his son Idris II; and + his blood is supposed to have filtered down through many generations + and devious ways to the present ruling family in Morocco. Until + about 800 A.C. Eastern Barbary, at any rate, was ruled by an Arab + governor from Baghdad; but soon after that date Harun-al-Rashid + appointed a brave Berber-Arab soldier, Ibrahim-bin-Aghlab, to be his + viceroy in Ifriqiah (as the Arabs called “Africa,” i.e. Tunisia). + Ibrahim-bin-Aghlab founded a dynasty which ruled over Tunis and + Tripoli for a hundred and ten years. Concurrently with the Aghlabite + viceroys or sultans in Roman “Africa,” there was the independent + Moorish kingdom of the Idrisites with its capital at Fez (near the + Roman Volubilis); a Berber principality of the Beni-Midrar at + Sigilmessa in Tafilalt (S.E. Morocco); and another of the Beni + Rustam at Tiaret (Western Algeria). These two last were Khariji or + heretic states. + + Spain had remained from 715 till about 760 an appanage of the + Abbaside Khalif of Baghdad. But in 758 there arrived in southern + Spain a refugee prince of the rival house of Omar, Abd-ar-rahman bin + Mūawiya, who after thirty years of almost incessant warfare wrested + all Spain from the Baghdad Caliphate and founded the most splendid + of the Arab dynasties in Spain, that of the Omaiyads, which lasted + till about 1020. The Omaiyad Amirs or Khalifs frequently invaded + Morocco and derived thence numbers of negro slaves, who, together + with Slav prisoners bought in Germany through the Jews, made up + their powerful mercenary armies. As Mamluks or slave-soldiers, quite + a number of Slavs from Germany and Austria—made prisoners and sold + to the Moslems of Spain by Charlemagne and his successors—settled in + North Africa from the 8th to the 10th century. + + In the ninth century numerous Shia Arabs, who were advocates of the + caliphate of the descendants of Ali and Fatima (Muhammad’s + daughter), had converted to the Shia faith the powerful Berber tribe + of the Ketama (of the Sanhaga group dwelling in Eastern Algeria); + and an emissary of the “hidden” Khalif of the Alide + family—Obeid-Allah—arrived in North Africa about 890 and preached + the Shia faith and the coming of a Madhi or Divine messenger. Having + by the aid of the Berbers overthrown the Aghlabite dynasty of + Kairwan, this emissary, who was named Abu-AbdAllah, sent for the + Mahdi, Obeid-Allah, the descendant of Ali and Fatima. Obeid-Allah + came and founded the great Fatimite dynasty which played such a part + in Tunisia, Sicily and Egypt; but ungratefully enough he caused + Abu-AbdAllah to be slain and the Ketama tribe to be massacred. He + then moved his capital from Kairwan to Mahdia, or Mehdia, on the + coast of Tunisia, a city which he founded on the ruins of a Roman + town. His son and successor, who nicknamed himself “The sustainer of + God’s orders” (Al-Kaïm bi Amr Allah), instituted the practice of + never appearing in the open in public without a sunshade being held + over his head—the Royal Umbrella which still figures in Moroccan + court ceremonial. Under the third sovereign, Al Mu’izz, the dynasty + of Fatimite Caliphs reigned over all North Africa, from Morocco to + Egypt, and thence to Damascus. The Fatimite general commanding the + army in Egypt, Jauhar-al-Kaid, founded the citadel and town of Cairo + (Al Kahirah) in 969-71[35], more or less on the sites of the + previous Arab capitals of Al-Masr, Al-’Askar, and Al-Katai; and here + the Fatimite Caliph transferred his capital and his presence from + Kairwan, giving up the rule over Tripoli, Tunis, Algeria and Morocco + to Berber viceroys. + + From the 7th to the middle of the 11th century, the Arab element in + North Africa was small and represented chiefly by a few thousand + warriors, statesmen and religious teachers, who had in a marvellous + manner, difficult to explain, forced their religion, and to some + extent their language and rule, on several millions of Berbers, on + some 300,000 Christians of Roman, Greek and Gothic origin, and + 100,000 Jews. But in the 11th century took place those Arab + invasions of North Africa which have been the main source of the + Arab element in the northern part of the continent, and without + which Muhammadanism might in time have faded away; and a series of + independent Berber states have been formed once more under Christian + rule. + + About 1045 two Arab tribes, the Beni-Hilal and the Beni-Soleim + (originally from Central Arabia, and deported thence to Upper + Egypt), left the right bank of the Nile to invade Barbary. They had + made themselves troublesome in Upper Egypt; and the weakened rulers + of that country, to get rid of them, had urged them to invade + north-western Africa. About two or three hundred thousand crossed + the desert and reached the frontiers of Tunis and Tripoli. They + defeated the Berbers at the battle of Haiderān, and then settled in + southern Tunis and western Tripoli. During their raids they + destroyed the city of Kairwan, which never regained its former + importance. Eventually some portion of them was unseated by the + Berbers and driven westward into Morocco. They were succeeded by + fresh drafts from Egypt and Arabia, but many of these later invaders + settled in Barka and eastern Tripoli[36]. Later on other Arab tribes + left the west coast of Arabia, and settled on the central Nile, + avoiding the Abyssinian highlands, where they were kept at bay by + their Christianized relatives of far earlier immigrations; and on + the Blue Nile (Sennār), where they founded the powerful Funj empire + which lasted from the 14th to the early 19th century. From the upper + Nile they directed many and repeated invasions of Central and + Western Africa. To this day tribes of more or less pure Arab descent + are found in the districts round Lake Chad, in Darfur, Wadai, and in + the western Sahara north of the Senegal and Niger rivers. + + In the 11th century began the real revival of the Roman Empire from + the onslaught of Arabia and the prior Teutonic invasions. The + Normans recovered Sicily and Malta from the Berbers; earlier still, + the Pisans drove the Berbers out of Sardinia and crushed them in + Majorca. The cities of Italy, forming themselves into republics, + were tempted by their extending commerce to interfere with North + Africa. The Venetians, in spite of the hare-brained crusades and the + damage that they did by reviving Muhammadan fanaticism, began to + open up those commercial relations with Egypt, which for four and a + half centuries gave them the monopoly of the Levant and Indian + trade. The Normans, after founding the kingdom of Naples and Sicily, + commenced a series of bold attacks on the coasts of Algeria, Tunis + and Tripoli, which did not however lead to an occupation of more + than forty years (about 1123 to 1163). The Pisan and Genoese natives + in the 11th and 12th centuries carried out a series of such sharp + reprisals against the Moorish pirates, that they inspired some + respect for Italy in the minds of Tunisians and Algerians. + Afterwards they were enabled to open up commercial relations, + especially with the north coast of Tunis; and these, to the + advantage of both Italy and Barbary, continued, with fitful + interruptions, until the 16th century. + + In the 11th century another great Berber movement took place—the + rise of the “Almoravides.” The name of this sect of Muhammadan + reformers is a Spanish corruption of _Al-Murabitin_, which is the + plural of _Marabut_; and _Marabut_ is derived from the place-name + _Ribat_ (a monastery or school), meaning “the people living at the + Ribat,” though the word has since come to mean in North Africa and + elsewhere a Muhammadan saint. The Almoravides owed their origin to + one of the early African Mahdis or Messiahs, of whom the tale has + subsequently been repeated and repeated with such servile imitation + of detail that one can only imagine the mass of African Muhammadans + to have been without any philosophical reflections on history or any + sense of humour; since Mahdi after Mahdi arises as an ascetic saint, + and dies a licentious monarch, whose power passes into the hands of + a lieutenant, who is the first in the line of a slowly crumbling + dynasty. Far away across the Sahara Desert, and near the Upper + Niger, was a tribe of Tawareq Berbers known as the Lamta or Lemtuna, + who had been in the 10th century converted to Muhammadanism. The + chief of this tribe, returning from a pilgrimage to Mecca, met a + Berber of South Morocco known as Ibn Yaṣin, who on his Meccan + pilgrimage had acquired a great reputation for austere holiness. The + chief of the Lemtuna invited Ibn Yaṣin to his court; and the latter, + after arriving in the Niger countries, established himself on an + island named Ribat, on the upper Niger, where he collected adherents + round him and promulgated his puritanical reforms. Gradually Ibn + Yaṣin’s influence extended over the whole Lamta or Lemtuna tribe, + and he urged these Berbers towards the conversion of Senegambia. It + was mainly through his influence that the Berbers were carried by + their conquests into Senegambia and Nigeria. Then he led them (about + 1050) north-west across the Sahara Desert; and they conquered + Morocco, and from thence invaded Muhammadan Spain. By this time Ibn + Yaṣin, the teacher, was dead, but the warrior chief of the Lamta + tribe—Yussuf-bin-Tashfin—had become sovereign of Morocco and Spain, + and had assumed the title of Amir-al-Mumenin[37]. + + A hundred years later another Berber Mahdi arose in the person of + Ibn Tumert, who was “run” by Abd-al-Mumin of Tlemsan (West Algeria), + and whose fighting force was the great Berber tribe of the Masmuda + from the High Atlas Mountains. The programme was the same—to start + with puritanical reform, afterwards degenerating rapidly into mere + lust of conquest. This small sect known by us as the “Almohades” + (from Al-Muāḥadim or Muaḥidūn, meaning “(Disciples of) the Unity of + God[38]”) attacked the decaying power of the Almoravides. Ibn + Tumert—an exact parallel of all the Mahdis—died early in the + struggle, but was succeeded as “Khalifa” by his warlike lieutenant, + Abd-al-Mumin, who pursued his conquests until he had brought under + his power all North Africa and Muhammadan Spain, and had founded the + greatest Berber empire that ever existed. Concurrently, however, + with the sway of his overlordship, the Ziri and Hamadi dynasties of + Berber sultans continued to exist at Tunis and in eastern Algeria. + After ruling for a century the Almohade empire broke up, and was + succeeded by independent Berber rulers in Tunis and Tripoli (the + Hafsides), in Algeria (the Abd-al-Wadite or Zeyanite kings of + Tlemsan), and in Morocco (the Marinide or Beni-Marin). Remarkable + among these was the Hafs dynasty, which governed Tunis and part of + Tripoli for 300 years, and proved the most beneficent of all + Muhammadan rulers in North Africa. Abu Muhammad Hafsi was a Berber + governor of Tunis under one of the last of the Almohade emperors, + and eventually became the independent sovereign of Tunisia. The + Almohade rulers, towards the end of the 12th century, had + transported most of the turbulent Arabs of southern and central + Tunisia to Morocco, where for the first time the Arabs began to form + an appreciable element in the population. About this time Kurdish + and Turkish mercenaries began to find employment in Tunisia and in + Tripoli under chiefs who rebelled against the Almohade empire. + During the period between 1250 and 1500 the Moorish civilization, + art, architecture, letters, and industries reached their highest + development: especially at Kairwan, Tlemsan, and Fas (Fez). + + In 1270 that truly good but erratic monarch, St Louis of France, + deflected a crusade intended for the Levant to Tunis as being a + Muhammadan country much nearer at hand and more accessible. Moreover + his brother, Charles of Anjou, claimed the sovereignty of Sicily and + Naples, and thought the possession of Tunis would better establish + his precarious kingdom. Louis IX landed at Carthage, but owing to + failing health his imposing invasion was followed by military + inaction. He died at Carthage, and a capitulation subsequently took + place by which the Crusaders retired from Tunisia. After their + departure the Muhammadans entirely destroyed all that remained of + Roman Carthage, as the buildings had afforded to the invaders the + protection of fortresses. Up till that time a good deal of Roman + civilization had lingered in Tunisia, but now the country became + more and more Arabized. Christian bishops probably ceased to exist + in the 13th century, but Christians were not persecuted for another + two or three hundred years, until the attacks of the Spaniards and + the intervention of the Turks roused Muhammadan fanaticism to a high + degree which is only beginning to abate with the opening of the 20th + century and the spread of education. + + In the 13th century the Spanish and Portuguese kings reduced the + area of Muhammadan rule in the Iberian Peninsula to the kingdom of + Granada in S.E. Spain; and early in the 15th century the kingdom of + Portugal felt itself sufficiently strong to carry the war into the + enemy’s country. In 1415 the Portuguese army, to which was attached + Prince Henry, afterwards known as the Navigator, captured the + Moorish citadel of Ceuta on the Moroccan coast; and from this + episode started the magnificent Portuguese discoveries initiated by + Prince Henry which will be described in the next chapter. The + Portuguese subsequently acquired Tangier, Tetwan, and most of the + ports along the Atlantic coast of Morocco. Castile-Aragon, bursting + out a little later, when her monarchs had conquered the last Moorish + kingdom on Spanish soil (Granada), seized Melilla in 1490, and, on + one pretext or another, port after port along the coasts of Algeria + and Tunis, until by 1540 the Spanish empire had established + garrisons at Oran, Bugia, Bona, Hunein, and Goletta[39]. They also + instigated the Knights of Malta—an outcome of the crusades—to hold + for a time the town of Tripoli in Barbary, and the Tunisian island + of Jerba. The Portuguese kings by the middle of the 16th century + were practically suzerains of Morocco. The penultimate ruler of the + brilliant House of Avis—young Dom Sebastião—determined in 1578, soon + after his accession to the throne of Portugal at the age of 23, + thoroughly to conquer Morocco. He landed with 100,000 men at + Acila[40], then marched inland and took up a position behind the + Wad-al-Makhazen on the fatal field of Kasr-al-Kabir. But he was + utterly defeated by the Moors under Mulai Abd-al-Malek (who died + during the battle) and Abu’l Abbas Ahmad-al-Mansur. The latter + became Sultan of all Morocco after the defeat and death of the + unfortunate Dom Sebastião. Al-Mansur belonged to a family of Sa’adi + Sharifs[41] (noblemen—descended from Fatima and Ali and therefore + from Muhammad) from the upper valley of the river Draa in South + Morocco. His ancestor, Muhammad-al-Mahdi, had overturned the + Marinide Sultan and founded the second Sharifian (Arab) or Saadian + dynasty. Nevertheless, the Portuguese retained most of their + fortified ports on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, and also Ceuta. + During the 60 years of the abeyance of the Portuguese monarchy + (1580-1640) these places became nominally Spanish, but returned to + Portugal with the restoration of the House of Bragança, though Ceuta + and Melilla were subsequently ceded to Spain, and Tangier to + England. Thus ended what might very well have been, but for the + battle of Kasr-al-Kabīr, the Portuguese Empire of Morocco. + + At the end of the 12th century, other Sharifs of Yanbu, the coast + port of the holy city of Medina in Arabia, following returning + Moorish pilgrims, established themselves at Sijilmassa in Tafilalt, + or Filal, a country of Southern Morocco. One of them, + Hassan-bin-Kassim, increasing greatly in power, became in the 15th + century the founder of the present Sharifian dynasty of Morocco; + though some centuries elapsed before these Filali chiefs succeeded + in becoming supreme rulers over both Fez and Marrakesh. The Filali + Sultans did not displace the Saadian Sharifs till 1658. + + But during the reign of the sixth Saadian monarch—Al-Mansur, also + surnamed “the Golden”—Morocco reached the acme of her power and + acquired a vast Nigerian dominion. At the close of the 15th century + a Muhammadan negro dynasty had arisen on the upper Niger, and in the + western Sudan. One of these negro kings, who made a pilgrimage to + Mecca, obtained from the descendant of the Abbaside khalifs residing + at Cairo the title of “Lieutenant of the Prince of Believers in the + Sudan.” He made Timbuktu[42] his capital, and it became a place of + great learning and flourishing commerce. His grandson, + Ishak-bin-Sokya[43], became rich and powerful, and attracted the + rapacity of the Saadian Sharifian Khalif of Morocco (Abu’l Abbas + al-Mansur, who had distinguished himself by wiping out the + Portuguese under Dom Sebastião at the battle of Kasr-al-Kabīr), and + had recently extended his rule across the Sahara to the oasis of + Twat[44]. The Moorish emperor attempted to pick a quarrel by + disputing this negro king’s right to the title of Lieutenant of the + Khalifs in the Sudan, demanded his vassalage, and a tax on the + Sahara salt mines along the route to Timbuktu. Ishak-bin-Sokya + refused, whereupon a Moorish army under Juder Basha was despatched + by Abu’l Abbas-al-Mansur in 1590 to conquer the Sudan. This army + crossed the Sahara, defeated Ishak-bin-Sokya, and captured Timbuktu, + but raised the siege of Gaghu or Gao, lower down the Niger, whither + Ishak had fled. A more vigorous commander, Mahmud Basha, completed + the Moorish conquest of the Sudan, a conquest which extended in its + effects to Bornu on the one hand and to Senegambia on the other, and + only faded away in the 18th century, mainly owing to the uprise of + the Fula and the attacks of the Tawareq. Gradually all Morocco was + brought under Sharifian rule; all European hold over the country was + eradicated; and the reign of culminating glory was that of the + Filali emperor Mulai Ismail, the “Bloodthirsty,” who ruled for 57 + years, and is said to have left living children to the number of 548 + boys and 340 girls. Mulai Ismail died in 1727. He had attained to + and maintained himself in supreme power by the introduction of + regiments of well-drilled Sudan Negroes; but the “nigrification” of + Morocco—the importation on a large scale of negro slaves and + soldiers—had begun much earlier in the conquest of North Africa by + the Lamtuna Berbers from the northern Niger, the “Almoravides.” But + the civilization and the conquering power of Morocco were largely + due to the “Ruma” or “Rumi” element, the Spanish Moors emigrating + from Spain and bringing into North-West Africa a powerful “White + Man” element—for they were often the descendants of the + Roman-Iberian people of Gothic Spain. They were remarkable for their + knowledge of firearms and their skill as artisans; and their + descendants are everywhere the “aristocracy” of Muhammadan North + Africa. + + Morocco might have conquered and ruled all North Africa in the 16th + century but for the arrival of the Turks. The Turks, who had + replaced the Arabs of Mesopotamia, Syria, and Asia Minor as + Muhammadan rulers, had captured Constantinople in 1453, had seized + Egypt in 1517, and were becoming the backbone of the Muhammadan + power. When the Algerians and Tunisians appealed to Turkish pirates + for help against the attacks of the Christian Spaniards in the 16th + century, the Sultan of Constantinople took advantage of their + intervention to establish, through the Turkish Corsairs, Turkish + regencies in Algeria (1519), Tunis (1573), and Tripoli (1551)[45]. + Morocco, however, always remained independent; and indeed, after the + extinction of the line of Abbasid Baghdad Khalifs at Cairo in 1538, + the great Sharifian sovereign, Al-Mansur, after his victory over the + Portuguese, declared himself Khalif over the Muhammadan world in + right of his descent from Fatima and Ali, and refused to recognize + the claim of the Ottoman Emperor of Constantinople to have acquired + the transfer of the Caliphate from Motawakkiq the last of the + Abbasids in 1517. Nevertheless, though Morocco remained a great + independent Muhammadan power, her princes borrowed many customs from + Turkey, such as the Turkish style of clothing, the Turkish method of + arranging troops in battle, and the title of Pasha (Basha). + + Except in Morocco, Turkish control replaced Arab influence in + northern Africa, and extended by degrees far into the old Garamantan + kingdom of Fezzan, and across the Libyan Desert to the Red Sea. But + no matter whether Turk, Circassian, Greek, Albanian, Slav, or + Arabized Negro ruled in Berber North Africa, Muhammadan influence + and Arab culture continued to spread over all the northern half of + Africa. Somaliland, Sennār, Nubia, Kordofan, Darfur, Wadai, Bornu, + Hausa-land and the Sahara, much of Senegambia, and most of the + country within the bend of the Niger and along the banks of the + upper Volta were converted to Muhammadanism, and became familiar + with the Arab tongue as the religious language, and with some degree + of Arab civilization. + + Egypt after the Arab invasion of 640-2 was governed from the Delta + of the Nile to the First Cataract by Arab governors deputed by the + Khalif of Baghdad. The Christian Copts and Greeks were not + materially interfered with, provided they paid their taxes + regularly. In 706 Arabic finally displaced Greek as the official + language of the country, and never subsequently lost its hold over + Egypt. Coptic (the degenerate form of Ancient Egyptian) gradually + sank into the position of a ritual language only connected with + religious exercises and literature; and Arabic since the 8th century + has been the universal speech of all Egypt, except in the Oasis of + Siwa, where a Berber dialect is still spoken, and among the tribes + inhabiting the lands between the Cataract Nile and the Red Sea, who + preserve their Hamitic (Gala-like) languages. A good deal of Arab + colonization of Upper and Lower Egypt, and of Nubia and Dongola, + took place between the 8th and the 12th centuries. In 828-32 a + serious rebellion of Copts and of malcontent Arabs was only + suppressed by the Baghdad Khalif introducing an army of 2000 Turks; + and from this time onwards the Turks had much to do with Egypt, as + they had with Syria and Mesopotamia, because the Arabs were losing + their energy and fighting capacity. After 856 most of the + functionaries in Egypt were Turks; and in 875 a Turkish governor, + Ahmad bin Tulūn, turned his governorship into a hereditary + sovereignty. The Tulunid dynasty of sultans governed Egypt till 905, + when the direct rule of the Baghdad Khalifs was resumed. Then, once + more, a Turkish governor was appointed to rule Egypt for the Khalif, + in 935, to whom was granted the kingly title of Ikshid. The Ikshids + governed until 969, when they were supplanted by the establishment + of the Fatimite Khalif Mu’izz-li-din-Allah already referred to, who + left Tunisia in 973 to take up his residence first in Alexandria and + then in newly-founded Cairo. + + This revolution was really effected by a Jewish official, Yakub bin + Killis, and a Slav or Greek general, Jauhar, both of them converts + to Islam. The Fatimite Khalifs of Egypt rose for a short time to be + the greatest power in Islam, their empire extending from Tangier to + Aleppo, and nearly always including Syria. But the Khalifs soon + became puppet sovereigns, the rule being carried on in their name by + Jewish, Syrian, Negro, Turkish, or Kurd ministers. Between 1163 and + 1170 the French and German crusaders invaded Egypt and for a short + time garrisoned Cairo. They were driven out by a Kurdish prefect of + Alexandria, Salah-ad-din Yusaf bin Ayub (“Joseph the son of Job”—the + famous “Saladin”), who at last swept away the fiction of these Shia + Khalifs, restored the Sunni form of Muhammadanism and proclaimed the + Abbasid Khalifs of Baghdad as spiritual leaders. Egypt has remained + Sunni ever since. Saladin however made himself “Malik” or King of + Egypt and Syria. His descendants ruled Egypt, Western Arabia and + such parts of Palestine as were not occupied by the Crusaders until + 1260, when this Ayubite dynasty was replaced by that of the Turkish + slave, Bibars. The Ayubite kings of Egypt purchased large numbers of + boy slaves (_Mamluk_) and trained them as soldiers. They were + European Slavs, Greeks and Italians, Asiatic Turks, Circassians, + Kurds and Mongols. These dynasties of slave sultans recognized and + kept in their midst a puppet Abbasid Khalif, who after the capture + of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1260 resided in Cairo. The Mamluk Kings + governed Egypt until 1517, when this land was conquered by the + Ottoman Turks and the last of the Abbasid Khalifs was compelled to + confer the Muhammadan Caliphate (most illegally) on the Ottoman + Emperor of Rūm (Rome, i.e. Constantinople). But the Mamluk or slave + soldiers, derived from the races above mentioned, continued to exist + and to some extent to administer Egypt even under Turkish governors + till the invasion of the French in 1798; they revived again after + the French quitted Egypt (1801), till the last of them were + massacred by a Turkish (Macedonian-Albanian) major of artillery, + Muhammad Ali, who became the almost independent Pasha of Egypt and + founded the present dynasty of the Khedives. + + During all this period of twelve hundred and twenty years (between, + let us say, 690 and 1910) while Northern Africa lay under Islamic + control, enormous numbers of Asiatics and Europeans colonized Egypt + and Mauretania—Arabs, Jews, Syrians; Turks, Kurds and some Persians; + Greeks, Slavs (sold by the conquering Germans to Jewish dealers who + resold these Poles, Chekhs, Wends, Croats and Serbs to the Spanish + Arabs, the Berbers, Egyptians and Turks); Italians, Spaniards, + Germans; French; and even English and Irish. One is also struck with + the power wielded over the Muhammadan world of North Africa by the + Jew, which was not displaced till the modern Christian European + conquest of North Africa. + + Arabs completely displaced the Hamitic tribes on the Desert Nile in + Nubia, Dongola and Sennār after the 11th and 12th centuries, and in + the last-named country, Sennār, founded the Funj dynasty of kings + which powerfully affected North-East Africa from the 13th to the + 18th centuries. In the 12th century, Somaliland was converted to + Islam and from that period onwards permeated by Arabs. From the + middle of the 8th century, the pre-Islamic settlements of southern + Arabs along the East coast of Africa were revived by fresh bands of + militant traders and missionaries of Islam. Arabs established + themselves once more at Sofala, at Sena and Quelimane on the lower + Zambezi, at Moçambique, Kilwa, Zanzibar, Mombasa, and various ports + on the Somali coast. A colony of Muhammadanized Persians joined them + in the 10th century at Lamu; and Persian as well as Muhammadan + Indian influence began to be very apparent in architecture on the + East coast of Africa. The powerful Sultanate of Kilwa was founded in + the 10th century, and exercised for some time a dominating influence + over all the other Arab settlements on the East coast of Africa. + Arabs, as already related, had discovered the island of Madagascar, + which they first made clearly known to history. In Islamic times + they again settled as traders on its north and north-west coasts, + while the adjoining Comoro Islands or Islands of the “Full Moon” + (Komr) became little Arab sultanates practically in the hands of + Arabized Negroes. Until the coming of the Portuguese in the 16th + century these Arab East African states were sparsely colonized by + Himyaritic or South Arabian Arabs from the Hadhramaut, Yaman, and + Aden. But a development of power and enterprise amongst the Arabs of + Maskat, which led to their driving away the Portuguese from the + Persian Gulf and subsequently attacking them on the East coast of + Africa, caused the Maskat[46] Arab to become the dominant type. The + Maskat Arabs founded the modern Zanzibar sultanate, which quite late + in the 19th century was separated by the intervention of the British + Government from the parent state of ’Oman. + + As the result of the Muhammadan invasion of Africa from Arabia—only + brought to a close at the end of the 19th century—it may be stated + that Arabized Berbers ruled in North and North-West Africa; Arabized + Turks ruled in North and North-East Africa; Arabized Negroes ruled + on the Niger, and in the Central Sudan; Arabs ruled more directly on + the Nile, and on the Nubian coast; and the Arabs of south Arabia and + of ’Oman governed the East African coast, and eventually carried + their influence, and to some extent their rule, inland to the great + Central African lakes, and even to the Upper Congo. + + The Muhammadan colonization of Africa was the first event which + brought that part of the continent beyond the Sahara and Upper + Egypt within the cognizance of the world of civilization and + history. The Arabs introduced from Syria and Mesopotamia an + architecture—“Saracenic”—which was an offshoot of the + Byzantine[47], with a dash of Persian or Indian influence. This + architecture received at the hands of the Berbers and Egyptians an + extraordinarily beautiful development, which penetrated northwards + into Spain and Sicily and in a modified type into Italy, and + southwards reached the Lower Niger, the Upper Nile, the vicinity + of the Zambezi, and the north coast of Madagascar. They gave to + all the northern third of Africa a _lingua franca_ in Arabic, and + besides spreading certain ideas of Greek medicine and philosophy, + they taught the Koran, which admitted all those Berber and Negro + populations into that circle of civilized nations which has + founded so much of its hopes, philosophy and culture on the + Semitic Scriptures. The Arabs, especially of Yaman and ’Oman, were + the means, more or less direct (especially through their seafaring + trade with India), of enlarging the food supply and means of + transport of the negro and negroid, and of conveying to Europe a + few useful African products, such as coffee. They had much to do + with the introduction of the Indian buffalo into Egypt, and the + camel into the Sahara and Libyan deserts, Nigeria and Somaliland. + Similarly they extended the range of the domestic horse and ass, + of goats, and sheep and poultry in Negro Africa. They certainly + introduced the lime and orange, and the sugar cane, and possibly + the banana; though this last may date back to pre-Islamic times, + like wheat and rice. + + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + + MUHAMMADAN AFRICA + + Plate II. + +[Illustration] + + Sir H.H. Johnston del^t. W.&A.K. Johnston Limited. Edinburgh & + London + + EXPLANATORY NOTE + [yellow] Indicates approximate area over which Islam is the + dominating religion at the present day + (_N.B.—The present area is larger than it has ever been in the + past_) + +_Dotted spots of colour illustrate sporadic establishments of + Muhammadanism_ + +_The Boundaries of most important Muhammadan Empires when at their + greatest extent are shown in coloured lines_ + + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + + Through their contact with Europeans, Arabs and Arabized Berbers + first sketched out with some approach to correctness the geography + of Inner Africa, and of the African coasts and islands. The direct + and immediate result of this Muhammadan conquest of Africa was the + drawing into that continent of the Portuguese—themselves but + recently emancipated from Muhammadan rule, and still retaining some + conversance with Arabic, a language already used in African and + Eastern commerce from Tangier and the Senegal to Ternate and the + Spice Islands off the coasts of New Guinea. Thanks to this intimate + acquaintance with Muhammadans, and their _lingua franca_, the + Portuguese were now to advance considerably the colonization of + Africa by the Caucasian race. + +----- + +Footnote 27: + + Tawareq is the plural of an Arabic word, Tarqi, a raider. + +Footnote 28: + + The origin of the name Allah applied by Muhammadans to the Supreme + God. Allah acquired a masculine sense although in its original + form the word was feminine. + +Footnote 29: + + Jerba, usually called Meninx by the ancients, is supposed to have + been the Island of Lotos-Eaters of Greek mythology. + +Footnote 30: + + The origin of the name Kairwan has been much disputed. The present + writer, visiting this place some years ago, was told by a native + that the word was the Arab name for a small bustard-like courser + (a bird which the French call Poule de Kairouan), and that, seeing + this bird in large numbers—where it is still to be found—in the + marshy plain on which the city was built, the Arabs gave its name + to the town. Kairwan was chosen as the site for the Muhammadan + capital by the early Arab invaders because it was considered + sufficiently far from the sea-coast to be beyond the reach of + attack from a Byzantine fleet. + +Footnote 31: + + Count Julian appears to have been a Byzantine governor on the + coast of Morocco, who after the Byzantine downfall to some extent + attached himself to the Romanized Gothic kingdom of Spain. + +Footnote 32: + + This is the Arab rendering of her name. Dahia meant “queen” and + Al-Kahina “the wise woman” or “prophetess.” This remarkable + personage was from a Berber tribe, the Jorāwa, which had been + converted to Judaism and was partly Jewish in blood. + +Footnote 33: + + Jewish colonies began to settle in North Africa soon after the + destruction of Jerusalem, or even as far back as the Ptolemaic + rule over Egypt. The Jews were particularly attracted to Tunisia + and Tripoli (the former Carthaginian coast) by their kinship in + race and language with the Phoenicians. + +Footnote 34: + + The rocky peninsula where Tarik landed was called by the Arabs + Jibl-al-Tarik, a name which subsequently became corrupted by the + Spaniards into Gibraltar. + +Footnote 35: + + There has been a succession of great cities since prehistoric + times ranging round about or situated on the site of Cairo—an + “inevitable” city site, because it is at the head of the Nile + Delta. Memphis was only 12 miles away, and Heliopolis or On less + than half that distance. Babel or Babylon was built by emigrants + from old Babylon on the Euphrates on the actual site of Cairo in + about 525 B.C. This became a Roman city and was succeeded by the + Arab Al Fostat or Masr. + +Footnote 36: + + A little more than one-third of the modern population of + Cyrenaica, Tripoli, and Mauretania is of Arab race; but + seven-tenths of the North African population speak Arabic and not + Berber. + +Footnote 37: + + Prince of the Faithful. + +Footnote 38: + + From the Arabic _Wahad_, “The One.” + +Footnote 39: + + It also later on left traces of its temporary occupation on the + island of Jerba, where a fine Spanish fortress remains intact to + this day. + +Footnote 40: + + Arzila. + +Footnote 41: + + _Sharif_, plur. _Shorfa_, means in Arabic “nobly born.” The first + Sharifian Arab dynasty ruled Morocco from 788 to 970. Then + followed a long succession of Berber dynasties till 1524, when the + Sa’adi Sharifs from the upper Draa began to rule Morocco. The + third Sharifian Arab dynasty—Filali, from Ta-filal-t—succeeded the + Sa’adi Sultans in the 17th century and still occupies the Moroccan + throne. + +Footnote 42: + + Timbuktu had been founded by a Tawareq (Berber) tribe about 1100 + A.C. + +Footnote 43: + + or Askia. + +Footnote 44: + + Now in the hinterland of Algeria, and occupied by the French. + +Footnote 45: + + Algeria and Tunis were conquered by Turkish pirates, quite as much + from the mild Berber dynasties possessing them as from the Spanish + encroachments. Tripoli was taken from the Knights of Malta. + Gradually all these three Regencies detached themselves from the + Turkish Empire in everything but the mere acknowledgment of + suzerainty; but, in 1835, the Turks abruptly resumed the direct + control of Tripoli and Barka, to which they added Fezzan in 1842. + +Footnote 46: + + or ’Oman. Maskat is the capital of the principality of ’Oman (a + word which is really pronounced ’ūman) in East Arabia, ruled by an + “Imam” or laicized descendant of a line of preacher-kings or + “Prince Bishops,” leaders of the Ibadite sect of Puritan + Muhammadans, believing mostly that sin was worse than unbelief. + The Ibadites were identical in origin with the N. African Khariji + already described, whose tenets, in the 18th and 19th centuries, + were unconsciously repeated by the followers of Muhammad ibn + Abd-al-Wahhab, the conquering “Wahhabis” of Nejd. + +Footnote 47: + + The architectural style known as Saracenic made its beginnings in + Inner Syria and Mesopotamia a century or nearly so before the + Muhammadan invasion; and the “Horseshoe Arch” or the arch + prolonged for more than half a circle was invented by Hellenized + Syrians in the sixth century of this era. The “Mahrab” of the + Mosque and some of the doming were added by the Arabs and actually + descend from the symbols of phallic worship. + + + + + CHAPTER IV + + THE PORTUGUESE IN AFRICA + + + The mother of Portugal was Galicia, that north-western province of + the present Kingdom of Spain. It was here at any rate that the + Portuguese language developed from a dialect of provincial Latin, + and hence that the first expeditions started to drive the Moors out + of that territory which subsequently became the Kingdom of Portugal. + A large element in the populations of Galicia and of the northern + parts of Portugal was Gothic. The Suevi settled here in considerable + numbers; and their descendants at the present day show the fine tall + figures, flaxen or red hair, and blue eyes so characteristic of the + northern Teuton. Central Portugal is mainly of Latinized Iberian + stock, while southern Portugal retains to this day a large element + of Moorish blood. The northern part of Portugal was first wrested + from the Moors in the 11th century by the bravery of Alfonso V, + Ferdinand I and Alfonso VI, Kings of Leon. Alfonso VI placed it (as + a tributary county) in charge of Henric of Besançon or Burgundy, a + French prince of the Capetian house, who married the illegitimate + daughter of Alfonso VI, and extended the conquered area nearly to + the banks of the Tagus. He became known to the Moors as Errik; and + his warrior son Alfonso I was styled in Moorish history “ibn Errik,” + the “son of Henry.” Alfonso I became the first king of Portugal in + 1143, though it is doubtful whether the kingly title was assumed or + recognized till the reign of Henric’s great-great grandson Alfonso + III, by whom in 1250 the southernmost province of Algarve[48] was + conquered. By the middle of the 13th century the Moors had ceased to + rule in the Roman Lusitania. Lisbon, the capital, had been wrested + from the Muhammadans in 1147, thanks to the cooperation of a + crusading force of English, Dutch and Germans, who volunteered the + aid of their ships and fighting men. Most of these Saxon crusaders + settled in Portugal, which at that period even imported Anglo-Saxon + or English architects and craftsmen; and not a few of the later + _conquistadores_ and bold sea-captains of the Lusitanian kingdom + could trace their descent from Teutonic adventurers of the 12th + century. + + In course of time the Portuguese, not content with ridding the + western part of the Peninsula of the Moorish invaders, attempted to + carry the war into the enemy’s country, urged thereto by the + irritating attacks of Moorish pirates. In 1415, as already + mentioned, a Portuguese army landed on the coast of Morocco, and + captured the citadel of Ceuta, the Roman Septa. One by one the + Portuguese captured the coast towns of north-west Morocco, till in + the second half of the 16th century the king of Portugal was almost + entitled to that claim over the Empire of Morocco which asserted + itself down to 1910 in the formal setting-forth of his dignities. + Most of these posts were either abandoned some years before or just + after the defeat of the young king “Sebastião o Desejado”—Sebastian + the desired—who at the age of only 23 was defeated and slain by the + founder of the Sharifian dynasty of Morocco on the fatal field of Al + Kasr-al-Kabīr in 1578[49]. Ceuta was taken over by Spain in 1580—was + garrisoned, that is, by Spanish soldiers[50]; the two or three other + Moroccan towns which remained in Portuguese hands after the battle + of Kasr-al-Kabīr, being garrisoned by Portuguese soldiers, reverted + to the separated crown of Portugal in 1640. Of these Tangier was + ceded to England in 1662, Saffi was given up to the Moors in 1641, + other points were snatched by the Moors in 1689, and Mazagan was + finally lost in 1770. + + The second son of the king Dom João I (who reigned from 1385 to + 1433) and Philippa, daughter of the English John of Gaunt, was named + Henry (Henrique), and was subsequently known to all time as “Henry + the Navigator” from the interest he took in maritime exploration. He + was present at the siege of Ceuta in 1415, and after its capture was + said to have inquired with much interest as to the condition of + Morocco and of the unknown African interior, and to have heard from + the Moors of Timbuktu. + + On his return to Portugal he established himself on the rocky + promontory of Sagres, and devoted himself to the encouragement of + the exploration of the coasts of Africa. Under his direction + expedition after expedition set out. First Cape Bojador to the south + of the Moroccan coast was doubled by Gil Eannes in 1434[51]. In + 1441-2 Antonio Gonsalvez and Nuno Tristam passed Cape Blanco on the + Sahara coast, and on the return journey called at the Rio d’Ouro or + River of Gold[52], whence they brought back some gold dust and ten + slaves. These slaves having been sent by Prince Henry to Pope Martin + V, the latter conferred upon Portugal the right of possession and + sovereignty over all countries that might be discovered between Cape + Blanco and India. In 1445 a Portuguese named João Fernandez made the + first over-land exploration, starting alone from the mouth of the + Rio d’Ouro, and travelling over seven months in the interior. In the + following year the river Senegal was reached, and Cape Verde was + doubled by Diniz Diaz; and in 1448 the coast was explored as far as + the Gambia river. In 1455-6 Ca’ da Mosto (a Venetian in Portuguese + service) and Uso di Mare (a Genoese) discovered the Cape Verde + Islands, and visited the rivers Senegal and Gambia, bringing back + much information in regard to Timbuktu, the trade in gold and ivory + with the coast, and the over-land trade routes from the Niger to the + Mediterranean. It is asserted by the Portuguese that some years + later two Portuguese envoys actually reached Timbuktu; but the truth + of this assertion is somewhat problematical, since, had they done + so, they would probably have dissipated to some extent the excessive + exaggerations regarding the wealth and importance of the Songhai + capital. In 1460 Diego Gomes reached the river and mountain + peninsula of Sierra Leone; the last named from the incessant rumble + of thunderstorms making the mountain range roar like a lion. In + 1462, two years after the death of Prince Henry, Pedro de Sintra + explored the coast as far as Cape Palmas in modern Liberia. By 1471 + the whole Guinea coast had been followed to the Gold Coast and on + past the Niger delta, to the Cameroons and as far south as the + Ogowe. + + In 1448, under Prince Henry’s directions, a fort had been built on + the Bay of Arguin, to the south of Cape Blanco; and a few years + later a Portuguese company was formed for carrying on a trade with + the Guinea coast in slaves and gold. The first expedition sent out + by this company resulted in the despatch of 200 Negro slaves to + Portugal, and thenceforward the slave trade grew and prospered. It + at first resulted in but little misery for the slaves, who exchanged + a hunted, hand-to-mouth existence among savage tribes in Africa for + relatively kind treatment and comfortable living in beautiful + Portugal, where they were much in favour as house servants. In 1481 + the Portuguese, who had been for some years examining the Gold + Coast, decided to build a fort to protect their trade there. In 1482 + the fort was completed and the Portuguese flag raised in token of + sovereignty. This strong place, for more than a hundred years in + possession of the Portuguese, was called Saõ Jorge da Mina[53]. In + the same year in which this first Portuguese post was established on + the Gold Coast[54], exploration of the African coast was carried on + beyond the mouth of the Ogowe by Diogo Cam, who discovered the mouth + of the Congo in 1482, and sailed up that river about as far as Boma. + In 1485 Diogo Cam returned with a stronger expedition which sailed + and rowed up the Congo to the mouth of the Mpozo river, just below + the Yellala Falls[55]. Diogo Cam’s discoveries were continued by + Bartolomeu Diaz de Novaes, who, passing along the south-west coast + of Africa, rounded the Cape of Good Hope in stormy weather without + knowing it, and touched land on February 3, 1488, at Mossel Bay, + then again at Algoa Bay, Cape Padrone and the mouth of the Great + Fish river. Here the timorous officers and crew insisted on a return + westwards. On the homeward voyage Diaz beheld and named Cape + Agulhas, and also “Cabo Tormentoso,” the terminal point of South + Africa, which was afterwards christened by Diaz, or by his monarch, + King Joaõ II, “the Cape of Good Hope.” + + At this stage in the relation of the founding of the Portuguese + dominion and influence over Africa some mention must be made of the + part played during the 15th century by the Jews settled in Portugal. + Badly as the Christians of Portugal treated the Jews, their + existence in this western kingdom was not unbearable compared with + the ferocious cruelty of the Spaniards; consequently during the 15th + century the Jewish colonies in Portuguese cities increased + considerably, and Jews even rose to a high position in the state. In + return they established printing-presses, advanced education, and + spread a knowledge of geography, astronomy, mathematics, classical + history and medicine which was directly useful to the new school of + Portuguese seamen-explorers, who mostly obtained their nautical + instruments from the Jews. In short the Jews did much to create a + Portuguese Empire beyond the seas; but they were subsequently + treated with the grossest ingratitude and expelled from Portugal in + the early 16th century, thousands of them being deported to Saõ + Thomé in the Gulf of Guinea where they died of malarial fever. + + Before the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope by Diaz, the King of + Portugal was convinced of the circumnavigability of Africa from the + Atlantic into the Indian Ocean. Through enterprising Portuguese Jews + (Abraham of Beja and Joseph of Lamego) who had travelled overland + via Egypt and Syria to the Persian Gulf, he had heard that this was + possible[56], and resolved to send two Portuguese officers, Pero de + Covilham and Alfonso de Paiva, to travel to India by way of the Red + Sea, and to find out all they could about the Christian King of + Ethiopia and the Arab settlements on the East coast of Africa, and + whether the King of Portugal might look for allies or friendly + neutrals in this direction. Accordingly, in 1487, de Covilham and + Paiva reached Egypt; and the former journeyed by the Red Sea to + India, while the latter made for Abyssinia, but was killed on the + way, near Suakin. Pero de Covilham, on his return journey from + Southern India, visited the north coast of Madagascar and the + settlement of Sofala, near the modern Beira (S.E. Africa). Thence he + proceeded northwards, calling at all the Arab ports of East Africa + till he once more re-entered the Red Sea. Returning to Cairo he + learnt that his companion, Paiva, had been killed, but he met the + two Jews, Abraham and Joseph. By the last-named he sent back word of + his discoveries to King John II, and then starting off with Abraham + of Beja he visited Mecca and Medina and finally landed at Zeila (N. + Somaliland) and travelled to Abyssinia. The information sent back by + de Covilham decided the despatch of an expedition under Vasco da + Gama to pass round the Cape of Good Hope to the Arab colonies, and + thence to India. Vasco da Gama set out in 1497, and made his famous + voyage round the Cape (calling at and naming Natal on the way) to + Sofala, where he picked up an Arab pilot who took him to Malindi, + and thence to India. On his return journey Vasco da Gama took + cognizance of the island of Mozambique, and visited the Quelimane + river near the mouth of the Zambezi. Numerous well-equipped + expeditions sailed for India within the years following Vasco da + Gama’s discoveries. While India was the main goal before the eyes of + their commanders, considerable attention was bestowed upon the + founding of forts along the East coast of Africa, both to protect + the Cape route to India, and to further Portuguese trade with the + interior of Africa. In nearly every case the Portuguese merely + supplanted the Muhammadan Arabs, who—possibly succeeding Phoenicians + or Sabaeans—had established themselves at Sofala, Quelimane, Sena + (on the Zambezi), Moçambique, Kilwa, Zanzibar, Mombasa, Malindi, + Lamu, and Magdishu. Sofala was taken by Pedro de Anhaya in 1505. + Tristan d’Acunha hoisted the Portuguese flag on Sokotra Island and + at Lamu in 1507, in which year also Duarte de Mello captured and + fortified Moçambique. Kilwa and the surrounding Arab establishments + were seized between 1506 and 1508; and a little later the remaining + places already mentioned on the East coast of Africa were in + possession of the Portuguese, who had also Aden on the south coast + of Arabia, the island of Ormuz on the Persian Gulf, and various + places on the coast of ’Oman, including Maskat. Meantime, for thirty + years, Pero de Covilham remained a prisoner at the Court of the + Emperor of Abyssinia, though treated with the utmost distinction. + + Before this period of the world’s history, and from the time of the + earlier crusades, a legend had grown up of the existence of Prester + (priest) Johannes—some Christian monarch of the name of John, who + ruled in the heart of Asia or of Africa, a bright spot in the midst + of Heathenry and Islam. The court of Prester John was located + anywhere between Senegambia and China; but the legend had its origin + probably in the continued existence of Greek Christianity in Dongola + and Abyssinia. Pero de Covilham having at last located Abyssinia, + and an Abyssinian envoy having proceeded to Lisbon in 1507 to invite + an alliance, a Portuguese embassy sailed round the Cape of Good Hope + to the Red Sea and landed (apparently at Masawa) in 1520. With this + embassy were two priests, one of whom (Alvarez) thirty years + afterwards wrote an interesting account of Northern Abyssinia. The + priest-missionaries remained for a long time in Ethiopia; but the + lay-members of the mission returned after a residence of five years, + bringing Covilham away with them. But he died on the way back. + + The Turks meanwhile had taken possession of Egypt and Western + Arabia, and became very jealous of Portuguese interference with + Abyssinia and the Red Sea. They stirred up a Somali warrior, + Muhammad Granye, furnished him with artillery, and urged him to + conquer Abyssinia. This Muhammadan Somali from the Danákil country + commenced invading and raiding Abyssinia from 1528. A Portuguese + priest, Bermudez, was sent to Lisbon to beg for assistance. This was + sent by way of India, whence came in 1541 a strong Portuguese fleet + to Masawa. Six months afterwards the fleet landed at Masawa a force + of 450 Portuguese soldiers under Christoforo da Gama. But after + carrying all before them the Portuguese unwisely split their forces. + Muhammad Granye, having received Turkish and Arab reinforcements, + captured Christoforo da Gama’s camp, and put that gallant Portuguese + to death. Ultimately, however, with the help of the remaining + Portuguese, the Abyssinian Emperor defeated Muhammad Granye, who was + himself slain by da Gama’s attendant, Pedro Leon (1542). Portuguese + Jesuit missionaries remained in Abyssinia until 1633 and penetrated + into countries which have only been since revisited by Europeans + within the last few decades. Father Pedro Paez discovered the source + of the Blue Nile in 1615; and Father Lobo visited the same region + and much of S.W. Abyssinia in 1626. Portuguese civilization + distinctly left its mark on Abyssinia in architecture and in other + ways. The very name which we apply to this Empire of Ethiopia is a + Portuguese rendering of the Arab and Indian cant term for + “negro”—_Habesh_—a word of uncertain origin. + + From the beginning of the 16th century the Portuguese visited the + coasts of Madagascar, as will be related in the chapter dealing with + that island. They had also discovered in 1507 the Mascarene islands + (named after a sea-captain, Mascarenhas) now known by the names of + Réunion and Mauritius, though they made no permanent settlements on + either. Madagascar, which was first sighted by Diogo Diaz in 1500, + was named the Island of St Laurence. + + On the West coast of Africa geographical discovery was soon followed + by something like colonization. The island of Madeira, which had + been known to the Portuguese in the 14th century, was occupied by + them in the 15th, and a hundred years afterwards was already + producing a supply of that wine which has made it so justly + famous[57]. The island of St Helena—afterwards to be seized by the + Dutch and taken from them by the English East India Company—was + discovered by the Portuguese in 1502; and this island also, at the + end of a century of intermittent use by the Portuguese, possessed + orange groves and fig trees which they had planted. + + When Diogo Cam returned from the Congo in 1485 he brought back with + him a few Congo natives, who were baptized, and who returned some + years later to the Congo with Diogo Cam and a large number of + proselytizing priests. This Portuguese expedition arrived at the + mouth of the Congo in 1491 and there encountered a vassal chief of + the king of Kongo[58] who ruled the riverain province of Sonyo. This + chief received them with a respect due to demi-gods, and allowed + himself to be at once converted to Christianity—a conversion which + was sincere and durable. The Portuguese proceeded under his guidance + to the king’s capital about 200 miles from the coast, which they + named São Salvador. Here the king and queen were baptized with the + names of the then king and queen of Portugal, João and Leonora, + while the Crown Prince was called Affonso. Christianity made + surprising progress amongst these fetish worshippers, who readily + transferred their adoration to the Virgin Mary and the saints, and + discarded their indigenous male and female gods. Early in the 16th + century the Kongo kingdom was visited by the Bishop of São Thomé, an + island off the Guinea coast, which, together with the adjoining + Prince’s Island, had been settled by the Portuguese soon after their + discovery of the West coast of Africa. The Bishop of São Thomé, + being unable to take up his residence in the kingdom of Kongo, + procured the consecration of a native negro as Bishop of the Congo. + This man, who was a member of the Kongo royal family, had been + educated in Lisbon, and was, I believe, the first negro bishop known + to history. But he was not a great success, nor was the next bishop, + in whose reign in the middle of the 16th century great dissensions + arose in the Kongo church among the native priesthood, which led to + a considerable lessening of Christian fervour. After the death of + the King, Dom Diego, a civil war broke out; and one by one the males + of the royal house were all killed except “Dom Henrique,” the king’s + brother. This latter also died soon after succeeding to the throne, + and left the state to his son, “Dom Alvares.” During this civil war + many of the Portuguese, whom the kings of Kongo had invited to + settle in the country as teachers, mechanics and craftsmen, were + killed or expelled as the cause of the troubles which European + intervention had brought on the Kongo kingdom; but Dom Alvares, who + was an enlightened man, gathered together all that remained, and for + a time Portuguese civilization continued to advance over the + country. But a great stumbling-block had arisen in the way of + Christianity being accepted by the bulk of the people—that + stumbling-block which is still discussed at every Missionary + conference, polygamy. A relation of the king Dom Alvares renounced + Christianity and headed a reactionary party. Curiously enough he has + been handed down to history as _Bula Matadi_, “the Breaker of + Stones,” the name which more than three hundred years afterwards was + applied to the explorer Stanley by the Congo peoples, and has since + become the native name for the whole of the government of the + Belgian Congo. + + In the middle of the 16th century Portuguese influence over Kongo + received a deadly blow. That kingdom, which must be taken to include + the coast-lands on either side of the lower Congo, was invaded by a + savage tribe from the interior known as the “Jagga” people, probably + the same tribe as the Ba-Kioko or Ba-jok of Upper Kwango river[59]. + The Jaga or Imbangola were powerful men and ferocious cannibals, and + they carried all before them, the king and his court taking refuge + on an island on the broad Congo, not far from Boma. The king of + Kongo appealed to Portugal for help; and that ill-fated but + brilliant young monarch, Dom Sebastião, sent him Franciso de Gova + with 600 soldiers. With the aid of these Portuguese and their guns + the Jaga were driven out. The king, who had hitherto led a very + irregular life for a Christian, now formally married, but was not + rewarded by a legal heir, and had to indicate as his successor a + natural son by a concubine. About this time the king of Portugal + pressed his brother of Kongo to reveal the existence of mines of + precious metals. Whether there are such in the Kongo country—except + as regards copper—has not been made known even at the present day, + but they were supposed to exist at that time; and certain Portuguese + at the Kongo court dissuaded the prince whom they served from giving + any information on the subject, no doubt desiring to keep such + knowledge to themselves. The king of Kongo, Dom Alvares, when the + Jaga had retired, made repeated appeals for more Portuguese priests, + and sent several embassies to Portugal; but Dom Sebastião had been + killed in Morocco, and his uncle, the Cardinal Henrique, who had + succeeded him and who was the last Portuguese king of the House of + Avis, was too much occupied by the affairs of his tottering kingdom + to reply to these appeals. But when Philip II of Spain had seized + the throne of Portugal he despatched a Portuguese named Duarte Lopes + to report on the countries of the Congo basin. After spending some + time in Congoland, Duarte Lopes started to return to Portugal with a + great amount of information about the country, and messages from the + king of Kongo. Unfortunately he was driven by storms to Central + America, and when he reached Spain the king was too busy preparing + the Great Armada to listen to him. Therefore Lopes went on a + pilgrimage to Rome to appeal to the Pope. Whilst staying in Italy, + Lopes allowed a papal official named Filippo Pigafetta to take down + and publish in 1591 his account of the Kongo kingdom, together with + a recital of the Portuguese explorations and conquests in East + Africa. + + Although Portuguese priests—Jesuits probably—continued for a little + while longer to visit the kingdom of Kongo, from the end of the 16th + century both Christian and Portuguese influence slowly faded, and + the country relapsed into heathenism, in spite of the strenuous + efforts made by the Popes of the 17th and 18th centuries, who sent + thither Italian, Flemish, and French missionaries. The Portuguese + appear to have excited the animosity of a somewhat proud people by + their overbearing demeanour and rapacity. They held intermittently + Kabinda, on the coast to the north of the Congo estuary, and + occasionally sent missions of investiture to São Salvador to + represent the king of Portugal at the crowning of some new king of + Kongo; and the king of Kongo was usually given a Portuguese name and + occasionally an honorary rank in the Portuguese army. But it was not + till after the middle of the 19th century that Portugal began to + assert her dominion over the Congo countries. France and Britain + during the 18th and nearly all the 19th centuries steadily refused + to recognize Portuguese rule anywhere north of the Loge river in + Angola (south of the Congo Estuary); but Britain in 1884 proposed to + do so under sufficient guarantees for freedom of trade set forth in + a treaty which was rendered abortive by the opposition of the House + of Commons. If this treaty had been ratified it would have brought + under joint English and Portuguese influence the lower Congo, + besides settling amicably Portuguese and British claims in + Nyasaland. The opposition of a knot of unpractical philanthropists + in the House of Commons wrecked the treaty, and gave to the other + powers of Europe an opportunity for interfering in the affairs of + the Congo. The result to Portugal, nevertheless, was that she + secured the territory of Kabinda north of the Congo, and the ancient + kingdom of Kongo south of that river. + + Although the Portuguese discovered the coast of Angola in 1490, they + did not attempt to settle in that country until 1574, when, in + answer to an appeal of the chief of Angola (a vassal of the king of + Kongo), an expedition was sent thither under the command of Paulo + Diaz[60]. This expedition landed at the mouth of the Kwanza river, + and found that the chief of Angola who had appealed to the king of + Portugal was dead. His successor received Diaz with politeness, but + compelled him to assist the Angolese in local wars which had not + much interest for the Portuguese. Diaz found in the interior of + Angola many evidences of Christian worship, which showed that + missionaries from the Congo had preceded his own expedition. When + Diaz was at last allowed to return to Portugal, the king (Dom + Sebastião) sent him back as “Conqueror, Colonizer, and Governor of + Angola” with seven ships and 700 men. His passage out from Lisbon in + the year 1574 occupied three and a half months—not a long time at + that period for sailing-vessels. Diaz took possession of a sandy + island in front of the bay which is now known as the harbour of São + Paulo de Loanda. Here he was joined by 40 Portuguese refugees from + the Kongo kingdom. Eventually he built on the mainland of Loanda the + fort of São Miguel, and founded the city of São Paulo, which became + and remains the capital of the Portuguese possessions in South-west + Africa. + + For six years perfect peace subsisted between the Portuguese and the + natives; then, afraid that the Portuguese would eventually seize the + whole country, the king of Angola enticed 500 Portuguese soldiers + into a war in the interior where he massacred them. But this + massacre only served to show the splendid quality of Paulo Diaz, who + was a magnificent representative of the old Portuguese type of + Conquistador. Leaving Loanda with 150 soldiers—nearly all that + remained—he marched against the king’s forces near the Kwanza river, + and routed them with great loss, being of course greatly helped in + securing this victory by the possession of muskets and cannon. The + Angolese were defeated repeatedly before they gave up the struggle; + but at length in 1597 the Portuguese had established themselves + strongly on both banks of the river Kwanza. In that year 200 Flemish + colonists were sent out by the king of Spain and Portugal. In a very + short time all were dead from fever. In spite of many reverses, + however, the Portuguese slowly mastered the country south of the + Kwanza nearly as far as Benguela. Portuguese traders and + missionaries probably travelled inland up the Congo as far as the + Bateke country or Stanley Pool. In 1606 an interesting but + unsuccessful attempt was made to open up communication across + south-central Africa between the Kwanza and the Zambezi settlements. + But the explorer never got beyond the King of Kongo’s capital, that + potentate refusing him permission to proceed further into the + interior. Nevertheless, from Portuguese annals it is clear that + numerous venturesome priests and soldiers attempted at this period + to penetrate Darkest Africa, and were never heard of again. What a + subject for romance would be their experiences in these lands, at + that time absolutely free from the influence of the European—a + condition which no longer applied to the natives of Darkest Africa + when Stanley first made known the geography of those regions. For in + the three and a half centuries which had elapsed, even those savages + in the heart of Africa, who possibly knew nothing of the existence + of white men, had nevertheless adopted many of the white man’s + products as necessities or luxuries of their lives, such as maize, + tobacco, sweet potatoes, manioc, papaws, chillies, the pine-apple, + and the sugar cane. + + We may here fitly consider the greatest and most beneficial results + of the Portuguese colonization of Africa. These wonderful old + Conquistadores may have been relentless and cruel in imposing their + rule on the African and in enslaving him or in Christianizing him, + but they added enormously to his food-supply and his comfort. So + early in the history of their African and Indian explorations as + about 1510 they brought from China, India, and Malacca the orange + tree, the lemon and the lime, which, besides introducing into Europe + (and Europe had hitherto only known the sour wild orange and the + lime, brought by the Arabs), they planted in every part of East and + West Africa where they touched. They likewise brought the sugar cane + from the Mediterranean and the East Indies and introduced it into + various parts of Brazil and West Africa, especially into the Islands + of São Thomé and Principe and the Congo and Angola countries. + Madeira they had planted with vines in the 15th century; the Açores, + the Cape Verde Islands and St Helena with orange trees in the 16th + century. The cacao tree was introduced into São Thomé in 1822. From + their great possession of Brazil, overrun and organized with + astounding rapidity, they brought to East and West Africa the Musk + duck (which has penetrated far and wide into the interior of + Africa), chili peppers, maize (now grown all over Africa, and + cultivated by many tribes who have lost all tradition of its foreign + origin), wheat (into Zambezia)[61], tobacco, the tomato, pine-apple, + sweet potato (a convolvulus tuber), manioc (from which tapioca is + made), rice (into West Africa), haricot beans and lentils, onions, + guavas, jackfruit, papaws, small bananas, ginger and other less + widely known forms of vegetable food. The Portuguese also introduced + the domestic pig into West Africa, and the domestic cat, possibly + also certain breeds of dogs; in East tropical Africa the horse is + known in the north by an Arab name, in the centre by the Portuguese + word, and in the extreme south by a corruption of the English. Take + away from the African’s dietary of today the products that the + Portuguese brought to him from the far East and far West, and he + will remain very insufficiently provided with necessities and simple + luxuries. I may add one or two dates concerning these introductions + by the Portuguese:—the sugar cane and ginger were first planted in + the island of Principe, off the coast of Lower Guinea about 1520; + maize was introduced into the Congo (where it was called _maza + manputo_) about 1560[62]. + + In 1621 a chieftainess, apparently of the Kongo royal family, known + as Jinga Bandi, came to Loanda, made friends with the Portuguese, + was baptized, and then returned to the interior, where she poisoned + her brother (the chief or king of Angola), and succeeded him. Having + attained this object of her ambitions, she headed the national + party, and attempted to drive the Portuguese out of Angola. For 30 + years she warred against them without seriously shaking their power, + though on the other hand they could do little more than hold their + own. But a much more serious enemy now appeared on the scene. The + Dutch, who took advantage of the union between the Spanish and + Portuguese thrones in 1580[63] to include the Portuguese empire as a + theatre for their reprisals against Spain, made several determined + attempts during the first half of the 17th century to wrest Angola + from the Portuguese. They captured São Paulo de Loanda in 1641, one + year after Portugal had recovered her independence under the first + Bragança king. The Portuguese concentrated on the Kwanza. The Dutch + attempted by several treacherous actions to oust them from their + fortresses on that river. At last, however, following on the + reorganization of the Portuguese empire after 1640, reinforcements + were sent from Brazil to Angola, and a siege of São Miguel took + place. The Portuguese imitated with advantage the Dutch game of + bluff, and by deceiving the besieged as to the extent of their army + they secured the surrender of 1100 Dutch to under 750 Portuguese. In + the preliminary assault on the Dutch at São Paulo de Loanda the + Portuguese lost 163 men. After the recapture of this place they + proceeded methodically to destroy all the Dutch establishments on + the Lower Guinea coast as far north as Loango. In the concluding + years of the 17th century nearly all the remaining Portuguese + missionaries in the kingdom of Kongo[64] migrated to the more + settled and prosperous Angola. In 1694 Portugal introduced a copper + coinage into her now flourishing West African colony—flourishing, + thanks to the slave trade, which was mightily influencing the + European settlement of West Africa. + + In 1758 the Portuguese extended their rule northwards from São Paulo + de Loanda into the Ambriz country, where however their authority + continued very uncertain till about 1885. About the same time + Benguela was definitely occupied; and Portuguese influence continued + extending slowly southward until, in 1840, it reached its present + limits by the establishment of a settlement (now very prosperous) + called Mossamedes, almost exactly on the fifteenth parallel of south + latitude[65]. + + Between 1807 and 1810 attempts were made to open up intercourse with + the Lunda kingdom of the Mwata Yanvo, and thence across to the + colony of Moçambique, but they proved only partially successful. In + 1813 and in the succeeding years a renewed vigour of colonization + began to make itself felt in the creation of public works in Angola. + Amongst other 19th century improvements was the bringing of the + waters of the Kwanza by canal to São Paulo de Loanda, which until + then had no supply of good drinking water. The Dutch had attempted + to carry out this, but were interrupted. The Portuguese efforts in + the early part of the last century proved unsuccessful, but in 1887 + the canal was at last completed, and it made a great difference to + the health of the town. Portuguese rule inland from Angola waxed and + waned during the 19th century, but on the whole was greatly + extended. Livingstone found Portuguese in 1855 established to some + extent on the upper Kwango, an affluent of the Congo, and for long + the eastern boundary of Angola. From this, however, they had to + retire owing to native insurrections; though now their power and + their influence have been pushed far to the east, to the river + Kasai. + + In 1875 a party of recalcitrant Boers quitted the Transvaal owing to + some quarrel with the local government, trekked over the desert in a + north-westerly direction, and eventually blundered across the Kunene + river (the southern limit of Portuguese West Africa) on to the + healthy plateau behind the Shela Mountains. It was feared at one + time that they would set the Portuguese at defiance and carve out a + little Boer state in south-west Africa. About this time, also, + Hottentots much under Boer influence and speaking Dutch invaded the + district of Mossamedes from the coast region; but by liberal + concessions and astute diplomacy, joined with the carrying out of + several important works, like the waggon road (now the railway) + across the Shela Mountains, the Portuguese won over the Boers to a + recognition of their sovereignty, though they have since left the + country and returned to German or British South Africa. + + Slavery was not abolished in the Portuguese West African dominions + until 1878; but the slave trade had been ostensibly forbidden in the + first quarter of the 19th century. Prior to that time the slave + trade had brought extraordinary prosperity to the islands of São + Thomé and Principe, to the Portuguese fort on the coast of Dahomé, + and to Angola, all of which countries were more or less under one + government. The abolition of the slave trade however caused the + absolute ruin of Principe (which has not yet recovered), the + temporary ruin of São Thomé (the fortunes of this island have since + revived owing to the cultivation of cinchona and the enormous + extention of the planting of cacao), and the partial ruin of Angola, + which began to be regarded as a possession scarcely worth + maintaining. Brazil (though it had been severed from the crown of + Portugal) did almost more than the Mother Country to revive trade in + these dominions. Enterprising Brazilians such as Silva Americano + came over to Angola in the sixties and seventies of the 19th + century, started steam navigation on the river Kwanza, and developed + many industries. Through Brazilian, United States, and British + influence a railway was commenced in the eighties to connect São + Paulo de Loanda with the rich interior, especially with the coffee + districts on the water-shed of the Congo. Another railway of even + greater importance has been begun by a British company in the + Benguela district south of the Kwanza River. This line starts from + Lobito Bay, near Benguela, and is destined to cross Angola at its + broadest and ultimately reach the copper and gold mines of Katanga + in the Belgian Congo. American and Swiss protestant missionaries + have formed important settlements on the Bailundo uplands. The + magnificent island of São Thomé, just under the Equator, possesses + mountains which rise high into a temperate climate. On these, as + already related, flourishing plantations of cacao, cinchona and + coffee have been established. Public works in the shape of good + roads and bridges have been carried out in many parts of Angola, and + this country is certainly the most successful of the Portuguese + attempts at the colonization of Africa. Unfortunately the “boom” in + cacao (cocoa, chocolate) and the fact that it is a capricious tree, + not easy to acclimatize and only growing to perfection in a few + parts of tropical America and the west coast of Africa, notably São + Thomé, induced the Portuguese government from 1880 onwards to push + the interests of São Thomé at the expense of Angola. A kind of slave + trade under the guise of “apprenticeships” was revived in South and + East Angola, which made its effects felt on the Congo populations as + far inland as the Kasai and Lomami. These apprentices, once landed + in São Thomé (they were regularly bought and sold) never, or hardly + ever, obtained their liberty or received regular pay for their work. + In all other respects they were kindly treated. But this policy led + to native wars and insurrections in the Angola hinterland, and + attracted attention and condemnation in Europe. + + In the autumn of 1904 the Portuguese forces in Southern Angola + sustained a disastrous defeat near the Kunene river from the + Kuanyama (Cuanhama) people, a tribe connected linguistically with + the Ovambo and the Ovaherero (Damara). Bantu negroes, speaking + dialects of this Ondonga or Herero group and distantly allied in + racial origin with the Zulu-Kafir stock, inhabit the south of Angola + and are formidable warriors. These disturbances in Southern Angola + have died down since the hinterland of Benguela was opened up to + profitable commerce by the Anglo-Portuguese railway concessionaires + who are building a line from Lobito Bay eastwards to Katanga. + + Portuguese rule was extended in 1885 northwards to the southern + shore of the Congo, and over the small territory of Kabinda, which + is separated by a narrow strip of Belgian territory from the Congo + estuary. On the other hand the Portuguese protectorate over Dahomé—a + protectorate which never had any real existence—was abandoned to + France together with its only foothold, São João d’Ajudá[66]. The + Portuguese forts on the Gold Coast had not been held very long + before they were captured by the Dutch at the beginning of the 17th + century. Portugal, in spite of discovering and naming Sierra Leone, + never occupied it; but in varying degree she continued to maintain + certain fortified posts amid that extraordinary labyrinth of rivers + and islands in Senegambia, between the Gambia and Sierra Leone. This + is a district of some 14,000 square miles in extent, to-day + carefully defined, and known as Portuguese Guinea. But in the + seventies of the 19th century it was doubtful whether Portuguese + sovereignty over this country had not been abandoned. England, which + exercised exclusive influence in these waters, attempted to + establish herself in the place of Portugal, but the Portuguese + protested and proclaimed their sovereignty. The matter was submitted + to arbitration, and the verdict was given against England. + Consequently the Portuguese reorganized their colony of Guinea, + which in time was separated from the governorship of the Cape Verde + islands. There was a serious native rising in 1908, but it was + suppressed. In the present condition of Portuguese Guinea, however, + the native tribes are practically independent. + + The Cape Verde Islands are a very important Portuguese asset three + hundred miles off the north-west coast of Africa. They have been + continuously occupied and administered since their discovery in the + 15th century. They possessed then no population, but are now peopled + by a blackish race descended from Portuguese, Negroes and Moors. In + one or two of the healthier islands are white settlers of Portuguese + blood. Owing to the magnificent harbours which these islands offer + to shipping, especially São Vicente, and their use as a coaling + station, they may yet figure prominently in the world’s history. + + Both Ascension and St Helena were discovered and named by the + Portuguese. The first-named was never continuously occupied until + England took possession of it as an outpost of Napoleon’s prison in + 1815. St Helena was taken in the early part of the 16th century by + the Dutch, and passed into the hands of the English in the middle of + that century. Another Portuguese discovery was the most southern of + those isolated oceanic islets, Tristan d’Acunha, which bears the + name of its discoverer, but which, so far as occupation goes, has + always been a British possession[67]. + + On the East coast of Africa Portuguese colonization did not commence + until the 16th century had begun, and Vasco da Gama, after rounding + the Cape, had revealed the existence of old Arab trading settlements + and sultanates between Sofala and Somaliland. + + The need of ports of call on the long voyage to India caused the + Portuguese to decide soon after Vasco da Gama’s famous voyage to + possess themselves of these Arab settlements, the more so because + hostilities against the “Moors” were a never-ending _vendetta_ on + the part of Spaniard and Portuguese, while the conquest was at that + date an easy one, as the Portuguese had artillery and the East + African Arabs had none. + + By 1520, the Portuguese had ousted the Arabs and had occupied in + their stead Kilwa, Zanzibar, Pemba, Mombasa, Lamu, Malindi, Brava + (Barawa), and Magdishu (Magadoxo), all north of the Ruvuma river. + South of that river they had taken Sofala and Moçambique. Here they + had, it is said, established a trading station in 1503; but + Moçambique island[68] was not finally occupied by them till 1507, + when the existing fortress was commenced and built by Duarte de + Mello. The fort was then and is still known as “the Praça de São + Sebastião.” It had been decided before this that Moçambique should + be the principal place of call, after leaving the Cape of Good Hope, + for Portuguese ships on their way to India; but, when in 1505 the + Portuguese deliberately sanctioned the idea of a Portuguese East + African colony, they turned their attention rather to Sofala as its + centre than to Moçambique. Sofala, which is near the modern Beira, + was an old Arab port and sultanate, and had been for some 1500 years + the principal port on the south-east coast of Africa, from which the + gold obtained in the mines of Manika (Monomotapa, _i.e._ Southern + Rhodesia) was shipped to the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. + Consequently the first proposed Portuguese settlement on the East + coast of Africa was entitled “the Captaincy of Sofala.” But later on + Moçambique grew in importance, and eventually gave its name to the + Portuguese possessions in East Africa. + + The Quelimane river, taken to be the principal exit of the Zambezi + by the Portuguese, was discovered and entered by Vasco da Gama in + the early part of 1498, and was by him called the “River of Good + Indications.” He stayed a month on this river, where there seems to + have been, on the site of the present town of Quelimane, a trading + station resorted to by the Arabs, who were even then settled in + Zambezia. The name Quelimane (pronounced in English Kehmane) is + stated by the early Portuguese to have been the name of the friendly + chief who acted as intermediary between them and the natives, but it + would rather appear to have been a corruption of the Swahili-Arabic + word “Kaliman,” which means “interpreter.” + + The first “factory” or Portuguese trading station at Quelimane was + established about the year 1544; and by this time the Portuguese had + heard of the River of Sena (as they called the Zambezi) and of the + large Arab settlement of Sena on its banks. They had further heard + both from Quelimane and from Sofala of the powerful empire of + Mohomotapa[69], and especially of the province of Manika, which was + reported to be full of gold. Having found it too difficult to reach + Manika from Sofala, owing to the opposition of the natives, they + resolved to enter the country from the north by way of Sena, on the + Zambezi; consequently, in 1569, an exceptionally powerful expedition + left Lisbon under the command of the Governor and Captain-General + Francisco Barreto. After a preliminary tour up and down the East + coast of Africa as far as Lamu, and a rapid journey to India and + back, Francisco Barreto with his force, which included cavalry and + camels, landed at Quelimane, and set out for Sena. The expedition + was accompanied, and, to a certain extent, guided by a + mischief-making Jesuit priest named Monclaros, who wished to avenge + the assassination of his fellow-priest, Gonçalo de Silveira, + martyred not long previously in the Monomotapa territories. + Francisco Barreto found on arriving at Sena that there was already a + small Portuguese settlement built alongside an Arab town. These + Arabs appear to have got on very well with the first Portuguese + traders, but they evidently took umbrage at Barreto’s powerful + expedition, and are accused of having poisoned the horses and + camels. What really took place, however, seems to have been that the + horses and camels were exposed to the bite of the Tsetse fly, and + died in consequence of the attacks of this venomous insect. From + Sena, Barreto sent an embassy to the Emperor of Monomotapa, whom he + offered to help against a revolted vassal, Mongase. After receiving + an invitation to visit the emperor, a portion of the Portuguese + force commenced to ascend the right bank of the river Zambezi, but + apparently never reached its destination, because it was so + repeatedly attacked by the hostile natives that it was compelled to + return to Sena. Shortly afterwards there arrived the news of a + revolt at Moçambique, and consequently Barreto, together with the + priest Monclaros, having handed over the command of the expedition + to a lieutenant, entered a canoe, descended the Zambezi to the Luabo + mouth, and from there took passage in a dau to Moçambique. He and + Monclaros subsequently returned to Sena, but Barreto died soon after + his arrival. The Portuguese chroniclers of this expedition write + with considerable bitterness of the Jesuit Monclaros, to whose + counsels most of the misfortunes and mistakes are attributed. The + expedition after Barreto’s death returned to Moçambique, and + attempted later on to enter Monomotapa by way of Sofala, but was + repulsed. + + For some time to come further exploration of the Zambezi or of the + interior of Moçambique was put a stop to by the struggle which + ensued with the Turks. Towards the end of the 16th century (in + 1584), following on the conquest of Egypt and at the instigation of + Venice, the Turkish Sultan sent a powerful fleet out of the Red Sea, + which descended the East coast of Africa as far as Mombasa, and + prepared to dispute with Portugal the dominion of the Indian Ocean. + The Turks, however, were defeated with considerable loss by the + Admiral Thomé de Sousa Coutinho; and Portuguese domination was not + only strengthened at Zanzibar and along the Zanzibar coast, but was + also affirmed along the south coast of Arabia and in the Persian + Gulf. + + At the end of the 16th century the Portuguese had terrific struggles + with the natives in the interior of Monomotapa, behind Kilwa, on the + mainland of Moçambique[70], and in the vicinity of Tete on the + Zambezi; and shortly afterwards appeared the first Dutch pirates in + East African waters, some of whom actually laid siege to Moçambique. + In 1609 there arrived at Moçambique the first Portuguese Governor of + the East coast of Africa, this province having been separated from + the Portuguese possessions in India, and withdrawn at the same time + from the spiritual jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Goa, and placed + under the Prelate of Moçambique. Meantime the efforts to reach the + gold-mines to the south of the Zambezi had been so far successful + that a considerable quantity of gold was obtained not only by the + officers, but even by the private soldiers of the different + expeditions; but the expectations of the Portuguese as to the wealth + of gold and silver (for they were in search of reported silver-mines + on the Zambezi) were considerably disappointed; and later on, in the + 17th century, their interest in these East African possessions + waned, largely on account of the poor results of their mining + operations. The Dutch in 1604-7 twice attacked Moçambique, and again + in 1662 sought to obtain possession of the little fortress island. + In the middle of the 17th century, however, a new source of wealth + was discovered—the Slave Trade—which for two hundred years following + gave a flickering prosperity to these costly establishments on the + East coast of Africa. In 1645 the first slaves were exported from + Moçambique to Brazil. This action was brought about by the fact that + the province of Angola had fallen for a time into the hands of the + Dutch, and, therefore, the supply of slaves to Brazil was + temporarily stopped. + + In consequence of this, Moçambique and the Zambezi for some years + replaced West Africa as a slave market. In 1649 the English first + made their appearance on this coast; and two years afterwards the + Portuguese were perturbed by the definite establishment of a Dutch + colony at the Cape, and by the establishment of French factories on + the coast of Madagascar—events which are prophetically described by + a contemporary writer as “Quantos passos para a ruina de + Moçambique!”—“So many steps towards the ruin of Moçambique!” At the + same time the Arabs in the Persian Gulf drove the Portuguese out of + Maskat, and towards the end of the 17th century began to attack + their possessions on the Zanzibar coast. By 1698 Portugal had lost + every fortress north of Moçambique; and in that year this, their + last stronghold, was besieged straitly by the Arabs and very nearly + captured. In fact it was only saved by the friendly treachery of an + Indian trader who warned the Portuguese of an intended night attack. + All of these posts on the Zanzibar coast were finally abandoned[71] + by the Portuguese in the early part of the 18th century by agreement + with the Imam of Maskat, who founded the present dynasty of + Zanzibar. In 1752 this fact was recognized by the formal + delimitation of the Portuguese possessions in East Africa at the + time when they were also again removed from any dependency on the + Governor of Goa. In this decree of the 19th of April, 1752, the + government of Moçambique was described as extending over + “Moçambique, Sofala, Rio de Sena (Zambezi), and all the coast of + Africa and its continent between Cape Delgado and the Bay of + Lourenço Marquez (Delagoa Bay).” Hitherto commerce in Portuguese + East Africa had been singularly restricted, and after being first + confined to the Governors and officials of the state, was then + delegated to certain companies to whom monopolies were sold. In 1687 + there was a fresh arrival, after a considerable interval, of Indian + traders, who established themselves on the Island of Moçambique; and + by degrees the whole of the commerce of Portuguese East Africa was + thrown open freely to all Portuguese subjects, though it was + absolutely forbidden to the subjects of any other European power, + and considerable anger was displayed when French and Dutch + endeavoured to trade on the islands or on the coast in the province + of Moçambique. In the middle of the 18th century the practice of + sending the worst stamp of Portuguese convicts to Moçambique was + unhappily adopted in spite of the many protests of its governors. + About this same time also there occurred a series of disasters + attributable to the deplorable mismanagement of the Portuguese + officials. The fortresses of the gold-mining country of Manika had + to be abandoned, like Zumbo[72] on the upper Zambezi. The forts on + the mainland opposite Moçambique were captured by an army of Makua; + and the Island of Moçambique itself very nearly fell into the hands + of the negroes of the mainland. + + Towards the close of the 18th century, however, occurred a great + revival. In fact, the period which then ensued was the only bright, + and to some extent glorious phase of Portuguese dominion in + South-east Africa. A remarkable man, Dr Francisco Jose Maria de + Lacerda e Almeida (a Brazilian), was made Governor of Zambezia at + his own request, and commenced the first scientific exploration of + southern Central Africa. His journey resulted in the discovery of + the Kazembe’s division of the Lunda empire, a country on the Luapula + and Lake Mweru. It is interesting to note that in 1796, only one + year after the British had seized Cape Town, Dr Lacerda predicted + that this action would lead to the creation of a great British + Empire in Africa, which would stretch up northwards like a wedge + between the Portuguese colonies of Angola and Moçambique. But Dr + Lacerda in time fell a victim to the fatigues of his explorations; + and Portuguese interest in East Africa waned before the + life-and-death struggle which was taking place with France in + Portugal itself. Long prior to this also, in the middle of the 18th + century, the Jesuits had been expelled from all Portuguese East + Africa; and with them had fallen what little civilization had been + created on the upper Zambezi. In fact, it may be said that after + Lacerda’s journey the province of Moçambique fell into a state of + inertia and decay, until Livingstone, by his marvellous journeys, + not only discovered the true course of the Zambezi river, but drew + the attention and interest of the whole world to the development of + tropical Africa. + + On all old Portuguese maps, indeed on all Portuguese maps issued + prior to Livingstone’s journeys, there was but scanty recognition of + the Zambezi as a great river. It was usually referred to as the + “rivers of Sena,” the general impression being that it consisted of + a series of parallel streams. No doubt this idea arose from its + large delta; on one or two maps, however, the course of the Zambezi + is laid down pretty correctly from its confluence with the Kafue to + the sea; but the fact cannot be denied that its importance as a + waterway was quite unknown to the Portuguese, who usually reached it + overland from Quelimane and travelled by land along its banks in + preference to navigating its uncertain waters. The Shire was + literally unknown, except at its junction with the Zambezi. The name + of this river was usually spelt Cherim, but its etymology lies in + the Mañanja word _chiri_, which means “a steep bank.” Admiral W. F. + W. Owen, who conducted a most remarkable series of surveying cruises + along the West and East coasts of Africa in the early part of the + 19th century, was the first to make the fact clearly known that a + ship of light draught might enter the mouth of the Zambezi from the + sea and travel up as far as Sena. + + Livingstone’s great journey across the African continent in the + earlier fifties attracted the attention of the British nation and + Government to the possibilities of this region, so highly favoured + by nature in its rich soil and valuable productions. Livingstone was + appointed Consul at Quelimane, and placed at the head of a + well-equipped expedition intended to explore the Zambezi river and + its tributaries. Prior to this the Portuguese had abolished the + slave trade by law, though slavery did not cease as a legal status + till 1878, and had thrown open Portuguese East Africa to the + commerce of all nations; and undoubtedly these two actions were an + encouragement to the British Government to participate in the + development of Southeast Africa, especially as Livingstone’s + journeys had shown conclusively that the rule of the Portuguese did + not extend very far inland, nor to any great distance from the banks + of the lower Zambezi. The second Livingstone expedition may, + therefore, be regarded as the first indirect step towards the + foundation of the present Protectorate over British Central Africa + (Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia), which dependencies follow to a + great extent in their frontiers the delimitations suggested by Dr + Livingstone at the close of his second expedition. + + A jealous feeling, however, arose at the time of Livingstone’s + explorations between Portuguese and British; and considerable + pressure was brought to bear on the British Government to abandon + the results of Livingstone’s discovery. These representations, + together with other discouraging results of British enterprise in + East and West Africa, induced the British Government during the + later sixties and earlier seventies to hold aloof from any idea of + British rule in the interior of the continent. Meantime the + Portuguese were making praiseworthy efforts to develop these + long-neglected possessions. Great improvements were effected, and a + wholly modern aspect of neatness and order was given to the towns of + Quelimane and Moçambique, which in many respects compared a few + years ago favourably with other European settlements on the East + coast of Africa. Large sums were spent on public works; indeed, in + the year 1880, not less than £157,000 was provided by the + mother-country for the erection of public buildings in Portuguese + East and West Africa; and at this period the handsome hospital in + the town of Moçambique was erected, together with a good deal of + substantial road and bridge making. A good many more military posts + were founded; and Zumbo, on the central Zambezi, at the confluence + with the Luangwa, was reoccupied. Nevertheless, Livingstone’s work, + and especially his death, inevitably drew the British to Zambezia. + In 1875 the first pioneers of the present missionary societies + travelled up the Zambezi and arrived in the Shire highlands. In 1876 + the settlement of Blantyre was commenced, and the foundations of + British Central Africa were laid. These actions impelled the + Portuguese to greater and greater efforts to secure the dominion to + which they aspired—a continuous belt of empire stretching across the + continent from Angola to Moçambique; and an expenditure exhausting + for the mother-country was laid out on costly expeditions productive + not always of definite or satisfactory results. This policy + culminated in the effort of Serpa Pinto to seize by force the Shire + highlands, despite the resistance offered by the Makololo + chiefs[73], who had declared themselves under British protection. + Thence arose the intervention of the British Government and a long + discussion between the two powers, which eventually bore results in + a fair delimitation of the Portuguese and British spheres of + influence, and the annulling of any inimical feeling between England + and Portugal in their African enterprises. Moçambique proper (_i.e._ + the provinces N.E. of the Zambezi) has proved a costly dependency to + the mother-country. From the year 1508 to 1893 there was always + annually an excess of expenditure over revenue, sometimes as much as + an annual deficit of £50,000. In the year 1893, for the first time + since the creation of the colony, a small surplus was remitted to + Lisbon. It is questionable whether this possession will ever prove + profitable to Portugal. At the present day nearly two-thirds of the + trade is in the hands of non-Portuguese (Indians and Europeans). The + bulk of the wholesale commerce between Ibo and Quelimane is carried + on by German, Dutch, and French firms; and the retail trade is + conducted by British Indians, or by natives of Goa and other + Portuguese Indian possessions. + + The Chartered Company of “Nyassa” has a virtual monopoly of the + hinterland trade between Lake Nyasa and the Ibo coast, and + administers the country between the Lurio river on the south and the + Ruvuma on the north. In Portuguese Zambezia exists the Zambezia + company with a number of minor concessionaires; and most of these + hold _prazos_ or leases of prescribed areas, in which they have + exclusive trading rights and a virtual mastery over the natives, who + are consequently at times rebellious when exactions of labour in + lieu of or in addition to taxes are levied on them. There is and has + been very little real Portuguese colonization of the Moςambique and + Zambezia provinces. The vicious spirit of the old slave trade days + still taints the local administration. The Angoshe region between + Moςambique Island and the northern vicinity of the Quelimane river + is almost independent of Portuguese authority under powerful + Arab-Negro Muhammadan “Sultans,” who until quite recently shipped + over many dau-loads of slaves to Madagascar. + + The chief article of trade in the Moςambique province is + ground-nuts—the oily seeds of the _Arachis hypogæa_, a species of + leguminous plant, the seed-pods of which grow downwards into the + soil. These ground-nuts produce an excellent and palatable oil which + is hardly distinguishable in taste from olive oil, and indeed + furnishes a considerable part of the so-called olive oil exported + from France. This, perhaps, is the reason why the ground-nuts find + their way finally to Marseilles. The india-rubber of Moçambique is + of good quality and fetches a high price in the market. Other + exports are oil-seeds derived from a species of sesamum, copra, wax, + ivory and sugar. Some copper and malachite are exported from the + Nyassa company’s territories north of the Lurio. A few enterprising + people started coffee plantations on the mainland near Moçambique + some years ago; but the local Portuguese authorities immediately put + on heavy duties and taxes, so that the coffee-planting industry was + soon killed. The same thing may be said about the coco-nut palm. At + one time it was intended to plant this useful tree in large numbers + along a coast singularly adapted for its growth; but, owing to the + fact that the local Portuguese Government imposed a yearly tax on + each palm, the cultivation of the coco-nut was given up. The ivory + comes chiefly from Ibo and Cape Delgado, and also from Quelimane, + and is derived from elephants still existing in the Zambezi basin + and in the eastern parts of Nyasaland. Nevertheless, most of the + products above alluded to, with the exception of ivory, are only + furnished by the fertile coast belt; for beyond the twenty-mile + strip of cultivated land which extends more or less down the whole + coast of Moçambique, the interior of the country is dry and arid + except in certain favoured river valleys, and in the splendid + mountain region of Namuli, between Angoshe and the upper Shire + river. + + Portuguese influence, though not always Portuguese rule, was carried + southward to the northern shore of Delagoa Bay at the end of the + 17th century. Here the settlement of Lourenςo Marquez was founded as + a trading station. At the beginning of the 18th century this + Portuguese station was abandoned; and the Cape Dutch came and built + a factory there, which however was destroyed by the English in 1727. + Nevertheless Portugal continued to assert her claims to Lourenço + Marquez; and when, in 1776, an Englishman named Bolts (formerly in + the employ of the English East India Company), who had entered the + service of Maria Theresa in order to found an Austrian Company to + trade with the East Indies from Flanders, came thither with a large + following composed of Austrian-Italian subjects, and made treaties + with the chiefs of Delagoa Bay, the Portuguese protested and + addressed representations to the Austrian Government. These + protestations would have been of but little avail had not a terrible + outbreak of fever carried off almost all the European settlers. The + Austrian claim was therefore abandoned; and the Portuguese continued + at intervals to make their presence felt there by a quasi-military + commandant or a Government trading establishment. When Admiral + Owen’s expedition visited Delagoa Bay between 1822 and 1824, they + found a small Portuguese establishment on the site of the present + town of Lourenço Marquez[74]. Realizing the importance of this + harbour, and finding no evidence of Portuguese claims to its + southern shore, Captain Owen concluded treaties with the King of + Tembe by which the southern part of Delagoa Bay was ceded to Great + Britain. The Portuguese made an indirect protest by removing the + British flag during Captain Owen’s absence, but the flag was + rehoisted in 1824. Owen’s action, however, was not followed up by + effective occupation, though on the other hand the Portuguese did + nothing to reassert their authority over the south shore of the bay + until, in the sixties, the growing importance of South Africa led + the British to reassert their claims. The matter was submitted to + arbitration, and Marshal MacMahon, the President of the French + Republic, was chosen as arbitrator. His verdict—a notoriously + biassed one—not only gave the Portuguese the south shore of Delagoa + Bay, but even more territory than they actually laid claim to. + Britain had to some extent prepared herself for an unfavourable + verdict by a prior agreement providing that whichever of the two + disputing powers came to possess the whole or part of Delagoa Bay + should give the other the right of pre-emption. + + Reading the vast mass of evidence brought forward and preserved in + Blue Books, it seems to the present writer that any dispassionate + judge would arrive at these conclusions: That the Portuguese claim + to the northern shore of Delagoa Bay was valid; but that over the + southern shore of this important inlet they had exercised no + occupation and raised no claim until the arrival of Admiral Owen and + his treaty-making; and that even after the action taken by Admiral + Owen, they did nothing beyond removing the flag he had raised, and + effected nothing in the way of occupation or treaty-making on their + own account. Owen’s procedure was not repudiated by the British + Government, who besides had other rights over the territory in + question inherited from the Dutch. Owen’s intervention was not, it + is true, succeeded by immediate occupation; and the British case + would have been a very weak one judged by the severe rules of the + Berlin Convention of 1884. But then, if Portuguese territory in East + Africa had been delimited by the same severe rules, it would have + been reduced to a few fortified settlements. Great Britain had a + fair claim to the south shore of Delagoa Bay; and the award of + Marshal MacMahon was a prejudiced one, said to have been mainly due + to the influence of his wife, who was ardently in favour of the + Portuguese for a variety of reasons. + + In 1887-9 a railway was constructed under a concession by the + Portuguese between Lourenço Marquez (Delagoa Bay) and the Transvaal + border by a group of English and American capitalists, with results + which are set forth in Chapter VII. This railway was seized and + extended by the Portuguese in 1889. + + Subsequently to the Delagoa Bay award, the Portuguese made + determined efforts to explore and conquer the South-east coast of + Africa and the countries along the lower Zambezi. To the extreme + north of their Moçambique possessions they had a dispute with the + Sultan of Zanzibar as to the possession of Tungi Bay and the south + shore of the mouth of the river Ruvuma. After their disastrous + struggle with the Arabs in the 17th and 18th centuries, the + Portuguese had defined the northern limit of their East African + possessions as Cape Delgado; and Cape Delgado would have given them + the whole of Tungi Bay, though not the mouth of the Ruvuma. It is + evident that the Sultan of Zanzibar was trespassing as a ruler when + he claimed Tungi Bay, though not when he claimed the mouth of the + Ruvuma. Portugal, losing patience at the time of the division of the + Zanzibar Sultanate between England and Germany, made an armed + descent on Tungi Bay in 1889, and has since held it, though the + Germans withdrew from her control the Ruvuma mouth, which they + claimed as an inheritance of the Sultan of Zanzibar. + + The establishment of the British South African Company in 1889 and + the consequent development of Mashonaland and Matebeleland subjected + the Portuguese territories south of the Zambezi to a searching + scrutiny on the part of these merchant adventurers, who laid hands + on behalf of Great Britain on all territory where the Portuguese + could not prove claims supported by occupation or ruling influence. + The strongest temptation existed to ignore Portuguese claims on the + Pungwe river and to push a way down to the sea at Beira; but a + spirit of justice prevailed, and no real transgression of Portuguese + rights was sanctioned by the British Government, or indeed attempted + by the Company. In June, 1891, after several unsuccessful attempts, + a convention was arrived at between England and Portugal, which + defined tolerably clearly the boundaries of British and Portuguese + territories in South-east, South-west, and South-central Africa. + Rights of way were obtained under fair conditions both at Beira and + at Chinde (Zambezi Delta[75]). Since 1891 a friendly feeling has + been growing up between the British and the Portuguese. + + The Portuguese have been making steady efforts to bring under + control their richly endowed East African province. For some time + after their settlement with Great Britain they were menaced in the + south by the power of Gungunyama, a Zulu king who ruled over the + Gaza country, and had been in the habit of raiding the interior + behind the Portuguese settlements of Lourenço Marquez and Inhambane. + The Portuguese warred against him for three years without + satisfactory results, until Major Mouzinho de Albuquerque, by a bold + stroke of much bravery, marched into Gungunyama’s camp with a + handful of Portuguese soldiers and took the king prisoner. For this + gallant action he was eventually promoted to be Governor-General of + Portuguese East Africa, and then did something towards bringing + under subjection the turbulent Makua tribes opposite Moçambique. + + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + + PORTUGUESE AFRICA + + Plate III. + +[Illustration] + + EXPLANATORY NOTE + + [green] _Area of Portuguese Possessions in 1820_ + [tan] ” ” ” _1912_ + [red] _Possessions lost or exchanged_ + + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + + The greater portion of their trans-Zambezian possessions along the + East coast and immediately south of the lower Zambezi and north of + Inhambane and the Sabi River was in 1891 handed over to the + administration of a Chartered Company,—which although theoretically + Portuguese derives its capital mainly from English, French and + Belgian sources, and is mainly managed by Englishmen. This + “Moçambique Company” since its institution has done much to open up + the country; the railway construction however is chiefly due to the + British South African Company, who have constructed a line of + railway from the capital, Beira, to the eastern frontier of Southern + Rhodesia. In addition, under the auspices of the Moçambique Company, + a northern line is being constructed to the Zambezi and across that + river to join the Shire Highlands railway at Port Herald. When this + is finished, Beira, instead of Chinde or Quelimane, will become the + seaport of British Nyasaland. + + South of the Sabi River and up to the frontiers of British South + Africa the country is directly ruled by Portugal, the large town of + Lourenço Marquez (Delagoa Bay) being now the supreme capital of the + State of East Africa, as the Moçambique provinces are called. Here + resides the Governor-General, with subordinate officials at + Moçambique, Quelimane, Sena, Zumbo, Tete, Chinde and Inhambane. + + The recent revolution in Portugal (1910), and the change from a + monarchy to a republic, have slightly affected the Portuguese + African possessions for the better. Long-standing abuses are being + enquired into, and some remedies are being applied. Yet the + resources of little Portugal are grievously strained in men and + money to maintain rule, law, and order in these vast African + possessions—possessions which stretch from North-west to South-east + Africa and include an area of 794,000 square miles. In 1898, when + the unsettled state of Africa and the rivalry between Britain, + Germany, and France made it advisable to forecast an allotment of + the Portuguese colonies, should they slip from the grasp of Portugal + or be offered for sale, an agreement was entered into between + Britain and Germany partitioning the Portuguese African possessions + into spheres of influence. But it is understood that at a later date + Great Britain, on renewing her old alliance with Portugal, + guaranteed her the undisturbed possession of her colonial dominions. + +----- + +Footnote 48: + + From the Arabic _Al-gharb_ the ‘west,’ the ‘sunset.’ The title of + the Kings of Portugal was “King of Portugal and the Algarves, on + this side and on the other side of the sea in Africa, etc.” + +Footnote 49: + + This battlefield was on the banks of the river Lukkus, not very + far from the coast port of Al-Araish, the Roman _Lixus_. + +Footnote 50: + + It was finally ceded to Spain by Portugal in 1668. + +Footnote 51: + + It had however been known to Italian and Norman navigators a + century earlier. Indeed it is increasingly probable that the + Portuguese as discoverers of West Africa had been preceded a + hundred years earlier by the Genoese, the Catalans and Majorcans, + and the Norman French of Dieppe. A remarkable map of the continent + of Africa was painted in Italy, about 1351, and is now in the + Medicean Library at Florence. It is known as the Laurentian + Portolano and gives the most correct general outline of the whole + continent which had as yet been depicted. For the first time the + great Bight of the Gulf of Guinea is shown, together with the + tongue-like projection southwards of Central and Southern Africa. + There is even the indication of a river where the Congo emerges + into the South Atlantic. + +Footnote 52: + + Only a long inlet in the Desert coast. At the head of this inlet + was the little island of Kerné (still called Herné by the Moors) + which was once a trading station of the Carthaginians. + +Footnote 53: + + Nowadays known as Elmina. + +Footnote 54: + + As will be seen in another chapter, there are traditions of Norman + merchants from Dieppe having established forts or trading stations + along the West African coast in the later years of the 14th + century, especially at “La Mine d’Or”—Elmina—where the Normans + possibly preceded the Portuguese. + +Footnote 55: + + Mr E. G. Ravenstein deduces 1485 as the date from the details + shown in the coat of arms in the inscription. This inscription was + only discovered on the high rock, near the Mpozo confluence, by a + Swedish missionary in 1906. The inscription begins “Aqi chegaram + os navios do esclarecido Rey Dom Joam ho seg° de Portugall,” and + is followed by the names of Diogo Cam (Cão) and others. See the + _Geographical Journal_ for June, 1908. + +Footnote 56: + + They described the Arab settlements on the South-East African + coasts and alleged that certain Arab ships had been driven by + stress of weather past the Cape of Good Hope, and had brought back + word of the northward trend of the west coast. + +Footnote 57: + + The Canary Islands, inhabited by a race of Berber origin, had been + rediscovered (for Greek and Roman geographers knew of them) by + Normans and Genoese in the 14th century. Previous to that they had + already been brought into touch with the Moors of the Moroccan + coast, though they were never Islamized but remained in some + respects in the primitive, stone-age condition which the Berbers + of the mainland had quitted two thousand years before. The men + often went naked; but the race in some respects exhibited a + characteristic Neolithic civilization and was far removed from + savagery. The archipelago was partially conquered by a Norman + adventurer, Jean de Betancourt or Bethencourt; and his title after + passing through many hands was finally claimed by Portugal. + Portugal, however, transferred her rights to Castile in 1479. + +Footnote 58: + + It is necessary to discriminate in spelling between the river + Congo and Congoland generally and the little kingdom of Kongo + between Stanley Pool and the Atlantic coast. This important native + state, whose legendary founder was a mighty hunter armed with an + iron spear (Kongo) gave its name to the great river, which was + also styled Zaire by the Portuguese from the native term Nzadi. + +Footnote 59: + + The original name of this tribe, which came from the southern + Congo basin, was “Imbangola.” _Jaga_ was apparently like the Jinga + of old Angola merely the title of their clan-chieftains, _Jok_ or + _Kiokwe_ (as they are called in Lunda) was a nickname meaning + “Hyena.” Their descendants seem still to reside on the river + Kwango behind Angola under the name of Imbangala. The Ba-yaka of + the Northern Kwango are quite distinct. + +Footnote 60: + + Grandson of the explorer, Bartolomeu. + +Footnote 61: + + Such wheat as is cultivated in Africa north of 15° N. Latitude is + similar to the European and Egyptian kinds; the wheat introduced + by the Arabs and Portuguese into Zambezia is red wheat, apparently + from India. + +Footnote 62: + + Duarte Lopes, who records this fact in his description of the + Congo region at the end of the 16th century, gives incidentally or + directly other interesting scraps of information, such as, that + the coco-nut palm was _found_ by the Portuguese growing on the + West coast of Africa. This palm, we know, originated in the + Pacific Archipelagoes or on the Pacific coast of tropical America. + It is possible to imagine that its nuts may have been carried over + the sea to Southern India and thence to Madagascar and the coast + of East Africa, but, inasmuch as the coco-nut palm cannot grow + further south than Delagoa Bay owing to the cooling of the climate + it is not very clear how it reached the tropical West African + coast, unless it was introduced by Europeans. Lopes mentions the + banana for the first time under the name “banana,” a name which + seems to be derived from the Vai and other languages of the Sierra + Leone-Liberia coast. Hitherto this fruit had only been known + vaguely to Europe as the Indian fig or by its Arab name, which was + latinized into _Musa_. The long banana or plantain was of ancient + and widespread cultivation throughout tropical Africa, but the + small banana with stubby fruit seems to have been a recent + introduction from India which has penetrated into few parts of the + interior. + +Footnote 63: + + Philip II of Spain had the best claim to the Portuguese throne + after the death without heirs of the Cardinal-King Henrique. But + the Portuguese disliked union with Spain and would have preferred + to elect a Portuguese king. + +Footnote 64: + + In 1621 Pope Paul V sent a mission to the King of Kongo at São + Salvador; and thenceforward, until 1717, the Kongo kingdom was + evangelized by Italian and Belgian Capuchins, and after 1673 by + Belgian Recollets friars. But in 1717 the Capuchins were expelled + by the king’s people. In 1760 Catholic missions were resumed in + Congoland (Loango and Kongo) by French, Italian and Portuguese + missionaries; but these too came to an end by 1800, and for some + eighty years the Kongo kingdom relapsed into complete barbarism. + +Footnote 65: + + This place was named after the Baron de Mossamedes, a Portuguese + Governor of Angola, afterwards Minister for the Colonies. + +Footnote 66: + + This fort, by the abortive Congo Treaty of 1884, was to have been + made over to England. Although the Portuguese never in any sense + ruled over or controlled Dahomé, their indirect influence and + their language were prominent at the Dahomean court because + certain Brazilians had during the first half of this century + established themselves on the coast and in the interior as + influential merchants and slave traders. Their descendants now + form a Portuguese-speaking Brazilian caste in Dahomé. + +Footnote 67: + + Most prominent features, and some countries on the west and south + coasts of Africa from the Senegal round to the Cape of Good Hope + and Moçambique, bear Portuguese names: Cape _Verde_ is “The Green + Cape,” Sierra Leone (_Serra Leoa_) is “The Lionlike Mountains,” + Cape _Palmas_ “The Palm-trees Cape,” Cape Coast is _Cabo Corso_ + “The cruising Cape,” _Lagos_ is “The Lakes,” Calabar (_Calabarra_) + is “The bar is silent,” Cameroons is _Camaroẽs_ “prawns,” Gaboon + is _Gabāo_ “The Hooded Cloak” (from the shape of the estuary), + _Corisco_ is “Lightning,” Cape _Frio_ is “The Cold Cape” and + _Angra Pequena_ is “The Little Cove,” and so on. All the prominent + points on the Liberian coast, and most of the Niger mouths, have + Portuguese names. + +Footnote 68: + + This is a little coral islet about 2 miles long by ¼ mile broad, + situated between 2 and 3 miles from the coast (a shallow bay), in + 15 degrees south latitude, where the East African coast approaches + nearest to Madagascar. It commands the Moçambique Channel. Its + native name was probably originally Musambiki. By the neighbouring + East African tribes it is now called Muhibidi, Msambiji, and + Msambiki. It has sometimes been the only parcel of land remaining + in Portuguese hands during the vicissitudes of their East African + empire. + +Footnote 69: + + A corruption of _Mwene-mutapa_. According to some authorities this + title meant “Lord Hippopotamus,” the hippopotamus on the Zambezi + above Tete being looked upon as a _Totem_ or sacred animal + indicative of the royal clan; but in my personal opinion + _Mwene-mutapa_ is really “Lord of the Mine, or gold mining,” + _mutapo_ or _mtapo_ being a shallow pit dug in clay or sand for + mining, or washing gold. + +Footnote 70: + + Where they have not yet brought under subjection the Muhammadan + Makua and the Arab half-castes of Angoshe. The chief native foes + of the Portuguese in East Africa at the close of the 16th century + were the Ba-zimba, one of those Zulu-like marauding tribes like + the modern Angoni, which would range over hundreds of miles in a + few months and commit devastations that left their effects for + nearly a century. + +Footnote 71: + + Except Mombasa, which was retaken and held between 1728 and 1729. + +Footnote 72: + + Zumbo was given up (though it was never much more than a Jesuit + Mission Station) in 1740. + +Footnote 73: + + These Makololo chiefs were formerly headmen of Livingstone’s + second expedition, left behind by him on the Cataract Shire to + stiffen the resistance of the timid natives against the Muhammadan + slave raiders. + +Footnote 74: + + The modern and existing town of that name was not founded till + 1867. + +Footnote 75: + + The use of the Chinde mouth of the Zambezi gives free water + communication between the outer world and Nyasaland, by way of the + Zambezi and Shire rivers. + + + + + CHAPTER V + + SPANISH AFRICA + + + The enterprise of Spain in Africa was relatively small, the greater + part of Spanish energy being devoted to founding an empire in the + New World, in the far East, in Italy and Flanders. It was also knit + up politically at first with the Portuguese colonial empire. + Nevertheless Spain has left very distinct marks of her influence on + North-western Africa in both language and culture. This in past + times arose from the Spanish Moors expelled from Spain, but bringing + much Spanish valour, ingeniousness, art, and pride into the life of + Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, and Timbuktu. + + When Portugal was commencing to acquire oversea dominions in the + Açores (1437-66), Madeira (1430), and on the coast of Morocco, + Christian Spain was still divided into three kingdoms—Castile, + Aragon and Navarre—and the two former were concentrating their + energies on the destruction of the Moorish kingdom of Granada (not + accomplished till 1492). But the monarchs of Castile and Aragon + became jealous of the oversea expansion of Portugal; and that power + deemed it wise to surrender to Castile in 1479 the Portuguese claim + to the Canary Islands. + + The Canary Islands had been partially conquered by a Norman + adventurer, Jean de Béthencourt, in 1402-6, more or less under the + suzerainty of Castile; and the Canary kingdom passed into the hands + of Ferdinand and Isabella in 1476. Prior to the final occupation of + the Spaniards the islands were inhabited by a Berber race of some + antiquity known as the Guanches. These were partly exterminated and + partly absorbed by the Spanish settlers, to whom they were so much + akin in blood that complete race fusion was rendered easy, + especially as the Guanches had not been reached by Muhammadanism. + The Canary Islands were an invaluable stepping-stone for the + trans-Atlantic ventures of the Spanish ships during the first fifty + years of American discovery and colonization. Many Spanish and + Guanche colonists—the Isleños or Islanders—proceeded from this + archipelago of seven islands to the greater Antilles; and there are + plantations and villages to-day in Cuba and Porto Rico which possess + Berber names derived from those of the Guanche prisoners or + colonists who founded them. It took Spain however fifteen years to + conquer the brave and warlike Guanches, a task not accomplished + until 1495. The wonderful scenery, genial climate, and fertile soil + attracted the attention of the British in the 18th century; and one + or two attempts were made to acquire this archipelago, but in face + of the gallant resistance offered by the islanders (it was at + Tenerife that Nelson lost his arm in an attempted landing) British + cupidity was foiled. In 1833 the archipelago was made a separate + government—a province of Spain by itself; but in 1902 a movement for + home rule was severely repressed. The Canary Islands now form + politically part of Spain. They are thoroughly civilized, well + governed and prosperous. The two principal islands, Tenerife and + Grand Canary, are favourite health resorts; and the whole group owes + much to British capital, enterprise and shipping for its industrial + and agricultural development. + + At the close of the 15th century the Spaniards followed up their + expulsion of the Moors from Spain by attacking them on the North + coast of Africa. They established themselves at Melilla[76], Oran, + Algiers[77], Bugia, Bona, Hunein, Susa, Monastir, Mehedia, Sfax, and + Goletta[78]. The apogee of Spanish power in North Africa was reached + about 1535, at which time the Spaniards alternately with the Turks + dominated the Barbary States. Then, owing to victory inclining to + the Turkish corsairs[79], the Spaniards’ hold over the country began + to decline. A resolute attempt was made by Charles V in 1541 to take + and hold the town of Algiers, the Spanish having lost Peñon, a rock + fortress overlooking part of the town. This attempt of 1541 (only + less serious than the French expedition of 1880) would probably have + succeeded but for a torrential downpour of rain, which made the + surrounding country impassable to the Spanish guns and cavalry, and + led to a terrible rout. Had Algiers fallen at this time, its capture + might have resulted in a Spanish empire over North Africa. As it + was, this twenty-four hours’ downpour of rain changed the future of + the northern part of the continent, or rather prevented a change + which might have had very far-reaching results. Charles V had + invaded Tunis in 1535 at the appeal of the last sovereign but one of + the House of Hafs, who had been dispossessed by the Turkish pirate, + Khaireddin. Although his intervention was ultimately unsuccessful, + and his _protégé_ was killed and succeeded by his son, who more or + less intrigued with the Turkish corsairs, the Spaniards retained + their hold on Goletta till 1574, the Turks having then definitely + intervened in the affairs of Tunis. The Spaniards surrendered + Goletta to the renegade pirate, Ochiali; and with it went all their + influence over Tunis. An expedition which they had sent to the + island of Jerba, under the Duke de Medina-Cœli and the younger + Doria, ended in a great disaster—a defeat at the hands of the + Moorish pirates who massacred, it is said, not less than 18,000 + Spaniards (May, 1560). Their skulls were built into a tower, which + remained visible near the town of Humt Suk till 1840, when the + kindly Maltese settlers on this island obtained permission from the + Bey of Tunis to give Christian burial to the Spanish skulls, which + now are interred in the Christian cemetery at Humt Suk. For brief + intervals the Spaniards held other coast towns[80] of Tunis, but in + retiring from Goletta they withdrew from all further hold over the + Regency. + + They finally quitted Oran in 1791, after a terrible earthquake. They + had been turned out of this place in 1708, but recaptured it after a + period of 24 years, and held it for 59 years longer. Spain only + retained down to the present day on the north coast of Morocco the + little island of Melilla[81], the island of Alhucemas, the rock of + Velez de la Gomera, and the rocky promontory of Ceuta. Ceuta (and + Tetwan, which she once possessed) she inherited from Portugal after + a separation had once more taken place between the two monarchies in + 1640. + + Awakened from the torpor which followed the Napoleonic wars and the + home struggles for constitutional government by the French + activities in Algeria, Spain suddenly seized the Chafarinas + Islands[82] in 1849 so as to forestall the French. On the strength + of some clause in a treaty concluded after the war with the Moors + (1859-60), Spain secured from Morocco the town of Ifni, near Cape + Nun on the Atlantic coast and nearly opposite the Canary Islands, + but made no attempt to occupy it. From the middle of the 19th + century onwards an increasing number of Spaniards, chiefly of the + artisan and peasant class, emigrated from Andalucia to the Oran + coast of Algeria, with the result that Western Algeria to-day + contains a Spanish-speaking population of about 150,000. Yet prior + to the 20th century, Spain, distracted by home affairs and troubles + in Cuba, seemed willing to let Morocco drift beyond her control to + that of England or Germany, until the revival of Spanish industries + and trade and the loss of her colonies in America and the Pacific + decided her to plead with Britain and France that a sphere of + influence should be reserved for Spain on the North Morocco coast. + In 1910-11 the region between Melilla and the Muluya mouth was + brought under Spanish control; and in 1911 Spanish troops occupied + all the important towns on or near the coast between Melilla and + Kasr al Kabīr on the Atlantic, except Tangier (which will probably + be internationalized). Spain in fact will sooner or later annex all + the Rif country of North Morocco. In the south she claims a very + large area between Cape Jubi and the Anti-Atlas mountains. + + Spain had allowed her influence over the coast opposite the Canary + Islands (“Santa Cruz de Mar Pequena”) to lapse between the end of + the 16th century and the scramble for Africa which commenced in + 1884. At this period an English trading firm with agencies in the + Canary Islands had been established at Cape Jubi, south of the + Morocco border; and British influence for a time dominated the coast + immediately opposite the Canary Islands, and arrested Spanish action + in that neighbourhood. After the scramble for Africa commenced, + however, the Spanish, who were greatly interested in the north-west + coast (for its valuable fisheries in which the Canarian fishermen + were employed), raised their flag in 1885 at an inlet called the Rio + d’Ouro[83], and declared a Protectorate over the Sahara coast + between Cape Blanco and Cape Bojador and for a varying distance + inland. This Protectorate has since been extended farther to the + north beyond Cape Bojador; but the Empire of Morocco theoretically + extends to the south of Cape Jubi to meet the Spanish frontier, the + Moorish Government having bought up the claims of the English + company. The inland boundary of this Spanish Protectorate has + recently been settled as between France and Spain, and comprises an + approximate area of 73,000 square miles, mainly desert, but + extending inland to the Adrar hills. The only establishment of any + importance or size is on the Rio de Oro inlet, not far from the + islet which the Carthaginians once frequented. No doubt before long + the Rio de Oro Protectorate will be fused with the territory which + Spain claims in South-west Morocco. + + In 1778 Spain, which had become deeply interested in the slave trade + on the West coast of Africa, on account of the need for a regular + supply of slaves to her South American possessions, obtained from + Portugal the cession of the island of Fernando Pô, and also took + over the island of Anno Bom—the last of this series of equatorial + volcanic islands and the smallest. About the same time the Spaniards + made a settlement at Corisco Bay[84]. The Spanish claims extend some + distance up the river Muni. The boundaries of Spanish Guinea (as it + is called) were settled with the French in 1900-2 and resulted in a + territory of 9800 square miles being allotted to Spain. This very + interesting patch of Equatorial West African Coast is emphatically + the home of the gorilla. It is populated by Bantu negroes, more + especially belonging to the Fang group. + + At the end of the 18th century the Spanish island of Fernando Pô was + almost abandoned. When the British undertook to put down the slave + trade off the West African Coast, Fernando Pô became their + head-quarters (in 1829); and for a time they were allowed to + administer it by the Spanish Government, the British representative + or “Superintendent” being made at the same time a Governor with a + Spanish commission. But in 1844 the Spanish decided to resume the + direct administration, and refused to sell their rights to Great + Britain, though overtures were made to that end. Until about 1890 + nothing was done to develop the resources of this densely forested, + very fertile, but unhealthy island. From that time onwards, however, + some encouragement was given to negro and European planters. From + the island having been for so long under British control, there is a + large population of English-speaking negroes, and English is + understood in Fernando Pô much better than Spanish. These negroes + are descended from a number of freed slaves from Sierra Leone. The + indigenous inhabitants are a Bantu tribe of short stature and very + lowly culture known as the Bube[85]. This tribe is distantly related + to the people of the northern part of the Cameroons, and speaks an + isolated Bantu dialect. Much development of cacao planting has + recently taken place in Fernando Pô, involving the importation of + foreign negro labourers from Liberia; but the interests of the Bube + natives have been well protected by Spanish Dominican and British + Primitive Methodist missionaries. + +----- + +Footnote 76: + + In 1490. + +Footnote 77: + + Or the rock, or “Peñon,” overlooking the town, seized and + garrisoned by Cardinal Ximenez in 1509. It was taken by + Khaireddin, the Turkish corsair, in 1530. + +Footnote 78: + + Held by Spain from 1535 to 1574. + +Footnote 79: + + The following is a _résumé_ of the history of the first + intervention of Turkey in Barbary. In 1504 Uruj (Barbarossa I), a + pirate of mixed Turco-Greek origin, attracted by the rumours of + American treasure-ships in the western Mediterranean, captured + Algiers (1516) and Tlemsan (1517); but he was defeated and killed + by the Spaniards coming from Oran. His younger brother Khaireddin + (Barbarossa II) appealed to Turkey, which had just (1518) + conquered Egypt, and received from Sultan Selim the title of + Turkish Beglerbeg of Algiers and a reinforcement of 2000 Turks. He + mastered almost all Algeria, was made Admiral of the Turkish fleet + in 1533, captured Tunis in 1534, was driven out by Charles V, and + retired to Turkey in 1535. His successors were sometimes + Sardinian, Calabrian, Venetian, Hungarian renegades; but among the + more celebrated was Dragut, a Turk of Karamania. + +Footnote 80: + + Susa, Sfax, and Monastir, which were lost to the Turks by 1550. + +Footnote 81: + + The oldest of her continental African possessions, dating from + 1490. + +Footnote 82: + + The Chafarinas Islands are off the mouth of the Muluya river, near + the Algerian frontier. + +Footnote 83: + + This Portuguese name becomes in Spanish Rio de Oro. + +Footnote 84: + + This also, like so many other places on the West coast of Africa, + was named by the Portuguese; _Corisco_ meaning “sheet lightning,” + a name applied to the place because it was first seen during a + violent thunderstorm. + +Footnote 85: + + Bube is said to be a cant term meaning “male” (from the Bantu + root, _-ume_, _-lume_) and the real name of this race is perhaps + Ediya. This subject is fully treated in the author’s book, _George + Grenfell and the Congo_, which gives a full account of Fernando Pô + and the Bube indigenes. + + + + + CHAPTER VI + + THE DUTCH IN AFRICA + + + Although, as will be seen in a succeeding chapter, British seamen + were the first adventurers of other nationalities to follow the + Portuguese in the exploration of the African coasts, the Dutch, as + settlers and colonists, are almost entitled to rank chronologically + next to the Portuguese and Spanish. The Dutch made their first + trading voyage to the Guinea Coast in 1595, 16 years after throwing + off the yoke of Spain. On the plea of warring with the Spanish + Empire, which then included Portugal, they displaced the latter + power at various places along the West coast of Africa—at Arguin, at + Goree (off Dakar, purchased from the natives 1621), Elmina (1637), + and at Saõ Paulo de Loanda about the same time; while they three + times threatened Moçambique on the East coast (1604, 1607, 1662), + and possessed themselves of the island of Mauritius (1598), which + had been a place of call for Portuguese ships. Mauritius, discovered + in 1505 by the Portuguese sea-captain, Mascarenhas (after whom the + “Mascarene” Islands—the Mauritius-Réunion-Rodriguez groups—have been + named), was uninhabited at the time and possessed enormous + quantities of a large and monstrous ground fruit-pigeon, the Dodo, + which the Dutch sailors and their imported herds of swine + exterminated in the course of about a hundred years. On the West + coast of Africa, besides supplanting the Portuguese, the Dutch + established themselves strongly on the Gold Coast by means of 16 new + forts of their own[86], in most cases alongside British settlements, + which were regarded by the Dutch with the keenest jealousy. + + Dutch hold on the Gold Coast was responsible for an enormous + increase of the Slave Trade between West Africa and America and is + the reason why such a large proportion of the United States, West + Indian, and Guiana negroes are of Ashanti (Coromanti, Kormantyn) and + Fanti descent; as is evident from their folk-lore, legends and the + linguistic evidence of their dialects. The Dutch were not loath to + mingle their blood with that of the Gold Coast negroes; and their + long occupancy of these forts produced an impression in the shape of + a race of Dutch half-castes, which endures to this day, and + furnishes useful employés to the British Government in many minor + capacities. But after the abolition of the slave trade Dutch + commerce with the Guinea Coast began to wane, and their political + influence disappeared also; so that by 1872 the last of the Dutch + ports had been transferred to Great Britain in return for the + cession on our part of rights we possessed over Sumatra. Meantime + Dutch trade had begun to take firm hold over the Congo and Angola + Coast; and it is possible that, had the cession of the Gold Coast + forts been delayed a few years longer, it would never have been + made, for Holland possesses a considerable trade with Africa, and + there has been a strong feeling of regret in the Netherlands for + some time past at the exclusion of that country’s flag from the + African continent. + + But a far more important colonization than a foothold on the + Slave-trade Coast was made indirectly for Holland in the middle of + the 17th century; the Dutch East India Company, desirous of making + the Cape of Good Hope something more than a port of call, which + might fall into the hands of Portugal, France, England, or any other + rival, decided to occupy that important station. The Dutch had taken + possession of St Helena in 1645; but a Dutch ship having been + wrecked at Table Bay in 1648, the crew landed, and encamped where + Cape Town now stands. Here they were obliged to live for five + months, until picked up by other Dutch ships; but during this period + they sowed and reaped grain, and obtained plenty of meat from the + natives, with whom they were on good terms. The favourable report + they gave of this country on their return to Holland decided the + Dutch Company, after years of hesitation, to take possession of + Table Bay. An expedition was sent out under Jan van Riebeek, a + ship’s surgeon, who had already visited South Africa. The three + ships of Van Riebeek’s expedition reached Table Bay on the 6th of + April, 1652[87]. + + At different periods in the early part of the 16th century the Dutch + had consolidated their sea-going ventures into two great chartered + companies—the Dutch Company of the West Indies, and the Dutch + Company of the East Indies. The West Indian Company took over all + the settlements on the West Coast of Africa, and had the monopoly of + trade or rule along all the Atlantic Coast of tropical America. The + East India Company was to possess the like monopoly from the Pacific + Coast of South America across the Indian Ocean to the Cape of Good + Hope. The head-quarters of the East India Company, where their + Governor-General and Council were established, was at Batavia, in + the island of Java. It was not at first intended to establish + anything like a colony in South Africa—merely a secure place of call + for the ships engaged in the East Indian trade. But circumstances + proved too strong for this modest reserve. The inevitable quarrel + arose between the Dutch garrison at Table Bay and the surrounding + Hottentots. At the time of the Dutch settlement of the Cape all the + south-west corner of Africa was inhabited only and sparsely by + Hottentots and Bushmen; the prolific Bantu Negroes not coming nearer + to the Dutch than the vicinity of Algoa Bay. A little war occurred + with the Hottentots in 1659, as a result of which the Dutch first + won by fighting, and subsequently bought, a small coast strip of + land from Saldanha Bay on the north to False Bay on the south, thus + securing the peninsula which terminates at the Cape of Good Hope. + French sailing vessels were in the habit of calling at Saldanha Bay; + and in 1666 and 1670 desultory attempts were made by the French to + establish a footing there. Holland also about this time was + alternately at war with England or France or both powers. Therefore + the Dutch resolved to build forts more capable of resisting European + attack than those which were sufficient to defend the colony against + Hottentots. Still, in spite of occasional unprovoked hostilities on + the part of the Dutch, they were left in undisturbed possession of + the Cape of Good Hope for more than a hundred years. The English had + St Helena as a place of call (which they took from the Dutch in + 1655); and the French had settlements in Madagascar and at + Mauritius, where they succeeded a former Dutch occupation. On the + other hand, the officials of the Dutch Company were instructed to + show civility to all comers without undue generosity; they might + supply them with water for their ships, but they were to give as + little as possible in the way of provisions and ships’ stores. It + was to the interest of both France and England that some European + settlement should exist at the Cape of Good Hope for the refreshment + of vessels and the refuge of storm-driven ships. After several + attempts, which continued down to 1673, to dispossess the English of + St Helena, the Dutch finally surrendered the island to them. They + had also in 1598 taken the Island of Mauritius, and commenced a + definite occupation in 1640. But this island was abandoned in 1710, + and became soon afterwards a French possession. So that the French + at Mauritius on the one hand (and also on the Island of Bourbon, now + called Réunion) and the English on the other at St Helena, had + places of call where they could break the long voyage to and from + India, and were therefore content to leave the Dutch East India + Company in full possession of South Africa. + + The Government of the Netherlands East India Company was thoroughly + despotic. It was administered by a Chamber of 17 directors at + Amsterdam, with deputies at Batavia. The Commandant at the Cape, who + was under the orders of Amsterdam and Batavia alternately and might + be overruled by any officer of superior rank who called at his + station in passing, was the slave of the Company and had to carry + out its orders implicitly. He was advised in his local legislation + by an executive council, consisting of a number of officers who + assisted him in the administration, and legislating by means of + proclamations and orders-in-council without any representation of + popular opinion among the colonists, who, however, in time were + allowed to elect members of the Council of Justice or High Court. + + After the first three years’ hesitation, strenuous efforts were + directed to the development of agriculture, especially the + cultivation of grain. Wheat was sown in suitable localities, and + vines and willows were planted by the banks of streams on the + hillsides at the back of Cape Town. Nevertheless the colonists were + terribly hampered by restrictions, which made them almost slaves to + the Company. White labour proving expensive and somewhat rebellious, + an attempt was made to introduce negro slaves from Angola and + Moçambique, but they were not a success as field labourers. The + Dutch therefore turned towards Madagascar, and above all, to the + Malay Archipelago; and from the latter especially workers were + introduced who have in time grown into a separate population of + Muhammadan freemen of considerable prosperity[88]. As Dutch + immigrants still held back from settling the Cape with an abundant + population (owing to the greed and despotic meddlesomeness of the + Company), it became more and more necessary to introduce black + labour; and in the first half of the 18th century many negro slaves + were imported from the Gold Coast and from Moçambique. The Cape + became a slave-worked colony, but on the whole the slaves were + treated with kindness; their children were sent to school, and some + attempt was made to introduce Christianity amongst them. The people + really to be pitied, however, were not the imported slaves, but the + Hottentots, who had become a nation of serfs to the Dutch farmers, + and whose numbers began greatly to diminish under the influence of + drink and syphilis, and through their being driven away from the + fertile, well-watered lands back into the inhospitable deserts. In + 1682, after the colony had been established 30 years, a census + showed a total of 663 Dutch settlers, of whom 162 were under age or + children. For about the same period few if any attempts were made to + explore the country 100 miles from Cape Town; but the coast from + Little Namakwaland on the west to Zululand on the east had been + examined by the end of the 17th century. Indeed the Bay of Natal was + purchased by a representative of the Netherlands Company in 1689; + but the ship bringing back the purchase deed was lost, and no + further attempt was made to push the claim. In 1684 the first export + of grain to the Indies took place, and in 1688 some Cape wine was + sent to Ceylon. In 1685 and in subsequent years representations were + made to the directors in Amsterdam that the colony consisted mainly + of bachelors, and that good marriageable girls should be sent out. + The result of this appeal was that in 1687 many of the free Burghers + (namely, persons more or less independent of the Company) had been + furnished with wives; and they and their families amounted to nearly + 600, in addition to 439 other Europeans, who were mainly employés of + the Company. + + In 1685, Louis XIV unwittingly dealt a fearful blow to France in the + revocation of the Edict of Nantes, which resulted in thousands of + French Protestants emigrating to other countries where they might + enjoy freedom of religion. The Protestant Dutch sympathized with the + homeless Huguenots; and the Netherlands Company decided to give free + passages and grants of land to a number of these refugees. By 1689 + nearly 200 French emigrants had been landed at the Cape and settled + in the mountain country behind Cape Town. Here, however, they were + not allowed to form a separate community. They were scattered + amongst the Dutch settlers, their children were taught Dutch, and in + a few years they were thoroughly absorbed in the Dutch community; + though they have left ineffaceable traces of their presence in the + many French surnames to be met with amongst the South African Dutch + at the present day (always pronounced however in the Dutch way), and + in the dark eyes, dark hair, and handsome features so often seen in + the best-looking type of Boer. Handsomer men and women than are some + of the Afrikanders it would be impossible to meet with; but this + personal beauty is usually traceable to Huguenot ancestry. The + French settlers taught the Dutch improved methods of growing corn + and wine, and altogether more scientific agriculture. Towards the + latter end of the 17th century the Dutch introduced the oak tree + into the Cape Peninsula and the suburbs of Cape Town, where it is + now such a handsome and prominent feature. All this time the + Hottentots gave almost no trouble. They were employed here and there + as servants; but they attempted no insurrection against the European + settlers, though they quarrelled very much amongst themselves. In + 1713 large numbers of them were exterminated by an epidemic of + smallpox. The Dutch had not yet come into contact with the so-called + Kaffirs[89]. + + Towards the middle of the 18th century the Dutch Company ceased to + prosper, suffering from French and English competition. Already, at + the beginning of the 18th century, its oppressive rule, and the + abuse of power on the part of its governors, who used its authority + and its servants to enrich themselves, resulted in an uprising + amongst the settlers; and although some of these were arrested, + imprisoned, and exiled, the Company gave some redress to their + grievances by forbidding its officials in future to own land or to + trade. Even before this the Company had found it necessary to place + a special official, answering to an Auditor-General and an + independent judge combined, alongside the Commandant or Governor, + directly responsible to the Directors and independent of the + Governor’s authority; but this institution only led to quarrels and + divided loyalty. Amongst the governors there were some able and + upright men; and special mention may be made of Governor Tulbagh, + who ruled without reproach and with great ability for twenty years + (1751-71)[90]. + + In spite of licences and monopolies, tithes, taxes, and rents, the + Company could not pay its way in Cape Colony. In 1779, it was more + closely associated with the State in Holland by the appointment of + the Stadhouder (or Head of the State) as perpetual Chief Director. + With this change, the Company, partly supported by the State, + managed to continue the direction of its affairs; and there was + possibly some lessening of restrictions, which enabled settlers to + live further afield. Until the beginning of the 18th century a + standing order had forbidden trading between the settlers and the + natives; but this order being abolished, the farmers commenced to + buy cattle from the Hottentots, and the population became more + scattered. In leasing land to the farmers the Company laid down the + rule that clear spaces of three miles should intervene between one + homestead and the next; and this rule brought about a wider + distribution of European settlers than was contemplated in the + Company’s policy. + + By the beginning of the 18th century the Dutch settlers had begun to + cross the mountains which lie behind the narrow belt of coast land + that forms a projection into the ocean on either side of the Cape of + Good Hope. Seventy years later the boundaries of Cape Colony on the + north and west were the Berg River and the Zwartebergen Mountains, + and on the east the Gamtoos River. A few years later the pioneers of + colonization had crossed the Berg River, and had established + themselves as far north as the Olifants River, so named because + earlier explorers had seen on its banks herds of hundreds of + elephants. The Orange River was first discovered in 1760; and in + 1779 Captain Gordon, a Scotchman in the service of the Dutch + Company, had traced it for some distance down to its mouth, and had + named it after the head of the Dutch State. Hitherto, the Dutch + Government was confined to a narrow coast strip; but in 1785 the + district of Graaf Reinet[91] was formed, and the same name was given + to the village which formed its capital. Then the Dutch boundary + crept up to the Great Fish River, which rises far away to the north, + near the course of the Orange River. This Great Fish River remained + the easternmost boundary of the Colony in Dutch times. To the north + its limits were vague, and in one direction reached nearly to the + Orange River, beyond the second great range of South African + mountains—the Sneeubergen. But beyond the immediate limits of Cape + Colony the Dutch displayed some interest in the fate of South-East + Africa. They opened up a furtive and occasional trade with the + Portuguese coast of East Africa, which at first began for slaves + (numbers of Makua were brought from Moçambique to Cape Town), was + continued for tropical products, and, with many interruptions, + resulted in the establishment at the present day of important Dutch + commercial firms along the Mozambique coast. In 1720, after the + evacuation of Mauritius, an expedition was sent from Cape Colony to + Delagoa Bay, which, though claimed by the Portuguese, had been + abandoned by them at the beginning of the 18th century, so far as + actual occupation was concerned (see p. 110). A fort was built by + the Dutch which was named Lydzaamheid; and tentative explorations + were made in the direction of the Zambezi, from which gold dust was + procured. During ten years of occupation, however, the deaths from + fever were so numerous that the settlement was given up in 1730. + + In 1770 the total European population in Cape Colony was nearly + 10,000, of whom more than 8000 were free colonists, and the + remainder “servants” and employés of the Company. All this time, + although the prosperity of the Cape increased and its export of + wheat, wine, and live-stock progressed satisfactorily, the revenue + invariably failed to meet the expenditure; and, if other events had + not occurred, the Dutch Company must soon have been compelled by + bankruptcy to transfer the administration of the Cape to other + hands. But towards the close of the 18th century, the Dutch, too + weak to resist the influence of France and Russia, were showing + veiled hostility towards England, with the result that England—which + on the other hand was secretly longing to possess the Cape, owing to + the development of the British Empire in India—declared war against + the Netherlands at the end of 1780. In 1781 a British fleet under + Commodore Johnstone left England for the Cape of Good Hope with 3000 + troops on board. Johnstone, however, from storms and other reasons + not so apparent, but possibly due to a certain indecision of mind, + delayed his fleet at Porto Praya, in the Cape Verde Islands; and + news of the expedition having been treacherously imparted to France + by persons in England who were in her pay, Admiral Suffren—one of + the greatest of sea-fighters—surprised the British fleet at the Cape + Verde Islands with a squadron of inferior strength, and gave it such + a sound drubbing that Johnstone was delayed for several months in + reaching Cape Town, where the French had preceded him, and had + landed sufficient men to make a British attack on Cape Town of + doubtful success. Johnstone therefore contented himself in a not + very creditable way with destroying the unarmed Dutch shipping in + the port, and then left Cape Town without effecting a landing. The + result was the garrisoning of Cape Town by a French regiment for two + more years, during which time however another attempt was made by + the British to seize the Cape, which was nearly successful. In the + course of this war, however, England apparently made up her mind + that the possession of the Cape of Good Hope and of Trinkomali in + Ceylon was necessary to the welfare of her Indian possessions, and + did not lose sight of this policy when the next legitimate + opportunity presented itself to make war upon Holland. On the other + hand, the French, though they withdrew their troops in 1783, were + equally alive to the importance of the Cape; and in the great duel + which was to take place between the two nations it is tolerably + certain that South Africa would never have remained in the hands of + the Dutch; if it had not become English it would have been taken and + kept by the French. + + About this time the Dutch came into conflict with the Kafirs. This + vanguard of the great Bantu race had been invading southern Africa + almost concurrently with the white people. Coming from the + north-east and north they had—we may guess—crossed the Zambezi about + the 6th century of the Christian Era; and their invasion had brought + about the partial destruction and abandonment of the Sabaean and + Arab settlements in the gold-mining districts of south-east Africa. + The Semitic inhabitants of Zimbabwe and other mining centres had + been driven back to the coast at Sofala. The progress of the black + Bantu against the now more concentrated Hottentots and Bushmen was + then somewhat slower, delayed no doubt by natural obstacles, by the + desperate defence of the Hottentots, the tracts of waterless country + on the west, and internecine warfare amongst themselves. Overlying + the first three divisions of Bantu invaders there came down across + the Zambezi from the districts of Tanganyika the great Zulu race, + akin to the Bechuana-Basuto people who had preceded them, but less + mixed with Hottentot blood, and speaking a peculiar Bantu + language[92]. By the beginning of the 18th century this seventh + wave—as one may call it—of Bantu invasion had swept as far south as + the Great Kei River, and some years later had pushed the Hottentots + back to the Great Fish River. In 1778 they came into direct contact + with the Dutch; and the Governor of the Cape entered into an + agreement with the Kafir chiefs that the Great Fish River should be + the boundary between Dutch rule and Kafir settlement. Nevertheless, + this agreement was soon transgressed by the Kafirs, who commenced + raiding the Dutch settlers. In 1781 the first Kafir war ended + disastrously for the Bantu invaders, who were driven back for a time + to the Kei River. Eight years later they again invaded Cape Colony. + A policy of conciliation was adopted, which ended by the Kafirs + being allowed to settle on the Dutch side of the Great Fish River in + 1789. + + In 1790 the Netherlands East India Company was practically bankrupt; + and in the following year (when it was computed that the European + population of the Cape numbered 14,600 persons, owning 17,000 + slaves) the Dutch Governor was recalled to Europe, and the country + was for a year left in a state of administrative chaos, until two + Commissioners, sent out by the States General, arrived and took over + the government. But the next year these Commissioners went on to + Batavia; and the Burghers of the interior districts became so + dissatisfied with the mismanagement of affairs that they expelled + their magistrates and took the administration of their district into + their own hands, calling themselves “Nationals,” and becoming to + some degree infected with the spirit of the French Revolution. + Meantime, in the same year, 1793, the Dutch Government had joined + England and Prussia in making war upon France. Two years afterwards, + in 1795, the French troops occupied Holland, and turned it into the + Batavian Republic, a state in alliance with France. The Prince of + Orange, hereditary Stadhouder of the Netherlands, fled to England; + and in the spring of 1795 he authorized the British Government to + occupy Cape Colony on behalf of the States General in order to + obviate its seizure by the French. In June 1795 a British fleet + carrying troops commanded by General Craig arrived at False Bay. The + Dutch were not very willing to surrender Cape Town at the first + demand, even though the interior of the country was in revolt + against the Company. Both the officer administering the Company’s + Government and the dissatisfied Burghers sank their differences in + opposition to the landing of the British. The latter were anxious to + avoid hostilities, and therefore spent a month in negotiations; but + on the 14th of July the British forcibly occupied Simons Town, and + three weeks later drove the Dutch from a position they had taken up + near Cape Town. In September 3000 more troops arrived under General + Clarke, and in the middle of that month marched on Cape Town from + the south-east. A capitulation was finally arranged after an attack + and a defence which had been half-hearted. Thenceforth for eight + years the English occupied Cape Town and administered the adjoining + colony. At first their rule was military, just, and satisfactory; + afterwards, when a civilian governor was sent out, a system of + corruption and favouritism was introduced which caused much + dissatisfaction. The British also had made it known that they only + held the colony in trust for the Stadhouder; and this made the Dutch + settlers uncertain as to their allegiance. Meantime, however, the + British administration gave some satisfaction to the settlers by its + policy of free trade and open markets, and by certain reliefs in + taxation; also by the institution of a Burgher Senate of six + members. But the Boers of the interior remained for some time + recalcitrant. The Dutch, moreover, made an attempt to regain + possession of the Cape by dispatching a fleet of nine ships with + 2000 men on board, which, however, was made to surrender at Saldanha + Bay by Admiral Elphinstone and General Craig without firing a shot. + Kafir raids recommenced; and the British having organized a + Hottentot corps of police, the other Hottentots who were serfs to + the Dutch rose in insurrection against their former masters. When in + 1803 the British evacuated Cape Town, they did not leave the colony + in a sufficiently satisfactory condition to encourage the Dutch + settlers to opt for British rule. From 1803 to 1806 the Dutch + Government ruled Cape Colony as a colony, and not as the appendage + of a Chartered company, which had now disappeared. The Cape ceased + to be subordinate to Batavia, and possessed a Governor and Council + of its own. A check was placed on the importation of slaves, and + European immigration was encouraged. Postal communication and the + administration of justice were organized or improved. In fact, the + Commissioner-General De Mist and Governor Janssens, in the two years + and nine months of their rule, laid the foundations of an excellent + system of colonial government. But the march of events was too + strong for them. The great minister Pitt, in the summer of 1805, + secretly organized an expedition which should carry nearly 7000 + troops to seize the Cape. In spite of delays and storms, this fleet + reached Table Bay at the beginning of January, 1806. Six British + regiments were landed 18 miles north of Cape Town. Governor Janssens + went out to meet them with such poor forces as he could gather + together—2000 in all against 4000 British. The result of course was + disastrous to the Dutch, whose soldiers mainly consisted of + half-hearted German mercenaries. On the 16th of January, Cape Town + surrendered; and after some futile resistance by Janssens in the + interior, a capitulation was signed on January 18, and Janssens and + the Dutch soldiers were sent back to the Netherlands by the British + Government. + + By a Convention dated August 13, 1814, the Dutch Government with the + Prince of Orange at its head ceded Cape Colony and the American + possession of Demerara to Great Britain against the payment of + £6,000,000, which was made either by the actual tendering of money + to the Dutch Government, or the wiping off of Dutch debts. + + On the other hand, the surrender of the Cape to Great Britain + induced the latter power to give back to Holland most of the Dutch + possessions in the East Indies, which we had seized and administered + during the Napoleonic wars. If Holland lost South Africa—which she + had only directly ruled for three years—she was enabled by the + British attitude of self-denial to build up an empire in the East + only second in wealth and population to the Asiatic dominions of + Great Britain. + + Yet, in an indirect fashion, Dutch Africa exists still, though the + flag of Holland no longer waves over any portion of African soil as + a ruling power. The old rivalry between the English and the Dutch, + which had begun almost as soon as the Dutch were a free people, and + competitors with us for the trade of the East and West Indies, had + created a feeling of enmity between the two races, which ought never + to have existed, seeing how nearly they are of the same stock, and + how closely allied in language, religion, and to some extent in + history—also how nearly matched they are in physical and mental + worth. Curiously enough, there is far greater affinity in thought + and character between the Scotch and the Dutch than between the + Dutch and the English. The same thriftiness, bordering at times on + parsimony, oddly combined with the largest-hearted hospitality, the + same tendency to strike a hard bargain, even to overreach in matters + of business, and the same dogged perseverance, characterize both + Dutch and Scotch; while in matters of religion, almost precisely the + same form of Protestant Christianity appeals to both; so much so, + that there is practically a fusion between the Dutch Reformed Church + and the Presbyterians. Had Scotchmen been sent out to administer + Cape Colony in its early days, it is probable that something like a + fusion of races might have taken place, and there would have been no + Dutch question to cause dissension in South African politics in the + 19th century. The Scotch would have understood the Boer settlers and + their idiosyncracies, and would not have made fun of them or been so + deliberately unsympathetic as were some of the earlier English + governors. Slavery would have been abolished all the same, but it + would have been abolished more cautiously, in a way that would not + have left behind the sting of a grievance. But after Cape Colony had + been definitely ceded to Great Britain, its governors in the early + days were mostly Englishmen, who, though often able and just men, + were at little pains to understand the peculiarities of the Boer + character, and to conciliate these suspicious, uneducated farmers. + Another source of trouble was the influx of British missionaries, + who found much to condemn in the Dutch treatment of the natives, + which resembled that in vogue amongst Britons of the previous + century, before the spirit of philanthropy was abroad. Some of these + missionaries, it is true, were Scotchmen, though belonging to + Protestant sects of more distinctly English character. At any rate, + the missionaries no doubt had so much right on their side in + condemning the Boers for their conduct towards the natives, that + their feelings in this respect overcame their national affinity for + the Dutch. The Boer settler at no time showed that fiendish cruelty + to the natives he was dispossessing which was, and is, so terribly + characteristic of the Spanish colonization of Mexico or northern + South America, or of some of the English, French, and Portuguese + adventurers on the West coast of Africa in the 17th century; but he + was determined to make of the native a serf, and denied him the + rights of a man like unto himself. If the native revolted against + this attitude he was exterminated in a businesslike fashion; but if + he submitted, as did most of the Hottentots, he was treated with + patriarchal kindness and leniency. The Dutch settlers appear from + the first to have dissociated their dealings with the Hottentots + from their ordinary code of morals. It was not thought dishonest to + cheat them, not thought illegal to rob them, not thought immoral to + use their women as concubines. So entirely without scruples were the + Dutch on this last point, that whole races arose, and have since + become nations likely to survive and prosper, whose origin was the + illicit union of Dutch men and Hottentot women. These “bastards,” as + they were frankly called, were well treated by the Dutch; they were + not disowned, were usually converted to Christianity, and were + taught to lead a more or less civilized life and to talk the Dutch + language, which they speak in a corrupt form at the present day. In + short, the morals of the South African Dutch were the morals of the + Old Testament, as were those of Cromwell’s soldiers; and in this and + many other modes of thought the Dutch Afrikanders lived still in the + 17th century, whereas the British missionaries were of the early + 19th, in the red-hot glow of its as yet disillusioned and somewhat + frothy philanthropy. The Dutch settlers were denounced at Exeter + Hall and on every missionary platform; and the fact that many of the + accusations were true in great measure did not make them more + palatable to the accused. + + As the Government policy at the Cape was for the first half of the + century greatly influenced by the missionary societies, the Dutch + with some justice regarded these attacks and recriminations as + directly emanating from the British Government, and hence withdrew + from or rebelled against our rule. The dissentient, dissatisfied + Boers began to trek away from the settled portion of Cape Colony + into the wilderness behind, where they might still lead the + pleasant, unfettered, patriarchal life they had grown to love. They + travelled beyond the Orange River, which had come to be the northern + limit of British influence, and, avoiding the deserts of + Bechuanaland, passed north-eastwards into the better-watered + territories now known as the Orange Free State and the Transvaal. + They also sought a way out towards the sea in what is now the colony + of Natal. Here they came into conflict first with the Kafirs and + Basuto on the west, and then with the Zulus on the east. The former + were to some extent under British protection; therefore the British + Government was ready to espouse their cause if they were unjustly + dealt with. The Zulus, on the other hand, were strong enough and + numerous enough to prevent a Boer settlement on their land. + Nevertheless, the Boer invasion of Natal from the north was at that + time a transgression into territory recently conquered and + depopulated by one of the most abominable shedders of blood that + ever arose amongst Negro tyrants—Chaka, the second[93] king of the + Zulus. This latter saw the danger, and lured the pioneers of the + Boers into a position where he was able to massacre them at his + ease. With splendid gallantry—one’s blood tingles with admiration as + one reads the record of it—the few remaining Boers mustered their + forces and avenged this dastardly murder by a drastic defeat of the + Zulus. But this was in the early forties, when British adventurers, + more or less discouraged or unencouraged by the Home Government, had + founded a coast settlement in Natal, on the site of what is now the + town of Durban. The usual shilly-shally on the part of the British + Government misled the Boers into thinking that they could maintain + themselves in Natal against our wishes. As they had further broken + an agreement with us by attacking the Basuto and the Kafirs, a + British force was despatched against them in 1842, which, after a + brief struggle, induced them to capitulate. Natal was then secured + as a British colony, and the Boers with bitter disappointment had to + seek their independent state to the north of the Orange River. But + here also they were followed up; and, had the Governor of the + Cape—Sir George Grey—been supported from Downing Street, the Orange + River sovereignty would never have become the Orange Free State, and + it is probable that even the territory beyond the Vaal River might + in like manner have been subjected to British control. + + But Downing Street for eighty years after the cession of the Cape of + Good Hope persistently mismanaged South African affairs, now blowing + hot with undue heat, now blowing cold, and nipping wise enterprise + in the bud. The action of the Governor was repudiated, and the Sand + River Convention unratified. In the most formal manner the Boers + north of the Orange River were accorded absolute independence, + subject to certain provisions about slavery; and the like privilege + had been previously accorded to those who had further trekked across + the Vaal River at a time when the Orange River State was likely to + become a British Colony. So, from 1852 and 1854 respectively[94], + the South African Dutch formed two states entirely independent of + British rule in their internal affairs, and very slightly in their + external relations. The Orange Free State, which contained a + considerable British element dating from the period of British + sovereignty, had latterly an uneventful career of steady + prosperity[95], due in large measure to the wisdom of its chief + magistrates. When the diamond fields were discovered on its borders + towards the end of the “sixties” it had some cause for complaint + against the British Government, since, taking advantage of the + undefined rights of a Grikwa (Bastard Hottentot) chief, the British + extended their rule over this arid territory north of the Orange + River, which was suddenly found to be worth untold millions of + pounds. But the amount of territory under dispute was relatively + small; and, if the British had transgressed their rightful + borderland to some slight degree, they atoned for it by paying the + Orange State an indemnity of £90,000. Great Britain also intervened + several times to prevent the warlike Basuto (who dwell in that + little African Switzerland between the Orange Free State and Natal) + either from raiding the Orange Free State, or from being themselves + raided and conquered by Boer reprisals. Eventually (1882) + Basutoland, whose affairs had been somewhat mismanaged by the Cape + Parliament, was taken under direct imperial control; and ever since + there has been a complete cessation of trouble in that quarter with + the Orange Free State. + + The career of the Transvaal Republic was much less successful in its + early days. The territory was vaster, in many places not so healthy; + and the native population, especially in the eastern districts[96], + was turbulent, and strongly averse to accepting Boer rule. The + existence of gold, though occasionally hinted at by unheeded + pioneers, was unknown to the world at large, and absolutely ignored + by the Boers; there was little or no trade, and the European + population was scanty. By 1877 the condition of this state had + become so hopeless, with a bankrupt treasury and the menace of a + Zulu invasion, that it was annexed, somewhat abruptly, by the + Imperial representative, Sir Theophilus Shepstone. No doubt this + step was consonant with the enlightened policy then favoured by the + Imperial Government and subsequently by Sir Bartle Frere, who was to + become Governor of the Cape during the latter part of the late Earl + Carnarvon’s tenancy of the Colonial Office. Lord Carnarvon himself + was resolutely intent on carrying out in Africa south of the Zambezi + a scheme of federation similar to that which had in 1866 + consolidated the Dominion of Canada. But the actual method by which + the Transvaal was taken over was not a well considered one; and + unhappily it was followed by the appointment of an officer to rule + over that country whose demeanour was wholly unsympathetic to the + Boer nature. At the end of 1880 the Boers revolted. After a short + military campaign, conspicuous for its utter lack of generalship on + the part of the English, and for the disastrous defeats inflicted on + our forces by the Boers at Lang’s Nek and Majuba Hill, the British + Government of the day (which a few months before had absolutely + refused the Boers’ appeal for the reversal of the annexation) + concluded a hurried armistice, and gave back (1881) its independence + to the Transvaal, subject to a vague suzerainty on the part of the + British Crown, and later on to a British veto which might be + exercised on treaties with foreign powers. The best plea that can be + urged on behalf of this surrender, which subsequent British + Governments have had such cause to regret, was the belief that a + stern prosecution of the war, and the eventual Boer defeat, would + lead to the uprising of the Dutch settlers in Cape Colony and the + intervention of the Orange Free State. It is doubtful whether there + was much foundation for this fear, or whether it would not have been + much easier at that time to settle British supremacy once and for + all over all Africa south of the Zambezi, even if it led to some + degree of internecine fighting; the more so as there would have been + no danger of European intervention at that date. But the chance was + let slip, and the Boers acquired an independence the more justly won + and the less easily disturbed since it was the result of their + sturdy valour. + + The restraining conditions of the 1881 Convention were still further + attenuated by the London Convention of February 27, 1884, in which + with further fatuity the Government of the day accorded + unnecessarily to the Transvaal state the extravagant title of “The + South African Republic.” Perhaps this is the most remarkable act of + abnegation which has ever occurred in the history of the British + Empire; and it must have seemed to the inhabitants of British South + Africa like the admission of a rival ruling power into the British + sphere south of the Zambezi. By this 1884 Convention (worthless for + that purpose, as are all treaties and conventions when the force to + maintain them is not apparent) the geographical limits of the + Transvaal state were clearly defined, and the Boers engaged to keep + within them. + + Encouraged by this diplomatic success, and the feeble manner in + which the Imperial Government had permitted them to carve out a + fresh state in the heart of Zululand, the Boers of the Transvaal now + determined to add Bechuanaland to their dominions; thus possibly to + cut off British expansion towards the Zambezi, and to make their + western frontier coincident with the natural limits of that + Protectorate which Germany had just established, north of the Orange + River. But public opinion in Great Britain was becoming intolerant + of any further sacrifices of British aspirations in South Africa or + of breaches of faith on the part of the Boers, and forced the + Government of the day to assert itself. A strong expedition was sent + out under Sir Charles Warren at the end of 1884, which finally + secured for Great Britain the Protectorate of Bechuanaland, and the + restraining of the Transvaal within its proper limits. Nevertheless, + in 1894 a fresh concession was made to that state by the withdrawal + of British opposition to its absorption of a little enclave of Zulu + country known as Swaziland. In excuse for the British Government it + must be pointed out that the Swazi chiefs had previously made over + to Transvaal subjects so many rights and concessions that any other + solution than the further cession of the administration was rendered + difficult under the existing conditions. [The detachment of + Swaziland as a small native state, administered by Imperial + officials, was effected in 1902.] + + Soon after the conclusion of the London Convention of 1884, the vast + wealth in gold, which for more than ten years back had been asserted + by uneducated pioneers, and denied by mining experts, began to be + made known. The development of the marvellous Witwatersrand brought + about the foundation of Johannesburg, and directed to the Transvaal + an enormous influx of outsiders, mainly English, at any rate mainly + British subjects, though many of them were Jews from England, or + from France and Germany, who had become naturalized British + subjects[97]. Mines were also opened in the east and in the north of + the Transvaal. On the other hand, to counteract the influence of + this British element, the Transvaal Government had almost ever since + its establishment in 1881 been strengthening the Dutch element by + inviting the settlement of Hollanders from the Netherlands, who were + employed in its Government offices, in its schools, its churches, + and on the construction of its railways. These natives of Holland + showed themselves very hostile to British influence; and through + their efforts a great deal of sympathy with the South African Dutch + was aroused in Holland and Germany. On the other hand, the + Outlanders, who settled round Johannesburg and other mining centres + and who soon came to outnumber the Boer element in the Transvaal + population to the extent of five to one, became dissatisfied with + their position under the Boer Government, who ruled them + autocratically, without giving them any voice in the administration + or in the spending of the heavy taxes levied on their industries. It + should be noted that the Boer Government had attempted to wall + itself in from contact with the surrounding British and Portuguese + states by an exceedingly high tariff of import duties, which + rendered many articles of necessity or luxury extremely expensive, + and made civilized life five times dearer than in the adjoining Cape + Colony. It was again the contrast between the very end of the 19th + century and the manners, customs, language, and puritanical religion + of the 17th century. + + To some extent this recalcitrant attitude of the Boers was condemned + and deprecated by their much more enlightened brethren, the Cape + Dutch. In time, probably, these latter might have encouraged and + supported the intervention of the Imperial Government in securing + fair terms to the Outlanders; and as these fair terms must have + given the Outlanders a preponderating voice in the Government, the + Transvaal might have been brought within the South African + Federation under the British ægis. But the Right Hon. Cecil John + Rhodes, then Prime Minister of the Cape and Managing Director of the + British South Africa Chartered Company, saw in this discontent at + Johannesburg the means and excuse for his personal intervention in + the Transvaal. He hurried on the movement, and even carried it + beyond the limits indicated by the more disinterested Reformers. The + administrator of the Chartered Company’s territories, Dr Jameson, + invaded the Transvaal (Dec. 29, 1895) with a small force of between + 500 and 600 mounted police, and endeavoured to reach Johannesburg, + the centre of unrest, with a half-avowed intention of subsequently + marching on Pretoria, and upsetting the Boer Government. But the + Boer forces intercepted Dr Jameson at Doornkop before he could reach + Johannesburg; and after an engagement in which a few of his men were + killed, and when further progress would have meant annihilation, he + surrendered. The High Commissioner of South Africa hurried to + Johannesburg; Dr Jameson and his officers were handed over to the + British Government to be dealt with, and afterwards underwent a + short term of imprisonment. On the other hand, the reformers of + Johannesburg were treated by the Pretoria Courts with inexcusable + harshness, seeing that they had not taken an active part in Dr + Jameson’s inroad, and had surrendered their city to the Boer + Government. Enormous fines, amounting eventually to nearly half a + million sterling, were inflicted on them, after a somewhat burlesque + trial in which they were condemned to death, only to be subsequently + imprisoned or expelled. For the time being this wanton aggression on + the part of Mr Rhodes alienated all sympathy with the grievances of + the Outlanders, and provoked strong expressions of opinion in + certain European states, who, until they were assured that the + British Government was dissociated with Mr Rhodes’ scheme, were not + unnaturally prone to imagine that their own territories in Africa + might some day be exposed to a British raid. The immediate outcome, + therefore, of this ill-advised action on the part of the Cape + Premier (though that official was admittedly actuated by the same + desire which has inspired some British statesmen, to bring about the + Britannicizing of all Africa south of the Zambezi) was the + strengthening and intensifying of the separatist character of the + two Dutch republics still existing in South Africa. The Orange Free + State concluded (1896) an offensive and defensive alliance with the + South African Republic (Transvaal); and enormous quantities of arms, + ammunition, and modern artillery were imported into Dutch South + Africa _via_ Lourenço Marquez (Delagoa Bay) and the new railway[98]. + It was believed that eventually war must break out with Great + Britain, but that probably one or more European powers would + intervene and attack Great Britain, thus paralysing her striking + force in South Africa; that the Cape Dutch would rise and contribute + a quota of 30,000 men to the 80,000 to 90,000 of the Boer States; in + short that the future of South Africa lay with the Dutch element. + War was declared on Great Britain on October 11, 1899. Amazing + victories at first fell to the Boer generals, but Europe did not + intervene, nor did more than 8000 Cape Dutch join their Boer + brothers. The tide of victory having turned in favour of the + British, Bloemfontein, Pretoria and Komatipoort (the frontier + station of the Delagoa Bay railway) were occupied between May and + September 1900. President Kruger fled to Holland, and the two + republics were annexed to British South Africa. Though the war did + not end till the peace of Vereeniging in May, 1902, the last year of + the nineteenth century saw the extinction of any independent Dutch + State in Africa. Yet soon after the conclusion of this peace + responsible government was once more granted to the reconstituted + states of the Orange River and the Transvaal in 1906-7. The + last-named, however, was deprived of Swaziland and of its province + of northern Zululand, which last was added to Natal. The Union of + South Africa (Cape Colony, Orange Free State, Transvaal and Natal) + followed in 1910; and the first Prime Minister of Dutch and + English-speaking South Africa was General Louis Botha, a leading + general of the disbanded Boer army. These brave, sturdy Boers have + played a great part in Africa, a part of which, Holland—the country + which first colonized South Africa—may well be proud. The South + African Dutch are so near to our own blood and tongue, and history, + that we may, without any more sting of bitterness than that with + which we recall the revolt of the American Colonies, take pride in + their achievements and smile grimly at the stout blows they have + dealt us in their own defence. + +----- + +Footnote 86: + + Their “capital” was at Elmina; they held—when in full vigour—Fort + Nassau (built before they took Elmina from the Portuguese), + Kormantin, Secondee, Takorari, Accra, Cape Coast Castle, + Vredenburg, Chama, Batenstein, Dikjeschop (Insuma), Fort Elise + Carthage (Ankobra), Apollonia, Dixcove, Axim, Prince’s Fort near + Cape Three-points, Fort Wibsen, and Pokquesoe. Before the + abolition of the slave trade, Dutch Guinea was very prosperous. It + was governed by a subsidized Chartered Company—the Dutch West + India Co.—under the control of the States General; and the local + government consisted of a Governor-General at Elmina, a chief + Factor (or trader), a chief Fiscal (or accountant-general), an + under-fiscal (or auditor) and a large staff of factors, + accountants, secretaries, clerks and assistant clerks. There was a + chaplain; there were Dutch soldiers under Dutch officers who + garrisoned the forts. After the wars of the French Revolution the + Dutch Government took over the management of these establishments + on the Gold Coast. + +Footnote 87: + + As Sir Charles Lucas points out in his _Historical Geography of + the British Colonies_, “164 years after Bartolomeu Diaz had + sighted the Cape of Good Hope.” + +Footnote 88: + + The “Cape Malays.” + +Footnote 89: + + It will be no doubt remembered that this word is derived from the + Arab word “unbeliever.” The Arabs of south-east Africa applied + this term to the Negroes around their settlements. The Portuguese + took it up from the Arabs, and the Dutch and English from the + Portuguese. + +Footnote 90: + + Tulbagh deserves special remembrance not only from his + geographical explorations, but from the fact that he was the first + person to send specimens of the giraffe to Europe. + +Footnote 91: + + Named after Van de Graaf, who was Governor at the time. “Reinet” + means in Dutch “a goat’s beard,” but I have not been able to + discover why this term should have been added to the name of the + Governor. + +Footnote 92: + + Nevertheless, by their final and more complete contact with the + Hottentots and Bushmen the Zulu-Kafirs adopted three of the + Hottentot clicks; whereas earlier invaders—Karanga, Bechuana, and + Herero—though adopting a few Hottentot terms, kept clear of + Hottentot phonetics, and use no clicks to this day. The Zulu-Kafir + language, divided into four dialects—X̓osa-Kafir, Zulu and Swazi + (all three closely related), and Tonga or Ronga of the Delagoa Bay + district, is on the whole most nearly related to the East African + Bantu groups, with some affinities with Central African Bantu. But + it has no near relations and has developed a very peculiar + vocabulary, as though it had been isolated for centuries. + +Footnote 93: + + If Dingiswayo, his master, can be regarded as the first. + Dingiswayo was rather the paramount chief of a Kafir + confederation, of which the Zulu tribe was a member. Chaka was the + younger son of a Zulu chief, but was eventually elected chief in + his father’s place and then succeeded to the paramount sway of + Dingiswayo. Racially and linguistically there is very little + difference between Zulus and Kafirs. + +Footnote 94: + + The Sand River Convention, recognizing the independence of the + Transvaal, was signed in January, 1852; the Bloemfontein + Convention, which loosed the Orange Free State from British + control, was signed in February, 1854. In 1858, Sir George Grey + laid before the Cape Parliament proposals from the Orange Free + State for reunion in a South African Federation, and was recalled + by the Home Government for advocating this policy. + +Footnote 95: + + For the first few years of its existence it had much fighting with + the Basuto. + +Footnote 96: + + Zulus under Msilikazi and Swazis in the east; Bechuana tribes in + the west and north. + +Footnote 97: + + The part played by the Jews in the development of South Africa has + been as remarkable as their share in the settlement and civilizing + of North Africa, of the West Indies and the Guianas, of Australia + and New Zealand. Between 1840 and 1850 a number of Jewish business + houses were founded or became prominent in Cape Colony and Natal. + They started the guano collecting off the S.W. coast, the mohair, + wool, hides, sealskin and whale oil industries, and + sugar-planting. Notable among such were the De Pass and Mosenthal + firms. The De Passes came (I believe) from Gibraltar, and followed + to the Cape of Good Hope the first consignments of British troops. + The protection given by the British Government to Spanish-speaking + Jews at Gibraltar from the early part of the 18th century onwards + was well rewarded by a great increase of British commerce and + political power in the Mediterranean. The Mosenthals were + attracted to South Africa by the importation of German troops and + German colonists. Already in the early sixties members of the firm + of Lilienfeld were established in the Orange Free State and + hastened to develop the diamond mining industry of the future + Kimberley district. The part played by Alfred Beit (of a Hamburg + Christian-Jewish family), by the Lipperts, the Honourable Simeon + Jacobs, Sir Sigismund Neumann, Sir Lionel Phillips, Sir George + Albu, Sir David Harris, Senator Samuel Marks, Professor Alfred + Mosely, by the Mendelssohns, Rabinowitzes, and Rapaports, in South + African finance, politics, industry, education, law, and + philanthropic work has been a considerable one; and recent South + African history, either in the Boer states or in the British + colonies and protectorates, cannot be written in detail without an + allusion to their names, their achievements, their intentions, + influence, mistakes, and dogged, persevering belief in the + resources and splendid future of Cis- or Trans-Zambezian Africa. + This was a region in earlier days so unpromising to the eye and on + the surface that it needed the Semitic _flair_ for gold and + precious stones—the same mysterious divination which led the + Sabaeans (I am sure) to Zimbabwe, the Phoenicians to Spain, and + the Arabs to the Ashanti hinterland—to induce that persistent + opening-up of Grikwaland, Orangia, inner Cape Colony, the + Transvaal and Rhodesia, which has by the first decade of the 20th + century laid the foundations of another United States in the + southern quarter of Africa. + +Footnote 98: + + This Delagoa Bay railway was made by a group of British and + American concessionaires, headed by Colonel Edward M^cMurdo, an + American, between 1887 and 1889. In the following year it was + arbitrarily seized by the Portuguese Government on an unfair + quibble. The Portuguese then completed the line farther inland + until it joined the Netherlands Railway Co.’s line to Pretoria, + thus giving the South African Republic a means of access to the + sea independent of British control. The wrong inflicted on the + Delagoa Bay Railway Company went to arbitration in Switzerland, + 1889; and the case was decided after 11 years’ deliberations in + favour of the Company, to whom the Portuguese paid £978,000 in + compensation. + + + + + CHAPTER VII + + THE SLAVE TRADE + + + Man had not long attained full humanity before he conceived the idea + of enslaving instead of, or as well as, eating his enemies or his + inferiors. Slavery and the slave trade, however—mere servitude—need + not excite great horror or pity when it occurs among people of the + same race or the same religion, or in countries which are not far + from the home of the enslaved. It is where the state of servitude + exists between widely divergent races that it gives rise to abuses, + which are obvious even to those who are not sensitive + philanthropists. + + The Negro, more than any other human type, has been marked out by + his mental and physical characteristics as the servant of other + races. There are, of course, exceptions to the general rule. There + are tribes like the Kruboys of the West African coast, the + Mandingo, the Wolof, and the Zulu, who have always shown + themselves so recalcitrant to slavery that they have generally + been let alone; while the least divergence from the negro stock in + an upward direction—such as in the case of the Fula, Gala and + Somali—appears to produce an unconquerable love of freedom. But + the Negro in a primitive state is a born slave. He is possessed of + great physical strength, docility, cheerfulness of disposition, a + short memory for sorrows and cruelties, and an easily aroused + gratitude for kindness and just dealing. He does not suffer from + home-sickness to the over-bearing extent that afflicts other + peoples torn from their homes, and, provided he is well fed, he is + easily made happy. Above all, he can toil hard under the hot sun + and in the unhealthy climates of the torrid zone. He has little or + no race-fellowships—that is to say, he has no sympathy for other + negroes; he recognizes, follows and imitates his master + independently of any race affinities, and, as he is usually a + strong man and a good fighter, he has come into request not only + as a labourer but as a soldier. + + Negro slaves were imported into Lower Egypt as servants in the + earliest dynastic times. A few reached Carthage from time to time + and many were brought to Imperial Rome; but the determined + exploitation of the black races did not begin on a large scale till + the Muhammadan conquest of Africa. The Arabs had swept across + Northern Africa, and become directly acquainted with the Sudan[99]. + Before the promulgation of Islam they traded with the East coast of + Africa, and after the Islamic outburst they ruled there as sultans. + The secluding of women in harims guarded by eunuchs had come into + vogue during the Byzantine Empire; but it was probably a custom of + Syrian, Mesopotamian, or Egyptian origin. It was adopted with + emphasis among the civilized Mussulmans, and the negro eunuch proved + the most efficient and faithful guardian of the gynæceum. So the + slave trade developed mightily in the Muhammadan world. Household + slaves and eunuchs were imported into North Africa, Arabia, Turkey, + and Persia from the Sudan; while in a later century the Emperors of + Morocco established their power firmly by importing fighting negroes + from Nigeria. Arabia, Persia, and India obtained negroes from the + Egyptian Sudan, Abyssinia, and the Zanzibar coast. Into the West + coast of India negro slaves were imported from East Africa to become + the guards of palaces and the fighting seamen of navies. In the + Bombay Presidency these negroes became so useful or powerful that + they carved out states for themselves, one or more of which, still + ruled by negro princes, are in existence at the present day as + dependencies of the Government of India[100]. + + The final impetus was given to this traffic by the European. When + the Spanish, Portuguese and English discovered and settled America + they found the native races too few in numbers, too fierce, or too + weakly to be suited for compulsory agricultural work; and so early + as 1503 African slaves were working in the mines of Hispaniola, + brought thither by the Spaniards[101]. A few years later they were + being imported into Mexico, Panama and Peru. In 1517 the slave trade + between Africa and America was regularly established, Charles V of + Spain having granted to a Flemish merchant the exclusive privilege + of importing into America 4000 slaves a year. This monopoly was + subsequently sold by the concessionaire to a company of Genoese + merchants, who struck a bargain with the Portuguese government to + supply the slaves from Guinea. + + English adventurers, who had first found their way out in Portuguese + ships to investigate the spice trade, soon determined to take up the + traffic in negro labourers for the plantations in America as being + more profitable. John Hawkins, one of the famous seamen of the + Elizabethan era, in 1562 took over to the West Indies the first + cargo of slaves transported under the British flag. Afterwards made + Sir John Hawkins (and adopting a “demi-Moor in his proper colour, + bound with a cord” as his crest) he made two other voyages (1564, + 1567) to the West coast of Africa, conveying some eight hundred + kidnapped or purchased negroes to the West Indies. England did not + engage largely in the slave trade on her own account until in the + 17th century she commenced to possess Jamaica and other West Indian + islands, and to develop the tobacco plantations of Virginia. Then + she almost outdid rival nations. The late Dr Robert Brown, in his + interesting work, “The Story of Africa,” computed that in a little + more than a century, from 1680 to 1786, 2,130,000 negro slaves were + imported into the British-American colonies, Jamaica in the course + of 80 years absorbing 610,000. Towards the latter end of the 18th + century the various European powers interested in America imported + on an average over 70,000 slaves a year, the British bringing more + than one half, and sometimes a still greater proportion. At first + the slaves came chiefly from the Gambia and the other rivers + southward to Sierra Leone, and from the Gold Coast, where they were + supplied to the Dutch through the incessant wars of the Ashanti + people. Later they were brought from Dahomé and Benin, and from the + Portuguese possessions of Angola and the Zambezi. Then, as the + demand grew, a rich field was tapped in the 18th century in that + network of swampy rivers, which we now know as the delta of the + Niger river. But slowly there grew up in England, in Denmark, and in + the United States a feeling that there was something wrong in this + system which imposed so much misery on beings, who, though in some + degree inferior to white men, were yet of the same species, since + they could interbreed with us and learn to talk our language. That + such feelings must have existed at all times was evident from the + desire of good men when dying to grant freedom to their slaves. But + the feeling as a national one remained dormant, and was not general + in England until the close of the 18th century. Here and there cases + of a negro prince being sold into slavery attracted attention and + sympathy and caused a searching of consciences among enlightened + men. + + In 1768-72 a great-minded Englishman, Granville Sharp, succeeded by + pushing a test case in getting a judicial decision that slavery + could not exist in England, and that therefore any slave landing in + England became free, and could not be taken back into slavery. In + 1787 Wilberforce, Clarkson, and other philanthropists formed + themselves into an association to secure the abolition of slavery, + and by their exertions in Great Britain a bill was passed in 1807 + which did not go to the lengths they desired, but which subjected + the slave trade under the British flag to severe disabilities. In + 1811 this measure was completed and enforced by another bill + declaring the Slave Trade to be a felony punishable by penal + servitude. Yet it is doubtful whether, before these acts were + passed, the hardships of the slaves transported by sea were so + terrible as they became after the restrictions placed on the trade + rendered it necessary to carry large numbers of human beings on a + single voyage more or less concealed from sight in the hold of the + vessel with an utter disregard for sanitary conditions[102]. In + these later days, when it was necessary to evade tiresome + regulations or to carry on the trade in the face of direct + prohibition, the sufferings of the slaves were so appalling that + they almost transcend belief. It would seem as though the inhuman + traffic had created in Arabs, Negroes and white men a deliberate + love of cruelty, amounting often to a neglect of commercial + interest; for it would obviously have been more to the interest of + the slave raider and the slave trader and transporter that the + slaves should be landed at their ultimate destination in good + condition—certainly with the least possible loss of life. Yet, as + the present writer can testify from what he has himself seen in the + eighties and nineties of the last century, a slave gang on its march + to the coast was loaded with unnecessarily heavy collars or + slave-sticks, with chains and irons that chafed and cut into the + flesh, and caused virulent ulcers. The slaves were half starved, + over-driven, insufficiently provided with drinking water, and + recklessly exposed to death from sunstroke. If they threw themselves + down for a brief rest or collapsed from exhaustion they were shot or + speared or had their throats cut with fiendish brutality. I have + seen at Taveita (now a civilized settlement in British East Africa) + boys and youths left in the bush to die by degrees from + mortification and protrusion of the intestines owing to the + unskilful way in which they had been castrated by the Arabs, who had + attempted to make eunuchs of them for sale to Turkish and Arab + harims. Children whom their mothers could not carry, and who could + not keep up with the caravan, had their brains dashed out. Many + slaves (I again write from personal knowledge) committed suicide + because they could not bear to be separated from their homes and + children. They were branded and flogged, and, needless to say, + received not the slightest medical treatment for the injuries + resulting from this usage. + + So much for the overland journey which brought them to the depôt or + factory of the European slave trader on the coast; then began the + horrors of the sea passage, the description of which, it must be + admitted, refers almost entirely to the ships of civilized nations, + like the English, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, and Americans, and not + to the Arabs and Indians, who carried slaves across from the East + coast of Africa to Arabia or India. In the latter case the sailing + vessels were not often overcrowded, and the slaves were allowed a + fair degree of liberty. In the slave trade with America, especially + when it was placed under restrictions and finally penalized, it was + the aim of the masters to pack as many slaves as possible on board + the vessel, the peril of making one run being only half of what was + entailed in making two. Very often the slaves were sent on board + stark naked. They were packed like herrings in the hold or on the + middle deck, and in times of bad weather, or for reasons of + security, were kept under hatches. The stench they produced then was + appalling, and many died asphyxiated. On some ships, and where the + captain was a humane man, the slaves were occasionally allowed to go + on deck, and were watered with a hose; and where the skipper’s + commission made it profitable to him to land the slaves in good + condition, they received better food, and occasional luxuries like + tobacco; but if the slaver were chased by a British cruiser, no + scruple was shown in throwing the slaves overboard to drown. + + Denmark has the credit of being the first European power to forbid + the slave trade to her subjects (1792). Two years later the United + States of America forbade their subjects to “participate in the + exportation of negroes to foreign countries”; and in 1804 an act + (first promulgated in 1794) was revived, which prohibited the + introduction of any more slaves into the United States. A long + struggle had taken place in Great Britain (many of the Liverpool and + Bristol merchants being deeply interested in the slave trade) + before, in 1807, an act of Parliament was passed (intensified in + 1811) abolishing the slave trade so far as British subjects were + concerned. At the Congress of Vienna (1814) France agreed in + principle that the slave trade should be done away with, and even + signed a treaty providing that whilst the slave trade continued with + French colonies it should only be carried on by French subjects. + During Napoleon’s hundred days of rule in 1815 a decree was issued + ending the slave trade for good and all. In the same year Portugal + subjected the slave trade to certain restrictions, but did not + finally abolish it till 1830. In 1836 Britain paid Portugal the sum + of £300,000 in order to get the export of slaves from any Portuguese + possession prohibited. Great Britain had also in 1820 paid £400,000 + to Spain to purchase a promise from the Spaniards that they would + cease to buy negroes in Africa. Both contracts, though ostensibly + agreed to by the Governments concerned, were frequently violated by + individuals. In 1814 and 1815 the Dutch and Swedes respectively + prohibited the slave trade to their subjects, and a few years later + most of the Spanish South American states abolished the slave trade + on attaining their independence. Slavery was abolished as a legal + condition in all parts of the British dominions by 1840; in Jamaica + and the West Indies in 1833, in South Africa 1834-1840, and in India + about the same time[103]. Besides the sums mentioned which Britain + paid to Spain and Portugal to induce them to give up the traffic in + slaves, she distributed twenty millions of pounds amongst slave + owners of the West Indies as compensation for the abolition of + slavery, and £1,250,000 to those who possessed slaves in Cape Colony + when they were emancipated. Add to these sums the millions of money + she has spent in founding Sierra Leone as a slave settlement, in + helping Liberia[104] (from the same motive), in patrolling the East + and West coasts of Africa and the Persian Gulf, and it will be + admitted that we have here a rare case of a nation doing penance for + its sins, and making that real reparation which is evidenced by a + monetary sacrifice. + + By 1848 the French had abolished slavery in all their possessions. + The Dutch did not do so till 1863; in which year also the status of + slavery ceased in the United States. Slavery lingered in some of the + South American states until 1840-5. In the Portuguese African + possessions slavery was abolished in 1878 and in Spanish Cuba and + Porto Rico in 1886; while Brazil remained a slave-holding country + until 1888, the final and somewhat abrupt abolition of slavery being + one of the causes which led to the downfall of the Emperor. However, + long after British or French possessions had ceased to offer + inducements to the slave trader to run illegal cargoes, there were + sufficient countries in the Western Hemisphere to provide an + excellent market for negroes, while the Muhammadan world in the East + continued to make greater demands than ever on the Central African + slave preserves[105]. + + To counteract the attempts to evade the law a powerful British + squadron swept the West coast of Africa; but in spite of British + efforts to intercept slave-trading vessels, these latter continued + to run cargoes across to the United States, Cuba and Brazil, and it + was not possible for this traffic to be wholly vanquished until the + abolition of slavery in those countries closed the last markets to + the slave trader. A most interesting light is thrown on the vastness + of the area covered by these slave-trading operations in a work by + the Rev. S. W. Koelle (a missionary of the Church Missionary + Society) published in 1854, entitled “Polyglotta Africana.” Mr + Koelle established himself at Sierra Leone for some years and busied + himself in collecting from the slaves who were landed there from + British cruisers vocabularies of the languages they spoke in their + own homes. In this way he took down over 200 languages, which + represented most of the tongues of the West coast of Africa, of the + upper Niger, of Senegal, of Lake Chad, the South-west African coast + as far as Benguela, Nyasaland, the Zambezi delta and the South-east + coast of Africa, and even Wadai. + + When, at the close of the 18th century, British philanthropists were + desirous of repatriating loyalist negroes in North America who + wished to return to Africa, the Sierra Leone Company was started, + which purchased from native chiefs the nucleus of the present colony + of Sierra Leone. Here, for three-quarters of a century, British + cruisers landed and set free the slaves that were captured off the + West coast of Africa. Zanzibar, on the other side of the continent, + became about twenty years ago the eastern analogue of Sierra Leone. + Since the British occupation of Egypt, slavery has practically + ceased to exist in that country; and owing to the French occupation + of Algeria and Tunis, and the influence brought to bear by Britain + on Turkey in regard to Tripoli, there is not much traffic in slaves + across the Sahara Desert to those countries; though anybody visiting + the south of Tunis will be surprised at the large number of negroes + in all the villages, showing that quite recently constant supplies + must have been received from Bornu and the Hausa states. The + devastating slave raids of the Matebele Zulus have been abolished by + the British South Africa Company; and similar raids of the Angoni + have been put an end to by the British and German Governments in + East and Central Africa. + + The Arabs of Zanzibar had acquired an evil fame for their gigantic + slave raids in East-central Africa. Great Britain, who had assisted + to separate Zanzibar from Maskat as an independent state in 1862, + began to concern herself a few years later with the slave trade + which flourished in those dominions. By 1873 the Sultan of Zanzibar + had, after considerable pressure, been induced to make the slave + trade illegal in his Sultanate, though it continued to flourish in + an illegal manner until the administration of his territories by the + British and Germans. + + Arabs from ’Oman in South-west Arabia and from Zanzibar pushed ever + farther and farther into Central Africa from the East coast until + they reached the Upper Congo, where they established themselves as + sultans amongst the negroes, and enslaved millions. Here and there + they Muhammadanized a tribe like the Wa-yao, Manyema, or + Wa-nyamwezi, whom they provided with muskets and made worse slave + raiders than themselves. These slave raids in the districts of Lakes + Nyasa and Tanganyika, revealed to the world by Livingstone, greatly + concentrated the attention of Great Britain on these regions; and + one of the intentions of the British Government in establishing a + protectorate in South-central Africa was the abolition of the slave + trade, which was brought about in 1896, after six years’ campaigns + with a small force of Indian soldiers[106], and the placing of two + gunboats on Lake Nyasa. At the same time the Belgian officers of the + Congo State had attacked and broken up the Arabs, the principal + slave-hunters amongst whom were slain or expelled from the Congo. + The Germans under the brilliant Major von Wissmann hanged several + Arab slave-raiders in East-central Africa, and had completely + abolished the traffic of the others. The slave-raiding states of + Dahomé and Ashanti, of the Mandingo conqueror Samori, and of the + Fula and Nupe Sultans and Vicegerents in Eastern Nigeria had been + conquered by France or Britain between 1893 and 1903. Finally + between 1904 and 1911, France conquered and occupied Wadai, the most + powerful Muhammadan state of the Central Sudan and thus put an end + to the slave-raiding of the Maba power which was fast depopulating + the heart of Africa; while this action was fortified by the Italian + occupation of Tripoli and Cyrenaica (1911). So long as any + Muhammadan power held under its direct and uncontrolled sway any + part of the African coast, there was bound to be slave-raiding and + slave-trading in the interior. + + In short, though slavery still exists, avowed or disguised, in many + parts of Africa, the slave trade is almost at an end, and slave + raids are confined to such parts of Nigeria, S.W. Congoland and + Abyssinian Galaland as are not under complete European control. + + Abominable as the slave trade has been in filling Tropical Africa + with incessant warfare and rapine, it has added much to our + knowledge of that continent, and has furnished the excuse or cause + of European intervention in many cases, resulting sometimes in a + vastly improved condition of the natives when European rule has + taken the place of that of Negro or Arab sultans. Its ravages will + soon be repaired by a few decades of peace and security during which + this prolific, unextinguishable negro race will rapidly increase its + numbers. Yet about the African slave trade, as with most other + instinctive human procedure, and the movements of one race against + another, there is an underlying sense of justice. The White and + Yellow peoples have been the unconscious agents of the Power behind + Nature in punishing the negro for his lazy backwardness. In this + world Natural Law ordains that all mankind must work to a reasonable + extent, must wrest from its environment sustenance for body and + mind, and a bit over to start the children from a higher level than + the parents. The races that will not work persistently and doggedly + are trampled on, and in time displaced, by those who do. Let the + Negro take this to heart; let him devote his fine muscular + development in the first place to the setting of his own rank, + untidy continent in order. If he will _not_ work of his own free + will, now that freedom of action is temporarily restored to him; if + he will not till and manure and drain and irrigate the soil of his + country in a steady, laborious way as do the Oriental and the + European; if he will not apply himself zealously under European + tuition to the development of the vast resources of Tropical Africa, + where hitherto he has in many of his tribes led a wasteful + unproductive life; then force of circumstances, the pressure of + eager, hungry, impatient, outside humanity, the converging energies + of Europe and Asia will once more relegate the Negro to a servitude + which will be the alternative—in the continued struggle for + existence—to extinction. The Negro in some parts of Africa has been + given back his freedom that he may use it with a man’s sense of + responsibility for the waste of time and opportunities. In not a few + European “colonies” or protectorates in Africa the over-ruling white + man, or more often the irresponsible trader, planter, prospector and + labour recruiter, stills looks upon the Negro race as a people + doomed to perpetual serfage. But this mental outlook is fast being + modified—under British influence, mainly—into an honest appreciation + of native rights to land and produce. + + An episode in the history of African colonization which may be most + fitly mentioned here, in relation to the effects of the slave trade + on West Africa, is the foundation of the negro Republic of Liberia + by private agencies in the United States. + + When the Napoleonic wars were over and the great western expansion + of the United States was beginning, the question—not yet wholly + solved—arose: what was to be done with the Negro or Mulatto as + citizen, as a free man with every right to a vote? There were + already many manumitted negroes in North America and in the West + Indies, and their position in the first half of the 19th century was + an indeterminate one. As it commenced to be irksome, from the social + and ethical problems it involved, an attempt was made (1816-20) by + certain benevolent and political societies to solve it by deporting + all discontented free negroes and negroids back to Africa, where + they might make a new home for themselves and even enjoy the + privileged position that the one-eyed man occupies amongst the + blind. Great Britain, as we have already seen, had much the same + problem to face at an earlier date and answered it by the foundation + of Sierra Leone. At first it seemed simplest for the various + missionary and philanthropic societies to dump their free negroes on + the coast of Sierra Leone (in 1820); but the Governor of that colony + seems to have received the proposal rather coldly. The fact was that + at Sierra Leone (almost a failure from the “repatriation” point of + view) we were beginning to find that it is scarcely easier to plant + a Black colony in any part of inhabited Africa than to found a White + one; you have to displace some other people, and such indigenes, if + asked to choose, would rather make way for an intrusive white + element than a band of foreign negroes. And when such negroes or + negroids come from America or Asia they resist the African climate, + or rather its germ diseases, not much better than Europeans. + Probably the Sierra Leone Government had begun by 1820 to think more + of the interests of the really indigenous, native tribes of that + “colony,” than of the woes and welfare of American ex-slaves. + + Being thus rebuffed, the promoters of the expatriation of American + free negroes made a hasty compact with the chiefs of the Dē tribe at + Cape Mesurado, on the Grain Coast, just beyond the Sierra Leone + influence; and in 1821 sent out a large batch of negro and mulatto + colonists under the tutelage of American white men. The white men + all died of fever or abandoned the enterprise in severe ill-health; + but amongst the future colonists was a courageous negro, Elijah + Johnson, who by his indomitable courage and resourcefulness kept the + infant colony from perishing at the hands of the natives, who had + not really understood the transaction by which they were supposed to + have sold for a few pounds’ worth of trade goods a considerable + tract of coast land. In 1823 however there came out a white man of + high character and great abilities, the Rev. Jehudi Ashmun; and he + it was who practically founded “Liberia” (as the new settlements + were called by the Rev. Robert Gurley of the American Colonization + Society, in 1824). + + The town which American negroes built on Cape Mesurado was named + “Monrovia,” after the President of the United States who formulated + the “Monroe” doctrine. Other settlements were made on Cape Mount + (Robertsport), at Cape Palmas (Maryland), at Sinô (Greenville), and + at Grand Basa. In course of time these grew into two separate + republics, “Liberia” and “Maryland.” The existence of the former as + a sovereign and independent State was first recognized by Great + Britain in 1847; indeed the British Government had not only been + very benevolent all through to the struggling Liberian communities, + and several times come to their assistance when they were attacked + by native forces, but had urged on the American negroes the + advisability of their forming a State that European Powers could + recognize as a valid government on the Grain Coast. Britain was the + first Power to recognize Liberia as a sovereign State. The first + President of Liberia, an octoroon American named Joseph Jenkins + Roberts, went to England in 1847, was very kindly received by Queen + Victoria, and made a treaty with Lord Palmerston and the Colonial + Office. He afterwards visited the principal countries of western + Europe. In 1857 Maryland was united with Liberia; and this negro + republic then (in the eyes of Europe) ruled the West African coast + from near Sherbro on the west to the river San Pedro on the + east—about 400 miles, an extent of littoral since reduced by about + 90 miles. + + Yet this State has not so far been a success. American immigration + on any large scale ceased with the outbreak of the American Civil + War and the emancipation of American slaves. The natives of the Kru + coast and of the Muhammadan interior spurned any idea of being + governed or taxed by foreign Europeanized negroes; and the + Americo-Liberians lacked either the courage or the monetary means to + effect a conquest of the regions outside the portions of the coast + belt on which they had built their towns and established their + plantations. As the more vigorous among the American negroes and + mulattoes, who had started the settlement, died out, the younger + generation failed to bring a similar degree of energy into the + development of their native country. All had their faces far too + much turned towards either America or England. English, of course, + was and remained the official language of Liberia, its adoption + being facilitated by the close connection between the Kru population + and British West Coast trade (many Krumen also served, and serve + still, in the British Navy); the constitution of the Republic was + closely, too closely, modelled on that of the United States; very + little interest was taken in the languages, history, manners and + customs of the million and a half of Liberian aborigines, or in the + wonderful native flora and fauna[107]. With the exception of the + journeys of Benjamin Anderson in the sixties of the last century, + there arose no Liberian explorer of any note who revealed anything + about the geography or natural history of the hinterland. This + indeed remained (geographically) a closed book down to 1903, when a + series of explorations by British, French, Swiss, German and Dutch + explorers at last brought to light by 1910 the main features of + Liberian geography and ethnology. British and German traders and + pioneers (not Americo-Liberians) alone discovered and worked the + gold and diamonds of western Liberia and the rubber forests of the + centre and east. + + Meantime, from the beginning of the seventies onwards Liberia got + into financial difficulties. Attempts to open up the interior were + costly in a country of dense forests and unnavigable rivers. A loan + was contracted in England in 1871, the proceeds of which were + vaguely squandered without results. Another loan in 1906 enabled the + Liberian Government to pay off some of its German, Dutch and British + creditors; but, although this loan brought about the installation of + a British official as head of the Liberian customs, and consequently + a vast improvement in the revenue, the disorder in the country’s + finances continued. France took occasion to press for a settlement + of the inland frontier on terms not favourable to Liberia, though as + favourable perhaps as the circumstances warranted. Great Britain had + greater vested interests in the country than any other foreign + nation, but forbore to press them out of regard for American + feelings and a wish not to seem to impinge too much on the French + sphere. Germany had trading interests in the country scarcely + inferior to those of Great Britain, and but for the American factor + would probably have pressed for a German protectorate, an + intervention which might have been displeasing to Britain and + France, the two _limitrophe_ Powers. In these circumstances the + Liberians were encouraged to appeal to their mother-country, the + United States; and, after considerable deliberation, an American + proposal was made for taking over the control of Liberian finances + and a general supervision of Liberian affairs on somewhat the same + lines as have been followed by American intervention in Santo + Domingo. This was accomplished in the year 1912. What the results + will be it is difficult to say. + + But for international jealousies, the preferable solution of the + Liberian problem would have been fusion with the adjoining colony of + Sierra Leone, the coast settlements of which had an origin very + similar to that of Liberia, while the use of the English language, + laws, forms of Christianity, were common to both. Not a few among + the Sierra Leone citizens have attained local eminence in + administrative capacities; one or two even have become + “world-citizens”; and several have received marks of distinction + from British sovereigns. Liberia has produced her noteworthy + personalities, men like Dr Edward Wilmot Blyden (a great writer on + Africa), and Arthur Barclay, President of Liberia from 1904 to 1911; + but they have been men of a European culture and class of mind, and + have contributed little to the solution of African problems. + +----- + +Footnote 99: + + Sudan means in Arabic “Black men” or the “Land of the Blacks.” + +Footnote 100: + + As for example, Janjira in Konkan, which has an area of 325 sq. + m., and Jafarabad in Kathiawar, 42 sq. m. in extent. + +Footnote 101: + + Three hundred negro porters and soldiers accompanied Cortes on his + march to Mexico in 1519; negroes carried the loads of Balboa when + he discovered the Pacific Ocean in 1513, and accompanied Hernandez + to Peru in 1530. Negro workmen assisted the Spaniards to found the + city of St Augustine in Florida in 1565; and negroes, rising high + in the Spanish service, in the first half of the 16th century + explored for Spain the lands of New Mexico and Arizona. + +Footnote 102: + + For particulars on this subject consult my book on the _Negro in + the New World_ (1910). + +Footnote 103: + + Natives of British India, however, continued to hold slaves on the + East coast of Africa until it was made a criminal offence in 1873. + +Footnote 104: + + Liberia commenced with an attempt made by philanthropic Americans + (the American Colonization Society) in 1820 to repatriate free + negroes from the United States. It was formally recognized as an + independent state by the British Government in 1847 and + occasionally assisted to maintain its authority by British war + vessels. Liberia did not enter into diplomatic relations with the + United States till 1862. + +Footnote 105: + + Slavery was abolished in the Turkish dominions after the Crimean + War, but the slave trade exists still to some degree on account of + the harims, which demand a supply of eunuchs. Slavery of a mild + kind also continues in force in the states of Arabia, in Persia, + and in Morocco. + +Footnote 106: + + Sikhs from the Indian Army. These campaigns have been described in + the present writer’s work on _British Central Africa_; and by Mr + Alfred Swann in _Fighting the Slave-Hunters in Central Africa_. + +Footnote 107: + + Though Liberia is quite a small country—some 40,000 square + miles—and is not clearly demarcated by natural features from the + surrounding lands of the West African coast, it is found to + possess a peculiar mammalia of great interest and a rich flora + which also has its regional peculiarities. Amongst singular + Liberian mammals may be noted the pigmy Hippopotamus, the Zebra + antelope and Jentinck’s duiker. + + + + + CHAPTER VIII + + THE BRITISH IN AFRICA, I + (_West Coast, Morocco, North-Central_.) + + + From very early days in the history of the Portuguese monarchy close + and friendly relations had been established between England and + Portugal. A large body of English (together with German and Flemish) + troops on their way out to the Crusades had assisted the first king + of Portugal to capture Lisbon from the Moors in the 12th century. A + later king of Portugal married a daughter of John of Gaunt, Duke of + Lancaster; and his sons, among them the great Prince Henry the + Navigator, were half English in blood. These friendly relations were + no doubt partly to be accounted for by the French origin of both + ruling houses. + + Therefore, when the effect of Portuguese discoveries in West Africa + began to be felt in England by the extension of the spice trade + (hitherto a monopoly of Venice), and the dawning idea that negro + slaves from Africa would be an excellent commodity for American + plantations, British seamen-adventurers were prompt to follow in the + path of the Portuguese. The trade in spices seems to have been the + first inducement, more powerful than gold or slaves. Englishmen had + previously shipped on board Portuguese vessels before they ventured + to sail to West Africa in craft of their own. Quite early in the + 16th century several Englishmen thus found their way to Benin in + company with the Portuguese. But their proceedings were looked upon + with suspicion, and friendly relations between the two nationalities + soon cooled under the influence of rivalry in what the Portuguese + would have liked to make their monopoly of West African trade. At + the end of the reign of Edward VI (1553), and during that of Mary + (1554-5), English ships ventured to cruise to the Gambia, the Grain + Coast, and even the Gold Coast and Benin river, bringing back gold, + ivory, Guinea pepper[108] and “grains of Paradise[109]” for spice + making. In 1562-4-7 Captain (Sir) John Hawkins visited the West + African coast with a ship of his own, and later one or more ships of + Queen Elizabeth. He piratically attacked the Portuguese ships and + robbed them of their negro slaves; he bought and kidnapped slaves on + his own account and conveyed them to the West Indies. But actual + trading ventures of a peaceful or honest nature were rendered very + hazardous by the hostility of the Portuguese. When, however, in the + latter part of the 16th century, Portugal was absorbed by Spain and + Spain went to war with England, Queen Elizabeth had no hesitation in + granting charters to two companies of merchant adventurers to trade + with the West coast of Africa. In 1585 the first charter was granted + to a body of London adventurers for the carrying on of commerce with + Morocco and the Barbary States; in 1588 another charter was given to + Devonshire merchants, who had been for some time previously + endeavouring to trade on the Senegambia coast. Thus in 1588 were + laid the foundations of the British settlement of the Gambia. This + river, which was at first, and probably more accurately, known as + the “Gambra,” is remarkable among African rivers in that it has a + mouth with a deep bar, which can be crossed by big ships at any time + of the tide. Next to the Congo, it is probably the safest river to + enter on all the West African coast; and as its navigability extends + for over 200 miles into the interior of Senegambia, it is a very + valuable means of access to the heart of the fertile regions of + North-west Africa. When the British arrived on the Gambia, and for + two centuries afterwards, the banks of the river were thickly + studded with Portuguese trading settlements. The Portuguese, + however, never seem to have raised any difficulties about its + passing under British control. It was the French from Senegal who + made the most determined attempts to oust the British from the + Gambia. + + In 1592 Queen Elizabeth chartered a further association for trading + on the coast between the Gambia and Sierra Leone. As regards the + subsequent history of the Gambia, it may be mentioned that the first + consolidated company formed to work the trade and administer the + British settlements was incorporated in 1618, but it was not + successful and the association following it also failed[110]. In + 1664 a fort, subsequently called Fort James, was built on the island + of St Mary, off the south bank of the mouth of the Gambia. This was + the nucleus of the present capital of Bathurst, named a century and + a half afterwards from the same Colonial Secretary whose name was + given to the Australian town. In the 17th century the French made + determined attacks on the Gambia, and in 1696 succeeded in + destroying the British settlement, which however was reoccupied and + restored four or five years later. In spite of the dissipation of + the rumours of gold in the country of the Upper Gambia (the result + of the mission of enquiry conducted in 1723 by Captain Bartholomew + Stibbs), the Gambia settlement became rich and prosperous in the + 18th century owing to the slave trade. The Gambia River became the + starting place of the first serious British explorations in Western + Africa and Nigeria. In 1783 the intermittent struggle with France + was concluded by the French recognition of exclusive British trading + rights on the Gambia, with the exception of the French factory at + Albreda, in return for a similar concession to themselves of the + commercial monopoly of the river Senegal; but as a set-off against + the French factory on the Gambia the British retained the exclusive + right to trade with the Moors of Portendik (near Cape Blanco) for + gum. In 1857 these two rights were exchanged. During the Napoleonic + wars England seized the French settlements at the mouth of the river + Senegal, and British merchants went thither to trade. Upon the + surrender of Senegal to France in 1817 these British merchants left + the Senegal and founded the town of Bathurst, now the capital of the + Gambia colony. In 1807, the tiny Gambia colony, now much + impoverished by the abolition of the slave trade, had been subjected + to the newly-founded government of Sierra Leone. In 1843, its + prosperity having somewhat revived owing to the growing trade in + ground-nuts, and its area having been increased by various additions + of territory along the banks of the river, it was rendered + independent of Sierra Leone; but again in 1866 was attached to that + colony until once more it was given a separate administration in + 1888. In the early seventies attempts had been made to assert + British claims to the coast separating the Gambia and Sierra Leone, + where Portuguese rule had lapsed; but Portugal having succeeded in + asserting her claims (p. 98), the project was dropped, and during + the period of discouragement which followed France was allowed to + extend her sway over all the country on either side of the lower + Gambia. Several times during the 19th century the project was mooted + of exchanging the Gambia with France, first for her possessions on + the Gaboon coast, and later on for Porto Novo, and Grand Bassam. The + first project, which would have ultimately given us French Congo, + was opposed and defeated by the British merchants on the Gambia; and + the second, which would have eventually led to a continuous British + coast line from Sierra Leone to the Niger, was upset by the + opposition of Marseilles trading houses at Porto Novo. In 1891 the + best was made of a bad position, and a delimitation agreement was + come to with France, which at any rate secured to Great Britain both + banks of the river Gambia to the limits of its seaward navigability. + After this settlement with the French there was a certain amount of + friction amongst the Muhammadan (Mandingo and Fula) natives due to + interference with their slave-raiding. A chief named Fodi Kabba had + to be expelled for this reason from British territory. Two years + afterwards another slave-raider, Fodi Silah, inflicted severe losses + on a punitive expedition sent against him, but eventually was driven + into French territory where he died. Meantime Fodi Kabba, having + fixed his residence in French Senegambia at Medina, the celebrated + town in Wuli associated with Mungo Park, directed thence an + insurgent movement against the British which resulted in the death + of two British officials. But the French forces cooperated in 1901 + with those of Great Britain; Medina was captured and occupied; and + Fodi Kabba was killed. Since then the Gambia region—once a great + recruiting ground for slaves—has been peaceful and prosperous. A hut + tax has increased its revenues since 1894. In 1906 domestic slavery + was extinguished by an ordinance, the slave trade having been + extirpated by joint British and French occupation of the trade + routes a few years previously. + + The words “Sierra Leone” are a kind of compromise between Spanish + and Portuguese due to the dull hearing and careless spelling of + foreign names so characteristic of the English until the present + generation. Projecting into the sea on this part of the coast (a + coast otherwise flat and swampy) is a mountainous peninsula with + bold hills facing the sea front. If these mountains are not + sufficiently high[111] to be the “Theion Oχema” of the Greek + translators of Hanno’s journal, they were at any rate sufficiently + striking to make an impression on the early Portuguese explorers, + who dubbed them “Serra Leoa” or the “Lion-like Mountain Range” + because the reverberating thunder from the frequent storms booms and + echoes between these forested peaks and valleys exactly like the + roar of many lions. (The Spanish form would be Sierra Leona, and it + was apparently the Spanish name that the English navigators + adopted.) The British first frequented this coast in 1562 when (Sir) + John Hawkins came to the Sierra Leone (Rokel) river to get slaves. + From that time onwards British ships called at Sierra Leone whenever + they could elude the warships of the angry Portuguese. A British + trading station was established here in the latter part of the 17th + century and did not wholly disappear (though usually tenanted as the + slave depôt of some English-speaking mulatto) till it was merged in + the definite occupation of 1787. Towards the end of the 18th century + the fine harbour—the best harbour on the West coast of + Africa—attracted the attention of Dr Henry Smeathman; and inspired + by his writings the British Government obtained the cession of the + Sierra Leone peninsula in 1788. Four years later a charter was + granted and the territory was transferred to a philanthropic + association known as the “St George’s Bay Company,” which decided to + establish in that part of West Africa a settlement for freed negro + slaves from the West Indies and Canada. + + Upon the granting of the charter the name was changed to the “Sierra + Leone Company.” To Sierra Leone had been brought in 1787 loyal free + negroes, who had fought on the British side during the American War + of Independence, and were therefore given their liberty, but whom it + was thought better to deport to a climate more suitable to Africans + than that of Nova Scotia, where they were at first disbanded. Then + were sent out about 400 masterless negroes picked up in England + after the judicial decision obtained by Granville Sharp as to the + illegality of slavery in England. These were known as the + “Granvilles.” To them were added later the “Maroons[112]”—Jamaica + negroes mixed in a slight degree with the blood of the extinct West + Indian natives, who had taken to the bush in Jamaica, and were + making themselves troublesome. Further, as soon as Sierra Leone was + adopted as the dumping ground of the slaves set free from the + captured slave-trading ships, there were added to these ex-slaves of + America and England the heterogeneous sweepings of West, Central, + and South-east Africa, generally known as “Willyfoss Niggers,” + because their freedom was originally due to the exertions of Mr + Wilberforce. Then of course there were the original Timne, Bullom, + Mendi, and Susu inhabitants; so that altogether the negro population + of modern Sierra Leone is an extraordinarily mixed stock, to which a + large colony of Kruboys from the Liberian coast has since been + added. + + The philanthropic company which started this settlement in 1787 had + some quaint notions in its inception. Sixty London prostitutes were + sent out to Sierra Leone to marry with the negroes and become honest + women, while numbers of English, Dutch, and Swedes were invited to + go there as free settlers, under the belief that West Africa was as + suited for European colonization as Cape Colony. The result was of + course that nearly all these European immigrants died a few years + after their arrival, though not before they had left their + impression upon the strangely mixed population of Sierra Leone. The + whole settlement had to be begun over again in 1791. + + In 1807 the rule of the colony was transferred to the Crown; and in + 1821 Sierra Leone was for the first time joined with the Gold Coast + and the Gambia into the “Colony of the West African Settlements.” In + 1843 the Gambia was detached, in 1866 joined again; and in 1874 the + Gold Coast and Lagos were separated from the supreme control of + Sierra Leone. Finally in 1888, the Gambia having been made a + separate administration, Sierra Leone became an isolated colony. + Between 1862 and 1864 its territory was considerably extended along + the coast; and a treaty of delimitation with France in 1894, though + it cut off the access of Sierra Leone to the Niger, still extended + the influence of the colony a considerable distance inland. During + the eighties of the 19th century there were considerable + difficulties with turbulent tribes, especially the ‘Yonnis,’ who + were subdued by an expedition under Sir Francis de Winton. In 1898 + an uprising of the natives of the interior in opposition to the + suppression of the slave trade and the levying of a hut tax + seriously disturbed the colony, and led to some months’ obstinate + bush fighting mainly against the Timne, Kisi, and Mendi peoples, and + a massacre of American missionaries. But this little war produced + excellent results. The turbulent, slave-trading, and—in the + south-east—fetish-governed, cannibalistic natives were for the first + time effectively conquered by the white man. A resettlement of the + territory of 30,000 square miles took place. The old colonial + nucleus of Sierra Leone was limited to the peninsula of that name + and the coast strip. All the interior was declared a protectorate + and divided into districts wherein the rule of the native chiefs was + maintained or revived, under the control of British resident + commissioners. The hut tax was firmly instituted, but the natives’ + exclusive rights to the land were carefully respected. Finally a + railway was built for some 230 miles across the south-east half of + the Protectorate to the Liberian frontier. Other railways or + tramways are being constructed to the French frontier on the north. + A short but very important mountain railway now carries passengers + to the healthy summit of the beautiful mountain range above the hot + and unhealthy capital (Freetown). Here the European residents can + reside, can pass the night in a comparatively cool climate. Sierra + Leone has ceased to be the white man’s grave. From many points of + view it has become the model West African colony. + + Although British traders in gold and in slaves came to the Gold + Coast in the wake of the Portuguese in the 16th century, they + established no form of administration there until 1672, when Charles + II gave a charter to the Royal African Company and the monopoly of + trade between Morocco and Cape Colony. The Royal African Company + built forts at various places on the Gold Coast, and at Whyda[113] + on the coast of Dahomé. It was succeeded in 1750 by the African + Company of merchants, a company subsidized by the Government, which + continued to exist until 1821, at which date the British forts on + the Gold Coast were placed under the Sierra Leone government of the + West African settlements, and the fort at Whyda was abandoned. In + 1807, the powerful Ashanti tribe thrust itself anew on the attention + of European nations (already acquainted with it as a great provider + of slaves and a diligent worker of the alluvial gold deposits) by + forcing its way to the coast, and attacking and destroying the + British fort of Anamabu and the Dutch fort of Kormantyn. They even + besieged Cape Coast Castle. In 1817 a mission, eventually under the + charge of Thomas Edward Bowdich, was sent to Ashanti to bring about + more friendly relations with the King of Kumasi. It succeeded, but + the terms of the treaty then made were not carried into effect by + the British Government, out of pity for the harassed Fanti coast + tribe; consequently the relations between Cape Coast Castle (then + the head-quarters of British administration in the Gold Coast) and + Ashanti once more became strained[114]. In 1824, while on a tour of + inspection, the Governor of Sierra Leone, Sir Charles Macarthy, + landed at Cape Coast Castle, and unfortunately embarked on a war + with the Ashanti without properly organized forces. He was defeated + and killed. The Imperial Government carried on the war for three + years, finally inflicting a defeat on the Ashanti near Accra, which + led three years later to a peace. But this lengthy campaign had + disgusted the Imperial Government with rule on the Gold Coast, and + as soon as peace was concluded with the Ashanti they handed over + these settlements to a committee of London merchants. This committee + selected and sent out an excellent man as Governor—Mr Charles + Maclean. This administrator contrived with a yearly subsidy of £4000 + and a force of 100 police to extend British influence over an area + nearly coincident with the present Gold Coast Colony. But in 1843 + the rule of the merchants was replaced once more by that of the + Crown, though Maclean was taken into the service of the new Imperial + administration. + + The Danes and Swedes on account of the slave trade had established + forts on the Gold Coast in the 17th and 18th centuries, + respectively, to supply the West Indian islands with slaves. The + Swedes soon abandoned their trading forts, but Denmark still + retained four down to the middle of the 19th century, all of which + she then sold to England in 1850 for £10,000. For the same modest + payment Denmark transferred to England the protectorate over a + considerable area to the east of the Gold Coast Colony, along the + river Volta. The Dutch during the 17th and 18th centuries had + planted forts on the Gold Coast in rivalry with the English, and in + most cases alongside of them. After the abolition of the slave trade + Holland lost interest in her West African possessions. Their + existence was very awkward to the English, as it prevented the + collection of customs duties. In 1868 a partition of the coast was + negotiated between England and Holland, the Dutch taking over all + the forts west of a certain line, and the English those which lay to + the east of this boundary. In this manner the English acquired at + last the whole of the town of Accra, which is now the capital of the + Gold Coast. In 1871-2 the Dutch agreed to abandon to the English all + their remaining possessions on the Gold Coast in return for the + cession of certain British claims over Sumatra. Unfortunately, the + transfer of territory from the Dutch entailed a quarrel with the + powerful negro kingdom of Ashanti, situated behind the coast tribes + of this region but striving always to reach the sea. The Ashanti + kingdom was rather a confederacy of small negro states, with the + King of Kumasi at its head, than a homogeneous monarchy. In 1872 + this paramount King of Kumasi despatched an army of 40,000 men to + invade the British Protectorate and assert his claim to domination + over the Fanti tribes of the colony. A large force of Fantis was to + some extent armed and organized by the British Government, but the + Ashantis defeated them twice with great slaughter, and then attacked + the British fort of Elmina, where the Ashanti army sustained such a + serious repulse that it avoided any further attacks on British + fortified settlements. A year afterwards, Sir John Glover (as he + subsequently became) marched with Hausa levies to attack the Ashanti + from the east, while Sir Garnet Wolseley[115], arriving in the + winter of 1873 with a strong expedition composed of British + soldiers, contingents of the West Indian regiments, British seamen, + and marines, drove the enemy back into their country, reached the + capital, Kumasi, and captured and burned that place. A somewhat + dubious peace was arrived at, the king never afterwards fulfilling + the terms of the treaty, which he was supposed to have signed with a + pencil cross; and for the following twenty-one years British + relations with Ashanti (which was also devastated by civil war) were + unsatisfactory. At last, in 1895, another strong expedition marched + on the capital without firing a shot, and took the king prisoner. + But the Ashanti people bided their time; and when, in 1900, the + British forces seemed fully occupied with the South African trouble, + three tribes of the Ashanti confederation (40,000 fighting men) rose + in rebellion just at the time when the Governor of the Gold Coast + and his wife were visiting Kumasi Fort. The rebellion broke out on + April 1, and the Governor and his wife remained shut up till June + 23, only a slender relief of negro soldiers and British officers + arriving. On June 23 the Governor and his wife (Sir F. Hodgson and + Lady Hodgson) left Kumasi with an escort of 600 Hausa soldiers, cut + their way through the Ashanti besiegers (with the loss of two + British officers killed), and safely reached the Gold Coast Colony. + A slender garrison of 100 Hausa soldiers and three white officers + was left to defend Kumasi. Colonel (Sir) James Willcocks arriving + from Nigeria with a few hundred Yoruba and Hausa troops marched + through incredible difficulties of flooded lands, impenetrable + forest and lack of transport to the relief of Kumasi. In the course + of a few weeks he was reinforced by negro and Indian troops from + British Central Africa and a number of British officers and + non-commissioned officers, till at length he had a force of 3500 + officers and men, besides the allied friendly tribes of Ashanti. + Kumasi was effectually relieved on July 15 (the garrison was too + weak to stand); and by the end of the year the whole of Ashanti had + been effectually conquered and annexed. A railway from Kumasi to + Sekondi on the coast, completed in 1903, sealed the pacification of + the country. Ashanti now forms a large province (some 23,000 square + miles) of the government of the Gold Coast. Beyond the forests of + Ashanti, to the north, is the considerable area (33,000 square + miles) known as the Northern Territories. This is separated from + Ashanti mainly by the course of the Volta and of its great tributary + the Black Volta. Unlike Ashanti, it contains no great area of dense + forest, but is a grassy park-like country, dry and even treeless in + the south-east. The negro population belongs mainly to the + Dagomba-Moshi group, and is largely Muhammadan in religion. These + northern territories were practically part of unknown Africa until + the eighties of the last century. They were revealed to us by the + journey of English, French, and educated negro explorers, and became + a British protectorate between 1892 and 1899. The principal products + are cattle and shea-butter (a vegetable oil). + + The oldest possession in this region and the southernmost of the + three great provinces of this important British territory is the + Gold Coast Colony proper, which lies between Ashanti and the sea and + covers an area of 24,200 square miles. Celebrated for its alluvial + gold from prehistoric times onwards, it has of late become more + remarkable for its rock gold from reefs of quartz and auriferous + conglomerates. To work these more efficiently a railway was + constructed from Sekondi to the interior by 1908, with a branch + line. The average value of the gold exported annually since 1907 is + about one million sterling. Since the beginning of the 20th century + there has been a great development of cacao planting amongst the + natives, on their own land; and the importance of this movement and + its profitable results has quite changed the European conception of + African colonization. It is now realized that the native proprietor + works far harder on his own land if there is a market for his + produce than he does as a paid servant on a European-owned estate. + + Although the Gold Coast is perhaps the most unhealthy of the British + West African possessions, it is prosperous in its finances, and has + made great progress in trade. In the last ten years the total value + of its trade has quadrupled, and stands now at £6,000,000 in + approximate yearly value. + + The colony of Lagos came into existence in 1863[116]. It was + afterwards added to the government of the West African Settlements, + then attached to the Gold Coast; and finally in 1886 made an + independent colony. Lagos, as its name shows, was originally a + discovery of the Portuguese, who so named it from the large lagoon, + which until recently was a harbour of very doubtful value, even on + this harbourless coast, but is now by a vast expenditure of money + rendered safe for the exit and entrance of steamers at high tide. In + the days of the early Portuguese adventurers the modern territory of + Lagos was partly under the influence of Dahomé, partly under the + rule of Benin; and the Portuguese and subsequently the British came + there to buy slaves which native warfare rendered so abundant. In + prosecuting the crusade against the slave trade in the middle of the + last century the British Government came into contact with the king + of Lagos, who had become one of the most truculent slave traders on + the coast. This king, Kosoko, was expelled by a British naval + expedition in 1851, and his cousin was placed on the throne, after + having made a treaty with the British binding himself to put down + the slave trade. A British consul was appointed to superintend the + execution of this treaty, but neither the king who signed it nor the + son who succeeded him kept faithfully to its provisions. At length, + in 1861, the king of Lagos ceded his state to the British Government + in return for a pension of £1000 a year, which he drew until his + death twenty-four years later. Under British rule Lagos attained + remarkable prosperity, though unhappily its extremely unhealthy + climate caused great loss of life amongst the officials appointed to + administer the colony. Owing to the great commercial movement in its + port (the adaptation of which to ocean-going steamers proved very + difficult and very expensive) it was called, with some justice, the + “Liverpool of West Africa.” + + At any time between the annexation of Lagos and, say, 1880, the + small strip of coast which separates Lagos from the Gold Coast might + easily have been taken under British protection, the only power with + any intervening rights being Portugal with one fort on the coast of + Dahomé; but the Home Government would never agree to this procedure + until it was too late and France and Germany had intervened. + Subsequently, until about 1898, there was growing trouble with + France owing to her extending her protection or colonization over + the little kingdom of Porto Novo, the large negro state of Dahomé, + and the adjoining country of Borgu. These disputes as to + delimitation of the frontier were settled in 1889 as far north as + the 9th parallel. Then ensued in 1897 and 1898 a strenuous attempt + on the part of the French to cut across the Lagos hinterland up to + the Niger, but this difference was again happily solved by the + Convention signed between the two countries in the summer of 1898. + + Beyond Lagos, and indeed connected with it by half choked-up creeks, + begins the great delta of the Niger, which extends along an elbow of + the coast about 200 miles to the eastward, and ends—so far as direct + connection with the Niger is concerned—at the mouth of the river + Kwo-ibo, though there are probably creeks inside the coast-line + which would carry on the connection of the delta to the Old Calabar + estuary. These innumerable branches of the Niger stream were taken + to be independent rivers (which indeed they are to some extent, + receiving as they do many streams rising independently of the main + Niger) until well into the present century, when it was at last made + clear that they constituted the outlets of the third greatest river + of Africa. Together with the adjoining rivers of Old Calabar and the + Cameroons, they became known as the “Oil Rivers,” because they + produced the greater part and the best quality of the palm oil sent + to the European market. The Portuguese first came here in the 17th + and 18th centuries (after falling out with the king of Benin) to + trade in slaves; and the English followed them at the end of the + 18th century and displaced them altogether. Evidence of former + Portuguese interest in the Niger Delta is sufficiently shown by the + fact that some of these rivers have Portuguese names, or Portuguese + corruptions of native names. The remaining names are chiefly those + of naval officers or ships that surveyed them, or occasionally a + native designation more or less corrupted. + + By the time the slave trade was rendered illegal, the wonderful + virtues of palm oil had been discovered, chiefly in connection with + its value as a lubricant for machinery (especially locomotives) and + as a material for making candles and soap. Therefore the development + of railways in Britain and other European countries, the new + cleanliness, which coincidently was preached as a British gospel, + and the spread of education and love of reading made the fortune of + the Oil Rivers and those merchants who settled there at imminent + risk of death from fever. Already in the forties of the last century + British trading interests had become so important in the Niger Delta + that a consul was appointed. The first consul, Captain John + Beecroft, was a most notable personality, as an explorer and + peacemaker. To him Great Britain owes the definite establishment of + her influence on the Cross River and at Old Calabar. The British + Government, for the purpose of putting down the slave trade, had, + with the consent of Spain, occupied during the first half of the + 19th century the Spanish island of Fernando Pô; and the + administration of this island was for some time connected with the + consular post for the Bights of Biafra and Benin[117]. Afterwards, + when Spain resumed the possession of Fernando Pô, the British consul + for the Bights was also consul for the Spanish island; but little by + little his duties obliged him to reside more on the “Oil Rivers” + than on the adjoining island. With the exception of the brilliant + Richard Burton, who for four years was consul for the Bights of + Biafra and Benin, the post was usually held by a gentleman who had + been to some extent previously connected with African trade, and + whose purview was not much extended politically; but in 1880 Mr E. + H. Hewett, formerly Vice-Consul in Angola, and a man of some + distinction, was appointed to the post. He took up his residence at + Old Calabar, and his reports aroused great interest in the + Government of that period, which was disposed to accede to the + petitions of the chiefs and to take all the coast under British + protection from Lagos to the Gaboon. But the plans of the Ministry + were not fully settled until the end of 1883; and when Mr Hewett + returned to the coast with full powers he was delayed by ill-health + and still more so by the beginning of the Niger Question, and the + importance of securing a hold over the lower Niger. Consequently he + left the Cameroons region to a later visit; and the German + representative at Duala, the celebrated traveller, Dr Nachtigal, + taking advantage of this omission, suddenly concluded a treaty with + a chief at the mouth of the Cameroons estuary. The British flag was + erected over all the remaining territories in South Nigeria, the + Cross River district and the north-west Cameroons. But Germany was + determined to have a fair slice of West Africa, and the British + Government thought it wiser to deal with German aspirations + liberally. The British flag was therefore withdrawn from the + vicinity of the Cameroons river and mountain. The last patch of + Cameroons territory which was given up to Germany was the + interesting little settlement of Ambas Bay, on the flanks of the + mighty Cameroons mountain, founded in 1858 by the English Baptist + Mission when expelled from Fernando Pô. Mr Hewett annexed this + territory in 1884, and (Sir) H. H. Johnston administered it from + 1885 until the time of its surrender to Germany in 1887. + + The limits of the “Oil Rivers Protectorate” were then drawn at the + Rio del Rey on the east, and the boundary of Lagos Colony on the + west. The eastern boundary was subsequently extended by agreement + with Germany to the upper waters of the river Benue. This + acquisition—now known as the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria and + merged into the one great government, almost an Empire, of British + Nigeria—was at first administered by consular authority, amongst + others by the author of this book; and these consular administrators + were obliged to face a serious difficulty in the determined + opposition of certain coast chiefs to the carrying on of direct + trade with the interior. These were the “middle men,” who had for + several centuries prevented the penetration of Africa from the West + coast by Europeans, in the dread that they would lose their + lucrative commission on the products of the interior which they + retailed on the coast. Some of these chiefs were of long established + ruling families; others again had commenced life as slaves and had + risen to be wealthy merchant-kings with incomes of £10,000 to + £20,000 a year, derived from their profits on the goods from the + interior which passed through their hands. Foremost among these + obstructive individuals was Jaja, a slave from the Ibo country, who + as servant, trader and counsellor to chiefs of Bonny had risen to + such a position of wealth and influence that he had armed a large + force of fighting men and a flotilla of war canoes, and made himself + the most powerful chief in the Niger Delta. He resided on the river + Opobo, and was very jealous of his independence, only signing a + qualified treaty of protection with the British Government, from the + well-grounded fear that, if he did not do so, the French would take + his country as an access to the Niger. As Jaja at last went to the + length of forcibly opposing trade between the British merchants and + the natives of the interior, Mr H. H. Johnston, then acting consul + for the Oil Rivers, removed him to the Gold Coast to be tried before + a commissioner. As a result of the trial he was deposed and + sentenced to five years’ banishment in the West Indies. With the + exile of Jaja the principal resistance of the middle-men was broken, + though at Benin and behind Old Calabar similar action had to be + taken to secure free trade. + + In 1893, under Sir Claude Macdonald, a regular administration was + established over Southern Nigeria (the Niger Coast Protectorate, as + it was called until 1906). In 1896-7 a peaceful mission to the King + of Benin in the western part of the Protectorate was attacked by the + soldiers of that chieftain and the leader (J. R. Phillips) and seven + other British officials were slain, together with many of the native + porters. + + Benin had been in relations with British traders since 1553. The + Dutch traded there in the 17th and 18th centuries for slaves, but + were ousted by the French, and the French (in 1792) by the British. + In 1823, Giovanni Belzoni, the Italian Egyptologist, died near Benin + city when starting from this part of the Niger Delta to reach + Timbuktu. In 1863 (Sir) Richard Burton came to Benin as British + consul to try (in vain) to persuade the king to renounce his + devastating human sacrifices, performed once a year for the king’s + “customs” of ancestor worship. (Sir) H. H. Johnston, after making an + agreement with the king’s viceroy, Nana, on the coast, explored the + Benin river in a gun-boat, but was refused permission to proceed to + the capital. This was accorded to (Sir) H. L. Gallwey in 1892; and a + treaty was then made. + + After the massacre of Mr J. R. Phillips and his companions on + January 1, 1897 (only two Englishmen escaped) a British punitive + expedition was rapidly organized by Admiral Sir Harry Rawson; and a + month afterwards the city of Benin was taken, its king was exiled, + and the worst offenders among his chiefs were executed. A second + punitive expedition ranged through the Benin country in 1899, since + when this ancient kingdom has been peaceful. The Benin expedition + revealed to us, in a far more extensive degree than had hitherto + been realized, the marvellous art which had sprung up in that + blood-guilty city, an art chiefly manifested by bronze castings in + the _cire perdue_ process. A splendid series of examples of this + work has since been exhibited at the British Museum. In all + probability this art of working brass and bronze reached the Lower + Niger and parts of the Niger Delta, such as Benin on the one hand + and Old Calabar on the other, from the central Sudan, where it was + introduced by Arab craftsmen, teachers and traders from Egypt and + Tripoli; though some writers of late have argued an even earlier + introduction of copper, bronze, and brass work emanating from Egypt + prior to the Arab conquest, and extending from east to west across + the central Sudan to the Upper Niger. In any case, this art had + taken root in Benin, where it had acquired a special and national + development. Concurrently with this had arisen an exquisite taste in + the carving of ivory, almost oriental in its grace and finish. + + In 1906 the Niger Coast Protectorate which had come under the + Colonial Office in 1900, was fused with the contiguous colony of + Lagos under the name of Southern Nigeria. It had previously (1900) + united its east and west halves by acquiring the whole deltaic + course of the Niger from Idda to the sea, after the Royal Niger + Companies’ territories had been taken over by the British + Government. Several small native wars were necessary between 1900 + and 1910 for the subdual of the Arõ tribe (whose cruel fetish + rites—the “long juju”—demanded constant victims) in the + north-eastern part of the delta, and the Ibo people in the north; + but the prosperity of Southern Nigeria has been notable. Its total + trade averages in the year a value of £11,000,000. A railway now + proceeds inland from Lagos to the Niger and from the Niger to Kano, + about 850 miles. In 1912, the government of Southern and Northern + Nigeria were united under a joint Governor-General. + + Lagos, the delta of the Niger and the lands of the Cross river (Old + Calabar), have thus been united at last in peaceful and prosperous + development under the British flag. But strong as were the British + claims to control the lands along the main stream of the Niger, they + were vigorously contested by France in the second half of the 19th + century. The Niger had been discovered from its source to the last + rapid at the head of its seaward navigability by Mungo Park, one of + the greatest of British explorers, and by later travellers from + Sierra Leone. The rest of the exploration from Busa to the sea had + been completed by other British adventurers and officials; from the + point of view of discovery the whole Niger was British from source + to mouth. The navigation of the river from the sea to above its + confluence with the Benue was first organized in 1832 by a + Scotchman, MacGregor Laird, who has been rightly called “the father + of British trade on the Niger.” Laird between 1832 and 1859 spent + about £60,000 vainly in developing Nigerian commerce. In 1841, 1854 + and 1857 the British Government despatched or supported various + expeditions to explore and make treaties; they also established a + consulate at Lokoja, where the Benue meets the Niger, but the loss + of life from the effects of the climate was so great in those days + that the British Government became discouraged. The most + distinguished of their consuls at Lokoja was Dr W. B. Baikie, who + between 1854 and 1864 established the beginnings of British + Nigeria[118]. But the consulate at Lokoja was abolished in 1868; and + in another direction no attempt whatever was made to attach to the + interior of Sierra Leone the rich countries lying beyond the sources + of the Niger. But for independent action on the part of British + traders the Niger would have become either entirely French, or in + the main a French river with a German estuary. During the eighties + the French Government of Senegal pushed forward to the Upper Niger. + Earlier still, by the influence of Gambetta, two powerful French + politico-commercial companies were formed to establish trading + houses all along the Lower Niger. In spite of much discouragement, + however, the numerous British firms that traded with the Niger had + stuck to the river; but although they were, doing a great deal of + trade their profits were reduced by excessive competition. From the + British point of view, the hour had come to strike for the Niger; + but where was the man? Captain George Goldie-Taubman[119] (a Royal + Engineers’ officer) had been left several thousand pounds’ worth of + shares in one of these small Niger Companies. Having spent some time + in Egypt, he resolved to go to the Niger (1877) and see whether his + shares were worth retaining. Like an analogous great man in South + Africa, he decided on working for amalgamation. With untiring energy + and great tact he brought about the consolidation of all the British + companies trading on the Niger. Then he bought out the French + company, discouraged as they were by Gambetta’s death, and boldly + applied to the Imperial Government for a charter, being able to show + them that no other trading firm but his own existed on the Niger. + Britain was just about to take part at that time in the Conference + of Berlin. She lost the Congo but won the eastern Niger. When the + British claim to a protectorate was acceded to in principle at the + Berlin Conference, a charter was granted to the National African + Company founded by Captain Goldie-Taubman, who changed the name of + his association to that of the Royal Niger Company. The main course + of the river Niger down to the sea was placed under the + administration of this chartered company, but the Benin district to + the west, and the Brass, Bonny, Opobo, and Old Calabar districts to + the east were, as already related, eventually organized as the Niger + Coast Protectorate under direct Imperial administration, because in + these countries the Niger Company had no predominating interests. + + When Sir George Goldie’s Company had expended nearly all its + available capital in buying out the French and purchasing governing + rights from the native chiefs, a fresh obstacle had to be overcome: + German rivalry came into play. The Germans had just taken the + Cameroons but had failed to secure the Oil Rivers, on which in + 1884-5 they made several attempts. Herr Flegel was sent to obtain + concessions beyond the limits of the Royal Niger Company’s immediate + jurisdiction in the Nigerian Sudan. But Flegel was forestalled in + his principal object by the explorer Joseph Thomson, who most ably + conducted a mission to the court of Fula Sultan or the Emperor of + Sokoto, and secured a treaty with that important potentate which + brought his territories under British influence. In 1890 the British + claims to a vast Niger empire were recognized by France and Germany. + But the French recognition was allowed to remain too vague in regard + to the northern, western, and eastern boundaries of British Nigeria; + thus rendering it possible for France in the ensuing eight years to + strive to cut into the British sphere from two directions, if not + three. On the north it was sought to push back the boundary of the + empire of Sokoto, so as to bring the French sphere as far as + possible to the south, though this assertion went little beyond + map-making. On the south, the Benue basin, Lieutenant Mizon made the + most persistent, and, as it would seem, unpractical attempts to + secure for France a large sphere of influence on the river Benue, + which could hardly be approached from French territory because the + German sphere would stand in the way. Finally as the delimitation in + the Anglo-French agreement of 1890 merely carried the British + boundary from Lake Chad to Say on the middle Niger, and did not + provide a western boundary, the French (though unofficially + according the British in 1890 a straight line drawn from Say due + south to the boundary between Lagos and Dahomé) gradually pushed + their acquisitions eastward from Senegambia until they had secured + all the right bank of the Middle and Lower Niger as far as Busa, + which is at the end of the Niger cataracts and at the commencement + of its navigability seawards. A British protectorate over Busa + having been announced to France in 1894, this act on the part of the + French was considered a distinct trespass on British rights and + caused considerable excitement at the time; but, as may be seen by + the 1898 convention, the French finally yielded to British claims. + They had some time before tacitly disowned the enterprise of + Lieutenant Mizon, which had been rendered the more hopeless, firstly + by the agreement between England and Germany in 1893 (which provided + for a continuous Anglo-German boundary from the Rio del Rey on the + coast to the southern shores of Lake Chad), and secondly by the + subsequent Franco-German agreement of 1894 by which a wedge of + German territory was interposed between the French claims in + Congoland and on the river Shari, and the British sphere on the + Benue; though nevertheless the Germans admitted the French to a + point on the extreme upper waters of the Benue in return for German + access to the Sanga, one of the Congo tributaries. + + Besides being hampered by the conflicting ambitions of other + European powers, the Niger Company had to conduct a difficult + campaign against the Amir of Nupe. Like most great Muhammadan + empires, Sokoto consisted of a bundle of vassal states owing a + varying degree of allegiance to the dominant power. British Nigeria + then contained four important civilized negro peoples, and an + indefinite number of savage tribes who were politically of no + account whatever. These four great peoples are the _Songhai_ on the + north-west, the _Hausa_ occupying all the centre, the _Bornu_ or + Kanuri on the north-east, and the _Nupe_ on the south-west. Over + three of these (excepting the Kanuri) the Fula conquests of a + century ago had established Fula rule with its head-quarters in the + Hausa States. But the kingdom of Nupe, though ruled by a Fula + dynasty, held its allegiance to the court of Sokoto but cheaply, and + requested at the hands of the Niger Company a recognition of its + complete independence, which for political reasons the Company could + not give. This powerful kingdom, however, stood in the way of all + access to Sokoto, and in its defiance of the Niger Company raided + for slaves far down on the Lower Niger. Unless a way was to be + opened for successful foreign intrigue by allowing Nupe to assert + its independence of Sokoto and the Royal Niger Company, it was + necessary to subdue its pretensions. Therefore Sir George Goldie, + with the aid of a staff of British officers, of Hausa troops and + machine guns, inflicted a crushing defeat on the forces of Nupe + (mainly Fula), captured their capital, and successfully asserted the + sovereign rights of the Company as conferred on them by the Sultan + of Sokoto. Subsequently other turbulent and slave-raiding tribes + were dealt with, and the Company gradually rendered itself master of + a great riverain dominion in west-central Africa. + + But the whole position was a false one so far as Great Britain was + concerned. The British Government at the Berlin Conference on the + affairs of Africa had pleaded everywhere the cause of Free Trade; + yet here, in the British Nigerian sphere, a chartered company had + secured the virtual monopoly of trade. Above Abo on the deltaic + Niger it was practically impossible for anyone to carry on commerce + except the natives and the Royal Niger Company. Yet the British + Government was already called upon to protest against King Leopold’s + monopoly of trade in the interior of the Congo State and the French + exclusion of British merchants from French Congo. So the step was + taken in 1899 of buying out the administrative rights of the Royal + Niger Company; and on January 1, 1900, the British Government + commenced the direct rule of “Northern Nigeria,” a territory of + approximately 256,400 square miles (as delimited by the + 1890-1898-1902 conventions with France and Germany—338,000 square + miles with Southern Nigeria) which stretched from the confines of + the Sahara Desert and Lake Chad to the Upper Benue, the Central + Niger, Borgu, and the Cameroons frontier. In three and a half years’ + time (1900-04) practically the whole of this enormous area had been + brought under effective British control—thanks to the courage and + indomitable energy of its first Governor, Sir Frederick Lugard (who + had won Borgu and Illórin for the Niger Company in 1897-99). Colonel + T. L. N. Morland commanded a force of 800 negro soldiers with + British officers and non-commissioned officers, which with its light + pieces of artillery and maxim guns defeated the large forces of + cavalry brought against it by the Fula princes. In a campaign which + lasted from the autumn of 1902 to the early summer of 1903 Colonel + Thomas Morland marched from Nupe to Bornu, and Bornu to Sokoto, + capturing the great Hausa city of Kano by the way. The inimical Fula + Sultan of Sokoto was deposed, and a relative raised to the throne, + who could be more depended on to work loyally with the British in + suppressing the slave-trade and in discouraging those slave raids + which were fast depopulating Northern Nigeria. It is pleasant to + record that in the course of these operations the dynasty of the + Kanemi Sheikhs of Bornu (the founder of which had been so good to + the trans-Saharan expeditions sent out from England in the first + half of the 19th century) was restored to the headship of that + country. They had been driven out of Bornu in an extraordinary + invasion of the Central Sudan by Rabah, a former slave of Zobeir + Pasha in the Egyptian Sudan. Rabah, deserting the crumbling Dervish + power of Omdurman, had marched to the west and entered Bornu in 1895 + at the head of a large army. Rapidly he made himself master of the + regions between Hausaland and the Congo basin. Ultimately he and his + son, Fadl-Allah, fell in battle with the French; and the British, + when they took over Bornu as the result of Colonel Morland’s + victories, replaced as Sheikh or native ruler of that ancient + kingdom the great-grandson of Muhammad-al-Amin-al-Kanemi, the man + who so befriended Denham and Clapperton in 1822-4. + + The Fula power[120] is not extinct in Nigeria. Far from it. The more + intelligent Fula princes and aristocracy now assist the British as + great chiefs, and in minor administrative posts. The trade of + Hausaland is reviving, and a considerable mining development (mainly + tin) is going on in the hilly country of Bauchi. A railway now links + up Kano with Lagos on the Gulf of Guinea, and a branch of this great + trunk line turns southward into Bauchi and may some day reach the + upper Benue; just as the Kano line will in the future, far or near, + join the French Trans-Saharan line and carry passengers from the + Central Sudan and the eastern Niger to the Mediterranean ports of + French North Africa. + + An interest in the trading possibilities of the Central Sudan was + evinced by the British Government early in the 19th century, quite + apart from the Niger problem; and it was at the expense of Great + Britain that expeditions set out from Tripoli across the Sahara + Desert in 1818 and 1822 to discover Lake Chad. This move was + partly occasioned by the successes of a remarkable man, + Muhammad-al-Amin-al-Kanemi[121], who had become the virtual ruler + of Bornu and had opened up relations with Tripoli. Clapperton, a + member of the 1822-25 expedition, traversed Hausaland and reached + the court of the Fula Emperor at Sokoto. Denham nearly lost his + life in joining a Bornu army which went to attack the Fulas of + Mandara. Another expedition sent out from Tripoli in 1849 under + Consul Richardson was mainly carried through to its ultimate + purposes by one of its members, a German, Dr Heinrich Barth, who + reached Timbuktu on the west and the Upper Benue on the + south-east. So that Great Britain laid the foundations of her + future Nigerian Empire both from the direction of the + Mediterranean and by ascending the Niger and Benue from the Gulf + of Guinea. + + At one time British influence was so strong with the + semi-independent Basha of Tripoli, that it seemed possible British + protection might be accorded to this Barbary state, seeing that + France in a similar manner had ignored equally valid Turkish claims + to the suzerainty of Algiers. But the uprising of Muhammad Ali in + Egypt awakened the Turks to the necessity of reinforcing their + claims to Tripoli, and British projects in that direction were + abandoned. + + As regards Morocco, the Portuguese fortress of Tangier had been + ceded to England in 1662, the British having desired it as giving + them a port of call close to the Straits of Gibraltar. It was found + difficult however to maintain it against the continual attacks of + the Moors, and it was therefore surrendered to the Emperor of + Morocco in 1684. It is not impossible that it may return one day to + British keeping. + +----- + +Footnote 108: + + Made from various aromatic seeds, such as those of true pepper + vines (_Piper subpeltatum_, _Piper guineense_), and of the fruits + of (_Xylopia æthiopica_). + +Footnote 109: + + The seeds of the _Aframomum_, a zingiberaceous plant, of the same + order as cannas, bananas, etc. These early English voyages are + described in detail in my book on _Liberia_ (2 vols, 1906). + +Footnote 110: + + It was this company that sent out in 1618 George Thompson in + charge of a trading expedition. Thompson was killed in some + quarrel with his men at Tenda on the Upper Gambia. In 1620-21, his + companions were rescued, and his explorations continued by Captain + Richard Jobson, who ascended the Gambia as far as it was navigable + from the sea, came into contact with the Fula and Mandingo + peoples, and on his return wrote an account of his experiences in + a book called _The Golden Trade_. This work—recently republished + in the unabridged form of the MS.—is one of the most vivid + pen-pictures of Negro Africa ever penned. + +Footnote 111: + + They rise at the highest to 2000 feet. + +Footnote 112: + + ‘Maroon’ was a corruption of the Spanish “Cimarron,” an outlaw + frequenting the summits (Cimas) of the mountains. + +Footnote 113: + + Properly ‘Hwida.’ + +Footnote 114: + + All this period in the history of the Gold Coast, including + Bowdich’s mission, is described in detail in my book, _Pioneers in + West Africa_ (Blackie, 1911). + +Footnote 115: + + Afterwards Viscount Wolseley. + +Footnote 116: + + The territory was ceded by its king to Great Britain in 1861. + +Footnote 117: + + The powerful kingdom of Benin—remarkable for its development + of the arts of sculpture, ivory carving, and of + bronze-casting—extended its power seaward to the mouth of the + Benin branch of the Niger Delta, and gave its name to this + great bay or bight of the low-lying coast. Biafra was a native + name given by the Portuguese to the opposite (eastern) bight + between the Niger Delta and the Cameroons. + +Footnote 118: + + British Nigeria and the exploration of Africa generally—its + botany, anthropology, and languages—owe much to the work of + William Balfour Baikie, a native of the Orkney Islands, who + between 1854 and 1864 served the British Government on the Niger + and succeeded the equally remarkable John Beecroft as Consul. + Baikie founded Lokoja in 1860. Lander, Laird, Beecroft, Baikie, + and the black Bishop Samuel Crowther were the principal creators + of British Nigeria. + +Footnote 119: + + Afterwards the Right Hon. Sir George Taubman Goldie, P.C. + +Footnote 120: + + The Fulas, as already stated, are a semi-white race, who + originally came from the Western Sahara, and colonised much of + Senegambia and the Upper Niger basin, penetrating as far south as + Borgu, and south-east to Adamawa, Mandara, Bagirmi, and Darfur. In + the early 19th century, under a great leader, Othman Dan Fodio, + they conquered Sokoto and much of Eastern Nigeria, stopping short + of Bornu, where they were arrested by the power of the Kanemi + Sheikh of Bornu. A succinct account of the different Fula kingdoms + and conquests is given in a footnote on p. 201. + +Footnote 121: + + This man was no doubt a negroid Arab religious teacher from the + country of Kanem, north-east of Lake Chad. He settled in Bornu + early in the 19th century and became the adviser of the king of + that country, a phlegmatic descendant of a great and ancient + dynasty of Berber or Hamitic origin. Muhammad-al-Amin-al-Kanemi + assisted the Bornu sovereign and people to beat off the Fula + invasion and became the virtual ruler of Bornu. He bore the title + of Sheikh of Bornu. + + + + + CHAPTER IX + + THE FRENCH IN WEST AND NORTH AFRICA + + + It has been asserted with some degree of probability that certain + seamen-adventurers of Dieppe found their way along the West coast of + Africa as far as the Gold Coast in the 14th century, a hundred years + before the Portuguese; and that they established themselves on the + Senegal river, built two or more settlements (Little Paris, and + Little Dieppe) on the Liberian coast, and established trading + stations at “La Mine d’Or” (Elmina), at Accra, and at Kormantin, on + the Gold Coast. The Dieppois station at Elmina was said to have been + founded in 1382; and the legend runs that forty years later, owing + to the wars in France having distracted Norman commerce from + over-sea enterprise, these settlements were abandoned. There may + have been some truth in these accounts of Norman discoveries on the + West coast of Africa set forth in the second half of the 17th + century. A Norman adventurer undoubtedly rediscovered the Canary + Islands in the 14th century; and it is probable that the Rio d’Ouro + and even the whole coast of West Africa as far as the Gulf of Guinea + were known to Italian seamen before these features were placed on + the map by the Portuguese. When, three centuries later, the French + founded a settlement at the mouth of the Senegal, they are said to + have discovered the remains of a Norman fort (built by adventurers + from Dieppe) and to have made it the nucleus of the modern town of + St Louis. + + At any rate, soon after the Portuguese had laid bare the coast of + Guinea, ships began to sail from the Norman ports to resume or to + commence the West African trade, though no attempt was made to + establish any political settlements; for in the matter of founding + colonies in Africa, France was considerably behind Portugal, + Holland, and England. However, in 1637, a young Frenchman named + Claude Jannequin de Rochefort was pacing the quays at Dieppe with + vague aspirations to be “another Cortes.” Happening to ask where a + certain ship was going, and being told in reply that she was bound + for the “Senaga” river in Africa, near Cape de Verde, he instantly + resolved to go, and before many hours were over was entered on the + ship’s book as a soldier; he afterwards performed the duties of + clerk to the captain. It would seem that this vessel, which had not + only soldiers but monks on board, must have been despatched by some + far-seeing authority, since before the Sieur de Rochefort joined its + company it had been determined to stop on the West African coast + north of the Senegal river, cut down trees, build a small boat, and + use it to explore the Senegal. This plan had been formulated in + complete ignorance of the fact that the coast north of the Senegal + and south of Morocco contains no timber for boat-building. Finding + this to be the case, the Dieppe expedition, under the command of + Captain Lambert, with the Sieur de Rochefort among its soldiers, + went on to the Senegal and put together a small boat out of timber + which had been brought from France. Into this small vessel was + transferred a portion of the crew, including De Rochefort; and the + Senegal river was explored for 110 miles from its mouth. Although + the Dieppe adventurers were said to have built a fort on the site of + St Louis in 1360, and the Portuguese had a few trading posts on its + lower reaches in the 15th century, there were no Europeans on the + river when it was visited by De Rochefort, though the Dutch had + established stations on the coast not far off. After obtaining + concessions from the natives, Captain Lambert’s expedition returned + to France, experiencing many delays and adventures on the way; and + six years after he had started from Dieppe De Rochefort published an + interesting account of their adventures. + + But this pioneer expedition was not soon followed up, owing to the + hostility of the Dutch. The Norman Company sold its rights to the + French West India Company, and the latter again transferred them to + a subsidiary association afterwards called the “Royal Senegal + Company.” In 1677, the French navy (France being at war with + Holland) captured the Dutch ports on the Senegal coast—Rufisque, + Portudal, Joal, and Goree Island—this last, famous in the history of + West Africa, being named after a little island on the Dutch coast, + and commanding the now important harbour and capital of Senegal, + Dakar. In 1717, Portendik, south of Cape Blanco, and in 1724, + Arguin, an islet north of Cape Blanco, were also taken from the + Dutch, who had earlier still acquired them from the Portuguese. + + The Royal Senegal Company sent out in 1697 a very able man to attend + to its affairs—André de Brüe—who made his head-quarters at Fort St + Louis, which had been founded by De Rochefort’s party. This + remarkable person, Brüe, combined the qualities of a man of science + and a far-sighted trader, and may be said to have really laid the + foundations of the French empire in West Africa. Brüe made two + important journeys up the Senegal and into the interior. He remained + eighteen years on the coast of Senegal, and visited the Gambia in + 1700, finding English, Portuguese, and Spanish there, the + first-named trading at the mouth of the river, and the two last + settled some distance up its course as flourishing slave-traders. + According to Brüe, the Portuguese slave-trading settlements + exhibited some degree of civilization, but also of rowdiness among + the European element, not unlike the proceedings of the “Mohocks” in + the streets of London. In his writings Brüe expresses his amazement + at the enormous number of bees inhabiting the mangrove swamps and + coast-lands of Guinea. In 1716 Brüe sent out agents to extend French + influence up the Senegal and towards the “Gold” country of Bambuk, + the mountainous region on the upper Senegal. Brüe finally returned + to France in 1715 and lived quietly for a long time afterwards on + the large fortune he had accumulated. His is a name to be well + remembered in the annals of the French Empire. He was a far-sighted, + cultivated man, who had also the gift of choosing and employing good + associates. Among these may be mentioned the Sieur Campagnon, the + _beau-idéal_ of a good-tempered, good-looking, supple, kind-hearted, + valorous Frenchman. Only the charm of Campagnon’s winning ways + enabled him to penetrate the recesses of Bambuk, whose secrets as a + gold-bearing country were jealously guarded by the natives. One + little incident of Campagnon’s life on the Senegal depicts his + disposition. Walking round the outskirts of St Louis he came across + an unfortunate lioness that had belonged to an inhabitant of the + town, but had been thrown out on the rubbish heaps to die. The + unfortunate beast had been suffering from some malady of the jaw + which would not permit mastication, and was therefore nearly dead + from hunger. When Campagnon saw the lioness, her eyes were glazing + and her mouth was full of ants and dirt. He took pity on the + unfortunate creature, washed her mouth and throat clean, and fed her + with milk. This saved her life, and the grateful animal conceived a + warm affection for him, and would afterwards follow him about like a + dog and take food from no one else. Dr Robert Brown, who unearthed + this charming anecdote, further informs us that after his romantic + career in Africa Campagnon returned to France, and died, after a + long and prosperous life, a master-mason and undertaker in Paris. + + The French continued to develop their Senegal settlements with some + prosperity until 1758, when they were captured by the British, who + held them until 1778, and acquired them again for a time by the + peace of 1783; after this they were in British hands a few years + longer, but were French again by 1790. In 1800 the British took the + island of Goree, which the French had acquired from the Dutch in + 1677. By the peace of 1783 the English had secured from the French + the exclusive right to trade with the Arabs or Moors of Portendik + for gum. Portendik was a place on the Sahara coast about 120 miles + north of St Louis. All the French possessions in Senegal which were + held by the British from time to time during the Napoleonic wars + were given back to France two years after the peace of 1815, though + at that time the British hold over the Gambia was more clearly + defined, the French only retaining one post on that river, given up + in 1857 in return for the British trade monopoly with Portendik. The + French had already resumed their explorations of Senegambia at the + end of the 18th century; and after the final recovery of the Senegal + river in 1817 these researches were pushed with some degree of + ardour. In 1818 Mollien discovered the sources of the Gambia, and De + Beaufort explored the country of Kaarta. In 1827 René Caillié + started from the river Nunez with help derived from the colony of + Sierra Leone (for which he was subsequently ungrateful) and + descended the Niger to Timbuktu, thence making his way across the + desert to Morocco. His journey, however, did not do much to lure the + French Nigerwards at that time, especially as a great Fula conqueror + had arisen, Al Hajji ’Omaru, whose conquests not only blocked the + way to the Niger, but later on threatened the very existence of the + French settlements on the Senegal. But after a long period of + inaction and lack of interest, the French colony of the Senegal was + to receive great extension. General Faidherbe, who for political + reasons was rather distrusted by the newly-formed Second Empire, was + exiled to Senegal in 1854 in the guise of an appointment as + Governor-General. He was a man of great enterprise and intelligence, + and immediately began to study the resources and extension of the + Senegal colony. He first punished severely the Moorish tribes to the + north of the river Senegal, who had again and again raided the + settled country. Before he had been a year in Senegambia, Faidherbe + had annexed the Wuli country, and had built the fort of Medina to + oppose the progress of Al Hajji ’Omaru. ’Omaru sent an army of + 20,000 men against Medina, but they were repulsed by the officer in + command, and finally had to retreat before Faidherbe’s advance. + Following on the repulse of the Fulas came the annexation of many + countries along the Upper Senegal, and in the direction of the + Gambia. A year later the country between St Louis and the mouth of + the Gambia, past Cape Verde, had been annexed. Then the Casamanse + river, between the Gambia and Portuguese Guinea, was taken; then, in + the sixties, the coast between Portuguese Guinea and Sierra Leone + was added to the French possessions, under the name of “Rivières du + Sud.” In 1864, a French expedition under the gifted Lieutenant E. + Mage (who was drowned off Brest in 1869) reached Segu on the Upper + Niger and was detained there for two years by the suspicious Fula + Sultan—Tidiani, nephew of the Emperor Al Hajji ’Omaru[122]. + + A suspension of French activity occurred after the disastrous + Franco-German war, but it was resumed again in 1880. Captain + Galliéni surveyed the route for a railway to connect the navigable + Senegal with the Upper Niger, which he reached in that year at + Bamaku. By 1883 the post of Bamaku on the Upper Niger had been + definitely founded and fortified. But General Borgnis-Desbordes, + Galliéni, and other French officers had to contend with the imposing + forces of king Ahmadu bin Tidiani, the grand-nephew and successor of + Al Hajji ’Omaru, who ruled over the country between the upper + Senegal and Jenné on the Niger. However Ahmadu was constrained by + General Borgnis-Desbordes to make a treaty in 1887 which placed his + territory under French protection. Nevertheless war with the + Toucouleur (Takrur) Fulas followed in 1890 (and also with a vestige + of the Masina Fulas under Ahmadu Abdulei); and the French occupied + the great country of Kaarta (where Mungo Park suffered so greatly) + in 1891, Segu on the Niger (also associated with Mungo Park) in + 1892, Jenné and Timbuktu in 1893. The French as early as 1881 had + taken under their protection the ancient Fula kingdom of Timbo or + Futa Jallon. Their activities in this direction brought them into + conflict with the forces of Samori, a negro (probably Mandingo) king + who had risen from a very humble position to that of conqueror and + ruler of the countries about the source of the Niger. Samori, like + Al Hajji ’Omaru, commanded hordes of Mandingo negroes, whose + conquests were often undertaken from propagandist motives, and who + were to some extent in sympathy with the Muhammadan tribes of the + Upper Niger. Samori’s forces were mainly recruited from among the + Mandingo tribes between the Upper Niger and the hinterland of Sierra + Leone, Liberia and the Ivory Coast. In 1885-6 a campaign had been + undertaken by Colonel Frey against Samori, which did something to + check the power of that raiding chief; but after the destruction of + the Fula power in 1892 the attacks of Samori on the French outposts + redoubled and nearly embroiled France with Britain over the affair + of Waima. By 1888, a railway had been constructed which facilitated + access to the Niger; and a small armed steamer having been put on + that river at Bamaku, the Niger was for the first time since the + last voyage of Mungo Park navigated beyond Segu. In 1887 this + gunboat (named _Le Niger_) actually reached Kabara, the port of + Timbuktu, but the hostility of the natives prevented its commander, + Lieutenant Caron, from visiting the city. The gunboat returned + without effecting more than an ominous reconnaissance. + + In 1888 Captain Louis G. Binger commenced an exploring journey for + France which had the most remarkable results. He was the first to + enter the unknown country included within the great northern bend of + the Niger. He secured by treaty for French influence Tieba, Kong, + and other countries lying between the Niger and the Ivory Coast. + Colonel Archinard, by his brilliantly conducted campaigns against + Ahmadu bin Tidiani, added to the French West African dominions + Kaarta, Bakhunu, Segu and Jenné, and thus freed from obstruction the + road to Timbuktu. Later on Colonel Archinard defeated the + raider-king Samori and occupied his capital, Bisandugu, near the + frontiers of Liberia. An attempt was made in 1894-5 to attack him in + the new kingdom which he soon conquered in the lands between the + main Upper Niger and the Black Volta; and Colonel P. L. Monteil (who + had previously, 1891-2, journeyed from Senegal to the Niger, and + from the Niger to Bornu, and thence overland to Tripoli) led a + military expedition against him from the Ivory Coast. Colonel + Monteil was very unsuccessful, and was recalled by the French + Government. Samori then attempted to advance northwards to the + central Niger, as the last hope of breaking through the ring of + French power with which he was being surrounded. Colonel Bonnier cut + him off from that direction, however, in 1895; and Captain Marchand + (of Fashoda fame) wrested from him the important town of Kong. In + 1897 Samori had pushed eastwards, so that he was hovering about the + northern boundary of the British Protectorate of Ashanti; and here + his force attacked a small British surveying party, killed the + native escort, and carried off the officer, Lieutenant Henderson. + After a compulsory visit to Samori, Lieutenant Henderson was + released; and the chief relieved himself from all responsibility for + the wanton attack on the British party by saying, “It was the will + of God.” + + At length, in October 1898, the French military authorities on the + Upper Niger made a determined attempt to abolish the power of this + bandit king, who had begun his career as a religious mystic and who + ended by organizing his disciples—“Sofas” or Sufis—into a tremendous + slave-raiding army. They also determined to break the fighting + strength of the Mandingos, as they had previously crushed that of + the Fula and the Tawareq. By a brilliant feat of arms Samori was + brought to bay and his forces routed by Lieutenant Woelfel. The + Mandingo king was taken prisoner by Lieutenant Jacquin and Sergeant + Bratières, and was exiled to the Gaboon. + + During the reign of Louis Philippe a somewhat feeble revival of + colonial enterprise had taken place, in which France made + half-hearted attempts to establish herself in New Zealand, and + secured New Caledonia and Tahiti in the Pacific. At this time also + she thought of extending her possessions in unoccupied districts + along the West Coast of Africa, and had acquired rights over Grand + Bassam and Assini to the west of the British Gold Coast. During the + sixties some efforts were made by Napoleon III to develop French + trading and political influence in the Bight of Benin in Africa; and + Porto Novo, near Lagos, was accorded French protection in 1868. + These claims, however, had been allowed to lapse to some degree; and + the places acquired would at one time have been willingly handed + over to England for a small compensation. But in the scramble for + Africa that commenced in 1884 they suddenly acquired immense value + in the eyes of the French as footholds upon which to commence an + expansion northwards from the Gulf of Guinea to the Niger empire of + which France had begun to dream. In 1884 therefore Grand Bassam and + Assini, on the Gold Coast, and Porto Novo, a tiny vassal kingdom of + Dahomé, were effectively occupied. The journeys of Colonel Binger + between the Niger and the Gold Coast in 1888-91 gave Grand Bassam a + hinterland; and the consequence was that the Ivory Coast between + Grand Bassam and Liberia (including the Rio Pedro district of + Liberia) was annexed by France in 1891. Hitherto this coast, the + interior of which was then and till the close of the 19th century + one of the least known parts of Africa, had been of great importance + to British trade, which was carried on chiefly by Bristol sailing + ships. Moreover, from the Ivory Coast came the bulk of the + celebrated Kruboys, who are the best labour-force obtainable along + the West Coast of Africa from the Gambia to the Orange River. + Nevertheless, although the petty chiefs of the Ivory Coast had often + offered their friendship and vassalage to Great Britain, no steps + were taken on the part of the British Government, and therefore no + protest was offered when France annexed the Ivory Coast and became + next neighbour to Liberia. In 1892 a somewhat stringent treaty was + concluded between France and Liberia, by which, in the event of the + latter coming under the influence or protection of any other power, + France would have the reversion of much of her hinterland. The + occupation of Porto Novo soon led to a quarrel with Dahomé, a + kingdom of singular bloodthirstiness, which had defied both England + and Portugal at different times, and had laughed at our futile + blockades of its coast. After a preliminary occupation of the + Dahomean coast towns and the imposition of a somewhat doubtful + French suzerainty, the king, Behanzin, compelled the French to make + their action more effective. A well-equipped expedition was sent out + in 1893 under General Dodds, who had conducted the first operations + in 1891. For the first time Dahomé was invaded by a well-organized + European force; and after a fierce struggle the entire kingdom was + overrun and conquered, and the king was captured and sent to the + West Indies. + + In the meantime, the French forces marching step by step along the + upper Niger had captured the important town of Jenné in 1893—Jenné, + the focus of Nigerian civilization, and the mother of Timbuktu. From + Jenné at the close of 1893 Colonel Archinard directed a march to be + made to Timbuktu—it is said, without or contrary to orders from the + Governor of Senegal. Two squadrons marched overland, and a river + flotilla of gunboats under Commandant Boiteux steamed to the port of + Timbuktu, Kabara. The flotilla of gunboats and lighters arrived at + Kabara in advance of the military forces, and caused considerable + perturbation in Timbuktu. The civilized inhabitants of the town were + willing to surrender it to the French, only fearing their hated + masters—the Tawareq. The Tawareq, hearing of the coming of the land + expedition, left the town to meet it; but the Niger being remarkably + high, Lieutenant Boiteux was actually able to take two lighters + armed with machine guns up the back-water, which in seasons of flood + reaches the walls of Timbuktu. After a little deliberation the town + surrendered to the French. Shortly afterwards the Tawareq attacked + the naval station formed at Kabara on the Niger, killing a + midshipman. Lieutenant Boiteux, hearing that firing was going on, + rode out of Timbuktu with one other European, accompanied by his + little garrison on foot, arrived at Kabara and routed the Tawareq. + This was a truly gallant action, worthy to be recorded. After + standing a short siege in Timbuktu and making a successful sortie, + the little naval expedition was relieved from the anxiety of its + position by the arrival of the first column under Colonel Bonnier on + the 14th of January, 1894. Timbuktu was thus captured by the French + with nineteen men, seven of whom were French, and the remainder + Senegalese negroes. But a slight reverse was to follow. Over-rash, + Colonel Bonnier started with a small force to reconnoitre the + country round Timbuktu and rid the neighbourhood of the Tawareq. Too + confident, they marched into a trap. Their camp was surprised by the + Tawareq at early dawn, and almost all the French troops were + massacred, only three French officers and a handful of men escaping + to tell the tale. Twenty-five days afterwards, a second column under + Colonel Jouffre arrived on the scene, and collected the remains of + the unfortunate Frenchmen for interment at Timbuktu. It then set out + to follow up the Tawareq, whom the French surprised in turn at night + in their encampment, and of whom Colonel Jouffre believed his + soldiers to have slain many. From that time the French have had no + serious fighting near Timbuktu. French merchants are established + there already and French missionaries—the White Fathers—from + Algeria. A curious episode in the French conquest was an appeal, + when hearing of the French approach, by the notables of Timbuktu to + the Emperor of Morocco to intervene. After a year’s delay the + Moroccan Sultan replied that upon receiving proofs of the vassalage + of Timbuktu he would march upon the French and drive them away. + + Subsequently the French patrolled the Niger far to the south of + Timbuktu, and found it much more navigable than was at first + believed. They established a post at Say, and Lieutenant Hourst + explored that small portion of the river between Say and Gomba which + till then had remained marked by dotted lines on the map. Numerous + expeditions came across the bend of the Niger from its upper waters + to its middle course, incessantly making treaties and extending the + rule of France. Again, following on the conquest of Dahomé, the + French marched northwards across the 9th parallel, which had + hitherto marked the limitation between the French and British + possessions, and occupied the country of Nikki, which had previously + been acquired for the Royal Niger Company by Major, now Colonel Sir + Frederick, Lugard. A bolder step still was taken by the occupation + of Busa (already declared to be in the British protectorate), at a + time when Sir George Goldie and his little army were winning + victories over the forces of Nupe in the vicinity. This step however + roused such a strong expression of popular feeling in England that a + conference was formed in Paris to negotiate a settlement between + England and France; and eventually France gave way on the point of + Busa, though she kept Nikki, and was able to extend her control of + the west bank of the Niger to Ilo, a considerable distance below + Say. She thus united her Dahomean conquest to the rest of her + Nigerian dominions. There is now no great native monarch or + independent people existing in the vast area of French West Africa, + though there are many kings and chiefs ruling their people peaceably + and humanely under the eyes of French resident officers. There has + been no serious breach of the peace in the Senegambian and Nigerian + territories since 1900, with the exception of the fighting in the + region to the north of the Senegal which is rather ineptly styled + “Mauretania.” Here France had concluded treaties of protection with + the chiefs of the Moorish and Arab tribes in 1903-5; but in 1905 the + French Commissioner, Coppolani, was murdered in the far interior. + Between 1908 and 1909 a force under Colonel Gouraud conquered all + Mauretania and especially the hilly country of Adrar Temmur. The + oasis of Air and Asben (which contains the old Songhai town of + Agades) came under French control in 1905-6, and Bilma—farther east, + in the Tibu country—at the same time. + + In 1902-4 an administrative reorganisation of French West Africa + took place, in which (and in the additional acts of 1909) the + following divisions were recognised: _Mauretania_ (344,967 sq. + miles), bounded on the north by the Spanish protectorate of Rio de + Oro and the 22° N. latitude and on the south by the river Senegal; + _Senegal_ colony and protectorate (74,000 sq. miles), bounded by the + Senegal and Faleme rivers and Portuguese Guinea; _French Guinea_ + (95,000 sq. miles), bounded by Portuguese Guinea, Sierra Leone, and + Liberia; the _Ivory Coast_ (130,000 sq. miles), between Liberia and + the British Gold Coast; _Dahomé_ (about 40,000 sq. miles), a narrow + strip between Borgu, the Niger, and the Gulf of Guinea; and lastly + the enormous “_Colony of Upper Senegal and Niger_,” which, with its + military territories, has an area of something like 1,268,400 sq. + miles. It is bounded on the west and south by the other divisions + and by foreign possessions, and on the north by the Algerian and + Moroccan protectorates. This last division of French West Africa + stretches eastwards from the Faleme branch of the Senegal River to + Lake Chad. + + In Senegal and French Guinea, the ports of Dakar and Konakri have + received a remarkable development, and are admitted to be the most + splendid and civilized towns on the West Coast of Africa, far + superior in sanitary arrangements and outward aspect to anything + which as yet exists in the somewhat sluggish British West African + possessions. From Konakri a railway has been constructed on to the + healthy uplands of Futa Jallon and to the Upper Niger at Kankan. + Nearly in front of Konakri is the little archipelago of the Isles de + Los[123]. These islands until the beginning of 1904 belonged to + Great Britain, but under the Anglo-French Convention of 1904 they + were very properly ceded to France, as they no longer commanded a + coast which could become British. + + The development of Senegal since the commencement of the 20th + century has not been limited to the making of Dakar (now the + residence of the Governor-General and the metropolis of French West + Africa) a first-class port, but a great advance has also been made + in railway construction. Landing at Dakar, which is only eight days’ + steam from Bordeaux or Marseilles, the traveller journeys 165 miles + by rail to St Louis (the old capital), there embarks in a river + steamer on the Senegal and journeys to Kayès, enters the train again + at Kayès and travels on 344 miles to Kulikoro on the Niger, whence + he can proceed by river steamer to Timbuktu, the whole journey from + Timbuktu to Paris being reduced to a possible nineteen days. + Timbuktu the inaccessible, twenty to thirty years ago, is now only a + ten days’ journey from an Atlantic seaport. Timbuktu is connected + with Algeria (as well as with Dakar) by overland telegraph. + + Dahomé and the Ivory Coast Colony have both shared in the + development of French Africa. Dahomé is contented, peaceful, and + prosperous under French rule. A railway due north from Kotonu to the + Niger, beyond Borgu, is under construction, about half the line (200 + miles) having been finished in 1910. On the Ivory Coast there has + been a certain amount of financial depression owing to the failure + to discover gold or other minerals in profitable quantities. A + number of companies, mostly British, had been formed for developing + the mineral resources of the Ivory Coast; but, in spite of the + vigorous work of the French in opening up communications with the + interior, no great degree of commercial prosperity has as yet come + to that portion of French Africa. A serious native rising had to be + suppressed in 1910. In 1910-11 the contiguous frontiers of Liberia + and the French possessions in Guinea and on the Ivory Coast were + settled, greatly to the advantage of the French possessions. + + The total area of French West Africa to-day (1912) is approximately + 1,952,000 square miles, with a negro and negroid population of about + 12,000,000, and some 8000 whites. It does an annual trade of about + £16,000,000, mainly with France; for France in her colonial policy + still pursues the selfish policy of protection. But unlike what has + happened in French Congo, the territories of Senegal, Guinea, + Nigeria, the Sahara and Dahomé have enormously benefited from the + imposition of French rule at the close of the 19th century. For the + first time in their long, blood-stained history the industrious + negro and Fula agriculturists and herdsmen of these tropical + regions, and the semi-nomads of the Great Desert, know what it is to + experience continual tranquillity, safety and commercial prosperity. + + During the three centuries following the Turkish conquest of + Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, France, like most other Christian + nations in the Mediterranean, suffered greatly at the hands of + Moorish corsairs—suffered so much that, not being able to defend her + own coasts sufficiently, it probably never entered into her head to + conquer and possess the corsairs’ country; though under Francis I + she tried, in rivalry with the Genoese, to obtain a trading and + fishing station off the east Algerian coast, “Bastion de France,” + near La Calle (about 1544). So far as political aspirations went, + her eyes were turned fitfully towards Egypt. At the end of the 17th + century Louis XIV not only attempted to enter into political + relations with Abyssinia (his envoy was murdered in Sennar, 1704), + but was advised by Leibnitz to make a descent on Egypt, and to hold + it as a station on the way to India. The idea was not adopted, yet + it lay dormant in the French archives, and was probably discovered + there by the ministers of the Directory after the French Revolution. + Either it was communicated to Napoleon Bonaparte with the idea of + sending him off on a fool’s errand, or the notion had occurred to + him independently as a means of striking a blow at the English. At + any rate, with a suddenness that startled incredulous Europe, the + Corsican General, fresh from the triumphs of his first Italian + campaign, eluded the British fleet, and landed in Alexandria in 1798 + with a force of 40,000 men. He met and defeated the Mamluk Beys, who + ruled Egypt under Turkish suzerainty, and eventually chased them + into Upper Egypt. He then established himself at Cairo, and sought + to win over the Muhammadan population by professing more or less + Muhammadan views of religion. But Nelson destroyed his fleet at + Abukir Bay. A Turkish army landed in Egypt, but was cut to pieces + and driven into the sea by the infuriated Napoleon, who then + endeavoured to conquer Syria, with the stupendous idea that he might + carry his arms to Constantinople, and possibly proclaim a revival in + his own person of the Eastern Empire. He was foiled again by the + British, who assisted the Turks to hold Acre. Napoleon, though + victorious elsewhere in Syria, eventually drew back shattered by the + unsuccessful siege of this fortress. He then abandoned his eastern + conquests with disgust, and sailed for France. His able lieutenant, + Kleber, was assassinated. A British and Turkish army settled the + fate of the remaining French forces in Egypt, which after a + capitulation were sent back to France. But this daring inroad on the + East by Napoleon had far-reaching effects. It brought Egypt + violently into contact with European civilization, and prepared the + way for its detachment from the Turkish Empire. Moreover, it caused + France to take henceforth an acute interest in the valley of the + Nile, an interest which on several occasions brought her dangerously + near rupture with a Power even more earnestly concerned with the + Egyptian Question. + + In 1827 the Dey of Algiers (a country which remained under nominal + Turkish suzerainty), insolent beyond measure in his treatment of + Europeans, because hitherto all European states had failed to subdue + his pretensions, signalised some difference of opinion with the + French Consul by striking him in the face with a fly-whisk. France + brooded over the insult for three years, when the tottering + government of Charles X sought to prop up the Bourbon dynasty by a + successful military expedition, and in June 1830 landed 37,000 + infantry, and a force of cavalry and artillery at Sidi Ferruj, near + Algiers. Considering their renown as fierce fighters, the Algerians + do not seem to have made a very sturdy resistance; though perhaps in + the lapse of time since their last war with a European power the + superiority of European artillery began to be felt. At any rate, + three weeks after the French landed they had taken the town of + Algiers and the Dey had surrendered. A week afterwards the Dey was + banished to Naples. Great Britain then asked for information as to + French projects, and was assured that within a very short time the + French forces would be withdrawn when reparation had been made. But + these assurances were as well meant and as valueless as Russian + assurances in Central Asia, and our own repeated and unsolicited + declarations that we hoped to be able to leave Egypt in six months. + The government of Charles X fell, and the new Orleanist dynasty + could hardly draw down on itself the odium of a withdrawal. But an + unwise policy nevertheless was pursued towards the Arabs, a policy + dictated by ignorance. The inhabitants of Algeria had not taken a + very strong part in the defence of the Dey, who in their eyes was a + Turk and a foreigner; but when they began to realize that their + country was about to be taken possession of by Christians, and + Christians who at that time did nothing to soothe their religious + susceptibilities, they found a leader in a princely man, Abd al + Kader[124]. From 1835 to 1837 the French sustained defeat after + defeat at his hands. In 1837 however a truce was made, by which Abd + al Kader was recognized by the French as Sultan over a large part of + western and central Algeria. Two years after war broke out again + between the French and Abd al Kader. An army under Marshal Bugeaud + attacked Abd al Kader with unwavering energy—perhaps with some + cruelty. In 1841 the national hero had lost nearly every point of + his kingdom, and fled into Morocco, from which country he afterwards + returned with a large army, only to be again and again defeated, + though he occasionally inflicted great losses on the French. + Finally, to save his own special district from ruin, he came to + terms with the French Governor-General, who gave him permission to + retire to Alexandria or Naples. But the French Government repudiated + the terms granted to Abd al Kader, and kept him a close prisoner for + some years in a French fortress. When Louis Napoleon became Emperor + he released him and allowed him to live at Damascus, where he died + in 1883. + + At the time when the French invaded Algeria that country was by no + means under a homogeneous government. There were the Dey of Algiers, + the Dey of Oran, and on the east the Bey of Constantine (who ruled + over much of eastern Algeria); whilst the Berber tribes in the + mountains and on the verge of the desert were practically + independent. Constantine was an extremely strong place, and in their + first wars with its Bey the French failed to take it. It was not + finally captured till 1847. By this time France had warred against + Morocco, and had crushed any attempt on the part of the “Emperor of + the West” to interfere in the affairs of Algeria. They had overrun + and to some degree conquered all Algeria north of the Sahara desert. + Therefore, in 1848, the Government felt justified in declaring the + new African acquisition to be French territory, divided into three + departments, to be ruled as part of France, and to possess the right + of representation in the French parliament. Under the Second Empire + this constitutional government, which was quite unsuited to what + Napoleon III fitly termed ‘an Arab kingdom,’ was set aside in favour + of military government. But this was not organized on suitable + lines, and proved a failure. In 1858 an attempt was made to imitate + the change then taking place in the government of British India. An + Algerian ministry was formed in Paris with Prince Napoleon as + Minister; but this form of administration also was a failure, and + was abolished by the Emperor when he returned from his visit to + Algeria in 1863. The country was then governed by a military + governor, generally with absolute powers, and attempts were made to + conciliate the Kabail or Hill Berbers, whom utter mismanagement had + driven into revolt. The country nevertheless continued to be + afflicted with unrest; and in 1870, as the Empire was dying, a + commission sat to enquire into the state of the colony, and to + suggest remedies which might be applied to its misgovernment. By a + vote of the Chamber military government was again abolished in + favour of civil rule, but owing to an insurrection in Eastern + Algeria which followed on the Franco-German War, the recommendations + of this commission were not fully carried out till 1879, when the + first civil governor was appointed. One of the first acts of the new + French Republic at the end of 1870 was to bestow the franchise on + the Jews of Algeria, an action, which by discriminating between the + Jews and Arabs has since caused a great deal of trouble. + + From 1848 to 1880 numerous attempts were made to induce French + people to settle in Algeria, nor were the colonists of other nations + discouraged. At one time young soldiers would be selected from the + army, would be married to poor girls dowered by the State, and sent + off to settle in Algeria, where they were given grants of land; but + often as soon as the dowry was spent the newly-wedded wife was + deserted by her husband, who made the best of his way back to + France. In 1871 nearly 11,000 natives of Alsace and Lorraine were + granted land in Algeria, and subsequently some 25,000 other French + colonists were settled in the country at a cost of 15,000,000 + francs. But despite failures, frauds and fickleness, the French + settlers in Algeria increased in numbers by immigration and births, + so that by the beginning of the 20th century there was a French + element in the European population of Algeria of more than a quarter + of a million (298,000 in 1910). Meantime, the peace and security of + trade introduced by the French had attracted large numbers of + Italians and Maltese to the eastern part of Algeria, and still + larger numbers of Spaniards to the western department of Oran—so + much so, that even at the present day Spanish is the common language + of Oran, and Italian is as often heard as French at Bona, + Constantine, and even inland as far as Tebessa. Several thousands of + Maltese also settled in eastern Algeria, and became naturalized as + French subjects. It is probable that in this way Algeria will be + eventually colonized by Europe, not by the nations of the north, but + by those Mediterranean peoples who are so nearly akin in blood to + the Berber races of North Africa. The French type that prospers most + is that drawn from the south of France; yet the fair-haired + Alsatians are doing very well[125]. There has been a certain + intermixture between the French and the native races, and between + these again and other European settlers. It is the present writer’s + opinion, based on recent visits to Algeria, that a remarkable degree + of fusion between these elements is being brought about. The Arabs + and Berbers in the settled parts of the country are approximating + more and more in their costume and their mode of life to the + Europeans, while the latter are becoming to some extent Arabised. + There is scarcely an Algerian in any town who cannot talk French, + and there is scarcely a French settler in Algeria who cannot talk + Arabic, while among the lower classes an ugly jargon is springing + up, in which both languages are represented, mixed with Italian and + Spanish words. + + In 1863 the Emperor Napoleon brought about the passing of a law + which exchanged for a tribal holding of land the recognition of the + indigenes as individual proprietors of the soil. This law has to + some extent broken up the tribal system, has corrected nomad + tendencies, and has done much to settle the Berbers on the soil with + loyalty to the existing government. Of course, outside the + relatively well-watered, fertile districts the nature of the country + induces a wandering, pastoral life amongst the sparse population; + and here a warlike spirit still shows itself from time to time in + revolts of ever diminishing extent. During the eighties of the 19th + century the French were obliged to bring large forces into the field + to suppress a serious insurrection under Bu Amama, a leader who + represented the more-or-less Arab tribes inhabiting the steppe + country, far to the south of Oran, on the borders of Morocco. Their + turbulence was only finally subdued by the building of a railway + into the heart of their country—a railway now reaching to + south-eastern Morocco and destined to be prolonged across the Sahara + to Timbuktu. + + At the close of the 19th century the Jewish question gave rise to + disturbances. The Jews, equally with the Christians in Algeria, are + electors, while this privilege is granted to only a few Arab + proprietors. As in Tunis, the Jews are greatly given to usury, and + they were formerly disliked in Algeria with an intensity which is + but little understood in England, where the Jews are scarcely to be + distinguished from other subjects of the Crown in their demeanour or + practices. But the fact is that parliamentary government, so far as + Algeria and its connection with France are concerned is somewhat of + a farce. Algeria will demand in future fuller measures of + self-government, and less dependence on the selfish policy of French + manufacturers and distillers. But the country nevertheless owes an + immense debt of gratitude to France for its noble public works, its + security, tranquillity and its successful battles against the forces + of nature—drought, locusts and desert sands. + + An example of a successful retention of native forms of government + is to be seen in the adjoining country of Tunis, which under the + ægis of a Turkish prince is governed despotically, ably, wisely, and + well by a single Frenchman. Tunis, which, like Algeria and Tripoli, + had since the close of the 16th century been more or less a Turkish + dependency—that is to say, a country governed at first by Turkish + officers, who finally became quasi-independent rulers, with a + recognized hereditary descent—soon began to feel the results of the + conquest of Algeria in an increase of interest felt by the French + regarding its condition. At first the relations between France and + Tunis were flattering to the latter country. The relatively + enlightened character of the Husseinite Beys[126] was recognized, + and when France was in difficulties with Abd al Kader and the Bey of + Constantine, proposals were even made to Tunis to supply from its + ruling family two or three princes who should be made Beys of + Constantine and Oran under French protection; but the idea was not + carried out. In 1863 the Bey of Tunis went in state to visit the + Emperor Napoleon at Algiers. Nevertheless, during the ’50’s and + ’60’s Great Britain firmly maintained the independence of Tunis, at + whose court she was represented for many years by a sage + diplomatist, Sir Richard Wood. The disenchantment which Algeria + caused in the early sixties diminished the interest which France + felt in Tunis; and during this time, under the fostering care of Sir + Richard Wood, British enterprise had acquired so large a hold over + the Regency, that at the beginning of the seventies it would have + been reasonable to have extended British protection to the Bey. But + another factor had come into play—the newly-formed Power of United + Italy. The finances of Tunis had from the time of the Crimean War + onwards got into a disarray resembling in a minor degree the + condition of Egypt under Ismail. Not only was the Bey extravagant, + but still worse, his ministers, mostly of servile origin, robbed the + country shamelessly, and loans were obtained over and over again + merely to swell their ill-gotten gains. At last the Powers had to + intervene, and in 1869 the finances of Tunis were brought under the + control of a tripartite commission with representatives of England, + France, and Italy. During the early ’70’s, however, British + commercial interest waned, and the enterprise of France increased, + with the result that France obtained permission to erect telegraphs, + and took over an important railway concession which had been + accepted and then abandoned by a British firm. It was becoming + obvious that the native government of Tunis could not continue much + longer without a definite European protector. Whatever right England + may have had to assume such a position, she quietly surrendered it + to France through her official representatives at the Congress of + Berlin. The only other rival then was Italy; and Italy, though she + would have dearly liked to resume control in the name of Rome over + the Roman province of Africa, shrank from the danger of thus defying + France. A small British railway which had been made from the town of + Tunis to the port of Goletta was sold to an Italian company in + 1881[127]. At the same time, a British subject, really acting as a + representative of the Tunisian Government, attempted on a point of + law to prevent a very large estate in the interior of Tunis from + falling into French hands. The French Government determined to delay + action no longer. Taking advantage of the very insufficient plea, + that a Tunisian tribe (the Khmirs or “Kroumirs”) had committed small + robberies across the Algerian frontier, a strong force invaded + Tunis, and wrung from the Bey in his suburban palace the treaty of + Kasr-es-Said, by which he placed his territories under French + protection. When the news spread into outlying districts there were + uprisings against the French or against the Bey’s government which + had placed the country under French control. The French troops had + practically to conquer much of the south of Tunis, but in a year’s + time tranquillity had been restored. In 1883 the treaty of + Kasr-es-Said was replaced by another agreement which brought the + Tunisian Government under complete French control. In this year the + other Powers surrendered their consular jurisdiction, and recognized + that of the French courts. By 1897 all former commercial treaties + with the Bey were abandoned in favour of fresh conventions made with + France. From the commencement of 1898, Tunis became emphatically an + integral portion of the French Empire. + + Through accident or design—let us hope the latter—a succession of + able men was appointed to direct the affairs of France in Tunis. + Several of these had a relatively long tenure of power, and were + therefore able to carry out a continuous policy. Ablest amongst + these French residents have been M. Jules Cambon, and M. René + Millet. Tunis has been an example of almost unqualified success in + French colonial administration. Of late, however, the protectionist + policy which finds favour with the French Government has to some + extent striven to secure the commerce of the Regency for France, a + policy which may tend to qualify the praise which otherwise would be + bestowed on a remarkable development of the country under French + direction. + + The extension of Senegal under General Faidherbe, and the occupation + by the French of oases in the Sahara, such as Wargla and Golea, + early suggested an overland connection between the two French + possessions, and the “Chemin de fer Trans-Saharien” was hinted at, + half in joke, during the sixties and became a subject of serious + consideration in the seventies. But in 1881 the massacre of the + Flatters expedition in the Sahara Desert, and the obvious hostility + of the Tawareq to any further advance of the French across the + desert temporarily discouraged the idea; though the main + discouragement no doubt arose from the thought of the enormous cost + of such a railway, and the unfruitful character of the country it + would traverse. Still France, when the word “hinterland” was + creeping into political terminology, began to feel anxious that no + other European Power should intervene between her North African + possessions and her empire on the Niger; and in 1890 she secured + from the British Government a recognition of this important point, + the British recognition carrying the French sphere of influence to + the north-western coast of Lake Chad as well as to the Niger. In + 1898 it was resolved to take effective possession of all this + portion of the north-central Sudan, and three great expeditions + converged on it; one from Algeria under Commandant Lamy with Mons. + F. Foureau as political officer, one from French Congo (as to which + more will be written when that region is considered), and the third + from Senegal, under Captains Voulet and Chanoine. Unfortunately + these last-named officers belonged to a type which in the closing + years of the 19th century came into prominent notice in the French + and Belgian operations in Central Africa, while it was not entirely + unknown in the British and German records of that period, as + colonial and “Congo Atrocity” scandals testified—a type which became + recklessly cruel and immoral through the possession of unlimited + power and the belief that its doings would never be heard of in + Europe. But the mistreatment of the natives in the Niger Bend did + come to the knowledge of the French authorities in Senegal, and + Lieut.-Colonel Klobb was sent eastward to catch up with the + Voulet-Chanoine column and take command. Klobb overtook these + officers in the Sokoto country. Voulet ordered his men to fire on + the officer sent to supersede him. Klobb fell dead. Then Voulet and + Chanoine marched away with most of their troops to found an + independent state in the heart of Africa, leaving their junior + officers and the remnant of the negro soldiers to do as they + pleased. But their own Senegalese troops, on reflection, objected to + outlawry and permanent banishment from their homes. They held a + rough court martial, sentenced Voulet and Chanoine to die, shot + them, and then returned to the command of Lieut. Pallier, who had + succeeded Klobb in command of this mis-managed expedition. Pallier + bravely and adroitly (for the tragedy took place nominally on + British territory and the natives were arming to punish these + marauders) led the reorganized expedition to Zinder in northern + Hausaland (July, 1899) where four months afterwards Foureau and Lamy + arrived. From this time onwards the Sahara desert was occupied and + pacified and is now traversed by several lines of telegraph wires. + The Tawareq and Tibu have ceased to raid and devastate peaceful + agriculturists in the oases, or the long caravans of traders. + Between 1899 and 1903 French forces (chiefly native cavalry under + French officers, and the Foreign Legion) had occupied all the + prominent oases and centres of population in the Moroccan Sahara, + from Figig and Beshar on the north to Tuāt, Tidikelt, Gurara and + Insalah in the south. + + The work of the 1890 and 1898 conventions between Britain and France + was completed by the Agreement of 1904, in which the British + Government acknowledged Morocco to be a sphere of exclusively French + political influence, with the exception of Tangier and the portions + which might be claimed by Spain on the Riff coast. But in 1905 the + German Government showed its displeasure at this agreement by an + ostentatious recognition of Moroccan independence. European + diplomacy arranged the compromise of the Algeciras Conference in the + spring of 1906, at which the thirteen assembled delegates drew up + some regulations of a stop-gap nature for the policing of the + Moroccan Atlantic ports, the re-establishment of Moroccan finances, + the position of foreigners, etc. In 1907 however the disorder in + Morocco became acute and French and English officials were captured + or killed by the natives. To mark her displeasure, France occupied + Ujda (Oudjda), a border town of north-east Morocco and advanced her + troops to the Muluya river (which will probably be fixed as the + theoretical boundary of “Morocco” in the north-east). Soon + afterwards the tribesmen round Casablanca (Dar-al-baida) attacked + and slew some European masons engaged on the harbour works. France + (after the plunder of the town by the Shawia tribesmen) finally + landed a force of 15,000 men and forcibly occupied the Shawia + country all round Casablanca. More fighting took place in South + Morocco (1907-8) and French expeditions traversed and occupied the + regions south of the High Atlas. In 1908 occurred the civil war + between the Sultans Abd-al-aziz and Mulai Hafid, which resulted in + the defeat of the former, in spite of his English military advisers + and non-commissioned officers[128]. Germany seemed rather to espouse + the cause of Mulai Hafid, but in any case the complication was + unravelled by the abdication of Abd-al-aziz and the recognition of + Mulai Hafid by France and the other signatory powers of the + Algeciras conference. + + But in 1909 the temporary peace in Morocco was again rudely broken + by Spanish activity round Melilla—the building of a railway to + secure a new post, La Mar Chica, and to reach and work mineral + deposits. The Riff tribes attacked the Spaniards with results + already described in Chapter V. The ferment among the Moors against + European intervention next took the shape of attacking the Sultan + Mulai Hafid at Fez (1910). To save the Sultan and the Sultan’s + Government (the “Makhzen”) and the European residents from possible + destruction, the French Government sent an expeditionary force from + the Shawia coast region to reach and relieve Fez. This was + accomplished after some difficulty in the spring of 1911, and a + small army or government guard was organized for the Sultan under + French officers. + + This and other actions once more aroused German resentment and + intervention on the grounds that France was creating a virtual + protectorate over Morocco without Germany’s consent, and without + compensation to Germany for the possible loss of a profitable field + of commercial development. So the German war vessel, the _Panther_, + was sent to Agadir in the Bay of Sūs to “protect German interests”; + these interests being the mineralogical researches and acquisition + of concessions of the firm of Mannesmann. If we brush aside + diplomatic fictions, the kernel of the matter was this. Germany had + long fixed her desires on the Bay of Sūs or Agadir, that + semi-circular bight of the Moroccan coast south of the Atlas range + and opposite the River and Country of Sūs which is the nearest + approach on the whole Atlantic coast of Morocco to a large and good + harbour protected from the north wind. It was believed in Germany + that Great Britain was too much involved in domestic agitation to be + prepared to go to war over Morocco; and that France would be willing + to stave off trouble with Germany and obtain her consent to the + acquisition of nearly all Morocco by agreeing to a German + protectorate over the Sūs country and Anti-Atlas, thus admitting + Germany as a territorial power in North Africa. + + Spain gave Germany some encouragement in this intervention, having + already found the French very grudging in their allotment of Spanish + spheres of influence in the north of Morocco and opposite the Canary + Islands. But had Germany succeeded in her demand for the Sūs country + Spain would have been the first to suffer. The Cape-Jubi-Bojador + region and the Canary Islands might ere long have become German + also. + + An attempt was made in Germany to enlist European sympathy on her + side by advancing the plea that this intervention at Agadir stood + for free trade in Morocco. But this important principle had already + been secured by the Anglo-French Convention of 1904 and the + Algeciras Act of 1906; moreover the whole of the bargaining between + France and Germany, since 1906, bore reference to the selfish + advantages which German concessionaires and traders were to obtain + in Morocco to the detriment of (let us say) British, American, or + Belgian competitors. Of course France, in the use she has made of + North, West, and Central Africa and of Madagascar, has been + inexcusably protectionist. She has adopted the thoroughly selfish + policy of colonial exploitation characteristic of Spain and Portugal + in the 16th-18th centuries and of Britain in the 17th to early 19th + centuries. Nevertheless she has spent blood and treasure without + stint in the redemption of North Africa; and in spite of her + protectionist tariff the non-French, European trade with Algeria and + Tunis is very considerable. But a question of even greater + importance than a selfish French use of Morocco rose before Great + Britain in 1911. Not to support France in this diplomatic struggle + meant the establishment of Germany on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, + meant that the Emperor Wilhelm’s half jesting description of himself + at that period as “Admiral of the Atlantic” would become a reality, + with all the consequences which might flow from such a position. + + Germany realizing her false position shifted her ground, asked for + reasonable “compensations in Central Africa,” got them, and in + return recognized definitely a French Protectorate over Morocco. + With the exception of the Riff Coast, of Tangier, and of the region + opposite the Canary Islands (which with the exception of Tangier + will become Spanish) France will soon be mistress of Morocco in + name, but probably not in actuality and entirety till many years + have passed. No sensible person need regret this. The condition of + Algeria and Tunis under French direction are a sufficient guarantee + for the future prosperity and happiness of the most interesting + country in Africa—Morocco—under French guidance. + + As already related, France, or rather—the State being then but the + king—Louis XIV, had become interested in the affairs of Abyssinia + early in the 18th century. This interest was reawakened in the + middle of the next century by the remarkable researches of the + brothers Antoine and Arnaud d’Abbadie, who though of partly Irish + origin were French subjects. The elder brother had explored Brazil, + the younger, Algeria; but both were attracted by the little-known + civilization of Ethiopia and started together in 1838 for Abyssinia. + Between 1838 and 1853 their researches were carried on from Masawa + in the north to the little-known country of Kaffa in the far south; + and, though the results were not entirely published until 1890 (the + publication began in 1860), they gave to France a legitimate claim + (together with the subsidized travels of Borelli in 1890) to an + interest in the affairs and the future of Abyssinia. + + In 1857, jealous of the British establishment at Aden, France had + intended to seize the island of Perim, at the mouth of the Red Sea, + but was forestalled by the British. She therefore turned her + attention to the coast opposite Aden, and there purchased from a + native chief (in 1862) the Bay of Obok. This place was not + effectively occupied till 1883, after the break-up of the Egyptian + Sudan empire. France then rapidly pushed her possessions southward + to curtail as much as possible similar British operations in + Somaliland. She thus secured the important bay of Tajurra, French + territory now stretches inland to the vicinity of Harrar. On the + north it is bounded by the Italian colony of Eritrea and in the + interior by Abyssinia and British Somaliland. French Somaliland, as + this possession is called, is about 5,790 sq. miles in extent and is + chiefly important for the comparatively good harbour of Jibuti and + for the fact that it controls the easiest access to Abyssinia. + Indeed the only existing railway which enters Abyssinia and connects + that country with the sea coast starts from Jibuti and is + constructed to the Abyssinian capital, Adis Ababa (275 miles), with + a branch to the old Semitic city of Harrar (altogether about 192 + miles of rail on French territory). It was an unfulfilled aspiration + of France in the last decade of the 19th century that a French + Empire should extend across broadest Africa from Senegal to + Abyssinia and the Red Sea or the Gulf of Aden. This project was to + be essayed in a tentative manner by an expedition organized in the + French Congo in 1894-5 (despite warnings from Great Britain that + such action would be regarded as unfriendly) and led by an officer + who had been very successful in the wars of Upper Nigeria, the brave + Major J. B. Marchand, who advanced (mainly along the course of the + Djur River) with a force of about 150 Senegalese and nine French + officers to Fashoda, on the White Nile. Here they were saved from + possible destruction at the hands of a large force of Dervishes by + Lord Kitchener’s victory at Omdurman. In consequence of the protests + of the British Government, Major Marchand in November 1898 was + instructed to leave Fashoda and retire through Abyssinia to French + Somaliland. This journey up the valley of the Sobat River was + successfully accomplished; and at the end of May 1899 Marchand and + his officers reached Paris, where they received a great ovation. + + French interest in the Congo region began in the 18th century, + mainly because of the importance of the servile labour of Congoland + to the French West Indies and the desirability of preventing the + Portuguese from regaining their monopolist hold over the Kongo + kingdom and its commerce. The French Government contrived moreover + to have French Catholic missionaries sent to the Congo and Loango in + place of the Italian Capuchins. The Napoleonic Wars and the + abolition of the slave trade suspended further action; but the idea + of a French control over “Lower Guinea” revived in 1839, at the time + when the government of Louis Philippe was making half-hearted + efforts to found French settlements on the West Coast of Africa. At + this date King ‘Denis’ of the Gaboon, who had shown favour to Roman + Catholic missionaries and to French traders, was induced to transfer + his kingdom to France. The Gaboon, or country of the Mpongwe tribes, + lies to the south of the Cameroon region. Effective possession was + not however taken till 1844, and Libreville, the present capital, + was not founded till 1848, when a cargo of slaves was landed there + from a captured slaving vessel and set free to commence the + population of the new town. Attention was drawn to this French + settlement by the remarkable journeys of a French-American, Paul du + Chaillu, and his making definitely known the characteristics of the + largest known anthropoid ape, the gorilla. The existence of this ape + had been to some extent established by the American naturalist, Dr + Savage, from skulls sent home by American missionaries settled on + the Gaboon estuary; but the gorilla was scarcely made familiar to + the general public, until Du Chaillu came to England with his + specimens[129]. In the early sixties French explorers established + the lower half of the course of the important river Ogowé; and in + the seventies these explorations were extended by other travellers, + who carried the knowledge of the Ogowé to the limits of its + watershed, and passed beyond—unknowingly—to affluents of the Congo. + Among these explorers was the celebrated Savorgnan de Brazza, of + Dalmatian origin but born on a French ship off the coast of Brazil. + + Political interest in the Gaboon languished so much on the part of + France that the country was once or twice offered to England in + exchange for the Gambia. However in 1880, the awakening desire to + found a great colonial empire urged France to extend her Gaboon + possessions up the coast, towards the Cameroons, and southward in + the direction of the mouth of that great river, the Congo, the + course of which the explorer H. M. Stanley had just succeeded in + tracing. Even before Stanley’s return, the King of the Belgians had + summoned a number of geographers to Brussels to discuss the + possibility of civilizing Africa by an International African + association. This conference brought about the creation of national + committees, which were to undertake on behalf of each participating + nation a section of African exploration. The French committee sent + De Brazza to explore the hinterland of the Gaboon. While Stanley was + commencing his second Congo expedition for the King of the Belgians + and slowly working his way up the lower river, De Brazza had made a + rapid journey overland to Stanley Pool and the upper Congo, making + treaties for France and planting the French flag wherever he went. + Soon afterwards an English missionary, George Grenfell, discovered + the lower course of the great Mubangi, and French explorers promptly + directed their steps thither. For some years there was keen and even + bitter rivalry between Stanley’s expedition, which gradually became + a Belgian enterprise, and the French explorers under De Brazza; and + when, at the Conference of Berlin in 1884-5, it was sought to create + the Congo Independent State under the sovereignty of the King of the + Belgians, the adhesion of France to this scheme could only be + obtained by handing over to her much of the western and northern + watershed of the Congo, besides giving her a promise that, if the + Congo State were ever to be transferred from the Belgian sovereign + to another Power, France should have the right of preemption. Before + the French had been many years on the Mubangi River (which is one of + the few means of communication between the southern, Bantu part of + Africa, and the northern regions, the “Sudan,” populated by + non-Bantu Negroes, Negroids, Hamites, and Semites[130]), they had + very naturally conceived the idea of pushing northwards to the Shari + river and Lake Chad. In 1890 Paul Crampel was the first European to + cross this mysterious Bantu boundary, to leave the forest regions of + the Congo and lower Mubangi, and enter the more open park-lands of + the central Sudan. But he was attacked and killed (1891) by + suspicious Muhammadan raiders on the river Shari. Another Frenchman, + of Polish descent, M. Dybowski, succeeded in chastising the + murderers of Crampel, and further exploring the Shari. A further + mission under Lieutenant Maistre continued the work of Dybowski, and + was in turn followed by a well-equipped expedition under the command + of the explorer Emile Gentil; which last succeeded in placing a + small armed steamer on the river Shari, and thence reached the + waters of Lake Chad. + + By an agreement with Germany in 1892, France secured German + recognition of her sphere of influence over the river Shari, over + the Bagirmi country, and the southern shores of Lake Chad; while, by + a treaty made with the King of the Belgians in 1894, the Belgian + boundary line was drawn at the Mubangi, the Mbomu, and the Nile + watershed. Lastly, by the Anglo-French convention of June 1898, + Great Britain recognized the French sphere to the south and east of + Lake Chad. Thus France obtained European recognition for a + continuous empire stretching from Algiers to the Congo Coast, and + Oran to Dakar—a remarkable outcome of the landing of 37,000 troops + at the Bay of Sidi Ferruj, near Algiers, in the summer of 1830. + + In the last decade of the 19th century, the French method of + administering the territories of the Gaboon, Loango and + Congo-Mubangi (grouped since 1888 in one government as “French + Congo”) was infected by the “concessionaire” spirit, which had + unhappily inspired King Leopold II about the same time in his + attitude towards the development of the Congo Independent State. + These monopolist, protectionist ideas were a heritage from the older + style of colonization in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. The + great Berlin Conference of 1884 on the Congo question was supposed + to have vetoed them and rendered their recurrence impossible. But no + sooner was this conference over than this monopolist policy was + revived by the Royal Niger Company on the Niger-Benue, by the infant + Congo State on the Congo above Stanley Pool, by the French in + Loango, and (though much more faintly) by the British South Africa + Company in Rhodesia. But it was mainly in the case of the Royal + Niger Company that the monopoly was one which completely crushed out + other trade. That association did not theoretically forbid the + natives to trade with any foreign merchants but itself; it merely + said to outside traders: “Sorry! but this place is ours, and so is + that—in fact the whole river-bank—and we cannot have you trading on + our private land.” The King of the Belgians copied this policy + pretty faithfully on the Congo, and so did the French. The whole of + French Congo, except two or three old-established towns on the + coast, was divided up into concessions, varying from 20 square miles + in extent to 54,000 square miles. The villages and plantations + actually occupied by the natives at the time were recognized as + native property, but this recognition did not necessarily confer on + the natives the right to trade with whom they pleased. + + All the coast ports of the Gaboon and Loango had long been + frequented by British merchants doing a big trade with Liverpool; + and great was the indignation when they found their commerce with + the interior cut off by French concessionaires who, it may be, had + done nothing to develop the trade of the country. In spirit, of + course, this policy was in flagrant contradiction with the + commercial stipulations of the Berlin and Brussels Acts which + followed the Congo Conference of 1884-5. But the French government, + in reply to remonstrances, pointed to the monopoly of the Royal + Niger Company[131]; and the French courts of law gave decisions + adverse to British appellants. + + It is only fair to quote the justification for this policy of + concessions, charters, and other documents conferring special + privileges. It is desired—in the interests of the native as well as + of the overruling European government—to attract capital to the + opening-up and the exploiting of the natural riches of Africa, + riches of which the native has remained in utter ignorance for + millenniums of years. To invite investments of capital some security + must be given that the immediate fruits of the investors’ labours + and expenditure will not be unfairly garnered by others who have not + run the like risks. No one questions the right of the native, in a + varying degree, to a fair proportion of the land; the area being + determined by his numbers, degree of civilization, energy, + intellectual capacity, and the extent to which he has already + developed its resources. It would be, for example, a ridiculous + proposition that the 322,450 square miles of German South-West + Africa should be the exclusive heritage of a few thousand nomad + Hottentot and Bushman hunters, or even of sixty thousand Bantu + cattle-keepers; that some Congo forest of ten thousand to thirty + thousand square miles should be assigned in perpetuity to a few + thousand wandering pygmies prowling over it in search of game and + wild bees’ nests; or that the whole of the Sahara with its + phosphates and salt-mines be allotted to the raiding Tawareq and + Tibu. On the other hand, to say in connection with a well-populated, + fairly well-known region like the Niger banks, the Gaboon and Loango + coasts, or the lower Ogowé river, that the natives shall only trade + with concessionaires or with the Government itself, or that one + nation shall be specially favoured in its commerce or trading + relations, is to impose a tyranny which the world at large and the + subject races will no longer tolerate quietly. It does not follow + from this that there is to be no interference with “native” rights, + that “freedom should be free to slay herself,” as has often been the + case in wild countries, where the unthinking inhabitants destroy the + resources of the country without thought for the morrow. It is quite + permissible ethically for the French, the British or any other + government to take possession of some thoroughly backward or very + sparsely populated country in a more or less savage condition, and + rule that country impartially for its own benefit and for its + general usefulness to humanity at large. Under such conditions they + certainly are not obliged by any moral law to attribute to the + nearest native community of savages some large area of uninhabited + forest or metalliferous rock. Such a source of future wealth they + are entitled to administer as a trustee might deal with an estate + for the benefit of a minor or of an imbecile; but only on the + condition of putting the profits derived therefrom into the treasury + of the state or country thus administered, not into the funds, + private or public, of a distant European nation. King Leopold II or + the French Republic were quite justified in declaring the + uninhabited, unexploited, uncultivated forests of French and Belgian + Congo to be “State domains”; but not with the sole purpose in the + one case of swelling the revenues of his own privy purse, and in the + other of enriching political partisans or public servants. The + wealth of these regions need not have gone to some native chief or + tribe dwelling in the vicinity who had had nothing whatever to do + with the getting of the wealth, but should have been attributed to + the whole community of the state or colony in which these forest or + mining areas were situated. + + Another grave defect in the earlier administration of French Congo + was the handing over of thousands of natives as veritable serfs of + the glebe to these European concessionaires. This was a wicked + return for the trust they had placed in envoys of France like De + Brazza, who had obtained their adherence to French dominion by + treaty. The result of this policy was that gross abuses ensued, + followed by native risings. At length the French Government was + constrained by European opinion (largely awakened by Mr E. D. Morel) + to look into the affairs of French Congo; and in 1905 the virtual + creator of this dominion, De Brazza, was sent out as a commissioner + to investigate the charges brought against the officials and the + concessionaires. It is believed that De Brazza was horrified at much + of the devastation and depopulation which he saw, as were some other + high-minded French officials who had the courage to publish their + impressions. But De Brazza died at Dakar on his way home, and his + report was never published, though the French Government made + afterwards some changes in matters of administration. + + In 1911 Germany, in return for acknowledging a French Protectorate + over Morocco, obtained from France important territorial advantages + in French Congo—about 107,000 square miles—giving Germany (1) a + strip on the south of Corisco Bay and a large piece of the Osheba + country, which permits her to surround the Spanish possession of Rio + Muni (she also acquired from France rights of pre-emption over the + Rio Muni); (2) a long strip down the valley of the river Sanga to + the main Congo River opposite Lukolela; (3) the Laka and Baya + countries east of the Cameroons watershed; and (4) a strip of land + communicating with the Mubangi river. In return, Germany ceded to + France a piece of land (6450 sq. miles) along the left bank of the + lower Shari. It was generally rumoured that Germany had asked for + the whole left bank of the Mubangi from Libenge down to the Congo, + and the whole of French Congo between the Mubangi, the Congo and the + Atlantic coast. If she did so, other circumstances caused her to + modify her demands. In any case she has succeeded in cutting off + French Congo from the Mubangi-Shari-Chad territories, so far as + uninterrupted land communication is concerned. She has ringed the + tree in the hope that it may some day fall to her. But if it does, + it will only be in return for an equivalent in some other direction, + perhaps a rectification of the Lorraine frontier. + + Even with the loss of her Gaboon-West Congo territory, France would + still possess a magnificent and compact African Empire exceeding in + extent that of any other European Power, or at any rate superior in + continuous area—an empire of something like 3,100,000 square miles, + stretching from Senegal and Morocco to the frontiers of Egypt and + the Egyptian Sudan, from Algiers and Carthage to the Belgian Congo + and the vicinity of Uganda; besides her valuable foothold on the + Gulf of Aden, and the possession of Madagascar (presently to be + described), which compensates her for the want of colonies in South + and East Africa. In the regions north of the Mubangi-Wele—a river + which Germans, Englishmen and Belgians were the first to discover, + but the whole of the north bank of which from the Mbomu confluence + to the Congo confluence is now owned by France—Frenchmen have reason + to be proud of their country’s record. As already related, it was + French explorers who first solved the mystery of the passage from + the Congo watershed to that of the Shari-Chad; and several French + explorers paid with their lives for their temerity. To enquire into + and avenge the death of Paul Crampel, a French commissioner, Emile + Gentil (subsequently, until 1908, Governor of French Congo) had + penetrated down the Shari River, from the Congo basin, till he had + reached the far-famed country of Bagirmi. Here he induced the + much-harried native sultan to accept French protection, and placed a + French resident at his court. Bagirmi was then invaded by Rabah + Zobeir, who had made himself Sultan of Bornu. The Bagirmi sultan and + the French resident had to flee before the army of Rabah; but after + two years’ fighting, in which at first the French met with several + reverses, Rabah was defeated and slain in a great battle in which + the Foureau-Lamy[132] expedition, which had come from Algiers, were + joined by the remnant of the Voulet-Chanoine column from Senegal, + and a river flotilla from the Mubangi-Congo. For two years more, + however, the French forces in Bagirmi had to fight Rabah’s sons and + successors; but the last of these was defeated and slain (on the + borders of Bornu) in the early part of 1902. + + The next enemy to be grappled with and overcome—the last, so far as + one can foresee, of the strong Mussulman states of Central + Africa—was the country of Wadai, situated to the north-east of + Bagirmi and a region which had been for a century or more the chief + focus of slave-raiding and trading in Central Africa, besides being + singular in that region for its secular hatred and distrust of the + white man, in whom the Arabized ruling classes of Wadai saw not only + the hated Christian infidel but the eventual opponent of the slave + trade, out of which Wadai had amassed wealth since the seventeenth + century. The French entered into relations with Wadai in 1900, and + interfered in its civil wars. But incited by the agents of the + Senussi sheikh[133], the Wadai ruler attacked the French outposts on + the Shari in 1904 and carried off many negro prisoners. Another + motive for their hostility was that France had given refuge to a + claimant for the Wadai throne—Asil, subsequently Sultan of Wadai. + Between 1904 and 1911 fighting between the French and a section of + the Wadaian peoples—mostly the Maba negroids and the Massalit + Arabs—continued until the French had conquered the whole country and + installed Asil on the throne of Wadai under the guidance of a French + resident who has since (1912) deposed him for cruelty. They + themselves took over the direct government of the southern + provinces, the negro countries of Dar Runga and Dar Sila, so long + the hunting-grounds for the slave-raiders; so much so, that their + once abundant negro population was reduced to a few thousand + miserable savages. In this long warfare against the strongest and + most fanatical of Muhammadan negro states, the French lost numerous + officers of note and displayed qualities of resource and heroism + that promise well for a nation which can produce at the present day + such officers and non-commissioned officers. As in the case of the + British, the rank and file of their armies on these campaigns were + Africans, mainly Senegalese. + + The conquest of Bagirmi and Wadai naturally secured to the French + the more sparsely populated country of Kanem, inhabited mainly by + those Tibu negroids whose race extends right across the Sahara to + the hinterland of Tripoli. Now that Italy is in occupation of + Cyrenaica, and Turkey can no longer supply arms and ammunition to + Wadai for the campaign against the interfering white man, it is + unlikely that French rule will be seriously contested any more in + the heart of the Central Sudan; so long, that is, as Britain rules + to the eastward. Quite possibly a great strategic future may lie + before Kanem and Wadai, and the lands of the French Mubangi + province; for through these regions may pass the trunk line of + Trans-African railways, the route which will connect South Africa + with Tangier and with Alexandria. The conquest of Wadai by the + French has been the final and the most crushing blow directed at the + African slave trade of Islam, and it has been carried out with a + lavish expenditure of money and bravery at a distance of something + like 1,500 miles from the nearest civilized base, a feat almost + without parallel in African history. It may well serve as a pendant + and an effacement to that brief lapse from the policy of a civilized + Power during which something like a new form of slavery was + established by France in Western Congoland. + + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + + FRENCH AFRICA + + Plate IV. + +[Illustration] + + W. & A.K. Johnston, Limited, Edinburgh & London. + + EXPLANATORY NOTE + + [gray] _Area of French Possessions in 1880_ + [pink] ” ” ” _Colonies and Protectorates in 1912_ + + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + +----- + +Footnote 122: + + It might be advisable at this juncture to explain clearly about + the Fula power in French Nigeria and Senegambia. The Ful or Fulbe + people appeared first in the 13th century in West African history + as peaceful cattle-keepers on the lower Senegal; but as a matter + of fact they had probably reached the Upper Niger and Senegal many + centuries before. The Western Fulbe had become Muhammadans at + quite an early date—between the 12th and 15th centuries. Those in + the more eastern part of Nigeria remained pagan in some + settlements down to the 19th century, and are pagan even still. + About the 16th century those of the Senegal began to emigrate as + cattle-keepers into the cooler highlands of Futa Jallon, and + became the ruling power on this upland two hundred years later. At + the same period—the beginning or middle of the 18th century—they + likewise founded dynasties of Muhammadan kings in Futa Toro and + Bondu (south of the Upper Senegal). In 1802, a Fula religious + mystic and _imam_ or religious preacher, Othman Dan Fodio, arose + like a Mahdi in Eastern Nigeria (Sokoto), called on the Muhammadan + Fulas of the central Sudan to join with him in a holy war, and in + a few years conquered a vast Fula Empire, which was almost + conterminous with the British (Northern) Nigeria of to-day. Fired + no doubt by this example another Fula ‘sheikh’ or holy man—Ahmadu + Lobo, in the country of Masina, between Timbuktu and Jenné—about + 1813 attacked with his followers the vestiges of Moorish power on + the Upper Niger, the “Roumas” (as they were called, from their + having come originally from Andalusia—“Rome”) and took all power + from them, creating in Central Nigeria between Jenné and Gao the + powerful Fula kingdom of Masina, which lasted until about 1861, + when Ahmadu Ahmadu, the last Fula Emperor of Masina, was attacked + and killed by a rival Fula Mahdi from the west. + + This personage was ’Omaru bin Saidi, a Fula of Futa Toro, who had + spent some years in Mekka and Medina, and had acquired the + reputation of a holy man and a doctor of religion. On his return + to West Africa he was received with great respect by the Fula + princes of Futa Jallon, and with their support he rallied to the + cause of Islam the Fula-negro peoples of Futa Toro and Bondu—the + Takrur, Torobe, or “Toucouleurs” as they came to be called. Al + Hajji ’Omaru (as he was called), after his return from the + pilgrimage (Al Hajj) to Mekka was unsuccessful in his attack on + the French (1857), and so turned his army against his fellow + Moslems of the Upper Niger. Two years after the defeat and death + of Ahmadu Ahmadu, the Fula Sultan of Masina, ’Omaru himself + perished at Bandiagara, in the Masina kingdom. The Toucouleur + power was, however, maintained by his sons and successors till it + finally fell in 1892 with the capture of Segu on the Niger by a + French force. + +Footnote 123: + + It is averred that this name is a contraction of Idolos. The + islands would appear to have been named by the early Portuguese + navigators Ilhas dos Idolos from the idols or fetishes which were + very prominently in use. + +Footnote 124: + + Of Arab descent, born near Maskara in Western Algeria. + +Footnote 125: + + In 1861, there were 112,229 French settlers in Algeria, and 80,517 + Italians, Spaniards, Maltese, Germans, and Swiss; in all, 192,746 + European colonists, as against about 650,000 in 1910. It is a + common mistake among British writers on political economy to + assert that the French are not good colonizers, though they have + Eastern Canada, Louisiana, Algeria and Tunis before their eyes. + There are now some 340,000 thriving French inhabitants of Northern + Africa between Morocco and Tripoli, who will play a considerable + part yet in Mediterranean politics. + +Footnote 126: + + This title arose of course from the Bey (Beg) or Colonel + commanding the Turkish army of occupation. The present dynasty was + founded in 1706 by the Bey, Hussein bin ’Ali, who was really a + renegade Cretan Greek. + +Footnote 127: + + This now forgotten bone of contention was, in the autumn of 1898, + sold by the Italian Company to the French Railway Company of + Bône-Guelma-et-Tunisie. + +Footnote 128: + + Some of the latter performed really gallant services, and + afterwards passed into the military and police forces organized by + the French. + +Footnote 129: + + Now in the British Museum of Natural History. + +Footnote 130: + + The Mubangi is the name given to the western and southern course + of the river which is known as the Wele in its upper waters, and + was discovered by Schweinfurth in 1871. + +Footnote 131: + + The invidious analogy of the Royal Niger Company was soon + afterwards disposed of by its charter being redeemed for £900,000, + and the Niger being thrown open to general trade. + +Footnote 132: + + Major Lamy was killed in the battle which also cost Rabah his + life. + +Footnote 133: + + At the end of the 18th century there was born at Mostaganem in + West Algeria from an Arab family in that place, Muhammad-bin-Ali, + further named As-Sanusi (Senussi), after a celebrated saint of + Tlemsan. He went as a young man to Mekka, and there achieved a + reputation for holiness and learning. Here also he made the + acquaintance of Muhammad Sharif, a negro prince from Wadai, who + afterwards became Sultan of that country. In the middle of the + 19th century As-Sanusi returned to N. Africa and settled in the + Cyrenaica, but finding the Turks suspicious he changed his + head-quarters to Jaghbub in 1860, just inside the Egyptian + borders, thirty miles from Siwa. Here he died soon after his + arrival, and as a religious leader he was succeeded by his second + son, Al-Mahdi. Al-Mahdi Senussi II renewed the relations with + Wadai, where his father’s sect numbered many adherents, and in the + last quarter of the 19th century removed his head-quarters to Al + Jof in the Kufra oasis, midway between Cyrenaica and the Sudan. + Senussi refused to countenance the revolt of the Mahdi in the + Egyptian Sudan, but between 1899-1902 interfered strenuously in + the Central Sudan to prevent the advance of the French, especially + towards Kanem and Wadai. But his efforts were fruitless, and he + died in or near Wadai in 1902. His nephew and successor, Senussi + III, wandered about for some time in the borderland between Wadai + and Kordofan, and finally betook himself to the Kufra oasis in the + Libyan desert, where he now resides. The Senussiites profess a + purified form of the Muhammadan faith, are rigid abstainers from + alcohol and tobacco, but are above all an honest, industrious + folk, who have done much of late years to improve the conditions + of life in the Saharan and Libyan oases. + + + + + CHAPTER X + + CHRISTIAN MISSIONS + + + If I were writing this book for dramatic effect and less with a view + to historical sequence, I should have been disposed to put this + chapter next to the one dealing with the slave trade, as an + effective pendant; for if Europe has dealt wickedly in enslaving + Africa, she has sent thither a high-minded army of men and women, + who, acting nearly always from noble and unselfish motives, have + raised the African from a callous ignorance to a distinctly higher + stage of civilization. And whether or not Britain was a greater + sinner than other white peoples in the thoroughness with which she + prosecuted the slave trade, she at any rate deserves credit for a + degree of missionary effort far surpassing that attributable to any + other nation. + + The Portuguese were the first European nation to send missionaries + to Africa. Their zeal was great, and, with one or two exceptions, + wholly praiseworthy. Portuguese priests and Jesuit fathers + accompanied most of the early expeditions to Africa; in fact hardly + any explorer or conquistador sailed without chaplains in his + company, who raised the cross and preached Christianity as soon as + they set foot on shore. In the chapter on the Portuguese in Africa I + have touched upon the introduction of Christianity into Congoland in + 1491. But any race of purely negro blood accepts and loses + Christianity with great facility. The Negro (unless he be + Muhammadanized) is easily converted, and as easily relapses into + gross superstition or a negation of all religion, including his + former simple but sound ideas of right and wrong. In order that + Christianity may become permanently rooted in a negro race it is + necessary for it to be maintained by a European power for a long + period as the religion of the State. If the negro kingdoms which + remained independent retained their Christianity it was in an + unrecognizable form. It is not so with Muhammadanism, the + explanation being that Muhammadanism as taught to the Negro demands + no sacrifice of his bodily lusts, whereas Christianity with its + restrictions ends by boring him, unless and until his general mental + condition, by individual genius or generations of transmitted + culture, reaches the average level of the European. As instances of + the former, one might mention some ten or a dozen individuals living + at the present time, who are priests and deacons of Christianity in + Africa; while for examples of permanently rooted Christianity as the + result of inheritance it is only necessary to point to the two or + three millions of really good negro men and women to be found in the + United States, the West Indies and Cape Colony. Portugal, however, + never attempted to rule the Kingdom of the Congo till the last + quarter of the 19th century; so after more than three centuries of + propaganda[134] the Ba-kongo fell away from Christianity, and in + less than a hundred years had absolutely relapsed into Heathenism, + when once more, against their wishes, missionaries returned to + Western Congoland. + + Jesuit priests also accompanied Portuguese conquerors to the Zambezi + and the south-east of Africa. Here they met with relatively little + success, though they left their traces on Zambezia in the most + marked manner by founding a settlement at Zumbo high up the Zambezi + and even establishing stations beyond in the little known Batoka + country, where their presence is attested to this day by the groves + of fruit trees descended from those they introduced. Tete, the + modern capital of Portuguese Zambezi, also began as a missionary + station. Elsewhere, in Portuguese East Africa, the priests had very + little success, as Muhammadanism had already got a hold. Indeed the + first missionary explorer of Zambezia, who visited the court of the + King of Monomotapa, was martyred there at the instigation of the + Arabs[135]. + + Portuguese priests also travelled over Abyssinia during two + centuries after the Portuguese discovery of that country at the end + of the 15th century. Christian Abyssinia—the most probable origin of + the myth of the Kingdom of Prester John—attracted a good deal of + attention from Portugal since she commenced her exploration of the + outer world. But the Portuguese priests were quite unsuccessful in + converting the Abyssinians from their debased form of Greek + Christianity to the Roman Catholic Church; and after bitter quarrels + with the native clergy these missionaries had been either killed or + expelled from the country by 1633. + + The French traders who frequented the Senegal coast between 1550 and + 1650 nearly always took a missionary chaplain with them. + + Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian priests vainly attempted at + different times to convert the Moors of North Africa. Finding this a + hopeless task, they directed their efforts towards relieving the + sufferings of the unfortunate Christian captives of the Barbary + pirates, and practically continued this work down to the French + occupation of Algeria. + + The Protestant peoples did little in the way of missionary work in + Africa till quite the end of the 18th century; though the good + Huguenots, who went out to South Africa, endeavoured, somewhat to + the surprise of the Dutch, to treat the Hottentots as fellow men + fitted for baptism; and the Moravians, attracted by the Hottentots, + began evangelizing work at the Cape of Good Hope in 1732, but were + soon checked in their efforts by the Dutch Company. + + Wesleyan missionary work was begun at Sierra Leone coincidently with + the establishment of that place as a settlement for freed slaves in + 1787. The London Missionary Society was founded in 1795, and the + Edinburgh Missionary Society in 1796; the Glasgow Missionary Society + soon afterwards. By the end of the 18th century these three bodies + had sent out missionaries to Sierra Leone and the adjoining Susu + country. In 1821 the Glasgow Missionary Society sent the first + Presbyterian missionaries to South Africa. The Church Missionary + Society was founded in 1799. It furnished missionaries for Sierra + Leone, and after a long interval extended its operations to Lagos + and the Niger Delta, where it is still the leading Christian + mission. In 1830 this mission sent its first agents to teach + Protestant Christianity in Abyssinia, and began to consider the + possibility of evangelizing East Africa. In common with other + English missionary societies at that time, and for reasons not + altogether clear, it preferred to employ German evangelists, though + from the results achieved few can find fault with the choice made. + The Church Missionary Society introduced to us men of the stamp of + Krapf and Rebmann. Dr Ludwig Krapf is justly a great name in African + exploration, African philology, and African Christianity. Despatched + by the Church Missionary Society to prospect Abyssinia in 1834, he + was obliged to decide in 1842 (in Shoa), after disappointing + experiences, that there was no field there for Protestant + Christianity, and therefore directed his steps to the Zanzibar + coast. Being a tactful man, and meeting with kindness at the hands + of Sayyid Sa’id, the ‘Sultan’ of Zanzibar[136], he established + himself at Rabai, near Mombasa, and there founded the work of the + Church Missionary Society, which endures and prospers to this day. + Dr Krapf will also be referred to in the chapter on explorers. The + Church Missionary Society educated the first Protestant negro + bishop[137] in the person of Samuel Crowther of the Niger. Its work + met with some success on the West Coast of Africa as regards the + number of adherents; but, like most Christian missions, it has not + achieved rapid progress in more or less Muhammadanized East Africa. + This mission stands out conspicuous for the magnificent philological + work done by its agents in Africa; especially notable among whom + have been Dr S. W. Koelle, Mr Reichardt, the Rev. James Frederic + Schön, Bishop Crowther, Krapf, Rebmann, and J. T. Last. + + The Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society was founded in 1813, and + devoted its first efforts to South Africa, Namakwaland, and + Kaffraria. The Primitive Methodist Society was started in 1843, and + continued the evangelization of Fernando Pô, which had been carried + on by the (British) Baptist mission from 1844 to 1859. They also + went at the same time to South Africa. The prospects of this mission + in Fernando Pô were affected by the resumption of the administration + of that island by the Spanish Government, which at that time + discountenanced Protestant missions in its territory. Some + arrangement was come to, however, and the mission still continues to + work there, and to work at the present time without any very marked + restriction. + + The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel became a distinctly + missionary body in 1821, and worked chiefly in South Africa. + + The British Baptists organized a missionary society early in the + 19th century, and sent out missionaries as far back as 1840 to + Fernando Pô. Owing to their expulsion from the island by the Spanish + Government, they moved across to the Cameroons, where they + established the flourishing settlement of Ambas Bay, and made + English almost the second language of the Cameroons people. The + splendid work of this mission in the Cameroons was chiefly done + under the late Edward Saker, whose name is still venerated on the + Cameroons river for the great good that he did to the country by + spreading the knowledge of many useful arts and industries and + educating the Duala people to a remarkable degree. From the + Cameroons the mission, under the guidance of the Rev. Thomas Comber + and the Rev. Holman Bentley, moved on to the Congo[138], where this + Baptist mission now has numerous stations. One of its missionaries, + the Rev. George Grenfell, made himself famous by discovering the + great Mubangi river, the most important of the Congo tributaries, + and known in its upper waters as the Wele, besides making a + remarkable survey of the main Congo and several of its leading + tributaries, thus earning the Gold Medal of the Royal Geographical + Society and a number of other distinctions. Though several times + offered posts of responsibility under the Congo Government he + preferred remaining a missionary till his death in 1906. The + linguistic work done by this Baptist mission was important, and + included an illustration of the language of Fernando Pô by Mr John + Clarke, a like service rendered to the Duala language of the + Cameroons by Mr Saker, a valuable Congo dictionary and grammar by + the Rev. Dr H. Bentley, and work of far-reaching interest and + importance by the Rev. W. H. Stapleton. + + Roman Catholic missions entered North Africa soon after the conquest + of Algeria. Lyons, in France, became a great centre of missionary + activity. It is the head-quarters at the present day of a powerful + French Roman Catholic Missionary Society—that of the Holy Ghost and + of the Sacred Heart of Mary—which of recent years has been doing a + good work in Portuguese Angola and on the coast region of the Congo, + and also in Senegambia and German East Africa. In 1846 missionary + enterprise in Roman Catholic Austria decided to take advantage of + Muhammad Ali’s conquest of the Sudan to push its way into the heart + of Africa through Egypt. In 1846 these Austrian Catholic + missionaries chose Cairo as their starting point, and this mission + continued to work in the Egyptian Sudan until the uprising of the + Mahdists. Most of the readers of this book have heard of the + adventures of Father Ohrwalder and the nuns who escaped from the + clutches of the Khalifa in 1896. This mission, amongst other + philological studies, illustrated the interesting Bari language of + the upper White Nile, and did excellent work in countries so remote + as Kordofan and Sennār. Italian priests—before the disasters which + befell the colonial enterprise of Italy in 1896—worked amongst the + Galas of Abyssinia. Roman Catholic missions (French) had been begun + in Tigré (N. Abyssinia) about 1830. In 1847, at the request of the + Prince of Shoa, Pope Pius IX sent a Roman bishop-missionary, + Monsignor Massaia, to Shoa, who remained there some years, and may + be said to have started Italian mission work in that field. + + In 1878 the late Cardinal Lavigerie having created the Mission of + the White Fathers, which was to convert the Sudan and all Congoland + to Christianity, Pope Leo XIII gave them a rescript directing them + to evangelize all Central Africa. They had settled in Tunis (as well + as in Algeria), on the Congo, on Tanganyika, and in West Africa + (Senegambia), and finally they directed their energies towards + Uganda shortly after the Church Missionary Society had established + itself in that country. Cardinal Lavigerie was a type of prelate + somewhat characteristic of the last quarter of the 19th century, + given to sonorous declamation, who posed as the denunciator of + slavery and the slave trade without ever making personal + acquaintance with its horrors. He endeavoured to obtain in the Roman + Catholic world the glory of a Livingstone without going through + Livingstone’s hardships. Moreover, hand in hand with his desire to + spread religion amongst Arabs, Berbers and Negroes was an equally + ardent desire to make them at the same time French or + French-protected subjects. His strong political bias has somewhat + discoloured his strenuous efforts for the evangelization of Africa, + since his work is now seen to have been by no means disinterested. + No doubt—as foreign critics point out—British missionaries often + come as precursors to British rule; but they do so unconsciously, + and indeed frequently prove inconvenient champions of native + independence. But the missionaries of Cardinal Lavigerie’s order + aimed in earlier days at advancing the political interests of France + almost before they had secured the conversion of their pupils; and + this somewhat detracted from their value as missionaries of + Christianity. The determined hostility shown by these men to the + British protectorate over Uganda provoked a terrible civil war; + though since 1898 (when a section of their work was taken up by a + British Roman Catholic mission) this political aspect of their work + has entirely ceased and they have won hearty commendation from + British, German and Belgian administrators. The White Fathers wear + an Arab costume—a red fez and a long white cassock tied round the + waist with a girdle. Their churches and schools were formerly built + in a Moorish style of architecture. It was Cardinal Lavigerie’s idea + that an approximation in dress and architecture to the Arabs might + induce that people to give a hearing to his propagandists. + + About eighteen years ago the Jesuits decided to resume their work on + the Zambezi, which had been interrupted for more than a century by + native troubles and by the expulsion of the Jesuits from the + Portuguese dominions by the orders of the Marquez de Pombal. At + first the efforts of the Jesuits resulted in utter disaster. They + established themselves on the upper Zambezi, in the Batoka country, + near the Victoria Falls, and all those who did not die of fever were + massacred by the Batoka. Then they restricted their efforts to the + vicinity of the Portuguese settlements at Zumbo and Tete and at + Boroma. Near the last-named place they have a most prosperous and + well-conducted establishment where a good technical education is + given to the negroes of the Zambezi. At the invitation of the + Portuguese Government they directed their attention to Nyasaland, + but their establishment there being sacked and burned by Muhammadan + Yaos, they retired from work in that direction. They have + subsequently established mission stations in Mashonaland, besides + resuming work in Madagascar. + + Roman Catholic missionaries met with but poor success in Madagascar + until French influence became dominant there a few years ago. The + priests who attempted repeatedly to establish themselves on the + coast of Madagascar in the early days of French colonial experiments + either died from fever or were killed by the natives. The Jesuits + who proceeded to the Hova Plateau during the sixties of the 19th + century, and who were maintained there by subsidies granted by the + French Imperial Government, met with so little success that they + almost abandoned their work. At the present time, however, being + strongly supported by the government of this French colony, they are + obtaining an ascendancy over the Protestants. + + Protestant missionary work, chiefly conducted by the London + Missionary Society, and subsequently by the Quakers and the + Norwegians, began in Madagascar in 1818. The missionaries of the + London Missionary Society met with great success in converting the + natives of Madagascar to an undenominational form of Protestant + Christianity; but their efforts were suddenly checked by the + reactionary policy of Queen Ranavalona I, who persecuted and killed + the native Christians, and compelled the missionaries to leave the + island in 1836. After various attempts—which proved futile—to come + to an understanding with the old heathen queen, the Protestant + missionaries returned in full force at her death, and since that + time until the French annexation of the island they may be said to + have converted the mass of the Hovas to Christianity, and to have + established a strong Protestant native Church in friendly + co-operation with the Anglicans, who, under a Bishop of Madagascar, + became established in the island from 1863 onwards. + + The London Missionary Society, which has done such striking work in + Madagascar, and was indeed the pioneer missionary society in South + Africa, was attracted to the open field of Tanganyika at the time + when the Church Missionary Society, stirred up by Stanley’s appeal, + sent its emissaries to Uganda. The first missionaries of the London + Missionary Society, crossing Tanganyika from east to west, made + their first establishment on the Kavala islet on the west coast. By + means of the African Lakes Company of Nyasa, they conveyed a steamer + in sections to the waters of Tanganyika, a steamer which has plied + successfully on the lake since it was launched in 1885. + Subsequently, however, the London Missionary Society retired from + those parts of Tanganyika which were under foreign flags, and + directed their attention to the south shore of the lake, which was + placed under British protection by the author of this book in 1889. + + A Swiss Protestant mission was founded at Basel in 1815, and soon + afterwards commenced work on the Gold Coast, a work which produced + the most remarkable and beneficial results in the industrial + training of thousands of Gold Coast natives, enabling them thus to + earn good wages and to fulfil many of the tasks hitherto assigned to + Europeans. The Basel mission is now also established in the + adjoining German territories of Togoland. The Moravian Protestant + Missionary Society was founded as far back as 1732, and sent out the + first trained Christian missionaries to South Africa. At the present + day this mission has flourishing establishments in that part of the + continent. The Berlin Missionary Society was founded in 1823, the + Rhenish Missionary Society in 1829, and the North German (Bremen) + Society in 1836. The two first-named German Protestant missions + directed their attentions to Damaraland, and to the Hottentot + country in South-West Africa; the Bremen Mission sent its agents + chiefly to West Africa. Several of these societies, together with + the Moravians, have established mission stations in German + Nyasaland, to the north of Lake Nyasa. A Bavarian Roman Catholic + mission has commenced work in the coast regions of German East + Africa. + + The French Evangelical Church began its important missionary work in + Africa as far back as 1829. Its agents—noted almost universally for + their single-minded earnestness and dissociation from all attempts + to procure political influence—have made remarkable progress in + Christianizing Basutoland and the adjoining Bechuana peoples in + South Africa. Following the Bechuana race movements, they were + gradually directed to the Upper Zambezi, and to the Barotse Kingdom. + Here, under the distinguished leadership of M. Coillard, they have + carried out a work of civilization amongst the Barotse deserving of + the highest praise, though they have suffered severe losses among + their agents by ill-health. Sweden, not to be behind other + Protestant states, founded a missionary society in the early part of + this century, which devoted itself to the still unoccupied field of + Galaland, attacking this country both from the Abyssinian side and + from British territory on the East Coast of Africa, whence it is + easier penetrated at the present day. Though the work of this + society has resulted in important additions to our philological + knowledge, its efforts to propagate Christianity amongst the + Galas—who were either obstinate Muhammadans or equally obstinate + Pagans—have been unsuccessful. The Swiss Calvinist Church has sent + missionaries among the Basuto in South Africa, and at a later date + into Angola. The Dutch Reformed Church has done a good deal of + missionary work in South Africa, and of late in Nyasaland. The + American Presbyterian Church started an African missionary society + in 1831 and sent its emissaries to Liberia, where it has many + adherents. + + British Presbyterians have established several important missionary + bodies. The earliest (among existing societies) to commence work was + the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland, which established a + mission at Old Calabar, on the West Coast of Africa, in 1846, and + has since made great progress in converting the natives of Old + Calabar and the Cross River to Christianity and a certain degree of + civilization. It is mainly owing to the work of this mission that + Old Calabar has become an important centre for European enterprise, + and the capital of the eastern half of Southern Nigeria. The + Edinburgh and Glasgow Missionary Societies of the early part of this + century, which sent out missionaries to South Africa, were + dissolved, and took shape in other forms as the foreign missions of + the Free Church of Scotland and the Established Church of Scotland. + The former, which was organized in the fifties, established strong + missions in South Africa, and there founded the educational + establishment of Lovedale, whence many hundreds of South African + negroes have gone out into the world with a practical education. + When Livingstone had directed attention to the Zambezi, the Free + Church of Scotland thought of establishing a mission there, but + after the report of its commissioner decided that the time was not + come for such an enterprise. But in 1875, after Livingstone’s death, + the Free Kirk sent out an expedition to Nyasaland for the + establishment of a mission, which now has stations all along the + west coast of that lake[139]. The Established Church of Scotland + followed suit in 1876, when a settlement was made on the Shiré + Highlands, to the south of Lake Nyasa; and the headquarters of the + mission was styled “Blantyre” after the little town in Lanarkshire + were Livingstone was born. Blantyre is now in many respects the + principal town in the Nyasaland Protectorate. The Norwegian Church + sent out missionaries to Zululand (1842) and to Madagascar in later + years. + + Besides the American Presbyterian mission in Liberia, other American + missionaries (Baptists, Episcopal Methodists, and undenominational) + settled in the Gaboon and on the coast between the Cameroons and the + French colony, on the Congo, in Angola, and, above all, on the + highlands of Bihé, behind Benguela. Among the agents of these + American missions, remarkable for the linguistic work they have done + in African languages, were the Rev. J. L. Wilson, who, together with + Preston and Best, wrote on the languages of the Gaboon coast; Dr + Sims, who compiled valuable vocabularies of Congo languages; Mr Héli + Chatelain, whose work in connection with the Angola language was of + exceptional value; and lastly, the Rev. W. M. Stover, who ably + illustrated the Bihé language. + + Besides the Church Missionary Society, the Anglican Church has been + represented in Africa by the well-known “Universities’ Mission,” + founded in 1856 as the result of an appeal by Livingstone to the + universities of Oxford and Cambridge. While the Church Missionary + Society is mainly supported by the Evangelical side of the English + Church, the Universities’ Mission is the outcome of the missionary + enterprise of the High Church party. Its first establishment in + Nyasaland under Livingstone was unfortunate, and resulted in the + death of Bishop Mackenzie (the first missionary bishop of Central + Africa) and most of the missionaries with him. His successor, Bishop + Tozer, resolved to suspend work in Nyasaland, and concentrate the + efforts of the mission upon Zanzibar, which thenceforward became its + principal seat in Africa; but later on, when he was succeeded by + Bishop Steere, another and a successful effort was made to reach + Nyasa. From the beginning of the eighties to the present day, though + at times much harassed by the Muhammadan Yaos, this mission has + taken a firm hold in Nyasaland, besides establishing and maintaining + a number of mission stations in German East Africa. In Nyasaland it + occupies chiefly the east coast of the Lake, and has one station on + the west coast, having chosen to work mainly among those populations + which have been to some degree under Arab or Yao influence. To this + mission is due the erection of a fine cathedral at Zanzibar; and + much valuable linguistic work has been done by the late Bishop + Steere, Mr Madan, and the late Bishop of Likoma (better known as + Archdeacon Chauncey Maples[140]). + + The Plymouth Brethren have established a mission in South-Central + Africa, across the Zambezi-Congo water-parting. + + The Scotch Baptists began a mission to S.W. Nyasaland and also on + the Zambezi in 1895. There, also, is the Zambezi Industrial Mission + (undenominational), which was founded in 1893, and endeavours to be + self-supporting by its industrial work. A few American missionaries, + mostly under Bishop Hartzell of the American Episcopal Church, have + attempted settlement in the Portuguese possessions on the West and + the South-east coasts of Africa; and there are also unattached + American missionaries in the Congo basin carrying on work on their + own account, without being connected with any special society. + Finally, Plymouth Brethren and other English Protestants of + different denominations organized a Protestant missionary, + enterprise in North Africa as the “North African Mission,” + established in 1886. This mission has numerous representatives in + Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli, and Egypt. As it devotes itself + mainly to the conversion of Muhammadans, it has had but slight + success at present from the propagandist’s point of view, but it has + achieved more than any other a preparation of the Moslem mind for + the consideration of Christian ethics, and its educational work of + late has been warmly appreciated by the French authorities. This + mission has numerous women members who visit the harims for + educational and for medical purposes. Its agents have been + remarkable for their thorough acquaintance with Arabic and even with + the Berber dialects of Morocco and Algeria. + + The only Christian state which existed in Africa before the + beginning of European colonization was Abyssinia, which is to some + degree dependent on the Coptic Church in Egypt, and is in communion + with the Greek Church. Christianity is said to have been introduced + here in the 4th century. The Abyssinians have usually resented the + arrival of Roman Catholic missionaries, and have not shown much + greater encouragement to emissaries from Protestant Churches. + Abyssinian Christianity is, as might be imagined, so degraded and + mixed up with fetishism that it is difficult to recognise it as a + branch of the Christian faith which is the religion of so much of + Europe and America. Russia in the latter part of the 19th century + was much concerned at the spiritual darkness prevailing in + Abyssinia, and endeavoured to send thither missionaries from the + Greek Church, the domain of which she identifies with her own + empire. But these have been propagandists of a singularly military + type—wolves in sheep’s clothing, if one may commit oneself to rather + a strong metaphor—and hardly to be classed with the unarmed + emissaries of Christianity, who, on behalf of the Roman Catholic and + Protestant Churches of Europe and America, have striven usually with + single-minded motives, almost always with deep personal + unselfishness, ever with zeal, sometimes with indiscretion, and not + unfrequently with bitter disappointments and cruel sufferings to + evangelize Africa. The ultimate effect of their work on the history + of Africa will prove to be far-reaching, important, and (I believe) + highly beneficial. + +----- + +Footnote 134: + + For the detailed history of the Portuguese, Italian, Flemish, and + French Catholic missionaries in the Kongo kingdom see my book, + _George Grenfell and the Congo_. + +Footnote 135: + + Gonçalo de Silveira; killed somewhere to the south-west of Tete + about 1565. + +Footnote 136: + + At that time the Arab viceroy of Zanzibar was only known as + ‘Sayyid’ (Lord); not as Sultan. + +Footnote 137: + + The Portuguese Church had produced the first Roman Catholic negro + bishop, in the 16th century. He was Bishop of the Congo, was a + member of the royal family of Kongo, and was educated at Lisbon + and Rome. Samuel Crowther was an Egba slave-boy from Lagos, who by + education acquired the intellect and outlook of a European. He was + an upright, sensible man who wrote valuable works on African + philology, and did much towards founding British Nigeria and + exploring the Niger and the Benue. + +Footnote 138: + + It quitted the Cameroons altogether soon after the establishment + of the German colony, the German Government having expropriated + most of its establishments. + +Footnote 139: + + The same body also established an industrial mission (initiated by + Dr James Stewart, the founder of Lovedale) in British East Africa, + halfway to Uganda. + +Footnote 140: + + Who worked for many years in Nyasaland and in East Africa, and was + drowned in Like Nyasa in 1895. + + + + + CHAPTER XI + + THE BRITISH IN AFRICA, II + (_South and South-Central._) + + + Towards the close of the 18th century Great Britain cast longing + eyes at the Cape of Good Hope, as a victualling station for her + ships on the way to India which could not remain much longer in the + weak grasp of a Dutch company and must not fall into the hands of + France. In 1795 the British Government despatched a strong + expedition with the authority of the Prince of Orange and took + possession of Cape Town, after a brief struggle with the local + authorities. Free trade, with some preference for British goods, at + once took the place of the grinding monopoly and vexatious + restrictions of the old Dutch company; and various other liberal + measures were enacted, which would have done much to reconcile the + Dutch colonists to British rule were it not that, when England at + the Peace of Amiens in 1803 restored the Cape of Good Hope to the + Dutch Republic, there followed three years of direct Dutch rule + under two most enlightened men, De Mist and Janssens, who did much + to efface from the settlers’ remembrance the justly hated + selfishness of the old Dutch East India Company. Therefore, when + Great Britain resumed, in a manner intended to be permanent, the + administration of Cape Colony in 1805, a still more decided + opposition was shown to her forces than before; and even after the + cession of this colony by Holland in 1814 there remained among the + Dutch settlers a certain lukewarmness, and a disposition to find + fault with the actions and motives of the Colonial Government and of + the British people. In 1806, when Cape Colony passed definitely + under British control, it had an area of about 125,000 square + miles[141]. The boundary on the East was the Great Fish river, and + thence a curving line which ended at Plettenberg’s Beacon, about + fifty miles south of the Orange river. The boundary on the north was + an irregular line from Plettenberg’s Beacon (dipping far south in + the middle) to the mouth of the Buffalo river (Little Namakwaland) + on the Atlantic Ocean. The population of the colony (not counting + the military forces) was about 26,000 Europeans (of whom 6,000 lived + in Cape Town), about 30,000 Malay and negro slaves, some hundred + thousand Hottentots and half-breeds, perhaps another hundred + thousand Kafirs and a few thousand Bushmen. The industries and + pursuits of the European settlers were limited to vine-growing, the + raising of grain, and the care of large herds of cattle and sheep. + The cattle were mostly the long-horned native cattle of the + Hottentots, and the sheep the hairy, fat-tailed, domestic sheep of + Africa. Ostrich farming was unknown, and although the Dutch + commissioners, De Mist and Janssens, had begun to introduce merino + sheep just before the expiration of their administration, wool had + not yet figured amongst the exports. + + The first beneficial effect of British rule was felt in the stemming + of the tide of Kafir invasion. This race of Bantu negroes had during + the previous century been pressing closer and closer on the + extremity of South Africa from the northeast. The earliest branch of + the Bantu to reach South Africa were the Herero, who invaded what is + now known as Damaraland. But the desert and the Hottentots kept them + from either reaching the Atlantic coast or penetrating any further + south. Then came the Bechuana, who barely crossed the Orange river; + and then, overriding these latter, latest of all in the field, the + Zulu-Kafirs, who attempted to enter Cape Colony from the coast + region bordering on the Indian Ocean. The _first_ British-Kafir war + took place in 1811-12, and ended in the Kafirs being driven eastward + of the Sunday River, and further led to their expulsion from the + Zuurveld (the modern district of Albany), to the west of the Great + Fish river, which was then fixed as the Kafir boundary. In 1817 Lord + Charles Somerset, the Governor of the Cape, visited the Zuurveld, + and decided that the best obstacle in the way of repeated Kafir + invasions would be to settle that district with a stout race of + colonists. He therefore obtained a grant from the British Government + of £5,000 to promote emigration to the Cape; and in 1820-21, 5,000 + British emigrants landed in South Africa, 4,000 of whom were settled + in the eastern districts, principally in the county of Albany. This + settlement was at first a failure. Few if any of the settlers were + skilled agriculturists; they were without any experience of life in + a semi-tropical country; the cost of land transport pressed heavily + on them; and the grants of land made to each individual were too + small. The first few years Nature played her usual tricks; for + Nature seems to hate the movement of species and the upsetting of + her arrangements. Therefore she sent blight during three years, then + floods for another season. The settlers fell into great distress, + but in time things righted themselves. Some immigrants moved to the + towns of the colony and obtained high wages as artisans; and others + who held on to the Zuurveld at last attained prosperity by extending + the area of land they occupied, and going in for sheep and cattle + runs in preference to corn-growing. The Kafirs however had poured + over the frontier in hordes under the leadership of Makana in + 1817-18. They raided the Boer flocks and herds and attacked + Grahamstown; and the _second_ Kafir war which ensued ended in these + warlike negroes being driven back to the east of the Chumi or + Keiskamma river. + + The immigrants of 1820 and 1821 created for the first time a strong + British element in the population of Cape Colony. They were + principally English in origin, but also included Scotch, Irish, and + Welsh, though the Irish immigrants, who had settled in the western + part of Cape Colony, did not prosper. Gradually, owing to the + distribution of the new settlers, the eastern part of Cape Colony + became English in race and language, as compared to the western and + central parts, which remained principally Dutch. The X̓osa[142] + Kafir boundary having been shifted to the Keiskamma, the frontier + district between that stream and the Great Fish river was at first + regarded as a neutral land to be possessed by neither Kafir nor + white man. Gradually, however, this system became impossible, and at + last, in 1831, the Colonial Office gave its assent to grants of land + being made in the ceded territory to respectable settlers. + Unfortunately in this despatch a distinction was drawn between + Englishmen and Hottentots on the one hand and the Dutch Boers on the + other, and the latter were not permitted to obtain land in the new + frontier district. This tactless and unjustified announcement, + together with the attacks made on the Boers by the British + missionaries, and the knowledge that the abolition of slavery was + near at hand, made many of the Dutch settlers profoundly + dissatisfied with the British Government and anxious to move beyond + its control. + + An unhappy incident had occurred sixteen years previously which left + bitter memories behind. The British Governor had enrolled about 1811 + a regiment of Hottentot soldiers under British officers. The + Hottentots had many grievances to avenge, dating from the former + rule of the Dutchmen; and these soldiers comported themselves with + arrogance towards their former masters. Most unwisely they were used + as policemen and sent now and again to arrest Dutch settlers who had + broken the law. From one such incident arose in 1815 the riot over + the arrest and death of the Bezuidenhout brothers in northern + Albany, and the hanging at “Slagter’s Nek” of five of the rioters—an + excessively severe punishment for which some writers have condemned + Lord Charles Somerset as the originator of a race quarrel which + lasted nearly a hundred years. + + Till 1825 the Cape had been governed despotically by the Governor, + but in that year an executive council of six members, all Government + officials, was appointed to advise the Governor in his legislation. + In 1828 two colonists were introduced into this council in place of + two official members. But in 1833 the Cape received a regular + constitution as a Crown colony with a legislative council in which + the unofficial element was fairly represented. In 1827 the English + language had been substituted for Dutch in courts of law (an + additional cause of dissatisfaction to the Boers); but the + administration of justice in that year was greatly improved by the + appointment of a supreme court with judges appointed directly by the + Crown, while the lower courts were entirely remodelled, and civil + commissioners and resident magistrates were appointed. In 1822 the + number of Europeans settled in South Africa was about 60,000. In + 1828, owing to the growing importance of the Albany settlement, Cape + Colony was divided into two provinces, the western and the eastern; + and the latter was for a time governed with some degree of + independence. By 1824 Cape Colony had taken what is now the southern + limit of the Orange Free State as its northern boundary. + + At this time there was a slave population in British South Africa of + about 60,000, of whom less than half were Hottentots (who were + rather serfs than slaves), and the remainder Malays introduced by + the Dutch, and black negroes brought from Moçambique and from + Angola. The British Government having abolished the slave trade in + 1807, the further importation of slaves ceased; but there came into + the colony a certain number of free negroes, who were rescued from + the slave ships by cruisers, and landed in South Africa. In 1833 + slavery was abolished. It was however enacted that, although the + emancipation should come into effect on December 1st, 1834[143], + complete freedom should not be given to the slaves till December + 1st, 1838; further, that the Imperial Government should pay + compensation to the extent of 1¼ million pounds. As this + compensation was saddled with various deductions and drawbacks, the + slave-owners—chiefly Dutchmen—did not get fair value for their + slaves, and therefore had further cause for grumbling. + + At the end of 1834, shortly after one of the most distinguished of + South African Governors, Sir Benjamin d’Urban, had arrived to take + up his appointment, 12,000 armed Kafirs crossed the eastern border + into the colony with a determined resolve to oust the Europeans from + the newly settled districts. For nearly a fortnight the X̓osa clans + under Makoma and Chali had it all their own way from Somerset East + to Algoa Bay, killing many of the white men, burning their houses, + destroying or carrying off their property, and turning a beautiful + province into a desert. This raid was absolutely unprovoked, except + in so far that for years the Kafirs had been nursing a grievance on + account of their expulsion from the country west of the Keiskamma, + which they themselves had not long before taken from the Hottentots. + Prompt measures (the _third_ Kafir war) were taken to repel this + invasion and punish the X̓osa tribe. Colonel Smith—afterwards + Governor Sir Harry Smith—mustered what forces were available, and + drove the X̓osa Kafirs beyond the Keiskamma. Early in 1835 the + British forces had reached the Kei river on a counter invasion of + Kafirland. Sir Benjamin D’Urban dealt mercifully with the conquered + Kafirs; very few even of the enemy were dispossessed of their homes, + while those natives who had remained friendly were rewarded by + grants of land. Beyond the Kei river Kareli the son and heir of + Hintsa, chief of the Galeka clan (who had been killed while + attempting to escape from imprisonment), was recognized as ruler + over a section of the X̓osas; while in the new province, afterwards + to be known as British Kaffraria, British residents were placed with + the Kafir chiefs to advise them, and missionaries were encouraged to + return to their work. Yet this settlement (statesmanlike and + far-sighted in its details—which there is not space to give—as in + its general outlines) was upset, and the prosperity of South Africa + seriously damaged by the Secretary of War and the Colonies, Lord + Glenelg[144]; a sentimental doctrinaire, who had evolved from his + inner consciousness an unreal South Africa in which Kafir raiders of + oxen were noble-minded black kings, whom a harsh pro-consul was + dispossessing from their ancestral territories. He not only upset + all that was new in Sir Benjamin D’Urban’s arrangement, but even + compelled the retrocession to the Kafirs of land which had long been + occupied by white settlers, and further damaged the authority of the + popular Governor of the Cape by erecting the eastern province into a + separate governorship, over which he placed a Boer named Andries + Stockenstrom. The immediate result of this reversal of Sir Benjamin + D’Urban’s policy was ten years of intermittent war with the Kafirs + (who took generosity of treatment for weakness), and grave + dissatisfaction among those colonists of Dutch origin who had + suffered from the Kafir raids. In fact, Lord Glenelg’s blunder + proved the last straw that broke the back of Dutch tolerance of + British rule; and in 1836 a number of the Dutch colonists (who had + come to be known as the “Boers,” or farmers) trekked away from the + limits of Cape Colony across the Orange river and the Vaal river, + and south-eastwards into Natal. So far back as 1815 the Dutch + farmers, as already related, had risen against the government of + Lord Charles Somerset because it interfered with their summary + treatment of the natives, and their rising had ended in the hanging + of five of the rioters at Slagter’s Nek; but in modern historical + works dealing with Cape Colony it is reiterated that the main cause + of the shaking-off of British citizenship by so many Boer farmers + was not the resentment over the Slagter’s Nek execution so much as + Lord Glenelg’s reversal of D’Urban’s frontier settlement. The + adventures of these Boers after leaving British territory I have + dealt with in the chapter on Dutch Africa. + + In 1823 a small enterprise under the leadership of Farewell and + King, officers in the Royal Navy, started from Cape Town to explore + the coast of Natal. They landed at Port Natal (now Durban), visited + the Zulu king Chaka, and obtained from him in 1824 a grant of the + port of Natal with 100 square miles of territory inland, and a + coast-line of 35 miles. Other territories in what is now the modern + colony of Natal were also obtained later on from the Zulu chief. The + purchasers of these lands proclaimed them to be British territory. + Although these adventurers were occasionally driven away by the + violent wars and disturbances going on amongst the Zulus and Kafirs, + they held on to their possessions; and in June 1834 Sir Benjamin + D’Urban forwarded to the Colonial Office a petition from Cape Colony + for the establishment of a definite government in Natal. This + petition the fatuous Lord Glenelg declined on the score of expense. + In 1835 the white element in Natal was increased by missionaries + from America, and by Captain Allen Gardiner, a pioneer of missionary + enterprise on behalf of the Church of England. These settlers drew + up the plans of a regular township, built a church, christened their + territory Victoria (in honour of the heir to the British throne), + and proposed to call the town they were laying out Durban, after the + energetic Governor of Cape Colony. In 1835 they petitioned that + their territory might be made a colony, but again the Imperial + Government refused, then, as for many years afterwards, preferring + to postpone action until it was costly and fraught with bloodshed. + The Dutch immigrants were allowed to form a republic in the interior + of Natal. In July 1838 General Napier, acting no doubt on + instructions from home, invited the British settlers in Natal to + return to Cape Colony; but a few months afterwards he sent a small + detachment of troops to keep order at the port, and again pressed + the Home Government to declare Natal a British colony, though the + following year the soldiers were withdrawn. This was taken by the + Boers to be a tacit consent to the establishment of a vassal + republic under British suzerainty. They would probably have had + their way but for imprudent dealings on their part with natives + placed under British protection. At the same time, a feeling began + to grow that the United States of America were going to have + political dealings with the territory of Natal (as another + “Liberia”); while a vessel had come out from Holland, sent, it is + true, by private persons, but seeming to convey a promise of Dutch + alliance to the Burghers of Natal. British troops had again occupied + Durban. In 1842 they were attacked by the Boers, who were eventually + repulsed, and afterwards tendered their submission to the Queen’s + authority. At length, in 1843, a Conservative ministry being in + power, it was intimated that the settlers on the coast of Natal + might be taken under British protection, with the eventual object of + constituting Natal a self-governing colony, in which the Boers were + to have a share proportionate to their numbers. After much + negotiation, Natal became a British colony with a legislative + council in 1843. The fighting Boers left the country and retired + beyond the Orange river under a somewhat indefinite assurance that + British rule would not follow them. The king of the Zulus received a + recognition of his independence, and in return recognized the Tugela + as the boundary of the British colony on the north-east. To the + south, the territory of Natal was somewhat restricted, and the + portion cut off from it became known as Pondoland, which remained an + independent Kafir state till 1884; it was finally annexed to Cape + Colony in 1894. In 1847 the mistake of Lord Glenelg was to some + extent repaired under Governor Sir Harry Smith; and the eastern + boundary of Cape Colony was once more advanced to the Kei river. + This step was taken after a very serious Kafir war (the _fourth_, or + “War of the Axe”) which broke out in 1846. In 1850, however, a war + began again (the _fifth_, or “Sandile” war) with the restless X̓osa + Kafirs. It extended far and wide, and was marked by not a few + disasters; one being the loss at sea off Simon’s Bay of the + troopship _Birkenhead_, which foundered with large reinforcements of + troops on board, 400 soldiers and seamen being drowned. At length, + in 1853, General Cathcart, who had succeeded Sir Harry Smith, + captured all the strongholds of the Kafirs in the Amatola Mountains, + and deported the Kafirs from that district, which subsequently + became (from its settlement by Hottentot half-breeds) Grikwaland + East[145]. In this native uprising the Kafirs had been joined by + over a thousand pure-blood Hottentots, dissatisfied with British + treatment and wanting to create a “Hottentot republic.” + + In 1852 the Sand River Convention was concluded, by which the + independence of the Transvaal Boers was recognized; but the Orange + River Sovereignty still remained under British control, and its + difficulties with the Basuto compelled an intervention of the + British forces. The invasion of mountainous Basutoland began with a + drawn battle in which the Basuto held their own. They afterwards + secured favourable terms of peace by sending in their submission. + This incident discouraged the British Government, who decided to + abandon the Orange River Sovereignty rather than be under any + responsibility for its defence. Accordingly, independence was forced + on the settlers, many of whom were Englishmen. Basutoland, after + having frequently engaged in wars with the Orange Free State, and + having to cede a portion of its territory to them, was finally taken + under British protection in 1868. In 1871 it was annexed to the + Cape, but, owing to the turbulence of its people and the + mismanagement of the Colonial Government, it was transferred to + direct Imperial administration in 1883. + + During several years prior to 1849 the Imperial Government had been + endeavouring to arrange for the despatch of British convicts to + South Africa, as it was becoming inconvenient to maintain the penal + establishments in Australia. Whenever the question came up the Cape + Colonists protested against the idea. Nevertheless, in September + 1849, a ship brought over from Bermuda a number of ticket-of-leave + men to be landed at the Cape. The ship anchored in Simon’s Bay, but + the colonists took strong measures to prevent the landing of the + convicts. All were united to this end. The Governor met the + dangerous situation with great wisdom. He kept the convicts on board + ship until the order could be reconsidered in England. The Home + Government, for a wonder, did not push the point to the raising of + rebellion; the convicts were sent on to Van Diemen’s Land, while an + Order-in-Council authorizing transportation to the Cape was revoked. + By 1850 the prosperity of Cape Colony had become established. Its + population, white and coloured, at that time reached a total of + 220,000. The revenue at the same period stood at about £220,000 per + annum, while the value of the colonial produce exported during that + year was approximately £800,000. Wine was no longer the principal + export, and even the export of grain had diminished; wool had taken + the first place. In 1850 it represented 53 per cent. of the total + exports. Hair from Angora goats, which had been introduced during + the thirties, was beginning to take an important place in the list + of exported products; and ostrich feathers (chiefly derived from the + wild bird, however) were also an important item. Ostrich farming, + which has now placed the ostrich—happily—on the list of + inextinguishable domestic birds, did not come into vogue till the + sixties, though the emigrant Boers at a much earlier date had been + accustomed to hatch and rear young ostriches about their farms. + + On the 23rd of May, 1850, the Government and Council of Cape Colony + were authorized to prepare for the establishment of a representative + government; and three years later this was established, a Colonial + legislature being formed; but the ministry was to be responsible + only to the Governor. Responsible government, similar in many + respects to that which obtains in the daughter nations of Canada and + Australasia, was brought into force in 1872. + + In 1854 the great Sir George Grey became Governor of the Cape. He, + even more than his predecessors, was anxious to build up against + Kafir invasion on the East a wall of military colonists, who should + be able to defend their flocks from raids without continually + calling on the Colonial Government for intervention. After the + Crimean War a means presented itself in the disbanding of the + Foreign Legion, which Great Britain had recruited, and which + consisted of German, Swiss, and Italian soldiers. After the + conclusion of peace it was necessary to disband this force, and they + were invited to volunteer for African colonization. The result was + that 2300 Germans accepted the terms offered, and started for South + Africa. They were settled in the Eastern Province. But trouble then + began to arise from their being unmarried men, and Sir George Grey + sought to remedy the defect by importing a large number of German + women. The Imperial Government, however, thought that this would not + be a politic step to take, to create a little Germany in British + Africa. Finally the Cape Government sent on 1000 of the German + bachelors to India, and the 1300 who remained behind found wives in + the colony, and merged their own nationality in that of British + subjects. Nevertheless, the introduction of these German settlers + led to the going out of many emigrants from Germany for some years + afterwards, and these settled in such numbers in independent + Kaffraria that there seemed a danger at one time of their invoking + German intervention. + + In 1856 a terrible delusion took hold on the X̓osa Kafirs. They had + endured a good deal of misery from the destruction of much of their + cattle by an epidemic of rinderpest, and were in a mood to be + influenced by the wild sayings of their witch doctors. One of these + wizards, Umhlakazi, who had received a smattering of education at a + mission school, arose and proclaimed a strange gospel. He announced + that the dead and gone Kafir chiefs would return to earth with their + followers, and bring with them a new race of cattle exempt from + disease, and that following on this resurrection would come the + triumph of the black man over the white. The prophet had heard of + the Crimean War, and announced that the dead Kafir chiefs would + bring with them many Russian soldiers and attack the British. But + one thing was necessary to secure this millennium—the existing + cattle and crops must be destroyed. A portion of the Kafir tribes + believed this rubbish. Some of the chiefs even who knew better, and + who smiled at the imposture, encouraged it, thinking that after + taking these desperate measures their men would stick at nothing, + and would really break down the British power. Therefore, most of + the X̓osa Kafirs of the Galeka and Gaika clans, set to work to + slaughter their oxen and cut down their corn; and all looked forward + eagerly to the dawning of February 18, 1857, on which date the + resurrection was to take place. Nothing happened, however; and the + consequences of this hateful imposture were terrible. It is stated + that 25,000 Kafirs died of starvation, and nearly 100,000 others + left British Kaffraria and the territories beyond the Kei to seek + another home. Some 40,000 of these Kafirs settled in Cape Colony, + being taken into service there through the intervention of the + Government; and from them, mixed with Hottentots and emancipated + slaves, are descended the “Cape Boys,” who have since attracted + attention by their value as soldiers in suppressing the Matebele + revolt. Sir George Grey in 1858 was obliged to send a military force + (the _sixth_ Kafir war) against some of the Kafir tribes rendered + desperate by destitution, and they were driven for a time into + Pondoland; British Kaffraria being annexed to Cape Colony, and the + Transkei being taken under British protection. This Transkei + territory was subsequently repeopled, partly with Fingo[146] Kafirs, + and partly by the descendants of the Kafir tribes who were ruined by + the teaching of the false prophets. In 1877 the Galeka, a clan of + the X̓osa tribe, commenced fighting the Fingos. They were joined + later by the Gaika, another X̕osa people, who had long been dwelling + peaceably in the Eastern province, and during 1877 and 1878 the + _seventh_ and last Kafir war raged, ending inevitably in conquest + and submission. + + The British had taken from the Dutch in 1651 the little island of St + Helena[147] (in the Atlantic Ocean), the Dutch having previously + occupied it in 1645. This island became of some value as a place of + call for ships passing to and from India round the Cape. In 1815 it + was selected as the place of banishment for the deposed Napoleon + Bonaparte; and to make security doubly sure, the islands of + Ascension, to the north, and Tristan d’Acunha, to the extreme + south[148], were occupied also about the same time, and have + remained British ever since. Whereas Ascension has always been + managed directly by the British Admiralty, St Helena was from 1673 + until 1815, and from 1821 to 1834, governed by the East India + Company. In 1834 it became a Crown Colony. Tristan d’Acunha was + occupied by a British garrison from 1815 to 1821, of which three men + remained behind voluntarily and with some shipwrecked sailors + started the existing colony, which is a self-governing community. + + St Helena was profoundly affected by the opening of the Suez Canal + in 1869. She lost nearly all the shipping which formerly sought her + harbour, and three-quarters of her trade; but she is now beginning + to recover prosperity to some degree as a valuable health resort, + especially for the ships of the West African Squadron, and as a + possible coaling station in time of war. + + Cape Colony might also have suffered from the opening of the Suez + Canal but that she was already beginning to build up an importance + of her own, due to her exports of wool, hides, wine, and ostrich + feathers. Moreover a happy discovery intervened which effectually + guarded against any waning of interest in South Africa. In 1867 + the first diamond was discovered near the Orange river, but it was + not until 1870 that a large find of these precious stones was made + near the site of modern Kimberley. This discovery of diamonds to + the north of the Orange river, and in country of doubtful + ownership, but claimed by the Orange Free State, drove the now + awakened British Government to rather sharp practice. The + diamond-bearing land was claimed by a Grikwa (Hottentot + half-caste) chief named Waterboer. On the other hand, the Orange + Free State asserted that it had acquired the greater part of the + country from the original Grikwa owners; and the northern part of + Diamondland was claimed by the Transvaal. This last claim was + submitted to the arbitration of the Lieutenant-Governor of Natal, + who awarded most of the diamond country to the Grikwa and Bechuana + chiefs. These latter had really become the men of straw hiding the + hand of the British Government. Finally, in 1871 Waterboer and + other Grikwa chiefs ceded their rights to the British Government, + who promptly erected the diamond country into a province under the + name of Grikwaland West. The Orange Free State protested, and no + doubt the action of the British Government was rather high-handed, + and in rare contrast to the abnegatory policy usually pursued. + Finally, the claims of the Orange Free State were settled by Lord + Carnarvon, who in 1876 awarded to its government the sum of + £90,000 in consideration of the abandonment of their contention. + + In 1845 Natal had been annexed to Cape Colony, but later on in the + same year it was given a separate administration, consisting of a + Lieutenant-Governor and an executive Council; though in legal + matters it still remained dependent on Cape Town. In 1848 a local + Legislative Council was created, and finally in 1856 the colony was + entirely severed from the Cape, and was endowed with a partially + representative government. Some years previously the Governor of + Cape Colony had been also created H.M. High Commissioner in South + Africa, so that he might have power to represent the British + Government outside the limits of Cape Colony. In this capacity + therefore he continued to retain some authority over the government + of Natal and its relations with the adjoining states. (The influence + of the High Commissioner now extends over all South and Central + Africa under the British flag, except, at present, the Protectorate + of Nyasaland; in other words, over Rhodesia, the South African + Union, Bechuanaland, Basutoland, and Swaziland.) The territory of + Natal was not capable for some time of any great extension, being + girt about with Boer states and negro tribes whose independence was + to some extent guaranteed by the Imperial Government. But in 1866 it + received back a small territory on the south (the county of Alfred), + which was within the original limits claimed by the founders of + Natal, but had been for a time handed over to a Pondo chief. The + settled government of Natal and the kindly attitude of the British + Colonial Government brought about the repeopling of that fertile + country by Kafir tribes. + + This “Garden of South Africa” had been almost depopulated by the + Zulu kings, who had slaughtered something like 1,000,000 natives + from first to last. Before the rise of the Zulu tribe, Natal or + “Embo[149]” had been a thickly populated country. Under white rule + the native immigration and population increased so rapidly that when + the colony was only nine years old it contained 113,000 Kafirs. The + white colonists were of mixed origin, about one-third being the + original Dutch settlers, while the remainder were either emigrants + from Great Britain, Cape Colonials, or Germans. The German families + mainly came from Bremen. At first the principal article of export + was ivory, obtained from Zululand, where elephants still rioted in + great numbers; but this was not to last long, for what with British + sportsmen and Dutch hunters and the introduction of firearms amongst + the natives, big game was rapidly exterminated. Then, during the + fifties, the sugar cane and the cotton plant were introduced[150], + the export of sugar rising in 1872 to an annual value of £154,000. + These semi-tropical plantations brought about a fresh want—that of + patient, cheap, agricultural labourers. Unhappily, the black man, + though so strong in body and so unaspiring in ideals, has as a rule + a strong objection to continuous agricultural labour. His own needs + are amply supplied by a few weeks’ tillage scattered throughout the + year; and even this is generally performed by the women of the + tribe, the men being free to fight, hunt, fish, tend cattle, and + loaf. Therefore, the 100,000 odd black men of Natal[151], though + they made useful domestic servants and police, were of but little + use in the plantations. As sugar cultivation was introduced from + Mauritius, so with this introduction came naturally the idea of + employing Indian kulis, already taking the place in the Mascarene + Islands which was formerly occupied by negro slaves. In 1860 the + first indentured kulis reached Natal from India, and by the end of + 1875 12,000 natives of British India were established in Natal. A + number of these had passed out of their indentures, and had become + free settlers and petty traders. Nowadays the Indian population of + Natal has risen to something like 142,000. From Natal these British + Indians have crept into the Transvaal, into the Orange Free State, + and even into Bechuanaland and Rhodesia. Many of them are employed + on the Natal railways, and in the towns they form a thriving class + of petty traders. Here and there they have mingled with the Kafirs, + producing a rather fine-looking hybrid, similar in appearance to the + black Portuguese on the Zambezi, who are descended from a cross + between natives of Goa, in Portuguese India, and Zambezi Negroes. + Added to the ordinary Kuli class are traders who belong partly to + Tamul and other Dravidian races of South India and partly to coast + tribes from Western India, mostly professing the Khoja faith. The + Khojas are in a far-off way Muhammadans. The inhabitants of Natal + have with great inaccuracy taken to calling these West Coast Indians + “Arabs.” + + This Indian element—already about 150,000 in number—is likely to + have its effect on the history of Natal. It is strongly unpopular + amongst the white colonists for selfish reasons. On the whole, it is + not unpopular among the blacks, but the idea of an eventual fusion + between Negro and Indian is not an agreeable one to contemplate from + the colonist’s point of view, as it would create a race strong both + mentally and physically, far outnumbering the whites, and likely to + make a dangerous struggle for supremacy. On the other hand, from the + Imperial point of view,—from what may be called the policy of the + Black, White, and Yellow—it seems unjust that the King-Emperor’s + Indian subjects should not be allowed to circulate as freely as + those of his lieges who can claim European descent. Perhaps on the + whole the solution which has been initiated in the British + protectorates north of the Zambezi is the best—namely, that Indian + immigration should be drawn rather to those countries which are + administered on the same lines as India, than to the temperate + regions south of the Zambezi, where the white man might be allowed + to expand without let or hindrance. + + The first railway worked in South Africa is said to have been a line + connecting the town of Durban with the landing-place of its harbour, + which was opened in 1860. But soon afterwards a railway began to + start northwards from Cape Town to Paarl; and this was directed, + with many zigzags and with a seeming aimlessness, towards the Karoo. + The discovery of the diamond fields gave railway extension an + objective, and Kimberley became the goal which was finally reached + in 1885[152]. In 1872 the Cape Government by Act of Parliament took + over the existing railways in Cape Colony, which then only consisted + of a total length of 64 miles. Soon afterwards an expenditure on + railway extension of £5,000,000 was authorized. In Natal a + Government railway was commenced in 1876 connecting Durban with the + capital, Pietermaritzburg. This line now traverses the Colony to the + Transvaal border and in another direction enters the Orange Free + State. + + The history of Natal has been comparatively peaceful and prosperous, + as compared with the weary Kafir warfare of the Eastern Province of + Cape Colony. But in 1873 the natives of Natal required a lesson. On + its north-western frontier the Hlubi refugees from Zululand had been + allowed to establish themselves under a chief of great importance, + Langalibalele. His young men had gone to work in the Diamond fields + of Kimberley, and had returned with guns, the introduction of which + into the colony without registration was prohibited. Langalibalele, + taking no notice of a summons to answer for this breach of the law, + fled into Basutoland. Fortunately the Basuto gave him no support, + and he was eventually captured and exiled for a time to Cape Colony. + But this outbreak called attention to the great increase of the + native population of Natal, and the unwisdom of allowing it any + longer to remain under the government of irresponsible Kafir chiefs. + Accordingly in 1875 Sir Garnet, afterwards Viscount, Wolseley was + sent to Natal to report on the native question, and initiated + changes which had the effect of bringing the natives more completely + under the control of the Executive, and approximating them more + towards the position of citizens of the colony. + + All this time diamonds had been attracting many emigrants to South + Africa, chiefly from Great Britain, but also from France and + Germany. Among these emigrants were numerous Jews[153] belonging to + all three nationalities, who were naturally attracted to the diamond + trade. The growing interest taken in South Africa owing to the + discovery of diamonds had not only tended to make the British + Government very particular as to the exact rights it possessed in + the vicinity of the Dutch republics, but also led it to revive its + claims to the south shore of Delagoa Bay. The Portuguese Government, + foreseeing this, had commenced to reassert its right to that harbour + in its boundary treaty with the Transvaal in 1869. In 1870-71 the + British Government raised its claim in the manner I have already + described in the chapter on Portuguese Africa. In 1872 Great Britain + agreed to submit the question at issue to the arbitration of Marshal + MacMahon, whose award, delivered in 1875, was wholly in favour of + the Portuguese. But Great Britain had already secured from Portugal + a promise, confirmed by a more recent convention, that she should be + allowed the right of pre-emption over Delagoa Bay[154]. During the + fifties and sixties missionaries and traders had pushed due north + across the Orange river, through Bechuanaland, to the Zambezi, and + westward to Lake Ngami and Damaraland. In the sixties a good deal of + trade was done in the last-mentioned country in ostrich feathers and + ivory; and the Damara, who should more properly be known as the + Ova-herero[155], came under European influence. Wars arising between + the Damara and the Hottentot Namakwa, and the complaints of the + German missionaries at work in these countries, brought about the + despatch of a commissioner (Mr W. C. Palgrave) to Damaraland by the + Cape Government. He reported in 1876 in favour of extending British + protection over Damaraland; but all that Downing Street would + concede was the annexation of Walfish Bay. (Twelve little islets off + the S. W. coast had been annexed in 1867, because they were leased + to a guano-collecting company.) A little later another commissioner + was despatched from the Cape to settle the intertribal quarrels + north of the Orange river, and a further recommendation was sent + home by the Governor; but Lord Kimberley, the new Colonial + Secretary, definitely forbade the extension of any British influence + over Namakwaland or Damaraland. In 1883 Germany directly questioned + England as to whether she laid claim to territory north of the + Orange river. An evasive reply was sent, in which delay was asked + for so that the Cape Government could be consulted. Eventually the + Germans were told that England laid claim to Walfish Bay and the + Guano Islands only, but that the intervention of another Power + between the Portuguese frontier and the Orange river would infringe + legitimate British rights. The inaction of the British Government on + this occasion seems in the present day, and by our modern lights, + inconceivable. Literally the only reason they had in not politely + declaring that South-West Africa was under British protection was + the remote dread that they would have to protect German missionaries + and traders. + + Yet not only Downing Street in the greater degree but the Cape + Government in the lesser was to blame for this inactivity. The Cape + Government at that time was directed by ministers who were much + under purely colonial influence, and who, discouraged by their + failure to administer Basutoland, had no very strong desire to spend + the money of the colony in annexing and administering a vast + territory mainly desert. Besides, the idea of Germany becoming a + colonial power was laughed at in those days in Government circles as + an impossibility. At length all doubts were ended by the declaration + of a German protectorate over South-West Africa in 1884. + + In 1882 measures were passed in the Cape Parliament which gave equal + rights throughout Cape Colony to the Dutch language. In the same + year the “Afrikander Bond” was established, an institution with the + avowed object of building up an Afrikander Dutch-speaking nation + which should eventually be independent of the British flag. Its + principal creators and supporters were Mr J. H. Hofmeyr of Cape + Town, Mr Borckenhager of the Orange State, and Mr Reitz of the + Transvaal. Measures for bringing about a federation of the British + and Dutch states had failed (as will be subsequently narrated), and + an annexation of the Transvaal had been reversed. British influence + in South Africa seemed on the wane and the Dutch element in the + ascendant. + + British missionaries during the thirties and forties had crossed the + Orange river and settled in Bechuanaland, a sterile plateau between + the Namakwa and Kalahari deserts on the one hand, and the relatively + well-watered regions of the Transvaal and Matebeleland on the other. + By 1851, British sportsmen, roving afield after big game, and the + great missionary-explorer Livingstone had reached the Zambezi, which + till then was only known from the sea upwards for about 500 miles + inland. Livingstone’s exploration of the Zambezi attracted the + attention of the British Government, which at that time was more + interested (from philanthropic motives) in acquiring territories in + Tropical Africa than in extending its influence over more valuable + regions enjoying a temperate climate. Livingstone was sent back as a + consul to the mouth of the Zambezi in 1858 with a well-equipped + expedition to explore Zambezia and discover the reported Lake Nyasa, + then known as Lake Maravi. For five years his expedition traversed + these countries, adding immensely to our geographical knowledge; but + its members suffered terribly from ill-health. Although the + Portuguese treated them with kindness and put no obstacle in their + way, still Portuguese political susceptibilities were aroused. For + this and other reasons, Livingstone was recalled, and his proposals + in regard to Lake Nyasa quashed. Nevertheless, the seed had been + sown, and produced a sparse crop of adventurers, elephant hunters, + missionaries and traders, who found their way to Nyasaland. + Livingstone himself resumed his explorations there (in 1866); and an + expedition, under Lieutenant Edward Young, R.N., which was sent to + obtain news of him (1868), kept the British in favourable + remembrance amongst the natives. Finally, Livingstone’s death + revived missionary enthusiasm; and two strong Scotch missions in + 1875-6 occupied the Shiré Highlands and the west coast of Lake + Nyasa, putting a steamer on that lake. Two years later the African + Lakes Trading Company sprang from missionary loins, and the + Universities’ Mission in 1881 advanced overland from Zanzibar to the + east shore of Lake Nyasa. + + In consequence of the increase of British interests in this quarter + the British Government decided to establish a consulate for Lake + Nyasa in 1883. Portuguese susceptibilities again became ruffled. + Although no attempt had ever been made by Portugal to establish + herself anywhere near Lake Nyasa, or even on the river Shiré, which + connects that lake with the Zambezi and the sea, it was felt in + Portugal that the growing British settlements in Nyasaland should be + made to contribute to the revenue of Portuguese East Africa; and + that, since through further extension they might force a way to the + coast, it would be better that they should be brought under + Portuguese control. Although the British Government was absolutely + determined if possible not to assume direct responsibilities in + Nyasaland, it was equally anxious that its subjects should be left a + free hand, and not be fettered by Portuguese control. Therefore an + attempt was made by Lord Granville (in the projected Congo Treaty of + 1884) to define the sphere of Portuguese influence on the Shiré, so + as to leave the greater part of that river and all Nyasaland outside + the Portuguese dominions. Had that Congo Treaty been ratified, there + would probably never have arisen the Nyasa Question with the + Portuguese. But it was not ratified, and therefore Portugal was + equally free with Great Britain to make the best use of her + opportunities, which she did by means of several expeditions in the + manner already described in Chapter IV. But nevertheless Nyasaland, + including the Shiré Highlands, was declared to be a British + Protectorate, based on treaties with native chiefs concluded by two + consuls, (Sir) H. H. Johnston and John Buchanan; and the former, + assisted by (Sir) Alfred Sharpe, further brought within the British + sphere of influence the rest of “British Central Africa” from the + central Zambezi to Lakes Tanganyika and Mweru and the frontier of + the Congo Independent State. To this sphere of influence was shortly + afterwards added the Barotse Kingdom, made known to us by Dr + Livingstone and by the French Protestant missionaries. Treaties with + Germany (1890) and Portugal (1891) having sanctioned these + acquisitions north of the Zambezi, the administration of the new + territory was divided between the Imperial Government—which decided + to control the more organized territories round Lake Nyasa—and the + newly-founded British South Africa Chartered Company. After 1895 the + Chartered Company assumed the direct administration of its North + Zambezian territories which are now known as Northern Rhodesia. + + Since 1890 much has been effected in developing and making known + these territories of British Central Africa, which are perhaps not + sufficiently healthy in all parts or void of an indigenous + population to permit of more than a restricted European + colonization, though they are already becoming of great value as + tropical “plantation” colonies and as mining districts, and will + support an abundant native population. During the seven years of the + existence of this British sphere north of the Zambezi the slave + trade had to be met and conquered. Numerous Arabs from Zanzibar had + established themselves in Nyasaland as sultans, and had + Muhammadanized some of the tribes and infused into them a dislike to + European domination. The countries west of Lake Nyasa were ravaged + by the Angoni, a people of more or less Zulu descent, the remains of + former Zulu invasions of Central Zambezia. In seven years, however, + these enemies were all subdued by means of Sikh soldiers lent by the + Indian Government, by the native levies that were drilled by the + Sikhs, and by five gunboats, which were placed on the Zambezi, the + Shiré, and on Lake Nyasa. The Right Hon. Cecil Rhodes began in 1893 + his great scheme of connecting Cape Town with Cairo by a telegraph + line. In five years he had at any rate connected Cape Town with + Tanganyika through British Central Africa. The Shiré Highlands and + much else of Nyasaland and Eastern Northern Rhodesia proved + moderately favourable to the cultivation of coffee (which was + originally introduced by Scottish missionaries and planters); but + the product which will probably make the fortune of this part of + Africa is cotton—as Livingstone predicted more than half a century + ago. These countries possess other valuable resources in tobacco, + maize, and timber, in minerals, and in ivory; and are well adapted + for the growth of certain kinds of rubber. Through the middle of + Northern Rhodesia the “Cape to Cairo” railway is now built with + several branch lines; and regions unmapped and unknown when the + first edition of this work was published are now familiar to many a + sightseer and tourist, brought within a few days’ railway journey + (across the Victoria Falls of the Zambezi) of Cape Town. The Shiré + Highlands are connected by a railway with the Lower Zambezi, a line + which will before long terminate at the port of Beira in South-East + Africa and be extended northwards to Lake Nyasa. Large towns have + sprung into existence in Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia; the native + population has nearly doubled in numbers since 1890; and “British + Central Africa” is well on the way to becoming one of the most + prosperous portions of the British Empire. + + During the 4th Earl of Carnarvon’s presence at the Colonial Office + between 1874 and 1878 that statesman endeavoured to repeat in South + Africa the success which had attended his consolidation of the North + American colonies into one confederated Dominion. He sent out the + historian Froude to represent him at the proposed conference of + South African states. Already, Sir George Grey had tried hard to + bring about this unification of South Africa under the British flag + during the fifties; and in 1858 had pressed strongly upon the + Imperial Parliament a scheme which would have well effected this + desired end. For his pains he was recalled and sharply reprimanded, + but, mainly owing to the influence of Queen Victoria, he was sent + back to his governorship, though he was not allowed to carry out the + far-reaching policy he had formulated. In Cape Colony the Federation + Commission was appointed in 1872. But the always present, more or + less bitter divergence of sympathies between the English and the + Dutch-speaking settlers—a discord constantly discernible in the + debates of the Cape Parliament—prevented any ripening of the + federation idea; and Lord Carnarvon’s commissioner, Mr J. A. Froude, + was snubbed for his pains by the Cape Dutch. Foiled in one + direction, Lord Carnarvon sought to effect his end in another way. + He sent out Sir Bartle Frere to be Governor and High Commissioner at + the Cape. He had been chosen by Lord Carnarvon six months before as + the statesman most capable of consolidating the South African + Empire; “within two years it was hoped that he would be the first + Governor-General of the South African Dominion.” The second step in + what seemed to Lord Carnarvon to be the right direction was the + annexation of the Transvaal. With this territory of about 120,000 + square miles in extent, in British hands, there would only remain + the Orange Free State as an obstacle to the unification of South + Africa. The Transvaal as an independent state had between 1853 and + 1877 come to grief. It was bankrupt, and it was powerless to subdue + the powerful native tribes within its borders, some of whom had real + wrongs to avenge. Moreover, it was threatened by Zulu invasion. It + was therefore annexed by the British Commissioner, Sir Theophilus + Shepstone, in the beginning of 1877. + + Unfortunately, Sir Bartle Frere’s administration, after two and a + half years of excellent work, was clouded by unmerited misfortune. + The Zulu power to the east of Natal had been growing threateningly + strong. At the beginning of the 19th century an obscure tribe of + Kafirs known as the Ama-zulu rose into prominence under a chief + named Chaka, who became a kind of negro Napoleon, and a bloodthirsty + slaughterer of all who stood in his way[156]. He and his chiefs + included in their conquests all modern Natal and Zululand, much of + the Transvaal and the Orange Free State, and Amatongaland up to + Delagoa Bay[157]. Chaka’s son, Dingane, though he most treacherously + attacked the Boers, was fairly friendly in his relations with the + British, and tolerated their establishment in Natal. In fact he + seems to have allowed them to reorganize the territory of Natal + which his father had almost depopulated. Owing to the founding of + the Transvaal Republic and the Orange River Sovereignty in addition + to the colony of Natal, the Zulus were henceforth shut up in a + relatively small tract of South-east Africa represented by modern + Zululand and Amatongaland; though the Amatonga were practically + another people. Dingane was succeeded by Panda, and Panda by + C̓echwayo (Cetewayo). The last-named chief perfected the system of a + standing army of well-drilled bachelors. Anxious to find an outlet + for his energies, he openly menaced the Transvaal, and was one of + the causes of British intervention in the affairs of that republic. + Shut off from this outlet, he seemed becoming dangerous; and, + thinking it best to prick the boil before it burst, Sir Bartle Frere + forced war on him by an ultimatum. The invasion of Zululand at the + outset was not very wisely conducted, and led to a terrible disaster + in which 800 British and over 400 native soldiers were cut to pieces + at Isandhlwana; and subsequently, through mismanagement, the Prince + Imperial of France, who had come out as a volunteer, was allowed to + stray into danger, and be killed by the Zulus. After a time, + however, Lord Chelmsford succeeded in completely conquering the + country, and C̓echwayo was taken prisoner. Although Sir Bartle Frere + was in no way answerable for these mistakes in a campaign which was + eventually successful, his prestige was dimmed; and as the Liberal + Government of 1880 was inclined to pursue a reactionary policy in + Africa, Sir Bartle Frere was recalled. + + The Boers, taking advantage of British discouragement and the change + of government in England, rose and demanded their independence. It + was refused by Mr Gladstone’s Administration, and troops were + hastily sent out to subdue them, with the results detailed in + Chapter VI. As to the after-history of Zululand, it may be briefly + summarized as follows. The Boers were allowed to add a large slice + of the country (“Vryheid” or the New Republic) to their reorganized + State. C̓echwayo was reinstated as king, but soon died. The country + was then divided into various native principalities; but Dinizulu, + C̓echwayo’s son, fomented an insurrection and was exiled to St + Helena. The country was then governed more or less as a British + protectorate by Sir Marshall Clarke and in connection with the + colony of Natal, the Governor of which was also made Governor of + Zululand. In 1897 Zululand was incorporated with the colony of + Natal. In 1887 British protection was extended over Amatongaland up + to the Portuguese boundary, and in 1895 this strip of coast + territory was taken under more direct administration. In 1902 the + Vryheid territory of northern Zululand was withdrawn from the + Transvaal and united once more with Zululand. + + As was related in Chapter VI, the Dutch South African Republic, soon + after recovering its independence, sought to invade and absorb + Bechuanaland; but the expedition under Sir Charles Warren (1884-5) + put an end to their hopes in that direction, and a clear path was + made for the British northwards to the Zambezi. In the early + seventies, explorations of men like Thomas Baines and Karl Mauch (a + German explorer) had revealed the existence of gold in the countries + between the Limpopo and the Zambezi, countries which had come under + the sway of a Zulu king, Lobengula, son of Umsilikazi[158]. Mr Cecil + John Rhodes, an Englishman who had brought about the consolidation + of the mines of Kimberley and had acquired great wealth and a + position of political importance at the Cape, had interested himself + firstly in the settlement of the Bechuana question with the Boers; + and when Bechuanaland had been declared a British protectorate, his + thoughts turned to the possibility of gold beyond; for the gold + discoveries in the Transvaal were beginning to make a golden South + Africa dawn on men’s imaginations. He despatched envoys to + Lobengula, and secured from him the right to mine. Other individuals + or syndicates had secured mining rights in that direction, but Mr + Rhodes with patience and fair dealing bought up or absorbed these + rights, and in 1888 began to think of obtaining a charter from the + Imperial Government which would enable the Company he intended + forming to govern South-Central Africa. At one time he seems to have + thought that the De Beers diamond mining company should receive this + charter and perform these functions; for, when he had framed the + articles of association of the De Beers shareholders, he had + inserted clauses enabling the Company to take up such an enterprise. + But there were many reasons why this would not have worked well; and + it was resolved to constitute an independent company to work + Lobengula’s concession first, and to create another South African + state afterwards. Already in 1888 the High Commissioner, Sir + Hercules Robinson, had somewhat reluctantly extended a vague form of + protection over Lobengula’s country; and it had been made clear to + Germany that Great Britain would not submit to be cut off from the + Zambezi. In the early summer of 1889 a charter was granted to the + British South Africa Company, of which Mr Rhodes became and remained + the practical administrator. Mr Rhodes’ ambitions then crossed the + Zambezi, and he co-operated with Sir Harry Johnston in establishing + British influence up to Tanganyika. For several years his Company + afforded a subsidy to the administration of the British Central + Africa Protectorate as well as to the territories under the + Chartered Company’s own control. The African Lakes Trading + Company[159] was given financial support, and enabled to extend its + operations to Tanganyika. + + In 1891 Mr Rhodes commenced the organization of the East coast route + from Mashonaland to the sea, and he and his friends practically + subscribed the capital for the Beira Railway. Fort Salisbury and + other settlements in Mashonaland and on the east of Matebeleland + were founded between 1891 and 1893. In the last-named year the + Matebele made an entirely unprovoked attack on the Company’s forces, + but a counter-invasion, most ably directed by Dr (afterwards Sir + Starr) Jameson, achieved a complete victory over the Matebele. King + Lobengula fled, and died soon after he had crossed the Zambezi. His + capital, Buluwayo, became the administrative capital of the + Company’s possessions, to which the inclusive name of Rhodesia + (Northern and Southern) was subsequently given. The development of + Rhodesia proceeded apace. Mr Rhodes had since 1890 been Premier of + Cape Colony; he was high in favour with the Dutch Party in South + Africa; and he was fast becoming the actual, if not nominal Dictator + of Africa, south of the Zambezi, when he made the fatal mistake of + organizing a raid into the Transvaal (see page 287). + + In the general disturbance which followed, the government of + Southern Rhodesia became disorganized by a revolt of the Matebele in + the spring of 1896. They were soon joined by their former slaves, + the Mashona. The revolt was suppressed partly by hard fighting, and + partly by direct negotiation between Mr Rhodes and the Matebele + chiefs, Rhodes and a few companions going unarmed to meet the + _induna_ in the Matopo hills. But the Mashona continued fighting + until 1897. Rhodes did much to atone for his one mistake by the + enormous pecuniary sacrifices he made in pushing on the railways + from Southern Rhodesia to Beira and the Zambezi, and in constructing + the telegraph line from Mafeking to Tanganyika. There were signs + that he was recovering to a considerable extent his influence in + Cape Colony, and that he might yet play a great part in South + Africa; but the terrible events of the great South African War of + 1899-1902 interrupted the great work of development on which he had + set his heart and ultimately caused his death. + + In British South Africa momentous events took place after the summer + of 1899. The trouble engendered between the British and Boers in + South Africa by the policy of Paul Kruger and the Jameson Raid + culminated in the great South African War of 1899-1902. As these + episodes recede into history it has become clear to most seekers + after truth that the Jameson Raid was brought about by the following + trend of circumstances. Ever since 1884 there had been a revulsion + of feeling on the part of even Liberal and liberal-minded + politicians in Great Britain against the Boers of South Africa. Mr + Gladstone’s restoration of their independence after the brief + struggle of 1881 was esteemed a generous act. It gave the Boers of + the Transvaal an opportunity to show what they could do in wise + self-government under but the slightest control of their foreign + relations by Great Britain. Three years afterwards the Boers of the + Transvaal, in spite of treaty and other obligations, were invading + Bechuanaland and attempting to cut off the British colonies to the + south from any advance towards the Zambezi. It then began to be + realized by the British public that the Boers, besides fighting very + legitimately for their own independence in the Transvaal territory + as well as in the Orange Free State, were aiming at something much + greater—a domination over the whole of Africa south of the Zambezi. + Both Liberal and Conservative administrations set themselves to + resist this movement. At the close of the eighties Cecil Rhodes + arose as an advocate for union between Boer and Briton in the common + interests of the white man in South Africa. For a time he secured + the suffrages of both; but the gold-mining industry became more and + more powerful in the Transvaal and found the rule of a Boer + Government irksome and obstructive. The mining industry set itself + to influence public opinion in Britain and to organize in South + Africa a movement against Boer independence. President Kruger played + into the hands of the mining magnates by occasional breaches of his + agreements with Britain. Among these was the famous “Drifts” + question, by which Kruger in the summer of 1895 attempted to close + access to the Transvaal from the rest of South Africa by any other + routes than those of the Netherlands Railway, which was a privileged + corporation. Mr Joseph Chamberlain, who had become Secretary of + State for the Colonies in 1895, took up this question with vigour + and found himself fully supported by the Dutch colonists in Cape + Colony and Natal. It seemed as though there was to be war with the + Transvaal, in which case, on this question of the Drifts, Great + Britain would have been thoroughly supported by her Dutch-speaking + subjects in South Africa. As part of the plan of campaign conceived + in the case of war, was a movement from the British South Africa + Company’s territory through Bechuanaland into the western and + northern parts of the Transvaal; this in fact was the germ of the + Jameson Raid. + + Kruger gave way on the subject of the Drifts when he saw how united + was the rest of South Africa against him; and it seemed to persons + in authority in Great Britain as well as in South Africa that the + great opportunity for solving the Boer question in South Africa had + gone by. Insufficient measures were taken, or no measures at all + were taken, to restrain the preparations of Dr Jameson (the + Administrator of Rhodesia) for a descent on the Transvaal. + Consequently the Jameson Raid took place—a most unfortunate + occurrence, since it put Great Britain entirely in the wrong on a + question where otherwise she could plead legitimate griefs and + annoyances. + + Sir Alfred (afterwards Viscount) Milner had been appointed in 1897 + to succeed Lord Rosmead (Sir Hercules Robinson) as Governor of Cape + Colony and High Commissioner of South Africa. Attempts were made + between 1897 and the spring of 1899 to solve the South African + problem peacefully by inducing the Boer Government of the South + African Republic to grant the franchise to the “Outlanders” + (foreigners) after a term of residence of a few years’ duration; but + Kruger would accept no sufficiently short term to enfranchise those + most agitating for a voice in the Transvaal administration. But the + war that broke out in October 1899 was due immediately to an + ultimatum from the Transvaal Government requiring Great Britain to + cease any preparations for offence or defence on the Transvaal + frontiers. The Orange Free State immediately made common cause with + the Boers of the South African Republic, and a Boer invasion of + Natal took place, to be followed by similar invasions of the eastern + part of Cape Colony. The British were taken unprepared. Disaster + followed disaster. Had the Boer leaders been wider in their + knowledge and more daring, they might have taken possession of Natal + and have gone far to wreck the British Empire in South Africa. But + they delayed over the siege of Ladysmith, ably defended by Sir + George White. British reinforcements on a large scale were sent to + South Africa under the leadership of Lord (afterwards Earl) Roberts + and Lord Kitchener. The British marched through the Orange Free + State to Bloemfontein and Pretoria, and the Boers were finally + expelled from Natal and Bechuanaland. It seemed as though, by the + summer of 1900, the war was at an end; but after the flight of + President Kruger, Boer activities revived in such a marvellous way + that the world wondered at the tenacity of the struggle, and for + nearly two years longer the Boer forces held out against the + British, and made an effective occupation of the Orange Free State + and the Transvaal impossible. The Boers in their turn, however, were + worn out by the persistency of Viscount Kitchener and his ‘sweeping’ + movements. In the summer of 1902 the Boer leaders asked for peace, + and obtained it on terms highly honourable to themselves. + + Cecil John Rhodes, the promoter of so much that was adventurous and + history-making in British South Africa, died in March, 1902, the + immediate cause of his death being, not political heart-break + (though that was the cause of his weakened constitution), but + vexation resulting from a law-suit affecting his private affairs. Dr + Jameson, however, recovered from the check to his career which + followed his unsuccessful raid. He set himself in a spirit of + moderation and tolerance to grapple with the local questions and + general interests of Cape Colony, of which country he became Premier + in 1904, remaining for four years afterwards at the head of the Cape + Ministry. In 1908-9 he was one of the representatives who discussed + and settled the conditions of the South African Union. In 1911 he + was knighted as Sir Starr Jameson, and in 1912 he retired from South + African politics. President Kruger died in Holland in July 1904. In + the same year his political opponent, Lord Milner—whose seven years’ + work in South Africa, though it inspired many fierce contentions, + yet cut through several Gordian knots—retired from the control of + South African affairs to enter political life at home. + + But the prosperity of South Africa did not at once revive with the + conclusion of peace in 1902. It was found that the devastations of + the three years’ war had reduced much of the Orange Free State, the + eastern parts of Cape Colony, and above all, of the Transvaal to a + desert, and time was required to repair the ravages to crops and + agriculture and bring about the re-establishment of homes. So many + of the inhabitants—Boers and Britons alike—had drifted towards the + towns and there found it hard to maintain themselves under the + extravagant cost of living; which seems to be at present an + irremediable evil in South Africa, due to unwise fiscal laws, + shipping combines, and railway rates. It was hoped that prosperity + would return so soon as mining operations on the Rand could be + resumed. But the local supply of unskilled labour proved to be + insufficient for the enormous development of mining enterprise + projected by individuals and companies. The labour problem is not + yet completely solved. Some propose to meet it by drafts on the + abundant negro population north of the Zambezi, these labourers + being conveyed to and from South Africa under proper guarantees. + Others urge the throwing open of the land and the mines to white + labour, so as to increase the European population of temperate South + Africa. Many reasons have been put forward to combat the + practicability of each scheme, either the increase of the black + labour supply or the introduction of the white man in considerable + numbers. Those in power in the period 1904-6 preferred to redress + the balance by the importation under special restrictions of the + Chinaman. This step was adversely criticized by the Liberal party in + Great Britain, not because that party was inclined to deny that a + share of African development might be allowed to the Asiatic, but on + the ground that the conditions under which the indentured Chinamen + were to serve in the South African mines were not only opposed to + British ideas of freedom but were detrimental to health and + morality. Their anticipations of the bad results which might accrue + from the employment of Chinese labourers in compounds were + fulfilled; and in 1906-8 the Chinese were gradually repatriated from + the Rand (as the mining area of the Southern Transvaal is called). + The great question of the participation of the Asiatic in the + development of South Africa and East Africa depends on the + determination of the white man and the black man to be + self-sufficing for the development respectively of the tropical and + temperate districts of that continent. The black man must be less + lazy and the white man likewise, as well as less proud, if both + together are to be justified in denying to the yellow man a share of + the Dark Continent, either as a settler or a merchant. It is + interesting, however, to note that the white population of Cape + Colony showed a considerable increase between 1891 and 1904. In 1891 + the population of European descent numbered 366,608. In 1904 it was + stated at 579,741. In the Transvaal the white population rose to + 300,225; in Natal to 97,109; in the Orange Free State to 143,419; in + Rhodesia to 12,623; and in Basuto- and Bechuanaland to 1899. In + British South Africa the coloured (mainly negro) population was + nearly 5,500,000. In 1912, the total white population in British + Africa, south of the Zambezi, was about 1,306,400, and the negro and + negroid about 5,800,000. There were also about 192,000 Asiatics, + chiefly in Natal; and these Asiatics consisted mainly of natives of + Southern India (some 172,000), together with 15,000 Malays in Cape + Colony, a few Chinese, Japanese, Arabs, and Syrians. North of the + Zambezi, in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, there are about 2200 + whites, 1000 Asiatics and nearly 2,000,000 negroes: a total + population of about 9,300,000. The area of all British South and + South Central Africa (including Walfish Bay and the islets off the + south-west coast) is 1,148,619 square miles, extending from the + frontiers of Angola and the Belgian Congo, Tanganyika and German + East Africa to the coasts of Cape Colony and Natal—an Empire which + is barely 100 years old, and which began in 1814[160] with an area + of 125,000 square miles, with a population of about 150,000, of whom + some 26,000 were whites and the remainder Negroes, Hottentots, + half-breeds, and Malays. + + On May 31, 1902, the Peace of Vereeniging had brought the + fratricidal South African war to a conclusion. Only four years + afterwards the Liberal administration in Great Britain tried the + bold experiment of granting responsible government to the Transvaal + State by passing an act to that effect which came into force on + January 1st, 1907. In the following year similar powers of + self-government were bestowed on the Orange Free State (as it was + eventually re-named). These concessions to the sturdy nationalism of + the Boers were intended to pave the way for that long desired Union + of South Africa. Negotiations were conducted between the statesmen + of Cape Colony, Natal, the Orange Free State, and the Transvaal, + which resulted in 1909 in an agreement and an Act of Union. This Act + was ratified by the British Parliament and received the sanction of + King Edward VII (who ever since his coming to the throne had striven + earnestly to bring about peace in South Africa) on September 21, + 1909. The Union of South Africa includes under one, central, South + African Parliament at Pretoria, and one Governor-General, the states + of Cape Colony (with British Bechuanaland and Walfish Bay), Natal, + the Orange Free State, and the Transvaal. The native states of + Basutoland, Swaziland, and Bechuanaland, and the territories of + Southern and Northern Rhodesia and the Nyasaland Protectorate remain + outside the Union for a variety of reasons most of which may not + have a permanent value. But one of these reasons is the distrust + which is felt in Great Britain as to the ability and fair-mindedness + of the white population to act as the governors of the states above + mentioned in which the negro population very greatly preponderates + over the white, or which, as in Basutoland, Bechuanaland and + Swaziland, have been more or less reserved for negro colonization + and expansion. Cape Colony, it is true, has a negro population of + nearly 1,700,000, contented and admirably governed for the most + part, possessing a large proportion of the good land, and holding + the franchise to the Cape Legislature on the same terms as white + men. But the liberal-minded Cape Colony, in which one scarcely ever + hears of native troubles or “Black perils,” is only one of the + states composing the Union; and the others, notably the Transvaal, + have shown themselves—the Transvaal still keeps up this evil + reputation—unfair and harsh in their treatment of the black man. + When the provisions of the Act of Union were laid before the British + Parliament they were found to exclude any man of colour from the + franchise[161]. British ministers expressed regret at this + illiberality, but passed the measure to end strife in other + directions. Nevertheless the “Native question” will long continue to + bar the way to a Greater South Africa, a vast confederation which + shall extend from the Belgian Congo to the Southern Ocean. It is a + question that is very complex, and one from which sentimentality, + rash legislation, arbitrary pronouncements, and race prejudice must + be carefully excluded. Had it been dealt with by far-sighted men + like Sir George Grey in earlier times when the foundations of + British South Africa were being laid, many causes of future trouble + might have been eliminated. For instance some other solution of the + Basuto claims might have been found than the handing over (fifty + years ago) to the Basuto negroes 11,000 square miles of the finest + mountain country of South Africa, a region intended by nature to + have been the Empire state of that region. Basutoland is a beautiful + mountain country, well watered, with fertile valleys and + snow-crowned peaks. Owing to its cold climate it was rather shunned + by the South African negroes until the ancestors of the Basuto were + driven thither in the early 19th century to take refuge from the + raiding Zulus. Had we offered the original ten to twenty thousand + Basutos good locations on fertile land at lower levels when we first + intervened to save them from Boer attacks (the Boers having + intervened earlier still to save them from the Zulu hordes) they + would have accepted. Now they are a well-armed people of nearly half + a-million, no longer grateful to the white man, but the possible + nucleus of a Black confederation. Their influence can only be stayed + by the fair treatment of the Black man outside Basutoland, by the + policy of Cape Town and not that of Johannesburg. The contentment of + and the hold which education is getting over the million and a half + of Kafirs in Cape Colony are valuable counter-agents to Basuto + presumption and ambition, and a proof that our oldest colony in + South Africa possesses statecraft. + + After dealing with such striking events, such potent personages and + vast territories, it is rather an anti-climax to have to treat of + the little island of Mauritius, which is not as large as the county + of Surrey, and which, except under its first Governor, Sir Robert + Farquhar (who tried from this vantage ground to annex Madagascar), + has had no stirring connection with events of great importance. + Mauritius was taken by the British from the French in 1810. The + French had known it by the name of Île de France, but the British + revived the older Dutch name of Mauritius. The French had introduced + the sugar cane and other valuable plants; and these plantations were + half-heartedly cultivated by means of slave labour until the slave + trade was abolished. Then, in the fifties, Indian kuli labour was + introduced with great success; and now the inhabitants of Indian + descent in the colony number nearly 40,000, while Indian half-breeds + are also numerous. The total population in 1912 was about 370,500. + The negro, negroid and Malagasy element was important—over 50,000. + Deducting the Asiatics (20,000, mainly Indian, a few Chinese and + Arabs) there remain about 120,000 white and 160,000 half-castes and + Eurasians. The European population is almost entirely of French + descent; and the marked French sympathies of the white inhabitants + have sometimes caused a dissonance between the Governor and the + governed, though ample concessions have been made to the Mauritians + by the equal recognition afforded to French laws and the French + language. Nevertheless, in spite of these political questions, and + the occasional hurricanes which visit the island with disaster, it + is a prosperous colony in ordinary years (doing a trade with an + annual value of about £5,000,000), and only has to appeal to the + Treasury of Great Britain for assistance on such rare occasions as + when unusually great damage has been done by cyclones. + + Numerous small islands in the Indian Ocean are dependent on the + Government of Mauritius. All had much the same history—discovered by + Portugal, they were eventually utilized by France, and finally + captured and annexed by England. The most important among these + Mauritian dependencies are the Island of Rodriguez, and the Oil + Islands Group (Diego Garcia). The Seychelles were formerly + associated with Mauritius, but since 1897 have been an independent + colony under a full Governor. They consist of 90 small islands in + the Seychelles group, the Almirante, Aldabra, Cosmoledo, and other + tiny archipelagoes; the total land area being only 160 square miles, + with a population white and coloured of 26,000. The Seychelles were + taken possession of by the French in 1743. Prior to that date they + were uninhabited, though there are on them the traces of ancient + habitation which may represent the halting places of Malagasy + sea-wanderers on their way from Sumatra to Madagascar. Their name of + Seychelles is a misspelling of “de Séchelles,” the surname of a + French minister of finance in 1756. The British fleet captured the + principal island (Mahé) in 1794, but allowed the French Governor to + continue to rule the islands until 1810, when they were taken + possession of definitely; partly for the reason that the French in + Mauritius and Réunion had abused the tolerance shown to them, by + directing constant privateering attacks on British shipping. It was + in Mauritius that one of the noblest heroes of British colonial + pioneering—Matthew Flinders, of the Royal Navy—was imprisoned for + six years, eating his heart out, losing all the advantages he might + have gained from his truly wonderful circumnavigating survey of the + Australian coasts[162]. To remove from the French all possible base + of operations in the Indian Ocean, Bourbon (Réunion), an island + slightly larger than Mauritius, and the most southern member of the + Mascarene group, was also occupied by the British, who on this + occupation and that of Mauritius, of Tamatave and other points on + the coast of Madagascar, founded claims to a protectorate over the + large island of Madagascar, as will be related in greater detail in + a later chapter. Bourbon, however, was restored to the French in + 1816 and renamed at a later date Réunion. + +----- + +Footnote 141: + + As against an area for all British South Africa up to the Congo + boundary of 1,152,619 square miles in 1912; all of which has grown + from the Cape Colony of 125,000 square miles annexed in 1806. + +Footnote 142: + + X̓osa is pronounced with a preliminary click of the tongue like a + cluck to encourage horses. + +Footnote 143: + + The Negro and Malay slaves then numbered in all about 39,000. + +Footnote 144: + + He was at that time Sir Charles Grant, and a member of the great + Reform ministry. His action in the matter was prompted by a + mischievous personality, a Dr Philip, representative of a + missionary society in South Africa, who conceived a great and + unjust hatred of the Boers, and an affection for the negro + invaders of Cape Colony, which was exaggerated and unreasonable. + Much may be learnt of his attitude towards public questions in my + _Life of Livingstone_ (1891). + +Footnote 145: + + “Grikwa” was the cant name (Gri-kwa) given to the half-castes + between Boers and Hottentots. + +Footnote 146: + + The Fingo—properly Amamfengu—Kafirs, were mostly fugitives into + Cape Colony from Natal, sent flying westward from the Zulu + slaughter-raids of Chaka and others. + +Footnote 147: + + Discovered by the Portuguese in 1502, its existence was kept + secret by them until 1588, when Captain Cavendish returning from a + cruise round the world suddenly lighted on it. The Dutch twice + seized it and held it each time for a few months in 1665 and 1673. + In this last year it was definitely allotted to the East India + Company. + +Footnote 148: + + The largest of a little group of islets in the South Atlantic, + about 1260 miles west of the Cape of Good Hope. Tristan D’Acunha + has an area of about 45 square miles, and is extremely + mountainous, rising to 8264 feet. + +Footnote 149: + + Or “Land of the Abambo,” the name of one of the original Bantu + tribes of the country. The root _-mbo_ is very common as a tribal + name among the Bantu, and occurs repeatedly in Central Africa. + +Footnote 150: + + To which were added in later years tea (a great success) and + coffee—the latter subsequently destroyed by the Ceylon coffee + disease. + +Footnote 151: + + Nov, 1912, nearly 1,000,000. + +Footnote 152: + + Twelve years later the northern railway line had traversed British + Bechuanaland and had reached Buluwayo. It attained the Zambezi in + 1903, and now enters the Belgian Congo in Katanga. + +Footnote 153: + + The Jews, as we have seen, played a considerable part in the + development of North Africa since the 1st century of the Christian + era. They have similarly had much to do with the progress of South + Africa. Between 1840 and 1860 important Jewish houses of business + were established in Cape Town and Port Elizabeth. Noteworthy + amongst these firms was that of the De Pass brothers. The De Pass + family specially concerned itself with the acquisition and + development of the guano islets off what is now the coast of + German South-West Africa. They developed the copper mining + industry of Port Nolloth, were the first to manufacture ice in + South Africa, and started the sugar planting in Natal. The firm of + Mosenthal, of the Eastern province of Cape Colony, did much to + promote agriculture and stock-rearing, the introduction of the + Angora Mohair goat, ostrich farming, sheep and cattle breeding. + Other South African Jews who have taken a prominent part in + science, in the legal profession, in political, philanthropic, + industrial, and mining affairs have been the Hon. Simeon Jacobs (a + Judge of the Supreme Court), the Mendelssohns, Rapaports, + Rabinowitzes, Solomons, Lilienfelds, Kisches, Neumanns, Moselys; + Alfred Beit, Sir David Harris, Sir Lionel Phillips, and Sir George + Albu. + +Footnote 154: + + To which was added later, over all Portuguese Africa south of the + Zambezi. + +Footnote 155: + + Damara is the Hottentot name applied to these black Bantu negroes, + who call themselves Ova-herero, Ova-mbo, etc. + +Footnote 156: + + Dingiswayo (the “Wanderer”), a Zulu of the Abatetwa clan, may + perhaps be regarded as the founder of Zulu power. All this portion + of South African history is described in some detail in my + _History and Description of the British Empire in Africa_. + +Footnote 157: + + Driven out of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal by the + action of Boers, British, and Basuto, a section of the Zulus + conquered much of Portuguese South-East Africa, with nearly all + modern Rhodesia, and carried their raids past Nyasa and Tanganyika + to the vicinity of the Victoria Nyanza. + +Footnote 158: + + A rebellious general of Chaka’s, often known by his Sesuto name, + “Moselekatse.” + +Footnote 159: + + The African Lakes Trading Corporation (as it is now called) was + founded mainly by the energies of the brothers John and Frederick + Moir (sons of an Edinburgh doctor) about 1878, as an adjunct to + the missionary enterprise in the Shire Highlands. In course of + time they established trading stations on Lake Nyasa, and cut a + track or rough road over mountains and forest from the north-west + corner of Lake Nyasa to the south end of Tanganyika, conveying + over this “Stevenson Road” (so called because a Mr James + Stevenson, a director of the Company, provided the cost of this + undertaking) a little steamer in sections for the London + Missionary Society. This steamer, the _Good News_, was the first + to navigate the waters of Tanganyika. The African Lakes Company, + being established at the north end of Lake Nyasa, inevitably came + into contact with the slave-trading Arabs who had settled there + about ten years before. In 1887 the agents of the Company + intervened to protect natives from being raided by the Arabs. The + Arabs retorted by attacking the white men. Volunteers hastened to + their relief from several quarters. Amongst these were two men + afterwards to become famous as African governors—Sir Frederick + Lugard and Sir Alfred Sharpe. But the Arab question was not + definitely settled until the Protectorate had been established for + four years (1895). The African Lakes Corporation certainly did the + pioneer work of British trade in South Central Africa. + +Footnote 160: + + The cession of Cape Colony from Holland to Britain took place on + August 13, 1814. + +Footnote 161: + + The franchise is limited to men of European race and descent only; + while women are not granted the parliamentary vote, as is the case + in Australia; New Zealand; California, Colorado, Wyoming, and + three other states of the American Union; the Isle of Man; + Finland; and Norway. In these points, the framers of the Act of + Union have shown the unprogressive spirit characteristic of the S. + African Dutch. + +Footnote 162: + + He reached England in 1811 but was treated there with a neglect + and ingratitude by the British Government which will long remain a + scandal in our Imperial History, and for which as yet no public + reparation has been made. His only descendant is Prof. + Flinders-Petrie, the Egyptologist. + + + + + CHAPTER XII + + GREAT EXPLORERS + + + The colonization of Africa in all its earlier stages is so closely + akin to exploration, that in several of the preceding chapters I + have seemed to deal rather with geographical discoveries than with + political settlement. But as there is much exploring work which has + not been directly connected with colonization (just as all + missionary work has not resulted in the foundation of European + states in Africa, nor have measures for the suppression of the slave + trade invariably been followed by annexation) I think it better to + devote a chapter to the enumeration of great explorers whose work + has proved to be an indirect cause of the ultimate European control + now established over nearly all Africa. + + The first explorers known to history, though not, unfortunately, + mentioned by name, were those Phoenicians despatched by the Egyptian + Pharaoh, Niku II (son of Psammetik), about 600 (603-599) B.C. to + circumnavigate Africa. We receive our knowledge of them through + Herodotos, who derived his information from Egypt; but the account + given of the voyage bears the stamp of veracity and probability, and + seemed to be confirmed by some remarkable inscriptions on scarabs + discovered by French explorers of Egyptian monuments. These, + however, have been declared to be forgeries[163]. + + Cambyses, the Persian king who invaded Egypt in 525 B.C., is said to + have lost his life in endeavouring to trace the course of the Nile, + he and his army having disappeared in the deserts of Upper Nubia. + About 520 B.C. Hanno the Carthaginian, as already related in Chapter + II, conducted an expedition round the West coast of Africa, which + penetrated about as far south as the confines of Liberia. + + The Greek Herodotos journeyed in Egypt and in the Cyrenaica about + 450 B.C. Eratosthenes, a Greek, born at Kurene in 276 B.C., became + the librarian of one of the Ptolemies at Alexandria, and, although + he derived much of his information about the valley of the Nile from + other travellers, still he conducted a certain amount of exploration + himself. Polybius, a Greek, born in 204 B.C., explored much of the + North coast of Africa in the service of the Romans about 140 years + before the Christian Era. + + The celebrated Strabo flourished during the reign of Augustus Cæsar, + and wrote a great work on geography about the year 19 A.C. He + accompanied the Roman governor Ælius Gallus on a journey up the Nile + as far as Philæ, though his knowledge of the Cyrenaica was limited + to a voyage along the coast. Nero sent two centurions (according to + Pliny) with orders to ascend the Nile and discover its course. + Thanks to recommendations from the king of Ethiopia, they were + passed on from tribe to tribe, and apparently ascended the Nile as + far as its junction with the Sobat, where they were stopped by + immense masses of floating vegetation (the _sudd_). + + Though Pliny the Elder[164] does not appear to have visited Africa, + or at any rate to have carried his explorations farther than a trip + to Alexandria and visits to the ports along the Barbary coast, he + nevertheless did much to collect and edit the geographical knowledge + of the day; and has thus transmitted to our knowledge the slender + information which the Romans possessed of interior Africa during the + early years of the Empire. Pliny is remarkable for having handed + down to us the first mention of the Niger, which he calls Nigir or + Nigris and somewhat confounds with the humbler river Draa to the + south of Morocco. + + About the middle of the second century of the Christian Era there + flourished in Egypt the famous geographer called Claudius Ptolemæus, + better known to us as ‘Ptolemy.’ Though he also was mainly a + compiler and owed much of his information to the works on geography + published by his predecessor or contemporary, Marinus of Tyre, yet + it seems probable that he travelled up the Nile for a certain + distance, and visited the African coasts along the Red Sea and the + Mediterranean. At any rate he published the most extended account of + African geography given by any classical writer. His accounts of the + Nile lakes, of the East African coast and of the Sahara Desert are + the nearest approach to actuality of any geographer before the + Muhammadan epoch. + + With the decline of the Roman Empire came a cessation of + geographical exploration, and there was no revival until the + Muhammadan invaders of Africa had attained sufficient civilization + to record their journeys and observations. Masudi and Ibn Haukal in + the 10th century, and other Arab travellers whose wanderings have + not been recorded, furnished from their journeys information + embodied in the map of Idris or Edrisi drawn up by a Sicilian + Muhammadan geographer for Count Robert of Sicily in the 12th + century. By these journeys the first definite and reliable + information about the geography of Africa south of the Sahara, and + along the East coast to Zanzibar and Sofala was brought to European + knowledge. Ibn Batuta, a native of Morocco, in the 14th + century[165], and Leo Africanus (a Spanish Moor who afterwards + turned Christian), in the 16th century, reached the Niger and the + regions round Lake Chad. The geographical enterprise of the Moors + communicated itself to their conquerors, the Portuguese. Besides + their great navigators, the Portuguese sent out overland explorers, + the first, named João Fernandez, having in 1445 explored the Sahara + Desert inland from the Rio d’Ouro. It is stated that Pero d’Evora + and Gonçalvez Eannes actually travelled overland in 1487 from + Senegambia to Timbuktu; but doubt has been thrown on their having + reached this distant city; they may possibly have got as far as + Jenné. Much more real and important were the explorations of Pero de + Covilhão; who travelled in Sofala and reached Abyssinia in 1490 on + his return from India, and remained in that country for the rest of + his life. Passing over Francisco Barreto, who explored Zambezia more + for immediate political purposes in 1569 and subsequent years, we + may next note the exploration of a Portuguese gentleman named Jaspar + Bocarro, who in 1616 made a journey overland from the central + Zambezi, across the river Shiré, near Lake Nyasa and the Ruvuma + river, and thence to the east coast at Mikindani. From Mikindani he + continued his journey to Malindi by sea. In 1613-18 two Portuguese + Jesuit missionaries, Pedro Paez and Jeronimo Lobo, explored + Abyssinia, even far to the south. Paez visited the source of the + Blue Nile, and Lobo directed his travels to the quasi-Christian + states to the south of Abyssinia. In 1622, Lobo and other Portuguese + missionaries attempted to enter Abyssinia by way of Zeila + (Somaliland). They met with great misfortunes and much cruelty at + the hands of the Somalis and the Egyptian Turks. Six missionaries + died or were murdered. Lobo found his way from Mombasa to India, + and, nothing daunted, returned to the Danákil coast in 1625 and + landed at Bailul, opposite Mokha. His clothes tattered and his feet + bleeding, he passed through the rough Danákil country, climbed the + Abyssinian mountains, and reached the Jesuit mission centre at + Fremona, near Axum. He then made a really remarkable exploration of + Abyssinia, and visited the source of the Blue Nile; but the jealous + Abyssinians expelled him and the other Jesuits from Abyssinia in + 1633 by handing them over as prisoners to the Turks at Masawa[166]. + It was thanks to the travels of Paez and Lobo that Abyssinian + geography became so well known in Europe when all the rest of + interior Africa was a blank. Numbers of unnamed, unremembered + Portuguese soldiers and missionaries must have plunged into the + interior of Africa between 1445 and the end of the 17th century, + bringing back jumbled information of lakes and rivers and negro + states; but their information has perished—except in an indirect + form—and their names are lost to history. + + In 1588 Andrew Battel, a fisherman of Leigh in Essex, was wrecked on + the coast of Brazil, seized by the Indians as a “pirate,” and handed + over to the Portuguese at Rio de Janeiro. The Portuguese decided to + deport him to Angola. The vessel in which he travelled reached + Benguela at a time when it was being ravaged by the predatory + “Jagas[167].” The Portuguese being obliged to leave a hostage with + the Jagas, left Battel behind; and in the company of these wild + people he seems to have traversed much of the Congo country behind + Angola and Loango before he eventually reached the coast again + (north of the Congo) near a Portuguese fort, where he was allowed by + the Jagas to leave them and whence the Portuguese permitted him to + return to England in 1607. He appears to have roamed over South-West + Africa for nearly 18 years, and he brought back with him fairly + truthful accounts of the pygmy races, the anthropoid apes, and some + of the big game which penetrates the interior of Benguela from the + south. + + At the commencement of the 17th century, William Lithgow, a Scottish + traveller, visited Tunis and Algeria. In 1618 the London Company of + Adventurers despatched George Thompson, who had already travelled in + Barbary, to explore the river Gambia. During his absence up the + river the ship by which he had come from England was seized and the + crew murdered by Portuguese and half-caste slave traders, who + resented this invasion of their special domain. Thompson managed to + send back word of his difficulties, and the Company of Adventurers + despatched another small ship. After sending her back with letters, + Thompson continued his journeys for a distance of about 80 miles + above the mouth of the Gambia. Thompson, however, lost his head, + became fantastic in his notions, and is supposed to have been killed + by his own English seamen, who afterwards boldly walked to the + Senegal coast and were sent home in a Dutch ship. A third vessel + sailed from London, commanded by Richard Jobson, to enquire after + Thompson’s fate. Jobson’s first voyage, though he reached the point + where Thompson had disappeared, was not very successful. On his + return from Gravesend with two ships in 1620, he sailed up the + Gambia to a place called Kasson, where dwelt an influential + Portuguese who had been the instigator of the destruction of his + predecessor’s ship. This man fled at Jobson’s approach, and the + latter continued on his way till he reached Tenda, where Thompson + had disappeared. He then travelled in boats far above the Barrakonda + Rapids[168]. + + Then followed the journey of Jannequin de Rochefort and his + companions in Senegal, and the still more important explorations of + Brüe and Campagnon in the same region, journeys which have been + referred to in Chapter IX. During the reign of king Charles II a + Dutch or Anglicized Dutch merchant, named Vermuyden, asserted that + he had ascended the Gambia and reached a country beyond, full of + gold, but the truth of this story is open to considerable suspicion. + In 1723 Captain Bartholomew Stibbs, and later still a man named + Harrison, repeated Jobson’s explorations of the Gambia. In 1720-30 + Dr Shaw, an Englishman, travelled in Egypt, Algeria[169] and Tunis, + and gave the first fairly accurate account of the Barbary States + which had been received since they became Muhammadanized. A little + later (1737-40) an English clergyman, Doctor of Laws and Fellow of + the Royal Society, Richard Pococke, travelled in Egypt and explored + the Nile as far as the first cataract. In about 1780, Sonnini, an + Italian, born in Alsace, explored Egypt, and gave a really + circumstantial account of that country which did much to incite the + French Revolutionary Government to invade it. In 1768-73 James + Bruce, a Scotchman of good family, who had been educated at Harrow, + and had spent two-and-a-half years as Consul at Algiers, travelled + first in Tunis, Tripoli, and Syria. He then entered Egypt, and, + becoming interested in the Nile question, he voyaged down the Red + Sea to Masawa, and journeyed to Gondar, the capital of Abyssinia. + Having some knowledge of medicine, he found favour with the + authorities, and was given a command in the Abyssinian cavalry. + After many disappointments, his ardent wish was granted; and he + arrived at what he believed to be the sources of the Nile, but which + really were the head-waters of the Blue Nile, to the south of + Abyssinia. He journeyed back by way of Sennār and the Nubian Desert + to Cairo. In 1793 William George Browne, a Londoner, and a member of + Oriel College, Oxford, attracted by the accounts of Bruce’s travels, + entered Egypt, and crossed the Libyan Desert from Asiut to Darfur in + 1793. There he was treated extremely badly by the sultan of the + country, and practically endured a captivity of three years before + he succeeded in returning to Egypt. + + During the 18th century rumours had gradually been taking the shape + of a belief that there was a great river in Western Africa on the + banks of which stood the famous city of Timbuktu. This river was + identified with Pliny’s Nigris or Nigir[170]. At first it was + thought that the Niger was the Gambia or Senegal, but at last it was + believed that the Niger must rise southward, beyond the sources of + these rivers, and flow to the eastward. Sir Joseph Banks, President + of the Royal Society, who had accompanied Cook on his journey round + the world, joined with other persons of distinction, and formed the + African Association on the 19th of June, 1788, with the special + object of exploring the Niger. At first they resolved to try from + the North coast of Africa or from Egypt; but these expeditions + proving unsuccessful, an attempt was made to march into the unknown + from Sierra Leone. Major Houghton, who had been Consul in Morocco, + was employed amongst other travellers, and he succeeded in passing + through Bambuk on his way to Timbuktu; but he was intercepted by the + Moors of the Sahara, robbed, and left to die naked in the desert. + From Egypt a German traveller named Friedrich Hornemann was + despatched by the same association. He reached Fezzan, set out on a + journey to Bornu, and was never heard of afterwards, though it is + practically certain that he reached the Niger in the country of + Nupe[171] about 1800. In 1795 the zealous Association accepted the + services of a young Scotch surgeon named Mungo Park, and sent him + out to discover the Niger from the West coast. Mungo Park started at + the age of 24, having had a previous experience in scientific + exploration as assistant surgeon on an East Indiaman, which had made + a voyage to Sumatra. Park reached Pisania, a station high up the + Gambia River, in 1795. He started at the end of that year, and after + crossing the Senegal river and going through many adventures, he + entered the Moorish countries of Kaarta and Ludamar to the + north-east. Hence, after enduring captivity and great hardships, he + escaped, and gradually found his way to the Niger at Sego, and + struggled along the river bank for a short distance farther east. + His return journey along the Niger was attended by such hardships + that one marvels at the physical strength which brought him through + alive. However, at last he reached Bamaku, and thence after almost + incredible difficulties regained Pisania on the Gambia, about a year + and a quarter after setting out thence to discover the Niger. Owing + to his return voyage taking him to the West Indies, he did not reach + England till the 22nd of December, 1797, after performing a journey + which, even if he had not subsequently become the Stanley of the + Niger, would have made him lastingly famous. London received him + with enthusiasm, but after the first novelty had worn off a period + of forgetfulness set in. Park married, and settled down in Peebles + as a medical practitioner. But in process of time the influence of + the African Association filtered even into the stony heart of a + Government department; and it was resolved by the Colonial Office + (then a branch of the War Office) to send Mungo Park back to + continue his exploration of the Niger. He was given £5000 for his + expenses, and an ample outfit of stores and arms and other + equipment. He held a Captain’s commission, and was allowed to select + soldiers from the garrison of Goree. He took his brother-in-law with + him as second in command, a draughtsman named Scott, and several + boatbuilders and carpenters. At Goree he selected one officer, 35 + privates, and two seamen. The party left the Gambia in 1805. They + were soon attacked with fever, and by the time they had reached the + Niger only seven out of the 38 soldiers and seamen who had left + Goree were living. Descending the Niger past Sego, Mungo Park built + a rough and ready kind of boat at Sansanding, which he named the + _Joliba_. By this time his party had been reduced to five, including + himself. On the 12th of November, 1805, they set out from Sansanding + (whence they sent back to the Gambia their letters and journals) to + trace the Niger to its mouth. Mungo Park was never heard from any + more. It was ascertained, by the information subsequently gathered + from native traders and chiefs, that his party met with constant + opposition from the natives in its descent of the river, with the + result that he and his companions were continually fighting. After + Mungo Park entered the Hausa-speaking countries of Sokoto the enmity + of the natives increased, apparently because he was unable to pay + his way with presents. At last, at Busa, where further navigation + was obstructed by rocks, the natives closed in on him. Finding no + way of escape, Park jumped into the river with Lieutenant Martyn (a + Royal Artillery Officer), and was drowned. After Park’s death, Major + Peddie, Captain Campbell, Major Gray, and Dr Dochard all strove to + follow in Park’s footsteps from the direction of the Gambia, but all + died untimely deaths from fever, though Dr Dochard succeeded in + reaching Sego on the Niger. + + The presence of the Dutch in South Africa did not lead to great + explorations. Such journeys as were made were chiefly parallel to + the coast. In 1685 Commander Van der Stel explored Namakwaland to + within a very short distance of the Orange river; but it was some 60 + years later before that river was actually discovered by a Boer + elephant hunter. Its discovery was made known scientifically by an + expedition under Captain Hop in 1761. This expedition obtained + several giraffes, which were sent home by Governor Tulbagh, and were + the first to reach Europe. In 1777 Captain Robert Jacob Gordon, a + Scotchman in the service of the Dutch East India Company, discovered + the Orange river at its junction with the Vaal. Subsequently Captain + Gordon, with Lieutenant William Patterson, an Englishman, made a + journey overland from the Namakwa country to the mouth of the Orange + river, which they ascended for 30 or 40 miles. They christened what + the Dutch had hitherto called the “Great (Groote) river” the “Orange + river,” out of compliment to the Stadhouder. There is also a rumour + that two Dutch commissioners, Truster and Sommervill, went on a + cattle-purchasing expedition in 1801 beyond the Orange river, and + penetrated through the Bechuana country to the vicinity of Lake + Ngami. + + Fired by the news of African discoveries, Portugal awoke from one of + her secular slumbers in 1798—as she similarly awoke in 1877—and + despatched a Brazilian, Dr Francisco José Maria de Lacerda, to the + Zambezi, to attempt a journey across Africa from East to West. The + results of this first scientific exploration of Central Africa have + been touched on in Chapter IV. It may be sufficient to mention here + that Dr de Lacerda travelled up the Zambezi to Tete, and from Tete + north-westwards to the vicinity of Lake Mweru, near the shores of + which he died. He had been preceded along this route by two Goanese + of the name of Pereira. In the beginning of the 19th century two + half-caste Portuguese named Baptista and Amaro José crossed Africa + from the Kwango river, behind Angola, to Tete on the Zambezi. In + 1831 Major Monteiro and Captain Gamitto repeated Dr de Lacerda’s + journey from Tete to the Kazembe’s country, near Lake Mweru; and in + 1846 a Portuguese merchant at Tete named Candido de Costa Cardoso, + claimed to have sighted the southwest corner of Lake Maravi (Nyasa). + + To return again to South Africa—British rule brought about a great + development in exploration. Campbell, a Scotch missionary, in 1812 + laid down the course of the Orange river on the map and discovered + the source of the Limpopo. Captain (afterwards General Sir J. E.) + Alexander made an interesting journey overland from Cape Town to + Walfish Bay; Dr William Burchell and Captain William Cornwallis + Harris[172] explored Bechuanaland and the Transvaal, and added much + to our knowledge of the great African fauna. Robert Moffat and other + missionaries extended our knowledge of Bechuanaland; Angas + investigated Zululand; Major Vardon explored the Limpopo. + + In the first decade of the 19th century Henry Salt (formerly British + Consul-General in Egypt) explored Abyssinia and the Zanzibar Coast. + In 1822 Captain (afterwards Admiral) W. F. W. Owen left England with + two ships, and spent four years exploring the East and West coasts + of Africa, and the island of Madagascar. He especially added to our + knowledge of Delagoa Bay and its vicinity. He despatched vessels on + the first voyage of discovery up the Zambezi, which unhappily ended + in the death of all the British officers. The limit reached was + Sena. The East and West coasts of Africa were charted by Captain + Owen with the first approach to real accuracy. Although he was not + an overland explorer, his voyage marks a most important epoch in + African discovery, and many of his surveys are still in use. + + Mungo Park and others having entertained the idea that the Niger + might find its ultimate outlet to the sea in the river Congo, an + expedition was sent out in 1816 to explore the lower Congo. It was a + naval expedition, of course, and the command was given to Captain + Tuckey. He surveyed the river to the Yelala Falls, and carried his + expedition inland to above these rapids near the modern station of + Isangila. Unfortunately, he and nearly all the officers of his + expedition died of fever; but his journey, being conducted on + scientific lines, resulted in considerable additions to our + knowledge of Bantu Africa, its peoples, languages, and flora. + + Major Laing, a Scotchman, who had already, in 1823, distinguished + himself by exploring the source of the Rokel river of Sierra Leone + (practically locating the source of the Niger and ascertaining its + approximate altitude), determined in 1825 to strike out a new + departure in the search for Timbuktu. He started from Tripoli, + journeyed to Ghadames and the oasis of Twat, and thence rode across + the desert to the Niger over a route which may some day be followed + by a French trans-Saharan railway. He was attacked on the way by the + detestable Tawareq, who left him for dead, bleeding from twenty-four + wounds. Still, he recovered, and actually entered Timbuktu on the + 18th of August, 1826. Being advised by the people to leave because + of their dislike to the presence of a Christian, he started to + return across the desert, but was killed at El Arwan, a few marches + north of Timbuktu, at the instigation of the Fula king Ahmadu of + Masina. + + French names were scarce in the roll of explorers after the journeys + of Brüe and Campagnon at the beginning of the 18th century; though + Le Vaillant, as a naturalist, made small but very interesting + explorations in South Africa. But in the early part of the 19th + century, after the recovery of their Senegalese possessions, + Frenchmen resumed the exploration of the Dark Continent. Already, in + 1804, Rubault, an official of the Senegal Company, had explored the + desert country between the Senegal and the Gambia, and the upper + waters of the Senegal. In 1818 Gaspard Mollien discovered the source + of the Gambia, and explored Portuguese Guinea. In 1824 and 1825 De + Beaufort visited the country of Kaarta to the north-east of the + Senegal. Then came René Caillé, who reached Timbuktu and returned + thence to Morocco in 1827, a journey discussed for its political + importance in Chapter IX. + + In 1817 a British mission was sent to Ashanti, under the eventual + leadership of Thomas Edward Bowdich. Bowdich, who made a treaty with + the king of Ashanti, employed the opportunities of intercourse with + Hausa, Mandingo, and Moorish merchants at the court of this monarch + to collect a quantity of most valuable information as to the course + of the Niger, the fate of Mungo Park, the geography, ethnology and + languages of the heart of West Africa within the Niger bend. His + book, published in 1820, is a valuable work in African anthropology + and history. + + The British Government, still pegging away at the Niger problem, was + roused to fresh exertions by the information collected. Impressed by + the success with which Laing had penetrated Central Africa from + Tripoli, it resolved to try that Regency[173] as a basis of + discovery. Mr Ritchie and Captain George Lyon started from Tripoli + in 1818, and reached the country of Fezzan. Here Ritchie died, and + Lyon did not get beyond the southernmost limit of Fezzan. On his + return a second expedition was organized under Dr Walter Oudney (who + was actually appointed Political Agent to Bornu before that country + had been discovered by Europeans!), Lieutenant Hugh Clapperton, + R.N., and Lieutenant Dixon Denham. Starting from Tripoli in the + spring of 1822, they were compelled to halt there by the obstacles + that were placed in their way. Denham, an impulsive, energetic man, + rushed back to Tripoli to remonstrate with the Basha, and receiving + nothing but empty verbal assurances, started for Marseilles with the + intention of proceeding to England, but was recalled by the Basha of + Tripoli, who henceforth placed no obstacles in his way. During his + absence the expedition had visited the town of Ghat, far down in the + Sahara. In 1823 this expedition reached the Sudan, and its members + were the first Europeans to discover Lake Chad. They then visited + Bornu and the Hausa state of Kano, where Dr Oudney died. After + Oudney’s death, Clapperton proceeded to Sokoto, and very nearly + reached the Niger, but was prevented from doing so by the jealousy + of the Fula sultan of Sokoto. Whilst Major Denham was remaining + behind in Bornu, there arrived with a supply of stores a young + officer named Toole, who had traversed the long route from Tripoli + to Bornu almost alone, and had made the journey from London in four + months. Denham and Toole explored the eastern and southern shores of + Lake Chad, and discovered the Shari river, after which the + unfortunate Toole died. + + Denham and Clapperton then returned to Tripoli[174]. The British + Government sent Clapperton back to discover the outlet of the Niger. + He landed at Badagri, in what is now the British colony of Lagos. He + lost his companions one by one, with the exception of his invaluable + servant Richard Lander. Clapperton passed through Yorubaland, and + actually struck the Niger at the Busa Rapids, near where Park and + his company perished. From Busa Clapperton and his party travelled + through Nupe and the Hausa states of Kano and Sokoto; but he arrived + at an unfortunate time, when Sokoto was at war with Bornu, and the + Fula sultan was much too suspicious of Clapperton’s motives to help + him in the exploration of the Niger. From fever and disappointment + Clapperton died at Sokoto on the 13th of April, 1827. It was a great + pity that he went there at all. What he should have done on reaching + Busa was to work his way down from Busa to the sea. All his + companions, except his servant Lander, had predeceased him. Lander + now endeavoured to trace the Niger to the sea, but the Fula sultan + still opposed him, and he was stripped of nearly all the property of + the expedition before he could leave Sokoto. Eventually he made his + way back to Badagri by much the same route that Clapperton had + followed. Lander was a Cornishman, a man of short stature, but + pleasing appearance and manners. He had had a slight education as a + boy, but learned a good deal more in going out to service as page, + footman, and valet. In this last-named capacity he had journeyed on + the continent of Europe and in South Africa before accompanying + Clapperton. When he returned to England his story did not arouse + much interest, as Arctic explorations had replaced Africa in the + mind of the public. Moreover, the ultimate course of the Niger had + by a process of exhaustion almost come to be guessed aright. + + So far back as 1808 Dr Reichardt of Weimar had suggested that the + Niger reached the Atlantic in the Gulf of Guinea through the Oil + rivers. Later, James McQueen, who as a West Indian planter had + cross-examined many slaves on the subject of the Niger, not only + showed that this river obviously entered the sea in the Bight of + Benin, but predicted that this great stream would some day become a + highway of British commerce. Somewhat grudgingly, the Government + agreed to send Lander and his brother back to Africa, poorly endowed + with funds. Not discouraged, however, the Landers arrived at Badagri + in March, 1830, and reached the Niger at Busa after an overland + journey of three months. Meeting with no opposition from the + natives, they paddled down stream for two months in canoes. At + length they reached the delta, but there unfortunately fell into the + power of a large fleet of Ibo war canoes. By the Ibos they were + likely to have been killed but for the remonstrances of some + Muhammadan teachers, who, oddly enough, were found with this fleet. + Moreover, a native trader of Brass, an Ijō settlement near the coast + of the delta, happened to be visiting the Ibo chief, and agreed to + ransom the Lander brothers on condition of receiving from them a + ‘bill’ agreeing to repay to the ‘king’ of Brass the value of the + goods which his son had furnished for their redemption. They reached + the sea at the mouth of the Brass river, one of the outlets of the + Niger, but not the main stream. An English merchant ship being + anchored there, the Landers went delightedly on board, thinking the + end of their troubles had come. They asked the captain to honour + their bill, the amount of which the Government would repay him. To + their amazement he refused, and altogether behaved in such a + disgraceful manner that it is a pity his name has not been preserved + for infamy. However, they managed on this ship to get a passage + across to Fernando Pô, where they landed. The vessel by which they + travelled, and the master of which treated them so badly, was + afterwards captured by a pirate and never heard of again. It may be + mentioned here that Richard Lander ultimately repaid the chief’s son + of Brass the whole amount of the goods which he had spent in + redeeming the two explorers from the Ibo king’s clutches. + + No great fuss was made over the Landers when they returned in 1831. + John Lander remained at home. Richard Lander afterwards joined the + MacGregor Laird expedition for opening up the Niger. This commercial + undertaking met with the most awful disasters from sickness, but + James MacGregor Laird nevertheless succeeded in discovering the + Benue, and ascended it for some distance. In 1833 Richard Lander and + Dr Oldfield ascended the Niger from the Nun mouth as far as Rabba, + and explored the Benue for 140 miles above its junction with the + Niger. After returning from a third trip up the Niger Lander was + attacked by savages in the delta, was severely wounded, and died + from his wounds at Fernando Pô on the 6th of February, 1834. + + In 1840-41 Mr John Beecroft, superintendent of Fernando Pô, and + afterwards first consul for the Bights of Biafra and Benin, not only + explored the Niger, but made known for the first time the Cross + river, to the east, which he ascended from Old Calabar to the + rapids. In 1841 the British Government sent out an important + surveying expedition to the Niger under four naval officers. This + expedition was despatched at the instigation of Sir Thomas Fowell + Buxton, the philanthropist, who had thrown himself heart and soul + into the anti-slavery movement. At this period philanthropy reigned + supreme in England, and a sense of humour was in abeyance, though it + was beginning to bubble up in the pages of Dickens, who has so + deliciously satirized this Niger expedition in “Bleak House” with + its inimitable Mrs Jellyby and her industrial mission of + Borriaboola-Gha. The ghastly unhealthiness of the lower Niger was + ignored, and an item in the programme of the expedition was the + establishment of a model farm at the junction of the Benue and the + Niger. The other aims of the expedition were nicely balanced between + the spreading of Christian civilization and the suppression of the + slave trade on the one hand and the zealous pushing of Manchester + goods on the other. Numerous treaties were made, but the results of + the expedition were disappointment and disaster, occasioned by utter + ignorance of the conditions under which some degree of health might + be retained, and a muddle-headed indecision as to the practical + results which were to be secured by the opening up of the Niger. The + loss of life was enormous. Still, in spite of this check, British + traders gradually crept into and up the Niger, with the results + detailed in Chapter VIII. + + In 1836 John Davidson, an Englishman of considerable attainments, + started from the Atlantic coast of Morocco for Timbuktu, but was + murdered at Tenduf, in the Sahara Desert. + + In 1849 the British Government determined to make another effort to + open up commercial relations with the Niger and Central Africa, but + resolved again to try the overland route from Tripoli. After the + Napoleonic wars were finished, the British Government had sent out + various surveying parties to map the coasts of Africa; and a + well-equipped expedition under Admiral Beechey made a thorough + investigation of the coasts of Tripoli and Barka in 1821 and 1822, + and sent back the first trustworthy accounts of the Greek ruins of + the Cyrenaica. Since that time several consular representatives of + Great Britain in Tripoli had carried on explorations in the + interior. Among these was James Richardson, who had originally + accompanied Admiral Beechey, and who further made most important + explorations of the Tripolitan Sahara, discovering many interesting + rock paintings and inscriptions. He was appointed to be the head of + this overland expedition of 1849, and associated with him were two + Germans, Barth and Overweg. Dr Heinrich Barth was born at Hamburg in + the year 1821. He had travelled extensively in Asia Minor, in + Mediterranean Africa, and up the Nile. + + This expedition left Tripoli in the spring of 1850, and reached + Bornu without any difficulty. Here its members separated. Richardson + died soon afterwards and was buried near Lake Chad; Overweg died in + 1852, having been the first European to navigate Lake Chad[175]. He + was buried on the shores of that lake. For the next four years Barth + carried on gigantic explorations on his own account. He journeyed + from Lake Chad along the river Komadugu, and thence across northern + Hausaland to the Niger at Say. From Say he cut across the bend of + the Niger to Timbuktu, and descended the river back to Say, and + thence to Sokoto, from which he made his way to Kukawa in Bornu, + where he met Dr Eduard Vogel and two non-commissioned officers of + the Royal Engineers, who had been sent by the British Government to + reinforce his expedition. Barth had previously in 1851 made a + journey due south, and had struck the river Benue very high up in + its course. Vogel started to complete the discoveries in this + direction, and eventually to make his way to the Nile. He was + accompanied by Corporal MacGuire, but the two quarrelled and parted, + and both were murdered in the vicinity of Wadai. Dr Barth and the + other non-commissioned officer made their way back across the desert + to Tripoli and England. Barth’s journey was productive of almost + more solid information than that of any of the great African + explorers, excepting Stanley, and possibly Nachtigal, Schweinfurth + and Emin Pasha. Besides the geographical information given, Barth’s + book in five volumes and his various linguistic works on the Central + Sudan languages represent an amount of information that has not been + sufficiently digested yet. Heinrich Barth stands in the first rank + of the _very_ great explorers, a class which should perhaps include + Mungo Park, Livingstone, Stanley, Speke and Grant, Burton, Baker, + Schweinfurth, Nachtigal, Rohlfs, Grenfell, Binger and Joseph + Thomson; men who have not only made great geographical discoveries + but who have enriched us as well with that information which clothes + the dry bones of the mere delineation of rivers, lakes, and + mountains. Barth received a somewhat grudging reward for his + services in England. After some delay he was created a C.B., and + then his existence was ignored by the Government, to whom still, and + for many years to come, an African explorer, laying bare to our + knowledge hundreds of thousands of square miles of valuable + territory, was less worthy of remembrance than a Chargé d’Affaires + at the court of the Grand Duke of Pumpernickel. + + In 1846 a Portuguese trader named Graça reached the court of the + Mwata Yanvo in southern Congoland, from Angola; and between 1847 and + 1851 the hinterland of Angola was thoroughly explored by a + Hungarian, Ladislas Magyar. In 1853 a Portuguese trader, Silva + Porto, actually crossed Africa, from Benguela to the mouth of the + Ruvuma, passing to the south of Lake Nyasa, but not sighting it. + + In 1858 a Moroccan Jew named Mordokhai[176] Abi-Serūr made a journey + from the south of Morocco to Timbuktu and afterwards resided in that + city till 1862, thenceforward repeating his journeys thither until + 1869. In 1830 the Church Missionary Society had sent emissaries to + Abyssinia, who included among them latterly such men as Dr Ludwig + Krapf[177]. But these agents were expelled in 1842, and Krapf + settled on the east coast of Africa two years afterwards. Here he + was joined by Johann Rebmann, also in the service of the Church + Missionary Society. Making Mombasa their head-quarters, Krapf and + Rebmann executed some remarkable journeys into the interior of what + was then an utterly unknown country. Rebmann in 1848 saw for the + first time Kilima-njaro, the highest mountain in Africa, nearly + 20,000 feet high. In 1849 Krapf not only sighted Kilima-njaro, but + pushed his way much further north, and caught a glimpse of Mt Kenya. + Besides these remarkable discoveries (the truth of which was + strongly doubted by arm-chair geographers in England) they brought + back with them such circumstantial accounts of the great Central + African lakes as to lure others on to the exploration of these + regions. + + During the thirties Abyssinia and Shoa were explored by Dr E. Rüppel + (a German traveller who added greatly to our knowledge of African + natural history); during the forties and fifties by the Irish-French + brothers, Antoine and Arnaud d’Abbadie (who made the most elaborate + surveys), and by Sir W. Cornwallis Harris; and subsequently by + Théophile Le Fébvre, Mansfield Parkyns, H. Dufton, and the + geographer, Dr C. T. Beke. In 1856 Mr James Hamilton made a most + interesting journey of exploration in the Cyrenaica, and thence + travelled overland through the oasis of Siwa to Egypt. + + Meantime, in South Africa Livingstone had arisen. He had settled in + Bechuanaland in 1841, and had gradually extended his journeys + further and further north, until, in company with William Oswell and + Murray, two English sportsmen, he discovered Lake Ngami. Mr Francis + Galton had attempted to reach this lake in 1851 by an interesting + but very difficult journey through Damaraland; but he did not + succeed in getting nearer to Ngami than the bed of a dried-up + watercourse, the Omuramba. Andersson, a Swede, however, in 1851 left + Walfish Bay, and travelling through Ovamboland, managed to arrive at + the shores of Ngami. Green explored the lower course of the + Okabango-Teoge in 1856. In 1851 Livingstone, accompanied by his wife + and family, and by Mr Oswell, reached the Zambezi at Sesheke. + Feeling himself on the threshold of vast discoveries, Livingstone + despatched his wife and family to England, with the monetary help of + Mr Oswell, and placed himself under the tuition of Sir Thomas + McClear, the Astronomer Royal at Cape Town. Turning his face + northward in June 1852, he reached the Zambezi again in that year, + traced it along its upper course, near to its source, and then + travelled across to Angola, which he reached in May 1854. Returning + again from Angola to the Zambezi, he followed that river more or + less closely to near its mouth, and then made his way to Quelimane + by the route always followed until the recent discovery of the + Chinde mouth of the Zambezi. From Quelimane he was conveyed by a + British gunboat to Mauritius, and arrived in London on the 12th of + December, 1856. + + Somaliland had been explored in 1854 by Richard Francis Burton and + John Hanning Speke. Burton was an officer in the Indian army, and + had previously made a remarkable journey to the holy places of the + Hedjaz. In 1856 the Royal Geographical Society (which had developed + from out of the African Association in 1830) despatched an + expedition under the command of Burton, who chose Speke for his + lieutenant, to search for the great lakes which the Württemberg + missionaries reported to exist. As the result of this epoch-making + exploration Burton discovered Tanganyika (though he only mapped out + the northern half), and Speke discovered the south shore of the + Victoria Nyanza. Hurrying home before Burton, Speke got the ear of + the Geographical Society, and was at once sent back (with Captain J. + A. Grant as his companion) to discover the sources of the Nile. + Burton was rather hardly treated in the matter, but he was a man too + clever for his times, and one who made many enemies amongst those + who directed geographical exploration in the middle of the 19th + century. Speke and Grant reached the northern end of the Victoria + Nyanza and the outlet of the Victoria Nile at the Ripon Falls, + journeyed northwards and missed the Albert Nyanza; then, met and + relieved by Sir Samuel Baker, travelled down the Nile to Egypt. It + was a most remarkable journey, but in some senses a blundering one, + remarkable as much for what was missed as for what was gained in + exploration. Through not having made any survey of the vast lake + they had undoubtedly discovered and often seen, and not being able + to give much idea of its shape or area, its very existence came + afterwards to be doubted until it was conclusively established by + Stanley in 1875. Speke and Grant had left England in April 1860, and + reached Khartum on the 30th of March, 1864, and England soon + afterwards. Speke died from a gun-accident in September 1864. Grant, + afterwards made a Colonel and a C.B., accompanied the British + expedition to Abyssinia, and lived till 1892. + + Prior to the journey of Speke and Grant down the Nile, that river + had been already made known up to the vicinity of the great lakes by + explorers following in the footsteps of the military expeditions + sent by Muhammad Ali to conquer the Sudan[178]. A Catholic mission + had established itself on the Upper Nile in 1848, mainly supported + by the Austrian Government. Amongst the missionaries was Dr Ignatius + Knoblecher, who in 1849 explored the White Nile beyond Gondokoro to + Mount Logwek. Other explorations were carried out by Giovanni + Beltrame, another missionary. A Maltese ivory merchant named Andrea + Debono and a Venetian named Giovanni Miani had also explored the + White Nile; and the latter was the first European to visit the + Nyam-nyam country. An English (or, rather, Welsh) ivory trader named + John Petherick had started from Khartum in November 1853, and had + ascended the Bahr-al-Ghazal River for some distance. He made other + journeys into the unknown, more or less in the region of the + Bahr-al-Ghazal and the Nyam-nyam country. Petherick, who became + British consul at Khartum, was entrusted with the mission of meeting + and relieving Speke and Grant, but by some accident failed to do so. + On one of his later journeys he was accompanied by Dr Murie, a + naturalist, as far as Gondokoro. Theodor von Heuglin, Kiezelbach, + Munzinger, and Dr Steudner were among the methodical German + explorers who travelled in the Egyptian Sudan and in Abyssinia in + 1861 and 1862. The greatest explorer of these regions, however, next + to Speke and Grant, was Mr, afterwards Sir Samuel, Baker, who with + his wife conducted an exploration of the Upper Nile on his own + account with the intention of meeting and if possible succouring + Speke and Grant. Baker had previously explored the Abyssinian + tributaries of the Nile. After leaving Speke and Grant to continue + their homeward journey, he started off for the south to fill up the + blanks in their discoveries. The Nile was reached in the Bunyoro + country; and after a long detention at the court of the scoundrelly + Nyoro king, and enduring incredible sufferings, Baker and his wife + discovered the Albert Nyanza, which from various causes he took to + be much larger than it really is. The entrance and the exit of the + Nile into and out from the Albert Nyanza were visited. The Bakers + reached Gondokoro, and then returned homewards in March 1865. Their + journey down the White Nile was blocked by the obstruction of a + vegetable growth (the _sudd_). At last this was cut through, and + Egypt was eventually reached. When Baker returned to London he was + knighted for the discoveries he had made. The Albert Nyanza was + afterwards circumnavigated by Gessi Pasha, a Levantine Italian in + the service of the Egyptian Government, and by Colonel Mason Bey, + neither of whom, curiously enough, noticed the Semliki flowing into + the lake, nor did they catch sight of the snow-covered Ruwenzori. + + A romantic figure in Nile and Sahara exploration was Alexandrine + Tinne. “Young and beautiful (she was only 33 at the time of her + death), remarkably accomplished, a daring horsewoman, a charming + Diana; mistress of many tongues, including Arabic, and generous to a + fault, it is little wonder that she lingered as a beautiful and + gracious demi-goddess in the remembrance of such Arabs and Nile + Negroes of the Egyptian Sudan as were not exterminated by the + Mahdi’s revolt[179].” Alexandrine Tinne, between 1858 and 1864, + devoted herself to the exploration of the Nile and the + Bahr-al-Ghazal. She was accompanied on these journeys by her mother + and aunt, both of whom died of blackwater fever. In 1868 Miss Tinne + determined to cross the Sahara from Tripoli to Lake Chad, and then + travel from Chad to the Upper Nile; but on the way to Ghat, an + ancient town inhabited by very fanatical Berbers, she was killed by + the orders of a treacherous Tawareq chief, as also were her Dutch + attendants. + + Livingstone’s first great journey resulted in his being sent back + with a strong expedition to pursue his discoveries in Zambezia. + During these journeys between 1858 and 1864 the river Shiré was + explored, and Lake Nyasa was discovered and partially mapped. + Livingstone was accompanied by Dr (afterwards Sir John) Kirk, who + made most valuable natural history collections, and whose subsequent + long career as Political Agent at Zanzibar and many explorations + along the East coast of Africa have caused his name to be + imperishably connected with that part of the continent. + + The French occupation of Algeria and their conquests in Senegambia + had naturally produced considerable exploring work, though, as much + of this was done piece by piece, it has not resulted in the handing + down of notable names, with some few exceptions. Panet, a Frenchman, + in 1850 travelled overland along the Sahara coast from St Louis, at + the mouth of the Senegal, to Morocco. Vincent, another Frenchman, in + 1860 explored the country from St Louis to the Adrar district of the + Sahara, up to what is nowadays the Spanish Protectorate of the Rio + de Oro. Paul Soleillet described the Algerian Sahara; and Duveyrier, + a really scientific traveller, made important journeys from Algeria + southward and south-eastward, adding much to our knowledge of the + Northern Sahara. Duveyrier visited the interior of western Tripoli, + and brought back considerable information about the Tawareq and + their dialects. + + In 1866 Livingstone resumed his explorations of East-Central Africa. + He travelled overland south-westwards from the Ruvuma River to the + south end of Lake Nyasa, then north-west and north to the south end + of Tanganyika, thence from Tanganyika to Lake Mweru, to the mighty + Luapula River, and to Bangweulu, which lakes and river he discovered + in 1868. Again reaching Tanganyika, he joined some Arabs and crossed + the Manyema country eastward to Nyangwe, on the Lualaba-Congo. From + here he returned to Ujiji, where he was met by Mr H. M. Stanley, who + had been sent out by the _New York Herald_ to relieve the great + explorer. After travelling with Stanley half-way back to Zanzibar, + Livingstone returned to Lake Bangweulu, and died there in 1873. + Various expeditions had been despatched to his relief. One under + Lieutenant Grandy was sent out in 1873 to ascend the Congo, but the + expedition was most unfortunate, and the explorer died near São + Salvador[180]. After many changes and withdrawals, a great + expedition, organized by the Royal Geographical Society, started + from Zanzibar in 1873 to find and relieve Livingstone. It was under + the leadership of Lieutenant (afterwards Commander) Verney Lovett + Cameron. Cameron soon heard of Livingstone’s death, but pushed on to + Tanganyika, and mapped that lake for the first time accurately. He + then travelled across to the Lualaba, which his altitudes + practically determined to be none other than the Upper Congo; but, + deterred from descending it by the tremendous difficulties that + offered themselves, he struck south-westwards across a country not + very difficult to traverse—the slightly civilized Mwata Yanvo’s + empire (impregnated with Portuguese influence), and reached Benguela + in November 1875, the first Englishman to cross Africa. + + At the beginning of the sixties Dr Gerhard Rohlfs, one of the + greatest of African travellers, began to explore Morocco. He had + enlisted in the Foreign Legion serving in Algeria, was a doctor of + medicine, a renegade, and had a great knowledge of Arabic. He + subsequently travelled about the southern part of Morocco, and + penetrated to the oases of Twat and Ghadames in the Sahara (1864), + and in 1865 reached Fezzan and Tibesti. In 1866 he started on a + journey to Bornu, and eventually penetrated across the Niger to + Lagos, on the Guinea coast, thus being the first European to make a + complete journey from the Mediterranean to the Gulf of Guinea. In + 1873 he explored the oases of the Libyan Desert; and in 1878 he + conducted an expedition, despatched by the German Government, to + Wadai, but got no further than the oasis of Kufra. Subsequently two + Italians, Dr Pellegrino Matteucci and Lieutenant Alfonso Maria + Massari, accompanied as far as Darfur by Prince Giovanni Borghese, + travelled across Africa from east to west by way of Suakin, + Kordofan, Wadai, Bornu, Kano, and Nupe to the Niger, whence they + returned to England, where Matteucci unfortunately died (1882). They + were the first Europeans to cross Africa from east to west north of + the Equator, but their journey was not productive of much + geographical knowledge. From the point of view of knowledge acquired + and transmitted, one of the most remarkable journeys ever made in + Africa was that of Dr Gustav Nachtigal, who, after having served as + physician to the Bey of Tunis, was appointed in 1868 by the Prussian + Government to take presents to the Sultan of Bornu. Leaving Tripoli + in February 1869, Nachtigal halted at first in Fezzan, and from that + country made a very interesting journey to Tibesti, a mountainous + region in the very middle of the Sahara Desert. He was the first and + only European who has really examined this remarkable mountainous + region. Returning to Murzuk, he resumed his journey to Bornu, where + he arrived in 1870. He thoroughly explored Lake Chad and much of the + Shari River, and visited Bagirmi, Wadai (where an earlier German + traveller, Moritz von Beurmann, had been murdered in 1863, when + searching for Vogel), Somrai, Darfur, Dar Runga, and Kordofan, + thence returning home through Egypt. He brought back with him an + enormous mass of geographical and linguistic information. In his + journey from Tripoli to Fezzan Nachtigal was accompanied for a + portion of the way by Miss Tinne. + + Sir Joseph Hooker, the great botanist, already famous for his + botanical exploration of the Himalayas, of Australia and New + Zealand, and Palestine, in 1871 set out with Mr John Ball on a + journey to the Atlas Mountains of Morocco. This resulted in a very + great addition to our knowledge of the North African flora and + fauna, and of that still imperfectly known and appreciated range of + mountains, the highest summits of which may prove to be but little + inferior in altitude to the loftiest African peaks. G. Schaudt, a + German, explored the Moroccan Sahara in 1879-82. + + On the West coast of Africa the most remarkable journeys made in the + fifties and sixties were those of Paul du Chaillu, who travelled in + the Gaboon country, and whose natural history collections almost + surpass those of any other traveller for their richness and the + remarkable forms they revealed. He will always be remembered as the + man who practically discovered the gorilla. Winwood Reade, the first + modern African traveller who was at the same time a literary man, + visited the West coast of Africa in the sixties, and travelled + inland to the source of the Niger. His exploring journeys were of + small account, but his descriptions of West Africa are the most + vivid, the most truthful, and will perhaps prove to be the most + enduring, of any that we possess. (Sir) Richard Burton of Tanganyika + fame, who had been appointed Consul at Fernando Pô, ascended the + peak of the Cameroons, and visited Dahomé and the falls of the Congo + between 1860 and 1864. The Marquis de Compiégne and Herr Oskar Lenz + explored the Ogowé River, in French West Africa, in 1873; and later + Mr George Grenfell, a member of the Baptist Mission who was + afterwards to become still more famous, considerably increased our + knowledge of the Cameroons. + + In 1876, Mons. M. J. Bonnat, a French trader, travelled up the Volta + River and reached the Muhammadan town of Salagá in the Gold Coast + hinterland; thus for the first time, since the vaguely recorded + Portuguese embassies to the king of Mosi in the 15th century, + bringing Europeans into touch with the Muhammadan lands beyond the + forest belt of Central Guinea. + + Livingstone’s death and Cameron’s successful crossing of Africa did + a great deal to arouse European interest in that continent. H. M. + Stanley was despatched by the _New York Herald_ and the _Daily + Telegraph_ to complete Livingstone’s explorations of the Unknown + River. In 1875 he started on that journey which in its discoveries + and its results is the greatest feat to be found in the annals of + African exploration. He circumnavigated the Victoria Nyanza and + Tanganyika, marched across to the Lualaba, and followed its course + resolutely and in the teeth of fearful obstacles until he proved it + to be the Congo, and emerged on the Atlantic Ocean in 1877. + + Cameron’s journeys had aroused the Portuguese from their lethargy. + Three explorers, Serpa Pinto, Brito Capello, and Roberto Ivens, were + despatched to Angola. Leaving São Paulo de Loanda in 1877, Serpa + Pinto journeyed in zigzags to the Zambezi, and descended that river + to the Barotse country, whence he accompanied M. Coillard, the + French missionary, across the Kalahari Desert to the Transvaal. + Capello and Ivens explored the northern part of Angola and the River + Kwango. Two or three years later they started on a journey + remarkable for the importance of the geographical results obtained. + They explored much of the Upper Zambezi, tracing that river to its + source, travelled along the water-parting between the Zambezi and + the Congo, and then turned southwards again to the Zambezi, and so + out to the Indian Ocean. + + In the Nile regions explorations were steadily continuing. One of + the great African travellers, Georg August Schweinfurth, a native of + German Russia (Riga), first visited the Nile valley as a botanist. + In 1868 he started on a journey of exploration up the White Nile and + the Bahr-al-Ghazal, accompanying Nubian ivory merchants. With these + he penetrated far to the southwards through the Nyam-nyam country + till he reached the Mañbettu country, and there he discovered the + Wele River, flowing to the west, which ultimately turned out to be + one of the principal feeders of the Mubangi, the great northern + confluent of the Congo. Schweinfurth returned to Egypt in 1872, and + for a long time devoted himself to the botanical exploration of + Egypt, Arabia and Abyssinia. His journeys, from the enormous amount + of material gathered together, were surpassed in importance by few + African explorations. Sir Samuel Baker (1868-73) and later General + Gordon became Governors-General of the Egyptian Sudan, a vast + dependency of the half-European state of Egypt, which naturally, + whether under European or Egyptian governors, employed large numbers + of Europeans. Amongst those who added to our geographical knowledge + were Colonel Purdy-Bey, Colonel Colston, the great General Gordon, + and Marno (a Viennese); Colonel Chaillé Long (an American), who + visited Uganda, discovered Lake Ibrahim, and actually proved that + the Nile flowed out of the Victoria Nyanza, and then into the Albert + Nyanza; and Linant de Bellefonds, a Belgian, who also visited Uganda + whilst Stanley was there in 1875, Stanley giving him a famous letter + to be posted in Egypt[181]. There were also Colonel Mason Bey and + Gessi Pasha, who circumnavigated the Albert Nyanza; poor Lupton Bey, + who explored the Bahr-al-Ghazal and Nyam-nyam country and died after + long captivity in the Mahdi’s hands; and Slatin Pasha, once Governor + of Darfur, who had a happier fate. + + The establishment of missions in Nyasaland drew explorers thither. + Captain Frederic Elton, who had been appointed Consul at Moçambique, + journeyed to Lake Nyasa with several companions, explored the + northern extremity of the lake, and started to return overland to + Zanzibar, but died on the way. His successor as Consul, Lieutenant + H. E. O’Neill, crossed backwards and forwards over utterly unknown + ground between Moçambique and Nyasa, fixed many positions at the + south end of the lake and in the Shiré Highlands, and explored many + parts of Portuguese East Africa north of the Zambezi. Bishop Steere, + Bishop Chauncey Maples, Bishop Smythies, and other missionaries of + the Universities’ Mission also explored the country between Lake + Nyasa and the River Ruvuma and the Moçambique coast. South of the + Zambezi, explorations had been carried out by Baldwin, Baines, + Andersson, Eriksson, and other sportsmen-travellers. Karl Mauch and + Edward Mohr (Germans) had explored Mashonaland (1866-9); and Mauch + had discovered gold in the stream valleys, and the remarkable ruins + of Zimbabwe. In 1875 Dr Paul Pogge made a journey from Angola to the + court of the Mwata Yanvo. Two other Germans, named Reichard and + Böhm, had in the later seventies crossed Tanganyika from Zanzibar, + and explored the country to the north of Lake Mweru. + + In 1877, Dr Erwin von Bary, a German explorer, travelled far into + the Sahara from Tripoli and Southern Tunis, discovering some + remarkable recently extinct volcanoes in the country of Air. He was + however killed by the fanatical people of Ghat. In 1877 also a + notable journey was made into the Bahr-al-Ghazal province of the + Egyptian Sudan by a Greek doctor in the Egyptian service, P. + Potagos, who thus crossed into the Congo basin and reached the Mbomu + affluent of the Wele-Mubangi. + + A remarkable journey was made in 1878-9 by Dr R. W. Felkin, who with + one or more missionary companions of the Church Missionary Society + journeyed overland from Suakin up the Nile to Uganda. They came back + again (with the Rev. C. T. Wilson) in 1881 from Uganda _via_ the + White Nile, Bahr-al-Ghazal and Darfur to Egypt. + + Between 1880 and 1887, Professor J. Büttikofer, a Swiss (afterwards + a naturalized Dutchman), conducted a very careful exploration of the + coast-lands of Liberia, revealing much that was new and curious in + the remarkable fauna of that still little-known part of West Africa. + + The return of Cameron and the subsequent success of Stanley had + caused the King of the Belgians to become intensely interested in + the exploration of Africa; at first, no doubt, from a disinterested + love of knowledge, but soon afterwards with the definite idea of + creating in the unoccupied parts of that continent a huge native + confederation or state which should become dependent on Belgium. The + king summoned to Brussels distinguished ‘Africans’ from most + European countries, with the desire of forming an International + Committee which should bring about the complete exploration of + Africa. But this international enterprise soon split up into + national sections; and what the King of the Belgians had intended + should be entirely disinterested geographical work ultimately + developed into the “Scramble for Africa.” Still, it did lead + considerably to the increase of geographical knowledge. The Royal + Geographical Society sent out a well-equipped expedition to Zanzibar + to explore the country between Tanganyika and Nyasa. It was under + the orders of Keith Johnston, who died soon after starting, leaving + his task to be fulfilled by Joseph Thomson. Mr Thomson was + completely successful, and covered much new ground between Nyasa and + Tanganyika to the west of Tanganyika, and to the south, where he + discovered the north end of Lake Rukwa[182]. On the West coast the + French Section despatched De Brazza to explore what is now French + Congo. His geographical discoveries led to annexation. Antonelli and + other Italians directed their efforts to the exploration of Shoa, to + the south of Abyssinia. But the main outcome of this action on the + part of the King of the Belgians was the founding of the Congo Free + State. + + H. M. Stanley was sent back to the Congo at the expense of a small + committee—eventually at the sole charge of the King of the Belgians. + While he was by degrees reascending the Congo and making many + geographical discoveries, such as the Lakes Leopold and Mantumba, a + Baptist missionary already referred to, the Rev. George Grenfell, + made known the Mubangi River, the great northern affluent of the + Congo, which Colonel A. Vangèle and other Belgian explorers + afterwards determined to be the Wele. Lieutenant Hermann + Wissmann[183] (afterwards Major von Wissmann) mapped out the course + of the Kasai and other southern affluents of the Congo, and crossed + and recrossed Africa, coming out the first time at Zanzibar and the + second at the Zambezi. Dr Ludwig Wolf was the main agent in tracing + the course of the great Sankuru affluent of the Kasai. Other + companions of Wissmann were Major von François and Dr Hans Mueller. + Together they discovered the leading southern affluents of the Congo + between 1880 and 1886; but it must not be forgotten how much they + were helped in this respect by the Rev. George Grenfell of the + English Baptist mission and his mission steamer the _Peace_. + Grenfell stands second only to Stanley as a Congo explorer. Besides + his notable discovery of the Mubangi, he explored the Kwango (also + mapped in the middle of its course in 1880 by the Austrian, Major + von Mechow), the Kasai, Busira, Lulongo, Lomami, Aruwimi, and Ruki + rivers. W. H. Stapleton, Thomas Comber, Dr Holman Bentley, and + William Forfeitt, other members of the Baptist mission, and S. P. + Verner, an American, also explored the Congo basin in the last + quarter of the 19th century. J. R. Werner (an English engineer) + contributed some surveys of the Mongalla and the Northern Congo; and + Capt. Sidney Hinde (afterwards an English official in East Africa) + explored the Lualaba in 1892-3. The Belgian explorers who cooperated + with English and Germans in the great work of laying bare the + intricate mysteries of the Congo basin were, besides the estimable + Vangèle, Georges le Marinel, L. van Kerckhoven, A. Hodister, Paul le + Marinel, Dr Cornet, Alexandre Delcommune, Captain Baert, and Baron + Dhanis. + + In 1879 Dr Oskar Lenz, an Austrian who had previously explored the + Ogowé, journeyed from Morocco to Timbuktu, and from Timbuktu to + Senegambia. Subsequently Dr Lenz ascended the Congo, and crossed + over to Tanganyika, returning to Europe by the Zambezi, on a more or + less futile attempt to discover the whereabouts of Emin Pasha. In + the earlier eighties another Austrian explorer, Dr Holub, travelled + in South Africa and made a journey into Central Zambezia. The + celebrated hunter of big game, Mr F. C. Selous, not only added much + to our knowledge of South-Central Africa (the Rhodesia of to-day), + but penetrated north of the Zambezi into the valley of the Kafue + river, his explorations in that direction having only been “caught + up with” quite recently. Mr F. S. Arnot, a missionary, made a + remarkable journey from South to Central Africa, exploring the + southern part of the Congo basin (Katanga) and reaching the west + coast at Benguela. In 1884 Lieutenant Giraud, a Frenchman, carried + out an interesting exploration of the Tanganyika plateau and Lake + Bangweulu, which he was the first European to map with any degree of + accuracy. In 1882 the Earl of Mayo, accompanied by (Sir) Harry + Johnston, explored the River Kunene, in South-West Africa. + Subsequently Johnston travelled through Angola and up the River + Congo, and on his return journey to England visited that little + known part of Africa, Portuguese Guinea. He was subsequently sent on + an expedition to Mt Kilima-njaro, in East Africa. Amongst other + geographical work he visited little known parts of Tunis in 1880 and + 1897; discovered (with Dr Cross) the southern end of Lake Rukwa, in + East-Central Africa, in 1889; in 1886-88 explored the Cameroons and + the Niger Delta; made numerous journeys in “British Central Africa” + (Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia) in 1889-95; and added a little to + geographical knowledge in East Africa, Uganda, and on Mt Ruwenzori + in 1899-1901. + + In 1883, Joseph Thomson, already famous as an African explorer, was + sent on a most important mission by the Royal Geographical Society. + He was to cross the nearly unknown country separating the Mombasa + littoral from the east coast of the Victoria Nyanza, between the two + great snow mountains of Kenya and Kilima-njaro (Kilima-njaro since + Krapf’s and Rebmann’s reports had been thoroughly mapped by Baron + von der Decken; it had also been ascended nearly to the snow level + by Mr Charles New). Joseph Thomson practically rediscovered Kenya + (Krapf’s account being so vague that it had become regarded as + semi-mythical), and photographed this second loftiest snow mountain + of Africa. After some difficulties he succeeded in penetrating the + Masai country, and described the great Rift valley of Lake Naivasha + (reached a year or so earlier by the German explorer, Fischer); + discovered Lake Baringo and Mount Elgon, and finally reached the + northeast coast of Victoria Nyanza—a most remarkable expedition, + resulting in great additions to our geographical knowledge. Thomson + subsequently made a journey from the mouth of the Niger to Sokoto, + explored the Atlas Mountains of Morocco, mapped much fresh country + in Central Zambezia, and died, still a young man and much regretted, + in 1895. The Hungarian, Count Samuel Teleki, who followed in + Thomson’s footsteps, discovered Lakes Rudolf and Stephanie. + Lieutenant Höhnel, who went with him, conducted other expeditions in + the same direction and accomplished admirable surveying work. + + Then came the last epoch-making journey of Stanley—the search for + Emin Pasha. After the British occupation of Egypt and the loss of + the Sudan, Emin Pasha had retreated to the Equatorial Province. + Through Dr William Junker (a Russian traveller, who had made + journeys in the western watershed of the Nile, reached the Nepoko + affluent of the Aruwimi, and brought back great additions to our + geographical knowledge of the Nile-Congo water-parting) he managed + to communicate with Europe by way of Uganda, making known his + condition, and appealing for help. Stanley was placed at the head of + a great British expedition which was to go to his relief. He + travelled by way of the Congo, and at the junction of the Congo and + the Aruwimi entered the unknown. He crossed that always difficult + barrier, the Bantu borderland—in this case an almost impenetrable + forest. After overcoming innumerable obstacles, Stanley met Emin + Pasha on the Albert Nyanza, and eventually escorted him to the coast + at Zanzibar. In the course of this journey Stanley discovered + Ruwenzori, the third highest mountain in Africa, the Edward Nyanza + (one of the ultimate lake sources of the Nile), and the Semliki + River, which connects the Edward with the Albert Nyanza. Stanley’s + explorations were much assisted in this journey by his excellent + lieutenant, Captain Stairs, who was the first to attempt Ruwenzori + and who subsequently explored Zambezia and Katanga. + + In West Africa, which had for some time been neglected as a field + for exploration, there still remained gaps to be filled up—in the + great bend of the Niger and behind the Cameroons. In the last-named + country German travellers—Dr Zintgraft, Lieutenants Morgen, Kund and + Tappenbeck, Von Stettin, Uechtritz and Dr Passarge—explored the + mountainous country between the Cameroons and the Benue watershed, + or traced the course of the great and hitherto quite unknown rivers + of Lom and Mbam, which unite and form the Sanagá, a river which + enters the sea on the south side of the Cameroons estuary. Dr Oskar + Baumann[184] also explored the neglected island of Fernando Pô. In + the bend of the Niger various French explorers and one or two + Germans and Englishmen filled up the blanks. Notable among these was + Captain (afterwards Colonel) L. G. Binger, who was the first to make + known much of the country between the Upper Niger and the Gold + Coast; and Colonel P. Monteil, who travelled across from the Upper + Niger to the Central Niger, and thence to Lake Chad and Tripoli + (1890-1). Colonel Binger’s journeys may be placed in the first rank + of African explorations. They were undertaken between 1886 and 1889, + and the results were published in 1892 (_Du Niger au Golfe de + Guinée_). Together with the work of Colonel Monteil, of Commandant + Georges Toutée, and of the German G. A. Krause, the English Captains + R. L. Lonsdale and Brandon Kirby, the Gold Coast native explorer G. + E. Ferguson, and Colonel H. P. Northcott, Binger’s surveys showed + the comparative narrowness of the Niger basin in the great bend of + the Niger. Much of the enclosed land is drained southwards into the + Gulf of Guinea by the Black and the White Volta, two streams uniting + after very long courses to form the main Volta. This is an important + river constituting the boundary (except at its estuary) between + German Togoland and the British Gold Coast. Binger did for this + region what Grenfell and Wissmann did for the secondary mysteries of + the Congo basin. The eastern half of the Niger course, from its + mouth upward to Sokoto, had been carefully explored in 1880-1 by the + German E. R. Flegel; and this last most noteworthy explorer in + 1882-4 traversed the unknown southern basin of the Benue, and traced + that river to its ultimate source near Ngaundéré. The gap between + the basin of the Congo and Lake Chad was filled up between 1890 and + 1900 by the explorations of Paul Crampel, Dybowski, C. Maistre, E. + Gentil, A. Bernard, F. J. Clozel and other French travellers. + + Between 1889 and 1895, Sir Alfred Sharpe (afterwards Governor of + Nyasaland) gradually mapped Lake Mweru, discovered the large salt + marsh between that lake and Tanganyika, explored the Luapula and the + Luangwa, and made other interesting additions to the map in + South-Central Africa, discoveries supplemented by the survey of Lake + Bangweulu by Mr Poulett Weatherley. Captain Hore, an agent of the + London Missionary Society, made a survey of Lake Tanganyika between + 1878 and 1889; and his discoveries in its water fauna were so + remarkable that Mr J. E. Moore (a scientific zoologist) was sent out + in 1896 to study the prawns, jelly-fish and water molluscs of + Tanganyika, the remarkable character of which had first been noted + by Böhm (1879) and Hore. Moore afterwards explored the snow-crowned + volcanoes of Mfumbiro (Virunga) and thence proceeded to Ruwenzori + (Mubuku valley) and Uganda. He had previously explored the water + fauna of Lakes Shirwa and Nyasa. Count Goetzen explored the unknown + country between Lake Edward Nyanza and Tanganyika, discovering the + lofty volcanoes of Virunga and Lake Kivu; and Mr Scott Elliott + journeyed from the east coast to Mt Ruwenzori, and thence to British + Central Africa for botanical purposes. + + The great eastern horn of Africa, Somaliland and Galaland, was long + left unexplored after Burton and Speke’s journey to Harrar in the + fifties. At the beginning of the eighties its exploration was again + attempted. Messrs F. L. and W. D. James, with three companions, + penetrated Somaliland as far south as the Webbe Shebeili River. They + were succeeded in exploration by Révoil (a Frenchman), by Ruspoli, + Bricchetti-Robecchi and Bottego (Italians), and by Borelli (a + Frenchman). The last-named made a most important journey south from + Abyssinia, and discovered the Omo River. His account of his travels, + published by the French Government, is an almost perfect exemplar of + what such a work should be. Mr W. Astor Chanler, an American, + afterwards made an important rough survey of Galaland, north of the + Tana River. Dr J. W. Gregory, of the British Museum, travelled to + Lake Baringo and Kenya, which mountain he ascended higher than any + preceding explorer. Dr Gregory’s journey was productive of much + information regarding the geology of the countries traversed. Dr + Donaldson Smith (an American) travelled in 1894-5 over these + countries between Somaliland and Bantu East Africa, bringing back + much new material for geography. Captain (now Colonel) H. G. C. + Swayne explored the interior of Somaliland; Colonel Seymour + Vandeleur surveyed Uganda and Unyoro; Colonel Sir J. R. L. Macdonald + in 1897-9[185] conducted a most important expedition, which for the + first time traversed the mountainous country between Mt Elgon, Lake + Rudolf and the Mountain Nile, revealing much new geography and + ethnology; and Mr H. S. H. Cavendish in 1897-8 made a remarkable + journey across the eastern horn of Africa from the Gulf of Aden to + Lake Rudolf and Mombasa. + + In 1899, Mr H. Mackinder ascended the snow peak of Kenya to its + highest summit. Nine years previously the great extinct volcano of + Elgon (Equatorial East Africa) had been climbed to its highest point + (14,000 ft.) by an expedition under Messrs F. J. Jackson and Ernest + Gedge. C. W. Hobley also added a great deal of detail to our + knowledge (geographical and ethnological) of inner East Africa, from + Elgon to the German frontier in the south, between 1896 and 1912. + + The main features of German East Africa had already been discovered + before Germany took possession politically of the region between the + Zanzibar Coast and the great Lakes; but in 1889, Dr Hans Meyer + achieved the great feat of ascending the highest mountain in + Africa—Kilima-njaro—to its summit (19,321 feet). Oskar Baumann (a + Viennese) examined in some detail the northern parts of German East + Africa between 1888 and 1893, visiting the ultimate sources of the + Nile (the headwaters of the Kagera river) near the north-east coast + of Tanganyika and discovering or describing for the first time + tribes with puzzling linguistic affinities, such as the Sandawi. The + journeys of Dr Franz Stuhlmann both alone and with Emin Pasha, + especially in regard to the Tanganyika-Congo-Nile water-partings + were of great interest both to geography and ethnology. Honourable + mention must also be made of Captain Paul Kollmann, whose travels + round the south shores of the Victoria Nyanza and its islands + resulted in an admirable book on the people and languages of that + district. + + Between 1884 and 1900, much important exploring work was done in + German South-west Africa by H. Schnitz, Dr von Passarge, Drs A. + Schenk and Stromer von Reichenbach. Togoland in West Africa was + explored during the early nineties by Dr R. Büttner (already known + for his journeys in West Congoland), by L. von Bunnon and N. Seidel. + + Renewed interest in Morocco was shown during the last quarter of the + 19th century. Besides the bold journey of Joseph Thomson to the + Atlas mountains in 1888, there was the really remarkable exploration + of nearly the whole Moorish empire in 1883-6 by Charles de Foucauld, + a Frenchman travelling in disguise. Walter B. Harris crossed the + Atlas into Tafilalt in 1895. In Central Africa Colonel J. B. + Marchand and his companions performed a wonderful journey in 1895-9. + Entering French Congo from the Loango coast, Marchand travelled up + the Congo and Mubangi Rivers till he paused for a further + organization of his mission near the Congo-Nile water-parting. Then + he transported his little steamer in sections to the Suë, a + confluent of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, and thence navigated the western + confluents of the Nile till he reached the main stream. Pursuing his + journey east and north, he reached the old Egyptian station of + Fashoda on the White Nile, where he established himself, and where + he defeated a small body of Dervishes sent against him by the + Khalifa of Omdurman. The advent of the British and Egyptians under + Lord Kitchener rendered the evacuation of Fashoda by Marchand + necessary. The gallant French explorer therefore continued his + journey eastward by following up the Sobat River as far as it was + navigable, and thence struck across hitherto unknown countries, and + travelled through Shoa and Somaliland to the French port of Jibuti, + on the Gulf of Aden. From the point of view of distance traversed, + without great loss of men or material, Marchand deserves to rank as + a hero of African adventure. + + The only travellers in Madagascar who achieved important results in + geography and physical science were the English missionary, the Rev. + J. Sibree (1868-85), and above all Dr Alfred Grandidier (1875-1900), + E. F. Gautier (1892-9), and Dr G. Grandidier (1898-1902). To the + last-named is mainly due the recent discoveries of semi-fossil + extinct lemurs described in the publications of the Zoological + Society of London. To Alfred Grandidier we owe the magnificent work + in 28 volumes which completely describes this strange island. + + At the close of the 19th century France began to take definite + possession of the Sahara; and several expeditions, scientific and + political, traversed this desolate region and revealed all its + leading physical characteristics. Prominent among French explorers + was Fernand Foureau, who concluded ten years of varied explorations + by a magnificent journey in 1898-9 from Algeria to Zinder and Lake + Chad by way of Ahaggar, Air and Damerghu. G. B. M. Flamand explored + the important oasis of Tuat in 1900. Much exploring work went on in + the Niger Bend and the Ivory Coast hinterland; and the expedition + (1898-1900) of M. Hostains and Captain d’Ollone revealed great + mountains and the courses of numerous rivers in north-east Liberia. + + This record brings us down to the beginning of the 20th century. The + least-explored parts of Africa that then remained were: (1) the + interior of Liberia; (2) the region between the Benue and Cameroons + watersheds; (3) Lake Chad and the country between Lake Chad, the + Shari, and the Nile; (4) the Western Sahara; (5) the Libyan Desert + and Tibesti; (6) Wadai; (7) the region between the Shari, the Benue, + and the Mubangi; (8) that between the Cameroons, the Sanga river, + and the Mubangi; (9) South-west Congoland; (10) South-east Angola; + (11) the Moςambique hinterland, between Moςambique and Lake Nyasa; + (12) South-west Galaland and the region between the Sobat River and + Lake Rudolf. + + In regard to the first-named area, a good deal has been added to our + knowledge by the Dutch survey officers, Naber and Moret, by Mr John + Parkinson and Messieurs A. Chevalier and Maurice Delafosse; the + last-named having accomplished a remarkable language survey of West + Africa. In No. (2), must be recorded the journeys of Captain E. + Lenfant (who proved the connection between the Upper Benue and the + Shari system by way of the Tuburi marshes); of Colonel L. Jackson; + of P. Amaury Talbot (Benue, Cross River, and Ekoi country); and of + the German explorers F. Hutter, F. Bauer, and O. Zimmermann. As + regards No. (3)—Lake Chad—this first-discovered of all African lakes + was never properly investigated and mapped until the beginning of + the 20th century, when this work was accomplished by the expeditions + of Captain Lenfant, Colonel Destenave, Mons. A. Chevalier, and + Captain Tilho. It was also examined with much minuteness by + Lieutenant Boyd Alexander, whose Niger-Benue-Mubangi-Nile journey in + 1905 greatly added to our knowledge of the Chad region. In No. (4), + the Western Sahara and Southern Morocco, we have had the important + explorations of the French officers or civilians, La Perrone, + Arnaud, Paul Blanchet, Edmond Doutté, Cortier, Niéger, and Gautier + (this last specially studied the rock-engravings and archaeology); + and the noteworthy journey of the Englishman, Captain A. H. Haywood, + who travelled from Sierra Leone to Algiers. No. (5), still remains + one of the blankest parts of Africa, though the Eastern Sahara from + Tripoli to Bilma was crossed by Mr Hanns Vischer of British Nigeria + in 1906. The Libyan Desert is also being explored by W. Harding King + and other British explorers coming from Egypt. In Wadai, which was + traversed by Lieutenant Boyd Alexander in 1910 (he was killed on the + Darfur border), the French military occupation will soon produce a + detailed survey. In No. (7), there have been the detailed + explorations of Captain E. Lenfant, and Messrs E. F. Gautier and R. + Chudeau, on behalf of the French Government. The principal blanks in + No. (8) have been filled up by an English traveller, Mr G. L. Bates + (a remarkable field naturalist who has made very important + discoveries of new vertebrates in West Equatorial Africa), by O. + Zimmermann and other German explorers. In South-west Congoland a + great explorer and anthropologist has come to the front, Mr Emil + Torday, a Hungarian, whose admirable works on the Bushongo and the + tribes of the Kwango, Kwilu, Kasai, and Sankuru rivers, have been + published in English and French. Mention should also be made of the + journeys through central and northern Congoland of an Austrian, + Franz Thonner, which have been of great value in determining the + intricate distribution of language families in that region. + South-west Angola still remains very little known, though the work + of the Lobito Bay-Katanga railway is gradually casting a light on + the geography of this region; while in Barotseland and Northern + Rhodesia there have been the first-class surveys of Major A. St Hill + Gibbons, Frank Melland, and other officials of the British South + Africa Company. A good deal of accurate surveying and geological + investigation is needed in No. (11). In No. (12) (Southern Galaland + and the Sobat to Lake Rudolf), there have been since 1900 the + remarkable explorations and surveys of Oskar Neumann (a German), + Captain M. S. Wellby, Captain H. H. Austen and Captain P. + Maud—English officers travelling on their own behalf or on that of + the British Government. + + Dr Richard Kandt, a German, between 1901 and 1906, made a thorough + and careful survey of Lake Kivu, of the plateaus at the northern end + of Tanganyika, and of the Kagera (the ultimate Nile source) and its + tributaries. Between 1900 and 1904, Commander B. Whitehouse mapped + the entire coastline of the Victoria Nyanza Lake, making many new + discoveries and remedying many old errors of delineation. + + The long-talked-of journey from the Cape to Cairo was accomplished + first in 1900 by Mr Ewart Grogan, followed soon afterwards by Mons. + Lionel Décle. Many tourists and officials subsequently have repeated + this feat, rendered comparatively easy now by the development of + railways and river-steamboat navigation. A noteworthy journey + however was that in 1911 of Mr Frank Melland and a companion on + bicycles, from Rhodesia to Egypt. German officers have motored + across Africa, from German East to German South-west Africa. + + Noteworthy feats in exploration, though they may not have revealed + much that was new in cartography, have been the journeys and + studies of Lieut. P. H. G. Powell Cotton (Abyssinia, East Africa, + Congoland and Portuguese Guinea—1900-11); Auguste Chevalier, the + French botanist (Central Sudan, Upper Niger, West Congoland and + Liberia—1898-1910); Alexander Whyte, a Scottish botanical + collector (British Central Africa, East Africa, Uganda, and + Liberia—1891-1904); Dr W. A. Cunnington (Tanganyika, 1904-5); + H.R.H. the Duke of the Abruzzi, who in 1906 made the first + complete survey of the Ruwenzori range and ascended all the + highest peaks; A. Savage Landor, who crossed Africa at its + broadest, mainly on foot, from Somaliland to Senegal (1906); + Theodore Roosevelt (East Africa and Egyptian Sudan, 1909-10); and + Sir David and Lady Bruce (Uganda, Nyasaland, and Northern + Rhodesia—1903-11). + + The heroic stage of African exploration finished with the 19th + century; and it is impossible to record the names of all the + military and civil officials who have since been quietly, + painstakingly, and usefully filling in the details between the broad + outlines drawn (at the cost of terrible fatigue, severe ill-health, + and danger from savage natives) by the great explorers of the past. + There are still many high mountains to be ascended—in the Atlas, in + Tibesti, on the north Liberian border, on the south-eastern limits + of the Niger basin, in the Cameroons, south-west Moçambique, + south-east Angola and northern Galaland; there are lakes to be + plumbed, geological formations to be determined, zones of vegetation + and distribution of the rapidly-disappearing fauna to be defined. + Archaeology in South-east Africa, in the Sahara, in Morocco and + Somaliland, still has some surprises in store for us. The + palaeontological exploration of Africa is merely beginning; and + already in Algeria, Egypt, East and South Africa, and Madagascar + research has produced evidence of an amazing vanished fauna of giant + buffaloes, giant dinosaurs, giant birds, big horses, small + dinotheriums, of the remote ancestors of the elephants, whales, + sirenians, hippopotami, giraffes, monkeys, and anthropoid apes. A + more careful search after living types has already revealed since + 1900 the okapi in the north-east Congo forests, the big black pig of + Equatorial Africa, and several new antelopes and monkeys. Botanical + research has, since 1900, shown the existence in Africa of some + thirty sources of good rubber, and of many valuable gums and + oil-nuts. Gold has been found in the north-east Congo basin, tin in + Nigeria, and diamonds in German South-west Africa, in south-west + Congoland, and in Liberia. Africa will probably remain in the + future, what it has seemed to the Caucasian since he began his + historical colonization—the most interesting and mysterious of the + continents, always producing something new. + +----- + +Footnote 163: + + See the article of Professor Flinders-Petrie in the _Geographical + Journal_, November, 1908. + +Footnote 164: + + Caius Plinius Secundus: born at Verona or Como 23 A.C. His + geographical publication or _Natural History_ was published + (according to Sir E. Bunbury) in 77 A.C. + +Footnote 165: + + He visited the Upper Niger in 1352. + +Footnote 166: + + The subsequent adventures of this heroic man, Lobo, are summarized + in my book, _The Nile Quest_, 1903. + +Footnote 167: + + Probably identical with the Ba-jok or Va-kioko between the rivers + Kwango and Kasai. + +Footnote 168: + + See my _Pioneers in West Africa_, 1911. + +Footnote 169: + + Where he was British Chaplain. + +Footnote 170: + + Pliny and one or two succeeding classical geographers mention the + Ger or Gir and the Niger as rivers of Western Africa, the former + being possibly the river Draa. Both words may be derived from + Berber roots. + +Footnote 171: + + See my work, _Pioneers in West Africa_, for details of Hornemann’s + journey and the possible date and place of his death. + +Footnote 172: + + Afterwards Sir William C. Harris. He explored Shoa (South of + Abyssinia) in 1841-2, and was knighted for concluding a treaty on + behalf of the Government of India with the King of Shoa. + +Footnote 173: + + Then nearly independent of Turkey, and ruled by the Karamanli + dynasty of Turkish pashas. + +Footnote 174: + + Denham, who had really rendered great services in the cause of + exploration, was rewarded somewhat inadequately with the post of + Secretary to the colony of Sierra Leone and Superintendent of the + slave settlement at Fernando Pô, where he soon died. + +Footnote 175: + + In a patent collapsible boat. + +Footnote 176: + + His name is spelt by the French “Mardochée.” + +Footnote 177: + + Ludwig Krapf, like his colleagues in East Africa, Rebmann and + Erhardt, was a native of Württemberg, having been born near + Tübingen in that South-German kingdom. + +Footnote 178: + + These in order of achievements were: Frédéric Caillaud (French) + who explored the Nile as far as Khartum and the Blue Nile to + Fazogl (1819-23); Adolphe Linant (Belgian) who in 1827 penetrated + 150 miles above Khartum; Thibaut (French consul at Khartum), who, + with one of Muhammad Ali’s expeditions reached as far south as Bôr + (6°, 30′ N. Lat.); and Ferdinand Werne (German) who got as high up + the Mountain Nile as Gondokoro (4°, 20′) and mapped the whole + course of the river from Khartum to Gondokoro in 1841. + +Footnote 179: + + For a detailed account of Miss Tinne’s work and terrible death, + see my book _The Nile Quest_ (1903). + +Footnote 180: + + Dr Bastian had explored the Lower Congo in 1858; and the region of + Loango was examined by a German scientific expedition in 1875-80, + by Bastian, Pechuel Loesche, Falkenstein, and other German + explorers. + +Footnote 181: + + This was the letter which Stanley wrote to England appealing to + missionaries to come out and settle at the court of the King of + Uganda. It was taken away by Linant de Bellefonds to be posted in + Egypt. After leaving Uganda, de Bellefonds was killed by the Bari + on the Upper Nile. Stanley’s letter was concealed in one of the + boots of the corpse when it was recovered. It was handed to + General Gordon, and transmitted by him to England. + +Footnote 182: + + Sir Harry Johnston and Dr Cross discovered the south end of this + lake in 1889. + +Footnote 183: + + Wissmann was a lieutenant in the Prussian army, born at + Frankfurt-on-the-Oder. He played subsequently a great part in + German East Africa. + +Footnote 184: + + Baumann made a careful examination of the mountainous country of + Usambara in East Africa, and mapped the lands due west of the + Victoria Nyanza. + +Footnote 185: + + Sir J. R. L. Macdonald (then Captain Macdonald, R.E.) had + conducted with Captain Pringle, R.E. a very remarkable railway + survey at the beginning of the nineties, from Mombasa to the + Victoria Nyanza, a survey which was really a geographical + exploration of the East Africa Protectorate. + + + + + CHAPTER XIII + + + BELGIAN AFRICA + + + It has been already related in the preceding chapter how the + geographical ardour of the King of the Belgians resulted in the + sending of Stanley with an important expedition to explore the + Congo. Previous to this enterprise, however, King Leopold II had + shown himself deeply interested in the fate of Central Africa. + Following on the successful crossing of the continent from the + Zanzibar to the Benguela coast by Commander V. L. Cameron, R.N., and + his revelation of the richly endowed territories of the Southern + Congo basin, King Leopold had summoned to Brussels under his own + presidency a conference of geographers, which created an + International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of + Central Africa and for the abolition of the Slave Trade which then + was really ravaging that region. This International Association soon + separated into a number of National Committees; that of Belgium was + founded in November, 1876, and in 1877-79 Belgian Expeditions were + sent out _via_ Zanzibar to Tanganyika. By August, 1879, Capitaine + Cambier (an excellent pioneer), had founded the station of Karema on + the south-east Coast of Tanganyika. Captain E. Storms established + himself here (together with the White Fathers’ Catholic Mission) in + 1880, and set to work to unite the Tanganyika tribes in self-defence + against the Arab slave raiders. Storms became quite a hero after + beating off the Arab forces with merely native material, hastily + drilled as soldiers. By 1885, he had become recognized as the great + White Chief and Protector of southern Tanganyika. + + In 1879 from out of the Belgian branch of the African International + Association there grew the Comité d’Études du Haut Congo, which + projected the idea of Stanley’s concluding in its name treaties with + the paramount chiefs of the Congo region, treaties by means of which + these chiefs should agree to join in a sort of confederation for + purposes of mutual support, while at the same time they admitted + into their territories the traders who would be sent out by the + Committee, which was in some sort to become the suzerain of this + Congo Federation. Mr Stanley appears to have been under the + impression that the final protectorate over the central Congo would + be a British one; until 1884 few people seemed to think that the + King of the Belgians would make himself the sovereign of the Congo. + In the early eighties a kind of Anglo-French duel had taken place on + the Congo, De Brazza representing the French cause and Stanley the + British. When it began to dawn on the British Government that the + King of the Belgians was working for purely Belgian interests, it + occurred to them that there was no reason why England and Portugal + might not come to terms, at any rate about the Lower Congo. So the + abortive treaty of 1884 was drawn up, but not ratified. Believing + that this was a preliminary to a British Protectorate of the Congo, + France and Germany joined hands; and a Conference on African affairs + was convened at Berlin, the first of a long series of actions taken + jointly by the other states of Europe to check the extension of + British influence. + + At the Berlin Conference of 1884-5 the Congo Independent State[186] + was recognized by all the leading powers of Europe as a sovereign + state with the King of the Belgians at its head. The boundaries were + not definitely fixed, but the west coast of Tanganyika was made the + eastern limit; and Captain Storms, to his great chagrin, was + recalled. Before giving her consent, however, France reserved to + herself the right of preemption over these Congo territories, + besides securing by an agreement with the King of the Belgians a + large portion of western Congoland. Mr (afterwards Sir Henry) + Stanley then ceased to administer the Congo State, and was succeeded + first by Sir Frederick Goldsmid, and then by Sir Francis De Winton, + who governed for the King of the Belgians, but gave a distinctly + English tone to the administration. Mons. Camille Janssen, however, + succeeded Sir Francis De Winton in 1886; the international character + of the state was dropped; and the British, French, Portuguese, + Swedish and German officials were gradually replaced by Belgians, so + that by 1891 the entire administration was Belgian. Stanley, + however, had once more intervened (in 1887) in the affairs of the + Free State, which had got into great difficulties owing to the + attacks of the Zanzibar Arabs on the Upper Congo. Stanley + temporized, seeking to gain time for the young state, and recognized + Tipu Tipu[187], the leading Arab, as Governor for the King of the + Belgians over the Upper Congo. Tipu Tipu withdrew about 1890, when + the Arab revolt against the Germans had caused grave tension between + the Arabs and Europeans in Central Africa. After his withdrawal, the + Arabs, who had now become extremely powerful on the Upper Congo, + attacked the Belgians in 1892, murdering a trader, Hodister, and the + unoffending Emin Pasha, and imprisoning and eventually killing the + Belgian resident and his assistant at the Arab capital (Kasongo), + besides massacring the men at several outposts. The forces of the + State—largely composed of Congo natives with a few Hausas from + Nigeria and one or two noteworthy Liberian negroes—were ably led by + nineteen Belgian and one English officers, and commanded by + Commandant (afterwards created Baron) Dhanis. The English officer + referred to was Captain (originally Surgeon) Sidney L. Hinde, + afterwards a British official in East Africa. + + Dhanis commenced, in July 1892, a most noteworthy campaign from a + base—Lusambo—on the Sankuru river. His little army marched through + forest paths to the Lomami and thus took the Arabs in flank. From + the Lomami the Belgian force gained the banks of the great + Lualaba-Congo, and, victory succeeding victory, they captured + Nyangwe (the great Slave City of Livingstone’s day) on March 4, + 1893, and carried Kasongo (the Arab stronghold) by assault on April + 22, 1893. The story, as told by Captain Sidney Hinde[188], of the + capture of Nyangwe and Kasongo reads like episodes in an impossible + Rider Haggard romance. It was one of the greatest feats of arms, of + endurance and splendid courage that the history of Africa can show. + By the beginning of 1894, the Belgians had achieved the conquest of + the whole of the country up to the west shores of Tanganyika, and + the death or expulsion from Congoland of all the Arab leaders. This + brilliant episode in Belgian Congo history was however sullied by + the judicial murder, in September, 1893, of Gongo Lutete, the great + Manyema chief who at the commencement of the struggle with the Arabs + had come over to the Belgian side and whose alliance alone made + victory possible to the Belgian force. The execution of this warrior + chief—without respite or appeal, on no credible evidence of + treachery—following a drumhead court-martial presided over by a + young Belgian lieutenant, is as painful to read as the preceding + campaign of Baron Dhanis against the Arab slave-traders is a source + of satisfaction to all interested in the welfare of Africa. The + Belgians were eventually to pay dearly for this miscarriage of + justice. The remembrance of the death of Gongo Lutete smouldered + amongst the negro soldiery he had raised for service with the + Belgians; and in 1895 they broke out into open mutiny at Luluabourg + and killed their Belgian commanding officer. Baron Dhanis composed + this mutiny by punishment and negotiations; but in 1897 the mutiny + broke out again amongst those Manyema and Batetela soldiers who had + been transferred to the Lado enclave of the Nile basin. The revolt + spread far and wide and was not at an end till 1900. + + In 1892, King Leopold II, alarmed by the progress of the British + South Africa Company, sent out an expedition under Captain Stairs + (Stanley’s former Lieutenant—a Nova-Scotian) to occupy in his name + the territory of Katanga, which was a debateable land, to some + extent under British missionary influence, but claimed as lying + within the boundaries of the Congo State. Its king (Msidi) was an + Mnyamwezi adventurer and slave trader; nevertheless he had ruled his + country with a certain degree of wisdom, and had permitted British + missionaries to settle there and British travellers to explore; + therefore it was learned with some regret that he had been summarily + shot for refusing to hand over his territory to the Belgians. Not + content with the gigantic dominion already under his control, the + King of the Belgians aspired to extend it to the banks of the White + Nile. In 1894 an agreement was concluded with the British Government + by which, in exchange for a strip of territory which would enable + the latter to connect the northern end of Tanganyika with Uganda, + the King of the Belgians took over on lease the administration of + territories as far north as the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the White Nile. + But this settlement was practically annulled by the subsequent + Belgian convention with France, which restricted the northern + boundary of the Congo Independent State to the Mbomu affluent of the + Wele River, while the King of the Belgians retained for a time the + lease of a small patch of territory on the west bank of the White + Nile, opposite Lado. + + Another event in the recent history of the Congo State, which has + caused some anger in England, was the summary execution of the + unfortunate Charles Stokes by a Belgian officer named Lothaire. Mr + Stokes (who was an Ulster Irishman) had once been a missionary, and + used to travel backwards and forwards to Uganda. He then set up for + himself as a trader, and, although a British subject, he was + sufficiently international in his sympathies to work for the Germans + in helping to found their East African colony. In the course of his + ivory-trading expeditions he entered the Congo State. It was + suspected by Lothaire that he was furnishing the Arabs with powder; + he therefore sent a messenger to Stokes, summoning him to his camp. + Stokes came unsuspecting. He was put through a cross-examination + over-night, and in the early morning taken out of his hut and + hanged. In plain language, he was murdered; for not only did he + receive no trial, but at that time British consular jurisdiction was + maintained in the Congo State, and no sufficient evidence was + brought forward to show that Stokes had sold any powder to the + Arabs, or done anything worthy of death. Major Lothaire was tried + for the murder of Stokes both at Boma and again at Brussels, but was + pronounced not guilty at each trial, and was regarded by a portion + of the Belgian press as having been a national hero. He was, + however, eventually dismissed from the service of the Congo Free + State, and an indemnity of £6000 was paid to the child of Stokes. + + In July 1898, there was opened for public use (largely through the + enterprise of Colonel Thys) a railway from Matadi to Stanley Pool, + about 250 miles long, which had taken about 8½ years to construct, + but which, once finished, was of enormous aid in the development of + the natural resources of Congoland. Matadi is a port on the lower + Congo (110 miles from the sea), up to which ocean-going steamers are + able to ascend. From Léopoldville on Stanley Pool there are between + 4000 and 5000 miles of navigable waterways along which steamers and + steam-launches can penetrate into the hinterland of French Congo and + the Cameroons, to within a few days’ journey of the Central Sudan + (Shari basin) and the Egyptian Sudan, German East Africa and + Rhodesia. + + But the effects which followed the opening of this railway were + different from King Leopold’s anticipations. It was + discovered—slowly—by European public opinion that one of the boldest + outrages on international law and equity known to history had been + perpetrated by the man who had posed before Europe in 1876 as a + disinterested philanthropist desirous of devoting his spare funds to + the realization of Livingstone’s ideals, and to the regeneration of + Negro Africa. By means of Stanley he had between 1879 and 1885 + founded his Congo Independent State, basing his right to call + himself “Roi-Souverain” of this vast dominion on a number of + treaties made by his agents in the region now known as French Congo, + and also along both banks of the main Congo river from the sea + upwards to the Kwa-Kasai confluence; that is to say, over only + one-fortieth part of the area he claimed to govern by the assent of + its native chiefs as well as of Europe. + + Two of the numerous conditions imposed on his government of the + Congo were freedom of trade throughout the Congo basin, and the + right of missionaries to travel, to settle, and to build where they + would, without hindrance. Yet no sooner was King Leopold II + acknowledged internationally as King-Sovereign of the Congo State + than he began to set on one side all such stipulations of the Act of + Berlin as fettered his intentions of self-enrichment and + unquestionable autocracy. Freedom of trade, except at the mouth and + along the estuarine Congo, became an impossibility. By 1890, in the + Congo basin above Stanley Pool, ivory had been constituted a State + monopoly; and rubber was soon placed in much the same category. + Commerce was chiefly restricted to the State, and to one Dutch and + various Belgian firms, though commercial agencies on the Lower Congo + were still maintained by merchants of other nations. This policy on + the part of the Congo State, which on the strength of its + philanthropic assurances had obtained permission in 1891 to levy + import duties, was much criticized, and led to some alienation of + sympathy in England. Added to this were the extraordinary stories of + atrocities which began to be spread by British, American, and + Swedish missionaries. It was said that, to enforce the payment of + tribute in ivory and rubber, the Belgian officials ordered their + negro subordinates to cut off the hands of all who refused payment. + It was stated that the natives were plunged into a slavery worse + than anything the Arabs had introduced, that they were shot down for + trifling causes, and that the negro police and soldiers of the State + were allowed without hindrance to devour the bodies of the slain in + battle. These charges in some cases were scarcely credible as + applied to the actions of civilized human beings; King Leopold in + 1896 instituted a committee of missionaries to enquire into them, + and to offer suggestions for better methods of administration. But + the committee was fettered in many ways and prevented from obtaining + evidence. The charge of permitting cannibalism has been + substantiated by the accounts of Captain S. L. Hinde, already + referred to, and by other British officers in the Congo service. The + fact was, that a territory nearly as large as Brazil had been handed + over to be governed by a number of young Belgian officers and the + employés of a few concessionaire companies. The subordinates whom + they employed in their administration and warfare were savages + barely reclaimed from the most barbarous practices; and just as, in + a far less degree, the Matebele police of the British South Africa + Company were guilty of malpractices that the Company would never + knowingly have allowed to be perpetrated, so the negro soldiers of + the Congo State committed appalling outrages before their officers + could become cognizant of their intended actions and prevent them. + But nothing can be said in excuse or mitigation of the behaviour of + certain agents of privileged companies and even persons employed on + the private domain of King Leopold, whose actions as recorded in + undisputed evidence were almost those of devils. + + In July 1885 the King-Sovereign of the Congo State issued a decree + that all vacant land within the boundaries of the State were the + “private property” (the _Domaine privé_) of the Government; the + Government being then and for twenty-five years afterwards the + despotic King-Sovereign. Little objection was raised to this measure + at first, the general idea (very similar to announcements made then + and later by other European Powers in their African possessions) + being that King Leopold wished to protect the rights of the natives + from being hurriedly and foolishly sold to private speculators in + land, or concession-hunters. But in 1891 a “secret decree” was sent + out from the King’s cabinet, reserving to the State all elephants + and their ivory and all wild rubber and forest-produce on the + “vacant lands” of the _Domaine privé_. The officers of the State + were enjoined to organize the collection (as a form of taxes) of all + the ivory and rubber procurable; and the natives of Congoland + (except the small western strip near the Atlantic) were obliged to + sell all their produce to the State only. By a later decree they + were actually forbidden to leave their villages without a special + permit. In short, so far as the King-Sovereign’s writ ran, the whole + population of Belgian Congo—nearly a million square miles—was + virtually enslaved, and this by the man who in 1876 stood up before + Europe and announced that he was going to devote such of his time + and money as he could spare from Belgium to the abolition of slavery + in Central Africa and the raising of the Negro to a condition of + freedom and enlightenment. + + In 1896 another “secret decree” created the _Domaine de la + Couronne_, and carved out for King Leopold II an area of 112,000 + square miles in the very heart of Congoland, between the Sankuru and + the Busira rivers. This region, amazingly rich in wild rubber, was + to be privately administered by Leopold II without rendering any + account to the State exchequer, and of course without laying its + enormous revenues (wrung from the inhabitants by cruelties and + stress scarcely surpassed by the recently-revealed horrors of the + Putumayo) under any contribution towards the annual expenses of + public administration in the Congo State. In addition, the whole + rest of the _Domaine privé_ (except always the exhausted strip along + the Congo banks between Stanley Pool and the sea) was divided up + into regions strictly reserved for a State monopoly of products, and + others which were farmed out to concessionaire companies, in which + either the State, or King Leopold, or both, were partners in + profits. To these concessionaire companies were at first given + almost unlimited powers over the natives, from which resulted the + frightful abuses that shocked the conscience of Europe and + Anglo-Saxon America. One foreign trading-house which might have + protested was squared by being given part of the plunder; most other + old-established trading houses on the Lower River were prevented + from trading inland; influential Englishmen (not forgetting several + connected with the press) were admitted to this profit-taking; and + for some twelve years these truly iniquitous proceedings were + ignored, in spite of the missionary protests which began in 1898, + and of Mr Fox-Bourne’s trenchant attack[189] on King Leopold’s + policy published in 1903—ignored, that is to say, by the governments + of the States which had taken part in the Berlin Conference of 1884. + Statesmen of probity found it impossible at first to believe that + Leopold II, King of the Belgians, grandson of Louis Philippe, cousin + of Queen Victoria, husband of an Austrian Archduchess, a devoted + upholder of the Roman Church, and a very rich man, could for a + moment lend himself to a policy at once infamous, flagrantly unjust, + exceedingly cruel, and incredibly mean[190]. The gallant actions of + many a Belgian pioneer on Tanganyika and on the Lualaba—even on the + fringe of that Egyptian Sudan which Great Britain then lacked the + resolution to enter—were pointed to. The great record of Storms was + unearthed from missionary records, and public opinion was asked “Is + it possible that the man who sent out such officers as these, who + quenched the slave traffic which Livingstone abhorred but was + powerless to arrest, who brought relief from Dervish tyranny to the + harassed natives of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, could wish to enrich + himself, and himself alone, with the produce of all Congoland, could + tolerate the collection of rubber or the obtaining of ivory by + methods of compulsion only to be parallelled in the worst records of + Spain in the New World?” Yet it was true. Side by side with this + devastation of the Congo basin—a devastation which has left Arab + slave-raids far, far behind, which has reduced the native population + in fifteen years (sleeping sickness aiding) from an approximate + twenty millions to a bare nine millions—a work of civilization as + good in its way as anything that Britain or France has done in + Uganda or Nigeria was going on. Wherever Belgian officers could get + a free hand, and were not the mere agents of this singularly + heartless man, they built up native communities anew, and were even + loved and honoured by the natives. It was not the Belgian nation, so + much, that was to blame, or Belgian men who failed in those great + administrative qualities which are possessed by so many other + European nations; it was the system imposed on them by a being born + out of due time, a personality that had stepped unaltered from the + 16th century into the 19th. Yet, to be just, this conception of + “African colonization” was not peculiar to Leopold II. It was the + ideal of some English minds and was still more the vogue with a + certain type of French Colonial administrator or minister. As we + have seen, French Congo had a history very like that of the Belgian + Congo. + + King Leopold preserved himself long from attack and warded off many + a blow from the British Parliament by pointing to British companies + and British monopolies in Africa. And we had—it seems—no statesman + sufficiently adroit to indicate to him the cardinal difference. In + none of her permanent arrangements and at no time even in theory did + Great Britain tolerate in her African dominions or spheres of + influence monopolies which limited the trade of the country to one + or more privileged organizations, or which obliged the natives to + confine their commerce to any particular firm or individual trader. + Great Britain did acknowledge (usually where it was impossible to do + otherwise) that certain pioneer companies or persons held by + purchase under fair conditions large areas of land in “new” Africa; + but the natives’ rights to the land they occupied and used were + respected, provision was always made for their expansion, and in + most cases the whole of the vacant land was vested in the British + Government. But not on lines parallel to those which were followed + by Leopold II, not with the result of enriching the private revenues + of Queen Victoria or King Edward, or of endowing Margate with a + bandstand, Bournemouth with an opera house, or London with a new + museum. The British Government has regarded itself as holding the + vacant lands in trust for the infant state and for all its future + inhabitants, without distinction of colour, except it be that a more + liberal treatment is to be shown to black than white. All the + revenues derived from the state lands in British Africa are + accounted for annually and are applied to the service and for the + benefit of the country from which they are derived. Therein lies the + radical difference between the spoliations of King Leopold (or of + the old Spanish Colonial Empire) and the policy of Great Britain and + most other modern European powers in Asia and Africa. It may or may + not be a good thing that one half of the land in Uganda or in + Nigeria is the property of the State, a state mainly administered at + present by Europeans. But at any rate all the revenue derived from + the land can be ascertained by any native sufficiently educated to + read annual reports; and all this revenue is spent—usually with the + knowledge and advice of native counsellors—on Nigeria or Uganda, as + the case may be, and not on any other land. King Leopold, it is + true, while he took unto himself all the revenues, direct and + indirect, derived from the Congo State, had, prior to 1890, + supported out of his privy purse the cost of creating and + maintaining the Congo State (a total amount about £500,000 in value) + and probably spent in addition up till 1901 another £400,000. But + even after allowing him interest at 4 per cent, (in theory) on this + outlay of £900,000 and adding to that a theoretical Civil List at + £20,000 a year as King-Sovereign, he was still owing the Congo State + an amount understated at £4,000,000, when that State was annexed by + Belgium in 1909. That is to say, he profited by his intervention in + Congo affairs at least to that amount, and probably to an extent + much greater. And his great riches were obtained at a cruel cost in + human lives and human misery. + + I desire to present all aspects of this astounding episode in the + history of the colonization of Africa. Therefore I would state that + King Leopold employed a small percentage of the profits above + computed—say £100,000—in promoting the scientific investigation of + his territories and subject peoples, with the result that our + knowledge of the fauna, flora, meteorology and above all ethnology + of the Congo basin were immensely increased. Also, however unfair in + regard to solemn treaty stipulations were his concessions and his + monopolies, these did much to enrich Belgium and Antwerp in + particular. It can well be imagined that, when so many of the king’s + subjects were raking in large and small fortunes out of Congo + rubber, ivory, and palm oil, when churches were rising from Congo + donations, museums were endowed, kiosques and public gardens were + being presented to Belgian towns from out of the fringe of this + profit-taking, Belgians (very ignorant as a rule about Africa or + Colonial policy or subjects outside Belgian life) should have been + enthusiastic about their monarch, his “slimness,” and his Congo + milch-cow. And notable English potentates in shipping and finance + were partners with King Leopold, whose press department further + stifled criticism in the journals of America, France, and Germany. + Few stories therefore are at once more romantic—and will seem more + incredible to posterity—than that which relates how this Goliath was + overcome by a David in the person of a poor shipping clerk in the + office of a Liverpool shipping firm which was amongst the partners + of King Leopold. + + This shipping clerk—E. D. Morel—was sent over to Antwerp, and + Belgium generally, because he could speak French, and could + therefore arrange all the minutiae of steamer fares and passenger + accommodation, and the scales of freights for goods and produce, + with the Congo State officials. In the course of his work he became + acquainted with some of the grisly facts of Congo maladministration. + He drew his employers’ attention to these stories and their + verification. The result was his dismissal. + + Almost penniless, he set to work with pen and paper to enlighten the + world through the British press and British publishers on the state + of affairs on the Congo. From African merchants, not quite so + callous as his late employers, he received support, which also came + slowly and at first grudgingly from the public. He succeeded in + interesting the Government of the day; for his charges were amply + borne out by the British consuls sent to Congoland to report (the + best-known of whom was Sir Roger Casement). Morel had to face the + insults and even the personal assaults of paid opponents at his + meetings, and the calumnies of King Leopold’s subsidized press; but + he roused public opinion in Britain, Belgium, the United States, + Switzerland, France and Germany. The first notice Goliath took of + David was—very reluctantly—to appoint a Commission of enquiry + consisting of a Belgian, an Italian, and a Swiss jurist of + distinction and honesty. Their report, though its publication was + only partial, was a virtual admission of the truth of the + allegations made by Morel and the British consuls and missionaries. + King Leopold, in fact, had no defence to offer; and although, + exerting his powers as King, as the relation of Kings and Emperors, + as a rich man, to the utmost, he managed to prolong discussions and + negotiations as long as possible, the end was inevitable. The Congo + was taken from him and was annexed by Belgium on November 14, 1908. + On December 17, 1909, King Leopold died. Stanley, “Bula Matadi,” the + real creator of the Congo State, had predeceased him by five years, + dying in 1904, the last few years of his life saddened by the + disheartening conviction that the immediate effect of his life’s + work had been a sordid scandal and the most monstrous piece of + hypocrisy ever perpetrated by Europe in Africa[191]. + + Leopold II found many champions in England and the United States, + even among men and women travellers of good repute, incapable of + being bribed or cajoled. But the explanation of this seeming + anomaly, in contrast to the withering denunciations of Morel, of + British, American, Swedish, and Belgian missionaries and publicists, + lies in the fact that these apologists or eulogists of the King or + of his Belgian officers never entered the vast _Domaine de la + Couronne_ (a territory larger in area than the United Kingdom) or + penetrated far into the jealously-closed concessions of the Belgian + companies; and also from the strange ignorance many of such + travellers showed in the elementary ethics of native rights. They + saw—as the present writer did—order taking the place of disorder, + improved cultivation, handsome buildings, Arab slavery at an end, + education spreading among and through the native soldiery, and many + other beneficent signs of civilization, and they never examined into + what was going on away from the stereotyped travel routes. Or if + they were of the Emil Torday class of scientific explorer, they + penetrated at great risk into remote parts of south-west, north, and + north-east Congoland wherein the native tribes were too powerful to + be enslaved and constrained to gather rubber or to confine their + trade to the King’s agents and concessionaires. Fortunately such + districts escaped the Leopoldian ravages and are now ripe for a + well-ordered civilization to be imparted to their peoples through + Belgian agency. + + Any historian who omitted to dwell on the devoted and usually poorly + paid work of many a Belgian officer and civilian in Congoland + amongst quarrelsome or cruel native tribes, the achievements for the + good of the natives of many a Belgian engineer, doctor, planter, + road-maker, stockman, and schoolmaster, would indeed be unjust. The + destruction of Arab tyranny will always remain a feat of + extraordinary courage and of lasting good to Central Africa; and + fortunately it was not in the regions rescued from Arab sway that + the wrong-doing of the King and his concessionaires took place. The + Arab-conquered portions of the Congo basin have never gone back in + prosperity and well-being of the natives since they became Belgian + provinces; and much the same might be said about Katanga, which + under its usurping Wa-nyamwezi chiefs had been soaked in blood. But + the Congo basin is still governed by Belgium under a régime which + fails to conform precisely to the conditions laid down by the Act of + Berlin or to satisfy those who desire justice of treatment for + native races leading a settled agricultural life. + + The present King of the Belgians (Albert I) visited the Congo + territories in 1907, traversed Congoland from Katanga to the mouth + of the Congo, and resolved that his policy as King-Sovereign should + be on lines radically different from those of his predecessor. + Already a current of free trade is permeating the dominion and + bringing with it freedom in other directions. The greater native + chiefs are now encouraged to work with the Belgian Government and to + look after the immediate interests of their own subjects. Railways + have been rapidly pushed forward in eastern Congoland, which will + some day link up Northern Rhodesia with Uganda, with the + Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and the French Sudan. + + There should be a great future, commercially at any rate, before the + Belgian Congo, which in wealth of vegetable and mineral products and + length of navigable waterways resembles Brazil and Guiana; and, + theoretically, there should be no reason why Flemings and Walloons + as guardians of this rich Central African state should not play as + great a _rôle_ in the Dark Continent as they have done in the + industrial and artistic history of Europe. Yet little Belgium has a + tremendous task before her in raising this immense territory to the + condition of Brazil or Java; and the regret naturally felt by + English, German, and French writers that this wealthy territory was + more or less disdained by their Governments in the days of Cameron’s + and Stanley’s earlier journeys and advertisements of its + capabilities, no doubt stimulates on their part a destructive + criticism of Belgian efforts and capabilities. It is sometimes + hinted that this unwieldy state will not long outlive as a political + entity the monarch who founded it, and that its southern provinces + will fall to England, its northern to France, and its western to + Germany. But predictions in regard to the evolution of African + history are very uncertain of fulfilment, and the Congo State may + yet become and remain a Belgian India. + +----- + +Footnote 186: + + It was never officially styled the Congo “Free” State. The meaning + of the French words was “the Independent State of the Congo”; and + unhappily it was no more “free” in its subsequent history than in + name. _Bula Matadi_ was its local title in Congoland, such being + Stanley’s nickname (Rock-breaker). + +Footnote 187: + + Hamed bin Muhammad bin Juma, nicknamed Tipu Tipu or “Tippootib.” + +Footnote 188: + + _The Fall of the Congo Arabs_, Methuen, 1897. This campaign is + also described in my book _George Grenfell and the Congo_. + +Footnote 189: + + _Civilization in Congoland._ + +Footnote 190: + + The direct trading agents of King Leopold and his concessionaire + companies, and the ofttimes worthy and gallant servants of the + Congo State, were miserably underpaid. + +Footnote 191: + + Sir Henry Morton Stanley (John Rowlands) was born in 1842 at + Denbigh in North Wales, the son of a farmer’s daughter who was + very poor. He became eventually a work-house boy, but managed to + acquire a passable education and to find his way twice to the + United States, where he pursued many careers till at length he + became a press reporter and a special correspondent. In this + capacity he “found” and relieved Livingstone and prolonged + Livingstone’s life by two years. In 1899 Stanley, who had been in + Parliament since 1895, was made G.C.B. by the British Government. + + + + + CHAPTER XIV + + THE BRITISH IN AFRICA, III + (_Egypt and Eastern Africa._) + + + Ever since the first year of the 19th century, when Britain expelled + the French from Egypt, she herself had longings to assume the + control of that country. One reason for this desire was very clear: + across Egypt lay the shortest sea route to India. Even without the + Suez Canal, a day’s journey on a railway or three days’ journey by + canal and carriage would transfer one from Alexandria on the + Mediterranean to Suez on the Red Sea. Two hundred and thirty-four + years ago, in the reign of Louis XIV, and one hundred and fourteen + years ago, in the dawning empire of Napoleon Bonaparte, when steam + was unknown as a motive power, the idea was conceived and born that + Egypt controlled the back door, the garden gate of India. But when + steam came into vogue on the sea, and later on the land, and people + contrasted the saving of time the Egyptian route offered, compared + with the weary three months’ voyage round the Cape, it became + apparent to British statesmen, that British influence must have full + play if not exclusive control in Egypt. + + Subsequent on the withdrawal of the French, a simple major of + artillery from European Turkey—Muhammad Ali—had suddenly risen to + power by procedure which was faithfully copied 80 years afterwards + by Arābi Pasha. He had inspired such energy and bravery into the + military forces of Egypt that in 1806-7 his soldiers defeated a + British force which landed at Alexandria and Rosetta, and attempted + to take possession of the country. Thus was staved off for 76 years + the British occupation of Egypt, an occupation which in 1806 would + have been far more rapidly converted into annexation than it could + possibly be at the present day[192]. + + Britain respected Muhammad Ali’s sturdy resistance, and although she + opposed his attempt to conquer the Turkish Empire, and—in opposition + to the foolish encouragement he received from France—seemed at one + time his enemy, she nevertheless saved him from downfall, and + assisted him to establish a dynasty in Egypt which has ruled, + directly or indirectly, for a century. Still, knowing British + hankerings, the Tsar Nicholas I offered Egypt and Crete to Britain a + short time prior to the Crimean War in return for a free hand at + Constantinople. Great Britain declined, dreading to see Russia, with + a new base at Constantinople and the locked Black Sea behind her, + becoming the strongest Power in the Eastern Mediterranean. Then came + the making of the Suez Canal by Ferdinand de Lesseps, the influence + of which, however, was somewhat counteracted by the fact that all + the Egyptian railways were British. Nevertheless, British influence + never stood so low in Egypt as at the opening of the Canal, when the + heir to the British Crown was lost amid a galaxy of reigning + sovereigns headed by the effulgence of the Empress of the French. + But although French influence had grown so strong in Egypt, the + French Government did not—overtly at any rate—strive for more than + an equal voice with England in the affairs of Egypt, partly owing to + a feeling of loyalty to the British alliance, which Napoleon III + displayed whenever he could, and, later, to the enfeeblement of + France after the German War. In 1871 something like a thousand + British steamers passed through the Suez Canal, the enormous + importance of which became so apparent that in 1875 the British + Government purchased the Canal Shares held by the Khedive of Egypt, + and thus became a controlling factor in the Canal Company. + + For between 1862 and 1877, Egypt had been ruined and reduced to + bankruptcy by a reckless borrowing of money on the part of her + native ruler, the Khedive Ismail. This prince at great cost + purchased his country’s practical freedom from Turkish control; + indeed, by 1873, he was virtually an independent sovereign. He + extended Egyptian rule into Equatorial Africa, reorganized his + customs’ service, carried through important public works; but he + also built palaces in profusion, and was guilty of needless + extravagance and waste. As the result of Egyptian bankruptcy, there + came into existence in 1877 the Dual Control of Britain and France + over Egyptian finances. Ismail instigated a rebellion against this + interference with his government and was deposed in 1879 by the + Sultan of Turkey. The Dual Control was re-established (Lord Cromer, + then Major Evelyn Baring, being one of the controllers) under the + new Khedive Taufik; but in 1881 occurred the revolt of the army + headed by Colonel Ahmed Arābi. France under the influence of + Gambetta pursued the same policy as Britain, namely, the delivering + of verbal warnings at intervals without the display of force. At + last, in June 1882, there was a riot and a massacre of Christians at + Alexandria. When the British fleet prepared to take action the + French withdrew, a hostile vote of the Chamber having dissolved the + Dual Control. Britain then intervened in Egypt against Arābi’s + revolt, bombarded the port of Alexandria (July 11, 1882), and seized + the Suez Canal. Lord Wolseley, of Ashanti fame, fought the battle of + Tel-el-Kebir, occupied Cairo (September 15), and reconquered the + country for the Khedive. When this had been done, the British + Government was in a dilemma. Had it, say some, on the capture of + Cairo, declared Egypt to be a British protectorate outright, it + would have only done what all the Powers of Europe expected. On the + other hand, this bold step would have meant the tearing up of + treaties and the partitioning of the Turkish Empire. Perhaps this + might have been got over by direct negotiation with the Sultan and + assurances of the continuance or composition of the tribute. + + From about 1853 an interest was taken in the development of the + Sudan by the British Government. A Glamorganshire mining engineer, + John Petherick, after his contract of service with the Egyptian + Government was over, established himself at Khartum as an ivory + trader and was made British Consular Agent. In the sixties the + journeys and explorations of Speke and Grant, and of Sir Samuel and + Lady Baker, brought the Egyptian Sudan prominently into notice. In + 1869 Sir Samuel Baker was made Egyptian Governor of the Equatorial + Province (Gondokoro to the Albert Nyanza). In 1874 he was succeeded + by Colonel Charles George Gordon, who became Governor-General over + the entire Egyptian Sudan in 1877. Between 1877 and 1879 Gordon + devoted himself, with the Italian Romolo Gessi as lieutenant, to the + defeat and suppression of the “Nubian” or “Bazinger” slave-traders + and raiders on the Bahr-al-Ghazal and Darfur. Unsuccessful wars of + conquest against Abyssinia took place during the seventies, and + equally unsuccessful attempts to secure the Mombasa coast and the + kingdom of Uganda—attempts opposed by the British Government. Gordon + was replaced by a Turk as Governor-General in 1880; and civilized + rule over the Egyptian Sudan began to decline, though Emin Pasha + (Eduard Schnitzer, a German of Silesia) ruled well and wisely over + the Equatorial Provinces till about 1886. + + In the autumn of 1882, the British Government was probably sincere + in declaring its intention presently to evacuate Egypt; but it + seemed as though fate had ordained that the British garrison should + remain in that country. In 1881 the Mahdi’s revolt had broken out in + the Sudan[193]. In November 1883 Hicks Pasha’s force was cut to + pieces in the wilds of Kordofan. General C. G. Gordon was sent to + relieve and remove the garrisons, instead of doing which he remained + at Khartum in the vain hope of restoring before he left it some kind + of order to the country that he loved. An army under Viscount + Wolseley was sent to rescue him. It arrived a few days too late, yet + might even then have retaken Khartum and put down the revolt; but + Russia was threatening to impinge on the borders of India, and Great + Britain could not afford to lock up many soldiers in Central Africa. + Not being able, therefore, to settle the Sudan question, the British + were forced to remain in Egypt to prevent that country from being + overrun by the Mahdists. An attempt was made in 1885-6 to negotiate + terms of withdrawal with the Sultan, but the proposed convention was + not ratified, owing to the opposition of France and Russia. + Gradually, owing to the ability and truly British calm of the + British Agent and Consul-General, Sir Evelyn Baring (who became Lord + Cromer in 1892), the situation grew into a possible one. A moderate + British garrison was retained. The Exchequer was placed under + British control, as were public works, the administration of + justice, the organization of the army, posts and telegraphs, and + other departments where an infusion of order, honesty, and economy + was necessary. The Khedive of Egypt continued to reign with British + support and under British advice. In 1890 the conclusion of the + Anglo-German agreement for delimiting the British and German spheres + of influence in East, West, and Central Africa had secured from one + European Power, at least, recognition of an eventual British control + over the former Equatorial provinces of Egypt. From this event and + from the contemplation of maps arose the idea of “the Cape to + Cairo[194]”; and British ministries began slowly to contemplate the + reconquest of the Sudan. The Mahdists aided the growth of this + resolve by their fatuous hostility and constant attacks on Suakin + and on the Wadi Halfa boundary to the south of Egypt proper, behind + which the Egyptian forces withdrew in 1885. In 1886 the Mahdists + attempted to invade Egypt by following the Nile, but sustained a + crushing defeat at the battle of Sarras. Three years later, again + led by Wad-an-Nejumi the conqueror of Hicks Pasha and of Khartum, + they were completely routed at Toski by Lord Grenfell, and + Wad-an-Nejumi was killed. In 1894-5 the vicinity of Suakin was freed + from these marauders and the eastern Sudan reconquered, Italy + greatly aiding by her gallant capture of Kasalá[195]. The terrible + disaster which befell the Italian arms in Abyssinia in 1896 caused + the British Government to press forward the conquest of the Sudan in + order to distract the Dervishes from attacking the Italians. The + Egyptian commander-in-chief—Sir Herbert Kitchener, now Lord + Kitchener of Khartum—had thoroughly reorganized the native Egyptian + army under British officers; and with this material and a small + contingent of British troops he reconquered the province of Dongola + during the summer of 1896. In 1897 (Battle of the Atbara) and the + early part of 1898 the advance up the Nile valley was continued; and + on the 2nd of September, 1898, occurred the decisive battle of + Omdurman, in which a mixed army of British and Egyptian regiments, + under Sir Herbert Kitchener, finally shattered the Khalifa’s power + and avenged Gordon’s death. Anglo-Egyptian control was rapidly + extended eastward to the Abyssinian frontier and southward to the + Sobat river, but a half-expected obstacle came to light which + imposed a temporary check on the southward advance towards Uganda. + Major Marchand had reached Fashoda, near the confluence of the White + Nile and the Bahr-al-Ghazal, and had hoisted the French flag over + that abandoned Egyptian post. Before the determined attitude of + Great Britain, France, after two months’ delay, withdrew Major + Marchand, and later on in 1899 concluded with Great Britain a + supplement to the Niger Convention (p. 222), by which, broadly + speaking, the whole western Nile basin and Darfur were admitted to + be an exclusively British “sphere of influence.” Although France had + not yet specifically recognized the peculiar position of Great + Britain in Egypt, she had prepared the way for the Convention of + 1904, in which this recognition was given in return for a similar + acknowledgement of French interest in Morocco. This 1904 Convention + definitely closed the long era of Anglo-French rivalry and + diplomatic conflict in Egypt; and thenceforth the British met with + no obstacle from any outside nation but Turkey in their task of + reforming and rehabilitating the country of the Pharaohs. Turkey in + 1906 attempted to withdraw the greater part of the Sinai peninsula + from Egyptian rule, to bring Turkish posts down to the vicinity of + the east bank of the Suez Canal, and to hold both shores of the Gulf + of Akaba. It required a virtual ultimatum from Great Britain before + Turkey would give way; and this crisis (which ended by the definite + inclusion of all the Sinai Peninsula within the Egyptian dominions, + while the Turks as definitely regained those former Egyptian posts + in the land of Midian held by Egypt since 1832) gave occasion to the + British Government to assign to the British occupation of Egypt a + more definite and permanent character than it had hitherto been + accorded in diplomatic documents. + + But from this period (1906) onwards there was much “national” unrest + in the towns of the Nile Delta, chiefly Cairo and Alexandria. The + prosperity which Egypt was enjoying, the spread of a modern, + European type of education, the downfall of Sultan Abd-al-Hamid in + 1908, and the promise of a constitutionally governed, modernized + Turkey, were conditions which caused the Muhammadan Egyptian + townsfolk—mostly the professional classes—to think the time had come + for the establishment of a completely constitutional régime in + Egypt, coupled with a removal of British control and military + occupancy. This movement had begun in 1892 with the accession of the + young Khedive, Abbas Hilmi; but of late years the Khedive has + dissociated himself from attacks on, or even coldness towards, the + British occupation. His approximation to the British point of view + was more apparent after the Earl of Cromer’s retirement in 1907. Sir + John Gorst, Lord Cromer’s successor, sympathized to some extent with + “nationalist” ideals, but he regarded the Christian Copt as being + just as much an Egyptian as the Muhammadan Arab, Egyptian or Turk. + Copts were enabled to rise high in the public service of Egypt. In + 1908 a Copt—Boutros Pasha—became Prime Minister of the Khedive’s + Government. Christian ministers of state—Armenians, Copts, + Levantines—were no novelty in Egypt; but the idea was most repellent + to the aggressive “Pan-Islamism” of the Muhammadan “nationalists,” + and the excitations of the Nationalist Press excited a student, Al + Wardani, to murder Boutros Pasha in February 1910—an event which so + deeply affected Sir John Gorst (a sincere friend towards real + “nationalism” in Egypt) that he contracted an illness which caused + his death a year later. Viscount Kitchener of Khartum succeeded him + as British representative in Egypt. In 1911-12 the “nationalist” + agitation was resumed, and a plot was arranged for the nearly + simultaneous assassination of the Khedive, Lord Kitchener, and the + Egyptian Premier. It must be remembered by all who are disposed to + sympathize with the growth and achievement of nationalism that Egypt + contains, in addition to some 10,500,000 Muhammadans (only about 5 + per cent. of whom are literates), a million Christians of Egyptian + and of European race, who represent—for the most part—the brains and + wealth of the country. Until this important minority is regarded by + the Nationalist party as equally entitled to full Egyptian + citizenship, until the Muhammadanism of Egypt sheds its intense + fanaticism and its contempt for science, sanitation, for ancient + history and modern learning, the British Government in its capacity + of guardian over the land of the Pharaohs, the land of deathless + history which the Arab, Turk, and Circassian have done so much to + destroy and deface, is right in withstanding a movement which is not + strictly national, in the Egyptian sense, but a revival of Islamic + intolerance and civic dishonesty. + + The Anglo-French Convention of 1904 having accorded a limited but + distinct recognition on the part of France to the British control + over the Egyptian Khediviate, various important reforms in finance + and administration followed, and the way was paved for the abolition + of the capitulations, of the last vestiges of mistrust felt by + Europe for the tribunals of a Muhammadan nation. Since 1876, the + separate consular courts in Egypt had been done away with in favour + of the mixed tribunals on which were conferred the powers formerly + attributed to the consular courts and which now try all civil and + criminal cases in which foreigners are concerned. These foreign + tribunals may be succeeded in time by national Egyptian courts. At + any rate, the Anglo-French agreement of 1904 tends in that + direction. Owing to this agreement Egypt is now allowed to apply her + surplus, after the service of the Funded Debt has been provided for, + to any purposes she may deem advisable in the interests of the + country, either for the extension of public works or the diminution + of taxation. Prior to the facilities accorded by this agreement, + however, the Earl of Cromer (the creator of modern Egypt) had, with + the financial assistance of Sir Ernest Cassel and the engineering + skill of Sir William Willcocks and others, commenced those great + irrigation works above Assuan which will triple the productive + capabilities of Lower Egypt and proportionately increase the + prosperity of the Khedive’s country. Under the British control + (since 1882) the Funded Debt has been diminished by 12 millions + sterling; taxation has been greatly reduced, yet the revenue has + increased by 4 millions of pounds; the total trade of Egypt has more + than doubled; and the population has risen from 6,832,000 in 1882 to + nearly 12,000,000 in 1912. Forced labour has been abolished; the + position of the peasantry has been enormously improved; twice the + former area of land is cultivated and under cultivation; and the + boundaries of the country have been definitely extended to the + frontier of Syria and to the Cyrenaica. + + In the Sudan great changes followed the victories of Lord Kitchener + in 1898. A convention with Egypt in January 1899 determined the + constitution of the, henceforth, Anglo-Egyptian-Sudan south of Wadi + Halfa. This was to be a joint dominion of Britain and Egypt. The + Governor-General was to be selected by the British Government and + appointed by the Khedive. By a stroke of the pen the cumbersome + system of Consular or Mixed Tribunal Courts which had formerly + existed in the Egyptian Sudan was abolished and the direct + jurisdiction of the Anglo-Egyptian Government substituted. By 1900, + the reconquest of the Egyptian Sudan, begun in 1896, had been + effectually completed. In November 1899, after Lord Kitchener had + been despatched to South Africa, his successor in the Sudan, Sir + Reginald Wingate, pursued the fugitive Khalifa into the recesses of + Kordofan; and this successor of the Mahdi lost his life on the field + of battle of Om Dubreikat, on November 25, 1899. Osman Digna, the + other great Dervish leader, was taken prisoner in the Tokar hills + near Suakin on January 19, 1900. Gradually in the succeeding years + the boundaries of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan were adjusted with + Abyssinia. Darfur remains a semi-independent kingdom, accepting + somewhat grudgingly an Anglo-Egyptian suzerainty. The region of the + Bahr-al-Ghazal was occupied by the Sudan Government in pursuance of + the claims of Egypt over this region and in opposition to the + aspirations of the King-Sovereign of the Congo State, who at one + period (1894) had received permission from the British, without + prejudice to the dormant claims of Egypt, to exercise control over + this region. The King did not take immediate advantage of this + opportunity; and in the interval Egypt had revived her claims to the + original dominions of the Egyptian Sudan after the shattering of the + Khalifa’s forces at Omdurman. But, although the Congo State was not + allowed to exercise authority over the Bahr-al-Ghazal, it maintained + its sway in the smaller Lado enclave between the Congo frontier and + the western bank of the White or Mountain Nile by a lease which + terminated at the death of Leopold II in 1909, when the Lado enclave + passed under the control of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan Government in + 1910. + + Apart from the Arabs, the British have had but little trouble in + imposing their supervising rule over the natives of the Sudan, the + government of which is directed from Khartum. The only tribe that + adopted a hostile attitude towards the British, prior to 1904, was a + section of the Dinka people between the Mountain or White Nile on + the west and the affluents of the Sobat on the east. But in the + autumn of 1904 a strong expedition had to be directed against the + powerful Nyamnyam tribes of the Western Bahr-al-Ghazal. This people, + armed with about 20,000 modern rifles obtained by purchase or + pillage from the Belgian stations, was disposed to question the “Pax + Sudanica” and to resume its former slave raids. In 1903, another + Mahdi—a Tunisian Arab—arose in Kordofan, but he was promptly + captured and executed. In 1908, yet another fanatic, an Arab of the + Halawi tribe in Sennar, declared himself to be Jesus Christ, + returning to earth to expel the European from the Sudan. He murdered + a British official but was caught soon afterwards and hanged for his + crimes. In 1911-12 two expeditions were rendered necessary against + the Annaks, a Nilotic negro tribe on the Sobat river. The Annaks had + armed themselves with thousands of French rifles sold by French + merchants on the frontiers of Abyssinia and passed on to the Annaks + in trade by the Abyssinians. From this direction much more trouble + may occur eventually. + + A good deal of commercial development has taken place in the + northern regions of the Egyptian Sudan and in Southern Egypt owing + to the resumption of gold-mining operations which had been dormant + since ancient Egyptian days, or at any rate since the Muhammadan + conquest, and the great increase in cotton planting. The advance of + the Sudan towards prosperity is only hampered by the present dearth + of indigenous population. It has been computed that the Mahdi’s + revolt and the Khalifa’s massacres must have cost the Sudan + something like three millions of lives, this loss being entailed by + direct massacre (at some places on the Nile 70,000 people—men, + women, and children—were killed in the course of two or three days), + by the unchecked spread of disease, by starvation owing to the + destruction of crops and the neglect of agriculture, and by loss in + battle against the Anglo-Egyptian forces. Efforts are being made by + the enlightened administration which rules from Khartum to encourage + agriculture and to educate the people. The Gordon College was + founded at Khartum in 1899 with the special purpose of giving a + practical and secular education to the Arabs and negroes of that + dominion. One splendid feat, among others, due to British courage + and tenacity of purpose was the cutting through the _Sadd_ (as it is + pronounced, or Sudd as it is ordinarily written), the dense growth + of floating water vegetation which from time immemorial has blocked + the courses of the Mountain Nile and its tributaries between Boz and + the 6th degree of latitude, and the confluence of the Sobat. At + intervals between 1871 and 1882 this _sadd_ had completely barred + the way to steamer or boat journeys between Khartum and the + Equatorial provinces. The great work of cutting through the _sadd_ + was finally achieved under the direction of Sir William Garstin + between 1899 and 1904 by Major Malcom Peake, Lieut. Drury, R.N., and + Major G. E. Matthews. Since that time the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan has + been completely linked up by a steamer mail service with the British + Protectorate of Uganda. + + The area of this vast dominion, between Wadi Halfa on the north, + Gondokoro and the 5th degree of latitude and the Nile-Congo-Shari + waterparting on the south, is 984,520 square miles; yet the + population is still only estimated at 2,600,000, though it is + capable of supporting 50,000,000 black or brown men and is healthy + in a few parts for Europeans. + + Aden, at the south-west extremity of Arabia, was occupied by the + Indian Government in 1839 in view of the opening up to steam-ships + of the Egyptian route to India. To Aden were added in 1840, by + treaties of purchase or exclusive influence, Zeila and Musha Island + on the Somali coast, the island of Perim in 1858, and the island of + Sokotra in 1876[196]. Egypt in 1875 had annexed the coast of + Somaliland opposite Aden, with the exception of the French post of + Obok. When the Egyptian dominion of the Sudan collapsed, it was + necessary to our interests that the Somali coast opposite Aden + should not come under the influence of another European power; so a + British protectorate was established there (1884-89) by accord with + France and Italy, France extending her Obok territory to meet the + British Somali Protectorate, while the town of Harrar in the + interior, which was likely to be a bone of contention, was + transferred to Abyssinia together with a small adjoining piece of + territory in 1897. + + In 1898, a considerable slice off the south-west portion of British + Somaliland was surrendered to the Empire of Ethiopia (Abyssinia) by + the Rennell Rodd agreement made in 1897. The Italians between 1889 + and 1892 had acquired rights over all the sea-board east and south + of British Somaliland, but, as time went on, the interior—never well + disposed towards Europeans—became disturbed. The eastern and + southern parts of this Protectorate were ravaged between 1899 and + 1904, and again between 1908 and 1910, by a Somali leader, Muhammad + bin Abdallah, called most inappropriately the Mad Mullah. This man—a + native of southern Ogadein Somaliland—appears at first to have been + the exponent of legitimate grievances on the part of some of the + coast Somalis. The British administration of Somaliland during the + close of the 19th century was not fortunate in its dealings with a + turbulent and fickle people. Some of the earlier officials seemed to + be more interested in the hunting of big game than in acquiring + knowledge as to the predilections, traditions, and general affairs + of the Somali tribes under their government. Gradually Somali + opinion grew restless under restrictions which were seemingly not + backed by adequate force, and leant towards the side of their + national leader, the Mullah. The latter attacked successfully those + tribes on the coast which remained faithful to the British rule. A + succession of expeditions against the Mullah culminated in an + elaborate and expensive campaign conducted by the British War Office + in 1903-4. The Mullah was repeatedly driven into Italian territory, + and the permission of Italy was obtained to use the coast of Italian + Somaliland as a fresh base of operations against the Somalis. + Somewhat dubious and half-hearted assistance was also supposed to be + rendered by Abyssinia. As the result of these operations, the Mullah + and his forces were repeatedly defeated (after more than one + disaster had happened to the British troops), and he was driven out + of British territory into the no-man’s-land in dispute between Italy + and Ethiopia. Between 1905 and 1908, there was peace, the Mullah + being content to settle down under Italian supervision. Then he + broke out again and finally attacked the tribes under British + protection. Previous Somali wars (1900-4) having cost the British + government the lives of many British officers and negro and Indian + soldiers, besides over two million sterling expended in maintaining + armies of 7000 men, it was decided to leave the interior of British + Somaliland—a barren and sparsely inhabited region—alone, and confine + the British occupation to the coast towns. This decision was carried + into effect in 1910. The Mullah Muhammad bin Abdallah is still at + large, but the interior tribes are gradually asserting themselves + against him. The area of the Protectorate is about 68,000 square + miles. Prior to 1902, this territory, alone amongst the British + Protectorates in Africa (excepting Zanzibar), paid its own way + without a subsidy, the revenue being derived from the considerable + receipts at the Customs Houses. Unfortunately, the war destroyed so + much in the way of live-stock as to make it difficult for years to + come for Somaliland to recover the partial prosperity it enjoyed in + earlier days. But nevertheless considerable towns are springing up + on the coast-line, where they can be easily defended by garrisons of + Indian troops and Somali police. + + After the Portuguese had been expelled by the Arabs from Zanzibar + and Mombasa, all the East coast of Africa from Somaliland to the + Ruvuma river came under the control of the Imam of Maskat, who + usually deputed a brother or some other relation to be his viceroy + at Zanzibar. Owing to internecine quarrels which arose in the + princely family of Maskat, the British Government intervened in + 1861, and definitely separated the Sultanate of Zanzibar from the + Imamate of ’Oman or Maskat. As the French were beginning to take a + keen interest in the affairs of Zanzibar and Maskat, the British + Government at that time (1863) concluded a treaty with the French + Empire by which both powers bound themselves to respect the + independence of Zanzibar and Maskat. Many years previously, in 1824, + a Lieutenant Reitz, by the orders of Captain W. F. W. Owen, had + hoisted the British flag at Mombasa, and had endeavoured to occupy + that town for the East India Company, but his action was disallowed. + Nevertheless, British influence at Zanzibar grew very strong through + the Political Agent whom we established at the court of the Sayyid + or representative of the Imam of Maskat (known later as the Sultan + of Zanzibar)[197], and the powerful squadron of cruisers which were + maintained in Zanzibar waters to put down the slave trade. In 1866 + Dr, afterwards Sir John, Kirk, who had been Livingstone’s second in + command on the Zambezi, was appointed Vice-Consul and gradually rose + to be Consul and then Political Agent and Consul-General. He threw + himself zealously into the task of suppressing the Zanzibar slave + trade, which had become an outrage on humanity. The British + Government supported him; and in 1873 Sir Bartle Frere was sent to + Zanzibar to negotiate a treaty with the Sultan. + + The Sultan (Barghash) was recalcitrant, and even went to the length + of offering his territory to France. Finally, however, before a + threatened British bombardment could take place or the French + squadron arrive, Sir John Kirk had persuaded the Sultan to sign the + treaty, after which Sayyid Barghash bin Said resolved to visit + England, which he did in 1874. It is said that even at that date he + had some idea of invoking German protection, provided he were + allowed to tear up the slave-trade treaty. However, the wisdom and + tact of Sir John Kirk did wonders for British influence at Zanzibar; + and in 1876 the Sultan offered the lease of nearly all his + continental territories to Mr, afterwards Sir William, Mackinnon, + the chairman of the British India Steam Navigation Company. But Mr + Mackinnon was an over-cautious man. Instead of accepting, and then + forcing the hand of the British Government, he refused to take the + Sultan’s concession unless he could first obtain a British + guarantee, an action to which the Government was naturally unwilling + to commit itself. In 1881 Sir John Kirk thought of another plan, + that of inducing the Sultan to employ capable Britons, who would + develop his territories as governors or commissioners. He secured + the services of Mr Joseph Thomson to develop the resources of the + Ruvuma Province, an appointment which might have effectually + prevented any future German intervention; but Mr Joseph Thomson was + too pessimistic and perhaps shortsighted. The country seemed to him + poor in resources, though it has long since been shown to be more + productive than he thought. He bluntly told the Sultan so and + therefore was relieved of his appointment. In 1883 Sir John Kirk + returned from England, having induced the Government to appoint a + number of salaried vice-consuls at various points in the Sultan’s + territories. It must be noted that at this period a very large + proportion of the Zanzibar trade was in the hands of British + subjects, natives of British India. + + In 1882-4 took place the remarkable exploring journey of Mr Joseph + Thomson under the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society. + Thomson travelled from Mombasa to the verge of Busoga, on the north + coast of the Victoria Nyanza, and revealed all the most striking + features of British East Africa. Sir John Kirk had also about the + same time entered into friendly relations with Mandara, a chief on + Mt Kilima-njaro, and had urged the sending out of a scientific + expedition, to the leadership of which Mr H. H. Johnston was + appointed in 1884, in order to explore that mountain. After some + months’ stay on Kilima-njaro Mr Johnston reported the great + advantages this region possessed as a sanatorium, and, while waiting + for instructions from Sir John Kirk, concluded treaties with several + chiefs. The response of the British government was favourable to the + establishment of British interests in this direction; but various + obstacles arose which required consideration, amongst others the + remembrance of the 1862 agreement with France. Another European + power, however, was bound by no such agreement, and had no such + scruples, as will be related in Chapter XIV. Although Mr Johnston’s + treaties with Chaga (South Kilima-njaro) and Taveita (the eastern + slopes) proved the basis on which the British East Africa Company + was eventually founded, the actual mountain district of Kilima-njaro + finally fell to Germany. By 1885, the British Government had more or + less indicated to Germany that portion of the Zanzibar dominions + which must come under British influence if there was to be a + division of those territories; and after several years of diplomatic + conflict, the whole question was settled with fairness to both + parties by the 1890 Convention between Great Britain and Germany, + and by a secondary agreement with France, which definitely allotted + to Great Britain the northern half of the Sultan of Zanzibar’s + dominions, the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, and a sphere of + influence in the interior which included Uganda and Lake Albert + Nyanza. + + The British East Africa Company, organized in 1886, was chartered in + 1888, and undertook the government of the vast territories lying + between the Mombasa coast and the Victoria Nyanza. For the first two + years things went smoothly. The company possessed a capable + administrator, Mr (afterwards Sir) George Mackenzie, who solved the + slavery difficulty by redeeming the slaves of the Arab gentry and + then setting them free. This no doubt prevented the coast Arabs from + attacking the British régime at a time when they had nearly + destroyed that of Germany in the regions farther south. + + But the Imperial British East Africa company had undertaken a task + far too great for its resources in capital. It was expected by the + people and government of Great Britain to maintain and defend + British interests over a vast hinterland. The country of + Uganda[198], on the north-west of this greatest of African lakes, + had been allotted to the British sphere by the German Convention; + but unfortunately for British interests the country had been entered + by French Roman Catholic missionaries of Cardinal Lavigerie’s White + Fathers’ mission (cf. pp. 245-6), who were such ardent Frenchmen + that they rather forgot the religious purpose for which they had + come, and fomented serious quarrels between the king and the + Protestant missionaries who had preceded them. The great King Mtesa + died in 1884, peevish and disgusted with the missionary disputes and + religious recriminations that buzzed in his ears, and longing for + the old, easy, pagan life he had led before pressing Stanley (p. + 326) to send him Christian teachers. After his death, the Arab party + prejudiced his son Mwanga against the Christian foreigners and + native converts. Bishop Hannington, of the Church Missionary + Society, newly appointed to East Equatorial Africa, persisted in + entering Uganda along Mr Thomson’s route by what the king called the + “back way.” Frightened lest the bishop might be coming to take the + country by the methods which the Germans had employed farther south, + the king ordered him to be murdered in Busoga, not far from the + Victoria Nile. Soon after this, the missionaries, Protestants and + Catholics, were expelled from Uganda. Then later on there was a + Muhammadan revolt, which drove Mwanga flying. He took refuge with + the Catholic missionaries at the south end of the lake, and became a + Christian. He was restored to his throne by the aid of Mr Stokes, + who was afterwards hanged by Major Lothaire (p. 347). Then the + French missionaries got control over the king, and attempted to + prevent the country from becoming a British protectorate—if it could + not be French, at any rate let it be German; and Dr Peters arriving + on the scene strove to make it German; but his efforts were annulled + by the 1890 Convention. After this, to prevent the country from + falling under the sway of the Muhammadans, who might have joined the + Mahdists or become French, the British East Africa Company was + obliged by public opinion to intervene, although it did not possess + sufficient funds to administer such an expensive empire. Captain, + now General Sir Frederick, Lugard not long returned from the Arab + war in Nyasaland, was sent there as their agent in 1890-1, and in an + exceedingly able and courageous manner restored order, obtaining + from the king a treaty with the Company, and putting down revolts of + the Roman Catholic Christians and of the Muhammadans. But the East + Africa Company was obliged to appeal to the British Government to + come to its assistance lest Uganda should swallow up all its + resources. The late Sir Gerald Portal, Agent and Consul-General at + Zanzibar, was sent to Uganda to report on the advisability and the + means of retaining this country under British influence. Unhappily, + he died soon after his return to England in 1894, but his report led + to the establishment of a British protectorate. Through the + intervention of the Pope, some appeasement of bitterness was + obtained in regard to the White Fathers’ mission, whose field of + work was bounded on the east by the Victoria Nile. A new Roman + Catholic mission under Bishop Hanlon, an Irishman, supported by + English, Irish and Dutch priests, has since carried on the + conversion and teaching of the natives in the eastern half of the + protectorate on harmonious terms with the British administration; + though indeed since 1900 all bitterness of feeling between the White + Fathers’ mission and the British officials or the native chiefs is + completely at an end. The French missionaries were compensated in + 1895 for the destruction of some of their stations in the civil war + by a payment of £10,000. + + After the withdrawal of Emin Pasha from his Equatorial province a + number of his former Sudanese soldiers volunteered for employment in + Uganda, and were eagerly recruited as a capable fighting force. But + they were Muhammadans, and always inclined to intrigue against a + Christian power. Added to this, Mwanga, the Kabaka or King of + Buganda, was the most unstable of men, and an exceedingly bad + character to boot. His vices and his cruelty had made him so hateful + in the eyes of his subjects, that without British support he would + probably have been deposed or killed. As it was, the presence of the + British prevented this, but did not arrest his intrigues with that + section of the populace which disliked European intervention. After + an undecided behaviour which lasted several years he finally + attempted to massacre a few of the British officers and + missionaries, but was defeated, and fled across the German border. + Then the Sudanese troops revolted, seized a fortress and some guns, + and for nearly a year set the British and the loyal Baganda at + defiance. Finally, a detachment of 450 Sikhs reached the country (a + handful of these splendid soldiers had already enabled the European + officers to face the Muhammadan mutineers), order was to some extent + restored, and a determined effort was made to capture the truant + king Mwanga and that aged scoundrel Kabarega, the King of Bunyoro, + who has been justly hated by Europeans since Speke and Baker’s + time[199]. This capture was achieved by Colonel John Evatt in June, + 1899. The British Government having decided that the military and + civil organization of Uganda should now be settled definitely, + decided in the same year to dispatch Sir Harry Johnston as a Special + Commissioner to frame and inaugurate a suitable scheme of + administration in these countries round the Nyanzas and the Upper + Nile[200]. + + Prior to these troubles, continual warfare was carried on for some + years with the Bunyoro kingdom to the north, which was finally + conquered and eventually annexed to the Protectorate. In these wars + with Bunyoro (commencing with unprovoked hostilities on the part of + Kabarega) Major A. B. Thurston greatly distinguished himself. This + gallant officer and able linguist was afterwards killed by the + mutineer Sudanese soldiers (1897). Major ‘Roddy’ Owen had hoisted + the British flag at Wadelai, on the White Nile (in 1894), but this + action was not confirmed by the British Government. Nevertheless, + with the movement towards Khartum in prospect, and the eventual + reconquest of the Sudan, it was decided to send out a well-equipped + surveying expedition under Colonel (Sir) J. R. L. Macdonald which + should explore thoroughly the lands between the Victoria Nyanza and + the Mountain Nile. It was partly the demand that this expedition + should be escorted by a Sudanese battalion which precipitated the + mutiny of these discontented soldiers. Sir James Macdonald + cooperated in breaking the chief resistance of these mutineers and + then proceeded on an epoch-making survey which revealed new + mountains, new lakes, new peoples and new languages, and laid the + foundations of British influence on the northern part of the Uganda + Protectorate. + + The Special Commission of Sir Harry Johnston arrived in Uganda at + the close of 1899, when the Sudanese mutiny and other troubles were + nearly over. As the results of this Special Commission the + boundaries of the Uganda Protectorate were carried northward to + Gondokoro on the Mountain Nile, to the 5th degree of N. latitude and + to Lake Rudolf; the state of Ankole on the south-west was also + included up to the German frontier. A definite constitution was + given to the kingdom of Buganda. The native ruler of Buganda + received the title of His Highness the Kabaka[201]; the native + Parliament or Lukiko was recognized; and the kingdom was divided + into a number of administrative counties. A land settlement was + arrived at, by which at least half of the land of the kingdom of + Buganda was secured to native owners. Settlements somewhat similar + to that effected in the province or kingdom of Buganda have been + carried out in the adjoining provinces of Ankole, Toro, and Bunyoro. + In 1903, the Eastern (Masai) province was transferred to the + administration of the adjoining East African Protectorate, thus + reducing the total area of the Uganda Protectorate at the present + day to 117,681 square miles, with a population—almost entirely + negroes—of about 2,900,000 (650 Europeans). + + In the summer of 1901 a new portent appeared in Uganda—the terrible + disease known as sleeping sickness. This is a malady caused by the + injection into the human system through the proboscis of a Tsetse + fly of trypanosome animalcules which after swarming in the blood + reach the spinal marrow and then kill the patient—negro or European. + This terrible disease, which has existed for centuries in West + Africa, penetrated from the Congo forest into Uganda in 1901-2 and + killed many thousands of the natives year after year along the + shores and islands of the Victoria Nyanza. It is being carefully + studied with a view to its extirpation. + + After the Zanzibar Sultanate had been placed under British + protection it was necessary to reorganize its administration. The + islands of Zanzibar and Pemba remained under the more or less direct + rule of the Sultan, who, however, appointed English ministers to + control the various departments of state, and was at the same time + subject to the advice and financial control of the British Agent and + Consul-General. Several Sultans succeeded one another and died in a + few years; and on the occasion of the death of Sultan Hamid bin + Thwain (1896) a palace revolt occurred, occasioned by a disappointed + claimant to the throne. This revolt, however, was really a premature + outbreak on the part of the Arab party, who frankly disliked British + interference which entailed the abolition of the slave trade and + even the disappearance of slavery, and were sufficiently foolish to + imagine that they were strong enough to resist a European nation. A + few hours’ bombardment of the Sultan’s head-quarters quelled this + rebellion. Since that time, by degrees, and with a wise system of + gradation, slavery is being abolished, and will soon cease to exist + as a recognized status. In 1911 the young Sultan of Zanzibar (Ali + bin Hamūd) abdicated for reasons of health; and his son, Sū’id bin + Ali, was proclaimed under a regency, the Regent-and-First Minister + being a British official. Between 1903-5 there was considerable + local dissatisfaction with the methods of government employed in + Zanzibar, and a deputation of Zanzibaris came to London to make + representations on the subject; but since reforms were instituted in + 1906 the people of Zanzibar and Pemba have been quiet and + prosperous. The total area of these two islands is 1020 square miles + and the population (200,000) mainly negro, with about 10,000 Arabs, + 10,000 Indians, and 300 Europeans. Zanzibar Island is a great + rendezvous for shipping and is the head-quarters of a great ocean + cable company; apart from this, it produces cloves and other + tropical vegetable products, and Pemba is rich in cattle. + + On the mainland between the Umba river and Mombasa on the south and + the Juba river and Somaliland on the north, the Imperial British + East Africa Company continued to rule until 1894. But as soon as the + British Government had undertaken to govern Uganda as a Protectorate + (1894) it was evident that the company’s rule over the intervening + district from Kikuyu to the coast could not continue. Accordingly in + 1894 the company’s charter was annulled and they were compensated + with £450,000. On July 1, 1895, Sir Arthur Hardinge took over the + administration of the British East Africa Protectorate. + + The new administration had scarcely been installed on the Mombasa + coast than it found itself obliged to deal with the question of the + Mazrui Arabs. It has been mentioned elsewhere in this work that + early in the 18th century the Arab power on the coast between the + Rufu River on the south and Malindi on the north was exercised + nominally on behalf of the Imam of Maskat by an Arab family known as + the Mazrui. Various explanations are given of this name and of the + origin of this clan, some deriving them from an old colony of + Egyptian Arabs (_Masr_ is the Arab name for Egypt); but more + probably they came from Southern Arabia, or even from Oman, prior to + the arrival of the Portuguese, who dispossessed them for a time. In + the 17th century they had made common cause with the Arabs of Oman + in attacking and expelling the Portuguese, but, when it came to + their accepting the Imam of Maskat as their sovereign lord, they + usually evaded the direct issue by partial compliance. In the early + part of the 19th century they had defied the representative of the + Imam at Zanzibar and had attempted to place Mombasa under British + protection. During the latter part of the 19th century the Sultan of + Zanzibar, backed by Sir John Kirk, had asserted Zanzibar rule over + the coast strip as far north as Somaliland. He held, indeed, all the + principal ports of what is now Italian Somaliland, as well as Lamu, + Malindi, and Mombasa. In the hinterland of Lamu was another + semi-independent Arab Sultanate, that of Vitu, on the Ozi River; + while the Mazrui clan between Mombasa and the German frontier was + represented by a line of Sultans usually called Sidi Mubarak or + Mbaruk (_Sidi_ means lord, the rest of the name is a varying form of + the Arab word for blessing). The Germans in their dealings with East + Africa had early appreciated the dissidence between the Sultan of + Zanzibar and the independent Arab powers on the mainland; and, when + Germany and Britain were striving in the eighties for an East + African dominion, Germany had recognized the independence of the + Sultanate of Vitu. By the 1890 agreement Vitu was transferred to the + protectorate of Great Britain, much against its will. It was a + country rendered inaccessible by an extravagant growth of forest + nourished by the delta of the Rivers Ozi and Tana, but was + nevertheless captured in the late autumn of 1890 by a naval + expedition under Admiral Sir E. Fremantle, to punish the Sultan for + resuming the trade in slaves and ordering a party of German + timber-cutters to be massacred. A little further action on behalf of + British officials resulted in the tranquillity of this small state + being re-established with a reasonable degree of self-government. + + Sir Arthur Hardinge, on assuming the control of British East Africa, + found that he had first of all to fight a long war of skirmishes, + ambushes, and repelled raids, against the Sultan Mubarak, whose + strongholds were a series of small Arab towns in the hinterland + regions, south-west of Mombasa. This difficulty was not finally + disposed of till the following year, 1896, when Mubarak after + several defeats inflicted on him by the negro and Indian troops of + the British, took refuge on German territory. Since that time there + has been no further difficulty with the Arabs in this part of East + Africa. + + The Masai of the East African hinterland, who, it was thought, would + give the most serious trouble to any overruling power, very soon + acquiesced in the idea of a British protectorate and have really + been the allies of the British in many of their difficulties with + recalcitrant tribes. In the Kikuyu forest country, which was once + the western borderland of the East African Protectorate, a few + police operations had to be carried out, as the industrious Kikuyu + people, suspicious after many years of raiding by the Masai, at + first looked upon the white man as another enemy, and attacked + British settlers or big-game hunters in the neighbourhood of their + country. + + In 1902-3, as already mentioned, the Protectorate of East Africa was + extended over the eastern province of Uganda up to the shores of the + Victoria Nyanza, the slopes of Mount Elgon, and the south-west coast + of Lake Rudolf. On the south it was of course bounded by the + Anglo-German frontier, which last was accurately defined between + 1903-5. On the north, after long negotiations with Abyssinia, its + boundaries were so drawn as to admit the Abyssinian Empire to the + north-east corner of Lake Rudolf. From this point the East African + boundary is drawn along the Goro escarpment to the Juba River, which + it then follows down to the sea. The total area of the Protectorate + is about 200,000 square miles, and the total population at the + present day is guessed at 4,040,000[202]. It consists mainly of + negroes and negroids, the negroids being the result of ancient or + modern intermixture between the Hamitic tribes of Ethiopia and + Somaliland and the negroes of Equatorial Africa. The Gala, a + handsome and interesting Hamitic people, displaying their kinship + with the white man by their use of the plough, by their possession + of a sex-denoting language, and by many other features, inhabit a + portion of the northern parts of the Protectorate, coming as far + south as the Tana River. In the north-east, on either side of the + Jub or Juba River, are the Somali clans chiefly belonging to the + group known as Ogadein. These southern Somalis are much mixed with + negro blood, and are not such a handsome or Caucasian people as + those of Northern Somaliland. Alike to the Italians and to the + British—and perhaps even more markedly towards the British—they have + shown themselves inimical from the very first. It will be remembered + how cruelly they treated in older times the Portuguese Catholic + missionaries who attempted to travel through their country into + Abyssinia. Since 1896 they have murdered several British officials + stationed at Kismayu, or other places in their territory; and + punitory expeditions have been directed against them in 1898 and in + 1901. This last expedition ended somewhat disastrously for the + British arms, but was wisely not followed up by an expensive + avenging campaign, as the country is not at present worth + conquering, and is only inhabited by semi-nomad, warlike Somalis, + who are, however, by the lure of commerce gradually settling down + into a peaceable condition. In the Borān Gala country in the + northernmost parts of the Protectorate, raids of Abyssinian soldiers + take place from time to time and are particularly exasperating by + the reckless damage which is done to the big game of the country. In + this portion of East Africa the big game is being rapidly + exterminated by the Abyssinians. + + Big game, indeed, has been found to be one of the assets of this + East African Protectorate. The writings of Joseph Thomson, H. H. + Johnston, F. G. Jackson, Count Teleki, and Lieutenant + Höhnel—explorers of this region between 1882 and 1888—revealed to + the world the amazing wealth of mammalian life in this region, + formerly so abundant as to rival in this respect the South Africa of + the early 19th century. Not long after the definite establishment of + a British administration, measures were taken to preserve this + wonderful fauna from a too rapid extinction at the hands both of + European and of native hunters; and game reserves were established. + + But perhaps the most important feat performed by the British + Government, and one which has irradiated good as an exemplar and as + a transport agency over all East and Central Africa, was the + building of the Uganda railway between 1897 and 1903. The railway + commences at Mombasa, with another station at the great harbour of + Kilindini on the south side of Mombasa Island, and pursues a course + of 585 miles till it reaches the head of Kavirondo Gulf on the + north-east of the Victoria Nyanza. Before long it will no doubt be + extended through Kavirondo and Busoga till it attains the Victoria + Nile and links up with railways which are being made from the + birthplace of that river to the Albert Nyanza and Gondokoro. The + Uganda railway, so early as the commencement of the 20th century, + enabled European tourists and settlers to penetrate far into Eastern + Africa, and thus brought to public notice what had for some time + past been realised by a few individuals—the fact that a good deal of + the interior of British East Africa is a high and healthy plateau, + possessing a very good climate, a kind of mild, perpetual summer, + but invigorating, genial, and sufficiently rainy to support an + abundant vegetation, In British East Africa there are, in fact, + scattered areas of relatively-uninhabited, healthy upland amounting + in all to about 30,000 square miles, uninhabited at the beginning of + the 20th century because the native population had either been + dispersed or exterminated by intertribal wars and famines, or found + the climate too cold and preferred the lower-lying lands. At one + time there was a project of offering a region about the size of + Wales, carved out of these plateaus, to the distressed Russian, + Rumanian, and Galician Jews through the Jewish Territorial + Organization Committee. But the offer was foolishly declined by that + body, and it is most unlikely it will ever be renewed, for, no + sooner was the South African War over, than Boer settlers to the + number of 600 or 700 with their wives and families proceeded to this + interior part of East Africa and began to take up land from the + British Government. Before and subsequent to their arrival there + came not a few British for the same purpose, and at the present day + there is a settled white population in British East Africa numbering + at least 2000. Without injustice to the indigenous peoples, there is + no reason why some 30,000 square miles of East Africa should not be + set aside for white settlement and nourish in course of time a + sturdy population of three or four millions, which might prove to be + a very potent factor in the politics of Equatorial Africa. It is not + to be supposed that this region is without disease, but the disease + arises not from the climate, but from the co-existence of black men + with germs in their blood, and mosquitoes, ticks, and tsetse flies, + whose odious purpose in life is to transfer these germs from the + blood of one man to that of another. But the mosquito is often + absent from both the high and the dry parts of East Africa, and in + that case germ-diseases cannot be spread, or it is possible by + cultivating the land to get rid of this and other pests. No doubt + also in the plans which will be adopted for the eventual settlement + of the whole country, some policy of segregation will be adopted, + separating to a certain extent the colonies of the white man and of + the British Indian. For, amongst other things which are happening as + the result of the British development of East Africa, is the + in-pouring of a number of British Indian colonists, and even of + Persians; and this Asiatic population shows every sign of + prospering. It would be more reasonable, however, to reserve for + Asiatic colonization the vacant lands near the coast and in the more + northern parts of the Protectorate, which are hot and low-lying, and + therefore unsuited to European settlement, but which would be well + adapted for the cultivation of cotton and grain crops and the + rearing of cattle by agricultural colonies of Asiatics. + + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + + BRITISH AFRICA + + Plate V. + +[Illustration] + + EXPLANATORY NOTE + + Colonies, Protectorates, Spheres of Influence or Control + + [red] _In 1815_ (_This darker colour in Cape Colony represents the + extreme extent of Dutch South Africa when taken over by + the British_) + + [pink] _In 1912_ (_Pink bars imply uncertainty of possession_) + + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + +----- + +Footnote 192: + + The dynasty of Muhammad Ali may be said to have begun in 1841, in + which year it was recognised and made hereditary by Turkey; but + Muhammad Ali was the ruler of Egypt (as Pasha) from 1811, after + the slaughter of the Mamluk Beys. His sons and son-in-law + conquered for him Syria and Western Arabia and the northern part + of the Sudan. The conquests west of Sinai were given up in 1841 + but in that year he became the Vali or Viceroy over Egypt and the + Sudan, the succession to that post to fall to his male + descendants. His immediate successor was his grandson Abbas bin + Tusūn; then followed the rule of his favourite son, Said bin + Muhammad. Said was succeeded in 1863 by his nephew Ismail, son of + Ibrahim, the reputed eldest son of Muhammad Ali. But according to + some accounts Ibrahim, the great conqueror, was only the adopted + son of Muhammad Ali. The present Khedive of Egypt is the + great-grandson of Ibrahim, but he is also descended from Muhammad + Ali through his mother, Princess Amina, who was the + great-great-granddaughter of Muhammad Ali through Tusūn. The title + of Khedive (a Persian word meaning prince) was conferred on the + Pasha or Viceroy of Egypt in 1867. + +Footnote 193: + + This was a revolt against Egyptian rule, taxation, and + interference with the slave trade, started by an Arab fanatic born + in the Dongola district who was named Muhammad Ahmad, but called + himself the Mahdi or Messiah. His first successes were amongst the + ignorant Muhammadans of Kordofan who had grown to loathe the + exactions of Turkish (i.e. Egyptian) rule. Muhammad Ahmad died in + 1885 and was succeeded by his Lieutenant, the Khalifa + Abdallah-al-Taaisha. His fanatical followers were usually called + the “Dervishes.” Muhammad Ahmad’s forces captured Al-Obeid the + capital of Kordofan in January 1883, and overwhelmed nine months + later a force of 10,000 men under Hicks Pasha sent by the Egyptian + Government to recover the Western Sudan from anarchy. Hicks Pasha + (Colonel William Hicks) was an officer of the Indian Army who had + served with distinction in the Mutiny and had fought in the + Abyssinian campaign of 1867-8. In 1882 he entered the Khedive’s + service as Chief of the Staff in the Sudan, recaptured the Sennar + country from the Mahdists, and might have suppressed the whole + rebellion and obviated Gordon’s mission and all subsequent + disasters if he had been allowed a free hand by the Egyptian + ministry at Khartum. Out of his force of 8000 fighting men and + 2000 camp followers, all but 300 were slain at Kashgil on the + fatal day of November 5, 1883. + +Footnote 194: + + This phrase first made its appearance in a pamphlet issued by the + late Sir Edwin Arnold in 1876 and was revived by the author of + this book in an article in the _Times_ of August 10, 1888. + +Footnote 195: + + Taken by the Italians from the Dervishes in 1894 and restored to + Anglo-Egyptian control in 1897. + +Footnote 196: + + Placed under British protection in 1884. + +Footnote 197: + + The first British Agent (for the East India Company) and Consul + General at Zanzibar was appointed in 1841. + +Footnote 198: + + Uganda will probably continue to be the general name for this + protectorate; but the correct form of the word is _Buganda_. This + rendering is now reserved for the native kingdom or province of + Buganda, while the Swahili version of the term—Uganda—is applied + to the whole protectorate of five provinces. + +Footnote 199: + + Kabarega was the son and successor of the Kamasi who had so + persecuted the Bakers, Emin, Casati and other travellers. + +Footnote 200: + + The work of this Special Commission was additional to and + confirmatory of the efforts of Sir Henry Colvile, Mr Ernest + Berkeley, Mr F. G. Jackson (since Governor of Uganda), Mr George + Wilson and Colonel Trevor Ternan (Commissioners or Acting + Commissioners) to found a stable confederation of warlike and + peaceful negro peoples, to combat famine and disease caused by + intertribal wars, and to extend the boundaries of this + protectorate northwards to the navigable Nile. + +Footnote 201: + + The Kabaka of Buganda has been, down to 1912, a minor under a + native regency. He is descended from a dynasty which has + apparently ruled in Buganda since a period contemporary with the + reign of Henry IV in England. This dynasty, like most others in + Equatorial East Africa, appears to have been founded by a man of + Gala descent. + +Footnote 202: + + The Protectorate now contains seven provinces and a northern tract + of territory not yet organized. The narrow coast-belt from Lamu to + the Umba River is leased from the Sultan of Zanzibar for a payment + of £17,000 per annum. + + + + + CHAPTER XV + + THE ITALIANS IN AFRICA + + + The part played by Italy in the colonization of Africa after the + submergence of Roman civilization in that continent under the Arab + invasion was remarkable; it was not, however, a part attributable to + Italy as a whole, but to some of her component states. The little + principality of Amalfi had early dealings with the Saracens, and + imported from them some knowledge of the new navigation, and of that + newly-introduced group of fruit trees—the orange family—which was to + find a second home in Italy. Pisa, Genoa, and Venice alternately + warred and traded with the north of Africa. Naples obtained from + Egypt the domestic Indian buffalo so early as the 13th century. + Sicily was finally conquered by the Saracens in 832 A.C.; and + Sardinia from 712 became intermittently a Saracen possession for + more than three centuries until it was definitely rescued by the + Pisans after 1015 A.C. Consequently Sicilian and Sardinian renegades + figure in the early Muhammadan history of Tunis, Tripoli, and + Algeria. But the two states which before the Portuguese era shared + most prominently in the commerce of North Africa were Genoa and + Venice. Genoa had most to do with the Tunis littoral; she had + intermittent establishments at Tabarka and Bona, besides + occasionally holding Mehdia on the coast of Tunis. Genoa sent + several noteworthy seamen to explore the Atlantic, the north-west + coast of Africa, the Azores and Canary Islands; and it is believed + that Genoese ships may even have found their way along the west + coast of Africa to the Gulf of Guinea as early as the 14th century; + for in a volume of eight maps—the famous Laurentian Portulano, + executed by a Genoese about 1351 (and subsequently acquired for the + Laurentian Library at Florence), Africa for the first time in + history is delineated as a continent with a great western + projection, a tapering southern extremity and its bold eastern horn + of Somaliland. (This information, however, may have been derived + from Arabs during the Crusades.) Venice cultivated a friendship with + Egypt during and after the Crusades, and in this way obtained + control over the Indian trade, until the Portuguese discovered and + utilized the Cape route. Even then the interest of Italy in Africa + did not slacken. It was displayed chiefly in Rome during the 16th + and 17th centuries, when the Roman pontiffs took up geographical + research into the problems and possibilities of Africa with some + eagerness, especially with regard to the Congo, Abyssinia, and the + northern Sudan. Noteworthy amongst the Popes who promoted African + studies were Leo X, who encouraged the Italianized Moor, Johannes + Leo (“Leo Africanus”), to write in Italian a description of his + travels through the Nigeria and Northern Sudan[203]; Sixtus V, who + caused his chamberlain Filippo Pigafetta to publish much valuable + information from Portuguese travellers and missionaries concerning + the Congo and Abyssinia; Paul V, who sent a mission to the King of + Kongo in 1621 to report on that West African kingdom; and Urban + VIII, who in 1640 erected the Kongo Kingdom into an Apostolic + prefecture dependent on the Roman See and despatched many Italian + missionaries thither. His efforts were revived in 1652 by his + successor, Innocent X. + + During the 15th, 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, Abyssinian Christian + students frequently journeyed to Rome and lived in Italy more or + less as pensioners of the Popes. Similarly, during the 17th and 18th + centuries so many Italian craftsmen, surgeons, physicians, + naturalists, and botanists, travelled in and through Tunisia and + Egypt, and stayed there permanently, that (besides the innumerable + Italian slaves captured by the pirates and absorbed into the + Muhammadan community) there grew up the great Levantine communities + in the principal towns of Egypt and Barbary. In 1600, an Italian + surgeon named Federigo Zeringhi killed two hippopotamuses at + Damietta, at the eastern mouth of the Nile; and in 1658 other + Italian travellers noted the extinction of the hippopotamus in the + Nile Delta. Italian influence sank to its lowest ebb in the late + 18th century, but after Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt many Italians + were employed in the service of that country, under Muhammad Ali. + Thousands of Italians (many of them Jews) also emigrated to Eastern + Algeria and Tunis in the first half of the 19th century and financed + the sponge fisheries off Tripoli. United Italy, in 1862, began to + assert herself at first in Tunis. During the sixties of the 19th + century the affairs of Tunis, instead of being debated only between + France and Britain, were submitted to the consideration of a third + power, the Kingdom of Italy; and in 1869 a triple control of these + three powers had been established over its finances. Then Britain + ceased to claim a consultative voice in the control of this + tottering Turkish regency, and France and Italy were left face to + face. Italy had to give way in 1881. She had, however, for some time + been cultivating an interest in Tripoli, where she had established, + as in Tunis and Egypt, “Royal schools” for the gratuitous teaching + of Italian; but a too vivid display of her interest in the affairs + of Tripoli after the French occupation of Tunis caused the Sultan of + Turkey to reinforce his garrison there by 10,000 soldiers, and Italy + decided that the time was not then. Italian influence of a more or + less Levantine, denationalized stamp had become well established in + Egypt before the British occupation, and had to a great extent + replaced that of France, the Italian language being employed as a + kind of Lingua Franca. The present writer can remember, when first + visiting Egypt in 1884, that most of the letter-boxes at the + post-offices had on them “Buca per le lettere,” while Italian was + much better understood in the towns than French, English of course + not being understood at all at that time. So that, if it be true + that Mr Gladstone in 1882 invited Italy to take the place of France + in a dual control with England over Egypt, the proposal was not, at + the time when it was made, such a preposterous one as it might now + appear. + + So far back as 1873 Italy had cast an eye over Abyssinia; and one of + her great steamship companies had purchased a small site on Assab + Bay as a coaling station. Assab Bay, in the Red Sea, was on the + inhospitable, ownerless Danákil coast, not far from the Straits of + Bab-al-Mandib. In 1875 the suspicious movements of Italian ships + about Sokotra obliged England to take that island under her + protection. From 1870 onwards Italian missionaries and Italian + travellers had begun to move about this coast, and to explore the + south of Abyssinia. In 1880 the Italian Government revived the + Italian claim to Assab Bay, but did not take actual possession of it + until July 1882, when the bombardment of Alexandria had awakened + Europe to the apprehension of a great change in Egyptian affairs. An + acrimonious correspondence took place between Italy, Egypt, and + Turkey regarding this claim to Assab Bay; but Italy received the + tacit support of England, and when the Egyptian hold over the Sudan + crumbled, the Italians rapidly extended their occupation north and + south, until Italian influence was conterminous on the south with + the French Somaliland territory of Obok (and consequently opposite + the Straits of Bab-al-Mandib), and on the north reached to Ras + Kasar, 110 miles south-east of Suakin. In this manner Italy acquired + about 670 miles of Red Sea coast, including the ancient and + important port of Masawa. This coast in its partial condition of + sterility and its terribly hot climate would be of little value did + it not possess a cool, mountainous hinterland, considerable areas of + gum forest, and fertile river-valleys, besides having much grazing + ground for camels and other livestock, and commanding the easiest + and nearest approaches to Abyssinia. In one part of the coast the + natives are practically of Abyssinian stock, and Abyssinia has + constantly striven through centuries to maintain her hold on the + seaboard, but has always been driven back to her mountains by + maritime races, such as the Greeks, Romans, Arabs, and Turks. Seeing + Italy step in, after the downfall of Egypt, to replace that power in + Masawa and elsewhere, King John of Abyssinia soon fell out with the + Italians. The Italians had occupied an inland town called Sahati, + formerly an Egyptian stronghold. Ras Alula, an Abyssinian general, + with 10,000 men attacked 450 Italian troops on their way to Sahati, + and, as may be imagined, massacred nearly all of them. Italy felt + her honour at stake, and in spite of the expense, would have been + obliged to commence an Abyssinian war but for the good offices of + the British Government. Lord Salisbury sent Mr, afterwards Sir + Gerald, Portal on a mission to Abyssinia, which had the effect of + arranging a temporary peace between the Italians and King John. + Shortly afterwards King John of Abyssinia advanced against the + Mahdists, and was killed in battle. Italy then occupied the posts of + Keren and Asmara, which gave her control over the mountain passes + leading, on the north-east, into Abyssinia. She had previously + maintained a great friendliness with Menelik, the vassal king of + Shoa in the south. (Abyssinia proper may be said to be divided into + three principal districts, which sometimes become semi-independent + satrapies or kingdoms—Tigre on the north, Amhara in the centre, and + Shoa to the south.) When King John of Abyssinia died, Menelik, as + the strongest of his vassals, seized somewhat illegally the + Abyssinian Empire. Although now viewing the Italians in a more + suspicious manner, he nevertheless concluded a treaty with them, + which enabled him to negotiate a loan and to obtain a large quantity + of war material, but contained a clause dealing vaguely with the + “mutual protection” of the contracting parties. The Italian + protectorate over Abyssinia was recognized by England and by + Germany, but not by France or Russia. In order to annoy Italy as a + member of the Triple Alliance, France and Russia commenced + encouraging Menelik to a repudiation of the Italian protectorate, + and supplied him with quantities of arms and ammunition. Russia, + indeed, for years past had shown a disposition to concern herself + about Abyssinia on the pretext that the Greek Christianity of that + country linked it specially to Russia. She sent numerous + “scientific” expeditions thither, and also a party of Cossack-monks + to stimulate Abyssinian Christianity. On one occasion these + Cossack-monks even went to the length of seizing a port on the + French coast, near Obok. This was too much, even for the French; and + force was used to expel these truculent missionaries. + + In March 1891, with a view to regulating future action on the part + of Italy, England had entered into an agreement delimiting the + respective spheres of British and Italian interests in East Africa; + and by this agreement Italy was permitted, if she found it necessary + for military purposes, to occupy the abandoned post of Kasala (then + in the hands of the Dervishes), on the frontiers of the Egyptian + Sudan. Accordingly this post was occupied by Italy in 1894. In the + beginning of 1895, the Italian forces being again attacked by the + Abyssinians, the war was carried into the enemy’s country, and after + several sanguinary defeats had been inflicted on the Abyssinians, + the greater part of the Tigre Province was occupied. Menelik, whose + administrative capital still remained at Adis Ababa in Shoa, + organized a vast army, and prepared to defend his kingdom. In the + early spring of 1896 General Baratieri (in fear lest he might be + superseded, and without waiting for sufficient reinforcements) + assumed the offensive against the Abyssinians in the vicinity of + Adua, with the result that he sustained a terrible reverse. Nearly + half the Italian army (13,000 men—7,000 only Italians, the rest + natives of the coast—against 90,000 Abyssinians), was killed, and of + the remainder many prisoners were taken. This was a terrible blow to + Italy, and its effects on European politics were far-reaching. + General Baldissera somewhat retrieved the position; but all thought + of an Italian protectorate over Abyssinia was at an end, a position + frankly recognized by Italy in her subsequent treaty of peace with + Menelik. She lost but little of her original colony of “Eritrea,” + but Eritrea seemed then of small value except as the stepping-stone + to Abyssinia. The French and Russians were triumphant; and French + adulation of the Emperor Menelik was scarcely worthy of a nation in + the high position of France. + + A British mission was sent in 1897 to open up friendly relations + with Abyssinia, and to establish a political agency at the king’s + court. The treaty concluded seemed at first sight not wholly + satisfactory to British interests, as it yielded a portion of + Somaliland to Abyssinia, and did not provide for any delimitation of + Abyssinian boundaries on the west; but apparently there were other + clauses not made public which subsequently ensured the friendly + neutrality of Menelik during the Khartum campaign. + + Since 1897, or rather since the institution of civil government in + 1900, the colony of Eritrea has made a quiet progress towards + well-being and commercial prosperity insufficiently appreciated by + historians of Africa. “Colony” remains an inaccurate designation, + since the excessive heat of the lowlands makes Italian settlement in + large numbers impossible (there are only 3000 settlers in the whole + colony), while the uplands are either barren or sufficiently well + populated by a sturdy race of negroids—a mixture of Hamites, + Semites, and Nilotic negroes. But this native population (275,000) + has prospered and increased under Italian rule. A considerable trade + is being developed in the nuts of the hyphæne palms, exported to the + approximate annual value of £50,000. Hides and cattle, wax, gum, + coffee, ivory, and salt are also exported; and the annual + trade—imports and exports—now (1912) averages £1,000,000 in value. + The area of Eritrea, which extends southward to Cape Dameirah on the + Straits of Bab-al-Mandib, is 45,800 square miles. + + Finding that Germany did not intend to push claims, half-developed, + to the Somali coast, Italy in 1889 began to make treaties in that + direction, and by the end of that year had established a + protectorate over the whole Somali coast from the west side of Cape + Guardafui to the mouth of the river Jub, a claim subsequently + confirmed by agreements with Britain and with the Sultan of + Zanzibar. Italian enterprise has led to a great deal of geographical + discovery near the Jub River and the Webi Shebeili, an eccentric + stream, which after arriving within a few miles of the sea and + meandering along parallel with the coast, loses itself in a sandy + desert near the mouth of the Jub River. Several Italian expeditions + came to grief in these Somali and Gala countries, but Italy held on, + and deserves to succeed in the long run. An Italian commercial + company was founded to deal with the exploitation of the Benadir + coast—once in the hands of the Sultan of Zanzibar—where there was + still some lucrative trade to be done in products of the interior. + But complaints were made as to mistreatment of the natives by the + Chartered Company; and in 1900 the Italian Government bought from + the Sultan of Zanzibar, for £144,000, the ports (_Benadir_: plural + of _Bandar_, a sea port) of Magdishu, Brawa, Marka, and Warsheikh + which had long been appanages of the Sultan of Zanzibar. The name of + the “colony” is now “Somalía Italiana,” Italian Somaliland, and the + capital is at Magdishu—the “Mogadoxo” of the 16th century + Portuguese. Inland, Italian rule stretches along the Jub or Juba + river as far as the Gala towns of Bardera and Lugh. Farther north, + along the coast, there is the native Somali sultanate of Obbia and + then the Somali tribal territory of Nogal. The total area of Italian + Somaliland is about 140,000 square miles, and the population (Gala, + Somali, Swahili negroes, Arabs, and helot tribes) is 400,000. + + About the year 1904 a _rapprochement_ took place between France and + Italy relative to a settlement of colonial “aspirations,” + coincidently with agreements, secret or avowed, entered into between + France and Britain. It was then laid down that, should Italy at any + time establish herself in place of Turkey in the Tripolitaine, the + boundaries of her sphere of influence there should practically be + conterminous with those then recognized by France as being the + Turkish limits, comprising Tripoli (as far west as Ghadamés and + Ghat), Fezzan, and Cyrenaica. It is probable also that a similar + understanding was come to with Great Britain in the early part of + the 20th century. In fact it was openly stated in the literature of + the period that Italy had “ear-marked” the Tripolitaine as her share + of the Turkish Empire should any further curtailment of the Turkish + dominions take place. No official repudiation of such an idea + emanated from Germany or Austria. Nevertheless, when Italy did move + in this direction in 1911, it was from Germany and Austria that she + received the bitterest reproaches. The explanation of this changed + attitude was no doubt that between 1909 and 1911 an idea had grown + up both in Germany and Austria that Tripoli was now considered by + Italy as practically worthless from the point of view of a future + field for Italian colonization; and that it might be possible, + through some scheme of concessions and chartered companies, for the + Teutonic allies to effect a settlement and control over the + Tripolitaine (under the Turkish flag, possibly). Thence they might + build a trans-Saharan railway which would connect this German + foothold on the south Mediterranean coast with the future Congolese + Empire which Germany was resolving to shape in course of time out of + French, Belgian, and Portuguese possessions, by purchase, exchange, + and it may be some pressure. This idea bore fruit in an attenuated + form in the concessions made to Germany by France in north-west + Congoland in 1911 (see p. 234). + + Italy had nearly gone to war with Turkey in 1910 over a dispute + regarding the Italian Post Offices in the Turkish Empire, and, as + her principal means of punishing Turkey, was preparing an expedition + to land in Tripoli. But the Turks gave way before a practical + ultimatum, and Italy was left without an excuse. Then followed the + announcement that a well-equipped Austrian “scientific” mission + would start for the thorough exploration of the Tripolitaine in the + winter of 1910-1911. Italy appealed to Turkey to grant similar + facilities for an Italian expedition, but received an evasive reply. + In July 1911 came the startling incident of Agadir, with all that it + implied, both as to North African and as to Central African aims on + the part of Germany. It was felt soon afterwards that Germany, being + baulked of a foothold in Morocco, would be more than ever anxious to + establish herself on the Tripoli coast. A quarrel was therefore + picked with Turkey on somewhat vague grievances; and a declaration + of war was followed by the immediate landing of an Italian army at + the town of Tripoli on September 20, 1911. Soon afterwards, in the + autumn and winter of 1911, all the other towns on the coast of + Tripoli and Cyrenaica were occupied by the Italians, whose Senate, + on February 23, 1912, ratified a decree annexing these provinces to + Italy, as far to the west, south, and east as the spheres of France, + Britain, and Egypt. The whole of the port of Solum and its vicinity + was given over to Egypt—a _solatium_ accepted without hesitation by + the Anglo-Egyptian government. + + The European conscience of course was outraged, and much sympathy + was expressed with Turkey, but no assistance furnished. No doubt the + action of Italy in theory was a political crime. In a time of + perfect peace, she delivered an ultimatum to a neighbouring European + power based on ostensible grievances of a trifling kind; and before + that power could discuss any rectification of the said grievance, + two large provinces of its territory were forcibly annexed. In + theory the action of Italy was indefensible; in practice it was + probably a matter of stern necessity. The coast of Tripoli is + immediately opposite Italy, and it is far away from Turkey. A little + hesitancy, and this littoral might have first been assigned + commercially to German and Austrian subjects and subsequently have + passed for ever beyond the scope of Italian sea-power. Italy would + then have had the ironical punishment which Fate so often allots to + those who let “I dare not wait upon I would.” As to any regret being + felt for Turkey, let us consider for a moment what were her moral + claims to these two provinces. Their coast ports were seized by + Turkish pirates in the middle of the 16th century. Eventually there + grew up a Turco-Arab dynasty of the Karamanli Pashas to whom was + delegated by Turkey in the early 18th century the government of + Tripoli and Barka (Cyrenaica). The Karamanli Pashas, though they + sent out piratical fleets into the Mediterranean to attack the ships + of powers not in treaty relations with them, nevertheless did much + to open up Fezzan and the northern Sudan to European commerce; and + their friendship with Britain made it possible for the British + expeditions to Lake Chad and Bornu to take place in 1821-3. In 1835 + the Turkish Government at Constantinople, alarmed by the spreading + power of Muhammad Ali and the French seizure of Algiers, intervened + in the affairs of Tripoli and annexed it; a guerilla warfare + continued for ten years afterwards. From 1850 onwards, a great + revival of the Sudan slave-trade took place through the Tripolitan + ports; and this was still more marked after Egypt, governed by the + Khedive Ismail, ceased to export slaves. Under direct Turkish rule, + the Tripolitaine became almost impenetrable by European travellers, + several of whom were assassinated within its limits. Nothing was + done for the improvement of Fezzan, of the oases, or even of the + Tripolitan coast towns. Locusts ravaged the crops unchecked; and the + desert sands steadily advanced on the cultivable regions. No public + works worth mentioning exist to testify to any benefits derived from + Turkish rule. Turkey has been tried in the balances of Tripolitan + history and found to be utterly wanting. + + By the summer of 1912, the Italians had fought many battles and + skirmishes with the Turks and Arabs of the Tripolitaine. They had + been accused of the usual inhumanities of war by the usual + Anglo-Saxon journalist, but they were in possession of all the coast + towns, and in several of their lavish public works began to + reconcile the much-tried Moorish population to the dominance of the + “Rumi”—in this case a singularly truthful term, for it really was + the “Roman” come back to rule a land which fourteen hundred years + before (prior to the Vandal descent) he had raised to a position of + considerable fertility and prosperity. In July, 1912 the chief of + the great Senussi brotherhood (see page 236) made terms of peace and + amity with the Italians; and, as this edition goes to press, peace + has been concluded (Oct. 15, 1912) between Italy and Turkey on the + basis of the retrocession to the eldest daughter of Rome of two + among the North African provinces torn from her Mother State, first + by the Vandals and next by the Arab invasion of the 7th century A.C. + + When Italy is enabled to take complete possession of this area of + 400,000 square miles, she will find that barely one-third is + cultivable, and that the remainder consists of naked plateaus, + mountains of sun-baked rock, and vast “seas” of drifting sand. The + sand is a less hopeless proposition than the rock, for under it + often lie layers of imprisoned water, releasable by artesian wells. + But when the claims and requirements of the natives of “Libya” (as + the Italians call their scarcely-won possession) are duly provided + for, there will not remain much agricultural land for Italian + settlement. Yet there may arise many promising industries which will + provide employment for Italians in the towns on the coast. Moreover, + with time, patience, sympathy and understanding, the Italians will + find the million of Arabs, Jews, Berbers, Tibus, negroids and + negroes who make up the Tripolitan and Cyrenaic population a people + possessing many fine qualities of physique and endurance, who under + a wise and fraternal government may cooperate with the European in + making the desert blossom as the rose. + + Whether Italy will be required to halt on the verge of the Sahara + and Libyan Deserts, or whether France and Britain, declining to play + the dog-in-the-manger, will withdraw on either side the skirts of + their spheres of influence so as to admit the Italian to direct + access to the Northern Sudan, on the borders of Darfur and Kanem, is + an eventuality on the knees of the gods, and likely to remain for + long among unborn events until the sands of the Libyan Desert prove + to be valuable enough to be worth claiming and crossing. + +----- + +Footnote 203: + + Leo Africanus, who wrote the most important work on Africa in the + 16th century, was born at Granada in southern Spain in 1494, just + after the capture of that place by the Spaniards. His family + migrated to Morocco, and “Hassan ibn Muhammad al Wizaz,” surnamed + “Al-Fasi,” was educated mainly at Fas or Fez: whence his nickname. + He travelled throughout North Africa and crossed the Desert to the + Niger; visited Guinea, Mandingoland, the Niger Bend, Agades, + Hausaland and Lake Chad, Egypt, and the Nile. Captured by Italian + pirates he was sold as a slave and presented to Pope Leo X, who + converted him, christened him, pensioned him, and encouraged him + to give to the world his valuable geographical and historical + information. + + + + + CHAPTER XVI + + GERMAN AFRICA + + + German settlement in Africa is not altogether the outcome of the + scramble for Africa in 1884; German settlements on the West coast of + Africa date back to 1683, and Prussian or German protectorates in + Africa were discussed during the sixties of the 19th century. Ships + from Emden[204] and Gretsyl, belonging to the Friesland possessions + of the Electorate of Brandenburg (the mother of the Prussian + monarchy), stole out of the North Sea and took a part in the West + African trade in slaves and gold. These ships were much harassed by + the French, Portuguese, and Dutch, but the Brandenburgers, together + with the Prussian Company of Emden, managed to establish a foothold + at the close of the 17th century on the Gold Coast, where they held + for a time Grossfriedrichsburg and Takrana. The little island of + Arguin near Cape Blanco, off the Senegal coast, was bought by + Frederic William (the Great Elector of Brandenburg) from the Dutch, + and was held for some years. The Brandenburg Africa Company was + definitely founded in 1681, but by 1720 these North Germans, + distracted by quarrels at home, had abandoned their West African + enterprise. + + During the forties of the 19th century some consideration was given + in Germany to the question of colonization, but attention was + directed to unoccupied territories in America, and nothing was said + about Africa. About 1850 German steamships (under the Hamburg flag) + began to trade along the West Coast of Africa; and in that year the + celebrated House of Woermann opened its first agencies at Monrovia + (Liberia) and elsewhere on the West Coast. + + Many German missionaries and colonists between 1845 and 1865 went + out to South Africa to settle chiefly in Cape Colony, Namakwaland + and Natal. Between 1860 and 1865, a Hanoverian Baron, von der + Decken, was exploring Kilima-njaro and the East coast of Africa. It + began to dawn on him that Zanzibar and the Zanzibar coast would form + a legitimate field for German enterprise, settlement, and + colonization, “especially after the opening of the Suez Canal.” + Although von der Decken was killed on the Jub River in 1865, he + transmitted his opinions to Otto Kersten, who wrote an article in + 1867, stating that von der Decken had had ideas of buying Mombasa + from the Sultan of Zanzibar in order to found a German settlement. + By this time Hamburg merchants had established a flourishing trade + at Zanzibar, and until 1885 the German representative at that place + was almost invariably a Hamburg man; indeed before the unification + of the German Empire there was a Hamburg (Hanseatic) consul at + Zanzibar, rather than a German representative. Until the deliberate + intervention of Germany on the East coast of Africa, these Hanseatic + merchants practically placed themselves under British protection. + + In 1878 the German African Society of Berlin was founded as a branch + of the International African Association. It absorbed two similar + societies dealing with Africa, more from a geographical than + political point of view. German “international” stations were + founded between Zanzibar and Tanganyika, and German explorers made a + careful examination of the country round Lake Mweru and of the river + Lualaba. Other German explorers (Wissmann amongst their number) + traversed and mapped the southern half of the Congo basin; and, when + the present writer visited the Congo in 1882-3, the German + explorers, nominally in the service of the King of the Belgians, + made no secret of the desire of Germany to acquire control over the + Western Congo. This, no doubt, was one reason why Bismarck opposed + the Anglo-Portuguese treaty of 1883-4 (pp. 89-343). But, when the + conference he had negotiated was brought about, he felt that French + and Belgian opposition, united, and the absence of German treaty + claims, made a German Congo State impossible. The energies of + Germany were then directed towards the Niger, but here they were + thwarted by the National African, afterwards the Royal Niger + Company. + + Several emissaries were, however, sent out to Nigeria by the + German Colonial Society. This institution was founded at + Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1882, and at once met with enthusiastic + support. + + In the fifties, sixties, and seventies, German Protestant + missionaries had established themselves in Damaraland and + Namakwaland, in South-West Africa. In 1864 some of these + missionaries bought the estates of the Walfish Bay Copper Company, + to the north-east of Walfish Bay, and here they hoisted the German + flag. So early as 1877 Sir Bartle Frere began to regard the + proceedings of the German missionaries with suspicion, and, to + combat their action, proposed adding Damaraland to the South African + Empire. But the British Government would only permit the annexation + of Walfish Bay. About 1880 the German missionaries renewed their + complaints as to the treatment they suffered at the hands of the + natives and the lack of protection they received from the British + authorities. Prince Bismarck took up these claims, and asked the + British Government whether it was prepared to protect Europeans in + Damaraland and the Namakwa country. Lord Granville repudiated any + responsibility outside Walfish Bay, and informed the Governor of the + Cape that the Orange River was the north-western boundary of Cape + Colony. In 1881 the German missionaries asked for a gunboat to + protect their interests on the Namakwa coast. The Foreign Office was + consulted, and again repudiated any British claims to this territory + outside Walfish Bay. At the beginning of 1883 Herr Lüderitz of + Bremen, acting possibly under the inspiration of the German Colonial + Society, asked the German Government whether he would receive German + protection if he acquired territories in South-West Africa. He + received a guarded consent (after the German Foreign Office had + again consulted the British Government and received a vague reply). + In April 1883 the agents of Herr Lüderitz went with a German ship to + the Bay of Angra Pequena, 150 miles north of the Orange River. The + Germans landed there, and marched inland 100 miles to the German + mission station of Bethany. The Hottentot chief of that district + sold to these agents of Herr Lüderitz a piece of land 24 miles long + and 10 miles broad, with that breadth of frontage on the Bay of + Angra Pequena, including all sovereign rights. On the 2nd of May, + 1883, the German flag was hoisted on the shore of Angra Pequena Bay + over the first German colony. When the news reached the Cape, an + English gunboat, the Boadicea, went to Angra Pequena, and was met at + that place by a German gunboat, whose commander informed the captain + of the Boadicea that he was in German waters, and could exercise no + authority there. Nearly five months had apparently elapsed between + the hoisting of the German flag at Angra Pequena and this visit of + the British warship, and during that period no action had been taken + in England. Nor, indeed, could any action have been taken after the + explicit manner in which both Lord Beaconsfield’s and Mr Gladstone’s + Administrations had disavowed any British claims to the coast of + South-West Africa. Too late, Lord Granville informed Prince Bismarck + that “any claim of sovereignty or jurisdiction on the part of a + foreign power over any part of the coast between the Portuguese + boundary and the Orange River would be regarded as an encroachment + on the legitimate rights of Cape Colony.” Even then Germany did not + proceed to immediate action, but repeatedly pressed the question + whether England did or did not intend to take upon herself the + administration of this Damara coast. The British Government sought + to evade a direct reply by consulting the Cape Government. No answer + was returned by the latter till May 1884, when the Cape offered to + take over the control of the whole coast up to Walfish Bay. But in + April Germany had made a statement that she would not recognize + British protection over this coast, and on the 21st of June she + secured from England a recognition of a German protectorate. If the + action of the British authorities was blameworthy (from a national + point of view) in refusing to take Germany seriously, and in + puzzling her by declining to proclaim a British protectorate between + the Orange River and the Portuguese possessions, the blame falls + equally upon the Cape Parliament. It was the parsimony of Cape + Colony which feared to be led into expense, coupled with the + shortsightedness of the English Ministry of the day which refused to + believe in the possibility of Germany desiring colonies, that + permitted Germany to establish herself as a South African power. As + to the German Government, it behaved throughout with perfect + “correctness.” It gave the British Government ample time and + opportunity to make good any preceding rights. + + Germany did not act here as she did in the Cameroons, where she + merely informed the British Government that Dr Nachtigal had been + commissioned by the German Government to visit the West coast of + Africa in order to report on the state of German commerce, and asked + that he might be furnished with recommendations to the British + authorities in West Africa. Her ambassador did, it is true, mention + that Dr Nachtigal would conduct negotiations connected with certain + questions, but the context implied that these questions were + commercial matters. Therefore the British Government, which had + already made arrangements for establishing a protectorate over the + whole coast between Lagos and the Cameroons, did not cause Consul E. + H. Hewett to return to his post with any undue hurry. Dr Nachtigal + arrived at the Isles de Los, on the Sierra Leone coast of Africa, on + the 1st of June, 1884, with the intention of taking under German + protection the River Dubreka, situated in the district which the + French call Rivières du Sud; but, as there was some doubt as to + French claims, nothing further was done at the time; and, when + afterwards the German flag was hoisted, it was at once removed on + the receipt of a French protest. On the 5th of July Nachtigal + reached a district on the east of the English Gold Coast colony, now + known as Togoland. Here arrangements were made with the native + chiefs and the country was declared a German protectorate. Then Dr + Nachtigal steamed right across to the Cameroons. Here he was just in + time. The principal chief, King Bell, had been won over by the gift + of £1000 to sign a treaty with Germany. The other chiefs refused to + do so, and Bell himself waited for a week to see if Consul Hewett + would arrive. However, when the Consul did come on the 19th of July, + King Bell had signed the treaty, and the German flag had been + hoisted over the Cameroons River. Consul Hewett was in time to carry + out the rest of his programme, and, so far as actual treaty-signing + went, the British had only lost a small piece of the coast-line they + had determined to secure; but, in order that a grudging spirit might + not be shown to Germany, she was finally allowed to take over all + the Cameroons district[205]. + + In East Africa Germany’s procedure may be summarized thus. Count + Pfeil, Dr Carl Peters, and Dr Jühlke arrived at Zanzibar on the 4th + of November, 1884, as deck passengers, dressed like mechanics. + Officially discountenanced by the German Consul, they nevertheless + left at once for the interior; and on the 19th of November the first + treaty was signed with a native chief, and the German flag was + hoisted in Uzeguha. Eventually other treaties were concluded in + Nguru, Usagara, Ukami, and other adjoining countries, which resulted + in a solid block of 60,000 square miles being ostensibly secured on + paper. Dr Peters hastened back to Berlin, and on the 12th of + February, 1885, he had already founded a German East African + Company, to whom he transferred his treaty rights. On the 27th of + February following, the German Emperor issued an official notice of + the extension of his protection to the territories acquired, or + which might be further acquired. In vain the Sultan of Zanzibar + protested. The British representative was instructed to support + German claims, and eventually it was decided that the Sultan of + Zanzibar’s authority was to be limited to a strip ten miles broad + along the coast between Cape Delgado and Somaliland. + + In May 1885 the Foreign Office informed Germany that a British + company desired to develop the country between the Mombasa coast and + the Victoria Nyanza. The foundation for this scheme was the treaties + which the present writer had concluded on or near Kilima-njaro in + the preceding year, and which at the suggestion of the Foreign + Office had been transferred to the late Mr James Hutton of + Manchester. The Sultan of Zanzibar, however, refused to give in, + even to British representations, and made strenuous efforts to + support his claims to the hinterland of the East African coast. On + the 7th of August, 1885, a German squadron hove to in front of + Zanzibar and delivered an ultimatum. The Sultan bowed to the + inevitable, and recognized the German territorial claims, including + a protectorate over Vitu[206], a little patch of territory near the + Tana River. Gradually, however, matters settled down. An agreement + was come to in 1885 between the British and German Governments for a + recognition with France of the independence of the Sultan of + Zanzibar, and the definition of his exact dominions by a joint + commission. Eventually, in 1886, the respective British and German + spheres in East Africa were defined. In the same forceful manner the + Germans had taken Kilima-njaro. Except for the bulge of + Kilima-njaro, a line drawn from Wanga on the coast (near the river + Umba) straight to the north-east shore of Lake Victoria Nyanza is + the Anglo-German frontier in East Africa. The limit of the British + sphere on the north was the Tana River, Germany maintaining her hold + on Vitu. The German Government then came to terms with Portugal, and + agreed that the territories of the two powers in East Africa should + march together as far as the east coast of Lake Nyasa. Germany also + concluded treaties along the Somali coast. + + The German Colonization Society and the German Colonial Society + subsequently united under the latter title, while the German East + African Association had been incorporated by Imperial charter. + Further subsidiary companies were organized; and by 1888 numerous + plantations had been established in the north of German East Africa, + near the coast. In 1888 the German East Africa Company obtained from + the Sultan of Zanzibar the lease for 50 years of the whole of the + Sultan’s coast territory from the Ruvuma River to the Umba. A great + development then took place in the Company’s operations, which were + more and more identified with the German Government. A staff of over + 60 officials was sent out to carry on the new administration. Sir + Charles Euan Smith, who had succeeded Sir John Kirk as British Agent + at Zanzibar, warned the German administration in a friendly manner + that, unless greater care for Arab susceptibilities was shown in + replacing the Sultan of Zanzibar’s government on the coast, troubles + with the Arabs might ensue. His warning was only too well founded. + Five days after taking over the administration of the country—on the + 21st of August, 1888—disturbances fomented by the Arab and Swahili + population broke out, and in another month the Germans held very few + posts on the coast or in the interior. An animosity also began to be + directed not only against the Germans, but against all Europeans, + and the situation became very serious. In 1889, the resources of the + Company having broken down, Captain Hermann Wissmann (afterwards + Major von Wissmann) was appointed Imperial Commissioner for East + Africa. With 1000 native troops, mainly Sudanese recruited with the + help of the British Government, 200 German sailors, and 60 German + officers and non-commissioned officers, von Wissmann carried on a + vigorous campaign against the Arabs and Swahili, and by the end of + 1889 he had put down the revolt and captured and executed the leader + of it, Bushiri. It took six months longer, however, to quiet some of + the interior districts and those near the River Ruvuma. + + In the middle of 1890 Germany concluded a very wise arrangement with + England, by which, as has already been described in another chapter, + all German possessions to the north of the British boundary at the + Umba River were given up, and a British protectorate over Zanzibar + was recognized, while the German boundaries were carried inland to + the frontier of the Congo State. On the south, Great Britain was + admitted to the south end of Tanganyika, and secured all the west + coast of Lake Nyasa. From 1890 to the present time German settlement + and the development of German East Africa have gone on without any + disagreeable check so far as the Arabs or the European powers are + concerned. In 1893 a large and well-appointed steamer, the Hermann + von Wissmann, was placed on Lake Nyasa; and the British authorities + round that lake were amply rewarded for any help they might have + contributed towards its conveyance thither by the services which the + German steamer afterwards rendered in acting as a transport for a + portion of the British forces in the last war against the Lake Nyasa + Arabs. At the beginning of the 20th century the Germans had placed a + fine war-steamer on Lake Tanganyika. + + On the Zanzibar coast new quarters in the old Arab towns sprang up + like magic, the streets being widened, kept clean, and well lit. + Flourishing plantations covered many acres of what was formerly + waste land. There was fair security for life and property, even in + the distant interior. The Arabs became reconciled to German rule, + while on the other hand the German officials slowly learnt the art + of dealing tactfully with subject races. Since 1890, when the coast + strip leased from the Sultan of Zanzibar was finally purchased from + him, the whole of German East Africa has been under direct Imperial + administration. This German possession has now an area of about + 384,000 square miles, with a population—mainly Bantu + negroes—estimated at 10,000,000. The Asiatic settlers are stated at + only 7000, and the Europeans (mainly Germans) at 3800. It is likely + to turn out in course of time a flourishing tropical settlement; not + a country which Germans could colonize in the sense that Australia + or Canada are colonizable, but a Ceylon, a Java, a Southern India, + where the German planter may make a competence, where the goods of + Germany may find unrestricted markets, and where the Teuton may + educate and raise into a higher state of civilization a vigorous + negro people—some tribes of which, like the Wanyamwezi and the + Waswahili, possess fine qualities. The plateau region to the north + and north-east of Tanganyika may support here and there small but + flourishing colonies of white men. British Indians are already + settling somewhat thickly in the coast towns and are exchanging + their nationality for that of German subjects. + + In 1891, scarcely two years after Wissmann had broken the power of + the Arabs, the Germans found themselves fighting a more difficult, + brave and unaccountable enemy, the Wa-hehe of the plateau region + south of the Rufiji river. These people seem to have some distant + affinity with the Zulu in appearance, character, and mode of + warfare. This may be due to their having been influenced by the + Wa-ngoni further south (partly in Portuguese, partly in German East + Africa), the Wa-ngoni (under various tribal names) being derived + from Zulu clans which left South-east Africa early in the 19th + century and crossed the Zambezi, reaching northwards nearly to the + Victoria Nyanza. The German war with the Wa-hehe lasted till about + 1893. Then ensued a period of comparative peace till the year 1905, + when a most serious native rising took place in the southern + districts of the colony, between North Nyasa and the Kilwa coast. + Nearly all the tribes, Muhammadan and Pagan, joined in attempting to + oust the Germans. Officials, Catholic missionaries (male and + female), planters, and traders were murdered. It took nearly a year + and a half to subdue this rebellion completely, and something like + 120,000 natives (adults and children) died during this struggle, or + from its immediate results; they were killed in battle, by famine + resulting from the destruction of crops or neglect of agriculture, + or by disease. The effects of this depopulation are still to be seen + in the coast belt of Kilwa and in the Ruvuma watershed. The Wa-ngoni + (or Magwangwara as they are sometimes called) were almost + exterminated—an achievement by no means to be greatly mourned, since + they had kept East Africa (Lake Nyasa to the Indian Ocean) unsettled + by their raids, sparsely populated, and scarcely cultivated for some + fifty years previously. The Germans subdued this native rising with + a small army of German officers and non-commissioned officers, and + Masai and Sudanese soldiers, and even brought the Oceanic negro of + New Guinea face to face with his African brother for the first time + for something like three hundred thousand years! But these Papuan + and Melanesian soldiers were not altogether a success. + + It was alleged that this great rising was caused by misgovernment, + and by imposing on the people labour taxes which were most + unpopular, especially when this forced labour was leased out to + conscienceless European planters. Herr Dernburg—then German Colonial + minister—came out to investigate the cause of this revolt in 1907. + Since his recommendations were adopted the whole of German East + Africa has been peaceful. + + In 1890 railway construction began, firstly in a line from Tanga (a + northern port) to Usambara and eventually Kilimanjaro. This at + present (1912) has a length of 108 miles. In the early years of the + 20th century a Dar-es-Salaam[207]-Tanganyika line was begun which + already reaches Kilimatinde, 240 miles inland. Another line, + starting from Kilwa on the southern coast, aims at the northern end + of Lake Nyasa. + + The later history of the Cameroons has been much like that of German + East Africa—revolts, “sharp lessons,” then attacks by hostile tribes + inland, which are quelled by expeditions and the building of forts, + followed by other revolts still further in the interior, to be + succeeded by still further victories and advances; but on the whole + increasing peace and order throughout the country, and a great + development of trade. Unfortunately, as amongst some officials of + the East Africa Company and Administration, so among a few of the + Government servants in the Cameroons, there were instances of great + cruelties committed between 1887 and 1896, cruelties which led to a + serious revolt among the negro soldiery (1895). Germany wisely did + not hush up these affairs, but investigated them in an open court + and punished the guilty. It will be seen, I fancy, when history + takes a review of the foundation of these African states, that the + unmixed Teuton—Dutchman or German—is on first contact with subject + races apt to be harsh and even brutal, but that he is no fool and + wins the respect of the negro or the Asiatic, who admire rude + strength; while his own good nature in time induces a softening of + manners when the native has ceased to rebel and begun to submit. + There is this that is hopeful and wholesome about the Germans. They + are quick to realise their own defects, and equally quick to amend + them. As in commerce so in government, they observe, learn and + master the best principles. The politician would be very + shortsighted who underrated the greatness of the German character, + or reckoned on the evanescence of German dominion in strange lands. + + In 1904-5 there were risings of the Bantu negroes against German + authority in the western part of the Cameroons[208] colony. These + were suppressed after much bush fighting, but the cause of them + being oppressive legislation, the Governor of the Cameroons was + changed in 1906, since which time the whole country has been + peaceful. In the far interior German influence was established over + the banks of the Shari and of Lake Chad by 1902; and about the same + time Germans began to open up relations with the “Fang” country in + the western part of the Congo watershed. Railways were begun in the + first decade of the 20th century. One from Victoria (Ambas Bay—the + original settlement of the Baptist mission—see p. 244) runs round + the southern flanks of Cameroons Mountain to Buëa, the German + capital (3000 ft. above sea-level); another from the Cameroons river + (Duala) to the Manenguba mountains and Bayoñ (this will eventually + link up with the Victoria-Buëa line and be built northwards towards + the Shari river); and a third from Duala south-eastward to the + Nyanza river. + + In 1911-12, Germany obtained from France additional territory on the + south and west of the Cameroons Colony to the extent of 100,000 + square miles, bringing this African dominion eastwards into the + Central Sudan, to the Mubangi river, main Congo, and north coast of + the Gaboon. Germany thus secures the whole basin of the Sanga river + (a valuable waterway into the Fang country) and now possesses in the + Cameroons—or as it is spelt in the German fashion, Kamerun—an Empire + in Western Equatorial Africa of some 292,000 square miles, with a + population of negroes and negroids numbering about 4,000,000. The + country is rich in valuable products, and already the annual trade + amounts to about £2,200,000 in value. + + In South-west Africa Germany, by arrangement with Portugal and + eventually with England, secured a protectorate or sphere of + influence over a very large stretch of country—322,450 square + miles—bounded on the north by Portuguese West Africa, on the south + by the Orange River, and on the east by British Bechuanaland, with, + in addition, a long, narrow strip, which reached the Zambezi at its + confluence with the Chobe. This country along the coast-line is very + barren; it is, in fact, a hopeless desert, most hopeless of all + between the Orange River and Walfish Bay. But the interior is + mountainous, and in these mountains there are stretches of + well-watered country where cattle are kept in enormous herds. + Moreover, this mountainous country is very healthy. With the Bantu + Herero, who inhabit the northern part of German South-west Africa, + the Germans at first got on very well, thanks to the influence + exerted by the German missionaries; but with the pure-blood and + half-caste Hottentots, who inhabit the southern section of the + colony and almost all the coast-belt, the Germans have been + constantly at war. These Hottentots, many of whom have some slight + infusion of Dutch blood which renders them more warlike than their + relations in Cape Colony, are Christians of a kind, wear clothes, + and bear Dutch names. They at first found a leader in a certain + Hendrik Witbooi, who again and again inflicted defeats on small + parties of German soldiers, made treaties and broke them, and from + first to last gave the Germans a great deal of trouble. Although he + could boast of but a paltry number of followers, he fought in a + waterless, mountainous country, where concealment was easy and + pursuit difficult. In 1894 he made peace with the Germans and + remained more or less their ally till 1904. As he spoke Cape Dutch + fluently he soon mastered German, and for a time seemed really + reconciled to the Germanization of his people—already Calvinist or + Lutheran Christians. + + But in 1903, the Hottentots living on the north of the Orange River + and largely mixed with Boer blood—the Bondelzwarts—rose against the + Germans; and, although they only numbered some five thousand + fighting men at most, they occupied the German forces for four years + before they were conquered, mainly by extermination. The deserts in + which they lived (yet from which they were being dispossessed) were + remote and inaccessible except from the British possessions. Whilst + the German forces were attacking the Bondelzwarts, the Bantu Damara + or Ova-herero in the far north broke out into rebellion, attacked + the German settlers and traders without warning, and murdered some + of them, destroying all the homesteads they could find. The excuse + they gave for this furious outburst was that, when they signed the + original treaties of friendship and acceptance of protection, they + had no idea they were signing away their native land; and that + subsequently much vacant land in the Damara country had been given + or sold by the German Chartered Company[209] or government to white + settlers, some of whom also on unfair pretexts had taken away native + cattle. Reinforcements came out from Germany under General von + Trotha, and the mass of the Herero army was attacked in its + stronghold, the Waterberg range of mountains in about Lat. S. 21°. + The Herero warriors were slaughtered in numbers; nevertheless, the + larger proportion of the fighting men succeeded in evading the + encircling movement of the Germans and escaped under the leadership + of a chief, Samuel Maherero, and fought against the Germans for + months after their great defeat in the Waterberg mountains in August + 1904[210]. + + In the early autumn of that year the Hottentots broke out again with + renewed vigour, first under the leadership of a Herero half-caste, + Morenga, and a few days later under the renowned Hendrik Witbooi. + The Nama Hottentots, as a signal of their defiance of the German + power, assassinated about sixty German settlers in the south-east + part of the Colony, scrupulously distinguishing between them and the + Boers or British residing in or travelling through the country. + These (as the Herero had done, far to the north) they left uninjured + in any way. General von Trotha was baffled by the double + enemy—Hottentots and Bastards in the south, Herero in the north. He + issued proclamations of a somewhat savage tone in his exasperation, + and these being annulled by the Imperial Government he resigned and + returned to Germany in 1905. In the autumn of that year a new + governor—von Lindequist—arrived, and by reasonable measures of + conciliation and by the allotment of definite native reserves made + peace with the Ovaherero. Samuel Maherero however preferred to + remain on British territory, where he had taken refuge. Since the + close of 1906, however, there has been no more trouble between the + Germans and the Herero, who are slowly recovering from the awful + loss of life and diminution of their notable nation during this + terrible war of fierce hatred on either side[210]. The Ovambo + farther north have given signs of unrest, but are believed now to + have become reconciled to German rule. + + Hendrik Witbooi died in 1905; and Morenga was finally killed by a + British police patrol, in August 1907, in the Kalahari desert. He + had fled to British territory in 1906, but had not been surrendered + to the Germans. On the contrary, he was treated as a political + refugee and given every chance of settling down peacefully. He only + abused this kindness, however, in order to organize attacks on the + Germans from the secure basis of the British frontier. Therefore his + death in a skirmish with British mounted police was entirely his own + fault. + + By 1908 all these troubles were at an end, and German South-west + Africa was free from native foes. But the long war in these deserts + and bare, rocky mountains had cost the Germans the lives of over + five thousand soldiers and settlers, and an expenditure of 15 + millions sterling! So that it would have been cheaper at the + commencement of this colony’s history to have carried out a fair + land-settlement which would have contented the natives and still + have left more than half the area of South-west Africa at the + disposal of the white man. + + In 1908 diamonds were discovered in the sandy desert country at the + back of Luderitz Bay. Their quality was that of the Brazilian or + Liberian diamond, rather than of the type of Cape Colony or + Transvaal stone. Though as yet not large in size they were of good + “water,” and in 1909 the total value of the diamonds exported was + £771,776 in value. In succeeding years the supply fell off somewhat. + In the northern part of the Colony, at Otavi and Tsumeb, copper + mining is carried on; and the output of copper is sufficient to + warrant the construction of railways of considerable length. Cotton + cultivation has been begun, and the keeping of cattle, sheep, and + Angora goats has revived once more with the cessation of warfare. + The amount of sheep indeed is beginning to approach a total of half + a million. Cattle thrive well in the interior, especially in the + northern half. So also do horses, camels, asses and pigs. Camels + have proved most useful for the desert regions of the coast-belt and + the south. + + The guano islands along the coast all belong to British subjects and + are part of Cape Colony. So also is the only really good harbour on + the coast—Walfish Bay. This little enclave of 430 square miles + belongs to Cape Colony and is British territory. It would be an act + of not wasted generosity some day to transfer this little patch to + Germany for the benefit of German South-west Africa. Its retention + by the British Empire is of the dog-in-the-manger type of policy. It + is no longer of any use to us, nor does the want of it cripple + German South-west Africa; yet its possession by Germany would + relieve her of the continued heavy expenditure needed to maintain + the adjoining Swakopmund as a landing-place for passengers and + goods. + + A railway of over two hundred miles now connects the southern port, + Luderitzhafen (Angra Pequena) with the inland settlement of + Keetmanshoop, and will be extended some day to the Orange River and + the Cape railway system. Another and longer railway (359 miles) goes + from Swakopmund to the Tsumeb copper mines. A third railway (237 + miles) of small gauge—the first constructed—connects Swakopmund with + the administrative capital, Windhoek. There is also a short line + between the Otavi copper mines and Groot Fontein. So that, between + 1900 and 1912, Germany has constructed over 1000 miles of railway in + her colony of South-west Africa. + + This indeed comes nearer to being a real colony than any other + possession of Germany in Africa. Out of a total population of not + quite 100,000, nearly 11,000 are Germans, the rest of the twelve to + thirteen thousand whites being Boers and British. (The negro + population—Bantu, Hottentot, Bushman, and half-castes—only numbers + about 85,000 since the wars of 1903-7.) The climate is nearly + everywhere healthy for the white man, and the tsetse fly is almost + completely absent from the entire colony of 322,450 square miles. + Only in the extreme north, near the Kunene River, the Kubango, and + Kwando is there malarial fever. In the interior, more or less + parallel with the coast, are mountain ranges rising to considerable + altitudes—8972 feet is the highest point. They enclose fertile + valleys, and their mists and rains nourish perennial streams, which + however do not send their waters to the sea except in flood time. + Indeed over much of this central and northern mountain region the + average yearly rainfall, between October and April, is only 20 + inches. + + Germany has made far from a bad bargain with Fate in investing in + what was thought at the time by ignorant statesmen in England and + Cape Colony to be a derelict portion of South Africa. Like parts of + the French Sahara, German South-west Africa may turn out to be a + singularly healthy and wealthy tract of land. But can it remain long + a German Colony? Will not the attraction of the South African Union + be more powerful than the fiat of governments five thousand miles + away in London and Berlin? The parallel instances of Texas, Florida, + and the United States may be quoted some day, very appositely. But + such a movement, if it ever does come about, will be a peaceful one + because it will be irresistible; and it may be coeval with a very + close alliance in Europe, Asia, and Tropical Africa between Germany + and her oldest Colony—Britain. + + Togoland, between the Gold Coast and Dahomé, became a German + protectorate in 1884. It has an area of 33,700 square miles and a + negro population of about 1,000,000. Its boundaries were finally + settled with France and Britain in 1899, and the neutral sphere, + which contained the towns of Yendi and Salagá, was divided between + Germany and Britain. Togoland stretches northward to the 11th degree + of N. Lat. (its boundary with France) and includes the important + Muhammadan towns of Yendi and Sansanne Mangu, in which the trading + population is mainly Hausa. The administrative capital is Lome on + the very narrow coast-belt. High and less unhealthy land for + European settlement has been discovered in the interior; there have + been no disturbances with the natives, and German trade has + prospered. The annual total of imports and exports is now (1912) + about £900,000. There is a railway, in all of about 130 miles, which + links up Lome with other coast stations and with the hill stations + in the interior. Togoland is the only German colonial possession + which is self-supporting and does not require an annual subsidy + towards its upkeep. The land has not been taken from the natives, + and the native “Kings” and chiefs not only remain in power but are + much consulted by the German government. Consequently there has + never been any native rising or discontent with the white man’s + over-rule. + + Germany now possesses an African Empire of 1,032,000 square miles + with a population of about 14,500,000 negroes and 30,700 + whites—mainly Germans. + + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + + GERMAN AFRICA + + Plate VI. + +[Illustration] + + EXPLANATORY NOTE + + [red] _Area of German Possessions in 1885_ + [yellow] ” ” ” _1912_ + + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + +----- + +Footnote 204: + + East Friesland. + +Footnote 205: + + Perfunctory regret for such concessions may be spared when it is + borne in mind that the United States of Europe (as they would have + become in an Anti-British League) would hardly have allowed even + Free-trade England to acquire _all_ the coast-line of the Dark + Continent. + +Footnote 206: + + The concession of Witu, or Vitu, had been obtained by the Denhardt + brothers on the 8th of April, 1885, and a German protectorate was + declared on the 27th of May. For subsequent history see page 384. + +Footnote 207: + + Dar-es-Salaam is the capital of German East Africa. + +Footnote 208: + + Kamerun is the official spelling of the old Portuguese name for + this region (Camarões) which we render “Cameroons.” + +Footnote 209: + + In the early days of the colony, when Germany rather despaired + about the unprofitable region she had annexed on the map, she + brought into existence the German South-west Africa Company in + order to introduce capital into the country. To this company were + given extensive land and mineral concessions without any regard + whatever for native rights or sentiment. Hence, when these rights + were exercised, arose much trouble with the settled negro + population. + +Footnote 210: + + There are said to be only about 20,000 Herero people now living in + Damaraland. It would be a great pity if this intelligent, strong + race of Bantu negroes disappeared. They must have an interesting + history behind them, which is being slowly pieced out by tradition + and by the etymology of their remarkable language, by some + regarded as the “Sanskrit of the Bantu.” They seem to have + emigrated almost direct to South-West Africa from East Equatorial + Africa some fifteen or sixteen hundred years ago, bringing their + long-horned cattle with them. + + + + + CHAPTER XVII + + THE FRENCH IN MADAGASCAR + + + The Island of Madagascar is possibly alluded to by the Alexandrian + Greek geographer, Ptolemy, who wrote during the 2nd century after + the birth of Christ, as “Menouthias[211],” and by other classical + geographers as Monouthis or Menoutheseas; though it is more probable + that at most Pemba, Zanzibar or one of the Komoros was meant both by + Ptolemy’s informants and the unknown authors of the Periplus of the + Erythræan Sea who first used the term “Menouthias” a century earlier + (about 50 A.C.). Then comes a break, and when the study of geography + is resumed in Europe the allusions to this island are more obvious, + and evidently come through post-Islamic Arabs; a large island in the + Indian Ocean is alluded to as “Albargoa,” and “Manutia-Alphil.” + Older Arab names were rendered in medieval European geography as + Serandab, Phenbalon, Quambalon. Later an allusion is made to it in + Arab writings as “Jazirat-al-Komr”—“Island of the Full Moon”; but + this name more probably applies to what are still called the Komoro + Islands, an adjoining archipelago. On the maps of the Venetian + geographers Fra Mauro and Andrea Bianco, between 1457 and 1459, + wherein use has been made of Arab information, the Cape of Good Hope + is indicated (forty years before the discovery of Diaz) as Cavo di + Diab(olo), and Madagascar is given as a triangular island to the + north-east, and has on it the names of Sofala and Xengibar. From + Arab sources we learn that an Indian dau in 1420 rounded the + southernmost point of Africa—“Cape Diab”—and, turning again + eastward, sailed back past Madagascar, on the shore of which island + they discovered a rukh’s egg[212]. Madagascar was mentioned and + described in much fuller detail and with allusions to the gigantic + bird (whose fossil remains were discovered in the 19th century) by + Marco Polo the Venetian explorer at the beginning of the 14th + century. Polo obtained his information from Arab sea-captains of the + Persian Gulf. More authentic news of Madagascar was sent to Portugal + near the end of the 15th century by Pedro de Covilham, whose + journeys overland to India have been alluded to in Chapter IV. On + the 1st of February, 1506, a Portuguese fleet sent out by King + Manoel, under Francisco de Almeida, discovered the east coast of + Madagascar; but the island had already been sighted by a Portuguese + sea-captain on the 10th August, 1500, and named “São Lourenço,” + because the discovery was made on St Laurence’s Day. In 1507 its + west coast was visited and its shape more clearly defined by Gomez + d’Abreu. The name “Madagascar,” like the adjective “Malagasy,” is + probably of native origin, the former having been introduced in its + present form by Marco Polo and the Portuguese, and the latter by the + French. + + It was not until 1540 that any Portuguese actually settled on the + island, and those who made this venture at its south-east extremity + were nearly all massacred in 1548. At the end of the 16th century + the Dutch visited Madagascar, and about the same time Dominican, + Ignatian, and Lazarist monk-missionaries made an unsuccessful + attempt to obtain a hearing for Christianity. Between 1618 and 1640 + English and Dutch adventurers nibbled at Madagascar, but the hostile + and treacherous attitude of the natives and the unhealthy climate of + the island coasts caused these attempts to end invariably in + disaster. In 1642, however, the French “Company of the East” was + formed under the patronage of Cardinal Richelieu with the main + object of colonizing Madagascar. Pronis, a French Protestant of + dissolute habits, was sent out as Governor. Two years later a rival + project for the same purpose was started in England under the + presidency of Prince Rupert, and a small station was founded at St + Augustine’s Bay; but this was soon after abandoned, and the Company + broken up on account of the Civil War in England. + + The name of the first French settlement at the south-east extremity + of Madagascar was “Fort Dauphin.” Pronis, whose immoral life shocked + the French settlers, was replaced as Governor by Flacourt, but the + fortunes of the settlement were chequered. The parent Company got + into trouble, and its charter was abolished. The royal concession of + Madagascar was then bandied about from nobleman to nobleman, and was + finally sold to Louis XIV, who, having reassumed these rights on + behalf of the crown, sent out the Duc de la Meilleraye. One of the + officers of the staff of the Duc de la Meilleraye was Vacher de + Rochelle, who explored the country, and acquired the rare advantage + of winning the friendship of the Malagasy. Vacher de Rochelle, for + some unknown reason nicknamed and ordinarily known as La Case[213], + was admired by the natives for his courage, and was invited to marry + the heiress of a powerful native chief. He did so, and becoming + dissatisfied with the mismanagement of the French settlement retired + into the interior, and became King-Consort of the state of Ambole at + the death of his father-in-law. Nevertheless, when the French got + into difficulties with the natives and were hard pressed, Vacher de + la Rochelle came to their assistance with great bravery. This + remarkable person, whose life should be written by some framer of + romances, died about 1671, assassinated by a native. + + In 1664 the French East India Company was founded, and took over + Madagascar amongst other concessions under the pretentious title of + Gallia Orientalis. As if to punish them for this overweening + assumption, a great massacre occurred eight years afterwards, + leading to the almost entire extinction of the French settlers round + Fort Dauphin. The few survivors fled to the Island of Bourbon, which + the French had taken in 1638-43. Nevertheless, in spite of this + disaster, the French Government calmly annexed Madagascar by an + Order in Council of 1686, which was confirmed in 1719, 1720, and + 1725. + + At the end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century, + European pirates—English, French, and Dutch—who had begun to infest + the eastern seas, and to trade in defiance of the commercial + monopolies given to various Chartered East Indian companies, + gradually made Madagascar their headquarters, and formed several + strongly fortified settlements hidden away up creeks or inlets or + the mouths of rivers. Some of these pirates founded a cosmopolitan + city of freedom which they called “Libertatia,” on the island of St + Marie, off the east coast of Madagascar. They were swept away by + British and French war vessels in 1722-23. Numerous half-caste + offspring—known as _Malata_ by the Malagasies—arose from these + unions with the native women; and men of this hybrid type sometimes + became powerful chiefs. + + In 1750 the French East India Company created a settlement on the + island of St Marie de Madagascar, which underwent violent + vicissitudes of fortune for the first few years of its life. In 1768 + Fort Dauphin was for a short time reoccupied. In that year a man of + superior scientific attainments, M. Poivre, was appointed Governor + of Mauritius and initiated a scientific investigation of Madagascar + by sending thither a French naturalist, Philibert Commerson, who, as + the result of his brief examination of the flora and fauna, pointed + out the isolated character of Madagascar. In 1774 the French + naturalist Sonnerat[214] visited Madagascar, and discovered the + Ravenala or “Traveller’s Tree,” and that extraordinary aberrant + lemur, the Ayeaye (_Chiromys_). + + In 1772 Madagascar was visited by a type of adventurer then very + uncommon, an Austrian Pole, called Benyowski, who alternately + offered his allegiance to France and England, and ultimately tried + to carve out for himself a native Malagasy principality, as the + result of which he was killed by the French in 1786. + + Allusions were made in the first two chapters of this book to the + Malay invasion of Madagascar. This great island seems to have at + first been peopled by negro or negroid races from East Africa, while + Arabs had from very early days settled for trading purposes in the + adjoining Komoro Islands[215] and in the north of Madagascar. But at + a period of time probably antecedent to the Christian era Madagascar + was invaded by a people of Malay stock, coming thither from the + Malay Archipelago. Despite the vast distance which separates Java + and Madagascar, there is a current always streaming from the Sunda + Islands towards the east coast of Madagascar and the Komoro Islands; + another flows more towards Ceylon, the Maldivs, and the Seychelles. + Aided by the east Trade Winds, Malay outrigger canoes with sails + might conceivably be driven across the Indian Ocean to Madagascar in + a few weeks. Even of recent years cases have been known of Javanese + junks being stranded on the Komoro Islands, in one case with a + Javanese crew on board. However, numbers of Malays or rather + Polynesians must have invaded Madagascar simultaneously in order to + be able to overcome and absorb the previous negro inhabitants. It + would almost seem as though we had here an instance of deliberate + over-sea colonization on the part of this interesting race, which at + the same time was pushing eastward, almost further from its base, to + the Hawaii Islands. When the term “Malay” is used to describe these + Asiatic invaders of Madagascar it does not necessarily imply the + direct descendants of the Malays of the Malay Archipelago, but those + of an older race, from which Malays, Polynesians, and other + non-Papuan peoples of the Pacific are descended—a divergent branch + of the Mongol stock intermixed with an Indonesian (Caucasian) + element, perhaps also tinged with the Melanesian[216]. + + About the middle of the 18th century there was a tribe dwelling on + the high plateau of East-central Madagascar, known as the Hovas but + really bearing the name of Merina (Imerina) or even calling + themselves “Malagasy.” They were more recent colonizers of + Madagascar from across the sea, who, having landed on the coast of + the great island, some hundreds or even a thousand years ago, left + as quickly as possible the malarial coast region and forced their + way through the forests to the cool and open plateaus of Imerina. + Here they were much harried by the more mixed races around them, who + were of stronger physique. At last, driven into a corner, they + turned at bay, and from being the persecuted became the persecutors; + by means of much better military organization they pursued and + conquered the tribes which had harassed them; and their conquests, + spreading to the east coast and the south, brought them into contact + with European traders and settlers. + + In 1792 the National Assembly of France sent M. Lescallier to visit + Madagascar. In 1801 Bory de St Vincent went thither and announced + that the colonization of Madagascar would atone to France for the + loss of San Domingo. In the following year Mr Inverarity, of the + Honourable East India Company’s service, made a survey of Bembatoka + Bay, a harbour on the west coast, since better known by the name of + its principal town, Mojanga. Lord Keith, a British admiral cruising + in these waters, visited the place in 1791, and directed the + attention of the Indian Government to the worth of Madagascar. In + 1807 the French, in spite of British hostilities, made a determined + attempt to settle at Foule Point[217]. In the following year, + Impoina, the most powerful Hova chief on the Imerina plateau, died, + leaving the supreme Hova chieftainship to his second son, Radama. + + When the British had seized Mauritius, Bourbon, and the Seychelles + Islands, it was determined to finish the work of clearing the French + out of the Indian Ocean by taking the trading stations which still + remained in their possession on the east coast of Madagascar, + namely, Tamatave and Foule Point. In 1811 this was effected, and + Tamatave was occupied by British soldiers. This capture was ratified + by the definite treaty signed at Paris on May 30, 1814, which ceded + the settlements in Madagascar as “one of the dependencies of + Mauritius[218].” The Island of Bourbon was, however, restored to + France by this treaty. (In 1848 it was re-christened Réunion.) Sir + Robert Farquhar, a very enterprising governor of Mauritius, obtained + soon afterwards a large concession from the native chiefs of the + north-east of Madagascar, which included Diego Suarez Bay. Various + proclamations were issued in the _Mauritius Gazette_ claiming + Madagascar as a British possession. On the other hand, it had been + agreed that all French possessions in Madagascar which were in + existence in 1792 were to be restored to France by England; but as a + matter of fact, in 1792 France held no post in Madagascar, all + places having been abandoned. Tamatave was not founded till 1804. + All this confusion was due to the ignorance of local geography, then + most characteristic of both British and French Government offices. + Nevertheless, it is clear that France imagined that she still had + rights over Madagascar, because in 1817 the French Governor of + Bourbon protested against the British proclamation declaring + Madagascar an appendage of Mauritius, and the French protest was + further supported by the reoccupation of the island of St Marie de + Madagascar. While Sir Robert Farquhar was in England on leave of + absence, the Acting-Commissioner, a military officer named Hall, + deliberately undid much of Sir Robert Farquhar’s work, and thereby + prejudiced any further insistence on British claims over Madagascar. + Subsequently, when Sir Robert Farquhar returned, he deemed it the + better policy to back up the efforts of the Hova king Radama to + conquer the whole of the island, and proclaim himself king of all + Madagascar, in spite of a protest from the French, which was + absolutely disregarded. + + In 1818 the first missionaries of the London Missionary Society + arrived, and established themselves on the Hova Plateau. Radama was + much helped in his conquests by the loan of several English soldiers + and non-commissioned officers, amongst whom one made himself + specially prominent, a Mr Hastie. By degrees Radama took possession + of Tamatave (held for some years by a French mulatto, Jean René), + and of all other French posts on the mainland of Madagascar, + including Fort Dauphin. Here he cut down the French flag and + deported the small French garrison to the island of St Marie de + Madagascar. Radama died in 1828, and was succeeded in a very + irregular, Catherine-the-Great manner by his senior wife, + Ranaválona. But her policy was not that of her great prototype in + Russia, for it was a reactionary return to barbarism. She persecuted + the native Christians and the missionaries, showed the greatest + enmity to any foreign influence, and so flouted the French that the + latter were compelled to take some notice of her hostility. In 1829 + the Government of Charles X decided to send a small expedition + against Madagascar, which was to be largely composed of Yolof + soldiers from Senegambia—a new departure in European warfare in + Africa to be afterwards largely followed. The French bombarded + Tamatave successfully, but were repulsed at Foule Point, though they + made a successful attack on another Hova post. Still, the results of + the expedition were ineffective, though the Prince de Polignac wrote + to the Queen of Madagascar proposing a French protectorate, with + French stations at Diego Suarez, St Augustine’s Bay, and other + places on the coast. But the Government of July reversed this + policy, and evacuated all French posts on the mainland of + Madagascar, after which there was not for years a Frenchman on + Madagascar soil, with the exception of a remarkable personage named + Laborde, originally a French shipwrecked sailor, who had been sent + up to the Queen of Madagascar for her to decide on his fate. From + his comely appearance he found great favour in her eyes, and was the + only European tolerated at her court, where he attained a very + influential position. In 1833 a French surveying party had + pronounced Diego Suarez Bay to be a very suitable place for a + settlement. + + During the thirties of the last century Queen Ranaválona had made + herself infamous by her persecution of the native Christians and by + forcing all European missionaries to leave the island; in addition + to which her soldiers, in exacting tribute and in emphasizing their + conquests over the Sakalavas, committed the most atrocious cruelties + and wholesale slaughters. The Queen of Madagascar, feeling at last + even in her remoteness that she was banned by Europe, sent an + embassy in 1836 to William IV of England, but the envoys effected + nothing in the way of renewing friendly relations. + + In 1840 the Sakalavas[219], driven to desperation by the Hova + attacks, placed themselves under French protection, with the result + that France, to enforce her protectorate, occupied the islands of + Nosi Mitsiu, Nosi Bé, and Nosi Komba, as well as the island of + Mayotta, in the Komoro Archipelago. In 1845 the Hova Government + intensified its unfriendliness to Europeans by expelling all foreign + traders from Tamatave. This action roused the French and English + Governments, who replied by a joint bombardment of Tamatave. + Unhappily, the bombardment was followed by a landing party, which + met with a most disastrous repulse, which neither France nor England + thought fit to revenge otherwise than by breaking off all political + and commercial relations with Madagascar. Between 1847 and 1849 the + French had abolished slavery in Réunion and in their Madagascar + possessions; but this philanthropic action subsequently caused + outbreaks among the Sakalavas, who were angry at having their + slave-trading operations interfered with by the French. + + Between 1847 and 1852 the queen’s son, Rakoto, heir-apparent to the + throne, applied at intervals for French protection, in order that he + might depose his mother and put an end to her ferocious policy. No + very definite answer was made to these appeals (which possibly were + not genuine, but fabricated for their own purposes by the Frenchman + Laborde, who still lived at the Malagasy capital, and by a M. + Lambert, who visited Madagascar as a slave-trader); nor were they + followed up by any action on the part of the French Government. In + 1853 the merchants of Mauritius, finding that the Madagascar + Government continued to refuse to pay the indemnity demanded by the + British Government for the disaster of Tamatave (in consequence of + which refusal trade with Tamatave was forbidden), subscribed amongst + themselves and paid up the indemnity to the extent of £3125. Trade + was then reopened. In 1855 the French adventurer and + ex-slave-trader, Lambert, visited Tanánarivo, the Hova capital, and + after an interview with Prince Rakoto, conveyed from him to the + French Government fresh proposals for a French protectorate; but + these were rejected by the Emperor Napoleon III, because he was + loyal to the British alliance and would do nothing in Madagascar + which might seem unfriendly to Great Britain. + + In 1856 Mr Ellis, one of the pioneers of the London Missionary + Society’s agents, who, after many years of work had left Madagascar + in despair in 1836, was invited to return thither to confer with the + Queen, and went out as an informal messenger of the British + Government. His mission resulted in nothing, however. Lambert, the + French adventurer, returned to Madagascar in that year, and escorted + to the capital Mme Ida Pfeiffer (one of the earliest of women + travellers, the Mrs Isabella Bird of her day). Lambert plotted a + _coup d’état_ which should place Rakoto on the throne under French + influence, with Lambert himself as Prime Minister. But Rakoto was + frightened, and kept his mother informed of the conspiracy. It was + therefore nipped in the bud, and Lambert and Laborde were promptly + expelled from the country, the latter after many years’ residence + losing in one day all his property in lands and slaves. But in 1861 + this ferocious old Queen, who had ruled Madagascar with a rod of + iron for 33 years, and had successfully set Europe at defiance, + died, and was succeeded by her son Rakoto, who took the title of + Radama II. + + If Ranaválona, his mother, was like Catherine of Russia, Radama II + resembled in his brief career Catherine’s predecessor, the unhappy + Peter III. He reversed the Queen’s anti-Christian policy, abolished + customs’ duties, and was such an enthusiastic reformer as almost to + suggest flightiness. He invited and received an English envoy in + 1861. Laborde and Lambert returned, and were received by him with + almost extravagant affection. The foolish King signed without + hesitating a deed presented to him by M. Lambert which gave the + latter the most extravagant concessions in Madagascar. He is also + supposed to have created Lambert “Duc d’Emirne,” a title, however, + which the ex-slave-trader soon found it wiser to drop owing to the + ridicule it entailed. At this time also Roman Catholic + missionaries[220] came out to settle in the Hova country. Mr Ellis + also returned, and brought letters of congratulation from the + British Government. The English missionaries re-established + themselves, and in 1862 British and French Consuls were established + at Tanánarivo. The French Consul was Laborde, who had resided for so + many years in Madagascar. But the Hovas were profoundly dissatisfied + with their King’s reforms and extraordinary generosity to Europeans. + A palace revolution took place in 1862, and the unhappy Radama was + strangled. A female cousin, Rabodo (Rasohérina), was proclaimed + Queen, but was dominated by the Prime Minister, as have been + subsequently all the remaining queens of Madagascar. The French + treaty was denounced on account of Lambert’s claims. These last were + compounded for finally by the payment of £36,247. 7_s._ in silver. + The concession was returned to the Malagasy envoys, and solemnly + burned at Tamatave. + + The whole procedure of the French Government in supporting Lambert’s + unfair claim profoundly affected the Hova people, and caused them to + be suspicious in future of all European enterprise. Queen Rasohérina + died in 1868, and was succeeded by her cousin, Ranaválona II, who + established Christianity as the state religion. In her reign arose a + very powerful Prime Minister, afterwards to be famous as the + opponent of the French, Rainilaiarivóny. In 1872 the French + Government again allowed its influence in Madagascar to wane, and + withdrew its subsidy from the Jesuit missionaries; but with + returning energy, and in the dawn of the new phase of colonial + activity, it resumed a more active policy at the beginning of the + eighties. Laborde, the French Consul, died in 1878, but the Malagasy + Government opposed his landed property passing to his heir on the + plea that he was only a life tenant, and that no land could be + alienated in Madagascar. The French Government supported the claims + of Laborde’s heirs, and disputed the matter between 1880 and 1882, + at the same time reviving the idea of a French protectorate over the + Sakalava of North-west Madagascar. The situation becoming strained, + the Madagascar Government sent a mission to Europe, but it was + unsuccessful in obtaining assurances of support. The Malagasy argued + with some justice that the French treaty of 1868 recognized the + Queen’s rule over the whole mainland of Madagascar, and made no + mention of any French protectorate over the Sakalavas. But we know + in the fable that the lamb’s arguments availed but little with the + wolf. The French had endeavoured in 1881 to find cause for a quarrel + in the murder by the Sakalavas of four French subjects on the west + coast of Madagascar, and claimed an indemnity from the Hova + Government; which, logically, they could not have done if the + country had been under a French protectorate. The Malagasy + Government promptly paid the indemnity demanded; but, when later on + they endeavoured to strengthen their authority over the Sakalavas, + they were forbidden to do so by the French. In the following year, + 1882, a French protectorate over the northern coast was distinctly + asserted, and the demand was made that the Hova flag should be + withdrawn from those territories. The demand was refused, and the + French Commissioner left Tanánarivo. Lord Granville in 1882 + protested against the assertion of French claims to the North-west + coast of Madagascar, but received no immediate reply, nor was the + opposition of the British Government deemed an obstacle worth taking + into account, seeing that we had already tied our hands with the + occupation of Egypt. It was, however, asserted by the French with + some degree of truth that a certain Sakalava chief opposite Nosi Bé + had concluded protectorate treaties with France in 1840 and 1843. + + Another cause of complaint which France urged against Madagascar was + the passing of a law in 1881 forbidding the Malagasy to sell their + land to foreigners; but in 1883 this complaint was somewhat obviated + by other edicts facilitating the transfer of land on perpetual + leases[221]. Nevertheless in May 1883 war broke out between France + and Madagascar, and the French fleet under Admiral Pierre captured + Mojanga. Subsequently Admiral Pierre steamed round the island, and + anchored in the roadstead of Tamatave, where he found H.M.S. Dryad, + Commander Johnstone, already watching events. The French admiral, + after delivering an ultimatum, which was rejected, bombarded and + occupied Tamatave, and destroyed other Hova establishments on the + East coast. Mr Shaw, an English medical missionary, was established + at Tamatave, and, beyond rendering medical assistance to the wounded + natives, took no part in the struggle. Nevertheless, his dispensary + was broken into, and he was arrested, accused of poisoning French + soldiers[222], and closely confined as a prisoner on the French + flag-ship. The British Consul, Pakenham, who had gone down to + Tamatave and was very ill, was ordered to quit the town in 24 hours, + but died before this time elapsed. Anglo-French relations were + severely strained by the attempt of the French to intercept Captain + Johnstone’s mails. When the news of French action reached England Mr + Gladstone made a very serious speech in the House of Commons + regarding Mr Shaw’s arrest. The French Government, feeling its + agents had gone too far, made a conciliatory reply. Mr Shaw was + released, and given an indemnity of £1000. In the meantime the Queen + of Madagascar died, and was succeeded by another Queen, Ranaválona + III. Admiral Pierre also fell ill, and died just as he reached + Marseilles. His successor, Admiral Galiber, did much to restore + cordial relations between the British and French officials by his + courteous manner. In 1884 an Englishman named Digby Willoughby, who + had been a volunteer in the Zulu war, succeeded in running a cargo + of arms and ammunition across to the south coast of Madagascar, and + in reward for his energy was taken into the service of the Malagasy + Government, made an officer in their army, and finally rose to be + their Commander-in-Chief. The war dragged on through 1885, causing + some dissatisfaction and lassitude in France. It is probable that + the French Government would not have insisted on the protectorate + but for German action on the adjoining coast of Africa, which caused + the French to feel that in the African scramble they should be + fairly represented. At last a treaty of peace was negotiated, and + finally concluded in January, 1886. General Willoughby represented + the Malagasy Government at Tamatave, and concluded a treaty in their + name. This agreement gave France a virtual protectorate over + Madagascar—at any rate, a control over her foreign relations—an + establishment at Diego Suarez Bay, and an indemnity of £,400,000. + + A few months later, in June 1886, France declared her protectorate + over all the Komoro Islands, of which she had already annexed + Mayotta in 1840. + + In 1890, England, in return for the waiving of French opposition to + a British protectorate over Zanzibar, recognized a French + protectorate over Madagascar. But the Malagasy themselves had been + sullenly refusing their recognition of any such protectorate and + endeavouring to shake themselves free of the trammels of the 1886 + treaty. It was believed in England and in France that the conquest + of Madagascar would be an extremely difficult undertaking, that the + opposition of the Hovas would be a determined one, and that their + warlike energy combined with the terribly unhealthy climate would + make success doubtful or dearly purchased. For some nine years, + therefore, the French Government put up with many a rebuff from the + powerful Prime Minister of Madagascar. But at last the French were + obliged either to let their protectorate become a dead letter or + enforce their right to a predominant influence at the Malagasy + court. Their ultimatum in 1895 was rejected. A powerful French + expedition was sent—over 10,000 French soldiers, and an equal number + of Senegalese. The idea of landing at Tamatave and forcing a way up + to the capital through dense forests and across steep mountain + terraces was wisely abandoned, and in preference the forces entered + Bembatoka Bay (Mojanga), on the west coast, and were transported up + the Ikopa river. From the point where its navigability came to an + end they started overland for Tanánarivo, which was captured after + the feeblest resistance on the part of the Hovas[223]. + + At first an attempt was made to continue the government of the Queen + of Madagascar under French protection, but this only led to + treachery and intrigue on the part of the Hovas. The Prime Minister + was exiled, the Queen was deposed, and exiled first to Réunion and + subsequently to Algiers. In 1896 the island was annexed to France, + and became a French colony. At the same time, and by this act of + annexation, the commercial treaties of other nations with Madagascar + were annulled; the coasting trade was confined to vessels flying the + French flag; and the fiscal policy adopted was that of the severest + Protectionist type, the commerce and enterprise of other nations + being practically excluded from Madagascar. These actions gradually + came to be apprehended and resented in England, where in the + previous recognition of the French protectorate no intention + whatever had existed of abandoning British commercial rights. + + The Hova rule was bloody and barbarous, and more recent by quite a + hundred years than the first establishment of European influence. + But it at least established freedom of religion[224], and complete + freedom of commerce and enterprise for all civilized nations. By + pursuing this retrograde policy in commerce and religion France has + somewhat alienated the sympathy and interest with which one might + otherwise have watched her resolute intention to civilize + Madagascar. But from all accounts—British and French—the persistent + efforts of the first great administrator of Madagascar (General + Galliéni) to restore law and order and to open up this island of + 228,000 square miles to cultivation and civilization produced + favourable results between 1897 and 1905[225]. The slaves have been + emancipated (in 1896); Tanánarive (the French, as it was the Hova + capital) has been transformed into a fine town of European aspect. + Roads are being rapidly made, canals have been dug to connect the + coast lagoons with the sea and the mouths of rivers, and railways + into the interior are in course of construction[226]. Already the + connection of Tamatave, the principal port on the East coast, by + railway with Tanánarivo the capital is nearly complete. Gold, iron, + copper, lead, silver, zinc, and many other metals and minerals are + being worked. Agriculture has not been neglected, and of late + Madagascar has begun to export rice. Rubber, wild and cultivated, is + entering into the list of exported products, of which the principal + are gold, cattle, hides, coffee, vanilla, cloves, and silks. The + land has not been taken from the natives, and the native population, + said to have at first decreased under French rule, has of late shown + a distinct increase. In 1911 it was found by census to number + 3,054,658; of whom only 13,539 were of European race (7606 being + French). Forced labour in the public service was abolished in 1901. + The natives are a good deal governed by their own elected chiefs and + notables, and of late years very little local legislation has been + enacted without taking the leading native authorities into + consultation. + + The mass of the Malagasy people are growing in contentment and + well-being under the paternal rule of a French governor-general, but + the volume of trade has not markedly increased and remains at about + an annual value of £3,000,000. And nearly the entirety (£2,300,000) + of this is done with France or French possessions, differential + duties and other forms of protection having greatly hampered foreign + trade with Madagascar since 1896. + + As already mentioned, France had annexed the Mascarene Islands of + Mauritius (Ile de France) in 1715 and Réunion (called Bourbon from + 1649 to 1848) in 1643. Both were taken from her by Britain in the + Napoleonic wars; but, though Mauritius was kept by the British, + Réunion was restored to France in 1815. (Both islands had been held + by the French East India Company till 1767, when they became + appanages of the Crown.) Réunion has an area of 965 square miles and + a population—nearly all white—of about 174,000. + + The Komoro Islands to the north-west of Madagascar (area, about 760 + square miles, population of Muhammadan negroids about 100,000) were + finally annexed to France in 1910 and are now under the Madagascar + government. + +----- + +Footnote 211: + + There is stronger evidence to show that Menouthias was a little + island—Zanzibar, probably—close to the African coast. Menouthias + is repeated in the Arab name _Manutia_, and Al-phil means + “ivory”—the ivory island or market. + +Footnote 212: + + Almost certainly this was an egg of the gigantic _Æpyornis_. The + Æpyornis, a ratite bird as large as, or larger than, an ostrich + and distantly allied to both ostriches and cassowaries, lived on + in Madagascar to the human period—say two thousand years ago or + even later. It was quite possibly seen alive by the earliest Arab + visitors to the island. + +Footnote 213: + + But by the natives as Andrian Potsy, i.e. “White King.” + +Footnote 214: + + Already famous for his discoveries in India; a beautiful jungle + fowl is named after him. + +Footnote 215: + + The Malay immigration into the Komoro Islands was relatively + slight. The bulk of the population here is composed of East Coast + negroes, speaking a Bantu dialect allied to the tongues spoken on + the Zanzibar coast. There was a large influx of Arabs, however; + and this mingling with the negroes produced the present race of + the Komoro Islanders, a very fine type of the successful results + that attend the mixture of the Semite and the negro. + +Footnote 216: + + The Hovas, or Merina, as they are properly called, of Central + Madagascar bear a strong physical resemblance to the Javanese. + They seem to have reached east Madagascar much later than the + ancestors of the Sakalava and Betsi-misáraka, and subsequently to + the Arabs. The Merina ruling caste is very “Malay” or Mongoloid in + appearance. + +Footnote 217: + + A post a little to the north of Tamatave on the east coast. + +Footnote 218: + + Further confirmed by the treaty of the 13th of November, 1815. + +Footnote 219: + + The tribes of the western half of Madagascar, a finer race + physically than the Hovas owing to their greater intermixture with + negroes. They now number about 156,000. + +Footnote 220: + + In 1840 Jesuit priests had again endeavoured to establish + themselves in Madagascar, on the north-west coast, but they all + died from fever. + +Footnote 221: + + This law was completely abrogated by the French in 1896, and + foreigners can now acquire land as easily as natives. + +Footnote 222: + + Who had made themselves ill by appropriating and drinking his + claret—that was all. + +Footnote 223: + + Whether the Hovas had overlooked the Mojanga route and had decided + to concentrate all their resistance on the approach from Tamatave + is not known; but after their repeated boasts as to the determined + resistance they would make to an invader, the collapse of their + defence and the feebleness of the resistance they offered to the + French are matters of considerable astonishment. It must have been + mainly due to the fact that the Hova rule over the bulk of the + island was hated, and that the other tribes were not inclined to + fight for its maintenance. + +Footnote 224: + + Since the annexation to France, and the consequent dominating + influence of the Roman Catholic missionaries, many natives have + been constrained to exchange their Protestant faith for Roman + Catholic Christianity. + +Footnote 225: + + Particulars as to General Galliéni’s reforms and the resulting + condition of Madagascar are given in an article “French Policy in + Madagascar,” in the October _Journal_ of the African Society, + London, 1904. + +Footnote 226: + + The French occupation of Madagascar has resulted in great gains to + science. Noteworthy are the investigations in palæontology of the + two Grandidiers and of M. A. Jully, which have revealed a + marvellous extinct fauna of lemurs, hippopotami, carnivores, + birds, and giant reptiles. + + + + + CHAPTER XVIII + + CONCLUSIONS AND FORECASTS + + + We have now seen the result of these race movements during three or + four thousand years, which have caused nations superior in physical + or mental development to the Negro, the Negroid, and the Hamite to + move down on Africa as a field for their colonization, cultivation, + and commerce. The great rush, however, has only been made since + 1881, and may be said to have begun with the French invasion of + Tunis. Now there remain but two small portions of the map of Africa + which are uncoloured, that is, attributed to the independent + possession of a native state. These tracts, theoretically + independent, or the overlordship of which is international, are the + Negro Republic of Liberia on the West coast and the Ethiopian Empire + in North-east Africa. The whole remainder of the continent is now + allotted to the dominion, overlordship or exclusive political + direction of some one European, Christian power: Britain, France, + Germany, Portugal, Belgium, Italy, or Spain. Morocco, on the extreme + north-west of the continent, the bulk of whose trade was formerly + with England, and whose principal seaport was once in English hands, + has now France for a protector, educator and disciplinarian, and + Spain for recolonizer. There is Egypt, in the occupation and under + the control of Britain, though still nominally a tributary state of + the Turkish Empire. Since this book was first published in 1898, the + truculent Muhammadan state of Wadai has been annexed and conquered + by France, together with Baghirmi and Kanem, Aïr and the Saharan + oases. Darfur is under Anglo-Egyptian suzerainty; Tripoli, + Cyrenaica, and Fezzan are annexed to Italy as the future “Colony” of + Libya; and British rule has been made very real over the eastern + Fula States of Nigeria and Bornu. The South African Republic and + Orange Free State are part of the Union of South Africa. Even + Liberia has recently entrusted its finances to the indirect control + of its original parent, the United States. Only Abyssinia—now the + Empire of Ethiopia in very fact, since 1900—remains theoretically + independent; and even Abyssinia is aware that three European + powers—Britain, France, and Italy—while guaranteeing her + independence, have in a sense agreed to take joint action if she + should abuse that independence to the commercial or political injury + of their interests. Abyssinia, for many reasons connected with her + history, her religion, and her sturdy assertion of independence + deserves more than any other state of Africa to preserve her + national self-respect and her sovereign status, provided she will + abstain from offence, and recognize her geographical and racial + limitations. But if through ambition she should attempt to arm and + to lead the peoples of the Sudan against the new order of things + which is being patiently introduced by Great Britain, she will find + herself restricted once more to the African Switzerland which has + been the nucleus and the last refuge of this Semitico-Hamitic + people. Liberia by studiously following American advice and + educating herself on the right lines to be an African Negro State + and not an African parody on a tiny scale of the vast United States + of North America, may play an important part some day in the + political development of West Africa. + + What is Europe going to do with Africa? It seems as though there + were three courses to be pursued, corresponding with the three + classes of territory into which Africa falls when considered + geographically. There is, to begin with, that much restricted + healthy area lying outside the tropics (or in rare instances, at + great altitudes inside the tropics), where the climate is salubrious + and Europeans can support existence under much the same conditions + as in their native lands. Here they can freely rear children to form + in time a native European race; and in these regions (except in + parts of South Africa) there is no dense native population to + dispute by force or by an appeal to common fairness the possession + of the soil. These lands of the first category are of relatively + small extent compared to the mass of Africa. They are confined to + the districts south of the Zambezi and the Kunene (with the + exception of the neighbourhood of the Zambezi and the eastern + coast-belt); to the fifty thousand square miles on the mountain + plateaus of Northern Rhodesia, and about a hundred and thirty + thousand on the highlands of Nyasaland, Katanga, South and Central + Angola, Uganda and British East Africa; to the northern half of + Tunisia, a few districts of north-east and north-west Algeria and + the Cyrenaica (northern projection of Barka); and to parts of the + northern projection of Morocco. The second category consists of + countries like much of Morocco, Algeria, southern Tunis, and + Tripoli; Barka, Egypt, Abyssinia and parts of Somaliland; where + climatic conditions and soil are not wholly opposed[227] to the + healthful settlement of Europeans, but where the competition or + numerical strength or martial spirit of the natives already in + possession are factors opposed to the substitution of a large + European population for the present owners of the soil. The third + category consists of the remainder of Africa, mainly tropical, where + the climatic conditions make it impossible for Europeans to + cultivate the soil with their own hands, to settle for many years, + or to bring up healthy families. Countries lying under the first + category I should characterize as being suitable for European + colonies, a conclusion somewhat belated, since they have nearly all + become such. The second description of territory I should qualify as + “tributary states,” countries where good and settled government + cannot be maintained by the natives without the control of a + European power, the European power retaining in return for the + expense and trouble of such control the gratification of performing + a good and interesting work, and a field of employment and + profitable enterprise for a few of her choicer sons and daughters. + The third category consists of “plantation colonies”—vast + territories to be governed as India is governed, autocratically but + wisely and as far as possible through native chiefs and councils, + with the first aim of securing good government and a reasonable + degree of civilization to a large population of races at present + inferior in culture and mentality to the European. Here, however, + the European may come, in small numbers, with his capital, his + energy, and his knowledge to develop a most lucrative commerce, and + obtain products necessary to the use of his advanced civilization. + + It is possible that these distinctions may be rudely set aside by + the pressure of natural laws one hundred, two hundred years hence, + if the other healthy quarters of the globe become over-populated, + and science is able to annul the unhealthy effects of a tropical + climate. A rush may then be made by Europeans for settlement on the + lands of tropical Africa, which in its violence may sweep away + contemptuously the pre-existing rights of inferior races. But until + such a contingency comes about, and whilst there is so much healthy + land still unoccupied in America and temperate Africa, it is safer + to direct our efforts along the lines laid down in these three + categories I have quoted. Until Frenchmen have peopled the north of + Tunis and the Aures Mountains of Algeria, it would be foolish for + their Government to lure French emigrants to make their homes in + Senegambia or on the Congo; until Cape Colony, Natal, the Orange + Free State, the Transvaal, and Rhodesia south and north of the + Zambezi are as thickly populated with whites as the resources of the + country permit, it would be most unwise to force on the peopling by + Europeans of Sokoto or the coast lands of British East Africa. On + the other hand, however healthy the climate of Egypt may be, it is a + country for the Egyptians, and not for Englishmen, except as + administrators, instructors, capitalists, or winter tourists. Since + we have begun to control the political affairs of parts of West + Africa and the Niger basin our annual trade with those countries, + rendered secure, has risen from a few hundred thousand pounds a year + to about £10,000,000. This is sufficient justification for our + continued government of these regions and their occasional cost to + us in men and money. + + In the north of Africa the white Berber race will tend in course of + time to weaken in its Muhammadan fanaticism, and to mingle with the + European immigrants as it mingled with them in ancient times and in + the middle ages, when it invaded Spain and southern Europe. The Arab + will gradually draw aloof, and side with those darker Berbers, who + will long range the Sahara wastes unenvied; or else he will betake + himself to the Sudan, and lead a life there freer from European + restrictions, even though it be under a loose form of European rule. + The Egyptians will probably continue to remain the Egyptians they + have been for untold centuries, no matter what waves of Syrian, + Libyan, Hittite, Persian, Greek, Roman, Arab, Turkish, French or + English invaders swept over the land; but they will probably come + within that circle of confederated nations which will form the + future British Empire—nations of every origin, colour, race, + religion, united only by one supreme ruler, and the one supreme bond + of peace, mutual defence, and unfettered interchanging commerce. The + Negro or Negroid races of all Africa between the Sahara Desert, the + Red Sea, and the Zambezi will remain negro or negroid, even though + here and there they are slightly lightened with European blood, and + on the east are raised to a finer human type by the immigration of + the Hamites, the interbreeding of Arabs, and the settlement of + Indians. It is possible that there may be a considerable overflow of + India into those insufficiently inhabited, uncultivated parts of + East Africa now ruled by Britain and Germany. Indians will make + their way as traders into British Central Africa, but these + territories north of the Zambezi will be governed also in the + interests of an abundant and powerful negro population, which before + many years have elapsed will be as civilized and educated as are at + least a million of the negro inhabitants south of the Zambezi at the + present day. South of the Zambezi great changes will take place. The + black man may continue to increase and multiply and live at peace + with the white man, content to perform for the latter many services + which his bodily strength and indifference to health permit him to + render advantageously. But as the white population increases from + one to twenty millions it will tend to reserve to itself all the + healthy country in the south of Africa, and inland on that great + central plateau which stretches up to and beyond the Zambezi; and + the black man will be pushed by degrees into the low-lying, tropical + coast regions of the south-east and of the Zambezi valley—regions + which with much of Bechuanaland and Nyasaland must for an indefinite + period be regarded as a Black Man’s Reserve. + + The European nations or national types which will predominate in the + New Africa are the British (with whom perhaps Dutch will fuse), the + French and the French-speaking Belgian, the German, the Italian, the + Greek, and the Portuguese. The Spaniard may be met with on the + North-west coast and in Morocco and Western Algeria; the Portuguese + may have in Angola a second Brazil, but this dream will dissolve + disenchantingly unless this nation can soon recover national energy + and divert her thousands of emigrants annually to Portuguese Africa + rather than to Portuguese- or English-speaking America. Portugal + itself requires colonists and ought to be able to support not a + discontented six but a prosperous fifteen millions of people. + Italy’s share of colonizable territory may be comparatively small + under her own flag, and Greece may have none at all, but the north, + the north-east, and north-central parts of Africa will teem with + busy, thrifty, enterprising Italian and Greek settlers, colonists, + merchants and employés[229]. + + The great languages of New Africa will be English, French, Italian, + Portuguese, Arabic, Hausa, Swahili, and Zulu. It is doubtful whether + German will ever become implanted as an African language any more + than Dutch has taken root in the Malay Archipelago. It is true that + Dutch in a corrupted jargon has become a second language to the + Hottentots and a few Bantu tribes. But Dutch is simpler in + construction, and easier of pronunciation to a negro than German. I + have observed that in the Cameroons the Germans make use of the + “pigeon” English of the coast as a means of communication with the + people when they do not speak in the easily acquired Duala tongue. + In East Africa, on the other hand, they use Swahili universally, + just as the Dutch use Malay throughout their Asiatic possessions. + English may not become the dominant language in all countries under + British influence in Africa. It will certainly become the universal + tongue of Africa south of the Zambezi, and possibly, but not so + certainly, in British Central Africa, where, however, it will have + the influence of Swahili to contend with. In British East Africa, in + Zanzibar, and in Uganda the prevailing speech will be the easy, + simple, expressive, harmonious Swahili language, a happy compromise + between Arabic and Bantu. In Somaliland, Egypt, the Sahara, and the + Sudan Arabic will be the dominating language; but Italian, French, + and English will be much used in Lower Egypt. Italian, Arabic, and + French will remain coequal in use in Barka, Tripoli, Tunis, and + Eastern Algeria; French and Arabic (French perhaps prevailing) in + Algeria; and French will make its influence felt in Morocco (though + it will contend there with Arabic and Spanish), and right across the + Western Sahara to Senegambia and the upper Niger. English will be, + as it is now—either in jargon or correctly spoken—the language of + intercommunication on the West coast of Africa from the Gambia to + the Gaboon. French, Swahili and Portuguese will prevail in the Congo + basin; Portuguese in Angola; and Hausa in Nigeria and around Lake + Chad. In Madagascar French will predominate, mingling in the Komoro + Islands with Swahili. + + Paganism will disappear. The continent will soon be divided between + nominal Christians and nominal Muhammadans, with a strong tendency + on the part of the Muhammadans towards an easy-going rationalism, + such as is fast making way in Algeria, where the townspeople and the + cultivators in the more settled districts, constantly coming into + contact with Europeans, are becoming indifferent to the more + inconvenient among their Muhammadan observances, and are content to + live with little more religion than an observance of the laws, and a + desire to get on well with their neighbours. Yet before + Muhammadanism loses its savour, there will probably be many + uprisings against Christian rule among Muhammadan peoples who have + been newly subjected to control. The Arab and the Hamite for + religious reasons may strive again and again to shake off the + Christian yoke, but I strongly doubt whether there will be any + universal mutiny of the black man against the white. The negro has + no idea of racial affinity. He will equally ally himself to the + white or to the yellow races in order to subdue his fellow black, or + to regain his freedom from the domination of another negro tribe. + There may be, here and there, a revolt against the white rule in + such and such a state; but the diverse civilizations under which the + African will be trained, and the different languages he will be + taught to talk, will be sufficient to make him as dissimilar in each + national development as the white man has become in Europe. And just + as it would need some amazing and stupendous event to cause all Asia + to rise as one man against the invasion of Europe, so it is + difficult to conceive that the black man will eventually form one + united negro people demanding autonomy, and putting an end to the + control of the white man, and to the immigration, settlement, and + intercourse of superior races from Europe and Asia. Difficult, this + conception may be, in the light of past history, and because + language counts for so much, but not impossible. Any repetition of + Leopoldian tactics on a large scale, any gross oppression of the + negro in South, East, West or Central Africa might fuse all culture + differences, blend black and yellow men of diverse religious beliefs + and superstitions in one blazing rebellion against the white race + which might avail to wreck the new and the growing European + civilization now spreading so fast over Africa. But otherwise the + indigenous races of Africa will grow up into being black or brown + British subjects (unless we deny them all suffrage), Frenchmen, + Portuguese or Germans. Great white nations will populate in course + of time South Africa, North Africa, and Egypt; and rills of + Caucasian blood will continue, as in the recent and the remote past, + to circulate through Negro Africa, leavening the many millions of + black men with that element of the white-skinned sub-species which + alone has evolved beauty of facial features and originality of + invention in thought and deed. But the black—or, as it will be in + the future, the brown—race will, through bowing to many an influence + and submerged by many an invasion, in the long run hold its own + within limits, and secure for itself a large proportion of the soil + of Africa. All predictions as to the future of the Dark Continent + seem futile in face of the unexpected, the strange, the unlooked-for + which arises in Africa itself. A new disease may break out which + destroys the negro and leaves the white man standing; or + unconquerable maladies may be evolved which sweep the white man away + or make it too dangerous and unprofitable for him to settle on the + soil of tropical Africa. On the other hand, remedies for all African + diseases may be found, and it may be no more dangerous to the white + man’s health to reside at Sierra Leone or on the Upper Congo than it + is for the indigenous black man. No doubt, as in Asia and South + America, the eventual outcome of the colonization of Africa by alien + peoples will be a compromise—a dark-skinned race with a white man’s + features and a white man’s brain. + + + + + APPENDIX I + + NOTABLE EVENTS AND DATES IN THE MODERN HISTORY OF AFRICAN COLONIZATION + + B.C. + + Foundation of the colony of Utica (Atiqa) on the N. + African (Tunisian) coast by the Phœnicians about 1100 + + Foundation of the colony of Carthage by the Phœnicians about 822 + + Expedition of Dorians founds first Greek colony in + Cyrenaica (modern Barka) about 631 + + Pharaoh Niku II of Egypt (son of Psammetik) sends out + Phœnician Expedition from Red Sea which is said to + have circumnavigated Africa in three years about 600 + + Conquest of Egypt by the Persians under Cambyses about 525 + + Hanno the Carthaginian explores the West Coast of + Africa as far south as Sierra Leone and brings back + chimpanzees about 520 + + Alexander of Macedon conquers Egypt from the Persians; + and founds the city of Alexandria 332 + + The Romans take Egypt under their protection 168 + + The Romans definitely conquer and destroy Carthage and + found the Roman province of Africa (consisting + eventually of modern Tunis and part of Tripoli) 146-5 + + Numidia (Algeria) annexed to the Roman Empire 46 + + Egypt annexed to the Roman Empire 30 + + Romans invade Fezzan (Phazania) 19 + + A.C. + + Mauretania (Morocco) annexed to the Roman Empire 42 + + Jewish massacre of Greek inhabitants of Cyrenaica 117 + + North Africa torn from the Roman Empire by the Vandals 429 + + Recovered partially by the Byzantines 531-4 + + Persian armies occupy Egypt 616 + + Herodius recovers Egypt from the Persians 626 + + The Muhammadan Invasion of Africa: + + Amr-bin-al Asi conquers Egypt 640-2 + + The Arabs invade Tripoli and Tunis, defeat the + patrician Gregory and partially destroy + Byzantine rule 647-8 + + Oqba-bin-Nafa is appointed by the Khalif “governor + of Ifrikiyah” (669), overruns Fezzan and South + Tunis, and founds there the Muhammadan capital + of Kairwan 673 + + Oqba traverses N. Africa till he reaches the + Atlantic Ocean 681 + + Carthage taken by the Arabs (698); Tunisia finally + conquered from the Berbers (705); Morocco and + Algeria conquered about 708; Spain invaded by + Arabs and Berbers 711 + + First Islamic settlements founded on E. African + coast about 720; Kilwa Sultanate founded 960 + + Aghlabite (Berber) dynasty begins in Tunis in 800 + (Morocco contemporaneously ruled by the + Idrisites) and comes to an end 909 + + Rise of the Fatimite dynasty over Tunis, Tripoli, + and Egypt (909), by whom Cairo (Al Kahira) is + founded 969 + + Great Arab invasion of North Africa (especially + Tunis) about 1045 + + About 1050 commences the invasion of N. Africa + from the Niger and the Moroccan Sahara by the + Berber sect of the Murabitin (Al-moravides), who + have conquered all N. Africa and Spain by 1087 + + Timbuktu founded by the Tawareq about 1100 + + The Third Great Berber dynasty of the Muahadim + (Al-Mohade) arises in W. Algeria about 1150, + conquers Morocco, Spain and Algeria, and finally + Tunis (from which the Normans are driven away) 1160 + + French and German Crusaders occupy eastern part of + Nile Delta and garrison Cairo before they are + driven out by “Saladin” 1163-70 + + Hafs dynasty founded in Tunis 1236 + + King Louis IX of France (“Saint Louis”) invades Egypt + in 1248; is disastrously repulsed, captured and + ransomed. Twenty-two years later he invades Tunis, + where he dies of fever 1270 + + Roman Carthage finally destroyed by the Moors, and + Tunis made the capital of “Ifriqiyah” about 1271 + + The Portuguese take Ceuta from the Moors 1415 + + The river Senegal reached by Portuguese exploring + vessels sent out by Prince Henry 1446 + + Diego Gomez reaches and names Sierra Leone 1460 + + The Canary Islands, discovered by a Norman adventurer + and ultimately sold to Portugal, are transferred by + that power to Spain 1479 + + Gold Coast, Niger Delta, Fernando Pô, Cameroons and + Gaboon discovered by the Portuguese 1471-80 + + River Congo discovered by the Portuguese 1482-5 + + Bartolomeu Diaz rounds the Cape of Good Hope 1488 + + Melilla (N. Morocco) captured by the Spaniards 1490 + + Christianity introduced into the kingdom of Congo by + the Portuguese 1491 + + Vasco da Gama passing round the Cape of Good Hope + discovers and names Natal (Christmas, 1497), reaches + Sofala and Malindi (East Africa) 1498 + + Sofala occupied and Portuguese East African Empire + begun 1505 + + Madagascar discovered by the Portuguese 1500-6 + + The Emperor Charles V grants a charter to a Flemish + merchant for the exclusive importation of negro + slaves into Spanish America; Slave Trade thus + definitely founded 1517 + + The Turks conquer Egypt 1517 + + Charles V intervenes in the affairs of Tunis (to + restore Arab Hafside Sultan and drive out the Turkish + corsair Khaïreddin Barbarossa) 1535 + + Charles V sustains disastrous repulse at Algiers (from + which dates gradual decay of Spanish power over North + Africa) 1541 + + Delagoa Bay first explored and temporarily settled by + the Portuguese 1544 + + First British trading ships leave London for the West + African coast 1553 + + Sir John Hawkins conveys the first cargo of negro + slaves to America under the British flag 1562 + + The Turks (having through corsairs founded the Regency + of Algiers in 1519, that of Tripoli in 1551) once + more take Tunis and make it a Turkish Pashalik 1573 + + Portugal founds the colony of Angola 1574 + + Dom Sebastião, King of Portugal, defeated and slain at + the battle of Kasr-al-Kabir; and the Portuguese + Empire over Morocco thenceforth crumbles 1578 + + Turkey attempts to wrest from Portugal the Zanzibar Coast, + but is utterly defeated by the Portuguese Admiral + Thomé de Sousa Coutinho 1584 + + Abu al Abbas al Mansur, the first “Sharifian” Emperor + of Morocco, who was the victor over Dom Sebastião, + sends an army across the Sahara and annexes Timbuktu + and the Upper Niger to the Moorish dominions 1590 + + The first Dutch trading ships appear on the West + African Coast 1595 + + The Dutch replace the Portuguese at Arguin (N. W. Coast + of Africa) and Goree (Dakar) in 1621; and at Elmina + (Gold Coast) 1637 + + French traders from Dieppe found the Fort of St Louis + at the mouth of the Senegal 1637 + + Foundation of the French Compagnie de L’Orient for the + purpose of colonizing Madagascar 1642 + + The British East India Company takes the Island of St + Helena from the Dutch 1651 + + The Dutch take possession of the Cape of Good Hope 1652 + + The dynasty of the Filali Sharifs acquires the + possession of the whole Empire of Morocco and Upper + Nigeria 1658 + + A British African Company chartered by Charles II + builds a fort at James Island, at the mouth of the + Gambia 1662 + + This same Company (afterwards the Royal African + Company), taking advantage of the war declared + against Holland, seizes and retains several Dutch + forts on the Gold Coast 1665-72 + + Denmark establishes forts on the Gold Coast about 1672 + + Brandenburg (Prussia) builds the Fort of + Grossfriedrichsburg on the Gold Coast 1683 + + England, to whom Tangier had been ceded by Portugal in + 1662, abandons it to the Sharifian Empire of Morocco 1684 + + The rising Arab power of ’Oman had driven Portugal out + of all her possessions north of Moçambique by 1698 + + The present Husseinite dynasty of Beys (from 1706 to + 1881 practically independent sovereigns) is founded + in Tunis by a Turkish Agha—Hussein bin Ali Bey 1706 + + Sieur André de Brüe, who went out to St Louis in 1697 + as the Governor of the French Senegal Company, founds + during the next 18 years the French colony of Senegal + and returns to France 1715 + + The French occupy the Island of Mauritius (Bourbon or + “Réunion” not being occupied until 1764) 1721 + + The Portuguese (having finally lost Mombasa in 1730) + recognize the Maskat Imamate on the Zanzibar coast + and decree the Bay of Lourenço Marquez on the south + and Cape Delgado on the north to be the limits of + their East African possessions 1752 + + The Portuguese lose Mazagão, their last foothold in + Morocco 1769 + + Spain acquires Fernando Pô in the Gulf of Guinea 1778 + + Sierra Leone ceded to the British by the natives 1787 + + Spain loses Oran by a terrible earthquake, and with it + her last hold over Algeria 1791 + + Denmark forbids the Slave Trade to her subjects 1792 + + Britain first seizes the Cape of Good Hope 1795 + + Mungo Park discovers the river Niger at Segu 1796 + + The London Missionary Society’s Agents land in Cape + Colony and commence work amongst the Kafirs and + Bushmen 1799 + + Napoleon Buonaparte conquers Egypt, 1798; Nelson + destroys French fleet at Abukir Bay same year; French + evacuate Egypt 1801 + + Britain finally occupies the Cape of Good Hope 1806 + + Sierra Leone and Gambia organized as Crown Colonies 1807 + + An Act of Parliament is passed abolishing the Slave + Trade in the British dominions 1807 + + British capture from the French Seychelles (1794), + Mauritius and Réunion in 1810, and Tamatave and + Island of St Marie (Madagascar) in 1811 + + Muhammad Ali destroys the Mamluks in Egypt 1811 + + First Kafir war in South Africa 1811-12 + + Cape Colony definitely ceded by Holland to Great + Britain 1814 + + Island of Réunion (Bourbon) restored to France 1814 + + Holland abolishes the Slave Trade in her dominions 1814 + + France and Sweden abolish the Slave Trade 1815 + + France reoccupies Island of St Marie de Madagascar + (first taken in 1750) 1817 + + Invasion of the Egyptian Sudan by Muhammad Ali’s forces + (1820-22) and foundation of Khartum as its capital 1823 + + A British Government Expedition under Oudney, + Clapperton, and Denham discovers Lake Chad 1823 + + Vice-Admiral W. F. W. Owen completes his great coast + survey of Africa, in which for the first time in + history the outline of the African Continent was + correctly delineated 1822-9 + + Governor Sir Charles Macarthy defeated and killed by + the Ashanti in 1824; consequent first British war + with Ashanti terminates victoriously 1827 + + The Brothers Lander sent out by British Government + trace the Niger from Busa to the sea and establish + its outlet in the Gulf of Guinea 1830 + + A French Expedition conquers Algiers 1830 + + Portugal abolishes the Slave Trade 1830 + + First British steamers (Macgregor Laird’s Expedition) + navigate the Lower Niger (1832) and discover the + Benué River 1833 + + Slavery abolished in all British African possessions, + including Cape Colony, by 1834 + + Third Kafir War in South Africa 1834 + + Turkey sends expedition to Tripoli to restore her + direct authority 1835 + + First “trekking” of the Boers away from British rule 1836 + + Boer emigrants treacherously massacred by Dingane, King + of the Zulus 1837 + + The Sakalava of N.-West Madagascar place themselves + under French protection, and France occupies the + islands of Nossi Bé and Mayotta 1840 + + Second Niger Expedition despatched from England 1841 + + Muhammad Ali the Macedonian (once a Turkish officer of + Bashi-bazuks) confirmed in the hereditary sovereignty + of Egypt as Pasha and Wali 1841 + + The last of the quasi-independent Karamanli Pashas of + Tripoli seizes and garrisons the important Saharan + towns of Ghadames and Ghat in 1840-41; but is himself + removed by the Turks, who annex definitely to the + Turkish Empire Tripoli and Barka 1842 + + Natal becomes a British Colony 1843 + + Gold Coast finally organized as a Crown Colony 1843 + + French war with Morocco 1844 + + Waghorn’s Overland Route finally established across + Egypt 1845 + + Independence of the Freed-slave State of Liberia + recognized 1847 + + Abd-al-Kader surrenders; Constantine (East Algeria) + taken by the French 1847 + + Foundation of the French Freed-slave settlement of + Libreville in the Gaboon 1848 + + Krapf and Rebmann discover the snowy Mountains of Kenya + and Kilima-njaro 1848 + + Slavery had been abolished throughout all the French + possessions in Africa by 1849 + + Denmark cedes her Gold Coast forts to England 1850 + + Livingstone and Oswell discover the Central Zambezi 1851 + + Independence of the Transvaal Republic recognized by + Great Britain 1852 + + Representative Government established in Cape Colony 1853 + + General Faidherbe appointed Governor of Senegal in + 1854; he breaks the Fula power in Senegal and greatly + extends the French possessions by 1856 + + A British Expedition is sent out in 1849 under + Richardson, Oberweg, Vogel and Barth to explore North + Central Africa: Oberweg navigates Lake Chad, ascends + the river Shari and is killed in Wadai; Barth visits + the Upper Benué, Timbuktu, etc., and returns to + England 1855 + + Livingstone makes his famous journey from Cape Colony + to Angola and from Angola to the Indian Ocean, + exploring the Zambezi from source to mouth, and + returns to England 1856 + + Burton and Speke discover Lake Tanganyika, and Speke + reaches south end of the Victoria Nyanza 1858 + + Livingstone and Kirk discover Lake Nyasa 1859 + + Spanish War with Morocco 1859-60 + + Zanzibar separated as an independent State from the + Imamate of ’Oman 1861 + + Lagos becomes a British Crown Colony 1863 + + Speke and Grant establish the Victoria Nyanza Lake as + the main source of the Nile, visit Uganda, and follow + the Nile down to Cairo 1860-4 + + (Sir) Samuel Baker discovers Lake Albert Nyanza 1864 + + Second Government Expedition under Dr Baikie sent out + to explore rivers Niger and Benué (1854); Dr Baikie + made Consul for the Niger, founds Lokoja at + Niger-Benué confluence and explores Benué (1857) and + greatly extends British influence; but dies in 1863; + Consulate abolished 1866 + + Discovery of a diamond near the Orange River in Cape + Colony 1867 + + Lakes Mweru and Bangweulu and the Upper Luapula (Congo) + R. discovered by Livingstone in 1867 and 1868 + + Basutoland placed under British protection 1868 + + British Army enters Abyssinia to release captives of + King Theodore and wins victory of Magdala 1868 + + Establishment of Triple Control over Tunisian finances 1869 + + Opening of Suez Canal 1869 + + Sir Samuel Baker appointed Governor of the Equatorial + province, Egyptian Sudan 1869 + + Dr Schweinfurth discovers the R. Wele-Mubangi, the + great northern affluent of the Congo 1870 + + Livingstone discovers the Lualaba or Upper Congo at + Nyangwe; is met at Ujiji and relieved by Stanley 1871 + + Insurrection against French in Eastern Algeria + suppressed 1871 + + Responsible Government introduced into Cape Colony 1872 + + Sultan of Zanzibar signs treaty forced on him by + England for abolition of the Slave Trade 1873 + + Second Ashanti War: Sir Garnet Wolseley takes and burns + Kumasi 1873-4 + + Dr Livingstone dies 1873 + + Cameron crosses Africa from Zanzibar to Benguela, + mapping Tanganyika correctly for the first time 1873-5 + + Stanley circumnavigates the Victoria Nyanza and traces + the river Congo from Nyangwe to the Atlantic + Ocean—the greatest journey in African Exploration 1874-7 + + Transvaal annexed by Great Britain 1877 + + The Dual Control of France and England imposed on + Egyptian Government (1876); Ismail Pasha deposed 1879 + + War between Great Britain and the Zulus 1879 + + The International Association founded by the King of + the Belgians, having developed a special branch, the + “Comité d’Études du Haut Congo,” sends out H. M. + Stanley to found what becomes six years later the + “Congo Independent State” 1879 + + De Brazza secures part of the Upper Congo for France 1880 + + The Transvaal revolts against Great Britain and obtains + recognition of its independence under British + suzerainty 1881 + + French force enters Tunis and imposes French protection + on that country 1881 + + French conquests reach the Upper Niger 1881-2 + + Arabi’s revolt in Egypt (1881), abolition of Dual + Control, bombardment of Alexandria and defeat of + Arabi at Tel-el-Kebir by Lord Wolseley; British + occupation of Egypt begins 1882 + + Italy occupies Assab Bay on Red Sea coast and commences + creation of colony of Eritrea 1882 + + Occupation of Obok by France 1883 + + The commencement of the African Scramble: Germany + establishes her protectorate over South-West Africa, + and over Togoland and the Cameroons in West Africa, + France occupies Grand Bassam and Porto Novo (Ivory + and Slave Coasts); Gordon is despatched to the Sudan + (which revolted from Egypt in 1883); and the Berlin + Conference on African questions is summoned 1884 + + Death of General Gordon at Khartum and temporary loss + of Egyptian Sudan 1885 + + Recognition by all the powers of Congo Independent + State 1885 + + Bechuanaland taken under British protection 1885 + + Germany founds her East African possessions in the + interior of the Zanzibar Sultanate 1885 + + Great Britain declares protectorate over Niger Coast + and river Niger and grants Charter to Royal Niger + Company: Joseph Thomson makes a Treaty for latter + Company with the Sultan of Sokoto 1885 + + Portugal extends her territory to the south bank of the + Congo and to Kabinda 1884-5 + + France concludes treaty with Madagascar which gives her + predominant influence over that island (declares + protectorate over Komoro Islands 1886) 1885 + + The Anglo-Egyptian forces sustain severe defeats near + Suakin at the hands of the Sudanese under Osman + Digna: Suakin is retained, but Egyptian rule in the + Nile valley is restricted to Wady Haifa. Italy + occupies Masawa 1885 + + Great discoveries of reef gold in the Transvaal; + founding of Johannesburg 1886 + + War breaks out in N. Nyasaland between British settlers + and Arab slave traders 1887 + + In Oil rivers (Niger Delta) Jaja, King of Opobo, is + arrested and banished; access to interior markets is + then obtained 1887 + + French Senegambian possessions definitely extended to + the Upper Niger 1887 + + Imperial British East Africa Company receives Charter 1888 + + Serious rebellion against the Germans breaks out in + East Africa (is not finally subdued by von Wissmann + till 1890) 1888 + + British protectorate over N. Somaliland first organized 1889 + + Italian protectorate established over East Somaliland: + and treaty concluded with Menelik of Ethiopia by + which Italy claimed to control foreign relations of + Abyssinia 1889 + + Charter given to British South African Company 1889 + + British Central Africa declared to be under British + protection: British flag hoisted on Lakes Tanganyika + and Nyasa 1889 + + In 1887 Stanley conducts an expedition by way of the + Congo to relieve Emin Pasha. He discovers the Edward + Lake and Ruwenzori Mountains and reaches Zanzibar 1889 + + Anglo-German Agreement concluded relative to East + Africa: Zanzibar taken under British protection; + Great Britain recognizes French protectorate over + Madagascar and French Sphere of Influence between + Algeria, the Niger, and Lake Chad; and France + recognizes the British Control over Sokoto and the + Lower Niger 1890 + + Cecil Rhodes, managing director of the British South + Africa Company, becomes premier of Cape Colony 1890 + + French expeditions reach the river Shari from the Congo + Basin and secure that river to French influence 1890-1 + + Captain (afterwards Colonel Sir Frederick) Lugard + establishes British predominance ever Uganda 1891 + + A German force annihilated by Wa-hehe in south central + part of German East Africa 1891 + + Paul Crampel, the first explorer crossing from the + Congo basin to, the Shari river, is killed by a + subordinate chief under Rabah Zobeir on the borders + of Dar Banda 1891 + + Belgians establish posts in Schweinfurth’s Wele 1892 + + Natal receives responsible government 1893 + + France conquers and annexes Dahomé 1893 + + Rabah Zobeir becomes Sultan of Bornu by conquest 1893 + + First Matebele war; death of Lobengula; Buluwayo + becomes the capital of Rhodesia 1893 + + French occupy Jenne and Timbuktu on the Upper Niger 1893-4 + + The Belgian forces under Baron Dhanis capture all the + Arab towns on the Lualaba (Upper Congo) and destroy + the Arab power in Congoland 1892-4 + + Witboo Hottentot outbreak against Germans in Southwest + Africa 1894 + + Uganda declared a British protectorate; Charter of + British East Africa Company withdrawn and British + East Africa henceforth administered under British + Commissioner 1894-5 + + Arabs finally defeated and expelled from Nyasaland + Protectorate 1895 + + Major Mouzinho de Albuquerque captures the Zulu king + Gungunyana and firmly establishes Portuguese dominion + in South-east Africa 1895 + + Captain Bottego establishes Italian post at Lugh on the + Jub river 1895 + + France conquers and annexes Madagascar 1894-6 + + Jameson raid into Transvaal; Matebele revolt and second + Matebele war 1896 + + Italy sustains terrible defeat in North Abyssinia. Her + protectorate over Abyssinia withdrawn and that + country’s independence recognized 1896 + + Anglo-Egyptian army reconquers Dongola 1896 + + Conquest of Nupe by the Royal Niger Company 1897 + + Zululand incorporated with Natal 1897 + + Railway completed to Buluwayo 1897 + + Emile Gentil reaches Shari river and Lake Chad from + Congo, and establishes French protectorate over + Bagirmi 1897 + + Benin city and kingdom conquered by a British Naval + Expedition (after a massacre of a pacific expedition + under J. R. Phillips) 1897 + + German East Africa declared a German colony 1897 + + Revolt of Sudanese soldiers temporarily imperils + British position in Uganda. Col. Sir J. R. L. + Macdonald’s expedition reveals geography of region + between Lake Rudolf and Nile; Sir Harry Johnston + reorganizes the administration of Uganda protectorate + and concludes a new treaty with kingdom of Buganda 1897-98-1900 + + Anglo-French agreement signed with regard to Niger 1898 + + Anglo-German agreement relative to Delagoa Bay and + Other Portuguese possessions in Africa signed in 1898 + + Samori, the last great warrior chief of Senegal-Niger, + defeated and captured by the French 1898 + + Serious rising against the British Sierra Leone + protectorate 1898 + + Railway opened from Lower Congo to Stanley pool 1898 + + Khartum captured by Sir H. (since Viscount) Kitchener + and Anglo-Egyptian influence established over the + Sudan; Wadi Halfa-Dongola railway continued towards + Khartum 1898 + + Major Marchand, who is sent to Fashoda by French + Government, is withdrawn thence on British protests 1898 + + The British and French Governments conclude an appendix + to the Niger Convention of 1898 which determines + approximately the boundaries of British and French + influence in the Eastern Sudan 1899 + + Ashanti rising and final conquest of Ashanti 1900 + + Northern Nigeria taken over for administration by the + British Government 1900 + + The Khalifa and nearly all his remaining generals + perish in the battle of Omdubreikat (Kordofan) in + November, 1899, and Osman Digna is captured near + Suakin in January. Sir Reginald Wingate becomes + Governor-General of Sudan 1900 + + Rabah Zobeir, the Sudanese conqueror of Bornu, etc., + dies in battle with the French 1900 + + The Sadd or obstructive water vegetation of Mountain + Nile is cut through by Major Malcolm Peake and + navigation opened up between Khartum and Gondokoro + (Uganda) 1900-1 + + Railway from Wadi Halfa reaches Khartum 1901 + + Sleeping sickness begins in Uganda in the autumn of 1901 + + War breaks out in South Africa between Boer Republics + and Great Britain (October 1899); Bloemfontein and + Pretoria taken, 1900; Orange Free State and Transvaal + annexed to British Empire, 1900; peace concluded 1902 + + Fadl-Allah, son and successor of Rabah, dies after his + defeat by the French on the frontiers of Bornu 1902 + + Right Hon. Cecil Rhodes dies at Muizenburg near Cape + Town, March 1902 + + German occupation of Lake Chad districts 1902 + + The final conquest of Northern Nigeria begins 1902. + (Yola, Bauchi, Bornu) and finishes (Kano and Sokoto) 1903 + + Uganda railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza open for + through service in 1903 + + Mr E. D. Morel commences his public denunciations of + King Leopold’s misgovernment of the Congo State in + 1902; (Sir) Roger Casement sent out to investigate + and report 1903-4 + + British-Somali War 1902-4 + + Anglo-French Agreement, allotting Morocco to a French + and Egypt to a British Sphere of Influence 1904 + + King Leopold sends an international commission to the + Congo basin to investigate truth of charges brought + against his administration (1904); the commission + reports 1905 + + Mauretania (land between Senegal and Moroccan Sahara) + taken under French administration 1904-5 + + Lagos and Niger coast united as “Southern Nigeria” 1904 + + Rhodesian “Cape to Cairo” railway reaches and bridges + Zambezi at Victoria Falls 1905 + + French conquest of Wadai, the great slave-raiding state + of the Central Sudan, begins 1904 + + Italian government takes on direct management of + Italian Somaliland 1905 + + German Emperor decides to pay state visit to Morocco at + Tangiers and thereby calls in question the allotment + of Morocco to France as a sphere of influence 1905 + + The Congress of Algeciras meets in southern Spain to + discuss the future of Morocco 1906 + + Railway from Khartum-Berber to Port Sudan (Red Sea) + opened 1906 + + Grant of responsible.government to the Transvaal 1906 + + In 1903 the Hottentots rebel against German authority + in South-west Africa. In 1904 the Ova-herero + (Damaras) join the rebellion, which is not finally + crushed until 1906-7 + + Responsible government granted to Orange River Colony + (Orange Free State) 1907 + + Diamonds found in German South-west Africa 1908 + + Belgium annexes the Congo Independent State 1908-9 + + In 1908 serious troubles break out in Western Morocco + (Shawia country) obliging France to land a large + force and occupy Casa Blanca and the neighbourhood; + Mulai Hafid defeats his brother (Abd-el-Aziz) and + becomes Sultan in his place; France and Germany come + to a temporary arrangement which recognizes France’s + “political interests” in Morocco 1909 + + Union of South Africa (Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal, + and Orange State) proclaimed 1909 + + Spaniards send an army of 50,000 men to conquer and + occupy Rif country (North-east Morocco) 1909-10 + + France conquers the Arab and Berber nomad tribes of + Adrar (Mauretania) 1909-10 + + France finally conquers Wadai 1910 + + Rhodesian “Cape to Cairo” railway opened as far as + Congolese frontier in Katanga 1910 + + Viscount Kitchener becomes British Agent in Egypt 1911 + + “Cape to Cairo” railway extended from Khartum to El + Obeid (Kordofan) 1911 + + The “Panther,” sent to Agadir on the south-west coast + of Morocco by Germany, reopens the Morocco question; + but the incident ends in a German recognition of a + French protectorate over Morocco 1911 + + Italy lands 80,000 men at Tripoli and eventually + annexes all Tripoli and Barka 1911-12 + + France cedes to Germany important territories which + connect the Kamerun colony with the Mubangi river and + the main Congo, making Germany a “Congo” power 1911-12 + + Railway from Lagos to Kano (Hausaland) finished 1912 + + Liberian Republic entrusts the management of its + finances and interior police to officials appointed + by United States President 1911-12 + + France and Spain definitely settle their partition of + Morocco; and France occupies all important Moroccan + towns except Tangier 1912 + + + + + APPENDIX II + + BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE HISTORY OF COLONIZATION OF AFRICA. BOOKS SPECIALLY + USEFUL + + +ALL BLUE BOOKS published by Foreign Office and Colonial Office DEALING + WITH AFRICA and the SLAVE TRADE from 1830 to the present + day—especially for the years between 1876 and 1898, and 1903-11. + +A HISTORY OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY; by (Sir) E. H. Bunbury. 2 vols. 2nd + edition. John Murray. 1883.̓ + +THE GOLD OF OPHIR; by Professor A. H. Keane. Edward Stanford. 1901.̓ + +LES CIVILISATIONS DE L'AFRIQUE DU NORD (Berbères, Arabes, Turcs); par + Victor Piquet. Paris: Armand Colin. 1909.̓ + +HISTOIRE DE L'AFRIQUE SEPTENTRIONALE (Berbérie); par Ernest Mercier. 3 + vols. Paris: Ernest Leroux. 1891.̓ + (An excellent and trustworthy compilation.) + +HISTOIRE DE L'ÉTABLISSEMENT DES ARABES DANS L'AFRIQUE SEPTENTRIONALE + selon les auteurs Arabes. By the same author. 1 vol. + Paris: Challamel. 1875. + +THE DAWN OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY. Vols. II. and III.; by C. Raymond Beazley. + Oxford. 1906. + +PRINCE HENRY THE NAVIGATOR; by Professor C. Raymond Beazley. + Putnam. 1895. + +Also by same author: + +PRINCE HENRY OF PORTUGAL, ETC. (Gives much interesting detail as to + early Portuguese colonizing work.) American Historical Review. Vol. + XVII. 1912. + +THE CHRONICLE OF THE DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST OF GUINEA. G. de Azurara. + Translated from the Portuguese by C. R. Beazley and E. Prestage. + Hakluyt Society. 2 vols. 1899. + +HISTORY OF THE KINGDOM OF CONGO; by Duarte Lopes—rendered into Italian + by Filippo Pigafetta. English translation: John Murray. 1881.̓ + +HISTORIA DA AFRICA ORIENTAL PORTUGUEZA; por José Joaquim Lopes de Lima. + Lisbon. 1862. + +TRAVELS OF THE JESUITS IN ETHIOPIA; by B. Tellez. 8 London. 1710.̓ + +THE BARBARY CORSAIRS (Story of the Nations); by Stanley Lane Poole. + T. Fisher Unwin. 1890. + +DOCUMENTS SUR L'HISTOIRE, ETC., DE L'AFRIQUE ORIENTALE; par le Capitaine + M. Guillain. 3 vols. Paris. 1856.̓ + +THE EARLY CHARTERED COMPANIES: by George Cawston and A. H. Keane. + Edward Arnold. 1896. + +MUNGO PARK AND THE NIGER; by Joseph Thomson. George Phillips. 1890.̓ + +PIONEERS IN WEST AFRICA; by Sir Harry Johnston. 9 Blackie. 1911.̓ + +THE LANDS OF CAZEMBE (Lacerda’s journey to Cazembe in 1798); a + compilation by Captain R. F. Burton. Royal Geographical Society. + 1873.̓ + +ZANZIBAR; by the same author. London. 1871.̓ + +THE MAPS OF AFRICA BY TREATY; by Sir Edward Hertslet, K.C.B. 2 vols. + Harrison & Sons. 1894-5. + +EGYPT IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY; by D. A. Cameron. + Smith, Elder & Co. 1898. + +ENGLAND IN EGYPT; by Viscount Milner, G.C.B. + London: Arnold. 1892-1910. + +UGANDA AND THE EGYPTIAN SUDAN; by Dr R. W. Felkin and C. T. Wilson. 2 + vols. Sampson Low. 1882.̓ + +MARTYRDOM OF MAN; by Winwood Reade. Kegan Paul. (Ed. of 1910.)̓ + +SAVAGE AFRICA; same author. Smith, Elder & Co. 1864.̓ + +THE HEART OF AFRICA; by Dr Georg Schweinfurth. Sampson Low. 1873.̓ + +OUR SUDAN; its pyramids and progress; by John Ward. John Murray. 1905.̓ + +A HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN AFRICA; by Sir Harry + Johnston. National Society. 1911.̓ + +HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE BRITISH COLONIES. Vol. IV. Parts 1 & 2 + (dealing with South and East Africa); by Sir C. P. Lucas, B.A. + Clarendon Press. 1897. + +Do. Do. Vol. III. WEST AFRICA. Clarendon Press. 1894.̓ + +HISTORY OF SOUTH AFRICA; by G. M^cCall Theal. 5 vols. + Juta & Co., Cape Town. 1888-93. + +ANGOLA AND THE RIVER CONGO; by J. J. Monteiro. 2 vols. + Macmillan & Co. 1875. + +AFRICA. 2 vols. By Professor A. H. Keane. Edward Stanford. 1902.̓ + +TRAVELS AND DISCOVERIES IN NORTH AND CENTRAL AFRICA; by Dr Henry Barth. + 5 vols. Longman, Brown, Green. 1857.̓ + +THE STORY OF AFRICA; by Dr Robert Brown. 4 vols. + Cassell and Company. 1894-5. + (A most valuable book of reference.) + +THE PARTITION OF AFRICA; by (Dr) J. Scott Keltie. 2nd Edition. + Edward Stanford. 1895. + +HOW I FOUND LIVINGSTONE. THROUGH THE DARK CONTINENT. 2 vols. THE CONGO: + AND THE FOUNDING OF ITS FREE STATE. 2 vols. IN DARKEST AFRICA. 2 + vols. By H. M. Stanley. Sampson Low.̓ + +DU NIGER AU GOLFE DE GUINÉE; par le Capitaine Binger. Paris 1892.̓ + +THE FALL OF THE CONGO ARABS; by Captain S. L. Hinde. Methuen. 1897.̓ + +BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA; by Sir H. H. Johnston. 2nd Edition. + Methuen. 1899. + +FIGHTING THE SLAVE HUNTERS IN CENTRAL AFRICA; by Alfred J. Swann. + Seeley & Co. 1910. + +ADVENTURES IN NYASALAND; by Low Monteith Fotheringham. + Sampson Low. 1891. + +TIMBUCTOO THE MYSTERIOUS; by Félix Dubois. William Heinemann. 1897.̓ + +THE RISE OF OUR EAST AFRICAN EMPIRE; by Captain F. D. Lugard, D.S.O. 2 + vols. Blackwood, Edinburgh. 1893.̓ + +BRITISH EAST AFRICA; by P. M^cDermott. Chapman & Hall. 1895.̓ + +FIRE AND SWORD IN THE SUDAN; by Sir Rudolf Slatin Pasha. + Edward Arnold. 1896. + +L'OMO: VIAGGIO DI ESPLORAZIONE NELL' AFRICA ORIENTALE; da Vannutelli e + Citerni. Milan. 1899.̓ + (Deals with Italian Somaliland, Galaland, etc.) + +À TRAVERS L'AFRIQUE CENTRALE: DU CONGO AU NIGER; by C. Maistre. + Paris. 1895. + +THE UGANDA PROTECTORATE; by Sir H. H. Johnston. 2 vols. 2nd Edition. + Hutchinson. 1904. + +MADAGASCAR; by Captain S. Pasfield Oliver. 2 vols. Macmillan. 1886.̓ + +THE RISE OF OUR WEST AFRICAN EMPIRE (Sierra Leone); by Captain C. + Braithwaite Wallis. London. 1903.̓ + +THE HISTORY OF SIERRA LEONE; by Major J. J. Crooks. + Simpkin Marshall. 1903. + +_TIMES_ HISTORY OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. 5 vols. + _Times Office._ 1903-5. + +CIVILIZATION IN CONGOLAND; by H. R. Fox-Bourne. London. 1903.̓ + +KING LEOPOLD’S RULE IN AFRICA; by E. D. Morel. Heinemann. 1904.̓ + +BRITISH NIGERIA; by Lieut.-Colonel A. F. Mockler-Ferryman. + London. 1902. + +LIBERIA. 2 vols. By Sir H. H. Johnston. Hutchinson. 1906.̓ + +MADAGASCAR: Essai de Géographie Physique (gives much history, also); par + E. F. Gautier. Paris. 1902.̓ + +THE NEGRO IN THE NEW WORLD (gives history of Slave Trade); by Sir H. H. + Johnston. 44 Methuen. 1910.̓ + +NYASALAND UNDER THE FOREIGN OFFICE; by H. L. Duff. George Bell. 1903.̓ + +A TROPICAL DEPENDENCY; by Lady Lugard. London. 1904.̓ + +UGANDA AND ITS PEOPLES; by J. F. Cunningham. Hutchinson. 1904.̓ + +SEVENTEEN TRIPS THROUGH SOMALILAND, ETC.; by Colonel H. G. C. Swayne. + R.E. 3rd Edition. Rowland Ward. 1903.̓ + +THE NILE QUEST; by Sir H. H. Johnston. Lawrence & Butler. 1904.̓ + +GEORGE GRENFELL AND THE CONGO; by Sir H. H. Johnston. 2 vols. + Hutchinson. 1908. + +THE GARDEN COLONY: the Story of Natal and its neighbours; by Robert + Russell. J. M. Dent. 1903.̓ + +THE GREAT PLATEAU OF NORTHERN RHODESIA; by C. Gouldsbury and H. Streane. + Edward Arnold. 1911. + +A HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH + CENTURIES (treats of early history of South Africa); by Edward + Heawood, M.A. Cambridge University Press, 1912.̓ + +DAWN IN DARKEST AFRICA; by John H. Harris. Smith, Elder & Co., 1912.̓ + +MOROCCO IN DIPLOMACY; by E. D. Morel. Smith, Elder & Co., 1912.̓ + +THE STATESMAN’S YEAR-BOOK; by Dr J. Scott Keltie. + (Annual publication.) Macmillan. + +COLONIAL OFFICE LIST; by W. H. Mercer and A. E. Collins. + Harrison & Sons. 1898-1912. + +Also the works of LIVINGSTONE, W. FLINDERS PETRIE, SIR RICHARD BURTON, + CAPT. J. H. SPEKE, SIR SAMUEL BAKER; JOURNALS OF CHARLES GEORGE + GORDON, and 11th Edition, ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. + + + + + INDEX + + Abatetwa clan, 281 + + Abbadie, Antoine and Arnaud, 226, 317 + + Abbas bin Tusūn, 360 + + Abbas Hilmi, 367 + + Abbasid Khalifs, 67, 69, 71, 72 + + Abd-al-aziz, 223 + + Abd-al-Hamid, 366 + + Abd-al-Kader, 214, 218 + + Abd-al-Mumin, 64 + + Abd-al-Wadite kings of Tlemsan, 64 + + Abdallah-al-Taaisha, 363 + + Abdallah-bin-Abu-Sarh, 56 + + Abdallah-bin-Zubeir, 56 + + Abd-ar-rahman bin Mūawiya, 59 + + Abo, 192 + + Abraham of Beja, 81, 82 + + Abreu, Gomez d', 424 + + Abruzzi, Duke of the, 340 + + Abu Muhammad Hafsi, 64 + + Abu-AbdAllah, 60 + + Abukir Bay, 212 + + Abu’l Abbas Ahmad-al-Mansur, 66 _et seq._ + + Abyssinia, 7, 10, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22, 43, 51, 52, 62, 82 _et seq._, + 152, 212, 226, 227, 241, 242, 245, 253, 300, 301, 303, 308, 316, + 317, 319, 320, 326, 363, 393 _et seq._, 443 + + Abyssinian explorers, 45, 317 + + Accra, 124, 177, 178, 196 + + Aχdar mountains, 42 + + Acila, 66 + + Açores Islands, 92, 116, 390 + + Acre, 212 + + Acunha, Tristan d' (Conquistador), 83 + + — — Island, 268 + + Adamawa, 194 + + Aden, 18, 19, 73, 83, 226, 227, 235, 335, 337, 372 + + Adis Ababa, 227, 396 + + Adonis, 39 + + Adrar, 12, 121, 321 + + Adrar Temmur, 209 + + Adua, 396 + + Adulis, 43 + + Aelius Gallus, 298 + + _Aepyornis_, 424 + + Afar-Danakil-Somali language group, 21 + + Afarik, 37 + + Affonso (of Kongo), 86 + + Africa, prehistoric race movements in, 1 _et seq._; + negroes of modern Africa, 5, 6; + indebted to Egypt for domestic animals and cultivated plants, 19, + 20; + Mediterranean colonization of, 32 _et seq._; + derivation of name, 37; + Arab conquest of, 52 _et seq._ + + “Africa” (the Roman province of), 47, 49 _et seq._, 59, 219 + + African Association, 304, 305, 318 + + — Lakes Company, 248, 277, 284 + + “Afrikander Bond,” 276 + + Afrikanders, 129, 140, 276 + + Agades, 13, 19, 49, 209 + + Agadir, 224, 225, 399 + + Agau-Bilin, 21 + + Aghlab, Aghlabite dynasty, 59, 60 + + Agisymba, 48 + + Agulhas, Cape, 81 + + Ahaggar, 337 + + Ahmad bin Tulūn,70 + + Ahmadu Abdulei, 203 + + Ahmadu Ahmadu, 202 + + Ahmadu bin Tidiani, 202, 204 + + Ahmadu Lobo, 202 + + Ahmadu, the Fula King, 309 + + Air, country of, 327, 337, 443 + + Air and Asben, oasis, 209 + + Akaba, Gulf of, 366 + + Akko, 32 + + Al-Araish, 77 + + Al-'Askar, 60 + + Albanians, 19, 70 + + Albany, 256, 258 + + Albargoa, 423 + + Albert Nyanza, _see_ Nyanza + + Albreda, 171 + + Albu, Sir G., 146, 274 + + Albuquerque, Major Mouzinho de, 114 + + Aldabra, 29, 295 + + Aleppo, 71 + + Alexander, Lieut. Boyd, 338, 339 + + Alexander, Sir J. E., 307 + + Alexander the Great, 43 + + Alexandria, 44, 45, 52, 71, 212, 214, 238, 298, 359, 360, 362, 366, + 393 + + Al-Fasi, 391 + + Alfonso I, 76 + + Alfonso III, 77 + + Alfonso V, 76 + + Alfonso VI, 76 + + Al Fostat, 60 + + Alfred, county of, 270 + + Algarve, 77 + + Algeciras Conference, 223, 225 + + Algeria, 5, 8, 12, 22, 35, 38, 47, 49, 50, 53, 56, 59 _et seq._, + 116, 119, 120, 160, 207, 213 _et seq._, 245, 252, 253, 301, 321, + 337, 444, 445 + + Algiers, 117, 118, 195, 213, 214, 230, 235, 400 + + Algoa Bay, 81, 126, 259 + + Alhucemas, Is., 119 + + Ali, 56, 59, 60, 66, 69 + + Ali bin Hamūd, 382 + + Al Jof, 237 + + Al Kahirah, 60 + + Al-Kaïm bi Amr Allah, 60 + + Al Kasr-al-Kabīr, 77 + + Al-Katai, 60 + + Allah, 55 + + Allat, 55 + + Al-Mahdi Senussi II, 236 + + Al-Mansur, 67, 69 + + Al-Masr, 60 + + Almeida, Francisco de, 424 + + Almirante Islands, 28, 29, 295 + + Almoravide, Almohade, _see_ Marabut and Muāhadim + + Al Mu’izz, 60 + + Al-Obeid, 363 + + Alsace-Lorraine settlers in Algeria, 216 + + Alula, Ras, 394 + + Alvares, Dom, 86 _et seq._ + + Alvarez, 83 + + Al Wardani, 367 + + Amalfi, 390 + + Amamfengu, 267 + + Amaro José, 307 + + Amatola Mountains, 263 + + Amatongaland, 281, 283 + + Ama-zulu, 281 + + Ambas Bay, 184, 244, 415 + + Ambriz, 94 + + America, 88, 92, 124, 154 + + American Colonization Society, 158, 164 + + American Missionaries, 36, 96, 175, 228, 252, 261 + + American slave-trade, 153, 154, 156 + + American War of Independence, 173 + + Amerindian type, 4 + + Amhara, 395 + + Amiens, Peace of, 254 + + Amina, Princess, 360 + + Amir-al-Mumenin, 63 + + Amorites, 22 + + Amr-bin-al-As, 55 + + Amsterdam, 127 + + Anamabu, 176 + + Andalucia, 50, 120, 202 + + Andaman Islands, 3 + + Anderson, Benjamin, 166 + + Andersson, C. J., 317, 327 + + Angas, G. F., 308 + + Angles, 50 + + Anglo-French Conventions, 210, 225, 230, 366, 368 + + Anglo-German Convention of 1890, 364, 411 + + Angola, 87, 89 _et seq._, 96, 97, 104, 106, 108, 124, 128, 154, 184, + 245, 250, 251, 258, 291, 301, 316 _et seq._, 325, 338, 444 + + Angoni-Zulus, 24, 103, 160, 279 + + Angora goats, 265, 274, 419 + + Angoshe, 103, 109, 110 + + Angra Pequena, 99, 406, 420 + + Anhaya, Pedro de, 83 + + Ankobra, 124 + + Ankole, 381 + + Annesley Bay, 43 + + Anno Bom Island, 121 + + Anti-Atlas Mountains, 120, 224 + + Antilles, 117 + + Antonelli, 329 + + Anuaks, 370 + + Apollonia, 42, 124 + + Arābi, Ahmed, 360, 362 + + Arabia, 1, 4, 17, 21, 22, 24, 26, 29, 33, 39, 43, 51, 52, 54 _et + seq._, 62, 84, 103, 152, 156, 159, 160, 326 + + Arabic language, 40, 61, 70, 75, 217, 253, 448, 449 + + Arabs, 13, 14, 19, 22 _et seq._, 29, 30, 42, 44, 45, 52 _et seq._, + 70 _et seq._, 134, 146, 152, 160, 161, 213, 215, 217, 241, 279, + 285, 291, 294, 344 _et seq._, 446 _etc._ + + Aragon, 116 + + Aramaic, 21, 40 + + Archinard, Col., 204, 206 + + Argonauts, 41 + + Arguin, 79, 123, 198, 403 + + Arizona, 153 + + Armenia, 20 + + Armenians, 19, 21, 22 + + Arnaud (explorer), 338 + + Arnold, Sir Edwin, 364 + + Arnot, F. S., 330 + + Arõ tribe, 187 + + Aruwimi, R., 329, 332 + + Arvad, 32 + + Aryan tongues, 21 + + Aryan type, 22 + + Arzila, 66 + + Ascension Island, 99, 268 + + Ashanti, 10, 12, 14, 48, 124, 146, 154, 161, 176 _et seq._, 204, 309 + + Ashmun, 39 + + Ashmun, Rev. Jehudi, 164 + + Asia, probable birth-place of the negro, 4; + modern negroes of, 5 _etc._ + + Asia Minor, 69 + + Asiatics in S. Africa, 291, 294 + + Asil, 237 + + Asiut, 303 + + Asjer, 37 + + Asmara, 393 + + Ass, the, 75 + + Assab Bay, 393 + + As-Sanusi, 236 + + Assini, 205 + + Assuan, 368 + + Assyria, Assyrians, 19, 21, 33, 37 + + Astarte, 39 + + Atbara, 46, 365 + + Atiqa, 32, 33 + + Atlantic Ocean reached by Arabs, 57 + + Atlas Mountains, 2, 47, 49, 64, 223, 224, 324, 331, 336 + + “Atrocities,” 349 + + Augustus Caesar, 298 + + Aures Mountains, 445 + + Aurigha, 53 + + Austen, Capt. H. H., 339 + + Australia, 264, 293 + + Australoids, 2 + + Austria, 59, 245 + + Austrian attempt on Delagoa Bay, 111 + + Austrian Catholic Mission on Nile, 319 + + Austrian missionaries, 245 + + Author. + His experience of slave traffic, 155, 156; + administers Ambas Bay, 184; + removes Jaja, 185; + explores the Benin river, 186; + administers British Central Africa, 278, 284; + with Dr Cross discovers south end of Lake Rukwa, 328; + other African explorations, 330, 331; + and Kili-ma-njaro, 376, 409; + appointed Special Commissioner, 380, 381; + on the East African Protectorate, 387 + + Avis, House of, 66, 88 + + Awarigha, 37 + + Awuraghen, 37 + + Axim, 124 + + Axum, 43, 300 + + Ayeaye, the, 427 + + Ayubite kings of Egypt, 71 + + Baal-hammana, 38 + + Baal Milkkart, 39 + + Bab-al-Mandib, Straits of, 4, 393, 397 + + Babel or Babylon, 60 + + Baboons, 43 + + Badagri, 311, 312 + + Baert, Capt., 330 + + Baetica, 50 + + Baganda, 380 + + Baghdad, 58, 59, 67, 69 _et seq._ + + Bagirmi, 13, 14, 194, 230, 235 _et seq._, 324, 443 + + Bagradas, 38 + + Bahr-al-Ghazal, 12, 16, 19, 43, 46, 319, 321, 326, 327, 336, 363, + 369 + + Baikie, Dr W. B., 188 + + Bailundo, 96 + + Baines, Thomas, 283 + + — William, 327 + + Ba-jok, 87, 301 + + Baker, Sir Samuel and Lady, 315, 318, 326, 362 + + Bakhunu, 204 + + Ba-kioko, 87 + + Bakka, 54 + + Ba-kongo, 240 + + Balboa, 153 + + Baldissera, General, 396 + + Baldwin, 327 + + Ball, Mr John, 324 + + Bamaku, 202, 203, 305 + + Bambotus, 49 + + Bambuk, 199, 304 + + Banana (tree), 27, 75, 92, 93 + + Bandiagara, 202 + + Bangweulu, Lake, 322, 330, 334 + + Bani, 14 + + Banks, Sir Joseph, 304 + + Bantu Africa, 26, 308, 335 + + Bantu border-line, 230, 332 + + — language, 10, 11, 16, 134 + + — negroes, 26, 30, 45, 51, 97, 122, 126, 134, 232, 415, 418 + + — — migrations of, 134, 135, 255 + + Baptist Mission (Cameroons and Congo), 184, 244, 325, 329, 415 + + Baptista (explorer), 307 + + Baratieri, General, 396 + + Barbarossas, the, 118 + + Barbary, 54, 59, 61, 62, 66, 298, 302 + + Barbary States, 118, 169, 195, 303; + _see also_ Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli + + Barclay, Hon. Arthur, 167 + + Bardera, 398 + + Bardo Museum, 35 + + Barghash, Sultan, 375 + + Bari people, 245, 326 + + Baring, Sir E., _see_ Cromer + + Baringo, Lake, 331, 335 + + Barka, 41, 57, 61, 69, 314, 444 + + Barke, 42 + + Barotse, 249, 278, 325, 339 + + Barrakonda Rapids, 302 + + Barreto, Francisco, 101, 102, 300 + + Barth, Dr Heinrich, 195, 314, 315 + + Bary, Dr E. von, 327 + + Basel Mission, 248 + + “Bastards,” the, 139, 142, 418 + + Bastian, Dr, 322 + + “Bastion de France,” 211 + + Basuto, Basutoland, 134, 140 _et seq._, 249, 250, 263, 264, 270, + 273, 275, 281, 291 _et seq._ + + Batavia, 126, 127, 135, 136 + + Bateke country, 90 + + Batenstein, Fort, 124 + + Bates, G. L., 339 + + Batetela, 346 + + Bathurst, 170, 171 + + Batoka country, 240, 247 + + Battel, Andrew, 301 + + Bauchi, 194 + + Bauer, F., 338 + + Baumann, Dr, 333, 336 + + Baya country, 234 + + Ba-yaka, 87 + + Bayoñ, 415 + + Beaconsfield, Lord, 406 + + Beaufort, de, 200, 319 + + Bechuana, Bechuanaland, 134, 140, 143, 145, 249, 255, 269 _et seq._, + 291, 292, 307, 308, 317 + + Beechey, Admiral, 314 + + Beecroft, Capt. John, 183, 188, 313 + + Behanzin, 206 + + Beira, 82, 100, 113 _et seq._, 279, 285, 286 + + Beirūt, 32 + + Beit, Alfred, 146, 274 + + Beja, 21, 81 + + Beke, Dr C. T., 317 + + Belgian Africa, 342 _et seq._ + + Belgian Congo, 87, 96, 233, 235, 272, 291 + + Belgians, King of the, 229 _et seq._, 328, 329, 342 _et seq._ + + Belgium, Belgians, 161, 328, 329, 342 _et seq._ + + Bell, King, 408 + + Beltrame, Giovanni, 319 + + Belzoni, Giovanni, 186 + + Bembatoka Bay, 429, 438 + + Bena-mutapa, 23 + + Benadir, 397, 398 + + Bengal, Bay of, 28 + + Benghazi, 42 + + Benguela, 90, 94, 96, 159, 251, 301, 316, 323 + + Beni-Hilal, 61 + + Beni-Merīn, 54, 64 + + Beni-Midrār, 59 + + Benin, 154, 169, 181 _et seq._ + + Beni-Rustam, 59 + + Beni-Soleim, 61 + + Bentley, Reverend Dr H., 244, 329 + + Benue, R., 12, 13, 48, 185, 188, 190 _et seq._, 313, 332, 333, 338 + + Benyowski, 427 + + Benzert, 38 + + Berber states and dynasties, 194 + + Berbers, 12 _et seq._, 18, 21, 36 _et seq._, 50, 51, 53, 54, 57 _et + seq._, 117, 214, 215, 217, 253, 446 + + Berenike, 18 + + Berg River, 131 + + Berg-Damara negroes, 7 + + Berkeley, E., 380 + + Berlin Conference, 189, 192, 219, 229, 231, 343 + + Berlin Convention of 1884, 112 + + Bermuda, 264 + + Bermudez, 84 + + Bernard, A., 334 + + Beshar, 222 + + Best, Rev. Mr, 251 + + Betancourt (Béthencourt), Jean de, 85, 116 + + Bethany, 406 + + Betsi-misáraka, 428 + + Beurmann, M. v., 324 + + Bey of Constantine, 214, 218 + + Bey of Tunis, 219, 220, 323 + + Bezuidenhout brothers, 258 + + Biafra, 183 + + Bianco, Andrea, 424 + + Bibars, 71 + + Bights of Biafra and Benin, 183, 205, 312, 313 + + Bihé, 251 + + Bilma, 209, 339 + + Binger, Colonel Louis G., 203, 205, 315, 333 + + Bird, Mrs Isabella, 433 + + Biruna, 32 + + Biruta, 32 + + Bisandugu, 204 + + Bisharin, 17, 18, 21, 52 + + Bishops (Christian), _see_ Christian; + Negro do., 86, 243 + + Biskra, 57 + + Bismarck, Prince, 405, 406 + + Bismarck archipelago, 3 + + Bitter Lakes, 33 + + Bizerta (Hippo-Zaryt), 38 + + “Black Africa,” 449, 450 + + “Black, White, and Yellow,” 272 + + Blanchet, Paul, 338 + + Blanco, Cape, 78, 79, 121, 171, 198, 403 + + Blantyre, 108, 251 + + Blemmyes, 52 + + Bloemfontein, 149, 288; + Convention, 142 + + Blyden, Dr E. W., 167 + + Bocarro, Jasper, 300 + + Boer victories, 149 + + Boers, the, 7, 95, 129, 136, 138 _et seq._, 257, 258, 260 _et seq._, + 281 _et seq._, 292, 293, 388 + + Böhm, 327, 334 + + Boiteux, Lieut., 206, 207 + + Bojador, Cape, 78, 121 + + Bolts (adventurer), 111 + + Boma, 80, 87, 347 + + Bombay Presidency, 152 + + Bona, Bône, 38, 66, 117, 216, 390 + + Bondelzwarts, 417 + + Bondu, 201, 202 + + Bonnat, Mons. M. J., 325 + + Bonnier, Col., 204, 207 + + Bonny, R., 185, 189 + + Boomerang, 15 + + Bôr, 319 + + Borān Gala country, 386 + + Borckenhager, Mr, 276 + + Borelli, H., 226, 334 + + Borghese, Prince Giovanni, 323 + + Borgnis-Desbordes, General, 202 + + Borgu, 12, 51, 182, 192 _et seq._ + + Bornu, 12, 15, 19, 48, 51, 68, 70, 160, 191, 193, 204, 235, 236, + 304, 310, 314, 315, 323, 443 + + Boroma, 247 + + Botha, General Louis, 150 + + Bottego, 334 + + Bourbon, Island of, 127, 296, 426, 429 + + Boutros Pasha, 367 + + Bowdich, Thomas Edward, 176, 309 + + Bragança, House of, 67, 93 + + Brandenburg in Africa, 403 + + — Great Elector of, 403 + + Brass, R., 189, 312 + + Brass settlement, 312, 313 + + Brass work, 187 + + Bratières, Serg., 205 + + Brava (Barawa), 100 + + Brawa, 398 + + Brazil, Brazilians, 91, 92, 94, 96, 98, 104, 158, 159, 226, 301 + + Brazza, Savorgnan de, 228, 229, 234, 329, 343 + + Brest, 201 + + Bricchetti-Robecchi, 334 + + Bristol, 157, 205 + + Britain, British, 72, 77, 104, 110, 126, 132, 133, 154, 161, 163, + 165 _et seq._, 171, 177, 178, 180, 182, 183, 189, 191 _et seq._, + 198, 219, 227, 239, 254 _et seq._, 359 _et seq._ + + Britain and the Slave Trade, 239 + + — Missionary efforts, 239 + + British Element in Cape Colony, 257 + + — Empire in India, 133 + + — Empire of the Future, 446 + + — Central Africa, 107, 108, 179, 278, 279, 284, 331, 334 + + — East Africa, 10, 156, 250, 444 + + — — Company, 376, 378, 383 + + — Government, the, 73, 107, 112, 113, 124, 135, 141, 157, 164, 173, + 176, 178, 183, 187, 188, 192, 194, 206, 257, _etc._ + + — Nigeria, 188, 190 _et seq._ + + — occupation of Egypt, 19, 159 + + — South Africa, 95, 115, 144, 149, 254 _et seq._, 291 + + — South Africa Chartered Co., 113, 114, 147, 160, 231, 278, 284, + 285, 287, 339, 346 + + Bronze work, 186, 187 + + Brown, Dr Robert, 154, 199 + + Browne, William G., 303 + + Bruce, James, 303 + + — Sir David and Lady, 340 + + Brüe, André de, 198, 199, 302, 309 + + Bu Amama, 217 + + Bube, the, 122 + + Buchanan, John, 278 + + Buëa, 415 + + Buffalo, Indian, 75, 390 + + — River, 255 + + Buganda, 377, 379, 381 + + Bugeaud, Marshal, 214 + + Bugia, 66, 117 + + “Bula Matadi,” 87, 343, 356 + + Bullom, 174 + + Buluwayo, 272, 285 + + Bunbury, Sir E. H., 41, 298 + + Bunnon, L. von, 336 + + Bunyoro, 320, 380, 381 + + Burchell, Dr William, 307 + + Burmese, 3 + + Burton, Sir Richard F., 183, 186, 315, 318, 324, 334 + + Buru, 3 + + Busa, 188, 190, 191, 208, 306, 311, 312 + + Bushiri, 411 + + Bushmen, 2, 5 _et seq._, 18, 26, 29, 126, 134, 232, 255 + + Bushongo, 16, 26, 339 + + Busira, R., 329 + + Busoga, 376, 378, 387 + + Büttikofer, Prof. J., 328 + + Büttner, Dr R., 336 + + Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, 313 + + Byzacene, 58 + + Byzantium, Byzantine Greeks, 19, 39, 41, 43, 50, 52, 53, 55 _et + seq._, 74, 152 + + Cabo Tormentoso, 81 + + Cacao tree, 92, 96, 97, 122, 180 + + Ca' da Mosto, 79 + + Cadiz, 32 + + Caillaud, F., 319 + + Caillié, René, 200, 309 + + Cairo, 60, 67, 69, 71, 72, 82, 212, 245, 279, 303, 362, 366 + + Caius Plinius Secundus, 45, 298 + + Calabar, _see_ Old + + California, 293 + + Cam, Diogo, 80, 85 + + Cambier, Capitaine, 342 + + Cambon, M. Jules, 220 + + Cambyses, 43, 298 + + Camel, the, 48, 54, 75, 419 + + Cameron, Capt. V. L., 322, 325, 328, 342 + + Cameroons (Kamerun), 5, 6, 12, 13, 20, 36, 49, 79, 99, 122, 182 _et + seq._, 228, 229, 234, 244, 251, 324, 325, 331, 332, 338, 407, + 408, 414, 415 + + Campagnon, Sieur, 199, 302, 309 + + Campbell, Capt., 306 + + — (Scotch missionary explorer), 307 + + Canaanite settlements in Berberland, 37 + + Canada, 143, 173, 216 + + Canary Islands, 32, 85, 116, 117, 120, 196, 225, 226, 390 + + Candido de Costa Cardoso, 307 + + Cannibalism, 349 + + Cantin, Cape, 35 + + Cape Bon peninsula, 41 + + — Coast, 99, 124, 176, 177 + + — of Good Hope, 81 _et seq._, 99, 100, 104, 125 _et seq._, 242, 254 + + — Colony, 130 _et seq._, 176, 240, 254 _et seq._, 404 + + — Dutch, 147, 149 + + — Town, 106, 125, 128, 129, 132, 133, 135 _et seq._, 254, 255, 269, + 272, 273, 279 + + — Verde, 36, 79, 99, 197, 201 + + — — Islands, 79, 92, 98, 133 + + “Cape Boys,” 267 + + “Cape to Cairo,” 279, 340, 364 + + Cape-Jubi-Bojador region, 225 + + Capello, Brito, 325 + + Capuchins, 94, 228 + + Carnarvon, Lord, 143, 269, 280 + + Caron, Lieut., 203 + + Carthage, 24, 32, 35, 37, 38, 46, 47, 57, 65, 152, 235 + + Carthaginians, 33, 35 _et seq._, 79, 121 + + Casablanca, 223 + + Casamanse, River, 201 + + Casati, 380 + + Casement, Sir R., 355 + + Cassel, Sir E., 368 + + Castile, 85, 116 + + Castile-Aragon, 66 + + Cat, the domestic, 92 + + Catalans, 78 + + Cathcart, General, 263 + + Cattle, 39, 180, 255, 274, 419 + + Caucasia, 20 + + Caucasian race, 4, 5, 7, 9, 13, 16, 21, 75 + + Cavendish, Capt., 267 + + Cavendish, Mr H. S., 335 + + Cerne, _see_ Kerne + + Cetewayo (C̓echwayo), 282 + + Ceuta, 57, 58, 65, 67, 77, 78, 119 + + Ceylon, 4, 28, 29, 129, 133, 428 + + Chad, Lake, 8, 14, 15, 20, 46, 48, 54, 62, 159, 190 _et seq._, 230, + 235, 300, 310, 315, 324, 337, 338 + + Chafarinas Islands, 119 + + Chaga, 376 + + Chagos group, 28 + + Chaillé-Long, Col., 326 + + Chaillu, Paul du, 228, 324 + + Chaka, 140, 141, 261, 267, 281 + + Chaldaea, 37 + + Chali, 259 + + Chama, 124 + + Chamberlain, Mr Joseph, 287 + + Chanler, W. Astor, 335 + + Chanoine, Capt., 221, 222, 236 + + Charlemagne, 59 + + Charles of Anjou, 65 + + Charles II of England, 176, 302 + + — V of Spain, 118, 153 + + — X of France, 213, 431 + + Chartered companies, 109, 114, 124, 192, 278 + + Chatelain, Rev. Héli, 251 + + Chekhs, 72 + + Chelmsford, Lord, 282 + + Cherim, 106 + + Chevalier, A., 338, 340 + + Chillies, 91, 92 + + Chimpanzee, the, 17, 36 + + China, Chinese, 29, 83, 91, 290, 291, 294 + + Chinde, R., 114, 115, 318 + + _Chiromys_, 427 + + Chobe, R., 416 + + Christian Bishops in Tunisia, 65; + in Central Africa, 86, 327, 378; + Madagascar, 248 + + Christian Missions in Africa, list of: + American Presbyterian Mission, 250, 251 + Austrian Catholic Mission (Sudan), 245 + Baptist (American) Gaboon Mission, 251 + — (British) Cameroons and Congo Mission, 184, 244 + — (Scotch) Nyasaland Mission, 252 + Basel Mission, 248 + Bavarian (Roman Catholic) Mission, 249 + Berlin Missionary Society, 249 + British Roman Catholic Mission, 246 + Church Missionary Society, 159, 242, 243, 248, 251, 316, 328, 378 + Dutch Reformed Church Mission, 250 + Edinburgh Missionary Society, 242, 250 + Episcopal Methodist (American) Mission, 251 + Established Church of Scotland Mission, 250 + Free Church Mission (Scotch), 250 + French Evangelical Missionary Society, 249 + French Roman Catholic Missionary Society, 245 + Glasgow Missionary Society, 242, 250 + Jesuit missions (Zambezi), 246; + (Madagascar), 247 + London Missionary Society, 242, 247, 248, 284, 334, 430, 433 + Moravian Protestant Mission, 242, 248, 249 + North African Mission, 252 + North German (Bremen) Mission, 249 + Norwegian Mission, 251 + Plymouth Brethren, 252 + Primitive Methodist Society, 243 + Rhenish Missionary Society, 249 + Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 243 + Society of Friends’ (Quaker) Mission, 247 + Swedish Protestant Mission, 249 + Swiss Calvinist Mission, 249 + Swiss Protestant Mission, 248 + United Presbyterian Mission, 250 + Universities’ Mission, 251, 277, 327 + Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society, 242, 243 + White Fathers of the Sudan Mission, 245; + (in Uganda), 377, 379 + Zambezi Industrial Mission, 252 + + Christianity, establishment of, 50 + + Christianity (in Kongo Kingdom), 86, 87, 239, 240; + among negro races in general, 240, 449 + + Christians in North Africa, 62; + Madagascar, Uganda, 378, 379 + + Chudeau, R. (explorer), 339 + + Chumi River, 256 + + Cinchona tree (Quinine), 96 + + Circassians, 19, 70, 71 + + Cis-Saharan Africa, 1 + + Clapperton, Hugh, 193, 194, 310, 311 + + Clarke, General, 136 + + Clarke, John (missionary), 244 + + Clarke, Sir Marshall, 282 + + Clarkson, 155 + + Claudius Ptolemaeus, 45, 299 + + Clozel, F. J., 334 + + Coco-nut palm, 92, 93, 110 + + Coelo-Syria, 55 + + Coffee and coffee cultivation, 75, 96, 110, 270, 279 + + Coillard, Rev. Mr, 249, 325 + + Colonial Office, 187, 261 + + Colonies, three classes of, in Africa, 443 _et seq._ + + “Colony of the West African Settlements,” 175 + + “Colony of Upper Senegal and Niger,” 209 + + Colorado, 293 + + Colston, Col., 326 + + Colvile, Sir H., 380 + + Comber, Rev. Thos., 244, 329 + + “Comité d'Etudes du Haut Congo,” 343 + + Commerson, Philibert, 427 + + Comoro Islands, _see_ Komoro + + Compiègne, Marquis de, 324 + + Conference, Berlin, 189, 192, 219, 229, 231, 232 + + — Brussels, 232 + + Congo Christianity, 85 _et seq._, 239, 240 + + — Free State, 161, 192, 231, 278, 329, 343 _et seq._ + + — river and basin, 5, 6, 9, 11, 15, 16, 20, 25, 74, 78, 80, 85, 87 + _et seq._, 160, 193, 228 _et seq._, 244, 245, 251, 301, 308, 322, + 324, 325, 329, 330, 332, 336, 342 _et seq._ + + Congo Treaty of 1884, 277, 278 + + — French, _see_ French Congo + + Congoland, 5, 10, 12, 15, 16, 26, 85, 88, 94, 124, 161, 191, 227, + 238 _et seq._, 316, 338 _et seq._ + + “Conquistadores,” Portuguese, 77, 90, 91 + + Constantine, 214, 216, 218 + + Constantinople, 51, 69, 72, 212, 360 + + Constitution granted to Cape Colony, 258 + + Conventions, _see_ under title of nationality or place + + Convicts sent to Cape, 264 + + Cook, Captain, 304 + + Coomassie, _see_ Kumasi + + Copper, 96, 110, 273, 419 + + Coppolani, French Commissioner, 209 + + Copra, 110 + + Coptic Church, 253 + + — language, 70 + + Copts, 52, 53, 70, 367 + + Corisco Bay, 99, 121, 234 + + Cornet, Dr, 330 + + Coromanti, 124 + + Corsairs, _see_ Pirates + + Cortes, 153 + + Cortier, 338 + + Cosmoledo, 295 + + Cossack “Monks,” 395 + + Costa Cardoso, Candido de, 307 + + Cotton, 270, 279, 419 + + Cotton, Lieut. P. H. G. Powell, 340 + + Covilhão, Pero de, 82 _et seq._, 300, 424 + + Craig, General, 135, 136 + + Crampel, Paul, 230, 235, 333 + + Crimean War, 159, 219, 265, 266 + + Croats, 72 + + Cro-Magnon race, 4 + + Cromer, Lord, 361, 364, 368 + + Cromwell, 140 + + Cross, Dr, 328, 331 + + — River, 183, 184, 187, 250, 313, 338 + + Crowther, Samuel (Bishop), 188, 243 + + Cuanhama, _see_ Kuanyama + + Cuba, 117, 120, 158, 159 + + Cunnington, Dr W. A., 340 + + Cybele, 39 + + Cyclades, 41 + + Cydames, 49 + + Cyprus, 33 + + Cyrene, Cyrenaïca, 16, 33, 40 _et seq._, 47, 53, 61, 161, 236 _et + seq._, 298, 314, 317, 398, 443, 444 + + Cyrus, 43 + + Dagomba-Moshi, 180 + + Dahia-al-Kahina, Queen, 57, 58 + + Dahomé, 11, 12, 96 _et seq._, 154, 161, 176, 181, 182, 190, 205, + 206, 208 _et seq._, 324 + + _Daily Telegraph_, the, 325 + + Dakar, 123, 198, 209, 210, 230, 234 + + Damara, 97, 417 + + Damaraland, 9, 249, 255, 274, 275, 317, 405, 418 + + Damascus, 60, 214 + + Dameirah, Cape, 397 + + Damerghu, 337 + + Damietta, 392 + + Danákil Coast, 17, 18, 84, 300, 393 + + Danes, _see_ Denmark + + Dar-al-Baida, 223 + + Dar-es-Salaam, 44, 414 + + Darfur, 19, 54, 62, 70, 194, 303, 323, 324, 327, 339, 363, 369, 402, + 443 + + Dar Runga, 237, 324 + + Dar Sila, 237 + + Date-palms, 38, 41 + + Dauphin, Fort, 425 _et seq._ + + Davidson, John, 314 + + De Beaufort, 200, 309 + + De Beers Diamond-mining Company, 284 + + Debono, Andrea, 319 + + Decken, Baron von der, 331, 404 + + Décle, Lionel, 340 + + Delafosse, Maurice, 338 + + Delagoa Bay, 93, 105, 110 _et seq._, 132, 134, 149, 274, 281, 308 + + Delcommune, Alexandre, 330 + + Delgado, Cape, 104, 110, 113, 409 + + Demerara, 137 + + De Mist, Commissioner-General, 137, 254, 255 + + Denham, Major D., 193, 195, 310 + + Denhardt brothers, 409 + + “Denis,” King, 228 + + Denmark abolishes slave-trade, 154, 157; + withdraws from Gold Coast, 177 + + De Pass family, the, 146, 273 + + Dernah, 42 + + Dernburg, Herr, 413 + + Dervishes, 227, 337, 363, 395 + + De Séchelles, 295 + + Destenave, Col., 338 + + Dē tribe, 164 + + Devonshire merchants, 169 + + Dey of Algiers, 213 + + Dhanis, Baron, 330, 345, 346 + + Diamonds, Diamond Fields, 142, 146, 166, 268, 269, 272 _et seq._, + 341, 419 + + Diaz de Novaes, Bartolomeu, 80, 81, 89, 125 + + — Diniz, 79 + + — Diogo, 85 + + — Paulo, 89, 90 + + Dickens and “Mrs Jellyby,” 313 + + Diego, Dom, 86 + + — Garcia, 295 + + — Suarez Bay, 429, 431, 437 + + Dieppe adventurers, 78, 80, 196 _et seq._ + + Dikjeschop, 124 + + Dinar Bu’l-Muhajr, 57 + + Dingane, 281, 282 + + Dingiswayo, 140, 141, 281 + + Dinizulu, 282 + + Dinka people, 370 + + Diogenes, 44, 45 + + Dixcove, 124 + + Djur, R., 227 + + Dochard, Dr, 306 + + Dodds, General, 206 + + Dodo, the, 123 + + Dog, the, 39, 92 + + Domestic animals and plants of Africa, 92 + + Donaldson Smith, Dr, 335 + + Dongola, 5, 15, 70, 72, 83, 365 + + Doornkop, 147 + + Doria, 119 + + Dorians, 41 + + Doutté, Edmond, 338 + + “Downing Street” doubts, drifts, and dallies, 141, 275 + + Draa, River, 32, 36, 37, 66, 299, 304 + + Dragut, 118 + + Dravidian races, 271 + + “Drifts” question, 287 + + Drury, Lieut., 371 + + Dual Control, the, 361, 362 + + Duala, 184, 244, 415 + + Dubreka, R., 408 + + Duck, the domestic, 92 + + Duckworth, W. L. H., 5, 7 + + Dufton, H., 317 + + Durban, 141, 261, 262, 272 + + D'Urban, Sir Benjamin, 259 _et seq._ + + Dutch, the, 28, 77, 85, 93 _et seq._, 123 _et seq._, 157, 158, 177, + 178, 197, 254, 257 _et seq._, 267 _etc._ + + — half-castes, 124 + + — language, 139, 258, 276, 448 + + Duveyrier, 321, 322 + + Dwarf races, 43 + + Dybowski, M., 230, 333 + + Eannes, Gil, 78 + + Eannes, Gonçalvez, 300 + + East Africa, _see_ British, German, _etc._ + + East Africa, State of, 115 + East India Company, British, 85, 111, 268, 374 + + — Austrian, 111 + + — Dutch, 125 _et seq._, 254, 306 + + — French, 426, 441 + + East Indies, 91, 111 + + Eastern Province of Cape Colony, 265, 267, 273 + + Ediya, 122 + + Edward VI, 169 + + Edward VII, 292 + + Egypt, 1, 5, 7, 13 _et seq._, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24, 33, 37, 42, 43, + 45, 47, 49, 51 _et seq._, 84, 102, 152, 187, 212, 235, 252, 326, + 442 + + Egyptian Government, 320 + + Egyptians, Ancient, 13, 16 _et seq._, 22, 32, 33, 52, 53 + + — Modern, 446 + + Ekoi country, 338 + + Elamites, 3 + + El Arwan, 309 + + Elephant, African, 35, 39, 110, 270 + + Elgon, Mt, 19, 331, 335, 385 + + Elise Carthage, Fort, 124 + + Elizabeth, Queen, 169, 170 + + Elliott, Mr Scott, 334 + + Ellis, Mr (of Madagascar), 433, 434 + + Elmina, 80, 123, 124, 178, 196 + + Elphinstone, Admiral, 136 + + Elton, Captain Fred., 327 + + Embo, 270 + + Emden, 403 + + Emin Pasha, 315, 330, 332, 336, 344, 363 + + England, English, _see_ Britain, British + + — and Portugal, 98, 108, 113, 115, 168 + + English language, 122, 165, 167, 244, 258, 448, 449 + + Eratosthenes, 45, 298 + + Erhardt, 316 + + Eriksson, 327 + + Eritrea (Italy’s Red Sea Colony), 227, 396, 397 + + Errik, 76 + + Ethiopia, Ethiopians, 21, 43, 46, 52, 82 _et seq._, 226, 298, 372, + 442 + + Euan-Smith, Sir Charles, 410 + + Euesperides, 42 + + Eunuchs, Negro, 152, 156, 159 + + Euphrates, 32, 60 + + Eurasians, 294 + + European population of Cape Colony in 1770, 132; + in 1791, 135; + in 1806, 255; + in 1850, 264; + in 1891, 291; + in 1904, 291 + + Eusebius, 41 + + Evatt, Col. J., 380 + + Evora, Pero d', 300 + + Exeter Hall, 140 + + Explorers, Great, 297 _et seq._ + + — fourteen greatest, list of, 315 + + Fadl-Allah, 193 + + Faidherbe, General, 200, 201, 221 + + Faleme, R., 209 + + Falkenstein, 322 + + False Bay, 126, 135 + + Fang negroes, 122, 415 + + Fanti, 124, 176, 178 + + Farewell and King, Lieuts., 261 + + Farquhar, Sir Robert, 294, 429 + + Fas (Fez), 65 + + Fashoda, 204, 227, 336, 337, 365 + + Fatima, 60, 66, 69 + + Fatimites, 56, 60, 61, 71 + + Fazogl, 319 + + Federation of South Africa, 142, 143, 147, 280 + + Felkin, Dr R. W., 328 + + Ferdinand I, 76 + + Ferdinand and Isabella, 116 + + Ferguson, G. E., 333 + + Fernandez, João, 79, 300 + + Fernando Pô, Island, 121, 122, 183, 184, 243, 244, 324, 333 + + Fez, 59, 65, 67, 224 + + Fezzan (Phazania), 12, 15, 47, 56, 69, 70, 304, 310, 323, 398, 401, + 443 + + Figig, 47, 222 + + Fiji, 3 + + Filali dynasty, 66 _et seq._ + + Fingo Kafirs, 267 + + Finland, 293 + + Fischer (explorer), 331 + + Flacourt, Governor of Madagascar, 425 + + Flamand, G. B. M., 337 + + Flanders in Africa, 111 + + Flatters, Col., 221 + + Flegel, Herr, 190, 333 + + Flemish Colonists, 90 + + — missionaries, 88, 240 + + Flinders, Matthew, 295 + + Florida, 153 + + Fodi Kabba, 172 + + Fodio, Othman Dan, 194, 201 + + Fodi Silah, 172 + + Foreign Office, 405, 409 + + Forfeitt, Rev. W., 329 + + Fort Dauphin, 425 _et seq._ + + Fort James, 170 + + Fort Salisbury, 285 + + Foucauld, Charles de, 336 + + Foule Point, 429, 431 + + Foureau, Mons. F., 221, 222, 236, 337 + + Fox-Bourne, Mr, 351 + + France, 4, 8, 50, 97, 106, 121, 132, 161, 166, 167, 171, 188, 191 + _et seq._ + + — and Abyssinia, 395 + + Francis I, 211 + + Franco-German war, 202, 215 + + François, Major von, 329 + + Frederic William I, 403 + + Freetown, 176 + + Fremantle, Admiral Sir E., 384 + + Fremona, 300 + + French, 28, 71, 72, 104, 105, 109, 118, 126, 133, 157, 158, 196 _et + seq._, 294, 423 _et seq._ + + — Congo, 172, 192, 221, 227, 228, 231, 233 _et seq._, 329, 336 + + — East India Company, 426 + + — Guinea, 10, 209 + + — language, 448, 449 + + — missionaries, 88, 94, 207, 228, 240, 278, 377 _et seq._ + + — Nigeria, 201 + + — Revolution and its effects on Dutch settlers in Cape Colony, 135 + + — — and Egypt, 212 + + — rule of Egypt, 19 + + — settlers in Dutch South Africa, 129 + + — settlers in Algeria, 216 + + — Somaliland, 227 + + — West Africa, total area of, 211 + + — West India Company, 198 + + Frere, Sir Bartle, 143, 280 _et seq._, 375, 405 + + Frey, Col., 203 + + Frio, Cape, 99 + + Froude, Mr J. A., 280 + + Fūl people, 12 + + Fula race and Empire, 13, 16, 49, 53, 68, 151, 161, 170, 172, 190 + _et seq._ + + — speech, 11, 12 + + Fulde speech, 12 + + Funj Empire, 62, 72 + + Further India, 3 + + Futa Toro, Futa Jallon, 201 _et seq._ + + “Fuzzie-wuzzies,” 17, 52 + + Gaboon, 36, 99, 172, 184, 205, 228 _et seq._, 251, 324 + + Gades, 32 + + Gafsa, 50, 53 + + Gaghu, Gao, 68 + + Gaika clan, 266, 267 + + Galas, Galaland, 13, 16 _et seq._, 19, 21, 22, 45, 51, 151, 161, + 245, 249, 334, 335, 338, 339, 386 + + Galeka clan, 260, 266, 267 + + Galiber, Admiral, 437 + + Galicia, 76 + + Galley-Hill man, 2 _et seq._, 17 + + Galliéni, Col., 202, 439 + + Gallwey, Sir H. L., 186 + + Galton, Mr Francis, 317 + + Gama, Christoforo da, 84 + + Gambetta, 189, 362 + + Gambia, R., 12, 36, 79, 98, 154, 169 _et seq._, 200, 201, 206, 229, + 302, 304, 305, 309 + + Gamitto, Capt., 307 + + Gamtoos River, 131 + + Gao, 202 + + Garama, 47, 48 + + Garamantes, 47, 54 + + Gardiner, Capt. Allen, 261 + + Garstin, Sir W., 371 + + Gautier, E. F., 35, 337 _et seq._ + + Gaza, 114 + + Gedge, Ernest, 335 + + Genoa, Genoese, 62, 78, 85, 153, 211, 390 + + Gentil, M. Emil., 230, 235, 334 + + Ger, R., 47 + + German Colonial Society, 405, 406, 410 + + — East Africa, 9, 10, 21, 44, 245, 249, 252, 291, 335, 336 + + — East African Association, 410 + + — South Africa, 95 + + — South-West Africa, 7, 273, 276, 336 + + — South-West Africa Company, 417 + + — missionaries, 242, 275, 404, 405 + + Germany, Germans, 59, 71, 72, 77, 109, 113, 145, 146, 161, 166, 184, + 190 _et seq._, 216, 223 _et seq._, 265, 266, 275, 276, 278, 399, + 403 _et seq._ + + Gessi Pasha, 302, 326, 362 + + Getulians, 53 + + Ghadames, 49, 308, 323, 398 + + Ghana, 14 + + Ghat, 37, 310, 321, 327, 398 + + Gibbons, Major A. St H., 339 + + Gibraltar, 2, 32, 33, 58, 146, 195 + + Ginger, 92 + + Gir, R., 47, 49 + + Giraffe, the, 130, 306 + + Giraud, Lieut., 330 + + Gladstone, Mr, 282, 286, 393, 406, 437 + + Glenelg, Lord, 260, 261, 263 + + Glover, Sir John, 178 + + Goa, 103, 104, 109, 271; + Goanese, 307 + + Goats, 75 + + Goetzen, Count, 334 + + Gold, 14, 24, 26, 79, 96, 100, 101, 103, 132, 145, 166, 180, 199, + 283, 341 + + — Coast, 11, 14, 79, 80, 98, 124, 125, 128, 154, 169, 175 _et seq._, + 196, 205, 248, 325, 333, 403 + + Goldie, Sir George Taubman, 189, 192, 208 + + Goldsmid, Sir Frederick, 344 + + Golea, 221 + + Goletta, 66, 118, 119, 219 + + Gomba, 208 + + Gomez, Diego, 79 + + Gonçalo de Silveira, 101, 241 + + Gondar, 303 + + Gondokoro, 319, 320, 371 + + Gongo Lutete, 345 + + Gonsalvez, Antonio, 78 + + Gordon College, 370 + + — General, 326, 362, 363 + + — Capt. R. J., 131, 306 + + Goree, 123, 198, 200, 305 + + Gorilla, the, 5, 6, 17, 36, 121, 228, 324 + + Goro, 385 + + Gorst, Sir J., 367 + + Gouraud, Col., 209 + + Gova, Francisco de, 87 + + Graaf Reinet, 131 + + — Van de, 131 + + Graça, 316 + + Grahamstown, 256 + + Grain Coast, 164, 165, 169 + + Granada, 65, 66, 116 + + Grand Basa, 164 + + — Bassam, 172, 205 + + — Canary, 117 + + Grandidier, Dr A., 337, 440 + + Grandy, Lieut., 322 + + Grant, Col. J. A., 315, 318 _et seq._ + + — Sir C., 260 + + Granville, Lord, 277, 405, 406, 436 + + “Granvilles,” 174 + + Gray, Major, 306 + + Great Britain, _see_ Britain, England + + — Fish River, 81, 131, 132, 134, 135, 255 _et seq._ + + — Lakes region, 12 + + Greece, 41 + + Greek Church, 253 + + — language, 70 + + Greeks, 19, 41, 42, 44, 46, 53, 57, 70 _et seq._ + + Green (explorer), 317 + + Greenville, 164 + + Gregory, Dr J. W., 335 + + — the Patrician, 56 + + Grenfell, Lord, 365 + + Grenfell, Rev. George, 229, 244, 315, 325, 329, 333 + + Grenna, 42 + + Gretsyl, 403 + + Grey, Sir George, 141, 142, 265, 267, 280, 293 + + Grikwaland East, 263 + + — West, 269 + + Grikwas, Grikwaland, 142, 146, 269 + + Grogan, E., 340 + + Groot Fontein, 420 + + Grossfriedrichsburg, 403 + + Ground-nuts (_Arachis_), 109, 110, 171 + + Guadalquivir, R., 32 + + Guanches, 117 + + Guano, 146, 273, 275, 420 + + Guardafui, Cape, 397 + + Guavas, 92 + + Guiana, 124 + + Guinea, 79, 80, 86, 92, 94, 123, 124, 153, 197, 199 + + — Gulf of, 78, 81, 194 _et seq._, 323, 391 + + Gungunyama, 114 + + Gurara, 222 + + Gurley, Rev. Robert, 164 + + Habesh, 84 + + Hadhramaut, 73 + + Hafs dynasty of Tunis, 64, 118 + + Haiderān, 61 + + Hajji 'Omaru, Al, 200 _et seq._ + + Halawi tribe, 370 + + Halikarnassos, 42 + + Hall (Acting-Commissioner), 430 + + Hamadi dynasty of Tunis, 64 + + Hamed bin Muhammad bin Juma, 344 + + Hamid bin Thwain, 382 + + Hamilton, Mr James, 317 + + Hamite race, 7 _et seq._, 18, 19, 21, 22, 48, 52, 72, 194, 230, 386, + 447 + + Hamitic languages, 10, 14, 17, 18, 20, 21, 46, 70 + + Hampden, Mt, 23 + + Hanlon, Bishop, 379 + + Hannibal, 38 + + Hannington, Bishop, 378 + + Hanno’s voyage, 35, 36, 173, 298 + + Hanse towns (Hamburg), 314, 404 + + Haqsu, 22 + + Hardinge, Sir A., 383, 385 + + Haricot beans, 92 + + Harrar, 22, 227, 334, 372 + + Harris, Sir D., 146, 274 + + — Sir W. C., 307, 317, 336 + + Harrison (explorer), 302 + + Hartzell, Bishop, 252 + + Harun-al-Rashid, 59 + + Hassan-bin-Kassim, 67 + + Hassan-bin-Numan, 57, 58 + + Hastie, Mr, 430 + + Hausa, the, 10, 13 _et seq._, 178, 179, 191 _et seq._, 421; + land, 48, 70, 160, 193 _et seq._, 222, 306, 315; + language, 448, 449 + + Hawai, 3, 428 + + Hawkins, Sir John, 153, 169, 173 + + Haywood, Capt. A. H., 338 + + Hebrew language, 40 + + Hedjaz, the, 318 + + Hekataios, 43 + + Helena, St, Id. of, 85, 92, 99, 125 _et seq._, 267, 268, 282 + + Heliopolis, 60 + + Henderson, Lieut., 204 + + Henric of Besançon, 76, 77 + + Henrique, Cardinal, 88, 93 + + — Dom, 86 + + Henry the Navigator, Prince, 65, 78, 79, 168 + + Heraclius, 53 + + Hercules, 39 + + — Straits of, 35 + + Herero, Ova-, the, 97, 134, 255, 274, 416 _et seq._ + + Hernandez, 153 + + Herodotos, 33, 34, 42, 49, 297, 298 + + Heuglin, Theodor von, 320 + + Hewett, Mr E. H., 184, 408 + + Hicks Pasha, 363, 365 + + Hides, 146 + + High Commissioner of South Africa, 148, 269, 280, 284, 288 + + Hikushahu (Hyksos), 22 + + Hima, 12, 16 + + Himyarites, 22, 73 + + Hinde, Capt. S. L., 330, 345, 349 + + Hintsa, Chief, 260 + + Hippo, 38 + + Hippo-Diarrhytos, 38 + + Hippon-Zaryt, 38 + + Hippopotamus, 30, 49, 101, 166, 392, 440 + + Hispaniola, 153 + + Hlubi, 273 + + Hobley, C. W., 335 + + Hodgson, Sir F. and Lady, 179 + + Hodister, 344 + + Hodister, A., 330 + + Hofmeyr, Mr J. H., 276 + + Höhnel, Lieut., 331, 387 + + Holland, _see_ Dutch; + also 262 + + Holub, Dr, 330 + + _Homo primigenius_, 2 + + — _sapiens_, 2 + + Hooker, Sir Joseph, 324 + + Hop, Capt., 306 + + Hore, Capt, 334 + + Hornemann, Friedrich, 304 + + Horse, the, 39, 48, 75, 92 + + “Horseshoe arch,” 74 + + Hostains, M., 337 + + Hottentots, 7 _et seq._, 95, 126, 128, 130, 131, 134, 136, 139, 142, + 232, 241, 242, 249, 255, 257 _et seq._, 291, 416 _et seq._ + + Houghton, Major, 304 + + Hourst, Lieut., 208 + + Hovas, the, 27, 31, 247, 248, 428 _et seq._ + + Huara, 53 + + Huguenots, 129, 241 + + Humt Suk, 119 + + Hunein, 66, 117 + + Hussein bin ’Ali, 218 + + Husseinite Beys of Tunis, 218 + + Hutter, F., 338 + + Hutton, Mr James, 409 + + Ibadite sect, 73 + + Iberia, 37, 65 + + Iberian race, 76 + + Ibn Batuta, 299 + + Ibn Errik, 76 + + Ibn Haukal, 299 + + Ibn Tumert, 64 + + Ibn Yaṣin, 63 + + Ibo, 109, 110, 185, 187 + + Ibos, the, 312 + + Ibrahim, 360 + + Ibrahim-bin-Aghlab, 59 + + Ibrahim, Lake, 326 + + Idda, 187 + + Idris, 58 + + Idris II, 59 + + Idris or Edrisi (geographer), 299 + + Ifni, 120 + + Ifriqiah, 56, 59 + + Ijō, 312 + + Ikopa, R. (Madagascar), 438 + + Ikshids, 71 + + Île de France, 294, 440 + + Ilhas dos Idolos, 210 + + Illórin, 193 + + Ilo, 208 + + Imam of Maskat, 73, 104, 374, 383, 384 + + Imbangola, 87 + + Imérina, 31, 428, 429 + + Impoina, 429 + + India, 3, 4, 22, 24, 26, 28, 29, 44, 75, 82, 91 _et seq._, 100, 101, + 103, 152, 156, 158, 300 + + Indian architecture, 74 + + — fig, 93 + + — Ocean, 12, 19, 28, 31, 102, 126 + + Indians in Africa, 29, 105, 109, 447; + in Natal, 271, 272; + Mauritius, 294 + + India-rubber, 110, 166, 279, 348, 350 + + Indo-China, 28 + + Indonesians, 28 + + Inhambane, 34, 114, 115 + + Innocent X, Pope, 392 + + Insalah, 222 + + Insuma, 124 + + International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of + Central Africa, 342, 343, 404 + + Inverarity, Mr, 429 + + Ionian Islands, 41 + + Ireland, 4, 25 + + Irish, 72 + + Irish settlers, 257 + + Isandhlwana, 282 + + Isangila, 308 + + Ishak-bin-Sokya, 67, 68 + + Islam (Muhammadanism), 4, 14, 25, 30, 39, 56, 58, 63, 70 _et seq._, + 117, 152, 202, 237, 238, 240, 241 + + Islands in Indian Ocean belonging to British, 295 + + Isle of Man, 293 + + Isleños, 117 + + Isles de Los, 408 + + Ismail, 219, 360, 361, 401 + + Italian language, 216, 393, 448 + + — missionaries, 88, 94, 240, 241, 392, 393 + + Italians, Italy, 4, 38, 42, 49, 50, 62, 71, 72, 74, 78, 116, 161, + 196, 216, 219, 238, 245, 390 _et seq._ + + Ivens, Roberto, 325 + + Ivory, 79, 110, 187, 270, 274, 279, 348, 350 + + — Coast, 203 _et seq._, 337 + + Jackfruit, 92 + + Jackson, Col. I., 338 + + — F. G., 380, 387 + + — F. J. (Sir), 335 + + Jacobite Church, 52 + + Jacobs, Hon. Simeon, 146, 274 + + Jacquin, Capt., 205 + + Jafarabad, 153 + + Jaga, Jagga, the, 87, 88, 301 + + Jaghbub, 236 + + Jaja, King, 185 + + Jamaica, 154, 158, 174 + + James bros. (explorers), 334 + + Jameson, Dr (Sir Starr), 147, 148, 285, 286, 289 + + Janjira, 153 + + Jannequin de Rochefort, 197, 198, 302 + + Janssen, Camille, 344 + + Janssens, Governor, 137, 254, 255 + + Japanese, 291 + + Jauhar-al-Kaid, 60, 71 + + Java, 27, 28, 31, 126, 427 + + Jazirat-al-Komr, 423 + + Jean René, 430 + + Jenné, 14, 202, 204, 206, 300 + + Jentinck’s duiker, 166 + + Jerba, Is. of, 39, 41, 56, 66, 119 + + Jerma, 47 + + Jesuits, 84, 88, 101, 105, 106, 239, 240, 246, 247, 300, 301, 434, + 435 + + Jewish Territorial Organization Committee, 388 + + Jews, the, 32, 40, 42, 50, 53, 58, 59, 72, 81, 145, 146, 215, 217, + 218, 273, 274 + + Jibl-al-Tarik, 58 + + Jibuti, 227, 337 + + Jilolo, 3 + + Jinga, 87 + + Jinga Bandi, 93 + + Joal, 198 + + João I, Dom, 78 + + João II, 81, 82 + + João, King of Portugal, 86 + + Jobson, Capt. Richard, 170, 302 + + Johannesburg, 145, 147, 148, 294 + + John of Abyssinia, King, 394, 395 + + John of Gaunt, 78, 168 + + Johnson, Elijah, 164 + + Johnston, H. H., _see_ Author + + — Keith, 328 + + Johnstone, Commodore, 133 + + — Commander, 436, 437 + + Jok, 87 + + Jolofs, 12 + + Jorāwa, 57 + + José, Amaro, 307 + + Joseph of Lamego, 81, 82 + + Jouffre, Col., 207 + + Jub, or Juba, River, 21, 383, 385, 386, 397, 398 + + Jubi, Cape, 120, 121 + + Judaism amongst Berbers, 58 + + Juder Basha, 68 + + Jühlke, Dr, 408 + + Julian, Count, 57, 58 + + Julius Maternus, 48 + + Jully, M. A., 440 + + Junker, Dr William, 332 + + Kaarta, 200, 203, 204, 304, 309 + + Kabail, 215 + + Kabaka, the, of Buganda, 379, 381 + + Kabara, 203, 206, 207 + + Kabarega, 380 + + Kabinda, 89, 97 + + Kafa, 21 + + Kaffa, 226 + + Kaffraria, 243, 260, 266, 267 + + Kafir Wars, 135, 136, 256, 259, 260, 263, 267 + + Kafirs, 10, 130, 134, 135, 140, 141, 255 _et seq._, 281, 294 + + Kafue, R., 106, 330 + + Kagera, R., 336, 340 + + Kahina, Queen Dahia-al-, 57, 58 + + Kairwan, 57, 60, 61, 65 + + Kalahari desert, 276, 325, 419 + + Kamasi, 380 + + Kambujiya, 43 + + Kamerun, _see_ Cameroons + + Kandt, Dr R., 340 + + Kanem, 48, 54, 194, 237, 238, 402, 443 + + Kanemi Sheikhs, 193, 194 + + Kankan, 210 + + Kano, 187, 193, 194, 310, 311, 323 + + Kanuri people and language (Bornu), 15, 191 + + Karamania, 118 + + Karamanli dynasty, 310, 400 + + Karanga, 134 + + Kareli, 260 + + Karema, 342 + + Karoo, 272 + + Kart-hadshat, 32 + + Kasai, R., 95, 97, 301, 329, 339 + + Kasalá, 365, 395 + + Kashgil, 363 + + Kasongo, 344, 345 + + Kasr-al-Kabīr (Morocco), 66 _et seq._, 77, 78, 120 + + Kasr-es-Said, treaty of, 220 + + Kasson, 302 + + Katanga, 96, 97, 272, 330, 332, 339, 346, 357, 444 + + Kathiawar, 153 + + Kavala, 248 + + Kavirondo, 19, 387 + + Kayès, 210 + + Kazembe, 105, 307 + + Keetmanshoop, 420 + + Kei, R., 134, 135, 259, 260, 263, 267 + + Keiskamma, R., 256, 257, 259 + + Keith, Dr A., 5 + + — Lord, 429 + + Kenya, Mt, 316, 331, 335 + + Kerckhoven, L. van, 330 + + Keren, 394 + + Kerne, 36, 37, 79 + + Kersten, Otto, 404 + + Ketama, 60 + + Khaireddin Barbarossa, 118 + + Khalifs of Baghdad, 58, 59, 67, 69 _et seq._ + + Khariji, sect of Islam, 56, 59, 73 + + Khartum, 46, 319, 363, 364 + + Khedives of Egypt, 72, 360 + + Khmirs, 220 + + Khojas (Indians), 271 + + Kiezelbach, 320 + + Kikuyu, 383, 385 + + Kilima-njaro, 44, 316, 330, 331, 335, 376, 404, 409, 410, 414 + + Kilimatinde, 414 + + Kilindini, 387 + + Kilwa (East Africa), 73, 83, 100, 103, 413 + + Kimberley, 146, 268, 272, 273, 283 + + Kimberley, Lord, 275 + + Kimo, 29 + + King, W. Harding, 339 + + Kiokwe, Ba-, 87 + + Kipling, Rudyard, 17 + + Kir, 46 + + Kirby, Capt. Brandon, 333 + + Kirk, Sir John, 321, 374 _et seq._, 410 + + Kisches, the, 274 + + Kisi, 175 + + Kismayu, 386 + + Kitchener, Lord, 227, 288, 289, 337, 365, 367, 369 + + Kivu, Lake, 334, 340 + + Kleber, 212 + + Klobb, Lieut.-Col., 222 + + Knoblecher, Dr, 319 + + Koelle, Rev. Dr S. W., 159, 243 + + Kollmann, Capt. Paul, 336 + + Komadugu, R., 315 + + Komatipoort, 149 + + Komoro Islands, 22, 27, 29, 30, 73, 423, 427, 428, 437, 441 + + Konakri, 209, 210 + + Kong, 204 + + Kongo, Kingdom of, 85 _et seq._, 228, 392 + + Konkan, 153 + + Koran, the, 74 + + Kordofan, 10, 11, 19, 54, 70, 237, 245, 323, 324 + + Kormantyn, 124, 176, 196 + + Kosoko, 181 + + Kosseir, 18 + + Kotonu, 210 + + Krapf, Dr Ludwig, 242, 243, 316, 331 + + Krause, G. A., 333 + + Kroumirs, the, 220 + + Kru, 165 + + Kruboys, 151, 174, 205 + + Kruger, President, 149, 286 _et seq._ + + Kuanyama, 97 + + Kubango, R., 420 + + Kufra, 237, 323 + + Kukawa, 315 + + Kulikoro, 210 + + Kulis, 271, 294 + + Kumasi, 176, 178, 179 + + Kund, Lieut., 332 + + Kunene, R., 95, 97, 330, 420, 444 + + Kurds, 71, 72 + + Kurene, 41, 42, 46, 298 + + Kuros, 53 + + Kuseila, the Berber prince, 57 + + Kushite type, 20, 21 + + Kwa, 348 + + Kwando, R., 420 + + Kwango, R., 87, 95, 301, 307, 325, 329, 339 + + Kwanza, R., 89 _et seq._ + + Kwilu, 339 + + Kwo-ibo, 182 + + Laborde, M., 431 _et seq._ + + La Calle, 211 + + “La Case,” 425 + + Lacerda e Almeida, Dr F. J. M. de, 105, 106, 307 + + Lado, 346, 370 + + Ladysmith, 288 + + Lagos, 99, 175, 180 _et seq._, 205, 242, 311, 323, 407 + + Laing, Major, 308, 310 + + Laird, MacGregor, 188 + + Laka country, 234 + + La Mar Chica, 224 + + Lambert, Capt., 197 + + — M., 433, 434 + + Lamego, 81 + + La Mine d'Or, 80, 196 + + Lamta, Lemtuna, 63, 68 + + Lamu, 26, 73, 83, 100, 101, 384 + + Lamy, Commandant, 221, 222, 236 + + Lander, Richard and John, 188, 311 _et seq._ + + Landor, A. Savage, 340 + + Langalibalele, 273 + + Lang’s Nek, 143 + + La Perrone, 338 + + Last, J. T., 243 + + Latin, 50, 76 + + Lavigerie, Cardinal, 245, 246, 377 + + Lebanon, 33 + + Lebda, 37 + + Le Fébvre, Théophile, 317 + + Leibnitz, 212 + + Lemon, the, 91 + + Lemur, the, 427, 440 + + Lemuria, 4, footnote + + Lenfant, Capt. E., 338, 339 + + Lentils, 92 + + Lenz, Dr Oskar, 324, 330 + + Leo Africanus, 299, 391 + + Leo X, Pope, 391 + + Leo XIII, Pope, 245 + + Leon, 76 + + Leon, Pedro, 84 + + Leonora, Queen of Portugal, 86 + + Leopold II, King, 192, 231, 233, 342, 346 _et seq._ + + Leopold, Lake, 329 + + Léopoldville, 347 + + Leptis, 37, 53 + + Lescallier, Mons., 429 + + Lesseps, F. de, 361 + + Le Vaillant, 309 + + Levant, 65 + + Levantine Italians, 392, 393 + + Libenge, 234 + + Liberia, 10, 36, 79, 93, 99, 122, 158, 163 _et seq._, 196, 203 _et + seq._, 250, 251, 262, 298, 328, 337, 338, 442, 443 + + Libreville, 228 + + Libyan Desert, 48, 54, 70, 75, 237, 303, 323, 338, 339, 402 + + Libyan tongue, 21, 53, 54 + + Libyans, 12, 13, 16, 18, 21, 22, 42, 48, 49, 53, 54 + + Likoma, Bishop of, 252 + + Lilienfelds, 146, 274 + + Lime, the, 75, 91 + + Limpopo, R., 7, 283, 307, 308 + + Linant, Adolphe, 319 + + Linant de Bellefonds, 326 + + Lingam, the, 24 + + Lipperts, 146 + + Lisbon, 77, 83, 84, 86, 90, 101, 109, 168 + + Lithgow, William, 301 + + Little Dieppe, 196 + + Little Paris, 196 + + Liverpool, 157, 231 + + “Liverpool of West Africa,” 181 + + Livingstone, Dr, 95, 106 _et seq._, 160, 246, 250, 251, 276 _et + seq._, 315, 317, 321, 322, 325 + + Lixus, R. (the R. Draa), 32, 36 + + Loanda, São Paulo de, 90, 93 + + Loango, 94, 228, 230 _et seq._, 301, 322, 336 + + Lobengula, 283 _et seq._ + + Lobito Bay, 96, 97, 339 + + Lobo, Jeronimo, 84, 300, 301 + + Loesche, Pechuel, 322 + + Loge, R., 89 + + Logone, 14 + + Logwek, Mount, 319 + + Lokoja, 188 + + Lom, R., 332 + + Lomami, R., 97, 329, 345 + + Lome, 421, 422 + + London Convention, 144, 145 + + — Company of Adventurers, 169, 301, 302 + + “Long juju,” 187 + + Lonsdale, Capt. R. L., 333 + + Lopes, Duarte, 88, 92, 93 + + Lorraine frontier, 235 + + Los, Isles de, 210 + + Lothaire, Major, 347, 378 + + Lotos, Lotos Eaters, 38, 41, 56 + + Louis Napoleon, _see_ Napoleon + + — IX (Saint) of France, 65 + + — XIV of France, 129, 211, 226, 359, 425 + + — Philippe, 205, 228 + + Louisiana, 216 + + Lourenço Marquez, 105, 110 _et seq._, 149 + + Lovedale, 250 + + “Lower Guinea,” 228 + + Luabo, 102 + + Lualaba, 322, 325, 330, 345 + + Luangwa, R., 108, 334 + + Luapula, R., 105, 322, 334 + + Luata, 53 + + Lucas, Sir Charles, 125 + + Ludamar, 304 + + Luderitz Bay, 419 + + Luderitzhafen, 420 + + Lüderitz, Herr, 406 + + Lugard, General Sir Frederick, 193, 208, 285, 378 + + Lugh, 398 + + Lukkus, R., 77 + + Lukolela, 234 + + Luluabourg, 346 + + Lulongo, R., 329 + + Lunda, 87, 94, 105 + + Lupton Bey, 326 + + Lurio, R., 109, 110 + + Lusambo, 345 + + Lusitania, 77 + + Lydzaamheid, 132 + + Lyon, Capt. G., 310 + + Lyons Missionaries, 244, 245 + + Maba, 161, 237 + + Macarthy, Sir Charles, 177 + + Macdonald, Col. Sir J. R. L., 335, 381 + + Macdonald, Sir Claude, 186 + + Macedonia, Macedonians, 19, 37, 43 + + Macgregor Laird, James, 313 + + Macguire, Corporal, 315 + + Mackenzie, Bishop, 251 + + — Sir G., 377 + + Mackinder, H., 335 + + Mackinnon, Sir Wm., 375 + + Maclean, Charles, 177 + + Macmahon, Marshal: his Delagoa Bay award, 111, 112, 274 + + Madagascar, 4, 22, 24, 26 _et seq._, 44, 51, 73, 74, 82, 84, 85, 93, + 100, 104, 109, 126, 128, 225, 235, 247, 248, 251, 294 _et seq._, + 308, 337, 423 _et seq._ + + Madan, Mr, 252 + + Madeira, 85, 91, 116 + + Mad Mullah, the, 372, 373 + + Mafeking, 286 + + Magdishu, 83, 100, 398 + + Mage, Lieut. E., 201 + + Magwangwara, 413 + + Magyar, Ladislas, 316 + + Mahdi (Sudan), 237, 245, 327, 363 _et seq._; + Mahdis frequently arising in Islam, 60, 63, 64 + + Mahdia, 60 + + Mahé, 295 + + Maherero, Samuel, 417, 418 + + Mahmud Basha, 68 + + Mahrab (Sacred Shrine), 39, 55, 74 + + Maistre, Lieut. C., 230, 334 + + Maize, 91, 92, 279 + + Majerda, R., 32, 33, 38 + + Majorca, Majorcans, 62, 78 + + Majuba Hill, 143 + + Makana, 256 + + Makhzen, 224 + + Makka, 54 + + Makololo, the, 108 + + Makoma, 259 + + Makua, the, 103, 105, 114, 132 + + Malacca, 91 + + Malachite, 110 + + Malagasy people, 27, 29, 30, 294, 295, 425, 428 _et seq._ + + Malata, 426 + + Malay Peninsula, 3 + + — races, 27 _et seq._, 255, 258, 259, 291, 427, 428 + + Malaysia, 3, 28, 128, 428 + + Maldiv archipelago, 28, 29, 428 + + “Malik,” 71 + + Malindi, 26, 82, 83, 100, 300, 383, 384 + + Malta, 40, 62 + + — Knights of, 66, 69 + + Maltese, 40, 119, 216, 319, 448 + + Mamluks, 59, 71, 72, 212, 360 + + Mañanja, 106 + + Mañbettu, 12, 16, 326 + + Mandara, 194, 195, 376 + + Mandingoes, 10, 13, 14, 51, 151, 161, 170, 172, 203 _et seq._ + + Manenguba, 415 + + Manika, 100, 101, 105 + + Manioc, 91, 92 + + Mannesmann, firm of, 224 + + Manoel, King, 424 + + Manputo, 92 + + Mantumba, Lake, 329 + + Manutia-Alphil, 423 + + Manyema, 160, 322, 345, 346 + + Maples (Archdeacon, then Bishop), Chauncey, 252, 327 + + Marabut, Marabitin (Almoravides), 62, 63, 68 + + Maravi, Lake, 276, 307 + + Marchand, Capt. J. B., 204, 227, 336, 337, 365 + + Mare, Uso di, 79 + + Maria Theresa, 111 + + Marie of Madagascar, St, 426, 430, 431 + + Marinel, Georges le, 330 + + — Paul le, 330 + + Marinus of Tyre, 45, 47, 299 + + Marka, 398 + + Marks, Senator S., 146 + + Marno, 326 + + Maroons, 174 + + Marrakesh, 67 + + Marseilles, 41, 110, 172 + + Martin V, Pope, 79 + + Martyn, Lieut., 306 + + Maryland, 164, 165 + + Mary, Queen, 169 + + Masai, 21, 331, 381, 385 + + Masawa, 83, 84, 226, 301, 303, 394 + + Mascarene archipelago, 28, 84, 123, 271, 296, 440 + + Mascarenhas, 84, 123 + + Mashonaland, 26, 113, 247, 285, 327 + + Masina, 202, 203, 309 + + Maskara, 214 + + Maskat, 73, 83, 104, 160, 374, 383, 384 + + — Arabs, 73 + + Masmuda, 64 + + Mason Bey, 320, 326 + + Massaia, Monsignor, 245 + + Massalit Arabs, 237 + + Massari, Lieut. A. M., 323 + + Massowah, _see_ Masawa + + Masudi, 299 + + Matadi, 347 + + Matebele, -land, 26, 113, 160, 267, 276, 285 + + Matmata country, 38 + + Matopo hills, 285 + + Matteucci, Dr, 323 + + Matthews, Major G. E., 371 + + Mauch, Karl, 283, 327 + + Maud, Capt. P., 339 + + Mauretania, 5, 16, 32, 35, 39, 43, 46, 57, 61, 72, 209 + + Mauritius, 28, 31, 85, 123, 126, 127, 132, 271, 294 _et seq._, 318, + 429, 440, 441 + + Mauro, Fra, 423 + + Mayo, Earl of, 330 + + Mayotta, 432, 437 + + Mazagan, 78 + + Mazrui Arabs, 383, 384 + + Mbam, R., 332 + + Mbomu, 230, 235, 327, 346 + + McClear, Sir Thomas, 317 + + McMurdo, Col. E., 149 + + McQueen, James, and the Niger, 312 + + Mecca, 54, 55, 63, 67, 82, 202, 236 + + Mechow, Major von, 329 + + Medina, 54, 67, 82, 172, 201, 202 + + Medina-Cœli, Duke de, 119 + + Mediterranean colonization of Africa, 32 _et seq._ + + — man, 22 + + — Sea, 79, 91, 118, 146, 195, 299 + + Mehdia, 60, 390 + + Mehedia, 118 + + Meilleraye, Duc de la, 425 + + Melanesians, 31 + + Melilla, 66, 67, 117, 119, 120, 224 + + Melland, Frank, 339, 340 + + Mello, Duarte de, 83, 100 + + Memphis, 60 + + Mendelssohns, 146, 274 + + Mendi, 174, 175 + + Menelik, Emperor, 395, 396 + + Meninx (Jerba), 38, 56 + + Menoutheseas, 423 + + Menouthias, 44, 423 + + Merina, 428 + + Meroe (Merawi), 46, 51 + + Mesopotamia, 17, 69, 70, 74 + + Mesurado, Cape, 164 + + Mexico, 139, 153 + + Meyer, Dr Hans, 335 + + Mfumbiro, 334 + + Miani, Giovanni, 319 + + Middle men of W. African trade, 185 + + Mikindani, 300 + + Milk (Moloch), 38 + + Millet, M. René, 220 + + Milner, Sir Alfred (Viscount), 288, 289 + + Minaean kingdom, 22 + + Missionaries, Christian, 51, 88, 108; + (attitude towards Cape Dutch), 139, 140, 257; + summing-up of their characteristics, 253 + + Missions, Christian, 239 _et seq._; + _see_ Christian + + Mizon, Lieut., 190, 191 + + Mnyamwezi, 346 + + Moςambique, 8, 26, 29, 73, 82, 83, 94, 99, 100, 102 _et seq._, 123, + 128, 132, 258, 327, 338 + + — Co., 114 + + Moffat, Rev. R., 307 + + Mogods, 2 + + Mohade, A1-, _see_ Muāḥadim + + Mohair, 146 + + “Mohocks,” the, 198 + + Mohr, Edward, 327 + + Moir, John and Frederick, 284 + + Mojanga, 429, 436, 438 + + Mokha, 44 + + Mollien, Gaspard, 200, 309 + + Mombasa, 24, 26, 73, 83, 100, 102, 104, 242, 300, 316, 331, 335, + 363, 374, 384, 387 + + Monastir, 117, 119 + + Monclaros (the Jesuit priest), 101, 102 + + Mongalla, 330 + + Mongase, 102 + + Mongoloids, 4, 17 + + Mongols, 71 + + Monomotapa, 23, 100 _et seq._, 241 + + Monophysite Church, 52 + + Monouthis, 423 + + Monrovia, 164, 404 + + Monteil, Col. P. L., 204, 333 + + Monteiro, Joachim Monteiro, Major, 307 + + Moore, J. E., 334 + + Moorish conquests in Nigeria, 14 + + Moors, geographical enterprise of the, 300 + + Moravians, 242 + + Moravide, _see_ Marabut + + Mordokhai Abi-Serūr, 35, 316 + + Morel, E. D., 234, 355, 356 + + Morenga, 418 + + Moret, 338 + + Morgen (explorer), Lieut., 332 + + Morland, Colonel T. L. N., 193 + + Morocco (Mauretania), 5, 12, 16, 32 _et seq._, 47, 49, 50, 53, 56 + _et seq._, 77, 116, 119 _et seq._, 152, 159, 169, 176, 195, 197, + 200, 208, 214, 216, 217, 223 _et seq._, 252, 253, 299, 323, 336, + 442, 444 + + — Spanish possessions in, 121, 122, 442 + + Moselekatse, _see_ Umsilikazi + + Mosely, Prof. A., 146 + + Moselys, 274 + + Mosenthals, the, 146, 274 + + Mosi, 10, 325 + + Mosi-Gurunsi speech, 12 + + Moslems, 59, 202 + + Mossamedes, 9, 94, 95 + + Mossel Bay, 81 + + Mostaganem, 236 + + Mosto, Ca' da, 79 + + Motawakkil, 69 + + Mount, Cape, 164 + + Mountains of the Moon, 45 + + Mouzinho de Albuquerque, 114 + + Mpongwe, 228 + + Mpozo, R., 80 + + Msambiji, 100 + + Msidi, 346 + + Msilikazi, 143 + + Mtesa, King, 377 + + Muāḥadim (Almohade), 64 + + Mubangi, 6, 10, 15, 229, 230, 234 _et seq._, 244, 326, 329, 336, + 338, 415 + + Mubarak, 384, 385 + + Mubuku, 334 + + Mueller, Dr Hans, 329 + + Muhammad Ahmad, 363 + + Muhammad-al-Amin-al-Kanemi, 193, 194 + + Muhammad Ali, 72, 195, 245, 319, 359, 360, 392, 400 + + Muhammad-al-Mahdi, 66 + + Muhammadan colonization, 74 + + Muhammadanism, _see_ Islam + + Muhammadans, 55, 56, 63, 65, 67, 240, 252 + + Muhammad bin Abdallah, 372, 373 + + Muhammad-bin-Ali, 236 + + Muhammad Granye, 84 + + Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab, 73 + + Muhammad Sharif, 236 + + Muhammad (the Praiser), 54 _et seq._, 59, 60, 66 + + Muhibidi, 100 + + Mu’izz-li-din-Allah, 60, 71 + + Mulai Abd-al-Malek, 66 + + Mulai Hafid, 223, 224 + + Mulai Ismail of Morocco, 68 + + Mulattoes, 163 _et seq._ + + Muluba, 10 + + Muluya, R., 119, 120, 223 + + Muni, R., 121 + + Munyamwezi, 10 + + Munzinger, 320 + + Murie, Dr, 320 + + Murray, Mungo, 317 + + Murzuk, 49, 323 + + Musa, 93 + + Musa-bin-Nusseir, 58 + + Musambiki, 100 + + Musgu speech, 14 + + Musha Island, 372 + + Musk duck, 92 + + Muza, 44 + + Mwanga, King, 378 _et seq._ + + Mwata Yanvo, 94, 316, 322, 327 + + Mwene-mutapa, 101 + + Mweru, Lake, 105, 278, 307, 322, 327, 334 + + Mzab Berbers, 53, 56 + + Nabataean kingdom, 52 + + Naber, Capt., 338 + + Nachtigal, Dr, 184, 315, 323, 324, 407, 408 + + Naivasha, Lake, 331 + + Namakwaland, 128, 243, 255, 275, 276, 306, 404, 405 + + Namuli, 110 + + Nana, 186 + + Nantes, Edict of, 129 + + Napata, 46 + + Napier, General, 262 + + Naples, Neapolitans, 62, 65, 213, 214, 390 + + Napoleon the Great, 99, 157, 212, 268, 349 + + — III, 205, 214, 215, 217, 218, 361, 433 + + Napoleonic wars, 137, 163, 171, 200, 228, 314, 441 + + Nassau, Fort, 124 + + Natal, 82, 140 _et seq._, 261, 262, 269, 270, 273, 281 _et seq._, + 404 + + — Bay of, 128 + + National African Company, 189 + + “Native Question,” the, 293 + + Nature, her pranks, 256 + + Naukratis, 42 + + Navarre, 116 + + Neanderthal species, 2 + + Necho, Pharaoh, 33 + + Nefusa, 53, 56 + + Negrito tribes, 3 + + Negro, the, characteristics of, 151, 152, 271; + warning to, 162; + Christian, 239, 240; + Muhammadan, 240; + future of, 446 _et seq._ + + Negroes, 2 _et seq._, 18, 29, 45, 48, 51, 68, 74, 80, 122, 124, 151 + _et seq._, 230, 255, 258, 259, 291 + + Negroid races (Nubians, Fulas, Mandingoes, etc.), 13 _et seq._, 22, + 48, 51, 54, 230, 446 + + Nejd, 73 + + Nelson, 117, 212 + + Nepoko, R., 332 + + Nero, 46, 298 + + Netherlands Railway, 287 + + Neumann, O., 339 + + Neumann, Sir S., 146 + + Neumanns, 274 + + New, Mr Chas., 331 + + New Caledonia, 3, 205 + + — Guinea, 3, 75 + + — Mexico, 153 + + — Zealand, 3, 205, 293 + + _New York Herald_, 322, 325 + + Ngami, Lake, 274, 307, 317 + + Ngaundéré, 333 + + Nguru, 409 + + Nicholas I, Tsar, 360 + + Niéger, 338 + + Niger, Convention with France, 182, 190 + + — Coast Protectorate, 186, 187, 189 + + — Company, Royal, 187, 189 _et seq._, 208, 231, 232 + + — R., 8, 11 _et seq._, 19, 20, 43, 47 _et seq._, 62, 63, 67, 68, 70, + 74, 79, 159, 172, 182, 184, 187 _et seq._, 299, 304, 305, 308, + 311 _et seq._ + + Niger Delta, 79, 99, 154, 182, 183, 185, 187, 242, 331 + + Nigeria, 10, 12 _et seq._, 43, 63, 67, 75, 152, 161, 171, 179, 184, + 185, 194, 227, 250, 339, 443 + + Nikki, 208 + + Niku II, Pharaoh, 33, 34, 42, 297 + + Nile, the, 5, 11, 17 _et seq._, 21, 22, 33, 42 _et seq._, 60 _et + seq._, 84, 227, 230, 245, 298 _et seq._, 318 _et seq._ + + Nilotic speech-group, 10, 21 + + Nogal, 398 + + Normans, 62, 78, 80, 85, 196 _et seq._ + + North African Mission, 252 + + Northcott, Col. H. P., 333 + + “Northern Nigeria,” 192, 193 + + Northern Rhodesia, 278, 279, 291, 292, 331 + + Norway, 293 + + Nosi Komba, 432 + + — Mitsiu, 432 + + Nosi-bé, 432, 436 + + Nova Scotia, 174 + + Nubia, Nubians, 5, 15, 17 _et seq._, 52, 70, 72, 74, 298, 303, 326 + + Numidia, 46, 47 + + Nun, Cape, 120 + + Nunez, R., 200 + + Nupe, 10, 12, 161, 191 _et seq._, 304, 311, 323 + + Nyam-nyam, 12, 16, 319, 326, 370 + + Nyangwe, 322, 345 + + Nyanza, Albert, 45, 318, 320, 326, 332 + + — Edward, 332, 334 + + — Victoria, 9, 10, 12, 19, 20, 44, 45, 281, 318, 325, 326, 331, 335, + 336, 340, 377 + + Nyasa, Lake, 9, 109, 160, 161, 248, 249, 251, 252, 276 _et seq._, + 300, 307, 321, 322, 327, 328, 334, 338 + + Nyasaland, 8, 26, 89, 107, 110, 114, 115, 159, 247, 250 _et seq._, + 279, 291, 292, 327, 331, 444 + + — German, 249 + + “Nyassa,” Chartered Company of, 109, 110 + + Nyoro, 320 + + Nzadi, 86 + + Oak tree in Cape Colony, 129 + + Obbia, 398 + + Obeid-Allah, 60 + + Obok, 226, 372, 394 + + Oceania, 3, 27 + + Ochiali, 119 + + Oea, 53 + + Ogadein Somaliland, 372, 386 + + Ogowé, R., 79, 80, 228, 233, 324, 330 + + Ohrwalder, Father, 245 + + Oil Islands, 295 + + “Oil Rivers,” 182 _et seq._, 312 + + Okabango-Teoge, R., 317 + + Okapi, the, 341 + + Old Calabar, 99, 182 _et seq._, 250, 313 + + Oldfield, Dr, 313 + + Olifants River, 131 + + Olive oil, 110 + + Ollone, Capt. d', 337 + + Omaiyad dynasties, 56, 59 + + 'Oman, 73, 74, 83, 160, 374, 384 + + Omar, 59 + + 'Omaru bin Saidi, 202 + + Om Dubreikat, 369 + + Omdurman, 193, 337; + victory of, 227, 365 + + Omo, R., 334 + + Omuramba, 317 + + On, 60 + + Ondonga, 97 + + O'Neill, Lieut. H. E., 327 + + Onions, 92 + + Opobo, R., 185, 189 + + Oqba-bin-Nafa (the Prophet’s barber), 56, 57 + + Oran, 66, 117 _et seq._, 214, 216 _et seq._, 230 + + Orange Free State, 140 _et seq._, 258, 264, 268, 269, 271, 280, 281, + 286, 288, 291, 292, 443 + + — Prince of, 135, 137, 254 + + — River, 9, 131, 132, 140, 142, 145, 206, 256, 261 _et seq._, 268, + 274, 306, 307 + + Orange tree, 75, 85, 91, 92, 390 + + Orangia, 146 + + Ormuz, Is., 83 + + Osheba country, 234 + + Osman Digna, 369 + + Ostrich, Ostrich farming, 43, 255, 265, 268, 274 + + Oswell, Mr W., 317 + + Otavi, 419, 420 + + Oudjda, 223 + + Oudney, Dr, 310 + + “Outlanders” (Uitlanders), 147, 148, 288 + + Ovambo, Ovamboland, 97, 274, 317, 418 + + Overweg, Dr, 314, 315 + + Owen, Admiral W. F. W., 106, 111, 112, 308, 374 + + — Major Roddy, 380 + + Ozi, R., 384 + + Paarl, 272 + + Pacific Ocean, 153 + + Padrone, Cape, 81 + + Paez, Pedro, 84, 300, 301 + + Paiva, Alfonso de, 82 + + Pakenham, Mr, 436 + + Palestine, 71 + + Palgrave, Mr W. C., 275 + + Pallier, Lieut., 222 + + Palm, _see_ Coco-nut, Date-palms + + — oil, 182, 183 + + Palmas, Cape, 79, 99, 164 + + Palmerston, Lord, 165 + + Panama, 153 + + Panda, 282 + + Panet, M., 321 + + Pangani, 44 + + Papaws, 91, 92 + + “Paradise, grains of,” 169 + + Park, Mungo, 172, 188, 203, 304 _et seq._ + + Parkinson, J., 338 + + Parkyns, Mansfield, 317 + + Passarge, Herr, 332, 336 + + Pateχ, 39 + + Paterson, Lieut. W., 306 + + Paul V, Pope, 94, 391 + + Peacock, the, in N. Africa, 39 + + Peake, Major M., 371 + + Peddie, Major, 306 + + Peebles and Mungo Park, 305 + + Pemba, Is., 44, 100, 377, 382, 383, 423 + + Peñon, 117, 118 + + Pepper, 169 + + Pereira, 307 + + Perim, Is., 226, 372 + + Péringuey, Dr, 7 + + Periplus of the Red Sea, 44, 45 + + Persia, -n Empire, 1, 3, 4, 22, 29, 37, 41, 43, 45, 52, 53, 55, 72, + 152, 159 + + Persian influence on Zanzibar coast, 73, 74 + + — Gulf, 32, 73, 81, 83, 100, 103, 104, 158 + + Persians, 19, 22, 35 + + Peru, 153 + + Peters, Dr, 378, 408, 409 + + Petherick, John, 319, 362 + + Petrie, Prof. W. Flinders, 17, 34, 296, 297 + + Pfeiffer, Mme Ida, 433 + + Pfeil, Count, 408 + + Phallic worship, 24, 39, 74 + + Phazania, 49, 54 + + Phenbalon, 423 + + Philae, 298 + + Philip, Dr, 260 + + — II of Spain and Portugal, 88, 93 + + Philippa, 78 + + Philippine archipelago, 3 + + Phillips, J. R., massacre of, 186 + + — Sir L., 146, 274 + + Phoenicia, Phoenicians, 22, 24, 25, 30, 32 _et seq._, 55, 83, 146, + 297 + + Pierre, Admiral, 436, 437 + + Pietermaritzburg, 272 + + Pig (domestic), 39, 92 + + Pigafetta, Filippo, 88, 391 + + Pine-apple, 91, 92 + + Piquet, Victor, 37 + + Pirates (Dutch), 103 + + — (Madagascar), 426 + + — (Moorish), 77, 119, 211 + + — (Turkish), 69, 118, 119 + + Pisa, Pisans, 62, 390 + + Pisania, 304, 305 + + Pitt, organises second expedition to take Cape Colony, 137 + + Pius IX, Pope, 245 + + Plantain, the, 93 + + Plettenberg’s Beacon, 255 + + Pliny, 45, 298, 299, 303 + + Pococke, Dr Richard, 303 + + Pogge, Dr, 327 + + Poivre, Mons., 427 + + Pokquesoe, 124 + + Poles, 72 + + Polignac, Prince de, 431 + + Polo, Marco, 424 + + Polybius, 49, 298 + + Polynesians, 28, 31 + + Pombal, Marquez de, 247 + + Pomel, Prof. A., 35 + + Pompeii, 48 + + Pondoland, 263, 267 + + Port Elizabeth, 273 + + — Herald, 115 + + — Natal, 261 + + — Nolloth, 273 + + Portal, Sir Gerald, 378, 394 + + Portendik, 171, 198, 200 + + Porto Novo, 172, 182, 205, 206 + + — Praya, 133 + + — Rico, 117, 158 + + — Silva, 316 + + Portudal, 198 + + Portugal, 65, 67, 76 _et seq._, 106, 115, 157, 158, 169 _et seq._ + + — and Dahomé, 96 + + — and England, 168 + + — and Germany, 410 + + Portuguese, 23, 26, 28, 65 _et seq._, 73, 75 _et seq._, 116, 168 _et + seq._, 181, 182, 196 _et seq._, 239 _et seq._, 274, 277, 278, 300 + _et seq._ + + — East Africa, 100, 105 _et seq._, 241, 277, 327 + + — Guinea, 98, 201, 209, 309, 330 + + — language, 76, 448, 449 + + — missionaries, 90, 94, 240, 241, 300, 301 + + — West Africa, 95, 108 + + Portulano, the Laurentian, 391 + + Potagos, P., 327 + + Potato, the, 91, 92 + + Potsy, Andrian, 425 + + Poultry, 75 + + Praça de São Sebastião, 100 + + Prehistoric race movements, 1 _et seq._ + + Presbyterian missionaries, 242 + + Prester John, 83, 241 + + Preston, Rev. Mr, 251 + + Pretoria, 148, 149, 288, 292 + + Prime Minister of Madagascar, 438, 439 + + Primitive Methodist missionaries, 122, 243 + + Prince Henry of Portugal, _see_ Henry + + Prince Imperial of France, 282 + + Prince’s Fort, 124 + + — Is. (Principe), 86, 91, 92, 96 + + Pringle, Capt., 335 + + Pronis, first French Governor of Madagascar, 425 + + Prostitutes sent to Sierra Leone, 174 + + Protectionist policy in French Colonies, 231, 439 + + Protestant Missions in Africa, 241, 247, 248, 252, 253 + + Proto-Semitic speech, 17 + + Prussian Company of Emden, 403 + + Psammetik I, Pharaoh, 42, 297 + + Ptolemaios Soter, 43 + + Ptolemies, 19, 42, 43, 298 + + Ptolemy the Geographer, 45, 47, 299, 423 + + Pungwe, R., 113 + + Punic, 50, _see_ Phoenicians + + Purdy-Bey (Col.), 326 + + Putumayo, 351 + + Pygmies of the Congo, 7, 9, 232 + + Quambalon, 423 + + Queens of Madagascar, 431 _et seq._ + + Quelimane, 73, 82, 83, 100, 101, 106 _et seq._, 318 + + Quraish tribe, 54 + + Rabah Zobeir, 193, 235, 236 + + Rabai, 242 + + Rabba, 313 + + Rabbat Amma, 39 + + Rabinowitz family, 146, 274 + + Rabodo (Rasohérina), Queen, 434 + + Radama I, King, 429 _et seq._ + + — II, King, 433, 434 + + Railways, 96, 97, 112, 114, 115, 149, 175, 179, 180, 187, 194, 203, + 210, 217, 219, 221, 227, 238, 272, 279, 286, 387, 414, 415, 420, + 422 + + — in Cape Colony, 272 + + — in Congo Free State, 347, 358 + + — Cape to Cairo, 340 + + Rainilaiarivóny, Prime Minister, 435 + + Rakoto, Prince, 432, 433 + + Ranavalona, Queen, 247, 431, 434 + + — II, Queen, 435 + + — III, Queen, 437 + + Rand, the, 290 + + Rapaports, the, 146, 274 + + Ras Alula, 394 + + Ras Benās, 18 + + Ras Kasar, 394 + + Rashūf, 39 + + Ravenala, the, 427 + + Ravenstein, Mr E. G., 80 + + Rawson, Admiral Sir H., 186 + + Reade, Winwood, _see_ Winwood Reade + + Rebmann, Rev. Johann, 242, 243, 316, 331 + + Recollets friars, 94 + + Red Sea, the, 4, 16 _et seq._, 21, 22, 43, 44, 52, 70, 82 _et seq._, + 100, 102, 226, 227, 299, 394 + + Reichardt, Dr (explorer), 311, 317 + + — (missionary), 243 + + Reichenbach, Dr S. von, 336 + + Reitz, Lieut., 374 + + Reitz, Mr, 276 + + René, Jean, 430 + + Rennell Rodd agreement, 372 + + Réunion (Bourbon), 28, 31, 84, 123, 127, 295, 296, 430, 440, 441 + + Révoil, M., 334 + + Rhapta, 44 + + Rhaptum, 44 + + Rhinoceroses, 48 + + Rhodes, Right Hon. Cecil J., 147, 148, 279, 283 _et seq._ + + Rhodesia, 23 _et seq._, 100, 107, 114, 146, 231, 270, 271, 278, 279, + 285, 291, 330, 339 + + Ribat (on the Niger), 63 + + Rice, 75, 92 + + Richardson, James, 195, 314, 315 + + Richelieu, Cardinal, 425 + + Riebeek, Jan van, 125 + + Riff country (N. Morocco), 120, 223, 224, 226 + + Rio de Janeiro, 301 + + Rio d'Ouro (Rio de Oro), 36, 78, 79, 121, 196, 209, 300, 321 + + Rio del Rey, 184, 191 + + Rio Muni, 234 + + Rio Pedro, 205 + + Ripon Falls, 318 + + Ritchie, Mr, 310 + + “Rivières du Sud,” 201 + + Robert of Sicily, Count, 299 + + Roberts, Joseph Jenkins, 165 + + — Lord, 288 + + Robertsport, 164 + + Robinson, Sir H., 284, 288 + + Rochefort, Claude Jannequin de, 197, 198, 302 + + Rochelle, Vacher de, 425, 426 + + Rodriguez, 28, 123, 295 + + Rohlfs, Gerhard, 315, 323 + + Rokel, R., 173, 308 + + Roman Catholic Missions, 94, 228, 240, 241, 244, 247, 253, 319, 377, + 378, 434, 439 + + Roman Empire, 40, 43, 45, 47, 62, 299 + + Romans, the, 19, 37, 40, 45 _et seq._, 57, 298, 391 + + Rome, 42, 43, 50, 152, 391 + + Ronga, 134 + + Roosevelt, Theodore, 340 + + Rosetta, 42, 360 + + Rosmead, Lord, 288 + + Roumas, the, 202 + + Rowlands, John, _see_ Stanley + + Royal African Company, 176 + + — Geographical Society, 244, 318, 322, 328, 331, 376 + + — Senegal Company, 198 + + — Umbrella, 60 + + Ruad, 32 + + Rubault, M., 309 + + Rudolf, Lake, 10, 21, 51, 331, 335, 338, 339, 385 + + Rufiji, R., 412 + + Rufisque, 198 + + Rufu, R., 44, 383 + + Ruki, R., 329 + + Rukwa, Lake, 328, 331 + + Rūm, 72 + + Ruma, Rumi, 68 + + Rupert, Prince of Madagascar, 425 + + Rüppell, Dr E., 317 + + Ruspoli (Explorer), 334 + + Russia, 132, 364 + + — German, 326 + + Russia’s action in Abyssinia, 253, 395, 396 + + Ruvuma, R., 100, 109, 113, 300, 316, 322, 327, 375, 410, 411, 413 + + Ruwenzori, Mt, 45, 320, 331, 332, 334, 340 + + Saadian dynasty, 66, 67 + + Sabaeans, 22, 83, 134, 146 + + Sabi, R., 23, 114, 115 + + Sacred Shrine, 39, 55 + + Saffi, 78 + + Sagres, 78 + + Sahara desert, 8, 13 _et seq._, 20, 25, 33, 36, 37, 47 _et seq._, + 62, 63, 68, 70, 74, 75, 78, 121, 160, 192, 194, 217, 221, 222, + 238, 299, 300, 314, 320 _et seq._ + + Sahati, 394 + + Saho, 21 + + Said bin Muhammad, 360 + + Saida, 32, 37 + + Saint Augustine (Florida), 153 + + Saint George’s Bay Company, 173 + + Saint Helena, Is., _see_ Helena, St + + Saint Laurence, Is., 85 + + Saint Louis, 196 _et seq._, 321 + + Saint Mary, Is., 170 + + Sakalava, the, 31, 428, 432, 435 + + Saker, Rev. Edward, 244 + + Salagá, 325, 421 + + Salah-ad-din Yusaf bin Ayub (Saladin), 71 + + Saldanha Bay, 126, 136 + + Salisbury, 23 + + Salisbury, Lord, 394 + + Salt, 14 + + Salt, Henry, 308 + + Samori, 161, 203 _et seq._ + + Sanagá, R., 332 + + Sand River Convention, 141, 142, 263 + + Sandawi, 9, 336 + + Sandile war, 263 + + Sanga, R., 191, 234, 338, 415 + + Sanhaga (Sanhaja), 53, 54, 60 + + Sankuru, R., 329, 339, 345 + + San Pedro, R., 165 + + Sansanding, 305 + + Sansanne Mangu, 421 + + Santo Domingo, 167 + + Santorin, 41 + + São João d'Ajudá, 97 + + São Jorge da Mina, 80 + + São Lourenço, 424 + + São Miguel, 90, 94 + + São Paulo de Loanda, 90, 93 _et seq._, 123, 325 + + São Salvador, 86, 89, 94, 322 + + São Thomé, 81, 86, 91, 92, 96, 97 + + São Vicente, 99 + + Saracenic architecture, 74 + + Saracens, 390 + + Sardinia, 25, 50, 62, 390 + + Sarepta, 32 + + Sarras, 365 + + Savage, Dr, 228 + + Saxons, 50 + + Say (on the Niger), 190, 208, 315 + + Sayyid Sa’id, 242 + + Schaudt, G., 324 + + Schenk, Dr A., 336 + + Schnitz, H., 336 + + Schnitzer, E., 363 + + Schön, Rev. J. F., 243 + + Schweinfürth, Dr, 230, 315, 326 + + Scotch, Scotsmen, 138, 139, 257; + similarity with Dutch, 138; + in Nyasaland, 279 + + Scott (draughtsman), 305 + + Scott-Elliott, Mr, 334 + + Sealskin industry, 146 + + Sebastião, Dom (King of Portugal), 66, 68, 77, 87 _et seq._ + + — São, Fort of, at Moçambique, 100 + + Sebu, 35 + + Secondee, 124 + + Sego (Niger), 201 _et seq._, 305, 306 + + Seidel, N., 336 + + Sekondi, 179, 180 + + Selim, Sultan, 118 + + Selous, Mr F. C., 330 + + Semitic colonization, 16, 19, 20 + + — languages, 20 _et seq._ + + — race, 22, 134, 230 + + Semliki, R., 320, 332 + + Sena (Zambezi), 73, 83, 101, 102, 104, 106, 107, 115, 308 + + Senegal, R., 10, 12, 36, 49, 54, 62, 75, 79, 99, 159, 171, 196 _et + seq._, 304 + + — Colony, 12, 170, 188, 198, 206, 209, 210, 221, 227, 235, 302 + + Senegalese, 10, 207, 227, 237 + + Senegambia, 10 _et seq._, 63, 68, 70, 83, 98, 169, 170, 172, 190, + 194, 200, 201, 245, 300, 321, 445 + + Sennār, 62, 70, 72, 212, 245, 303 + + Senussi or Sanusi, 236, 401 + + — II, 236, 237 + + — III, 237 + + Septa, 57, 77 + + Septimus Flaccus, 47, 48 + + Serandab, 423 + + Serbs, 72 + + Serpa Pinto, Colonel, 108, 325 + + Sesamum, 110 + + Sesheke, 317 + + Seychelles Islands, 28, 29, 295, 428, 429 + + Sfax, 118, 119 + + Sharifian dynasty of Morocco, 66 _et seq._, 77 + + Shari, R., 11 _et seq._, 191, 230, 234, 235, 237, 310, 324, 338 + + Sharp, Granville, 154, 174 + + Sharpe, Sir Alfred, 278, 285, 334 + + “Shatts,” the, 38 + + Shaw, Dr, 303 + + — Mr (Madagascar), 436, 437 + + Shawia, the, 223, 224 + + Shea-butter, 180 + + Sheep, 39, 75, 255, 274, 419 + + Shela Mountains, 95 + + Shepherd kings, 22 + + Shepstone, Sir T., 143, 281 + + Sherboro, R., 36 + + Sherbro, 165 + + Shia faith, 56, 59, 60, 71 + + Shiré Highlands, 108, 114, 251, 277 _et seq._, 327 + + — River, 106, 108, 110, 114, 277 _et seq._, 300, 321 + + Shirwa, Lake, 334 + + Shoa, 242, 245, 307, 317, 329, 337, 395 + + Sibree, Rev. J., 337 + + Sicily, Sicilians, 38, 41, 60, 62, 65, 74, 299, 390 + + Sidi Ferruj, 213, 230 + + Sidi Mubarak, 384 + + Sidon, 32, 33, 37 + + Sierra Leone, 11, 36, 79, 93, 98, 99, 122, 154, 158, 159, 163, 164, + 167, 172 _et seq._, 200, 201, 203, 242, 304, 308 + + Sierra Leone Company, 173 + + Sigilmessa, Sijilmassa, 59, 67 + + Sikhs, 161, 279, 380 + + Silva Americano, 96 + + Silveira, Gonçalo de, 101, 241 + + Simon’s Bay, 263, 264 + + — Town, 136 + + Sims, Dr, 251 + + Sinai Peninsula, 366 + + Sinô, 164 + + Sintra, Pedro de, 79 + + Siwah, 18, 53, 70, 236, 317 + + Sixtus V, Pope, 391 + + Slagter’s Nek, 258, 261 + + Slatin Pasha, 327 + + Slave Trade, 4, 80, 94, 96, 97, 103, 104, 107, 121, 122, 124, 151 + _et seq._ + + — Abolition of, 107, 155, 157 _et seq._, 238, 258, 259, 432 + + Slavery, 80, 95, 161 + + Slaves (Christian), 241 + + — (Negro), 128, 153, 173, 228, 259 + + Slavs, 59, 70 _et seq._ + + Sleeping sickness, 382 + + Smeathman, Dr Henry, 173 + + Smith, Sir Harry, 259, 263 + + Smythies, Bishop, 327 + + Sneeubergen, 132 + + Sobat, R., 227, 298, 337 _et seq._ + + Sofala, 23, 26, 34, 73, 82, 83, 99 _et seq._, 134, 299, 300, 424 + + “Sofas,” 204 + + Sokoto, 190 _et seq._, 222, 306, 310, 311, 315 + + Sokotra, Is., 44, 83, 372, 393 + + Sokya (Askia) dynasty in Sudan, 67, 68 + + Soleillet, Paul, 321 + + Solomon Islands, 3 + + Solomons, 274 + + Solum, 400 + + Somalía Italiana, 398 + + Somaliland, Somalis, 4, 7, 15, 17, 18, 22, 44, 70, 72, 73, 75, 82, + 84, 99, 151, 226, 227, 300, 318, 334, 335, 337 _et seq._ + + Somerset, Lord Charles, 256, 258, 261 + + — East, 259 + + Sommervill (Dutch Commissioner), 307 + + Somrai, 324 + + Songhai, 13, 14, 49, 51, 79, 191, 209 + + Sonnerat, 427 + + Sonnini, 303 + + Sonyo, 85 + + Ṣor, 32 + + Sousa Coutinho, Thomé de, 103 + + “South African Republic,” 144, 148, 149, 283, 288, 443 + + South African War (1899-1902), 286, 288, 291, 388 + + South American states abolish slave-trade, 157 + + Southern Nigeria, Protectorate of, 185 _et seq._ + + Southern Rhodesia, 285, 286, 292 + + Spain, Spaniards, 4, 8, 32, 34, 38, 39, 41, 57 _et seq._, 65, 72, + 74, 76, 93, 116 _et seq._, 146, 152, 153, 169, 183, 216, 225 + + — in Africa, 116 _et seq._, 241 + + Spanish, 122, 216, 449 + + — Guinea, 121 + + — missionaries, 122, 241 + + Speke, Capt. J. H., 315, 318 _et seq._, 334 + + Spice Islands, 75 + + Spices, West African, 168 + + St Augustine’s Bay, 425, 431 + + St Marie de Madagascar, 426, 430, 431 + + St Vincent, Bory de, 429 + + Stadhouder (_also see_ Prince of Orange), 130, 136, 306 + + Stairs, Capt., 332, 346 + + Stanley, H. M., 87, 91, 229, 248, 315, 319, 322, 325, 326, 328, 329, + 332, 342 _et seq._ + + Stanley Pool, 85, 91, 229, 231, 347 + + Stapleton, Rev. W. H., 244, 329 + + Steere, Bishop, 251, 252, 327 + + Stephanie, Lake, 331 + + Stettin, von, 332 + + Steudner, Dr, 320 + + Stevenson, Mr Jas., 284 + + Stewart, Rev. Dr James, 250 + + Stibbs, Capt. Bartholomew, 171, 302 + + Stockenstrom, Sir Andries, 260 + + Stokes, Chas., 347, 378 + + Storms, Capt. E., 342, 344, 352 + + Stover, Rev. W. M., 251 + + Strabo, 298 + + “Strandlooper” skulls, 3, 7 + + Stuhlmann, Dr Franz, 336 + + Suakin, 21, 82, 323, 328, 364, 365 + + Sudan, 20, 37, 48, 51, 54, 67, 68, 74, 152, 161, 187, 190, 193, 194, + 226, 230, 235, 237, 238, 245, 320, 326, 362 _et seq._ + + Sudanese language-families, 10 + + Sudd, 46, 298, 320, 371 + + Suē, R., 336 + + Suetonius Paulinus, 47, 49 + + Suevi, 76 + + Suez, 16 + + — Canal, 268, 361, 362 + + — Gulf of, 18, 33 + + Suffetula (Sbeitla), 56 + + Suffren, Admiral, 133 + + Sufis, 204 + + Sugar, Sugar-cane, the, 75, 91, 92, 110, 146, 270, 271 + + Sū'id bin Ali, 382 + + Sumatra, 3, 27, 28, 31, 124, 178, 295, 304 + + Sunda Islands, 427 + + Sunday River, 256 + + Sunni faith, 56, 59, 71 + + Sūs country (South of Morocco), 35, 57, 224, 225 + + Susa (Tunis), 117, 119 + + Susu, 174, 242 + + Swahili (people and language), 10, 30, 101, 410, 411, 448, 449 + + Swakopmund, 420 + + Swann, Alfred, 161 + + Swayne, Col., 335 + + Swazi dialect, 134 + + Swazis, Swaziland, 143, 145, 149, 270, 292 + + Sweden, Swedes, 157, 177 + + Sweet potato, the, 91, 92 + + Swiss missionaries, 96 + + — settlers in Algeria, 216 + + Syria, Syrians, 1, 4, 22, 24, 32, 37, 39, 40, 52, 55, 69 _et seq._, + 212, 291 + + Syrian Desert, 32 + + Tabarka, 390 + + Table Bay, 125, 126, 137 + + Tafilalt, 59, 67, 336 + + Tagus, R., 76 + + Tahiti, 205 + + Tajurra, 227 + + Takorari, 124 + + Takrana, 403 + + Takrur, 202 + + Talbot, P. A., 338 + + Tamatave, 296, 429 _et seq._ + + Tammuz, 39 + + Tamul race, 271 + + Tana, R., 21, 335, 384, 386, 409, 410 + + Tanánarivo, 433, 434, 438, 439 + + Tanga, 414 + + Tanganyika, Lake, 9, 134, 160, 245, 248, 278, 279, 281, 284, 291, + 318, 322, 324, 325, 327, 328, 330, 334, 336, 340, 344, 404, 411 + + Tangier, 51, 53, 66, 67, 71, 75, 78, 120, 195, 223, 226, 238 + + Tangiers, 58 + + Tangis, 53 + + Tanit, 38 + + Tapioca, 92 + + Tappenbeck, Lieut., 332 + + Tarifa, 58 + + Tarik, 58 + + Tasmania, 3 + + Tasmanian aborigines, 2 _et seq._ + + Taufik, Khedive, 361 + + Taveita, 156, 376 + + Tawareq (Tamasheq), 15, 54, 63, 67, 68, 205, 207, 221, 222, 232, + 309, 321, 322 + + Tea, 270 + + Tebessa, 50, 53, 216 + + Teda, 13, 15, 54 + + Teleki, Count Samuel, 331, 387 + + Tel-el-Kebir, 362 + + Tembe, 111 + + Tenda, 170, 302 + + Tenduf, 314 + + Tenerife, 117 + + Teniahir, Lagoon of, 36 + + Ternan, Col. T., 380 + + Ternate, 75 + + Tete, 101, 103, 115, 241, 247, 307 + + Tetwan, 66, 119 + + Teutonic type, 22, 76, 77 + + Teuχeira, 42 + + Thala, 53 + + Thames, R., 48 + + Theion Oχema, 173 + + Thera, 41 + + Thibaut, 319 + + Thira, 41 + + Thomé, São (Thomas, St), (Is.), _see_ São Thomé + + Thompson, Capt. George, 170, 302 + + Thomson, Joseph, 190, 315, 328, 331, 336, 375, 376, 387 + + Thonner, Franz, 339 + + Three-points, Cape, 124 + + Thurston, Major A. B., 380 + + Thys, Col., 347 + + Tiaret, 59 + + Tibesti, 15, 19, 323, 338 + + Tibu country, Tibus, 13, 15, 47, 54, 209, 222, 232, 237 + + Tidiani, 201 + + Tidikelt, 222 + + Tieba, 204 + + Tigré, 245, 395, 396 + + Tilho, Capt., 338 + + Timbo, 203 + + Timbuktu, 13, 67, 68, 78, 79, 116, 186, 200, 202 _et seq._, 300, + 303, 304, 308, 309, 315 + + Timgad, 53 + + Timne, 11, 174, 175 + + Timor, 3 + + Tingis, 51 + + Tinne, Alexandrine, 320, 321, 324 + + “Tippoo-Tib,” Tipu-Tipu, 344 + + Tlemsan, 57, 64, 65, 118, 236 + + Tobacco, 27, 91, 92, 154, 279 + + Togoland, 12, 248, 333, 336, 408, 421, 422 + + Tokar hills, 369 + + Tomato, the, 92 + + Tonga, 134 + + Toole, Mr, 310 + + Torday, Emil, 339 + + Toro, 381 + + Torobe, 202 + + Toski, 365 + + Totem, 101 + + Toucouleurs, 202 + + Toutée, Commandant Georges, 333 + + Tozer, Bishop, 251 + + Transcontinental Telegraph, 279 + + Transkei, 267 + + Transsaharan Railway, 194, 221 + + Transvaal, 95, 112, 140, 142 _et seq._, 263, 269, 271, 274, 276, 280 + _et seq._, 307 + + Trinkomali, 133 + + Tripoli, 5, 12, 33, 37 _et seq._, 47, 49 _et seq._, 61, 62, 64, 66, + 69, 160, 161, 187, 194, 195, 204, 216, 218, 238, 252, 308, 310, + 314, 322, 393, 443 + + Tripolis, 53 + + Tripolitaine, 15, 53, 54, 398 _et seq._ + + Tristam, Nuno, 78 + + Tristan d'Acunha Is., 99, 268; + _see_ Acunha, Tristan d’ + + Troglodytes, 36 + + Trotha, General von, 417, 418 + + Truster (Dutch Commissioner), 306 + + Tsetse fly, 26, 102, 382 + + Tsumeb, 419, 420 + + Tsur, 32 + + Tuaregs, 13, 14, 37, 54 + + Tuāt, 222, 337 + + Tuburi, 338 + + Tuckey, Capt., 308 + + Tugela, R., 263 + + Tulbagh, Governor, 130, 306 + + Tulunid dynasty, 71 + + Tungi Bay, 113 + + Tunis, Tunisia, 2, 24, 32, 33, 35, 37, 39, 46, 47, 49 _et seq._, 61, + 62, 64 _et seq._, 118, 119, 160, 216 _et seq._, 245, 252, 301, + 390, 392, 393, 444 + + Turkana, 10 + + Turkey, Turks, 19, 65, 69 _et seq._, 84, 102, 103, 118, 119, 152, + 159, 160, 195, 212, 218, 238, 300, 301, 366, 398 _et seq._ + + Tusūn, 360 + + Twat, 41, 68, 308, 323 + + Tyre, Tyrians, 32, 33 + + Ubbo, 38 + + Uda, 44 + + Uechtritz, Herr, 332 + + Uganda, 20, 235, 245, 246, 248, 326, 328, 331, 334, 335, 363, 377, + 387, 444 + + Ujda, 223 + + Ujiji, 322 + + Ukami, 409 + + Ulysses, 41 + + Umba, 383, 386, 410, 411 + + Umhlakazi, 266 + + Umsilikazi, 283 + + Union of S. Africa, 292, 293, 443 + + United States of America, 96, 124, 154, 157 _et seq._, 163, 167, + 240, 262, 443 + + Unknown River, the, 325 + + Unyamwezi, 9 + + Unyoro, 335 + + Urban VIII, Pope, 392 + + Uruj, 118 + + Usagara, 409 + + Usambara, 333, 414 + + Uso di Mare, 79 + + Utica, 32, 33 + + Uzeguha, 409 + + Vaal River, 141, 142, 261, 306 + + Vacher de Rochelle, 425, 426 + + Vai language, 93 + + Va-kioko, 301 + + Vandals, 50, 51, 401 + + Vandalusia, 50 + + Vandeleur, Col., 335 + + Van der Stel, Commander, 306 + + Van Diemen’s Land, 264 + + Vangèle, Capt., 329, 330 + + Vardon, Major, 308 + + Vasco da Gama, 82, 99, 100 + + Velez de la Gomera, 119 + + Venice, Venetians, 62, 102, 168, 319, 390, 391 + + Verde, Cape, 36, 79, 99, 197, 201 + + — Islands, 79, 92 + + Vereeniging, 149, 291 + + Vermuyden, 302 + + Verneaux, Dr, 4 + + Verner, S. P., 329 + + Victoria (Ambas Bay), 415 + + — Falls, 247, 279 + + — Nyanza, _see_ Nyanza + + — Queen, 165, 280 + + — (territory), 262 + + Vienna, Congress of, 157 + + Vincent, M., the explorer, 321 + + Vine, the, 39, 127 + + Virginia, 154 + + Virunga, Mt (Volcano), 334 + + Vischer, Hanns, 339 + + Vitu, 384, 409, 410 + + Vogel, Dr, 315, 324 + + Volta, R., 70, 177, 179, 204, 325, 333 + + Volubilis, 59 + + Von Lindequist, 418 + + Voulet, Capt., 221, 222, 236 + + Vredenburg, 124 + + “Vryheid” (New Republic), 282, 283 + + Wadai, 62, 70, 159, 161, 236 _et seq._, 315, 323, 324, 338, 339, + 420, 443 + + Wad-al-Makhazen, 66 + + Wad-an-Nejumi, 365 + + Wadelai, 380 + + Wadi Halfa boundary, 364, 369, 371 + + Wahehe, 412, 413 + + Wahhabis, 73 + + Waima, 203 + + Wales, 4 + + Walfish Bay, 275, 291, 292, 307, 317, 405 + + Wanga, 410 + + Wa-ngoni, 412, 413 + + Wa-nyamwezi, 160, 357, 412 + + Wargla, 221 + + Wargli, the, 54 + + Warren, Sir Charles, 145, 283 + + Warsheikh, 398 + + Waswahili, 412 + + Waterberg mountains, 417, 418 + + Waterboer, 269 + + Wax, 110 + + Wa-yao, 160 + + Weatherley, Mr Poulett, 334 + + Webi Shebeili River, 334, 397 + + Wele, R., 230, 235, 244, 326, 327, 329, 346 + + Wele-Mubangi, 12 + + Wellby, Capt. M. S., 339 + + Welsh, 257, 319 + + Wends, 72 + + Werne, Ferdinand, 319 + + Werner, J. R., 330 + + West African Settlements, 175, 180 + + — India Company, Dutch, 124, 125 + + — Indies, 124, 153, 154, 158, 169, 173, 227, 240 + + Whale oil industry, 146 + + Wheat, 75, 92, 127, 132 + + “White Fathers,” the, 207, 245, 246, 342, 377, 379 + + Whitehouse, Commander B., 340 + + White peoples, 162 + + White, Sir Geo., 288 + + Whyda (Dahomé), 176 + + Whyte, A., 340 + + Wibsen, Fort, 124 + + Wilberforce, Wm., 155, 174 + + Wilhelm II, Emperor, 225 + + Willcocks, Col. (Sir) James, 179 + + — Sir W., 368 + + William IV of England, 432 + + Willoughby, Digby, 437 + + “Willyfoss Niggers,” 174 + + Wilson, G., 380 + + — Rev. C. T., 328 + + — Rev. J. L., 251 + + Windhoek, 420 + + Wingate, Sir R., 369 + + Winton, Sir Francis de, 175, 344 + + Winwood Reade, 324 + + Wissmann, Major H. von, 161, 329, 333, 404, 411 + + Witbooi, Hendrik, 416, 418 + + Witu, _see_ Vitu + + Witwatersrand, 145 + + Woelfel, Lieutenant, 205 + + Woermann, House of, 404 + + Wolf, Dr Ludwig, 329 + + Wolofs, 12, 13, 151 + + Wolseley (Sir Garnet, afterwards Viscount), 178, 273, 362, 364 + + Wood, Sir Richard, 219 + + Wool, 146, 255, 265, 268 + + Wuli, 172, 201 + + Wyoming, 293 + + + Xengibar, 424 + + Ximenez, Cardinal, 118 + + X̓osa-Kafirs, 134, 257, 259, 260, 263, 266, 267 + + Yakub bin Killis, 71 + + Yaman, 43, 44, 73, 74 + + Yanbu, 67 + + Yao, Wa-, the, 247, 252 + + Yathrib, 54 + + Yellala Falls, 80, 308 + + Yellow peoples, 162 + + Yendi, 421 + + Yolofs, 431 + + Yonnis, the, 175 + + Yoruba, Yoruba-land, 13, 179, 311 + + Young, Lieut. Edward, 277 + + Yussuf-bin-Tashfin, 63 + + Zaire, 86 + + Zambezi, R., 5, 8, 23, 73, 74, 82, 83, 91, 100 _et seq._, 132, 134, + 143 _et seq._, 154, 159, 240, 241, 246, 247, 249, 250, 252, 272, + 274, 276, 278, 279, 300, 307, 308, 317, 318, 325, 444 + + Zambezia, 9, 12, 17, 26, 92, 101, 105, 109, 241, 276, 279, 300, 321, + 331 + + Zanzibar, 22, 29, 30, 44, 73, 83, 100, 103, 104, 113, 152, 159, 160, + 242, 251, 252, 279, 299, 308, 322, 327, 328, 374 _et seq._, 404, + 410 _et seq._, 423 + + Zebra antelope, 166 + + Zeila, 82, 300, 372 + + Zenaga, 54 + + Zeneta, 53, 54 + + Zeringhi, Federigo, 392 + + Zeyanite kings of Tlemsan, 64 + + Zimba, Ba- or Va-, 23, 24, 29, 103 + + Zimbabwe, 23 _et seq._, 29, 39, 51, 134, 146, 327 + + Zimmermann, O., 338, 339 + + Zinder, 222, 337 + + Zintgraft, Dr, 332 + + Ziri dynasty (N. Africa), 64 + + Zizyphus, 41 + + Zobeir Pasha, 193 + + Zoroastrian faiths, 55 + + Zulu dialect, 134, 448 + + Zulus, Zululand, Zulu-Kafir race, 10, 24, 97, 103, 114, 128, 134, + 140, 141, 143, 145, 149, 151, 251, 256, 261, 263, 270, 279, 281 + _et seq._, 308 + + Zumbo, 105, 108, 115, 240, 247 + + Zuurveld, 256 + + Zwartebergen Mountains, 131 + + + + + + + + +------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. + + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + + COLONIZABLE AFRICA + + Plate VII. + +[Illustration] + + Sir H.H. Johnston del^t. W. & A.K. Johnston Limited Edinburgh & + London + + EXPLANATORY NOTE + +[pink] _Healthy colonizable Africa, where European races may be expected + to become in time the prevailing type, where essentially + European states may be formed_ + +[yellow] _Fairly healthy Africa; but where unfavourable conditions of + soil or water supply, or the prior establishment of warlike or + enlightened native races or other causes, may effectually + prevent European Colonization_ + +[tan] _Unhealthy but exploitable Africa; impossible for European + colonization, but for the most part of great commercial value + and inhabited by fairly docile, governable races; the Africa of + the trader and planter and of European control and supervision_ + +[brown] _Very unhealthy Africa_ + + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + + POLITICAL AFRICA—1912 + + Plate VIII. + +[Illustration] + + Sir H.H. Johnston del^{t.} W. & A.K. Johnston Limited Edinburgh & + London + + EXPLANATORY NOTE + + Possessions, Protectorates, Spheres of Influence or occupation of + countries + + [british] _British_ [portuguese] _Portuguese_ + + [french] _French_ [turkish] _Turkish_ + + [italian] _Italian_ [belgian] _Belgian Congo_ + + [german] _German_ [spanish] _Spanish_ + +_Independent or unoccupied States are uncoloured_ + +_Pink bars on blue imply uncertainty of possession_ + + ---------------------------------------------------------------- + +------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + Transcriber’s Note + + Errors deemed most likely to be the printer’s have been corrected, + and are noted here. The references are to the page and line in the + original. + + 28.27 when re[ ]discovered by the Portuguese Removed. + 169.32 of [(]_Xylopia æthiopica_). Added. + 246.9 French-protected subjects[.] Added. + 290.10 under proper guarantees[.] Added. + 319.31 (French consul at Khartum[)] Added. + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75882 *** |