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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75664 ***
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  ADDRESS
+  DELIVERED BEFORE
+  THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION
+  ASSEMBLED AT
+  BELFAST
+
+
+  _WITH ADDITIONS_
+
+
+  BY
+  JOHN TYNDALL, F.R.S.
+  PRESIDENT
+
+
+
+  FIFTH THOUSAND
+
+
+
+  LONDON
+  LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
+  1874
+
+
+
+
+  'There is one God supreme over all gods, diviner than mortals,
+  Whose form is not like unto man's, and as unlike his nature;
+  But vain mortals imagine that gods like themselves are begotten,
+  With human sensations and voice and corporeal members;
+  So, if oxen or lions had hands and could work in man's fashion,
+  And trace out with chisel or brush their conception of Godhead,
+  Then would horses depict gods like horses, and oxen like oxen,
+  Each kind the divine with its own form and nature endowing.'
+
+XENOPHANES of Colophon (six centuries B.C.), 'Supernatural Religion,'
+Vol. I. p. 76.
+
+
+'It were better to have no opinion of God at all, than such an
+opinion as is unworthy of Him; for the one is unbelief, the other is
+contumely.' BACON.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+At the request of my Publishers, strengthened by the expressed desire
+of many Correspondents, I reprint, with a few slight alterations,
+this Address.
+
+It was written under some disadvantages this year in the Alps, and
+sent by instalments to the printer.  When read subsequently it proved
+too long for its purpose, and several of its passages were
+accordingly struck out.  Some of them are here restored.
+
+It has provoked an unexpected amount of criticism.  This, in due
+time, will subside; and I confidently look forward to a calmer future
+for a verdict, founded not on imaginary sins, but on the real facts
+of the case.
+
+Of the numberless strictures and accusations, some of them exceeding
+fierce, of which I have been, and continue to be, the object, I
+refrain from speaking at any length.  To one or two of them, however,
+out of respect for their sources, I would ask permission briefly to
+refer.
+
+An evening paper of the first rank, after the ascription of various
+more or less questionable aims and motives, proceeds to the
+imputation, that I permitted the cheers of my audience to 'stimulate'
+me to the utterance of words which no right-minded man, without a
+sense of the gravest responsibility, could employ.  I trust the
+author of this charge will allow me in all courtesy to assure him
+that the words ascribed by him to the spur of the moment were written
+in Switzerland; that they stood in the printed copy of the Address
+from which I read; that they evoked no 'cheers,' but a silence far
+more impressive than cheers; and that, finally, as regards both
+approbation and the reverse, my course had been thought over and
+decided long before I ventured to address a Belfast audience.
+
+A writer in a most able theological journal represents me as 'patting
+religion on the back.'  The thought of doing so is certainly his, not
+mine.  The facts of religious feeling are to me as certain as the
+facts of physics.  But the world, I hold, will have to distinguish
+between the feeling and its forms, and to vary the latter in
+accordance with the intellectual condition of the age.
+
+I am unwilling to dwell upon statements ascribed to eminent men,
+which may be imperfectly reported in the newspapers, and I therefore
+pass over a recent sermon attributed to the Bishop of Manchester with
+the remark, that one engaged so much as he is in busy and, I doubt
+not on the whole, beneficent outward life, is not likely to be among
+the earliest to discern the more inward and spiritual signs of the
+times, or to prepare for the condition which they foreshadow.
+
+In a recent speech at Dewsbury, the Dean of Manchester is reported to
+have expressed himself thus:--'The Professor (myself) ended a most
+remarkable and eloquent speech by terming himself a material
+Atheist.'  My attention was drawn to Dean Cowie's statement by a
+correspondent, who described it as standing 'conspicuous among the
+strange calumnies' with which my words have been assailed.  For
+myself I use no language which could imply that I am hurt by such
+attacks.  They have lost their power to wound or injure.  So likewise
+as regards a resolution recently passed by the Presbytery of Belfast,
+in which Professor Huxley and myself are spoken of as 'ignoring the
+existence of God, and advocating pure and simple materialism;' had
+the possessive pronoun 'our' preceded 'God,' and had the words 'what
+we consider' preceded 'pure,' this statement would have been
+objectively true; but to make it so this qualification is required.
+
+Cardinal Cullen, I am told, is also actively engaged in erecting
+spiritual barriers against the intrusion of 'Infidelity' into
+Ireland.  His Eminence, I believe, has reason to suspect that the
+Catholic youth around him are not proof to the seductions of science.
+Strong as he is, I believe him to be impotent here.  The youth of
+Ireland will imbibe science, however slowly; they will be leavened by
+it, however gradually.  And to its inward modifying power among
+Catholics themselves, rather than to any Protestant propagandism, or
+other external influence, I look for the abatement of various
+incongruities; among them, of those mediæval proceedings which, to
+the scandal and amazement of our nineteenth century intelligence,
+have been revived among us during the last two years.
+
+In connexion with the charge of Atheism, I would make one remark.
+Christian men are proved by their writings to have their hours of
+weakness and of doubt, as well as their hours of strength and of
+conviction; and men like myself share, in their own way, these
+variations of mood and tense.  Were the religious views of many of my
+assailants the only alternative ones, I do not know how strong the
+claims of the doctrine of 'Material Atheism' upon my allegiance might
+be.  Probably they would be very strong.  But, as it is, I have
+noticed during years of self-observation that it is not in hours of
+clearness and vigour that this doctrine commends itself to my mind;
+that in the presence of stronger and healthier thought it ever
+dissolves and disappears, as offering no solution of the mystery in
+which we dwell, and of which we form a part.
+
+To coarser attacks and denunciations I pay no attention; nor have I
+any real reason to complain of revilings addressed to me, which
+professing Christians, as could readily be proved, do not scruple to
+use towards each other.  The more agreeable task remains to me of
+thanking those who have tried, however hopelessly, to keep accusation
+within the bounds of justice, and who, privately, and at some risk in
+public, have honoured me with the expression of their sympathy and
+approval.
+
+JOHN TYNDALL.
+
+  Athenæum Club.
+  _September_ 16, 1874.
+
+
+
+
+ADDRESS,
+
+ETC.
+
+
+An impulse inherent in primeval man turned his thoughts and
+questionings betimes towards the sources of natural phenomena.  The
+same impulse, inherited and intensified, is the spur of scientific
+action to-day.  Determined by it, by a process of abstraction from
+experience we form physical theories which lie beyond the pale of
+experience, but which satisfy the desire of the mind to see every
+natural occurrence resting upon a cause.  In forming their notions of
+the origin of things, our earliest historic (and doubtless, we might
+add, our prehistoric) ancestors pursued, as far as their intelligence
+permitted, the same course.  They also fell back upon experience, but
+with this difference--that the particular experiences which furnished
+the weft and woof of their theories were drawn, not from the study of
+nature, but from what lay much closer to them, the observation of
+men.  Their theories accordingly took an anthropomorphic form.  To
+supersensual beings, which, 'however potent and invisible, were
+nothing but a species of human creatures, perhaps raised from among
+mankind, and retaining all human passions and appetites,'[1] were
+handed over the rule and governance of natural phenomena.
+
+Tested by observation and reflection, these early notions failed in
+the long run to satisfy the more penetrating intellects of our race.
+Far in the depths of history we find men of exceptional power
+differentiating themselves from the crowd, rejecting these
+anthropomorphic notions, and seeking to connect natural phenomena
+with their physical principles.  But long prior to these purer
+efforts of the understanding the merchant had been abroad, and
+rendered the philosopher possible; commerce had been developed,
+wealth amassed, leisure for travel and speculation secured, while
+races educated under different conditions, and therefore differently
+informed and endowed, had been stimulated and sharpened by mutual
+contact.  In those regions where the commercial aristocracy of
+ancient Greece mingled with its eastern neighbours the sciences were
+born, being nurtured and developed by free-thinking and courageous
+men.  The state of things to be displaced may be gathered from a
+passage of Euripides quoted by Hume.  'There is nothing in the world;
+no glory, no prosperity.  The gods toss all into confusion; mix
+everything with its reverse, that all of us, from our ignorance and
+uncertainty, may pay them the more worship and reverence.'  Now, as
+science demands the radical extirpation of caprice and the absolute
+reliance upon law in nature, there grew with the growth of scientific
+notions a desire and determination to sweep from the field of theory
+this mob of gods and demons, and to place natural phenomena on a
+basis more congruent with themselves.
+
+The problem which had been previously approached from above was now
+attacked from below; theoretic effort passed from the super- to the
+sub-sensible.  It was felt that to construct the universe in idea it
+was necessary to have some notion of its constituent parts--of what
+Lucretius subsequently called the 'First Beginnings.'  Abstracting
+again from experience, the leaders of scientific speculation reached
+at length the pregnant doctrine of atoms and molecules, the latest
+developments of which were set forth with such power and clearness at
+the last meeting of the British Association.  Thought, no doubt, had
+long hovered about this doctrine before it attained the precision and
+completeness which it assumed in the mind of Democritus,[2] a
+philosopher who may well for a moment arrest our attention.  'Few
+great men,' says Lange, a non-materialist, in his excellent 'History
+of Materialism,' to the spirit and to the letter of which I am
+equally indebted, 'have been so despitefully used by history as
+Democritus.  In the distorted images sent down to us through
+unscientific traditions there remains of him almost nothing but the
+name of "the laughing philosopher," while figures of immeasurably
+smaller significance spread themselves out at full length before us.'
+Lange speaks of Bacon's high appreciation of Democritus--for ample
+illustrations of which I am indebted to my excellent friend Mr.
+Spedding, the learned editor and biographer of Bacon.  It is evident,
+indeed, that Bacon considered Democritus to be a man of weightier
+metal than either Plato or Aristotle, though their philosophy 'was
+noised and celebrated in the schools, amid the din and pomp of
+professors.'  It was not they, but Genseric and Attila and the
+barbarians, who destroyed the atomic philosophy.  'For at a time when
+all human learning had suffered shipwreck these planks of
+Aristotelian and Platonic philosophy, as being of a lighter and more
+inflated substance, were preserved and came down to us, while things
+more solid sank and almost passed into oblivion.'
+
+The son of a wealthy father, Democritus devoted the whole of his
+inherited fortune to the culture of his mind.  He travelled
+everywhere; visited Athens when Socrates and Plato were there, but
+quitted the city without making himself known.  Indeed, the dialectic
+strife in which Socrates so much delighted had no charms for
+Democritus, who held that 'the man who readily contradicts and uses
+many words is unfit to learn anything truly right.'  He is said to
+have discovered and educated Protagoras the sophist, being struck as
+much by the manner in which he, being a hewer of wood, tied up his
+faggots as by the sagacity of his conversation.  Democritus returned
+poor from his travels, was supported by his brother, and at length
+wrote his great work entitled 'Diakosmos,' which he read publicly
+before the people of his native town.  He was honoured by his
+countrymen in various ways, and died serenely at a great age.
+
+The principles enunciated by Democritus reveal his uncompromising
+antagonism to those who deduced the phenomena of nature from the
+caprices of the gods.  They are briefly these:--1. From nothing comes
+nothing.  Nothing that exists can be destroyed.  All changes are due
+to the combination and separation of molecules.  2. Nothing happens
+by chance.  Every occurrence has its cause from which it follows by
+necessity.  3. The only existing things are the atoms and empty
+space; all else is mere opinion.  4. The atoms are infinite in number
+and infinitely various in form; they strike together, and the lateral
+motions and whirlings which thus arise are the beginnings of worlds.
+5. The varieties of all things depend upon the varieties of their
+atoms, in number, size, and aggregation.  6. The soul consists of
+fine, smooth, round atoms, like those of fire.  These are the most
+mobile of all.  They interpenetrate the whole body, and in their
+motions the phenomena of life arise.  The first five propositions are
+a fair general statement of the atomic philosophy, as now held.  As
+regards the sixth, Democritus made his fine smooth atoms do duty for
+the nervous system, whose functions were then unknown.  The atoms of
+Democritus are individually without sensation; they combine in
+obedience to mechanical laws; and not only organic forms, but the
+phenomena of sensation and thought are the result of their
+combination.
+
+That great enigma, 'the exquisite adaptation of one part of an
+organism to another part, and to the conditions of life,' more
+especially the construction of the human body, Democritus made no
+attempt to solve.  Empedocles, a man of more fiery and poetic nature,
+introduced the notion of love and hate among the atoms to account for
+their combination and separation.  Noticing this gap in the doctrine
+of Democritus, he struck in with the penetrating thought, linked,
+however, with some wild speculation, that it lay in the very nature
+of those combinations which were suited to their ends (in other
+words, in harmony with their environment) to maintain themselves,
+while unfit combinations, having no proper habitat, must rapidly
+disappear.  Thus more than 2,000 years ago the doctrine of the
+'survival of the fittest,' which in our day, not on the basis of
+vague conjecture, but of positive knowledge, has been raised to such
+extraordinary significance, had received at all events partial
+enunciation.[3]
+
+Epicurus,[4] said to be the son of a poor schoolmaster at Samos, is
+the next dominant figure in the history of the atomic philosophy.  He
+mastered the writings of Democritus, heard lectures in Athens, went
+back to Sarnos, and subsequently wandered through various countries.
+He finally returned to Athens, where he bought a garden, and
+surrounded himself by pupils, in the midst of whom he lived a pure
+and serene life, and died a peaceful death.  Democritus looked to the
+soul as the ennobling part of man; even beauty without understanding
+partook of animalism.  Epicurus also rated the spirit above the body;
+the pleasure of the body was that of the moment, while the spirit
+could draw upon the future and the past.  His philosophy was almost
+identical with that of Democritus; but he never quoted either friend
+or foe.  One main object of Epicurus was to free the world from
+superstition and the fear of death.  Death he treated with
+indifference.  It merely robs us of sensation.  As long as we are,
+death is not; and when death is, we are not.  Life has no more evil
+for him who has made up his mind that it is no evil not to live.  He
+adored the gods, but not in the ordinary fashion.  The idea of divine
+power, properly purified, he thought an elevating one.  Still he
+taught, 'Not he is godless who rejects the gods of the crowd, but
+rather he who accepts them.'  The gods were to him eternal and
+immortal beings, whose blessedness excluded every thought of care or
+occupation of any kind.  Nature pursues her course in accordance with
+everlasting laws, the gods never interfering.  They haunt
+
+  'The lucid interspace of world and world
+  Where never creeps a cloud or moves a wind,
+  Nor ever falls the least white star of snow,
+  Nor ever lowest roll of thunder moans,
+  Nor sound of human sorrow mounts to mar
+  Their sacred everlasting calm.'[5]
+
+
+Lange considers the relation of Epicurus to the gods subjective; the
+indication probably of an ethical requirement of his own nature.  We
+cannot read history with open eyes, or study human nature to its
+depths, and fail to discern such a requirement.  Man never has been,
+and he never will be, satisfied with the operations and products of
+the Understanding alone; hence physical science cannot cover all the
+demands of his nature.  But the history of the efforts made to
+satisfy these demands might be broadly described as a history of
+errors--the error, in great part, consisting in ascribing fixity to
+that which is fluent, which varies as we vary, being gross when we
+are gross, and becoming, as our capacities widen, more abstract and
+sublime.  On one great point the mind of Epicurus was at peace.  He
+neither sought nor expected, here or hereafter, any personal profit
+from his relation to the gods.  And it is assuredly a fact that
+loftiness and serenity of thought may be promoted by conceptions
+which involve no idea of profit of this kind.  'Did I not believe,'
+said a great man to me once, 'that an Intelligence is at the heart of
+things, my life on earth would be intolerable.'  The utterer of these
+words is not, in my opinion, rendered less noble but more noble by
+the fact that it was the need of ethical harmony here, and not the
+thought of personal profit hereafter, that prompted his observation.
+
+There are persons, not belonging to the highest intellectual zone,
+nor yet to the lowest, to whom perfect clearness of exposition
+suggests want of depth.  They find comfort and edification in an
+abstract and learned phraseology.  To some such people Epicurus, who
+spared no pains to rid his style of every trace of haze and
+turbidity, appeared, on this very account, superficial.  He had,
+however, a disciple who thought it no unworthy occupation to spend
+his days and nights in the effort to reach the clearness of his
+master, and to whom the Greek philosopher is mainly indebted for the
+extension and perpetuation of his fame.  A century and a half after
+the death of Epicurus, Lucretius[6] wrote his great poem, 'On the
+Nature of Things,' in which he, a Roman, developed with extraordinary
+ardour the philosophy of his Greek predecessor.  He wishes to win
+over his friend Memnius to the school of Epicurus; and although he
+has no rewards in a future life to offer, although his object appears
+to be a purely negative one, he addresses his friend with the heat of
+an apostle.  His object, like that of his great forerunner, is the
+destruction of superstition; and considering that men trembled before
+every natural event as a direct monition from the gods, and that
+ever-lasting torture was also in prospect, the freedom aimed at by
+Lucretius might perhaps be deemed a positive good.  'This terror,' he
+says, 'and darkness of mind must be dispelled, not by the rays of the
+sun and glittering shafts of day, but by the aspect and the law of
+nature.'  He refutes the notion that anything can come out of
+nothing, or that that which is once begotten can be recalled to
+nothing.  The first beginnings, the atoms, are indestructible, and
+into them all things can be resolved at last.  Bodies are partly
+atoms, and partly combinations of atoms; but the atoms nothing can
+quench.  They are strong in solid singleness, and by their denser
+combination all things can be closely packed and exhibit enduring
+strength.  He denies that matter is infinitely divisible.  We come at
+length to the atoms, without which, as an imperishable substratum,
+all order in the generation and development of things would be
+destroyed.
+
+The mechanical shock of the atoms being in his view the
+all-sufficient cause of things, he combats the notion that the
+constitution of nature has been in any way determined by intelligent
+design.  The inter-action of the atoms throughout infinite time
+rendered all manner of combinations possible.  Of these the fit ones
+persisted, while the unfit ones disappeared.  Not after sage
+deliberation did the atoms station themselves in their right places,
+nor did they bargain what motions they should assume.  From all
+eternity they have been driven together, and after trying motions and
+unions of every kind, they fell at length into the arrangements out
+of which this system of things has been formed.  'If you will
+apprehend and keep in mind these things, nature, free at once, and
+rid of her haughty lords, is seen to do all things spontaneously of
+herself, without the meddling of the gods.'[7]
+
+To meet the objection that his atoms cannot be seen, Lucretius
+describes a violent storm, and shows that the invisible particles of
+air act in the same way as the visible particles of water.  We
+perceive, moreover, the different smells of things, yet never see
+them coming to our nostrils.  Again, clothes hung up on a shore which
+waves break upon become moist, and then get dry if spread out in the
+sun, though no eye can see either the approach or the escape of the
+water particles.  A ring, worn long on the finger, becomes thinner; a
+water-drop hollows out a stone; the ploughshare is rubbed away in the
+field; the street pavement is worn by the feet; but the particles
+that disappear at any moment we cannot see.  Nature acts through
+invisible particles.  That Lucretius had a strong scientific
+imagination the foregoing references prove.  A fine illustration of
+his power in this respect is his explanation of the apparent rest of
+bodies whose atoms are in motion.  He employs the image of a flock of
+sheep with skipping lambs, which, seen from a distance, presents
+simply a white patch upon the green hill, the jumping of the
+individual lambs being quite invisible.
+
+His vaguely-grand conception of the atoms falling eternally through
+space suggested the nebular hypothesis to Kant, its first propounder.
+Far beyond the limits of our visible world are to be found atoms
+innumerable, which have never been united to form bodies, or which,
+if once united, have been again dispersed, falling silently through
+immeasurable intervals of time and space.  As everywhere throughout
+the All the same conditions are repeated, so must the phenomena be
+repeated also.  Above us, below us, beside us, therefore, are worlds
+without end; and this, when considered, must dissipate every thought
+of a deflection of the universe by the gods.  The worlds come and go,
+attracting new atoms out of limitless space, or dispersing their own
+particles.  The reputed death of Lucretius, which forms the basis of
+Mr. Tennyson's noble poem, is in strict accordance with his
+philosophy, which was severe and pure.
+
+
+During the centuries lying between the first of these three
+philosophers and the last, the human intellect was active in other
+fields than theirs.  The sophists had run through their career.  At
+Athens had appeared Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, who ruined the
+sophists, and whose yoke remains to some extent unbroken to the
+present hour.  Within this period also the School of Alexandria was
+founded, Euclid wrote his 'Elements,' and made some advance in
+optics.  Archimedes had propounded the theory of the lever and the
+principles of hydrostatics.  Pythagoras had made his experiments on
+the harmonic intervals, while astronomy was immensely enriched by the
+discoveries of Hipparchus, who was followed by the historically more
+celebrated Ptolemy.  Anatomy had been made the basis of Scientific
+medicine; and it is said by Draper[8] that vivisection then began.
+In fact, the science of ancient Greece had already cleared the world
+of the fantastic images of divinities operating capriciously through
+natural phenomena.  It had shaken itself free from that fruitless
+scrutiny 'by the internal light of the mind alone,' which had vainly
+sought to transcend experience and reach a knowledge of ultimate
+causes.  Instead of accidental observation, it had introduced
+observation with a purpose; instruments were employed to aid the
+senses; and scientific method was rendered in a great measure
+complete by the union of Induction and Experiment.
+
+What, then, stopped its victorious advance?  Why was the scientific
+intellect compelled, like an exhausted soil, to lie fallow for nearly
+two millenniums before it could regather the elements necessary to
+its fertility and strength?  Bacon has already let us know one cause;
+Whewell ascribes this stationary period to four causes--obscurity of
+thought, servility, intolerance of disposition, enthusiasm of
+temper--and he gives striking examples of each.[9]  But these
+characteristics must have had their antecedents in the circumstances
+of the time.  Rome and the other cities of the Empire had fallen into
+moral putrefaction.  Christianity had appeared, offering the gospel
+to the poor, and, by moderation if not asceticism of life,
+practically protesting against the profligacy of the age.  The
+sufferings of the early Christians, and the extraordinary exaltation
+of mind which enabled them to triumph over the diabolical tortures to
+which they were subjected,[10] must have left traces not easily
+effaced.  They scorned the earth, in view of that 'building of God,
+that house not made with hands, eternal in the heavens.'  The
+Scriptures which ministered to their spiritual needs were also the
+measure of their Science.  When, for example, the celebrated question
+of antipodes came to be discussed, the Bible was with many the
+ultimate court of appeal.  Augustin, who flourished A.D. 400, would
+not deny the rotundity of the earth; but he would deny the possible
+existence of inhabitants at the other side, 'because no such race is
+recorded in Scripture among the descendants of Adam.' Archbishop
+Boniface was shocked at the assumption of a 'world of human beings
+out of the reach of the means of salvation.'  Thus reined in, Science
+was not likely to make much progress.  Later on the political and
+theological strife between the Church and civil governments, so
+powerfully depicted by Draper, must have done much to stifle
+investigation.
+
+Whewell makes many wise and brave remarks regarding the spirit of the
+Middle Ages.  It was a menial spirit.  The seekers after natural
+knowledge had forsaken that fountain of living waters, the direct
+appeal to nature by observation and experiment, and had given
+themselves up to the remanipulation of the notions of their
+predecessors.  It was a time when thought had become abject, and when
+the acceptance of mere authority led, as it always does in science,
+to intellectual death.  Natural events, instead of being traced to
+physical, were referred to moral causes; while an exercise of the
+phantasy, almost as degrading as the spiritualism of the present day,
+took the place of scientific speculation.  Then came the mysticism of
+the Middle Ages, Magic, Alchemy, the Neo-platonic philosophy, with
+its visionary though sublime abstractions, which caused men to look
+with shame upon their own bodies as hindrances to the absorption of
+the creature in the blessedness of the Creator.  Finally came the
+Scholastic philosophy, a fusion, according to Lange, of the
+least-mature notions of Aristotle with the Christianity of the West.
+Intellectual immobility was the result.  As a traveller without a
+compass in a fog may wander long, imagining he is making way, and
+find himself after hours of toil at his starting-point, so the
+schoolmen, having 'tied and untied the same knots and formed and
+dissipated the same clouds,' found themselves at the end of centuries
+in their old position.
+
+With regard to the influence wielded by Aristotle in the Middle Ages,
+and which, though to a less extent, he still wields, I would ask
+permission to make one remark.  When the human mind has achieved
+greatness and given evidence of extraordinary power in any domain,
+there is a tendency to credit it with similar power in all other
+domains.  Thus theologians have found comfort and assurance in the
+thought that Newton dealt with the question of revelation, forgetful
+of the fact that the very devotion of his powers, through all the
+best years of his life, to a totally different class of ideas, not to
+speak of any natural disqualification, tended to render him less
+instead of more competent to deal with theological and historic
+questions.  Goethe, starting from his established greatness as a
+poet, and indeed from his positive discoveries in Natural History,
+produced a profound impression among the painters of Germany when he
+published his 'Farbenlehre,' in which he endeavoured to overthrow
+Newton's theory of colours.  This theory he deemed so obviously
+absurd that he considered its author a charlatan, and attacked him
+with a corresponding vehemence of language.  In the domain of Natural
+History Goethe had made really considerable discoveries; and we have
+high authority for assuming that, had he devoted himself wholly to
+that side of science, he might have reached in it an eminence
+comparable with that which he attained as a poet.  In sharpness of
+observation, in the detection of analogies, however apparently
+remote, in the classification and organization of facts according to
+the analogies discerned, Goethe possessed extraordinary powers.
+These elements of scientific inquiry fall in with the discipline of
+the poet.  But, on the other hand, a mind thus richly endowed in the
+direction of natural history may be almost shorn of endowment as
+regards the more strictly called physical and mechanical sciences.
+Goethe was in this condition.  He could not formulate distinct
+mechanical conceptions; he could not see the force of mechanical
+reasoning; and in regions where such reasoning reigns supreme he
+became a mere _ignis fatuus_ to those who followed him.
+
+I have sometimes permitted myself to compare Aristotle with Goethe,
+to credit the Stagirite with an almost superhuman power of amassing
+and systematizing facts, but to consider him fatally defective on
+that side of the mind in respect to which incompleteness has been
+just ascribed to Goethe.  Whewell refers the errors of Aristotle, not
+to a neglect of facts, but to 'a neglect of the idea appropriate to
+the facts; the idea of Mechanical cause, which is Force, and the
+substitution of vague or inapplicable notions, involving only
+relations of space or emotions of wonder.'  This is doubtless true;
+but the word 'neglect' implies mere intellectual misdirection,
+whereas in Aristotle, as in Goethe, it was not, I believe,
+misdirection, but sheer natural incapacity which lay at the root of
+his mistakes.  As a physicist, Aristotle displayed what we should
+consider some of the worst attributes of a modern physical
+investigator--indistinctness of ideas, confusion of mind, and a
+confident use of language, which led to the delusive notion that he
+had really mastered his subject, while he had as yet failed to grasp
+even the elements of it.  He put words in the place of things,
+subject in the place of object.  He preached Induction without
+practising it, inverting the true order of inquiry by passing from
+the general to the particular, instead of from the particular to the
+general.  He made of the universe a closed sphere, in the centre of
+which he fixed the earth, proving from general principles, to his own
+satisfaction and to that of the world for near 2,000 years, that no
+other universe was possible.  His notions of motion were entirely
+unphysical.  It was natural or unnatural, better or worse, calm or
+violent--no real mechanical conception regarding it lying at the
+bottom of his mind.  He affirmed that a vacuum could not exist, and
+proved that if it did exist motion in it would be impossible.  He
+determined _à priori_ how many species of animals must exist, and
+shows on general principles why animals must have such and such
+parts.  When an eminent contemporary philosopher, who is far removed
+from errors of this kind, remembers these abuses of the _à priori_
+method, he will be able to make allowance for the jealousy of
+physicists as to the acceptance of so-called _à priori_ truths.
+Aristotle's errors of detail, as shown by Eucken and Lange, were
+grave and numerous.  He affirmed that only in man we had the beating
+of the heart, that the left side of the body was colder than the
+right, that men have more teeth than women, and that there is an
+empty space at the back of every man's head.
+
+There is one essential quality in physical conceptions which was
+entirely wanting in those of Aristotle and his followers.  I wish it
+could be expressed by a word untainted by its associations; it
+signifies a capability of being placed as a coherent picture before
+the mind.  The Germans express the act of picturing by the word
+_vorstellen_, and the picture they call a _Vorstellung_.  We have no
+word in English which comes nearer to our requirements than
+_Imagination_, and, taken with its proper limitations, the word
+answers very well; but, as just intimated, it is tainted by its
+associations, and therefore objectionable to some minds.  Compare,
+with reference to this capacity of mental presentation, the case of
+the Aristotelian who refers the ascent of water in a pump to Nature's
+abhorrence of a vacuum, with that of Pascal when he proposed to solve
+the question of atmospheric pressure by the ascent of the Puy de
+Dome.  In the one case the terms of the explanation refuse to fall
+into place as a physical image; in the other the image is distinct,
+the fall and rise of the barometer being clearly figured as the
+balancing of two varying and opposing pressures.
+
+During the drought of the Middle Ages in Christendom, the Arabian
+intellect, as forcibly shown by Draper, was active.  With the
+intrusion of the Moors into Spain, he says, order, learning, and
+refinement took the place of their opposites.  When smitten with
+disease, the Christian peasant resorted to a shrine, the Moorish one
+to an instructed physician.  The Arabs encouraged translations from
+the Greek philosophers, but not from the Greek poets.  They turned in
+disgust 'from the lewdness of our classical mythology, and denounced
+as an unpardonable blasphemy all connexion between the impure
+Olympian Jove and the Most High God.'  Draper traces still further
+than Whewell the Arab elements in our scientific terms, and points
+out that the under garment of ladies retains to this hour its Arab
+name.  He gives examples of what Arabian men of science accomplished,
+dwelling particularly on Alhazen, who was the first to correct the
+Platonic notion that rays of light are emitted by the eye.  He
+discovered atmospheric refraction, and points out that we see the sun
+and the moon after they have set.  He explains the enlargement of the
+sun and moon, and the shortening of the vertical diameters of both
+these bodies, when near the horizon.  He is aware that the atmosphere
+decreases in density with increase of elevation, and actually fixes
+its height at 58½ miles.  In the Book of the Balance Wisdom, he sets
+forth the connexion between the weight of the atmosphere and its
+increasing density.  He shows that a body will weigh differently in a
+rare and dense atmosphere: he considers the force with which plunged
+bodies rise through heavier media.  He understands the doctrine of
+the centre of gravity, and applies it to the investigation of
+balances and steelyards.  He recognises gravity as a force, though he
+falls into the error of making it diminish simply as the distance
+increased, and of making it purely terrestrial.  He knows the
+relation between the velocities, spaces, and times of falling bodies,
+and has distinct ideas of capillary attraction.  He improved the
+hydrometer.  The determination of the densities of bodies as given by
+Alhazen approach very closely to our own.  'I join,' says Draper, in
+the pious prayer of Alhazen, 'that in the day of judgment the
+All-Merciful will take pity on the soul of Abur-Raihân, because he
+was the first of the race of men to construct a table of specific
+gravities.'  If all this be historic truth (and I have entire
+confidence in Dr. Draper), well may he 'deplore the systematic manner
+in which the literature of Europe has contrived to put out of sight
+our scientific obligations to the Mahommedans.'[11]
+
+The strain upon the mind during the stationary period towards
+ultra-terrestrial things, to the neglect of problems close at hand,
+was sure to provoke reaction.  But the reaction was gradual; for the
+ground was dangerous, a power being at hand competent to crush the
+critic who went too far.  To elude this power and still allow
+opportunity for the expression of opinion, the doctrine of 'twofold
+truth' was invented, according to which an opinion might be held;
+'theologically' and the opposite opinion 'philosophically.'[12]  Thus
+in the thirteenth century the creation of the world in six days, and
+the unchangeableness of the individual soul which had been so
+distinctly affirmed by St. Thomas Aquinas, were both denied
+philosophically, but admitted to be true as articles of the Catholic
+faith.  When Protagoras uttered the maxim which brought upon him so
+much vituperation, that' opposite assertions are equally true,' he
+simply meant that human beings differed so much from each other that
+what was subjectively true to the one might be subjectively untrue to
+the other.  The great Sophist never meant to play fast and loose with
+the truth by saying that one of two opposite assertions, made by the
+same individual, could possibly escape being a lie.  It was not
+'sophistry,' but the dread of theologic vengeance that generated this
+double dealing with conviction; and it is astonishing to notice what
+lengths were possible to men who were adroit in the use of artifices
+of this kind.
+
+Towards the close of the stationary period a word-weariness, if I may
+so express it, took more and more possession of men's minds.
+Christendom had become sick of the School philosophy and its verbal
+wastes, which led to no issue, but left the intellect in everlasting
+haze.  Here and there was heard the voice of one impatiently crying
+in the wilderness, 'Not unto Aristotle, not unto subtle hypothesis,
+not unto church, Bible, or blind tradition, must we turn for a
+knowledge of the universe, but to the direct investigation of Nature
+by observation and experiment.'  In 1543 the epoch-making work of
+Copernicus on the paths of the heavenly bodies appeared.  The total
+crash of Aristotle's closed universe with the earth at its centre
+followed as a consequence, and 'the earth moves!' became a kind of
+watchword among intellectual freemen.  Copernicus was Canon of the
+Church of Frauenburg, in the diocese of Ermeland.  For
+three-and-thirty years he had withdrawn himself from the world and
+devoted himself to the consolidation of his great scheme of the solar
+system.  He made its blocks eternal; and even to those who feared it
+and desired its overthrow it was so obviously strong that they
+refrained for a time from meddling with it.  In the last year of the
+life of Copernicus his book appeared: it is said that the old man
+received a copy of it a few days before his death, and then departed
+in peace.
+
+The Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno was one of the earliest
+converts to the new astronomy.  Taking Lucretius as his exemplar, he
+revived the notion of the infinity of worlds; and, combining with it
+the doctrine of Copernicus, reached the sublime generalization that
+the fixed stars are suns, scattered numberless through space and
+accompanied by satellites, which bear the same relation to them, that
+our earth does to our sun, or our moon to our earth.  This was an
+expansion of transcendent import; but Bruno came closer than this to
+our present line of thought.  Struck with the problem of the
+generation and maintenance of organisms, and duly pondering it, he
+came to the conclusion that Nature in her productions does not
+imitate the technic of man.  Her process is one of unravelling and
+unfolding.  The infinity of forms under which matter appears were not
+imposed upon it by an external artificer; by its own intrinsic force
+and virtue it brings these forms forth.  Matter is not the mere
+naked, empty capacity which philosophers have pictured her to be, but
+the universal mother who brings forth all things as the fruit of her
+own womb.
+
+This outspoken man was originally a Dominican monk.  He was accused
+of heresy and had to fly, seeking refuge in Geneva, Paris, England,
+and Germany.  In 1592 he fell into the hands of the Inquisition at
+Venice.  He was imprisoned for many years, tried, degraded,
+excommunicated, and handed over to the civil power, with the request
+that he should be treated gently and 'without the shedding of blood.'
+This meant that he was to be burnt; and burnt accordingly he was, on
+the 16th of February, 1600.  To escape a similar fate Galileo,
+thirty-three years afterwards, abjured, upon his knees, and with his
+hand upon the holy gospels, the heliocentric doctrine which he knew
+to be true.  After Galileo came Kepler, who from his German home
+defied the power beyond the Alps.  He traced out from pre-existing
+observations the laws of planetary motion.  Materials were thus
+prepared for Newton, who bound those empirical laws together by the
+principle of gravitation.
+
+In the seventeenth century Bacon and Descartes, the restorers of
+philosophy, appeared in succession.  Differently educated and
+endowed, their philosophic tendencies were different.  Bacon held
+fast to Induction, believing firmly in the existence of an external
+world, and making collected experiences the basis of all knowledge.
+The mathematical studies of Descartes gave him a bias towards
+Deduction; and his fundamental principle was much the same as that of
+Protagoras, who made the individual man the measure of all things.
+'I think, therefore I am,' said Descartes.  Only his own identity was
+sure to him; and the development of this system would have led to an
+idealism in which the outer world would be resolved into a mere
+phenomenon of consciousness.  Gassendi, one of Descartes's
+contemporaries, of whom we shall hear more presently, quickly pointed
+out that the fact of personal existence would be proved as well by
+reference to any other act as to the act of thinking.  I eat,
+therefore I am; or I love, therefore I am, would be quite as
+conclusive.  Lichtenberg showed that the very thing to be proved was
+inevitably postulated in the first two words, 'I think;' and that no
+inference from the postulate could by any possibility be stronger
+than the postulate itself.
+
+But Descartes deviated strangely from the idealism implied in his
+fundamental principle.  He was the first to reduce, in a manner
+eminently capable of bearing the test of mental presentation, vital
+phenomena to purely mechanical principles.  Through fear or love,
+Descartes was a good churchman; he accordingly rejects the notion of
+an atom, because it was absurd to suppose that God, if he so pleased,
+could not divide an atom; he puts in the place of the atoms small
+round particles and light splinters, out of which he builds the
+organism.  He sketches with marvellous physical insight a machine,
+with water for its motive power, which shall illustrate vital
+actions.  He has made clear to his mind that such a machine would be
+competent to carry on the processes of digestion, nutrition, growth,
+respiration, and the beating of the heart.  It would be competent to
+accept impressions from the external sense, to store them up in
+imagination and memory, to go through the internal movements of the
+appetites and passions, the external movement of limbs.  He deduces
+these functions of his machine from the mere arrangement of its
+organs, as the movement of a clock or other automaton is deduced from
+its weights and wheels.  'As far as these functions are concerned,'
+he says, 'it is not necessary to conceive any other vegetative or
+sensitive soul, nor any other principle of motion or of life, than
+the blood and the spirits agitated by the fire which burns
+continually in the heart, and which is in no wise different from the
+fires which exist in inanimate bodies.'  Had Descartes been
+acquainted with the steam-engine, he would have taken it, instead of
+a fall of water, as his motive power, and shown the perfect analogy
+which exists between the oxidation of the food in the body and that
+of the coal in the furnace.  He would assuredly have anticipated
+Mayer in calling the blood which the heart diffuses 'the oil of the
+lamp of life;' deducing all animal motions from the combustion of
+this oil, as the motions of a steam-engine are deduced from the
+combustion of its coal.  As the matter stands, however, and
+considering the circumstances of the time, the boldness, clearness,
+and precision with which he grasped the problem of vital dynamics
+constitute a marvellous illustration of intellectual power.[13]
+
+During the Middle Ages the doctrine of atoms had to all appearance
+vanished from discussion.  In all probability it held its ground
+among sober-minded and thoughtful men, though neither the church nor
+the world was prepared to hear of it with tolerance.  Once, in the
+year 1348, it received distinct expression.  But retractation by
+compulsion immediately followed, and, thus discouraged, it slumbered
+till the seventeenth century, when it was revived by a contemporary
+and friend of Hobbes and Malmesbury, the orthodox Catholic provost of
+Digne, Gassendi.  But before stating his relation to the Epicurean
+doctrine, it will be well to say a few words on the effect, as
+regards science, of the general introduction of monotheism among
+European nations.
+
+'Were men,' says Hume, 'led into the apprehension of invisible
+intelligent power by 'contemplation of the works of Nature, they
+could never possibly entertain any conception but of one single
+being, who bestowed existence and order on this vast machine, and
+adjusted all its parts to one regular system.'  Referring to the
+condition of the heathen, who sees a god behind every natural event,
+thus peopling the world with thousands of beings whose caprices are
+incalculable, Lange shows the impossibility of any compromise between
+such notions and those of science, which proceeds on the assumption
+of never-changing law and causality.  'But,' he continues, with
+characteristic penetration, 'when the great thought of one God,
+acting as a unit upon the universe, has been seized, the connexion of
+things in accordance with the law of cause and effect is not only
+thinkable, but it is a necessary consequence of the assumption.  For
+when I see ten thousand wheels in motion, and know, or believe, that
+they are all driven by one, then I know that I have before me a
+mechanism the action of every part of which is determined by the plan
+of the whole.  So much being assumed, it follows that I may
+investigate the structure of that machine, and the various motions of
+its parts.  For the time being, therefore, this conception renders
+scientific action free.'  In other words, were a capricious God at
+the circumference of every wheel and at the end of every lever, the
+action of the machine would be incalculable by the methods of
+science.  But the action of all its parts being rigidly determined by
+their connexions and relations, and these being brought into play by
+a single self-acting driving wheel, then, though this last prime
+mover may elude me, I am still able to comprehend the machinery which
+it sets in motion.  We have here a conception of the relation of
+Nature to its Author which seems perfectly acceptable to some minds,
+but perfectly intolerable to others.  Newton and Boyle lived and
+worked happily under the influence of this conception; Goethe
+rejected it with vehemence, and the same repugnance to accepting it
+is manifest in Carlyle.[14]
+
+The analytic and synthetic tendencies of the human mind exhibit
+themselves throughout history, great writers ranging themselves
+sometimes on the one side, sometimes on the other.  Men of warm
+feelings and minds open to the elevating impressions produced by
+Nature as a whole, whose satisfaction, therefore, is rather ethical
+than logical, lean to the synthetic side; while the analytic
+harmonizes best with the more precise and more mechanical bias which
+seeks the satisfaction of the understanding.  Some form of pantheism
+was usually adopted by the one, while a detached Creator, working
+more or less after the manner of men, was often assumed by the other.
+Gassendi is hardly to be ranked with either.  Having formally
+acknowledged God as the great first cause, he immediately dropped the
+idea, applied the known laws of mechanics to the atoms, deducing
+thence all vital phenomena.  He defended Epicurus, and dwelt upon his
+purity, both of doctrine and of life.  True he was a heathen, but so
+was Aristotle.  He assailed superstition and religion, and rightly,
+because he did not know the true religion.  He thought that the gods
+neither rewarded nor punished, and adored them purely in consequence
+of their completeness; here we see, says Gassendi, the reverence of
+the child instead of the fear of the slave.  The errors of Epicurus
+shall be corrected, the body of his truth retained; and then Gassendi
+proceeds, as any heathen might do, to build up the world, and all
+that therein is, of atoms and molecules.  God, who created earth and
+water, plants and animals, produced in the first place a definite
+number of atoms, which constituted the seed of all things.  Then
+began that series of combinations and decompositions which goes on at
+present, and which will continue in future.  The principle of every
+change resides in matter.  In artificial productions the moving
+principle is different from the material worked upon; but in Nature
+the agent works within, being the most active and mobile part of the
+material itself.  Thus, this bold ecclesiastic, without incurring the
+censure of the church or the world, contrives to outstrip Mr. Darwin.
+The same cast of mind which caused him to detach the Creator from his
+universe led him also to detach the soul from the body, though to the
+body he ascribes an influence so large as to render the soul almost
+unnecessary.  The aberrations of reason were in his view an affair of
+the material brain.  Mental disease is brain disease; but then the
+immortal reason sits apart, and cannot be touched by the disease.
+The errors of madness are errors of the instrument, not of the
+performer.
+
+It may be more than a mere result of education, connecting itself
+probably with the deeper mental structure of the two men, that the
+idea of Gassendi above enunciated is substantially the same as that
+expressed by Professor Clerk Maxwell at the close of the very able
+lecture delivered by him at Bradford last year.  According to both
+philosophers, the atoms, if I understand aright, are the prepared
+materials which, formed by the skill of the highest, produce by their
+subsequent inter-action all the phenomena of the material world.
+There seems to be this difference, however, between Gassendi and
+Maxwell.  The one _postulates_, the other _infers_ his first cause.
+In his 'manufactured articles,' as he calls the atoms, Professor
+Maxwell finds the basis of an induction which enables him to scale
+philosophic heights considered inaccessible by Kant, and to take the
+logical step from the atoms to their Maker.
+
+Accepting here the leadership of Kant, I doubt the legitimacy of
+Maxwell's logic; but it is impossible not to feel the ethic glow with
+which his lecture concludes.  There is, moreover, a very noble strain
+of eloquence in his description of the steadfastness of the
+atoms:--'Natural causes, as we know, are at work, which tend to
+modify, if they do not at length destroy, all the arrangements and
+dimensions of the earth and the whole solar system.  But though in
+the course of ages catastrophes have occurred and may yet occur in
+the heavens, though ancient systems may be dissolved and new systems
+evolved out of their ruins, the molecules out of which these systems
+are built--the foundation stones of the material universe--remain
+unbroken and unworn.'
+
+The atomic doctrine, in whole or in part, was entertained by Bacon,
+Descartes, Hobbes, Locke, Newton, Boyle, and their successors, until
+the chemical law of multiple proportions enabled Dalton to confer
+upon it an entirely new significance.  In our day there are
+secessions from the theory, but it still stands firm.  Loschmidt,
+Stoney, and Sir William Thomson have sought to determine the sizes of
+the atoms, or rather to fix the limits between which their sizes lie;
+while only last year the discourses of Williamson and Maxwell
+illustrate the present hold of the doctrine upon the foremost
+scientific minds.  In fact, it may be doubted whether, wanting this
+fundamental conception, a theory of the material universe is capable
+of scientific statement.
+
+
+Ninety years subsequent to Gassendi the doctrine of bodily
+instruments, as it may be called, assumed immense importance in the
+hands of Bishop Butler, who, in his famous 'Analogy of Religion,'
+developed, from his own point of view, and with consummate sagacity,
+a similar idea.  The Bishop still influences superior minds; and it
+will repay us to dwell for a moment on his views.  He draws the
+sharpest distinction between our real selves and our bodily
+instruments.  He does not, as far as I remember, use the word soul,
+possibly because the term was so hackneyed in his day as it had been
+for many generations previously.  But he speaks of 'living powers,'
+'perceiving' or 'percipient powers,' 'moving agents,' 'ourselves,' in
+the same sense as we should employ the term soul.  He dwells upon the
+fact that limbs may be removed, and mortal diseases assail the body,
+the mind, almost up to the moment of death, remaining clear.  He
+refers to sleep and to swoon, where the 'living powers' are suspended
+but not destroyed.  He considers it quite as easy to conceive of
+existence out of our bodies as in them: that we may animate a
+succession of bodies, the dissolution of all of them having no more
+tendency to dissolve our real selves, or 'deprive us of living
+faculties--the faculties of perception and action--than the
+dissolution of any foreign matter which we are capable of receiving
+impressions from, or making use of for the common occasions of life.'
+This is the key of the Bishop's position; 'our organized bodies are
+no more a part of ourselves than any other matter around us.'  In
+proof of this he calls attention to the use of glasses, which
+'prepare objects' for the 'percipient power' exactly as the eye does.
+The eye itself is no more percipient than the glass; is quite as much
+the instrument of the true self, and also as foreign to the true
+self, as the glass is.  'And if we see with our eyes only in the same
+manner as we do with glasses, the like may justly be concluded from
+analogy of all our senses.'
+
+Lucretius, as you are aware, reached a precisely opposite conclusion;
+and it certainly would be interesting, if not profitable, to us all,
+to hear what he would or could urge in opposition to the reasoning of
+the Bishop.  As a brief discussion of the point will enable us to see
+the bearings of an important question, I will here permit a disciple
+of Lucretius to try the strength of the Bishop's position, and then
+allow the Bishop to retaliate, with the view of rolling back, if he
+can, the difficulty upon Lucretius.
+
+The argument might proceed in this fashion:--
+
+'Subjected to the test of mental presentation (_Vorstellung_), your
+views, most honoured prelate, would present to many minds a great, if
+not an insuperable difficulty.  You speak of "living powers,"
+"percipient or perceiving powers," and "ourselves;" but can you form
+a mental picture of any one of these apart from the organism through
+which it is supposed to act?  Test yourself honestly, and see whether
+you possess any faculty that would enable you to form such a
+conception.  The true self has a local habitation in each of us; thus
+localized, must it not possess a form?  If so, what form?  Have you
+ever for a moment realized it?  When a leg is amputated the body is
+divided into two parts; is the true self in both of them or in one?
+Thomas Aquinas might say in both; but not you, for you appeal to the
+consciousness associated with one of the two parts to prove that the
+other is foreign matter.  Is consciousness, then, a necessary element
+of the true self?  If so, what do you say to the case of the whole
+body being deprived of consciousness?  If not, then on what grounds
+do you deny any portion of the true self to the severed limb?  It
+seems very singular that, from the beginning to the end of your
+admirable book (and no one admires its sober strength more than I
+do), you never once mention the brain or nervous system.  You begin
+at one end of the body, and show that its parts may be removed
+without prejudice to the perceiving power.  What if you begin at the
+other end, and remove, instead of the leg, the brain?  The body, as
+before, is divided into two parts; but both are now in the same
+predicament, and neither can be appealed to to prove that the other
+is foreign matter.  Or, instead of going so far as to remove the
+brain itself, let a certain portion of its bony covering be removed,
+and let a rhythmic series of pressures and relaxations of pressure be
+applied to the soft substance.  At every pressure "the faculties of
+perception and of action" vanish; at every relaxation of pressure
+they are restored.  Where, during the intervals of pressure, is the
+perceiving power?  I once had the discharge of a large Leyden battery
+passed unexpectedly through me: I felt nothing, but was simply
+blotted out of conscious existence for a sensible interval.  Where
+was my true self during that interval?  Men who have recovered from
+lightning-stroke have been much longer in the same state; and indeed
+in cases of ordinary concussion of the brain, days may elapse during
+which no experience is registered in consciousness.  Where is the man
+himself during the period of insensibility?  You may say that I beg
+the question when I assume the man to have been unconscious, that he
+was really conscious all the time, and has simply forgotten what had
+occurred to him.  In reply to this, I can only say that no one need
+shrink from the worst tortures that superstition ever invented if
+only so felt and so remembered.  I do not think your theory of
+instruments goes at all to the bottom of the matter.  A
+telegraph-operator has his instruments, by means of which he
+converses with the world; our bodies possess a nervous system, which
+plays a similar part between the perceiving power and external
+things.  Cut the wires of the operator, break his battery,
+demagnetize his needle: by this means you certainly sever his
+connexion with the world; but inasmuch as these are real instruments,
+their destruction does not touch the man who uses them.  The operator
+survives, _and he knows that he survives_.  What is it, I would ask,
+in the human system that answers to this conscious survival of the
+operator when the battery of the brain is so disturbed as to produce
+insensibility, or when it is destroyed altogether?
+
+'Another consideration, which you may consider slight, presses upon
+me with some force.  The brain may change from health to disease, and
+through such a change the most exemplary man may be converted into a
+debauchee or a murderer.  My very noble and approved good master had,
+as you know, threatenings of lewdness introduced into his brain by
+his jealous wife's philter; and sooner than permit himself to run
+even the risk of yielding to these base promptings he slew himself.
+How could the hand of Lucretius have been thus turned against himself
+if the real Lucretius remained as before?  Can the brain or can it
+not act in this distempered way without the intervention of the
+immortal reason?  If it can, then it is a prime mover which requires
+only healthy regulation to render it reasonably self-acting, and
+there is no apparent need of your immortal reason at all.  If it
+cannot, then the immortal reason, by its mischievous activity in
+operating upon a broken instrument, must have the credit of
+committing every imaginable extravagance and crime.  I think, if you
+will allow me to say so, that the gravest consequences are likely to
+flow from your estimate of the body.  To regard the brain as you
+would a staff or an eyeglass--to shut your eyes to all its mystery,
+to the perfect correlation of its condition and our consciousness, to
+the fact that a slight excess or defect of blood in it produces the
+very swoon to which you refer, and that in relation to it our meat
+and drink and air and exercise have a perfectly transcendental value
+and significance--to forget all this does, I think, open a way to
+innumerable errors in our habits of life, and may possibly in some
+cases initiate and foster that very disease, and consequent mental
+ruin, which a wiser appreciation of this mysterious organ would have
+avoided.'
+
+I can imagine the Bishop thoughtful after hearing this argument.  He
+was not the man to allow anger to mingle with the consideration of a
+point of this kind.  After due reflection, and having strengthened
+himself by that honest contemplation of the facts which was habitual
+with him, and which includes the desire to give even adverse facts
+their due weight, I can suppose the Bishop to proceed thus:--'You
+will remember that in the "Analogy of Religion," of which you have so
+kindly spoken, I did not profess to prove anything absolutely, and
+that I over and over again acknowledged and insisted on the smallness
+of our knowledge, or rather the depth of our ignorance, as regards
+the whole system of the universe.  My object was to show my deistical
+friends, who set forth so eloquently the beauty and beneficence of
+Nature and the Ruler thereof, while they had nothing but scorn for
+the so-called absurdities of the Christian scheme, that they were in
+no better condition than we were, and that, for every difficulty
+found upon our side, quite as great a difficulty was to be found upon
+theirs.  I will now, with your permission, adopt a similar line of
+argument.  You are a Lucretian, and from the combination and
+separation of insensate atoms deduce all terrestrial things,
+including organic forms and their phenomena.  Let me tell you, in the
+first instance, how far I am prepared to go with you.  I admit that
+you can build crystalline forms out of this play of molecular force;
+that the diamond, amethyst, and snow-star are truly wonderful
+structures which are thus produced.  I will go further and
+acknowledge that even a tree or flower might in this way be
+organized.  Nay, if you can show me an animal without sensation, I
+will concede to you that it also might be put together by the
+suitable play of molecular force.
+
+'Thus far our way is clear; but now comes my difficulty.  Your atoms
+are individually without sensation, much more are they without
+intelligence.  May I ask you, then, to try your hand upon this
+problem?  Take your dead hydrogen atoms, your dead oxygen atoms, your
+dead carbon atoms, your dead nitrogen atoms, your dead phosphorus
+atoms, and all the other atoms, dead as grains of shot, of which the
+brain is formed.  Imagine them separate and sensationless, observe
+them running together and forming all imaginable combinations.  This,
+as a purely mechanical process, is seeable by the mind.  But can you
+see, or dream, or in any way imagine, how out of that mechanical act,
+and from these individually dead atoms, sensation, thought, and
+emotion are to arise?  Are you likely to extract Homer out of the
+rattling of dice, or the Differential Calculus out of the clash of
+billiard-balls?  I am not all bereft of this Vorstellungs-Kraft of
+which you speak, nor am I, like so many of my brethren, a mere vacuum
+as regards scientific knowledge.  I can follow a particle of musk
+until it reaches the olfactory nerve; I can follow the waves of sound
+until their tremors reach the water of the labyrinth and set the
+otoliths and Corti's fibres in motion; I can also visualize the waves
+of ether as they cross the eye and hit the retina.  Nay more, I am
+able to pursue to the central organ the motion thus imparted at the
+periphery, and to see in idea the very molecules of the brain thrown
+into tremors.  My insight is not baffled by these physical processes.
+What baffles and bewilders me, is the notion that from those physical
+tremors things so utterly incongruous with them as sensation,
+thought, and emotion can be derived.  You may say, or think, that
+this issue of consciousness from the clash of atoms is not more
+incongruous than the flash of light from the union of oxygen and
+hydrogen.  But I beg to say that it is.  For such incongruity as the
+flash possesses is that which I now force upon your attention.  The
+flash is an affair of consciousness, the objective counterpart of
+which is a vibration.  It is a flash only by your interpretation.
+You are the cause of the apparent incongruity, and you are the thing
+that puzzles me.  I need not remind you that the great Leibnitz felt
+the difficulty which I feel, and that to get rid of this monstrous
+deduction of life from death he displaced your atoms by his monads,
+which were more or less perfect mirrors of the universe, and out of
+the summation and integration of which he supposed all the phenomena
+of life--sentient, intellectual, and emotional--to arise.
+
+'Your difficulty, then, as I see you are ready to admit, is quite as
+great as mine.  You cannot satisfy the human understanding in its
+demand for logical continuity between molecular processes and the
+phenomena of consciousness.  This is a rock on which materialism must
+inevitably split whenever it pretends to be a complete philosophy of
+life.  What is the moral, my Lucretian?  You and I are not likely to
+indulge in ill-temper in the discussion of these great topics, where
+we see so much room for honest differences of opinion.  But there are
+people of less wit or more bigotry (I say it with humility) on both
+sides, who are ever ready to mingle anger and vituperation with such
+discussions.  There are, for example, writers of note and influence
+at the present day who are not ashamed to assume the "deep personal
+sin" of a great logician to be the cause of his unbelief in a
+theologic dogma.  And there are others who hold that we, who cherish
+our noble Bible, wrought as it has been into the constitution of our
+forefathers, and by inheritance into us, must necessarily be
+hypocritical and insincere.  Let us disavow and discountenance such
+people, cherishing the unswerving faith that what is good and true in
+both our arguments will be preserved for the benefit of humanity,
+while all that is bad or false will disappear.'
+
+I hold the Bishop's reasoning to be unanswerable, and his liberality
+to be worthy of imitation.
+
+It is worth remarking that in one respect the Bishop was a product of
+his age.  Long previous to his day the nature of the soul had been so
+favourite and general a topic of discussion, that, when the students
+of the University of Paris wished to know the leanings of a new
+Professor, they at once requested him to lecture upon the soul.
+About the time of Bishop Butler the question was not only agitated
+but extended.  It was seen by the clear-witted men who entered this
+arena that many of their best arguments applied equally to brutes and
+men.  The Bishop's arguments were of this character.  He saw it,
+admitted it, accepted the consequences, and boldly embraced the whole
+animal world in his scheme of immortality.
+
+Bishop Butler accepted with unwavering trust the chronology of the
+Old Testament, describing it as 'confirmed by the natural and civil
+history of the world, collected from common historians, from the
+state of the earth, and from the late inventions of arts and
+sciences.'  These words mark progress; and they must seem somewhat
+hoary to the Bishop's successors of to-day.[15]  It is hardly
+necessary to inform you that since his time the domain of the
+naturalist has been immensely extended--the whole science of geology,
+with its astounding revelations regarding the life of the ancient
+earth, having been created.  The rigidity of old conceptions has been
+relaxed, the public mind being rendered gradually tolerant of the
+idea that not for six thousand, nor for sixty thousand, nor for six
+thousand thousand thousand, but for æons embracing untold millions of
+years, this earth has been the theatre of life and death.  The riddle
+of the rocks has been read by the geologist and palæontologist, from
+subcambrian depths to the deposits thickening over the sea-bottoms of
+to-day.  And upon the leaves of that stone book are, as you know,
+stamped the characters, plainer and surer than those formed by the
+ink of history, which carry the mind back into abysses of past time
+compared with which the periods which satisfied Bishop Butler cease
+to have a visual angle.  The lode of discovery once struck, those
+petrified forms in which life was at one time active increased to
+multitudes and demanded classification.  They were grouped in genera,
+species, and varieties, according to the degree of similarity
+subsisting between them.  Thus confusion was avoided, each object
+being found in the pigeon-hole appropriated to it and to its fellows
+of similar morphological or physiological character.  The general
+fact soon became evident that none but the simplest forms of life lie
+lowest down, that as we climb higher among the super-imposed strata
+more perfect forms appear.  The change, however, from form to form
+was not continuous, but by steps--some small, some great.  'A
+section,' says Mr. Huxley, 'a hundred feet thick will exhibit at
+different heights a dozen species of Ammonite, none of which passes
+beyond its particular zone of limestone, or clay, into the zone below
+it, or into that above it.' In the presence of such facts it was not
+possible to avoid the question:--Have these forms, showing, though in
+broken stages and with many irregularities, this unmistakable general
+advance, been subjected to no continuous law of growth or variation?
+Had our education been purely scientific, or had it been sufficiently
+detached from influences which, however ennobling in another domain,
+have always proved hindrances and delusions when introduced as
+factors into the domain of physics, the scientific mind never could
+have swerved from the search for a law of growth, or allowed itself
+to accept the anthropomorphism which regarded each successive stratum
+as a kind of mechanic's bench for the manufacture of new species out
+of all relation to the old.
+
+Biassed, however, by their previous education, the great majority of
+naturalists invoked a special creative act to account for the
+appearance of each new group of organisms.  Doubtless there were
+numbers who were clear-headed enough to see that this was no
+explanation at all, that in point of fact it was an attempt, by the
+introduction of a greater difficulty, to account for a less.  But
+having nothing to offer in the way of explanation, they for the most
+part held their peace.  Still the thoughts of reflecting men
+naturally and necessarily simmered round the question.  De Maillet, a
+contemporary of Newton, has been brought into notice by Professor
+Huxley as one who 'had a notion of the modifiability of living
+forms.'  In my frequent conversations with him, the late Sir Benjamin
+Brodie, a man of highly philosophic mind, often drew my attention to
+the fact that, as early as 1794, Charles Darwin's grandfather was the
+pioneer of Charles Darwin.[16]  In 1801, and in subsequent years, the
+celebrated Lamarck, who produced so profound an impression on the
+public mind through the vigorous exposition of his views by the
+author of the 'Vestiges of Creation,' endeavoured to show the
+development of species out of changes of habit and external
+condition.  In 1813 Dr. Wells, the founder of our present theory of
+Dew, read before the Royal Society a paper in which, to use the words
+of Mr. Darwin, 'he distinctly recognises the principle of natural
+selection; and this is the first recognition that has been
+indicated.'  The thoroughness and skill with which Wells pursued his
+work, and the obvious independence of his character, rendered him
+long ago a favourite with me; and it gave me the liveliest pleasure
+to alight upon this additional testimony to his penetration.
+Professor Grant, Mr. Patrick Matthew, Von Buch, the author of the
+'Vestiges,' D'Halloy, and others,[17] by the enunciation of opinions
+more or less clear and correct, showed that the question had been
+fermenting long prior to the year 1858, when Mr. Darwin and Mr.
+Wallace simultaneously but independently placed their closely
+concurrent views upon the subject before the Linnean Society.
+
+These papers were followed in 1859 by the publication of the first
+edition of 'The Origin of Species.'  All great things come slowly to
+the birth.  Copernicus, as I informed you, pondered his great work
+for thirty-three years.  Newton for nearly twenty years kept the idea
+of Gravitation before his mind; for twenty years also he dwelt upon
+his discovery of Fluxions, and doubtless would have continued to make
+it the object of his private thought had he not found that Leibnitz
+was upon his track.  Darwin for two and twenty years pondered the
+problem of the origin of species, and doubtless he would have
+continued to do so had he not found Wallace upon his track.[18]  A
+concentrated but full and powerful epitome of his labours was the
+consequence.  The book was by no means an easy one; and probably not
+one in every score of those who then attacked it had read its pages
+through, or were competent to grasp their significance if they had.
+I do not say this merely to discredit them; for there were in those
+days some really eminent scientific men, entirely raised above the
+heat of popular prejudice, willing to accept any conclusion that
+science had to offer, provided it was duly backed by fact and
+argument, and who entirely mistook Mr. Darwin's views.  In fact, the
+work needed an expounder; and it found one in Mr. Huxley.  I know
+nothing more admirable in the way of scientific exposition than those
+early articles of his on the origin of species.  He swept the curve
+of discussion through the really significant points of the subject,
+enriched his exposition with profound original remarks and
+reflections, often summing up in a single pithy sentence an argument
+which a less compact mind would have spread over pages.  But there is
+one impression made by the book itself which no exposition of it,
+however luminous, can convey; and that is the impression of the vast
+amount of labour, both of observation and of thought, implied in its
+production.  Let us glance at its principles.
+
+It is conceded on all hands that what are called varieties are
+continually produced.  The rule is probably without exception.  No
+chick and no child is in all respects and particulars the counterpart
+of its brother and sister; and in such differences we have 'variety'
+incipient.  No naturalist could tell how far this variation could be
+carried; but the great mass of them held that never by any amount of
+internal or external change, nor by the mixture of both, could the
+offspring of the same progenitor so far deviate from each other as to
+constitute different species.  The function of the experimental
+philosopher is to combine the conditions of nature and to produce her
+results; and this was the method of Darwin.[19]  He made himself
+acquainted with what could, without any manner of doubt, be done in
+the way of producing variation.  He associated himself with
+pigeon-fanciers--bought, begged, kept, and observed every breed that
+he could obtain.  Though derived from a common stock, the diversities
+of these pigeons were such that 'a score of them might be chosen
+which, if shown to an ornithologist, and he were told that they were
+wild birds, would certainly be ranked by him as well-defined
+species.'  The simple principle which guides the pigeon-fancier, as
+it does the cattle-breeder, is the selection of some variety that
+strikes his fancy, and the propagation of this variety by
+inheritance.  With his eye still directed to the particular
+appearance which he wishes to exaggerate, he selects it as it
+reappears in successive broods, and thus adds increment to increment
+until an astonishing amount of divergence from the parent type is
+effected.  The breeder in this case does not produce the elements of
+the variation.  He simply observes them, and by selection adds them
+together until the required result has been obtained.  'No man,' says
+Mr. Darwin, 'would ever try to make a fantail till he saw a pigeon
+with a tail developed in some slight degree in an unusual manner, or
+a pouter until he saw a pigeon with a crop of unusual size.'  Thus
+nature gives the hint, man acts upon it, and by the law of
+inheritance exaggerates the deviation.
+
+Having thus satisfied himself by indubitable facts that the
+organization of an animal or of a plant (for precisely the same
+treatment applies to plants) is to some extent plastic, he passes
+from variation under domestication to variation under nature.
+Hitherto we have dealt with the adding together of small changes by
+the conscious selection of man.  Can Nature thus select?  Mr.
+Darwin's answer is, 'Assuredly she can.'  The number of living things
+produced is far in excess of the number that can be supported; hence
+at some period or other of their lives there must be a struggle for
+existence; and what is the infallible result?  If one organism were a
+perfect copy of the other in regard to strength, skill, and agility,
+external conditions would decide.  But this is not the case.  Here we
+have the fact of variety offering itself to nature, as in the former
+instance it offered itself to man; and those varieties which are
+least competent to cope with surrounding conditions will infallibly
+give way to those that are most competent.  To use a familiar
+proverb, the weakest comes to the wall.  But the triumphant fraction
+again breeds to overproduction, transmitting the qualities which
+secured its maintenance, but transmitting them in different degrees.
+The struggle for food again supervenes, and those to whom the
+favourable quality has been transmitted in excess will assuredly
+triumph.  It is easy to see that we have here the addition of
+increments favourable to the individual still more rigorously carried
+out than in the case of domestication; for not only are unfavourable
+specimens not selected by nature, but they are destroyed.  This is
+what Mr. Darwin calls 'Natural Selection,' which 'acts by the
+preservation and accumulation of small inherited modifications, each
+profitable to the preserved being.'  With this idea he
+interpenetrates and leavens the vast store of facts that he and
+others have collected.  We cannot, without shutting our eyes through
+fear or prejudice, fail to see that Darwin is here dealing, not with
+imaginary, but with true causes; nor can we fail to discern what vast
+modifications may be produced by natural selection in periods
+sufficiently long.  Each individual increment may resemble what
+mathematicians call a 'differential' (a quantity indefinitely small);
+but definite and great changes may obviously be produced by the
+integration of these infinitesimal quantities through practically
+infinite time.
+
+If Darwin, like Bruno, rejects the notion of creative power acting
+after human fashion, it certainly is not because he is unacquainted
+with the numberless exquisite adaptations on which this notion of a
+supernatural artificer has been founded.  His book is a repository of
+the most startling facts of this description.  Take the marvellous
+observation which he cites from Dr. Crüger, where a bucket with an
+aperture, serving as a spout, is formed in an orchid.  Bees visit the
+flower: in eager search of material for their combs they push each
+other into the bucket, the drenched ones escaping from their
+involuntary bath by the spout.  Here they rub their backs against the
+viscid stigma of the flower and obtain glue; then against the
+pollen-masses, which are thus stuck to the back of the bee and
+carried away.  'When the bee, so provided, flies to another flower,
+or to the same flower a second time, and is pushed by its comrades
+into the bucket, and then crawls out by the passage, the pollen-mass
+upon its back necessarily comes first into contact with the viscid
+stigma,' which takes up the pollen; and this is how that orchid is
+fertilized.  Or take this other case of the _Catasetum_.  'Bees visit
+these flowers in order to gnaw the labellum; in doing this they
+inevitably touch a long, tapering, sensitive projection.  This, when
+touched, transmits a sensation or vibration to a certain membrane,
+which is instantly ruptured, setting free a spring, by which the
+pollen-mass is shot forth like an arrow in the right direction, and
+adheres by its viscid extremity to the back of the bee.'  In this way
+the fertilising pollen is spread abroad.
+
+It is the mind thus stored with the choicest materials of the
+teleologist that rejects teleology, seeking to refer these wonders to
+natural cases.  They illustrate, according to him, the method of
+nature, not the 'technic' of a man-like Artificer.  The beauty of
+flowers is due to natural selection.  Those that distinguish
+themselves by vividly contrasting colours from the surrounding green
+leaves are most readily seen, most frequently visited by insects,
+most often fertilized, and hence most favoured by natural selection.
+Coloured berries also readily attract the attention of birds and
+beasts, which feed upon them, spread their manured seeds abroad, thus
+giving trees and shrubs possessing such berries a greater chance in
+the struggle for existence.
+
+With profound analytic and synthetic skill, Mr. Darwin investigates
+the cell-making instinct of the hive-bee.  His method of dealing with
+it is representative.  He falls back from the more perfectly to the
+less perfectly developed instinct--from the hive-bee to the humble
+bee, which uses its own cocoon as a comb, and to classes of bees of
+intermediate skill, endeavouring to show how the passage might be
+gradually made from the lowest to the highest.  The saving of wax is
+the most important point in the economy of bees.  Twelve to fifteen
+pounds of dry sugar are said to be needed for the secretion of a
+single pound of wax.  The quantities of nectar necessary for the wax
+must therefore be vast; and every improvement of constructive
+instinct which results in the saving of wax is a direct profit to the
+insect's life.  The time that would otherwise be devoted to the
+making of wax is now devoted to the gathering and storing of honey
+for winter food.  He passes from the humble bee with its rude cells,
+through the Melipona with its more artistic cells, to the hive-bee
+with its astonishing architecture.  The bees place themselves at
+equal distances apart upon the wax, sweep and excavate equal spheres
+round the selected points.  The spheres intersect, and the planes of
+intersection are built up with thin laminæ.  Hexagonal cells are thus
+formed.  This mode of treating such questions is, as I have said,
+representative.  He habitually retires from the more perfect and
+complex to the less perfect and simple, and carries you with him
+through stages of perfecting, adds increment to increment of
+infinitesimal change, and in this way gradually breaks down your
+reluctance to admit that the exquisite climax of the whole could be a
+result of natural selection.
+
+Mr. Darwin shirks no difficulty; and, saturated as the subject was
+with his own thought, he must have known better than his critics the
+weakness as well as the strength of his theory.  This of course would
+be of little avail were his object a temporary dialectic victory
+instead of the establishment of a truth which he means to be
+ever-lasting.  But he takes no pains to disguise the weakness he has
+discerned; nay, he takes every pains to bring it into the strongest
+light.  His vast resources enable him to cope with objections started
+by himself and others, so as to leave the final impression upon the
+reader's mind that, if they be not completely answered, they
+certainly are not fatal.  Their negative force being thus destroyed,
+you are free to be influenced by the vast positive mass of evidence
+he is able to bring before you.  This largeness of knowledge and
+readiness of resource render Mr. Darwin the most terrible of
+antagonists.  Accomplished naturalists have levelled heavy and
+sustained criticisms against him--not always with the view of fairly
+weighing his theory, but with the express intention of exposing its
+weak points only.  This does not irritate him.  He treats every
+objection with a soberness and thoroughness which even Bishop Butler
+might be proud to imitate, surrounding each fact with its appropriate
+detail, placing it in its proper relations, and usually giving it a
+significance which, as long as it was kept isolated, failed to
+appear.  This is done without a trace of ill-temper.  He moves over
+the subject with the passionless strength of a glacier; and the
+grinding of the rocks is not always without a counterpart in the
+logical pulverization of the objector.
+
+But though in handling this mighty theme all passion has been
+stilled, there is an emotion of the intellect incident to the
+discernment of new truth which often colours and warms the pages of
+Mr. Darwin.  His success has been great; and this implies not only
+the solidity of his work, but the preparedness of the public mind for
+such a revelation.  On this head a remark of Agassiz impressed me
+more than anything else.  Sprung from a race of theologians, this
+celebrated man combated to the last the theory of natural selection.
+One of the many times I had the pleasure of meeting him in the United
+States was at Mr. Winthrop's beautiful residence at Brookline, near
+Boston.  Rising from luncheon, we all halted as if by a common
+impulse in front of a window, and continued there a discussion which
+had been started at table.  The maple was in its autumn glory; and
+the exquisite beauty of the scene outside seemed, in my case, to
+interpenetrate without disturbance the intellectual action.
+Earnestly, almost sadly, Agassiz turned, and said to the gentlemen
+standing round, 'I confess that I was not prepared to see this theory
+received as it has been by the best intellects of our time.  Its
+success is greater than I could have thought possible.'
+
+In our day grand generalizations have been reached.  The theory of
+the origin of species is but one of them.  Another, of still wider
+grasp and more radical significance, is the doctrine of the
+Conservation of Energy, the ultimate philosophical issues of which
+are as yet but dimly seen--that doctrine which 'binds nature fast in
+fate' to an extent not hitherto recognized, exacting from every
+antecedent its equivalent consequent, from every consequent its
+equivalent antecedent, and bringing vital as well as physical
+phenomena under the dominion of that law of causal connexion which,
+so far as the human understanding has yet pierced, asserts itself
+everywhere in nature.  Long in advance of all definite experiment
+upon the subject, the constancy and indestructibility of matter had
+been affirmed; and all subsequent experience justified the
+affirmation.  Later researches extended the attribute of
+indestructibility to force.  This idea, applied in the first instance
+to inorganic, rapidly embraced organic nature.  The vegetable world,
+though drawing almost all its nutriment from invisible sources, was
+proved incompetent to generate anew either matter or force.  Its
+matter is for the most part transmuted gas; its force transformed
+solar force.  The animal world was proved to be equally uncreative,
+all its motive energies being referred to the combustion of its food.
+The activity of each animal as a whole was proved to be the
+transferred activity of its molecules.  The muscles were shown to be
+stores of mechanical force, potential until unlocked by the nerves,
+and then resulting in muscular contractions.  The speed at which
+messages fly to and fro along the nerves was determined, and found to
+be, not as had been previously supposed, equal to that of light or
+electricity, but less than the speed of a flying eagle.
+
+This was the work of the physicist: then came the conquests of the
+comparative anatomist and physiologist, revealing the structure of
+every animal, and the function of every organ in the whole biological
+series, from the lowest zoophyte up to man.  The nervous system had
+been made the object of profound and continued study, the wonderful
+and, at bottom, entirely mysterious, controlling power which it
+exercises over the whole organism, physical and mental, being
+recognized more and more.  Thought could not be kept back from a
+subject so profoundly suggestive.  Besides the physical life dealt
+with by Mr. Darwin, there is a psychical life presenting similar
+gradations, and asking equally for a solution.  How are the different
+grades and order of Mind to be accounted for?  What is the principle
+of growth of that mysterious power which on our planet culminates in
+Reason?  These are questions which, though not thrusting themselves
+so forcibly upon the attention of the general public, had not only
+occupied many reflecting minds, but had been formally broached by one
+of them before the 'Origin of Species' appeared.
+
+With the mass of materials furnished by the physicist and
+physiologist in his hands, Mr. Herbert Spencer, twenty years ago,
+sought to graft upon this basis a system of psychology; and two years
+ago a second and greatly amplified edition of his work appeared.
+Those who have occupied themselves with the beautiful experiments of
+Plateau will remember that when two spherules of olive-oil, suspended
+in a mixture of alcohol and water of the same density as the oil, are
+brought together, they do not immediately unite.  Something like a
+pellicle appears to be formed around the drops, the rupture of which
+is immediately followed by the coalescence of the globules into one.
+There are organisms whose vital actions are almost as purely physical
+as that of these drops of oil.  They come into contact and fuse
+themselves thus together.  From such organisms to others a shade
+higher, and from these to others a shade higher still, and on through
+an ever-ascending series, Mr. Spencer conducts his argument.  There
+are two obvious factors to be here taken into account--the creature
+and the medium in which it lives, or, as it is often expressed, the
+organism and its environment.  Mr. Spencer's fundamental principle is
+that between these two factors there is incessant interaction.  The
+organism is played upon by the environment, and is modified to meet
+the requirements of the environment.  Life he defines to be 'a
+continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations.'
+
+In the lowest organisms we have a kind of tactual sense diffused over
+the entire body; then, through impressions from without and their
+corresponding adjustments, special portions of the surface become
+more responsive to stimuli than others.  The senses are nascent, the
+basis of all of them being that simple tactual sense which the sage
+Democritus recognised 2,300 years ago as their common progenitor.
+The action of light, in the first instance, appears to be a mere
+disturbance of the chemical processes in the animal organism, similar
+to that which occurs in the leaves of plants.  By degrees the action
+becomes localized in a few pigment-cells, more sensitive to light
+than the surrounding tissue.  The eye is here incipient.  At first it
+is merely capable of revealing differences of light and shade
+produced by bodies close at hand.  Followed as the interception of
+the light is in almost all cases by the contact of the closely
+adjacent opaque body, sight in this condition becomes a kind of
+'anticipatory touch.'  The adjustment continues; a slight bulging out
+of the epidermis over the pigment-granules supervenes.  A lens is
+incipient, and, through the operation of infinite adjustments, at
+length reaches the perfection that it displays in the hawk and eagle.
+So of the other senses; they are special differentiations of a tissue
+which was originally vaguely sensitive all over.
+
+With the development of the senses the adjustments between the
+organism and its environment gradually extend in _space_, a
+multiplication of experiences and a corresponding modification of
+conduct being the result.  The adjustments also extend in _time_,
+covering continually greater intervals.  Along with this extension in
+space and time the adjustments also increase in specialty and
+complexity, passing through the various grades of brute life, and
+prolonging themselves into the domain of reason.  Very striking are
+Mr. Spencer's remarks regarding the influence of the sense of touch
+upon the development of intelligence.  This is, so to say, the
+mother-tongue of all the senses, into which they must be translated
+to be of service to the organism.  Hence its importance.  The parrot
+is the most intelligent of birds, and its tactual power is also
+greatest.  From this sense it gets knowledge unattainable by birds
+which cannot employ their feet as hands.  The elephant is the most
+sagacious of quadrupeds--its tactual range and skill, and the
+consequent multiplication of experiences, which it owes to its
+wonderfully adaptable trunk, being the basis of its sagacity.  Feline
+animals, for a similar cause, are more sagacious than hoofed
+animals--atonement being to some extent made, in the case of the
+horse, by the possession of sensitive prehensile lips.  In the
+Primates the evolution of intellect and the evolution of tactual
+appendages go hand in hand.  In the most intelligent anthropoid apes
+we find the tactual range and delicacy greatly augmented, new avenues
+of knowledge being thus open to the animal.  Man crowns the edifice
+here, not only in virtue of his own manipulatory power, but through
+the enormous extension of his range of experience, by the invention
+of instruments of precision, which serve as supplemental senses and
+supplemental limbs.  The reciprocal action of these is finely
+described and illustrated.  That chastened intellectual emotion to
+which I have referred in connexion with Mr. Darwin is not absent in
+Mr. Spencer.  His illustrations possess at times exceeding vividness
+and force; and from his style on such occasions it is to be inferred
+that the ganglia of this Apostle of the Understanding are sometimes
+the seat of a nascent poetic thrill.
+
+It is a fact of supreme importance that actions the performance of
+which at first requires even painful effort and deliberation may by
+habit be rendered automatic.  Witness the slow learning of its
+letters by a child, and the subsequent facility of reading in a man,
+when each group of letters which forms a word is instantly, and
+without effort, fused to a single perception.  Instance the
+billiard-player, whose muscles of hand and eye, when he reaches the
+perfection of his art, are unconsciously coördinated.  Instance the
+musician, who, by practice, is enabled to fuse a multitude of
+arrangements, auditory, tactual, and muscular, into a process of
+automatic manipulation.  Combining such facts with the doctrine of
+hereditary transmission, we reach a theory of Instinct.  A chick,
+after coming out of the egg, balances itself correctly, runs about,
+picks up food, thus showing that it possesses a power of directing
+its movements to definite ends.  How did the chick learn this very
+complex coördination of eye, muscles, and beak?  It has not been
+individually taught; its personal experience is _nil_; but it has the
+benefit of ancestral experience.  In its inherited organization are
+registered all the powers which it displays at birth.  So also as
+regards the instinct of the hive-bee, already referred to.  The
+distance at which the insects stand apart when they sweep their
+hemispheres and build their cells is 'organically remembered.'
+
+Man also carries with him the physical texture of his ancestry, as
+well as the inherited intellect bound up with it.  The defects of
+intelligence during infancy and youth are probably less due to a lack
+of individual experience than to the fact that in early life the
+cerebral organization is still incomplete.  The period necessary for
+completion varies with the race and with the individual.  As a round
+shot outstrips a rifled one on quitting the muzzle of the gun, so the
+lower race in childhood may outstrip the higher.  But the higher
+eventually overtakes the lower, and surpasses it in range.  As
+regards individuals, we do not always find the precocity of youth
+prolonged to mental power in maturity; while the dulness of boyhood
+is sometimes strikingly contrasted with the intellectual energy of
+after years.  Newton, when a boy, was weakly, and he showed no
+particular aptitude at school; but in his eighteenth year he went to
+Cambridge, and soon afterwards astonished his teachers by his power
+of dealing with geometrical problems.  During his quiet youth his
+brain was slowly preparing itself to be the organ of those energies
+which he subsequently displayed.
+
+By myriad blows (to use a Lucretian phrase) the image and
+superscription of the external world are stamped as states of
+consciousness upon the organism, the depth of the impression
+depending upon the number of the blows.  When two or more phenomena
+occur in the environment invariably together, they are stamped to the
+same depth or to the same relief, and indissolubly connected.  And
+here we come to the threshold of a great question.  Seeing that he
+could in no way rid himself of the consciousness of Space and Time,
+Kant assumed them to be necessary 'forms of intuition,' the moulds
+and shapes into which our intuitions are thrown, belonging to
+ourselves solely and without objective existence.  With unexpected
+power and success Mr. Spencer brings the hereditary experience
+theory, as he holds it, to bear upon this question.  'If there exist
+certain external relations which are experienced by all organisms at
+all instants of their waking lives--relations which are absolutely
+constant and universal--there will be established answering internal
+relations that are absolutely constant and universal.  Such relations
+we have in those of Space and Time.  As the substratum of all other
+relations of the Non-Ego, they must be responded to by conceptions
+that are the substrata of all other relations in the Ego.  Being the
+constant and infinitely repeated elements of thought, they must
+become the automatic elements of thought--the elements of thought
+which it is impossible to get rid of--the "forms of intuition."
+
+Throughout this application and extension of the 'Law of Inseparable
+Association,' Mr. Spencer stands upon his own ground, invoking,
+instead of the experiences of the individual, the registered
+experiences of the race.  His overthrow of the restriction of
+experience to the individual is, I think, complete.  That restriction
+ignores the power of organizing experience furnished at the outset to
+each individual; it ignores the different degrees of this power
+possessed by different races and by different individuals of the same
+race.  Were there not in the human brain a potency antecedent to all
+experience, a dog or cat ought to be as capable of education as a
+man.  These predetermined internal relations are independent of the
+experiences of the individual.  The human brain is the 'organised
+register of infinitely numerous experiences received during the
+evolution of life, or rather during the evolution of that series of
+organisms through which the human organism has been reached.  The
+effects of the most uniform and frequent of these experiences have
+been successively bequeathed, principal and interest, and have slowly
+mounted to that high intelligence which lies latent in the brain of
+the infant.  Thus it happens that the European inherits from twenty
+to thirty cubic inches more of brain than the Papuan.  Thus it
+happens that faculties, as of music, which scarcely exist in some
+inferior races, become congenital in superior ones.  Thus it happens
+that out of savages unable to count up to the number of their
+fingers, and speaking a language containing only nouns and verbs,
+arise at length our Newtons and Shakespeares.'
+
+
+At the outset of this Address it was stated that physical theories
+which lie beyond experience are derived by a process of abstraction
+from experience.  It is instructive to note from this point of view
+the successive introduction of new conceptions.  The idea of the
+attraction of gravitation was preceded by the observation of the
+attraction of iron by a magnet, and of light bodies by rubbed amber.
+The polarity of magnetism and electricity appealed to the senses; and
+thus became the substratum of the conception that atoms and molecules
+are endowed with definite, attractive, and repellent poles, by the
+play of which definite forms of crystalline architecture are
+produced.  Thus molecular force becomes _structural_.  It required no
+great boldness of thought to extend its play into organic nature, and
+to recognize in molecular force the agency by which both plants and
+animals are built up.  In this way out of experience arise
+conceptions which are wholly ultra-experiential.  None of the
+atomists of antiquity had any notion of this play of molecular polar
+force, but they had experience of gravity as manifested by falling
+bodies.  Abstracting from this, they permitted their atoms to fall
+eternally through empty space.  Democritus assumed that the larger
+atoms moved more rapidly than the smaller ones, which they therefore
+could overtake, and with which they could combine.  Epicurus, holding
+that empty space could offer no resistance to motion, ascribed to all
+the atoms the same velocity; but he seems to have overlooked the
+consequence that under such circumstances the atoms could never
+combine.  Lucretius cut the knot by quitting the domain of physics
+altogether, and causing the atoms to move together by a kind of
+volition.
+
+Was the instinct utterly at fault which caused Lucretius thus to
+swerve from his own principles?  Diminishing gradually the number of
+progenitors, Mr. Darwin comes at length to one 'primordial form;' but
+he does not say, as far as I remember, how he supposes this form to
+have been introduced.  He quotes with satisfaction the words of a
+celebrated author and divine who had 'gradually learnt to see that it
+is just as noble a conception of the Deity to believe He created a
+few original forms, capable of self-development into other and
+needful forms, as to believe that He required a fresh act of creation
+to supply the voids caused by the action of His laws.'  What Mr.
+Darwin thinks of this view of the introduction of life I do not know.
+But the anthropomorphism, which it seemed his object to set aside, is
+as firmly associated with the creation of a few forms as with the
+creation of a multitude.  We need clearness and thoroughness here.
+Two courses and two only, are possible.  Either let us open our doors
+freely to the conception of creative acts, or, abandoning them, let
+us radically change our notions of Matter.  If we look at matter as
+pictured by Democritus, and as defined for generations in our
+scientific text-books, the notion of any form of life whatever coming
+out of it is utterly unimaginable.  The argument placed in the mouth
+of Bishop Butler suffices, in my opinion, to crush all such
+materialism as this.  But those who framed these definitions of
+matter were not biologists but mathematicians, whose labours referred
+only to such accidents and properties of matter as could be expressed
+in their formulæ.  The very intentness with which they pursued
+mechanical science turned their thoughts aside from the science of
+life.  May not their imperfect definitions be the real cause of our
+present dread?  Let us reverently, but honestly, look the question in
+the face.  Divorced from matter, where is life to be found?  Whatever
+our _faith_ may say, our _knowledge_ shows them to be indissolubly
+joined.  Every meal we eat, and every cup we drink, illustrates the
+mysterious control of Mind by Matter.
+
+Trace the line of life backwards, and see it approaching more and
+more to what we call the purely physical condition.  We come at
+length to those organisms which I have compared to drops of oil
+suspended in a mixture of alcohol and water.  We reach the
+_protogenes_ of Haeckel, in which we have 'a type distinguishable
+from a fragment of albumen only by its finely granular character.'
+Can we pause here?  We break a magnet and find two poles in each of
+its fragments.  We continue the process of breaking, but, however
+small the parts, each carries with it, though enfeebled, the polarity
+of the whole.  And when we can break no longer, we prolong the
+intellectual vision to the polar molecules.  Are we not urged to do
+_something_ similar in the case of life?  Is there not a temptation
+to close to some extent with Lucretius, when he affirms that 'nature
+is seen to do all things spontaneously of herself without the
+meddling of the gods?' or with Bruno, when he declares that Matter is
+not 'that mere empty capacity which philosophers have pictured her to
+be, but the universal mother who brings forth all things as the fruit
+of her own womb?'  Believing as I do in the continuity of Nature, I
+cannot stop abruptly where our microscopes cease to be of use.  Here
+the vision of the mind authoritatively supplements the vision of the
+eye.  By an intellectual necessity I cross the boundary of the
+experimental evidence, and discern in that Matter which we, in our
+ignorance of its latent powers, and notwithstanding our professed
+reverence for its Creator, have hitherto covered with opprobrium, the
+promise and potency of all terrestial Life.
+
+If you ask me whether there exists the least evidence to prove that
+any form of life can be developed out of matter, without demonstrable
+antecedent life, my reply is that evidence considered perfectly
+conclusive by many has been adduced; and that were some of us who
+have pondered this question to follow a very common example, and
+accept testimony because it falls in with our belief, we also should
+eagerly close with the evidence referred to.  But there is in the
+true man of science a wish stronger than the wish to have his beliefs
+upheld; namely, the wish to have them true.  And this stronger wish
+causes him to reject the most plausible support if he has reason to
+suspect that it is vitiated by error.  Those to whom I refer as
+having studied this question, believing the evidence offered in
+favour of 'spontaneous generation' to be thus vitiated, cannot accept
+it.  They know full well that the chemist now prepares from inorganic
+matter a vast array of substances which were some time ago regarded
+as the sole products of vitality.  They are intimately acquainted
+with the structural power of matter as evidenced in the phenomena of
+crystallization.  They can justify scientifically their _belief_ in
+its potency, under the proper conditions, to produce organisms.  But
+in reply to your question they will frankly admit their inability to
+point to any satisfactory experimental proof that life can be
+developed save from demonstrable antecedent life.  As already
+indicated, they draw the line from the highest organisms through
+lower ones down to the lowest, and it is the prolongation of this
+line by the intellect beyond the range of the senses that leads them
+to the conclusion which Bruno so boldly enunciated.[20]
+
+The 'materialism' here professed may be vastly different from what
+you suppose, and I therefore crave your gracious patience to the end.
+'The question of an external world,' says Mr. J. S. Mill, 'is the
+great battleground of metaphysics.'[21]  Mr. Mill himself reduces
+external phenomena to 'possibilities of sensation.'  Kant, as we have
+seen, made time and space 'forms' of our own intuitions.  Fichte,
+having first by the inexorable logic of his understanding proved
+himself to be a mere link in that chain of eternal causation which
+holds so rigidly in Nature, violently broke the chain by making
+Nature, and all that it inherits, an apparition of his own mind.[22]
+And it is by no means easy to combat such notions.  For when I say I
+see you, and that I have not the least doubt about it, the reply is,
+that what I am really conscious of is an affection of my own retina.
+And if I urge that I can check my sight of you by touching you, the
+retort would be that I am equally transgressing the limits of fact;
+for what I am really conscious of is, not that you are there, but
+that the nerves of my hand have undergone a change.  All we hear, and
+see, and touch, and taste, and smell, are, it would be urged, mere
+variations of our own condition, beyond which, even to the extent of
+a hair's breadth, we cannot go.  That anything answering to our
+impressions exists outside of ourselves is not a _fact_, but an
+_inference_, to which all validity would be denied by an idealist
+like Berkeley, or by a sceptic like Hume.  Mr. Spencer takes another
+line.  With him, as with the uneducated man, there is no doubt or
+question as to the existence of an external world.  But he differs
+from the uneducated, who think that the world really is what
+consciousness represents it to be.  Our states of consciousness are
+mere _symbols_ of an outside entity which produces them and
+determines the order of their succession, but the real nature of
+which we can never know.[23]  In fact, the whole process of evolution
+is the manifestation of a Power absolutely inscrutable to the
+intellect of man.  As little in our day as in the days of Job can man
+by searching find this Power out.  Considered fundamentally, then, it
+is by the operation of an insoluble mystery that life on earth is
+evolved, species differentiated, and mind unfolded from their
+prepotent elements in the immeasurable past.  There is, you will
+observe, no very rank materialism here.
+
+The strength of the doctrine of evolution consists, not in an
+experimental demonstration (for the subject is hardly accessible to
+this mode of proof), but in its general harmony with scientific
+thought.  From contrast, moreover, it derives enormous relative
+strength.  On the one side we have a theory (if it could with any
+propriety be so called) derived, as were the theories referred to at
+the beginning of this Address, not from the study of Nature, but from
+the observation of men--a theory which converts the Power whose
+garment is seen in the visible universe into an Artificer, fashioned
+after the human model, and acting by broken efforts, as man is seen
+to act.  On the other side, we have the conception that all we see
+around us, and all we feel within us--the phenomena of physical
+nature as well as those of the human mind--have their unsearchable
+roots in a cosmical life, if I dare apply the term, an infinitesimal
+span of which is offered to the investigation of man.  And even this
+span is only knowable in part.  We can trace the development of a
+nervous system, and correlate with it the parallel phenomena of
+sensation and thought.  We see with undoubting certainty that they go
+hand in hand.  But we try to soar in a vacuum the moment we seek to
+comprehend the connexion between them.  An Archimedean fulcrum is
+here required which the human mind cannot command; and the effort to
+solve the problem, to borrow a comparison from an illustrious friend
+of mine, is like the effort of a man trying to lift himself by his
+own waistband.  All that has been here said is to be taken in
+connexion with this fundamental truth.  When 'nascent senses' are
+spoken of, when 'the differentiation of a tissue at first vaguely
+sensitive all over' is spoken of, and when these processes are
+associated with 'the modification of an organism by its environment,'
+the same parallelism, without contact, or even approach to contact,
+is implied.  Man the _object_ is separated by an impassable gulf from
+man the _subject_.  There is no motor energy in intellect to carry it
+without logical rupture from the one to the other.
+
+Further, the doctrine of evolution derives man in his totality from
+the inter-action of organism and environment through countless ages
+past.  The Human Understanding, for example--that faculty which Mr.
+Spencer has turned so skilfully round upon its own antecedents--is
+itself a result of the play between organism and environment through
+cosmic ranges of time.  Never surely did prescription plead so
+irresistible a claim.  But then it comes to pass that, over and above
+his understanding, there are many other things appertaining to man
+whose perspective rights are quite as strong as those of the
+understanding itself.  It is a result, for example, of the play of
+organism and environment that sugar is sweet and that aloes are
+bitter, that the smell of henbane differs from the perfume of a rose.
+Such facts of consciousness (for which, by the way, no adequate
+reason has yet been rendered) are quite as old as the understanding;
+and many other things can boast an equally ancient origin.  Mr.
+Spencer at one place refers to that most powerful of passions--the
+amatory passion--as one which, when it first occurs, is antecedent to
+all relative experience whatever; and we may pass its claim as being
+at least as ancient and valid as that of the understanding.  Then
+there are such things woven into the texture of man as the feeling of
+Awe, Reverence, Wonder--and not alone the sexual love just referred
+to, but the love of the beautiful, physical, and moral, in Nature,
+Poetry, and Art.  There is also that deep-set feeling which, since
+the earliest dawn of history, and probably for ages prior to all
+history, incorporated itself in the Religions of the world.  You who
+have escaped from these religions into the high-and-dry light of the
+intellect may deride them; but in so doing you deride accidents of
+form merely, and fail to touch the immovable basis of the religious
+sentiment in the nature of man.  To yield this sentiment reasonable
+satisfaction is the problem of problems at the present hour.  And
+grotesque in relation to scientific culture as many of the religions
+of the world have been and are--dangerous, nay destructive, to the
+dearest privileges of free-men as some of them undoubtedly have been,
+and would, if they could, be again--it will be wise to recognize them
+as the forms of a force, mischievous, if permitted to intrude on the
+region of knowledge, over which it holds no command, but capable of
+being guided to noble issues in the region of emotion, which is its
+proper and elevated sphere.
+
+All religious theories, schemes and systems, which embrace notions of
+cosmogony, or which otherwise reach into the domain of science, must,
+_in so far as they do this_, submit to the control of science, and
+relinquish all thought of controlling it.  Acting otherwise proved
+disastrous in the past, and it is simply fatuous to-day.  Every
+system which would escape the fate of an organism too rigid to adjust
+itself to its environment must be plastic to the extent that the
+growth of knowledge demands.  When this truth has been thoroughly
+taken in, rigidity will be relaxed, exclusiveness diminished, things
+now deemed essential will be dropped, and elements now rejected will
+be assimilated.  The lifting of the life is the essential point; and
+as long as dogmatism, fanaticism, and intolerance are kept out,
+various modes of leverage may be employed to raise life to a higher
+level.  Science itself not unfrequently derives motive power from an
+ultra-scientific source.  Whewell speaks of enthusiasm of temper as a
+hindrance to science; but he means the enthusiasm of weak heads.
+There is a strong and resolute enthusiasm in which science finds an
+ally; and it is to the lowering of this fire, rather than to the
+diminution of intellectual insight, that the lessening productiveness
+of men of science in their mature years is to be ascribed.  Mr.
+Buckle sought to detach intellectual achievement from moral force.
+He gravely erred; for without moral force to whip it into action, the
+achievements of the intellect would be poor indeed.
+
+It has been said that science divorces itself from literature; but
+the statement, like so many others, arises from lack of knowledge.  A
+glance at the less technical writings of its leaders--of its
+Helmholtz, its Huxley, and its Du Bois-Reymond--would show what
+breadth of literary culture they command.  Where among modern writers
+can you find their superiors in clearness and vigour of literary
+style?  Science desires not isolation, but freely combines with every
+effort towards the bettering of man's estate.  Single-handed, and
+supported not by outward sympathy, but by inward force, it has built
+at least one great wing of the many-mansioned home which man in his
+totality demands.  And if rough walls and protruding rafter-ends
+indicate that on one side the edifice is still incomplete, it is only
+by wise combination of the parts required with those already
+irrevocably built that we can hope for completeness.  There is no
+necessary incongruity between what has been accomplished and what
+remains to be done.  The moral glow of Socrates, which we all feel by
+ignition, has in it nothing incompatible with the physics of
+Anaxagoras which he so much scorned, but which he would hardly scorn
+to-day.
+
+And here I am reminded of one amongst us, hoary, but still strong,
+whose prophet-voice some thirty years ago, far more than any other of
+this age, unlocked whatever of life and nobleness lay latent in its
+most gifted minds--one fit to stand beside Socrates or the Maccabean
+Eleazar, and to dare and suffer all that they suffered and
+dared--fit, as he once said of Fichte, 'to have been the teacher of
+the Stoa, and to have discoursed of Beauty and Virtue in the groves
+of Academe.'  With a capacity to grasp physical principles which his
+friend Goethe did not possess, and which even total lack of exercise
+has not been able to reduce to atrophy, it is the world's loss that
+he, in the vigour of his years, did not open his mind and sympathies
+to science, and make its conclusions a portion of his message to
+mankind.  Marvellously endowed as he was--equally equipped on the
+side of the Heart and of the Understanding--he might have done much
+towards teaching us how to reconcile the claims of both, and to
+enable them in coming times to dwell together in unity of spirit and
+in the bond of peace.
+
+And now the end is come.  With more time, or greater strength and
+knowledge, what has been here said might have been better said, while
+worthy matters here omitted might have received fit expression.  But
+there would have been no material deviation from the views set forth.
+As regards myself, they are not the growth of a day; and as regards
+you, I thought you ought to know the environment which, with or
+without your consent, is rapidly surrounding you, and in relation to
+which some adjustment on your part may be necessary.  A hint of
+Hamlet's, however, teaches us all how the troubles of common life may
+be ended; and it is perfectly possible for you and me to purchase
+intellectual peace at the price of intellectual death.  The world is
+not without refuges of this description; nor is it wanting in persons
+who seek their shelter and try to persuade others to do the same.
+The unstable and the weak will yield to this persuasion, and they to
+whom repose is sweeter than the truth.  But I would exhort you to
+refuse the offered shelter and to scorn the base repose--to accept,
+if the choice be forced upon you, commotion before stagnation, the
+leap of the torrent before the stillness of the swamp.
+
+In the course of this Address I have touched on debatable questions
+and led you over what will be deemed dangerous ground--and this
+partly with the view of telling you that as regards these questions
+science claims unrestricted right of search.  It is not to the point
+to say that the views of Lucretius and Bruno, of Darwin and Spencer,
+may be wrong.  Here I should agree with you, deeming it indeed
+certain that these views will undergo modification.  But the point
+is, that, whether right or wrong, we ask the freedom to discuss them.
+For science, however, no exclusive claim is here made; you are not
+urged to erect it into an idol.  The inexorable advance of man's
+understanding in the path of knowledge, and those unquenchable claims
+of his moral and emotional nature which the understanding can never
+satisfy, are here equally set forth.  The world embraces not only a
+Newton, but a Shakespeare--not only a Boyle, but a Raphael--not only
+a Kant, but a Beethoven--not only a Darwin, but a Carlyle.  Not in
+each of these, but in all, is human nature whole.  They are not
+opposed, but supplementary--not mutually exclusive, but reconcilable.
+And if, unsatisfied with them all, the human mind, with the yearning
+of a pilgrim for his distant home, will turn to the Mystery from
+which it has emerged, seeking so to fashion it as to give unity to
+thought and faith; so long as this is done, not only without
+intolerance or bigotry of any kind, but with the enlightened
+recognition that ultimate fixity of conception is here unattainable,
+and that each succeeding age must be held free to fashion the Mystery
+in accordance with its own needs--then, casting aside all the
+restrictions of Materialism, I would affirm this to be a field for
+the noblest exercise of what, in contrast with the _knowing_
+faculties, may be called the _creative_ faculties of man.
+
+'Fill thy heart with it,' said Goethe, 'and then name it as thou
+wilt.'  Goethe himself did this in untranslateable language.[24]
+Wordsworth did it in words known to all Englishmen, and which may be
+regarded as a forecast and religious vitalization of the latest and
+deepest scientific truth,--
+
+                    'For I have learned
+  To look on nature; not as in the hour
+  Of thoughtless youth; but hearing oftentimes
+  The still, sad music of humanity,
+  Nor harsh nor grating, though of ample power
+  To chasten and subdue.  _And I have felt
+  A presence that disturbs me with the joy
+  Of elevated thoughts; a sense sublime
+  Of something far more deeply interfused,
+  Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns,
+  And the round ocean, and the living air,
+  And the blue sky, and in the mind of man:
+  A motion and a spirit, that impels
+  All thinking things, all objects of all thought,
+  And rolls through all things_.'[25]
+
+
+
+
+[1] Hume, _Natural History of Religion_.
+
+[2] Born 460 B.C.
+
+[3] Lange, 2nd edit., p. 23.
+
+[4] Born 342 B.C.
+
+[5] Tennyson's Lucretius.
+
+[6] Born 99 B.C.
+
+[7] Monro's translation.  In his criticism of this work,
+_Contemporary Review_, 1867, Dr. Hayman does not appear to be aware
+of the really sound and subtile observations on which the reasoning
+of Lucretius, though erroneous, sometimes rests.
+
+[8] _History of the Intellectual Development of Europe_, p. 295.
+
+[9] _History of the Inductive Sciences_, vol. i.
+
+[10] Depicted with terrible vividness in _Renan's Antichrist_.
+
+[11] _Intellectual Development of Europe_, p. 359.
+
+[12] Lange, 2nd edit. pp. 181, 182.
+
+[13] See Huxley's admirable Essay on Descartes.  _Lay Sermons_, pp.
+864, 365.
+
+[14] Boyle's model of the universe was the Strasburg clock with an
+outside Artificer.  Goethe, on the other hand, sang
+
+  'Ihm ziemt's die Welt im Innern zu bewegen,
+  Natur in sich, sich in Natur zu hegen.'
+
+See also Carlyle, _Past and Present_, Chap. V.
+
+[15] Only to some; for there are dignitaries who even now speak of
+the earth's rocky crust as so much building material prepared for man
+at the Creation.  Surely it is time that this loose language should
+cease.
+
+[16] _Zoonomia_, vol. i. pp. 500-510.
+
+[17] In 1855 Mr. Herbert Spencer (Principles of Psychology, 2nd edit.
+vol. i. p. 465) expressed 'the belief that life under all its forms
+has arisen by an unbroken evolution, and through the instrumentality
+of what are called natural causes.'
+
+[18] The behaviour of Mr. Wallace in relation to this subject has
+been dignified in the highest desgree.
+
+[19] The first step only towards experimental demonstration has been
+taken.  Experiments now begun might, a couple of centuries hence,
+furnish data of incalculable value, which ought to be supplied to the
+science of the future.
+
+[20] Bruno was a 'Pantheist,' not an 'Atheist' or a 'Materialist.'
+
+[21] _Examination of Hamilton_, p. 154.
+
+[22] _Bestimmung des Menschen_.
+
+[23] In a paper, at once popular and profound, entitled _Recent
+Progress in the Theory of Vision_, contained in the volume of
+Lectures by Helmholtz, published by Longmans, this symbolism of our
+states of consciousness is also dwelt upon.  The impressions of sense
+are the mere signs of external things.  In this paper Helmholtz
+contends strongly against the view that the consciousness of space is
+inborn; and he evidently doubts the power of the chick to pick up
+grains of corn without preliminary lessons.  On this point, he says,
+further experiments are needed.  Such experiments have been since
+made by Mr. Spalding, aided, I believe, in some of his observations
+by the accomplished and deeply lamented Lady Amberly; and they seem
+to prove conclusively that the chick does not need a single moment's
+tuition to enable it to stand, run, govern the muscles of its eyes,
+and to peck.  Helmholtz, however, is contending against the notion of
+pre-established harmony; and I am not aware of his views as to the
+organisation of experiences of race or breed.
+
+[24] Proœmium to 'Gott und Welt.'
+
+[25] Tintern Abbey.
+
+
+
+  LONDON: PRINTED BY
+  SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
+  AND PARLIAMENT STREET
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75664 ***
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of Address, by John Tyndall
+</title>
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+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75664 ***</div>
+
+<h1>
+<br><br>
+  ADDRESS<br>
+  <span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal">DELIVERED BEFORE</span><br>
+  THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION<br>
+  <span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal">ASSEMBLED AT</span><br>
+  BELFAST<br>
+</h1>
+
+<p><br></p>
+
+<p class="t3">
+  <i>WITH ADDITIONS</i><br>
+</p>
+
+<p><br></p>
+
+<p class="t3">
+  BY<br>
+  JOHN TYNDALL, F.R.S.<br>
+  PRESIDENT<br>
+</p>
+
+<p><br><br></p>
+
+<p class="t4">
+  FIFTH THOUSAND<br>
+</p>
+
+<p><br><br></p>
+
+<p class="t3">
+  LONDON<br>
+  LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.<br>
+  1874<br>
+</p>
+
+<p><br><br><br></p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+  'There is one God supreme over all gods, diviner than mortals,<br>
+  Whose form is not like unto man's, and as unlike his nature;<br>
+  But vain mortals imagine that gods like themselves are begotten,<br>
+  With human sensations and voice and corporeal members;<br>
+  So, if oxen or lions had hands and could work in man's fashion,<br>
+  And trace out with chisel or brush their conception of Godhead,<br>
+  Then would horses depict gods like horses, and oxen like oxen,<br>
+  Each kind the divine with its own form and nature endowing.'<br>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+XENOPHANES of Colophon (six centuries B.C.), 'Supernatural Religion,'
+Vol. I. p. 76.
+</p>
+
+<p><br></p>
+
+<p>
+'It were better to have no opinion of God at all, than such
+an opinion as is unworthy of Him; for the one is unbelief, the
+other is contumely.' BACON.
+</p>
+
+<p><br><br><br></p>
+
+<h3>
+PREFACE.
+</h3>
+
+<p>
+At the request of my Publishers, strengthened by the
+expressed desire of many Correspondents, I reprint, with
+a few slight alterations, this Address.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It was written under some disadvantages this year in
+the Alps, and sent by instalments to the printer.  When
+read subsequently it proved too long for its purpose, and
+several of its passages were accordingly struck out.  Some
+of them are here restored.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It has provoked an unexpected amount of criticism.
+This, in due time, will subside; and I confidently look
+forward to a calmer future for a verdict, founded not on
+imaginary sins, but on the real facts of the case.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Of the numberless strictures and accusations, some of
+them exceeding fierce, of which I have been, and continue
+to be, the object, I refrain from speaking at any
+length.  To one or two of them, however, out of respect
+for their sources, I would ask permission briefly to refer.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+An evening paper of the first rank, after the
+ascription of various more or less questionable aims and
+motives, proceeds to the imputation, that I permitted the
+cheers of my audience to 'stimulate' me to the utterance
+of words which no right-minded man, without a sense
+of the gravest responsibility, could employ.  I trust the
+author of this charge will allow me in all courtesy to assure
+him that the words ascribed by him to the spur of the
+moment were written in Switzerland; that they stood in
+the printed copy of the Address from which I read; that
+they evoked no 'cheers,' but a silence far more impressive
+than cheers; and that, finally, as regards both approbation
+and the reverse, my course had been thought over
+and decided long before I ventured to address a Belfast audience.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+A writer in a most able theological journal represents me
+as 'patting religion on the back.'  The thought of
+doing so is certainly his, not mine.  The facts of religious
+feeling are to me as certain as the facts of physics.  But
+the world, I hold, will have to distinguish between the
+feeling and its forms, and to vary the latter in accordance
+with the intellectual condition of the age.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I am unwilling to dwell upon statements ascribed
+to eminent men, which may be imperfectly reported in
+the newspapers, and I therefore pass over a recent
+sermon attributed to the Bishop of Manchester with the
+remark, that one engaged so much as he is in busy
+and, I doubt not on the whole, beneficent outward life,
+is not likely to be among the earliest to discern the more
+inward and spiritual signs of the times, or to prepare
+for the condition which they foreshadow.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In a recent speech at Dewsbury, the Dean of Manchester
+is reported to have expressed himself thus:&mdash;'The
+Professor (myself) ended a most remarkable and
+eloquent speech by terming himself a material Atheist.'  My
+attention was drawn to Dean Cowie's statement
+by a correspondent, who described it as standing
+'conspicuous among the strange calumnies' with which my
+words have been assailed.  For myself I use no language
+which could imply that I am hurt by such attacks.  They
+have lost their power to wound or injure.  So likewise as
+regards a resolution recently passed by the Presbytery
+of Belfast, in which Professor Huxley and myself are
+spoken of as 'ignoring the existence of God, and advocating
+pure and simple materialism;' had the possessive
+pronoun 'our' preceded 'God,' and had the words 'what
+we consider' preceded 'pure,' this statement would have
+been objectively true; but to make it so this qualification
+is required.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Cardinal Cullen, I am told, is also actively engaged
+in erecting spiritual barriers against the intrusion of
+'Infidelity' into Ireland.  His Eminence, I believe, has
+reason to suspect that the Catholic youth around him are
+not proof to the seductions of science.  Strong as he is,
+I believe him to be impotent here.  The youth of Ireland
+will imbibe science, however slowly; they will be leavened
+by it, however gradually.  And to its inward modifying
+power among Catholics themselves, rather than to any
+Protestant propagandism, or other external influence, I
+look for the abatement of various incongruities; among
+them, of those mediæval proceedings which, to the
+scandal and amazement of our nineteenth century
+intelligence, have been revived among us during the last
+two years.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In connexion with the charge of Atheism, I would
+make one remark.  Christian men are proved by their
+writings to have their hours of weakness and of doubt, as
+well as their hours of strength and of conviction; and
+men like myself share, in their own way, these variations
+of mood and tense.  Were the religious views of many
+of my assailants the only alternative ones, I do not know
+how strong the claims of the doctrine of 'Material
+Atheism' upon my allegiance might be.  Probably they
+would be very strong.  But, as it is, I have noticed
+during years of self-observation that it is not in hours
+of clearness and vigour that this doctrine commends
+itself to my mind; that in the presence of stronger and
+healthier thought it ever dissolves and disappears, as
+offering no solution of the mystery in which we dwell,
+and of which we form a part.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To coarser attacks and denunciations I pay no attention;
+nor have I any real reason to complain of revilings
+addressed to me, which professing Christians, as could
+readily be proved, do not scruple to use towards each
+other.  The more agreeable task remains to me of
+thanking those who have tried, however hopelessly, to
+keep accusation within the bounds of justice, and who,
+privately, and at some risk in public, have honoured me
+with the expression of their sympathy and approval.
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+JOHN TYNDALL.
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+  Athenæum Club.<br>
+  <i>September</i> 16, 1874.<br>
+</p>
+
+<p><br><br><br></p>
+
+<p><a id="chap01"></a></p>
+
+<h3>
+ADDRESS,
+</h3>
+
+<p class="t3">
+ETC.
+</p>
+
+<p><br></p>
+
+<p>
+An impulse inherent in primeval man turned his thoughts
+and questionings betimes towards the sources of natural
+phenomena.  The same impulse, inherited and intensified,
+is the spur of scientific action to-day.  Determined by
+it, by a process of abstraction from experience we form
+physical theories which lie beyond the pale of experience,
+but which satisfy the desire of the mind to see every natural
+occurrence resting upon a cause.  In forming their notions
+of the origin of things, our earliest historic (and doubtless,
+we might add, our prehistoric) ancestors pursued, as far as
+their intelligence permitted, the same course.  They also
+fell back upon experience, but with this difference&mdash;that
+the particular experiences which furnished the weft and
+woof of their theories were drawn, not from the study of
+nature, but from what lay much closer to them, the observation
+of men.  Their theories accordingly took an anthropomorphic
+form.  To supersensual beings, which, 'however
+potent and invisible, were nothing but a species of human
+creatures, perhaps raised from among mankind, and retaining
+all human passions and appetites,'[<a id="chap01fn1text"></a><a href="#chap01fn1">1</a>] were handed over
+the rule and governance of natural phenomena.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Tested by observation and reflection, these early notions
+failed in the long run to satisfy the more penetrating
+intellects of our race.  Far in the depths of history we find
+men of exceptional power differentiating themselves from
+the crowd, rejecting these anthropomorphic notions, and
+seeking to connect natural phenomena with their physical
+principles.  But long prior to these purer efforts of the
+understanding the merchant had been abroad, and rendered
+the philosopher possible; commerce had been developed,
+wealth amassed, leisure for travel and speculation secured,
+while races educated under different conditions, and therefore
+differently informed and endowed, had been stimulated
+and sharpened by mutual contact.  In those regions where
+the commercial aristocracy of ancient Greece mingled with
+its eastern neighbours the sciences were born, being
+nurtured and developed by free-thinking and courageous men.
+The state of things to be displaced may be gathered from
+a passage of Euripides quoted by Hume.  'There is
+nothing in the world; no glory, no prosperity.  The gods
+toss all into confusion; mix everything with its reverse,
+that all of us, from our ignorance and uncertainty, may
+pay them the more worship and reverence.'  Now, as
+science demands the radical extirpation of caprice and
+the absolute reliance upon law in nature, there grew with
+the growth of scientific notions a desire and determination
+to sweep from the field of theory this mob of gods and
+demons, and to place natural phenomena on a basis more
+congruent with themselves.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The problem which had been previously approached
+from above was now attacked from below; theoretic effort
+passed from the super- to the sub-sensible.  It was felt
+that to construct the universe in idea it was necessary to
+have some notion of its constituent parts&mdash;of what Lucretius
+subsequently called the 'First Beginnings.'  Abstracting
+again from experience, the leaders of scientific speculation
+reached at length the pregnant doctrine of atoms and
+molecules, the latest developments of which were set
+forth with such power and clearness at the last meeting
+of the British Association.  Thought, no doubt, had
+long hovered about this doctrine before it attained the
+precision and completeness which it assumed in the
+mind of Democritus,[<a id="chap01fn2text"></a><a href="#chap01fn2">2</a>] a philosopher who may well for a
+moment arrest our attention.  'Few great men,' says
+Lange, a non-materialist, in his excellent 'History of
+Materialism,' to the spirit and to the letter of which I
+am equally indebted, 'have been so despitefully used by
+history as Democritus.  In the distorted images sent
+down to us through unscientific traditions there remains
+of him almost nothing but the name of "the laughing
+philosopher," while figures of immeasurably smaller
+significance spread themselves out at full length before
+us.'  Lange speaks of Bacon's high appreciation of
+Democritus&mdash;for ample illustrations of which I am indebted to my
+excellent friend Mr. Spedding, the learned editor and
+biographer of Bacon.  It is evident, indeed, that Bacon
+considered Democritus to be a man of weightier metal than
+either Plato or Aristotle, though their philosophy 'was
+noised and celebrated in the schools, amid the din and
+pomp of professors.'  It was not they, but Genseric and
+Attila and the barbarians, who destroyed the atomic
+philosophy.  'For at a time when all human learning had
+suffered shipwreck these planks of Aristotelian and
+Platonic philosophy, as being of a lighter and more inflated
+substance, were preserved and came down to us, while
+things more solid sank and almost passed into oblivion.'
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The son of a wealthy father, Democritus devoted the
+whole of his inherited fortune to the culture of his mind.
+He travelled everywhere; visited Athens when Socrates
+and Plato were there, but quitted the city without making
+himself known.  Indeed, the dialectic strife in which
+Socrates so much delighted had no charms for Democritus,
+who held that 'the man who readily contradicts and uses
+many words is unfit to learn anything truly right.'  He
+is said to have discovered and educated Protagoras the
+sophist, being struck as much by the manner in which
+he, being a hewer of wood, tied up his faggots as by the
+sagacity of his conversation.  Democritus returned poor
+from his travels, was supported by his brother, and at
+length wrote his great work entitled 'Diakosmos,' which
+he read publicly before the people of his native town.  He
+was honoured by his countrymen in various ways, and
+died serenely at a great age.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The principles enunciated by Democritus reveal his
+uncompromising antagonism to those who deduced the
+phenomena of nature from the caprices of the gods.
+They are briefly these:&mdash;1. From nothing comes nothing.
+Nothing that exists can be destroyed.  All changes are
+due to the combination and separation of molecules.
+2. Nothing happens by chance.  Every occurrence has its
+cause from which it follows by necessity.  3. The only
+existing things are the atoms and empty space; all else
+is mere opinion.  4. The atoms are infinite in number
+and infinitely various in form; they strike together, and
+the lateral motions and whirlings which thus arise are the
+beginnings of worlds.  5. The varieties of all things
+depend upon the varieties of their atoms, in number, size,
+and aggregation.  6. The soul consists of fine, smooth,
+round atoms, like those of fire.  These are the most
+mobile of all.  They interpenetrate the whole body, and
+in their motions the phenomena of life arise.  The first
+five propositions are a fair general statement of the atomic
+philosophy, as now held.  As regards the sixth, Democritus
+made his fine smooth atoms do duty for the nervous
+system, whose functions were then unknown.  The atoms
+of Democritus are individually without sensation; they
+combine in obedience to mechanical laws; and not only
+organic forms, but the phenomena of sensation and thought
+are the result of their combination.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+That great enigma, 'the exquisite adaptation of one
+part of an organism to another part, and to the
+conditions of life,' more especially the construction of the
+human body, Democritus made no attempt to solve.
+Empedocles, a man of more fiery and poetic nature,
+introduced the notion of love and hate among the atoms to
+account for their combination and separation.  Noticing
+this gap in the doctrine of Democritus, he struck in with
+the penetrating thought, linked, however, with some wild
+speculation, that it lay in the very nature of those
+combinations which were suited to their ends (in other words,
+in harmony with their environment) to maintain
+themselves, while unfit combinations, having no proper
+habitat, must rapidly disappear.  Thus more than 2,000
+years ago the doctrine of the 'survival of the fittest,'
+which in our day, not on the basis of vague conjecture,
+but of positive knowledge, has been raised to such
+extraordinary significance, had received at all events partial
+enunciation.[<a id="chap01fn3text"></a><a href="#chap01fn3">3</a>]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Epicurus,[<a id="chap01fn4text"></a><a href="#chap01fn4">4</a>] said to be the son of a poor schoolmaster
+at Samos, is the next dominant figure in the history of
+the atomic philosophy.  He mastered the writings of
+Democritus, heard lectures in Athens, went back to Sarnos,
+and subsequently wandered through various countries.
+He finally returned to Athens, where he bought a garden,
+and surrounded himself by pupils, in the midst of whom
+he lived a pure and serene life, and died a peaceful death.
+Democritus looked to the soul as the ennobling part of
+man; even beauty without understanding partook of
+animalism.  Epicurus also rated the spirit above the
+body; the pleasure of the body was that of the moment,
+while the spirit could draw upon the future and the
+past.  His philosophy was almost identical with that of
+Democritus; but he never quoted either friend or foe.
+One main object of Epicurus was to free the world from
+superstition and the fear of death.  Death he treated
+with indifference.  It merely robs us of sensation.  As
+long as we are, death is not; and when death is, we are
+not.  Life has no more evil for him who has made up his
+mind that it is no evil not to live.  He adored the gods,
+but not in the ordinary fashion.  The idea of divine
+power, properly purified, he thought an elevating one.
+Still he taught, 'Not he is godless who rejects the gods of
+the crowd, but rather he who accepts them.'  The gods
+were to him eternal and immortal beings, whose
+blessedness excluded every thought of care or occupation of
+any kind.  Nature pursues her course in accordance with
+everlasting laws, the gods never interfering.  They haunt
+</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+  'The lucid interspace of world and world<br>
+  Where never creeps a cloud or moves a wind,<br>
+  Nor ever falls the least white star of snow,<br>
+  Nor ever lowest roll of thunder moans,<br>
+  Nor sound of human sorrow mounts to mar<br>
+  Their sacred everlasting calm.'[<a id="chap01fn5text"></a><a href="#chap01fn5">5</a>]<br>
+</p>
+
+<p><br></p>
+
+<p>
+Lange considers the relation of Epicurus to the gods
+subjective; the indication probably of an ethical
+requirement of his own nature.  We cannot read history with
+open eyes, or study human nature to its depths, and fail
+to discern such a requirement.  Man never has been, and
+he never will be, satisfied with the operations and products
+of the Understanding alone; hence physical science cannot
+cover all the demands of his nature.  But the history of the
+efforts made to satisfy these demands might be broadly
+described as a history of errors&mdash;the error, in great
+part, consisting in ascribing fixity to that which is fluent,
+which varies as we vary, being gross when we are gross,
+and becoming, as our capacities widen, more abstract and
+sublime.  On one great point the mind of Epicurus was
+at peace.  He neither sought nor expected, here or
+hereafter, any personal profit from his relation to the gods.
+And it is assuredly a fact that loftiness and serenity of
+thought may be promoted by conceptions which involve
+no idea of profit of this kind.  'Did I not believe,' said
+a great man to me once, 'that an Intelligence is at the
+heart of things, my life on earth would be intolerable.'  The
+utterer of these words is not, in my opinion, rendered
+less noble but more noble by the fact that it was
+the need of ethical harmony here, and not the thought
+of personal profit hereafter, that prompted his observation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There are persons, not belonging to the highest
+intellectual zone, nor yet to the lowest, to whom perfect
+clearness of exposition suggests want of depth.  They
+find comfort and edification in an abstract and learned
+phraseology.  To some such people Epicurus, who spared
+no pains to rid his style of every trace of haze and
+turbidity, appeared, on this very account, superficial.  He
+had, however, a disciple who thought it no unworthy
+occupation to spend his days and nights in the effort to
+reach the clearness of his master, and to whom the Greek
+philosopher is mainly indebted for the extension and
+perpetuation of his fame.  A century and a half after
+the death of Epicurus, Lucretius[<a id="chap01fn6text"></a><a href="#chap01fn6">6</a>] wrote his great poem,
+'On the Nature of Things,' in which he, a Roman,
+developed with extraordinary ardour the philosophy of
+his Greek predecessor.  He wishes to win over his friend
+Memnius to the school of Epicurus; and although he has
+no rewards in a future life to offer, although his object
+appears to be a purely negative one, he addresses his
+friend with the heat of an apostle.  His object, like that
+of his great forerunner, is the destruction of superstition;
+and considering that men trembled before every natural
+event as a direct monition from the gods, and that
+ever-lasting torture was also in prospect, the freedom aimed at
+by Lucretius might perhaps be deemed a positive good.
+'This terror,' he says, 'and darkness of mind must be
+dispelled, not by the rays of the sun and glittering shafts
+of day, but by the aspect and the law of nature.'  He
+refutes the notion that anything can come out of nothing,
+or that that which is once begotten can be recalled to
+nothing.  The first beginnings, the atoms, are indestructible,
+and into them all things can be resolved at last.
+Bodies are partly atoms, and partly combinations of
+atoms; but the atoms nothing can quench.  They are
+strong in solid singleness, and by their denser combination
+all things can be closely packed and exhibit enduring
+strength.  He denies that matter is infinitely divisible.
+We come at length to the atoms, without which, as an
+imperishable substratum, all order in the generation and
+development of things would be destroyed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The mechanical shock of the atoms being in his view
+the all-sufficient cause of things, he combats the notion
+that the constitution of nature has been in any way determined
+by intelligent design.  The inter-action of the atoms
+throughout infinite time rendered all manner of
+combinations possible.  Of these the fit ones persisted, while
+the unfit ones disappeared.  Not after sage deliberation
+did the atoms station themselves in their right places, nor
+did they bargain what motions they should assume.  From
+all eternity they have been driven together, and after
+trying motions and unions of every kind, they fell at
+length into the arrangements out of which this system of
+things has been formed.  'If you will apprehend and
+keep in mind these things, nature, free at once, and rid of
+her haughty lords, is seen to do all things spontaneously
+of herself, without the meddling of the gods.'[<a id="chap01fn7text"></a><a href="#chap01fn7">7</a>]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+To meet the objection that his atoms cannot be seen,
+Lucretius describes a violent storm, and shows that the
+invisible particles of air act in the same way as the
+visible particles of water.  We perceive, moreover, the
+different smells of things, yet never see them coming to
+our nostrils.  Again, clothes hung up on a shore which
+waves break upon become moist, and then get dry if
+spread out in the sun, though no eye can see either the
+approach or the escape of the water particles.  A ring,
+worn long on the finger, becomes thinner; a water-drop
+hollows out a stone; the ploughshare is rubbed away in
+the field; the street pavement is worn by the feet; but
+the particles that disappear at any moment we cannot
+see.  Nature acts through invisible particles.  That
+Lucretius had a strong scientific imagination the foregoing
+references prove.  A fine illustration of his power
+in this respect is his explanation of the apparent rest of
+bodies whose atoms are in motion.  He employs the
+image of a flock of sheep with skipping lambs, which,
+seen from a distance, presents simply a white patch upon
+the green hill, the jumping of the individual lambs being
+quite invisible.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+His vaguely-grand conception of the atoms falling
+eternally through space suggested the nebular hypothesis
+to Kant, its first propounder.  Far beyond the limits of our
+visible world are to be found atoms innumerable, which
+have never been united to form bodies, or which, if once
+united, have been again dispersed, falling silently through
+immeasurable intervals of time and space.  As everywhere
+throughout the All the same conditions are repeated,
+so must the phenomena be repeated also.  Above
+us, below us, beside us, therefore, are worlds without
+end; and this, when considered, must dissipate every
+thought of a deflection of the universe by the gods.  The
+worlds come and go, attracting new atoms out of limitless
+space, or dispersing their own particles.  The reputed
+death of Lucretius, which forms the basis of Mr. Tennyson's
+noble poem, is in strict accordance with his philosophy,
+which was severe and pure.
+</p>
+
+<p><br></p>
+
+<p>
+During the centuries lying between the first of these
+three philosophers and the last, the human intellect was
+active in other fields than theirs.  The sophists had run
+through their career.  At Athens had appeared Socrates,
+Plato, and Aristotle, who ruined the sophists, and whose
+yoke remains to some extent unbroken to the present hour.
+Within this period also the School of Alexandria was
+founded, Euclid wrote his 'Elements,' and made some
+advance in optics.  Archimedes had propounded the theory
+of the lever and the principles of hydrostatics.
+Pythagoras had made his experiments on the harmonic
+intervals, while astronomy was immensely enriched by the
+discoveries of Hipparchus, who was followed by the
+historically more celebrated Ptolemy.  Anatomy had been
+made the basis of Scientific medicine; and it is said by
+Draper[<a id="chap01fn8text"></a><a href="#chap01fn8">8</a>] that vivisection then began.  In fact, the science
+of ancient Greece had already cleared the world of the
+fantastic images of divinities operating capriciously through
+natural phenomena.  It had shaken itself free from that
+fruitless scrutiny 'by the internal light of the mind
+alone,' which had vainly sought to transcend experience
+and reach a knowledge of ultimate causes.  Instead of
+accidental observation, it had introduced observation with
+a purpose; instruments were employed to aid the senses;
+and scientific method was rendered in a great measure
+complete by the union of Induction and Experiment.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+What, then, stopped its victorious advance?  Why
+was the scientific intellect compelled, like an exhausted
+soil, to lie fallow for nearly two millenniums before it
+could regather the elements necessary to its fertility and
+strength?  Bacon has already let us know one cause;
+Whewell ascribes this stationary period to four
+causes&mdash;obscurity of thought, servility, intolerance of disposition,
+enthusiasm of temper&mdash;and he gives striking examples of
+each.[<a id="chap01fn9text"></a><a href="#chap01fn9">9</a>]  But these characteristics must have had their
+antecedents in the circumstances of the time.  Rome
+and the other cities of the Empire had fallen into moral
+putrefaction.  Christianity had appeared, offering the
+gospel to the poor, and, by moderation if not asceticism
+of life, practically protesting against the profligacy of the
+age.  The sufferings of the early Christians, and the
+extraordinary exaltation of mind which enabled them to
+triumph over the diabolical tortures to which they were
+subjected,[<a id="chap01fn10text"></a><a href="#chap01fn10">10</a>] must have left traces not easily effaced.  They
+scorned the earth, in view of that 'building of God, that
+house not made with hands, eternal in the heavens.'  The
+Scriptures which ministered to their spiritual needs were
+also the measure of their Science.  When, for example,
+the celebrated question of antipodes came to be discussed,
+the Bible was with many the ultimate court of appeal.
+Augustin, who flourished A.D. 400, would not deny the
+rotundity of the earth; but he would deny the possible
+existence of inhabitants at the other side, 'because no
+such race is recorded in Scripture among the descendants
+of Adam.' Archbishop Boniface was shocked at the
+assumption of a 'world of human beings out of the reach
+of the means of salvation.'  Thus reined in, Science was
+not likely to make much progress.  Later on the political
+and theological strife between the Church and civil
+governments, so powerfully depicted by Draper, must
+have done much to stifle investigation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Whewell makes many wise and brave remarks regarding
+the spirit of the Middle Ages.  It was a menial spirit.
+The seekers after natural knowledge had forsaken that
+fountain of living waters, the direct appeal to nature by
+observation and experiment, and had given themselves
+up to the remanipulation of the notions of their
+predecessors.  It was a time when thought had become abject,
+and when the acceptance of mere authority led, as it
+always does in science, to intellectual death.  Natural
+events, instead of being traced to physical, were referred
+to moral causes; while an exercise of the phantasy, almost
+as degrading as the spiritualism of the present day, took
+the place of scientific speculation.  Then came the
+mysticism of the Middle Ages, Magic, Alchemy, the
+Neo-platonic philosophy, with its visionary though sublime
+abstractions, which caused men to look with shame upon
+their own bodies as hindrances to the absorption of the
+creature in the blessedness of the Creator.  Finally came
+the Scholastic philosophy, a fusion, according to Lange,
+of the least-mature notions of Aristotle with the Christianity
+of the West.  Intellectual immobility was the result.
+As a traveller without a compass in a fog may wander
+long, imagining he is making way, and find himself after
+hours of toil at his starting-point, so the schoolmen,
+having 'tied and untied the same knots and formed and
+dissipated the same clouds,' found themselves at the end
+of centuries in their old position.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With regard to the influence wielded by Aristotle in
+the Middle Ages, and which, though to a less extent, he
+still wields, I would ask permission to make one remark.
+When the human mind has achieved greatness and given
+evidence of extraordinary power in any domain, there is
+a tendency to credit it with similar power in all other
+domains.  Thus theologians have found comfort and
+assurance in the thought that Newton dealt with the
+question of revelation, forgetful of the fact that the very
+devotion of his powers, through all the best years of his
+life, to a totally different class of ideas, not to speak of any
+natural disqualification, tended to render him less instead
+of more competent to deal with theological and historic
+questions.  Goethe, starting from his established greatness
+as a poet, and indeed from his positive discoveries
+in Natural History, produced a profound impression
+among the painters of Germany when he published his
+'Farbenlehre,' in which he endeavoured to overthrow
+Newton's theory of colours.  This theory he deemed so
+obviously absurd that he considered its author a
+charlatan, and attacked him with a corresponding vehemence
+of language.  In the domain of Natural History Goethe
+had made really considerable discoveries; and we have
+high authority for assuming that, had he devoted himself
+wholly to that side of science, he might have reached in
+it an eminence comparable with that which he attained
+as a poet.  In sharpness of observation, in the detection
+of analogies, however apparently remote, in the classification
+and organization of facts according to the analogies
+discerned, Goethe possessed extraordinary powers.  These
+elements of scientific inquiry fall in with the discipline of
+the poet.  But, on the other hand, a mind thus richly
+endowed in the direction of natural history may be
+almost shorn of endowment as regards the more strictly
+called physical and mechanical sciences.  Goethe was in
+this condition.  He could not formulate distinct mechanical
+conceptions; he could not see the force of mechanical
+reasoning; and in regions where such reasoning reigns
+supreme he became a mere <i>ignis fatuus</i> to those who
+followed him.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I have sometimes permitted myself to compare Aristotle
+with Goethe, to credit the Stagirite with an almost
+superhuman power of amassing and systematizing facts, but
+to consider him fatally defective on that side of the mind
+in respect to which incompleteness has been just ascribed
+to Goethe.  Whewell refers the errors of Aristotle, not
+to a neglect of facts, but to 'a neglect of the idea
+appropriate to the facts; the idea of Mechanical cause,
+which is Force, and the substitution of vague or
+inapplicable notions, involving only relations of space or
+emotions of wonder.'  This is doubtless true; but the
+word 'neglect' implies mere intellectual misdirection,
+whereas in Aristotle, as in Goethe, it was not, I believe,
+misdirection, but sheer natural incapacity which lay at
+the root of his mistakes.  As a physicist, Aristotle
+displayed what we should consider some of the worst
+attributes of a modern physical investigator&mdash;indistinctness
+of ideas, confusion of mind, and a confident use of
+language, which led to the delusive notion that he had really
+mastered his subject, while he had as yet failed to grasp even
+the elements of it.  He put words in the place of things,
+subject in the place of object.  He preached Induction
+without practising it, inverting the true order of inquiry
+by passing from the general to the particular, instead of
+from the particular to the general.  He made of the
+universe a closed sphere, in the centre of which he fixed
+the earth, proving from general principles, to his own
+satisfaction and to that of the world for near 2,000 years,
+that no other universe was possible.  His notions of motion
+were entirely unphysical.  It was natural or unnatural,
+better or worse, calm or violent&mdash;no real mechanical
+conception regarding it lying at the bottom of his mind.
+He affirmed that a vacuum could not exist, and proved
+that if it did exist motion in it would be impossible.  He
+determined <i>à priori</i> how many species of animals must
+exist, and shows on general principles why animals must
+have such and such parts.  When an eminent contemporary
+philosopher, who is far removed from errors of
+this kind, remembers these abuses of the <i>à priori</i> method,
+he will be able to make allowance for the jealousy of
+physicists as to the acceptance of so-called <i>à priori</i> truths.
+Aristotle's errors of detail, as shown by Eucken and
+Lange, were grave and numerous.  He affirmed that only
+in man we had the beating of the heart, that the left
+side of the body was colder than the right, that men
+have more teeth than women, and that there is an empty
+space at the back of every man's head.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+There is one essential quality in physical conceptions
+which was entirely wanting in those of Aristotle and his
+followers.  I wish it could be expressed by a word untainted
+by its associations; it signifies a capability of being placed
+as a coherent picture before the mind.  The Germans
+express the act of picturing by the word <i>vorstellen</i>, and the
+picture they call a <i>Vorstellung</i>.  We have no word in
+English which comes nearer to our requirements than
+<i>Imagination</i>, and, taken with its proper limitations, the word
+answers very well; but, as just intimated, it is tainted
+by its associations, and therefore objectionable to some
+minds.  Compare, with reference to this capacity of
+mental presentation, the case of the Aristotelian who
+refers the ascent of water in a pump to Nature's
+abhorrence of a vacuum, with that of Pascal when he proposed
+to solve the question of atmospheric pressure by the
+ascent of the Puy de Dome.  In the one case the terms
+of the explanation refuse to fall into place as a physical
+image; in the other the image is distinct, the fall and
+rise of the barometer being clearly figured as the
+balancing of two varying and opposing pressures.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+During the drought of the Middle Ages in Christendom,
+the Arabian intellect, as forcibly shown by Draper,
+was active.  With the intrusion of the Moors into Spain,
+he says, order, learning, and refinement took the place
+of their opposites.  When smitten with disease, the
+Christian peasant resorted to a shrine, the Moorish one
+to an instructed physician.  The Arabs encouraged
+translations from the Greek philosophers, but not from the
+Greek poets.  They turned in disgust 'from the lewdness
+of our classical mythology, and denounced as an
+unpardonable blasphemy all connexion between the impure
+Olympian Jove and the Most High God.'  Draper traces
+still further than Whewell the Arab elements in our
+scientific terms, and points out that the under garment of
+ladies retains to this hour its Arab name.  He gives
+examples of what Arabian men of science accomplished,
+dwelling particularly on Alhazen, who was the first to
+correct the Platonic notion that rays of light are emitted
+by the eye.  He discovered atmospheric refraction, and
+points out that we see the sun and the moon after they
+have set.  He explains the enlargement of the sun and
+moon, and the shortening of the vertical diameters of
+both these bodies, when near the horizon.  He is aware
+that the atmosphere decreases in density with increase of
+elevation, and actually fixes its height at 58½ miles.  In the
+Book of the Balance Wisdom, he sets forth the connexion
+between the weight of the atmosphere and its increasing
+density.  He shows that a body will weigh differently in
+a rare and dense atmosphere: he considers the force with
+which plunged bodies rise through heavier media.  He
+understands the doctrine of the centre of gravity, and
+applies it to the investigation of balances and steelyards.
+He recognises gravity as a force, though he falls into the
+error of making it diminish simply as the distance
+increased, and of making it purely terrestrial.  He knows the
+relation between the velocities, spaces, and times of falling
+bodies, and has distinct ideas of capillary attraction.  He
+improved the hydrometer.  The determination of the densities
+of bodies as given by Alhazen approach very closely
+to our own.  'I join,' says Draper, in the pious prayer
+of Alhazen, 'that in the day of judgment the All-Merciful
+will take pity on the soul of Abur-Raihân, because
+he was the first of the race of men to construct a table of
+specific gravities.'  If all this be historic truth (and I
+have entire confidence in Dr. Draper), well may he
+'deplore the systematic manner in which the literature
+of Europe has contrived to put out of sight our scientific
+obligations to the Mahommedans.'[<a id="chap01fn11text"></a><a href="#chap01fn11">11</a>]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The strain upon the mind during the stationary period
+towards ultra-terrestrial things, to the neglect of problems
+close at hand, was sure to provoke reaction.  But the
+reaction was gradual; for the ground was dangerous, a
+power being at hand competent to crush the critic who
+went too far.  To elude this power and still allow
+opportunity for the expression of opinion, the doctrine of
+'twofold truth' was invented, according to which an
+opinion might be held; 'theologically' and the opposite
+opinion 'philosophically.'[<a id="chap01fn12text"></a><a href="#chap01fn12">12</a>]  Thus in the thirteenth
+century the creation of the world in six days, and the
+unchangeableness of the individual soul which had been
+so distinctly affirmed by St. Thomas Aquinas, were both
+denied philosophically, but admitted to be true as articles
+of the Catholic faith.  When Protagoras uttered the
+maxim which brought upon him so much vituperation,
+that' opposite assertions are equally true,' he simply meant
+that human beings differed so much from each other that
+what was subjectively true to the one might be
+subjectively untrue to the other.  The great Sophist never
+meant to play fast and loose with the truth by saying
+that one of two opposite assertions, made by the same
+individual, could possibly escape being a lie.  It was not
+'sophistry,' but the dread of theologic vengeance that
+generated this double dealing with conviction; and it is
+astonishing to notice what lengths were possible to men
+who were adroit in the use of artifices of this kind.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Towards the close of the stationary period a
+word-weariness, if I may so express it, took more and more
+possession of men's minds.  Christendom had become
+sick of the School philosophy and its verbal wastes, which
+led to no issue, but left the intellect in everlasting haze.
+Here and there was heard the voice of one impatiently
+crying in the wilderness, 'Not unto Aristotle, not unto
+subtle hypothesis, not unto church, Bible, or blind
+tradition, must we turn for a knowledge of the universe, but
+to the direct investigation of Nature by observation and
+experiment.'  In 1543 the epoch-making work of Copernicus
+on the paths of the heavenly bodies appeared.  The
+total crash of Aristotle's closed universe with the earth
+at its centre followed as a consequence, and 'the earth
+moves!' became a kind of watchword among intellectual
+freemen.  Copernicus was Canon of the Church of Frauenburg,
+in the diocese of Ermeland.  For three-and-thirty
+years he had withdrawn himself from the world and
+devoted himself to the consolidation of his great scheme
+of the solar system.  He made its blocks eternal; and
+even to those who feared it and desired its overthrow it
+was so obviously strong that they refrained for a time
+from meddling with it.  In the last year of the life of
+Copernicus his book appeared: it is said that the old
+man received a copy of it a few days before his death,
+and then departed in peace.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno was one of
+the earliest converts to the new astronomy.  Taking
+Lucretius as his exemplar, he revived the notion of the
+infinity of worlds; and, combining with it the doctrine
+of Copernicus, reached the sublime generalization that
+the fixed stars are suns, scattered numberless through
+space and accompanied by satellites, which bear the
+same relation to them, that our earth does to our sun, or
+our moon to our earth.  This was an expansion of
+transcendent import; but Bruno came closer than this
+to our present line of thought.  Struck with the problem
+of the generation and maintenance of organisms, and duly
+pondering it, he came to the conclusion that Nature in
+her productions does not imitate the technic of man.
+Her process is one of unravelling and unfolding.  The
+infinity of forms under which matter appears were not
+imposed upon it by an external artificer; by its own
+intrinsic force and virtue it brings these forms forth.
+Matter is not the mere naked, empty capacity which
+philosophers have pictured her to be, but the universal
+mother who brings forth all things as the fruit of her
+own womb.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This outspoken man was originally a Dominican
+monk.  He was accused of heresy and had to fly, seeking
+refuge in Geneva, Paris, England, and Germany.  In
+1592 he fell into the hands of the Inquisition at Venice.
+He was imprisoned for many years, tried, degraded,
+excommunicated, and handed over to the civil power, with
+the request that he should be treated gently and 'without
+the shedding of blood.'  This meant that he was to be
+burnt; and burnt accordingly he was, on the 16th of
+February, 1600.  To escape a similar fate Galileo, thirty-three
+years afterwards, abjured, upon his knees, and with his
+hand upon the holy gospels, the heliocentric doctrine
+which he knew to be true.  After Galileo came Kepler,
+who from his German home defied the power beyond
+the Alps.  He traced out from pre-existing observations
+the laws of planetary motion.  Materials were thus
+prepared for Newton, who bound those empirical laws
+together by the principle of gravitation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the seventeenth century Bacon and Descartes, the
+restorers of philosophy, appeared in succession.  Differently
+educated and endowed, their philosophic tendencies were
+different.  Bacon held fast to Induction, believing firmly
+in the existence of an external world, and making collected
+experiences the basis of all knowledge.  The mathematical
+studies of Descartes gave him a bias towards Deduction;
+and his fundamental principle was much the same as that
+of Protagoras, who made the individual man the measure
+of all things.  'I think, therefore I am,' said Descartes.
+Only his own identity was sure to him; and the development
+of this system would have led to an idealism in
+which the outer world would be resolved into a mere
+phenomenon of consciousness.  Gassendi, one of Descartes's
+contemporaries, of whom we shall hear more presently,
+quickly pointed out that the fact of personal existence
+would be proved as well by reference to any other act as
+to the act of thinking.  I eat, therefore I am; or I love,
+therefore I am, would be quite as conclusive.  Lichtenberg
+showed that the very thing to be proved was inevitably
+postulated in the first two words, 'I think;' and that no
+inference from the postulate could by any possibility be
+stronger than the postulate itself.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But Descartes deviated strangely from the idealism
+implied in his fundamental principle.  He was the first
+to reduce, in a manner eminently capable of bearing the
+test of mental presentation, vital phenomena to purely
+mechanical principles.  Through fear or love, Descartes
+was a good churchman; he accordingly rejects the
+notion of an atom, because it was absurd to suppose that
+God, if he so pleased, could not divide an atom; he puts
+in the place of the atoms small round particles and light
+splinters, out of which he builds the organism.  He
+sketches with marvellous physical insight a machine, with
+water for its motive power, which shall illustrate vital
+actions.  He has made clear to his mind that such a
+machine would be competent to carry on the processes of
+digestion, nutrition, growth, respiration, and the beating of
+the heart.  It would be competent to accept impressions
+from the external sense, to store them up in imagination
+and memory, to go through the internal movements of
+the appetites and passions, the external movement of
+limbs.  He deduces these functions of his machine from
+the mere arrangement of its organs, as the movement of a
+clock or other automaton is deduced from its weights and
+wheels.  'As far as these functions are concerned,' he
+says, 'it is not necessary to conceive any other vegetative
+or sensitive soul, nor any other principle of motion or of
+life, than the blood and the spirits agitated by the fire
+which burns continually in the heart, and which is in no
+wise different from the fires which exist in inanimate
+bodies.'  Had Descartes been acquainted with the steam-engine,
+he would have taken it, instead of a fall of water,
+as his motive power, and shown the perfect analogy which
+exists between the oxidation of the food in the body and
+that of the coal in the furnace.  He would assuredly
+have anticipated Mayer in calling the blood which the
+heart diffuses 'the oil of the lamp of life;' deducing all
+animal motions from the combustion of this oil, as the
+motions of a steam-engine are deduced from the combustion
+of its coal.  As the matter stands, however, and
+considering the circumstances of the time, the boldness,
+clearness, and precision with which he grasped the problem
+of vital dynamics constitute a marvellous illustration of
+intellectual power.[<a id="chap01fn13text"></a><a href="#chap01fn13">13</a>]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+During the Middle Ages the doctrine of atoms had to
+all appearance vanished from discussion.  In all
+probability it held its ground among sober-minded and
+thoughtful men, though neither the church nor the
+world was prepared to hear of it with tolerance.  Once,
+in the year 1348, it received distinct expression.  But
+retractation by compulsion immediately followed, and, thus
+discouraged, it slumbered till the seventeenth century, when
+it was revived by a contemporary and friend of Hobbes
+and Malmesbury, the orthodox Catholic provost of Digne,
+Gassendi.  But before stating his relation to the Epicurean
+doctrine, it will be well to say a few words on the effect,
+as regards science, of the general introduction of
+monotheism among European nations.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+'Were men,' says Hume, 'led into the apprehension of
+invisible intelligent power by 'contemplation of the works
+of Nature, they could never possibly entertain any conception
+but of one single being, who bestowed existence and
+order on this vast machine, and adjusted all its parts to
+one regular system.'  Referring to the condition of the
+heathen, who sees a god behind every natural event, thus
+peopling the world with thousands of beings whose
+caprices are incalculable, Lange shows the impossibility
+of any compromise between such notions and those of
+science, which proceeds on the assumption of never-changing
+law and causality.  'But,' he continues, with
+characteristic penetration, 'when the great thought of
+one God, acting as a unit upon the universe, has been
+seized, the connexion of things in accordance with the
+law of cause and effect is not only thinkable, but it is a
+necessary consequence of the assumption.  For when I
+see ten thousand wheels in motion, and know, or believe,
+that they are all driven by one, then I know that I have
+before me a mechanism the action of every part of which
+is determined by the plan of the whole.  So much being
+assumed, it follows that I may investigate the structure
+of that machine, and the various motions of its parts.
+For the time being, therefore, this conception renders
+scientific action free.'  In other words, were a capricious
+God at the circumference of every wheel and at the end
+of every lever, the action of the machine would be
+incalculable by the methods of science.  But the action of all
+its parts being rigidly determined by their connexions
+and relations, and these being brought into play by a
+single self-acting driving wheel, then, though this last prime
+mover may elude me, I am still able to comprehend the
+machinery which it sets in motion.  We have here a
+conception of the relation of Nature to its Author which
+seems perfectly acceptable to some minds, but perfectly
+intolerable to others.  Newton and Boyle lived and worked
+happily under the influence of this conception; Goethe
+rejected it with vehemence, and the same repugnance to
+accepting it is manifest in Carlyle.[<a id="chap01fn14text"></a><a href="#chap01fn14">14</a>]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The analytic and synthetic tendencies of the human
+mind exhibit themselves throughout history, great writers
+ranging themselves sometimes on the one side, sometimes
+on the other.  Men of warm feelings and minds open to the
+elevating impressions produced by Nature as a whole,
+whose satisfaction, therefore, is rather ethical than logical,
+lean to the synthetic side; while the analytic
+harmonizes best with the more precise and more mechanical
+bias which seeks the satisfaction of the understanding.
+Some form of pantheism was usually adopted by the one,
+while a detached Creator, working more or less after
+the manner of men, was often assumed by the other.
+Gassendi is hardly to be ranked with either.  Having
+formally acknowledged God as the great first cause, he
+immediately dropped the idea, applied the known laws of
+mechanics to the atoms, deducing thence all vital
+phenomena.  He defended Epicurus, and dwelt upon his
+purity, both of doctrine and of life.  True he was a heathen,
+but so was Aristotle.  He assailed superstition and
+religion, and rightly, because he did not know the true
+religion.  He thought that the gods neither rewarded nor
+punished, and adored them purely in consequence of their
+completeness; here we see, says Gassendi, the reverence
+of the child instead of the fear of the slave.  The errors
+of Epicurus shall be corrected, the body of his truth
+retained; and then Gassendi proceeds, as any heathen might
+do, to build up the world, and all that therein is, of atoms
+and molecules.  God, who created earth and water, plants
+and animals, produced in the first place a definite number
+of atoms, which constituted the seed of all things.  Then
+began that series of combinations and decompositions
+which goes on at present, and which will continue
+in future.  The principle of every change resides in
+matter.  In artificial productions the moving principle is
+different from the material worked upon; but in Nature
+the agent works within, being the most active and mobile
+part of the material itself.  Thus, this bold ecclesiastic,
+without incurring the censure of the church or the
+world, contrives to outstrip Mr. Darwin.  The same cast
+of mind which caused him to detach the Creator from his
+universe led him also to detach the soul from the body,
+though to the body he ascribes an influence so large as to
+render the soul almost unnecessary.  The aberrations of
+reason were in his view an affair of the material brain.
+Mental disease is brain disease; but then the immortal
+reason sits apart, and cannot be touched by the disease.
+The errors of madness are errors of the instrument, not of
+the performer.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It may be more than a mere result of education,
+connecting itself probably with the deeper mental structure
+of the two men, that the idea of Gassendi above enunciated
+is substantially the same as that expressed by Professor
+Clerk Maxwell at the close of the very able lecture
+delivered by him at Bradford last year.  According to
+both philosophers, the atoms, if I understand aright, are
+the prepared materials which, formed by the skill of the
+highest, produce by their subsequent inter-action all the
+phenomena of the material world.  There seems to be
+this difference, however, between Gassendi and Maxwell.
+The one <i>postulates</i>, the other <i>infers</i> his first cause.  In his
+'manufactured articles,' as he calls the atoms, Professor
+Maxwell finds the basis of an induction which enables
+him to scale philosophic heights considered inaccessible
+by Kant, and to take the logical step from the atoms to
+their Maker.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Accepting here the leadership of Kant, I doubt
+the legitimacy of Maxwell's logic; but it is impossible
+not to feel the ethic glow with which his lecture
+concludes.  There is, moreover, a very noble strain of
+eloquence in his description of the steadfastness of the
+atoms:&mdash;'Natural causes, as we know, are at work, which
+tend to modify, if they do not at length destroy, all the
+arrangements and dimensions of the earth and the whole
+solar system.  But though in the course of ages
+catastrophes have occurred and may yet occur in the heavens,
+though ancient systems may be dissolved and new systems
+evolved out of their ruins, the molecules out of which
+these systems are built&mdash;the foundation stones of the
+material universe&mdash;remain unbroken and unworn.'
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The atomic doctrine, in whole or in part, was
+entertained by Bacon, Descartes, Hobbes, Locke, Newton,
+Boyle, and their successors, until the chemical law of
+multiple proportions enabled Dalton to confer upon it an
+entirely new significance.  In our day there are secessions
+from the theory, but it still stands firm.  Loschmidt,
+Stoney, and Sir William Thomson have sought to determine
+the sizes of the atoms, or rather to fix the limits
+between which their sizes lie; while only last year the
+discourses of Williamson and Maxwell illustrate the
+present hold of the doctrine upon the foremost scientific
+minds.  In fact, it may be doubted whether, wanting this
+fundamental conception, a theory of the material universe
+is capable of scientific statement.
+</p>
+
+<p><br></p>
+
+<p>
+Ninety years subsequent to Gassendi the doctrine of
+bodily instruments, as it may be called, assumed immense
+importance in the hands of Bishop Butler, who, in his
+famous 'Analogy of Religion,' developed, from his own
+point of view, and with consummate sagacity, a similar
+idea.  The Bishop still influences superior minds; and it
+will repay us to dwell for a moment on his views.  He
+draws the sharpest distinction between our real selves and
+our bodily instruments.  He does not, as far as I remember,
+use the word soul, possibly because the term was so
+hackneyed in his day as it had been for many generations
+previously.  But he speaks of 'living powers,' 'perceiving'
+or 'percipient powers,' 'moving agents,' 'ourselves,' in the
+same sense as we should employ the term soul.  He
+dwells upon the fact that limbs may be removed, and
+mortal diseases assail the body, the mind, almost up
+to the moment of death, remaining clear.  He refers to
+sleep and to swoon, where the 'living powers' are
+suspended but not destroyed.  He considers it quite as easy
+to conceive of existence out of our bodies as in them:
+that we may animate a succession of bodies, the dissolution
+of all of them having no more tendency to dissolve
+our real selves, or 'deprive us of living faculties&mdash;the
+faculties of perception and action&mdash;than the dissolution of
+any foreign matter which we are capable of receiving
+impressions from, or making use of for the common
+occasions of life.'  This is the key of the Bishop's position;
+'our organized bodies are no more a part of ourselves
+than any other matter around us.'  In proof of this he
+calls attention to the use of glasses, which 'prepare objects'
+for the 'percipient power' exactly as the eye does.  The
+eye itself is no more percipient than the glass; is quite
+as much the instrument of the true self, and also as foreign
+to the true self, as the glass is.  'And if we see with our
+eyes only in the same manner as we do with glasses, the like
+may justly be concluded from analogy of all our senses.'
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Lucretius, as you are aware, reached a precisely opposite
+conclusion; and it certainly would be interesting,
+if not profitable, to us all, to hear what he would or could
+urge in opposition to the reasoning of the Bishop.  As a
+brief discussion of the point will enable us to see the
+bearings of an important question, I will here permit a
+disciple of Lucretius to try the strength of the Bishop's
+position, and then allow the Bishop to retaliate, with the
+view of rolling back, if he can, the difficulty upon
+Lucretius.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The argument might proceed in this fashion:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p>
+'Subjected to the test of mental presentation (<i>Vorstellung</i>),
+your views, most honoured prelate, would present
+to many minds a great, if not an insuperable difficulty.
+You speak of "living powers," "percipient or perceiving
+powers," and "ourselves;" but can you form a mental
+picture of any one of these apart from the organism
+through which it is supposed to act?  Test yourself
+honestly, and see whether you possess any faculty that
+would enable you to form such a conception.  The true
+self has a local habitation in each of us; thus localized,
+must it not possess a form?  If so, what form?  Have
+you ever for a moment realized it?  When a leg is amputated
+the body is divided into two parts; is the true self
+in both of them or in one?  Thomas Aquinas might say in
+both; but not you, for you appeal to the consciousness
+associated with one of the two parts to prove that the
+other is foreign matter.  Is consciousness, then, a necessary
+element of the true self?  If so, what do you say to the
+case of the whole body being deprived of consciousness?
+If not, then on what grounds do you deny any portion of
+the true self to the severed limb?  It seems very singular
+that, from the beginning to the end of your admirable
+book (and no one admires its sober strength more than I
+do), you never once mention the brain or nervous system.
+You begin at one end of the body, and show that its parts
+may be removed without prejudice to the perceiving
+power.  What if you begin at the other end, and remove,
+instead of the leg, the brain?  The body, as before, is
+divided into two parts; but both are now in the same
+predicament, and neither can be appealed to to prove that
+the other is foreign matter.  Or, instead of going so far
+as to remove the brain itself, let a certain portion of its
+bony covering be removed, and let a rhythmic series of
+pressures and relaxations of pressure be applied to the
+soft substance.  At every pressure "the faculties of
+perception and of action" vanish; at every relaxation of
+pressure they are restored.  Where, during the intervals
+of pressure, is the perceiving power?  I once had the
+discharge of a large Leyden battery passed unexpectedly
+through me: I felt nothing, but was simply blotted out of
+conscious existence for a sensible interval.  Where was
+my true self during that interval?  Men who have
+recovered from lightning-stroke have been much longer in
+the same state; and indeed in cases of ordinary concussion
+of the brain, days may elapse during which no experience
+is registered in consciousness.  Where is the man himself
+during the period of insensibility?  You may say that I
+beg the question when I assume the man to have been
+unconscious, that he was really conscious all the time,
+and has simply forgotten what had occurred to him.  In
+reply to this, I can only say that no one need shrink from
+the worst tortures that superstition ever invented if only
+so felt and so remembered.  I do not think your theory
+of instruments goes at all to the bottom of the matter.  A
+telegraph-operator has his instruments, by means of which
+he converses with the world; our bodies possess a nervous
+system, which plays a similar part between the perceiving
+power and external things.  Cut the wires of the operator,
+break his battery, demagnetize his needle: by this means
+you certainly sever his connexion with the world; but
+inasmuch as these are real instruments, their destruction
+does not touch the man who uses them.  The operator
+survives, <i>and he knows that he survives</i>.  What is it, I
+would ask, in the human system that answers to this
+conscious survival of the operator when the battery of the
+brain is so disturbed as to produce insensibility, or when
+it is destroyed altogether?
+</p>
+
+<p>
+'Another consideration, which you may consider
+slight, presses upon me with some force.  The brain may
+change from health to disease, and through such a change
+the most exemplary man may be converted into a
+debauchee or a murderer.  My very noble and approved
+good master had, as you know, threatenings of lewdness
+introduced into his brain by his jealous wife's philter;
+and sooner than permit himself to run even the risk of
+yielding to these base promptings he slew himself.  How
+could the hand of Lucretius have been thus turned against
+himself if the real Lucretius remained as before?  Can
+the brain or can it not act in this distempered way without
+the intervention of the immortal reason?  If it can, then
+it is a prime mover which requires only healthy regulation
+to render it reasonably self-acting, and there is no
+apparent need of your immortal reason at all.  If it cannot,
+then the immortal reason, by its mischievous activity in
+operating upon a broken instrument, must have the credit
+of committing every imaginable extravagance and crime.
+I think, if you will allow me to say so, that the gravest
+consequences are likely to flow from your estimate of the
+body.  To regard the brain as you would a staff or an
+eyeglass&mdash;to shut your eyes to all its mystery, to the
+perfect correlation of its condition and our consciousness,
+to the fact that a slight excess or defect of blood in
+it produces the very swoon to which you refer, and
+that in relation to it our meat and drink and air and
+exercise have a perfectly transcendental value and
+significance&mdash;to forget all this does, I think, open a way to
+innumerable errors in our habits of life, and may possibly
+in some cases initiate and foster that very disease, and
+consequent mental ruin, which a wiser appreciation of
+this mysterious organ would have avoided.'
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I can imagine the Bishop thoughtful after hearing this
+argument.  He was not the man to allow anger to
+mingle with the consideration of a point of this kind.  After
+due reflection, and having strengthened himself by that
+honest contemplation of the facts which was habitual
+with him, and which includes the desire to give even
+adverse facts their due weight, I can suppose the Bishop
+to proceed thus:&mdash;'You will remember that in the
+"Analogy of Religion," of which you have so kindly
+spoken, I did not profess to prove anything absolutely,
+and that I over and over again acknowledged and
+insisted on the smallness of our knowledge, or rather the
+depth of our ignorance, as regards the whole system of
+the universe.  My object was to show my deistical friends,
+who set forth so eloquently the beauty and beneficence
+of Nature and the Ruler thereof, while they had nothing
+but scorn for the so-called absurdities of the Christian
+scheme, that they were in no better condition than we
+were, and that, for every difficulty found upon our side,
+quite as great a difficulty was to be found upon theirs.  I
+will now, with your permission, adopt a similar line of
+argument.  You are a Lucretian, and from the combination and
+separation of insensate atoms deduce all terrestrial things,
+including organic forms and their phenomena.  Let me
+tell you, in the first instance, how far I am prepared to go
+with you.  I admit that you can build crystalline forms
+out of this play of molecular force; that the diamond,
+amethyst, and snow-star are truly wonderful structures
+which are thus produced.  I will go further
+and acknowledge that even a tree or flower might in
+this way be organized.  Nay, if you can show me an
+animal without sensation, I will concede to you that it
+also might be put together by the suitable play of
+molecular force.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+'Thus far our way is clear; but now comes my difficulty.
+Your atoms are individually without sensation,
+much more are they without intelligence.  May I ask
+you, then, to try your hand upon this problem?  Take
+your dead hydrogen atoms, your dead oxygen atoms,
+your dead carbon atoms, your dead nitrogen atoms, your
+dead phosphorus atoms, and all the other atoms, dead
+as grains of shot, of which the brain is formed.  Imagine
+them separate and sensationless, observe them running
+together and forming all imaginable combinations.  This,
+as a purely mechanical process, is seeable by the mind.
+But can you see, or dream, or in any way imagine, how
+out of that mechanical act, and from these individually
+dead atoms, sensation, thought, and emotion are to arise?
+Are you likely to extract Homer out of the rattling of dice,
+or the Differential Calculus out of the clash of billiard-balls?
+I am not all bereft of this Vorstellungs-Kraft of which you
+speak, nor am I, like so many of my brethren, a mere
+vacuum as regards scientific knowledge.  I can follow a
+particle of musk until it reaches the olfactory nerve; I can
+follow the waves of sound until their tremors reach the
+water of the labyrinth and set the otoliths and Corti's
+fibres in motion; I can also visualize the waves of ether
+as they cross the eye and hit the retina.  Nay more, I
+am able to pursue to the central organ the motion thus
+imparted at the periphery, and to see in idea the very
+molecules of the brain thrown into tremors.  My insight
+is not baffled by these physical processes.  What baffles
+and bewilders me, is the notion that from those physical
+tremors things so utterly incongruous with them as
+sensation, thought, and emotion can be derived.  You may
+say, or think, that this issue of consciousness from the
+clash of atoms is not more incongruous than the flash of
+light from the union of oxygen and hydrogen.  But I beg
+to say that it is.  For such incongruity as the flash
+possesses is that which I now force upon your attention.
+The flash is an affair of consciousness, the objective
+counterpart of which is a vibration.  It is a flash only by
+your interpretation.  You are the cause of the apparent
+incongruity, and you are the thing that puzzles me.  I
+need not remind you that the great Leibnitz felt the
+difficulty which I feel, and that to get rid of this monstrous
+deduction of life from death he displaced your atoms by
+his monads, which were more or less perfect mirrors of the
+universe, and out of the summation and integration of
+which he supposed all the phenomena of life&mdash;sentient,
+intellectual, and emotional&mdash;to arise.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+'Your difficulty, then, as I see you are ready to
+admit, is quite as great as mine.  You cannot satisfy the
+human understanding in its demand for logical continuity
+between molecular processes and the phenomena of
+consciousness.  This is a rock on which materialism must
+inevitably split whenever it pretends to be a complete
+philosophy of life.  What is the moral, my Lucretian?
+You and I are not likely to indulge in ill-temper in the
+discussion of these great topics, where we see so much
+room for honest differences of opinion.  But there are
+people of less wit or more bigotry (I say it with humility)
+on both sides, who are ever ready to mingle anger and
+vituperation with such discussions.  There are, for
+example, writers of note and influence at the present day
+who are not ashamed to assume the "deep personal sin"
+of a great logician to be the cause of his unbelief in a
+theologic dogma.  And there are others who hold that
+we, who cherish our noble Bible, wrought as it has been
+into the constitution of our forefathers, and by inheritance
+into us, must necessarily be hypocritical and insincere.
+Let us disavow and discountenance such people, cherishing
+the unswerving faith that what is good and true in
+both our arguments will be preserved for the benefit of
+humanity, while all that is bad or false will disappear.'
+</p>
+
+<p>
+I hold the Bishop's reasoning to be unanswerable, and
+his liberality to be worthy of imitation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is worth remarking that in one respect the Bishop
+was a product of his age.  Long previous to his day the
+nature of the soul had been so favourite and general a
+topic of discussion, that, when the students of the
+University of Paris wished to know the leanings of a new
+Professor, they at once requested him to lecture upon the
+soul.  About the time of Bishop Butler the question was
+not only agitated but extended.  It was seen by the
+clear-witted men who entered this arena that many of their
+best arguments applied equally to brutes and men.  The
+Bishop's arguments were of this character.  He saw it,
+admitted it, accepted the consequences, and boldly embraced
+the whole animal world in his scheme of immortality.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Bishop Butler accepted with unwavering trust the
+chronology of the Old Testament, describing it as
+'confirmed by the natural and civil history of the world,
+collected from common historians, from the state of the
+earth, and from the late inventions of arts and sciences.'  These
+words mark progress; and they must seem somewhat
+hoary to the Bishop's successors of to-day.[<a id="chap01fn15text"></a><a href="#chap01fn15">15</a>]  It is hardly
+necessary to inform you that since his time the domain of
+the naturalist has been immensely extended&mdash;the whole
+science of geology, with its astounding revelations regarding
+the life of the ancient earth, having been created.  The
+rigidity of old conceptions has been relaxed, the public
+mind being rendered gradually tolerant of the idea that
+not for six thousand, nor for sixty thousand, nor for six
+thousand thousand thousand, but for æons embracing
+untold millions of years, this earth has been the theatre of
+life and death.  The riddle of the rocks has been read by
+the geologist and palæontologist, from subcambrian depths
+to the deposits thickening over the sea-bottoms of to-day.
+And upon the leaves of that stone book are, as you know,
+stamped the characters, plainer and surer than those
+formed by the ink of history, which carry the mind back
+into abysses of past time compared with which the periods
+which satisfied Bishop Butler cease to have a visual angle.
+The lode of discovery once struck, those petrified
+forms in which life was at one time active increased to
+multitudes and demanded classification.  They were
+grouped in genera, species, and varieties, according to
+the degree of similarity subsisting between them.  Thus
+confusion was avoided, each object being found in the
+pigeon-hole appropriated to it and to its fellows of similar
+morphological or physiological character.  The general
+fact soon became evident that none but the simplest
+forms of life lie lowest down, that as we climb higher
+among the super-imposed strata more perfect forms
+appear.  The change, however, from form to form
+was not continuous, but by steps&mdash;some small, some
+great.  'A section,' says Mr. Huxley, 'a hundred feet
+thick will exhibit at different heights a dozen species of
+Ammonite, none of which passes beyond its particular
+zone of limestone, or clay, into the zone below it, or into
+that above it.' In the presence of such facts it was not
+possible to avoid the question:&mdash;Have these forms,
+showing, though in broken stages and with many
+irregularities, this unmistakable general advance, been
+subjected to no continuous law of growth or variation?
+Had our education been purely scientific, or had it been
+sufficiently detached from influences which, however
+ennobling in another domain, have always proved
+hindrances and delusions when introduced as factors into
+the domain of physics, the scientific mind never could
+have swerved from the search for a law of growth, or
+allowed itself to accept the anthropomorphism which
+regarded each successive stratum as a kind of mechanic's
+bench for the manufacture of new species out of all
+relation to the old.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Biassed, however, by their previous education, the
+great majority of naturalists invoked a special creative
+act to account for the appearance of each new group of
+organisms.  Doubtless there were numbers who were
+clear-headed enough to see that this was no explanation
+at all, that in point of fact it was an attempt, by the
+introduction of a greater difficulty, to account for a less.  But
+having nothing to offer in the way of explanation, they
+for the most part held their peace.  Still the thoughts of
+reflecting men naturally and necessarily simmered round
+the question.  De Maillet, a contemporary of Newton,
+has been brought into notice by Professor Huxley as one
+who 'had a notion of the modifiability of living forms.'  In
+my frequent conversations with him, the late Sir
+Benjamin Brodie, a man of highly philosophic mind, often
+drew my attention to the fact that, as early as 1794,
+Charles Darwin's grandfather was the pioneer of Charles
+Darwin.[<a id="chap01fn16text"></a><a href="#chap01fn16">16</a>]  In 1801, and in subsequent years, the
+celebrated Lamarck, who produced so profound an impression
+on the public mind through the vigorous exposition of his
+views by the author of the 'Vestiges of Creation,'
+endeavoured to show the development of species out of changes
+of habit and external condition.  In 1813 Dr. Wells, the
+founder of our present theory of Dew, read before the
+Royal Society a paper in which, to use the words of
+Mr. Darwin, 'he distinctly recognises the principle of
+natural selection; and this is the first recognition that
+has been indicated.'  The thoroughness and skill with
+which Wells pursued his work, and the obvious independence
+of his character, rendered him long ago a favourite
+with me; and it gave me the liveliest pleasure to alight
+upon this additional testimony to his penetration.
+Professor Grant, Mr. Patrick Matthew, Von Buch, the author
+of the 'Vestiges,' D'Halloy, and others,[<a id="chap01fn17text"></a><a href="#chap01fn17">17</a>] by the enunciation
+of opinions more or less clear and correct, showed that the
+question had been fermenting long prior to the year 1858,
+when Mr. Darwin and Mr. Wallace simultaneously but
+independently placed their closely concurrent views upon
+the subject before the Linnean Society.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+These papers were followed in 1859 by the publication
+of the first edition of 'The Origin of Species.'  All great
+things come slowly to the birth.  Copernicus, as I informed
+you, pondered his great work for thirty-three years.
+Newton for nearly twenty years kept the idea of Gravitation
+before his mind; for twenty years also he dwelt upon his
+discovery of Fluxions, and doubtless would have continued
+to make it the object of his private thought had he not
+found that Leibnitz was upon his track.  Darwin for two
+and twenty years pondered the problem of the origin of
+species, and doubtless he would have continued to do so
+had he not found Wallace upon his track.[<a id="chap01fn18text"></a><a href="#chap01fn18">18</a>]  A concentrated
+but full and powerful epitome of his labours was
+the consequence.  The book was by no means an easy one;
+and probably not one in every score of those who then
+attacked it had read its pages through, or were competent
+to grasp their significance if they had.  I do not say this
+merely to discredit them; for there were in those days
+some really eminent scientific men, entirely raised above
+the heat of popular prejudice, willing to accept any
+conclusion that science had to offer, provided it was duly
+backed by fact and argument, and who entirely mistook
+Mr. Darwin's views.  In fact, the work needed an expounder;
+and it found one in Mr. Huxley.  I know nothing more
+admirable in the way of scientific exposition than those
+early articles of his on the origin of species.  He swept
+the curve of discussion through the really significant points
+of the subject, enriched his exposition with profound
+original remarks and reflections, often summing up in a
+single pithy sentence an argument which a less compact
+mind would have spread over pages.  But there is one
+impression made by the book itself which no exposition of
+it, however luminous, can convey; and that is the impression
+of the vast amount of labour, both of observation and
+of thought, implied in its production.  Let us glance at its
+principles.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is conceded on all hands that what are called varieties
+are continually produced.  The rule is probably without
+exception.  No chick and no child is in all respects
+and particulars the counterpart of its brother and sister;
+and in such differences we have 'variety' incipient.  No
+naturalist could tell how far this variation could be carried;
+but the great mass of them held that never by any amount
+of internal or external change, nor by the mixture of both,
+could the offspring of the same progenitor so far deviate
+from each other as to constitute different species.  The
+function of the experimental philosopher is to combine
+the conditions of nature and to produce her results; and
+this was the method of Darwin.[<a id="chap01fn19text"></a><a href="#chap01fn19">19</a>]  He made himself
+acquainted with what could, without any manner of doubt,
+be done in the way of producing variation.  He associated
+himself with pigeon-fanciers&mdash;bought, begged, kept, and
+observed every breed that he could obtain.  Though derived
+from a common stock, the diversities of these pigeons were
+such that 'a score of them might be chosen which, if
+shown to an ornithologist, and he were told that they were
+wild birds, would certainly be ranked by him as well-defined
+species.'  The simple principle which guides the
+pigeon-fancier, as it does the cattle-breeder, is the selection
+of some variety that strikes his fancy, and the propagation
+of this variety by inheritance.  With his eye still directed to
+the particular appearance which he wishes to exaggerate,
+he selects it as it reappears in successive broods, and thus
+adds increment to increment until an astonishing amount of
+divergence from the parent type is effected.  The breeder in
+this case does not produce the elements of the variation.  He
+simply observes them, and by selection adds them together
+until the required result has been obtained.  'No man,'
+says Mr. Darwin, 'would ever try to make a fantail till he
+saw a pigeon with a tail developed in some slight degree
+in an unusual manner, or a pouter until he saw a pigeon
+with a crop of unusual size.'  Thus nature gives the hint,
+man acts upon it, and by the law of inheritance exaggerates
+the deviation.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Having thus satisfied himself by indubitable facts that
+the organization of an animal or of a plant (for precisely
+the same treatment applies to plants) is to some extent
+plastic, he passes from variation under domestication to
+variation under nature.  Hitherto we have dealt with the
+adding together of small changes by the conscious selection
+of man.  Can Nature thus select?  Mr. Darwin's answer
+is, 'Assuredly she can.'  The number of living things
+produced is far in excess of the number that can be supported;
+hence at some period or other of their lives there must be
+a struggle for existence; and what is the infallible result?
+If one organism were a perfect copy of the other in regard
+to strength, skill, and agility, external conditions would
+decide.  But this is not the case.  Here we have the fact
+of variety offering itself to nature, as in the former instance
+it offered itself to man; and those varieties which are least
+competent to cope with surrounding conditions will infallibly
+give way to those that are most competent.  To use
+a familiar proverb, the weakest comes to the wall.  But
+the triumphant fraction again breeds to overproduction,
+transmitting the qualities which secured its maintenance,
+but transmitting them in different degrees.  The struggle
+for food again supervenes, and those to whom the favourable
+quality has been transmitted in excess will assuredly
+triumph.  It is easy to see that we have here the addition
+of increments favourable to the individual still more
+rigorously carried out than in the case of domestication; for
+not only are unfavourable specimens not selected by nature,
+but they are destroyed.  This is what Mr. Darwin calls
+'Natural Selection,' which 'acts by the preservation and
+accumulation of small inherited modifications, each
+profitable to the preserved being.'  With this idea he
+interpenetrates and leavens the vast store of facts that he and
+others have collected.  We cannot, without shutting our
+eyes through fear or prejudice, fail to see that Darwin is
+here dealing, not with imaginary, but with true causes;
+nor can we fail to discern what vast modifications may be
+produced by natural selection in periods sufficiently long.
+Each individual increment may resemble what mathematicians
+call a 'differential' (a quantity indefinitely small);
+but definite and great changes may obviously be produced
+by the integration of these infinitesimal quantities through
+practically infinite time.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+If Darwin, like Bruno, rejects the notion of creative
+power acting after human fashion, it certainly is not
+because he is unacquainted with the numberless exquisite
+adaptations on which this notion of a supernatural artificer
+has been founded.  His book is a repository of the most
+startling facts of this description.  Take the marvellous
+observation which he cites from Dr. Crüger, where a
+bucket with an aperture, serving as a spout, is formed in
+an orchid.  Bees visit the flower: in eager search of
+material for their combs they push each other into the
+bucket, the drenched ones escaping from their involuntary
+bath by the spout.  Here they rub their backs against the
+viscid stigma of the flower and obtain glue; then against the
+pollen-masses, which are thus stuck to the back of the bee
+and carried away.  'When the bee, so provided, flies
+to another flower, or to the same flower a second time,
+and is pushed by its comrades into the bucket, and then
+crawls out by the passage, the pollen-mass upon its back
+necessarily comes first into contact with the viscid stigma,'
+which takes up the pollen; and this is how that orchid
+is fertilized.  Or take this other case of the <i>Catasetum</i>.
+'Bees visit these flowers in order to gnaw the labellum;
+in doing this they inevitably touch a long, tapering,
+sensitive projection.  This, when touched, transmits a sensation
+or vibration to a certain membrane, which is instantly
+ruptured, setting free a spring, by which the pollen-mass
+is shot forth like an arrow in the right direction, and
+adheres by its viscid extremity to the back of the bee.'  In
+this way the fertilising pollen is spread abroad.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is the mind thus stored with the choicest materials
+of the teleologist that rejects teleology, seeking to refer
+these wonders to natural cases.  They illustrate, according
+to him, the method of nature, not the 'technic' of a
+man-like Artificer.  The beauty of flowers is due to natural
+selection.  Those that distinguish themselves by vividly
+contrasting colours from the surrounding green leaves are
+most readily seen, most frequently visited by insects, most
+often fertilized, and hence most favoured by natural
+selection.  Coloured berries also readily attract the attention
+of birds and beasts, which feed upon them, spread their
+manured seeds abroad, thus giving trees and shrubs
+possessing such berries a greater chance in the struggle
+for existence.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With profound analytic and synthetic skill, Mr. Darwin
+investigates the cell-making instinct of the hive-bee.  His
+method of dealing with it is representative.  He falls back
+from the more perfectly to the less perfectly developed
+instinct&mdash;from the hive-bee to the humble bee, which
+uses its own cocoon as a comb, and to classes of bees of
+intermediate skill, endeavouring to show how the passage
+might be gradually made from the lowest to the highest.
+The saving of wax is the most important point in the
+economy of bees.  Twelve to fifteen pounds of dry sugar
+are said to be needed for the secretion of a single pound of
+wax.  The quantities of nectar necessary for the wax must
+therefore be vast; and every improvement of constructive
+instinct which results in the saving of wax is a direct
+profit to the insect's life.  The time that would otherwise
+be devoted to the making of wax is now devoted to the
+gathering and storing of honey for winter food.  He passes
+from the humble bee with its rude cells, through the
+Melipona with its more artistic cells, to the hive-bee with
+its astonishing architecture.  The bees place themselves
+at equal distances apart upon the wax, sweep and excavate
+equal spheres round the selected points.  The spheres
+intersect, and the planes of intersection are built up with
+thin laminæ.  Hexagonal cells are thus formed.  This
+mode of treating such questions is, as I have said,
+representative.  He habitually retires from the more perfect
+and complex to the less perfect and simple, and carries
+you with him through stages of perfecting, adds increment
+to increment of infinitesimal change, and in this way
+gradually breaks down your reluctance to admit that
+the exquisite climax of the whole could be a result of
+natural selection.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Mr. Darwin shirks no difficulty; and, saturated as the
+subject was with his own thought, he must have known
+better than his critics the weakness as well as the strength
+of his theory.  This of course would be of little avail
+were his object a temporary dialectic victory instead of
+the establishment of a truth which he means to be
+ever-lasting.  But he takes no pains to disguise the weakness
+he has discerned; nay, he takes every pains to bring it
+into the strongest light.  His vast resources enable him to
+cope with objections started by himself and others, so as
+to leave the final impression upon the reader's mind that,
+if they be not completely answered, they certainly are not
+fatal.  Their negative force being thus destroyed, you are
+free to be influenced by the vast positive mass of evidence
+he is able to bring before you.  This largeness of
+knowledge and readiness of resource render Mr. Darwin the
+most terrible of antagonists.  Accomplished naturalists
+have levelled heavy and sustained criticisms against
+him&mdash;not always with the view of fairly weighing his
+theory, but with the express intention of exposing its weak
+points only.  This does not irritate him.  He treats every
+objection with a soberness and thoroughness which even
+Bishop Butler might be proud to imitate, surrounding
+each fact with its appropriate detail, placing it in its proper
+relations, and usually giving it a significance which, as
+long as it was kept isolated, failed to appear.  This is done
+without a trace of ill-temper.  He moves over the subject
+with the passionless strength of a glacier; and the grinding
+of the rocks is not always without a counterpart in
+the logical pulverization of the objector.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+But though in handling this mighty theme all passion
+has been stilled, there is an emotion of the intellect incident
+to the discernment of new truth which often colours and
+warms the pages of Mr. Darwin.  His success has been
+great; and this implies not only the solidity of his work,
+but the preparedness of the public mind for such a revelation.
+On this head a remark of Agassiz impressed me more
+than anything else.  Sprung from a race of theologians,
+this celebrated man combated to the last the theory of
+natural selection.  One of the many times I had the
+pleasure of meeting him in the United States was at
+Mr. Winthrop's beautiful residence at Brookline, near Boston.
+Rising from luncheon, we all halted as if by a common
+impulse in front of a window, and continued there a
+discussion which had been started at table.  The maple was
+in its autumn glory; and the exquisite beauty of the
+scene outside seemed, in my case, to interpenetrate without
+disturbance the intellectual action.  Earnestly, almost
+sadly, Agassiz turned, and said to the gentlemen standing
+round, 'I confess that I was not prepared to see this
+theory received as it has been by the best intellects of our
+time.  Its success is greater than I could have thought
+possible.'
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In our day grand generalizations have been reached.
+The theory of the origin of species is but one of them.
+Another, of still wider grasp and more radical significance,
+is the doctrine of the Conservation of Energy, the ultimate
+philosophical issues of which are as yet but dimly seen&mdash;that
+doctrine which 'binds nature fast in fate' to an
+extent not hitherto recognized, exacting from every
+antecedent its equivalent consequent, from every
+consequent its equivalent antecedent, and bringing vital as
+well as physical phenomena under the dominion of that
+law of causal connexion which, so far as the human
+understanding has yet pierced, asserts itself everywhere in
+nature.  Long in advance of all definite experiment upon
+the subject, the constancy and indestructibility of matter
+had been affirmed; and all subsequent experience justified
+the affirmation.  Later researches extended the attribute
+of indestructibility to force.  This idea, applied in the
+first instance to inorganic, rapidly embraced organic
+nature.  The vegetable world, though drawing almost all its
+nutriment from invisible sources, was proved incompetent
+to generate anew either matter or force.  Its matter is
+for the most part transmuted gas; its force transformed
+solar force.  The animal world was proved to be equally
+uncreative, all its motive energies being referred to the
+combustion of its food.  The activity of each animal as
+a whole was proved to be the transferred activity of its
+molecules.  The muscles were shown to be stores of
+mechanical force, potential until unlocked by the nerves,
+and then resulting in muscular contractions.  The speed
+at which messages fly to and fro along the nerves was
+determined, and found to be, not as had been previously
+supposed, equal to that of light or electricity, but less
+than the speed of a flying eagle.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+This was the work of the physicist: then came the
+conquests of the comparative anatomist and physiologist,
+revealing the structure of every animal, and the function
+of every organ in the whole biological series, from the
+lowest zoophyte up to man.  The nervous system had
+been made the object of profound and continued study,
+the wonderful and, at bottom, entirely mysterious,
+controlling power which it exercises over the whole organism,
+physical and mental, being recognized more and more.
+Thought could not be kept back from a subject so
+profoundly suggestive.  Besides the physical life dealt with
+by Mr. Darwin, there is a psychical life presenting similar
+gradations, and asking equally for a solution.  How are
+the different grades and order of Mind to be accounted
+for?  What is the principle of growth of that mysterious
+power which on our planet culminates in Reason?  These
+are questions which, though not thrusting themselves so
+forcibly upon the attention of the general public, had not
+only occupied many reflecting minds, but had been
+formally broached by one of them before the 'Origin of
+Species' appeared.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With the mass of materials furnished by the physicist
+and physiologist in his hands, Mr. Herbert Spencer,
+twenty years ago, sought to graft upon this basis a system
+of psychology; and two years ago a second and greatly
+amplified edition of his work appeared.  Those who have
+occupied themselves with the beautiful experiments of
+Plateau will remember that when two spherules of olive-oil,
+suspended in a mixture of alcohol and water of the
+same density as the oil, are brought together, they do not
+immediately unite.  Something like a pellicle appears to
+be formed around the drops, the rupture of which is
+immediately followed by the coalescence of the globules
+into one.  There are organisms whose vital actions are
+almost as purely physical as that of these drops of oil.
+They come into contact and fuse themselves thus together.
+From such organisms to others a shade higher, and from
+these to others a shade higher still, and on through an
+ever-ascending series, Mr. Spencer conducts his argument.
+There are two obvious factors to be here taken into
+account&mdash;the creature and the medium in which it lives,
+or, as it is often expressed, the organism and its
+environment.  Mr. Spencer's fundamental principle is that
+between these two factors there is incessant interaction.
+The organism is played upon by the environment, and is
+modified to meet the requirements of the environment.
+Life he defines to be 'a continuous adjustment of internal
+relations to external relations.'
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the lowest organisms we have a kind of tactual
+sense diffused over the entire body; then, through
+impressions from without and their corresponding
+adjustments, special portions of the surface become more
+responsive to stimuli than others.  The senses are
+nascent, the basis of all of them being that simple tactual
+sense which the sage Democritus recognised 2,300 years
+ago as their common progenitor.  The action of light, in
+the first instance, appears to be a mere disturbance of the
+chemical processes in the animal organism, similar to that
+which occurs in the leaves of plants.  By degrees the
+action becomes localized in a few pigment-cells, more
+sensitive to light than the surrounding tissue.  The eye
+is here incipient.  At first it is merely capable of
+revealing differences of light and shade produced by bodies
+close at hand.  Followed as the interception of the light
+is in almost all cases by the contact of the closely adjacent
+opaque body, sight in this condition becomes a kind of
+'anticipatory touch.'  The adjustment continues; a slight
+bulging out of the epidermis over the pigment-granules
+supervenes.  A lens is incipient, and, through the operation
+of infinite adjustments, at length reaches the perfection
+that it displays in the hawk and eagle.  So of the
+other senses; they are special differentiations of a tissue
+which was originally vaguely sensitive all over.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+With the development of the senses the adjustments
+between the organism and its environment gradually
+extend in <i>space</i>, a multiplication of experiences and a
+corresponding modification of conduct being the result.
+The adjustments also extend in <i>time</i>, covering continually
+greater intervals.  Along with this extension in space
+and time the adjustments also increase in specialty and
+complexity, passing through the various grades of brute
+life, and prolonging themselves into the domain of reason.
+Very striking are Mr. Spencer's remarks regarding the
+influence of the sense of touch upon the development of
+intelligence.  This is, so to say, the mother-tongue of all
+the senses, into which they must be translated to be of
+service to the organism.  Hence its importance.  The
+parrot is the most intelligent of birds, and its tactual
+power is also greatest.  From this sense it gets
+knowledge unattainable by birds which cannot employ their
+feet as hands.  The elephant is the most sagacious of
+quadrupeds&mdash;its tactual range and skill, and the consequent
+multiplication of experiences, which it owes to its
+wonderfully adaptable trunk, being the basis of its
+sagacity.  Feline animals, for a similar cause, are more
+sagacious than hoofed animals&mdash;atonement being to some
+extent made, in the case of the horse, by the possession
+of sensitive prehensile lips.  In the Primates the evolution
+of intellect and the evolution of tactual appendages go
+hand in hand.  In the most intelligent anthropoid apes we
+find the tactual range and delicacy greatly augmented, new
+avenues of knowledge being thus open to the animal.  Man
+crowns the edifice here, not only in virtue of his own
+manipulatory power, but through the enormous extension
+of his range of experience, by the invention of instruments
+of precision, which serve as supplemental senses and
+supplemental limbs.  The reciprocal action of these is finely
+described and illustrated.  That chastened intellectual
+emotion to which I have referred in connexion with
+Mr. Darwin is not absent in Mr. Spencer.  His illustrations
+possess at times exceeding vividness and force;
+and from his style on such occasions it is to be inferred
+that the ganglia of this Apostle of the Understanding
+are sometimes the seat of a nascent poetic thrill.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It is a fact of supreme importance that actions the
+performance of which at first requires even painful effort
+and deliberation may by habit be rendered automatic.
+Witness the slow learning of its letters by a child, and
+the subsequent facility of reading in a man, when each
+group of letters which forms a word is instantly, and
+without effort, fused to a single perception.  Instance the
+billiard-player, whose muscles of hand and eye, when
+he reaches the perfection of his art, are unconsciously
+coördinated.  Instance the musician, who, by practice, is
+enabled to fuse a multitude of arrangements, auditory,
+tactual, and muscular, into a process of automatic
+manipulation.  Combining such facts with the doctrine of
+hereditary transmission, we reach a theory of Instinct.  A
+chick, after coming out of the egg, balances itself correctly,
+runs about, picks up food, thus showing that it possesses
+a power of directing its movements to definite ends.  How
+did the chick learn this very complex coördination of eye,
+muscles, and beak?  It has not been individually taught;
+its personal experience is <i>nil</i>; but it has the benefit of
+ancestral experience.  In its inherited organization are
+registered all the powers which it displays at birth.  So
+also as regards the instinct of the hive-bee, already
+referred to.  The distance at which the insects stand apart
+when they sweep their hemispheres and build their cells
+is 'organically remembered.'
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Man also carries with him the physical texture of his
+ancestry, as well as the inherited intellect bound up with it.
+The defects of intelligence during infancy and youth are
+probably less due to a lack of individual experience than to
+the fact that in early life the cerebral organization is still
+incomplete.  The period necessary for completion varies
+with the race and with the individual.  As a round shot
+outstrips a rifled one on quitting the muzzle of the gun, so
+the lower race in childhood may outstrip the higher.  But
+the higher eventually overtakes the lower, and surpasses it
+in range.  As regards individuals, we do not always find
+the precocity of youth prolonged to mental power in
+maturity; while the dulness of boyhood is sometimes
+strikingly contrasted with the intellectual energy of after
+years.  Newton, when a boy, was weakly, and he showed
+no particular aptitude at school; but in his eighteenth
+year he went to Cambridge, and soon afterwards
+astonished his teachers by his power of dealing with
+geometrical problems.  During his quiet youth his brain was
+slowly preparing itself to be the organ of those energies
+which he subsequently displayed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+By myriad blows (to use a Lucretian phrase) the
+image and superscription of the external world are
+stamped as states of consciousness upon the organism,
+the depth of the impression depending upon the number
+of the blows.  When two or more phenomena occur in
+the environment invariably together, they are stamped
+to the same depth or to the same relief, and indissolubly
+connected.  And here we come to the threshold of a
+great question.  Seeing that he could in no way rid himself
+of the consciousness of Space and Time, Kant assumed
+them to be necessary 'forms of intuition,' the moulds and
+shapes into which our intuitions are thrown, belonging to
+ourselves solely and without objective existence.  With
+unexpected power and success Mr. Spencer brings the
+hereditary experience theory, as he holds it, to bear upon
+this question.  'If there exist certain external relations
+which are experienced by all organisms at all instants of
+their waking lives&mdash;relations which are absolutely
+constant and universal&mdash;there will be established
+answering internal relations that are absolutely constant and
+universal.  Such relations we have in those of Space and
+Time.  As the substratum of all other relations of the
+Non-Ego, they must be responded to by conceptions that
+are the substrata of all other relations in the Ego.  Being
+the constant and infinitely repeated elements of thought,
+they must become the automatic elements of thought&mdash;the
+elements of thought which it is impossible to get rid
+of&mdash;the "forms of intuition."
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Throughout this application and extension of the 'Law
+of Inseparable Association,' Mr. Spencer stands upon his
+own ground, invoking, instead of the experiences of the
+individual, the registered experiences of the race.  His
+overthrow of the restriction of experience to the individual
+is, I think, complete.  That restriction ignores the
+power of organizing experience furnished at the outset to
+each individual; it ignores the different degrees of this
+power possessed by different races and by different
+individuals of the same race.  Were there not in the human
+brain a potency antecedent to all experience, a dog or
+cat ought to be as capable of education as a man.  These
+predetermined internal relations are independent of the
+experiences of the individual.  The human brain is the
+'organised register of infinitely numerous experiences
+received during the evolution of life, or rather during the
+evolution of that series of organisms through which the
+human organism has been reached.  The effects of the
+most uniform and frequent of these experiences have been
+successively bequeathed, principal and interest, and have
+slowly mounted to that high intelligence which lies latent
+in the brain of the infant.  Thus it happens that the
+European inherits from twenty to thirty cubic inches more
+of brain than the Papuan.  Thus it happens that faculties,
+as of music, which scarcely exist in some inferior races,
+become congenital in superior ones.  Thus it happens
+that out of savages unable to count up to the number
+of their fingers, and speaking a language containing
+only nouns and verbs, arise at length our Newtons and
+Shakespeares.'
+</p>
+
+<p><br></p>
+
+<p>
+At the outset of this Address it was stated that
+physical theories which lie beyond experience are derived
+by a process of abstraction from experience.  It is
+instructive to note from this point of view the successive
+introduction of new conceptions.  The idea of the
+attraction of gravitation was preceded by the observation of the
+attraction of iron by a magnet, and of light bodies by
+rubbed amber.  The polarity of magnetism and electricity
+appealed to the senses; and thus became the substratum
+of the conception that atoms and molecules are endowed
+with definite, attractive, and repellent poles, by the play of
+which definite forms of crystalline architecture are
+produced.  Thus molecular force becomes <i>structural</i>.  It
+required no great boldness of thought to extend its play into
+organic nature, and to recognize in molecular force the
+agency by which both plants and animals are built up.  In
+this way out of experience arise conceptions which are
+wholly ultra-experiential.  None of the atomists of
+antiquity had any notion of this play of molecular polar
+force, but they had experience of gravity as manifested
+by falling bodies.  Abstracting from this, they permitted
+their atoms to fall eternally through empty space.
+Democritus assumed that the larger atoms moved more
+rapidly than the smaller ones, which they therefore
+could overtake, and with which they could combine.
+Epicurus, holding that empty space could offer no
+resistance to motion, ascribed to all the atoms the same
+velocity; but he seems to have overlooked the
+consequence that under such circumstances the atoms could
+never combine.  Lucretius cut the knot by quitting the
+domain of physics altogether, and causing the atoms to
+move together by a kind of volition.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Was the instinct utterly at fault which caused Lucretius
+thus to swerve from his own principles?  Diminishing
+gradually the number of progenitors, Mr. Darwin comes
+at length to one 'primordial form;' but he does not say,
+as far as I remember, how he supposes this form to have
+been introduced.  He quotes with satisfaction the words
+of a celebrated author and divine who had 'gradually
+learnt to see that it is just as noble a conception of the
+Deity to believe He created a few original forms, capable
+of self-development into other and needful forms, as to
+believe that He required a fresh act of creation to supply
+the voids caused by the action of His laws.'  What
+Mr. Darwin thinks of this view of the introduction of life I
+do not know.  But the anthropomorphism, which it
+seemed his object to set aside, is as firmly associated
+with the creation of a few forms as with the creation of
+a multitude.  We need clearness and thoroughness here.
+Two courses and two only, are possible.  Either let us
+open our doors freely to the conception of creative
+acts, or, abandoning them, let us radically change our
+notions of Matter.  If we look at matter as pictured
+by Democritus, and as defined for generations in our
+scientific text-books, the notion of any form of life
+whatever coming out of it is utterly unimaginable.  The
+argument placed in the mouth of Bishop Butler suffices,
+in my opinion, to crush all such materialism as this.  But
+those who framed these definitions of matter were not
+biologists but mathematicians, whose labours referred only
+to such accidents and properties of matter as could be
+expressed in their formulæ.  The very intentness with
+which they pursued mechanical science turned their
+thoughts aside from the science of life.  May not their
+imperfect definitions be the real cause of our present
+dread?  Let us reverently, but honestly, look the question
+in the face.  Divorced from matter, where is life to
+be found?  Whatever our <i>faith</i> may say, our <i>knowledge</i>
+shows them to be indissolubly joined.  Every meal we
+eat, and every cup we drink, illustrates the mysterious
+control of Mind by Matter.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Trace the line of life backwards, and see it approaching
+more and more to what we call the purely physical
+condition.  We come at length to those organisms which
+I have compared to drops of oil suspended in a mixture
+of alcohol and water.  We reach the <i>protogenes</i> of
+Haeckel, in which we have 'a type distinguishable
+from a fragment of albumen only by its finely granular
+character.'  Can we pause here?  We break a magnet
+and find two poles in each of its fragments.  We
+continue the process of breaking, but, however small the
+parts, each carries with it, though enfeebled, the polarity
+of the whole.  And when we can break no longer, we
+prolong the intellectual vision to the polar molecules.  Are
+we not urged to do <i>something</i> similar in the case of life?
+Is there not a temptation to close to some extent with
+Lucretius, when he affirms that 'nature is seen to do all
+things spontaneously of herself without the meddling of
+the gods?' or with Bruno, when he declares that Matter
+is not 'that mere empty capacity which philosophers
+have pictured her to be, but the universal mother who
+brings forth all things as the fruit of her own
+womb?'  Believing as I do in the continuity of Nature, I cannot
+stop abruptly where our microscopes cease to be of use.
+Here the vision of the mind authoritatively supplements
+the vision of the eye.  By an intellectual necessity I cross
+the boundary of the experimental evidence, and discern
+in that Matter which we, in our ignorance of its latent
+powers, and notwithstanding our professed reverence for
+its Creator, have hitherto covered with opprobrium, the
+promise and potency of all terrestial Life.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+If you ask me whether there exists the least evidence
+to prove that any form of life can be developed out of
+matter, without demonstrable antecedent life, my reply is
+that evidence considered perfectly conclusive by many has
+been adduced; and that were some of us who have pondered
+this question to follow a very common example, and
+accept testimony because it falls in with our belief, we
+also should eagerly close with the evidence referred to.
+But there is in the true man of science a wish stronger
+than the wish to have his beliefs upheld; namely, the
+wish to have them true.  And this stronger wish causes
+him to reject the most plausible support if he has reason
+to suspect that it is vitiated by error.  Those to whom I
+refer as having studied this question, believing the
+evidence offered in favour of 'spontaneous generation' to be
+thus vitiated, cannot accept it.  They know full well that
+the chemist now prepares from inorganic matter a vast
+array of substances which were some time ago regarded
+as the sole products of vitality.  They are intimately
+acquainted with the structural power of matter as
+evidenced in the phenomena of crystallization.  They
+can justify scientifically their <i>belief</i> in its potency, under
+the proper conditions, to produce organisms.  But in
+reply to your question they will frankly admit their
+inability to point to any satisfactory experimental proof
+that life can be developed save from demonstrable
+antecedent life.  As already indicated, they draw the line
+from the highest organisms through lower ones down to
+the lowest, and it is the prolongation of this line by the
+intellect beyond the range of the senses that leads them to
+the conclusion which Bruno so boldly enunciated.[<a id="chap01fn20text"></a><a href="#chap01fn20">20</a>]
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The 'materialism' here professed may be vastly
+different from what you suppose, and I therefore crave
+your gracious patience to the end.  'The question of an
+external world,' says Mr. J. S. Mill, 'is the great
+battleground of metaphysics.'[<a id="chap01fn21text"></a><a href="#chap01fn21">21</a>]  Mr. Mill himself reduces
+external phenomena to 'possibilities of sensation.'  Kant,
+as we have seen, made time and space 'forms' of our
+own intuitions.  Fichte, having first by the inexorable
+logic of his understanding proved himself to be a mere
+link in that chain of eternal causation which holds so
+rigidly in Nature, violently broke the chain by making
+Nature, and all that it inherits, an apparition of his own
+mind.[<a id="chap01fn22text"></a><a href="#chap01fn22">22</a>]  And it is by no means easy to combat such
+notions.  For when I say I see you, and that I have not
+the least doubt about it, the reply is, that what I am
+really conscious of is an affection of my own retina.  And
+if I urge that I can check my sight of you by touching
+you, the retort would be that I am equally transgressing
+the limits of fact; for what I am really conscious of is,
+not that you are there, but that the nerves of my hand
+have undergone a change.  All we hear, and see, and
+touch, and taste, and smell, are, it would be urged, mere
+variations of our own condition, beyond which, even to
+the extent of a hair's breadth, we cannot go.  That
+anything answering to our impressions exists outside of
+ourselves is not a <i>fact</i>, but an <i>inference</i>, to which all
+validity would be denied by an idealist like Berkeley, or
+by a sceptic like Hume.  Mr. Spencer takes another line.
+With him, as with the uneducated man, there is no
+doubt or question as to the existence of an external
+world.  But he differs from the uneducated, who think
+that the world really is what consciousness represents it
+to be.  Our states of consciousness are mere <i>symbols</i> of
+an outside entity which produces them and determines
+the order of their succession, but the real nature of which
+we can never know.[<a id="chap01fn23text"></a><a href="#chap01fn23">23</a>]  In fact, the whole process of evolution
+is the manifestation of a Power absolutely inscrutable
+to the intellect of man.  As little in our day as in the
+days of Job can man by searching find this Power out.
+Considered fundamentally, then, it is by the operation of
+an insoluble mystery that life on earth is evolved, species
+differentiated, and mind unfolded from their prepotent
+elements in the immeasurable past.  There is, you will
+observe, no very rank materialism here.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+The strength of the doctrine of evolution consists, not
+in an experimental demonstration (for the subject is hardly
+accessible to this mode of proof), but in its general
+harmony with scientific thought.  From contrast, moreover,
+it derives enormous relative strength.  On the one side
+we have a theory (if it could with any propriety be so
+called) derived, as were the theories referred to at the
+beginning of this Address, not from the study of Nature,
+but from the observation of men&mdash;a theory which
+converts the Power whose garment is seen in the visible
+universe into an Artificer, fashioned after the human
+model, and acting by broken efforts, as man is seen to
+act.  On the other side, we have the conception that all
+we see around us, and all we feel within us&mdash;the phenomena
+of physical nature as well as those of the human
+mind&mdash;have their unsearchable roots in a cosmical life, if
+I dare apply the term, an infinitesimal span of which
+is offered to the investigation of man.  And even
+this span is only knowable in part.  We can trace the
+development of a nervous system, and correlate with it
+the parallel phenomena of sensation and thought.  We
+see with undoubting certainty that they go hand in hand.
+But we try to soar in a vacuum the moment we seek to
+comprehend the connexion between them.  An Archimedean
+fulcrum is here required which the human mind
+cannot command; and the effort to solve the problem, to
+borrow a comparison from an illustrious friend of mine,
+is like the effort of a man trying to lift himself by his own
+waistband.  All that has been here said is to be taken
+in connexion with this fundamental truth.  When 'nascent
+senses' are spoken of, when 'the differentiation of a tissue
+at first vaguely sensitive all over' is spoken of, and when
+these processes are associated with 'the modification of
+an organism by its environment,' the same parallelism,
+without contact, or even approach to contact, is implied.
+Man the <i>object</i> is separated by an impassable gulf from
+man the <i>subject</i>.  There is no motor energy in intellect
+to carry it without logical rupture from the one to
+the other.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Further, the doctrine of evolution derives man in his
+totality from the inter-action of organism and environment
+through countless ages past.  The Human Understanding,
+for example&mdash;that faculty which Mr. Spencer
+has turned so skilfully round upon its own antecedents&mdash;is
+itself a result of the play between organism and
+environment through cosmic ranges of time.  Never surely
+did prescription plead so irresistible a claim.  But then
+it comes to pass that, over and above his understanding,
+there are many other things appertaining to man whose
+perspective rights are quite as strong as those of the
+understanding itself.  It is a result, for example, of the
+play of organism and environment that sugar is sweet
+and that aloes are bitter, that the smell of henbane
+differs from the perfume of a rose.  Such facts of
+consciousness (for which, by the way, no adequate reason
+has yet been rendered) are quite as old as the
+understanding; and many other things can boast an equally
+ancient origin.  Mr. Spencer at one place refers to that
+most powerful of passions&mdash;the amatory passion&mdash;as one
+which, when it first occurs, is antecedent to all relative
+experience whatever; and we may pass its claim as being
+at least as ancient and valid as that of the understanding.
+Then there are such things woven into the texture
+of man as the feeling of Awe, Reverence, Wonder&mdash;and
+not alone the sexual love just referred to,
+but the love of the beautiful, physical, and moral, in
+Nature, Poetry, and Art.  There is also that deep-set
+feeling which, since the earliest dawn of history, and
+probably for ages prior to all history, incorporated itself
+in the Religions of the world.  You who have escaped
+from these religions into the high-and-dry light of the
+intellect may deride them; but in so doing you
+deride accidents of form merely, and fail to touch the
+immovable basis of the religious sentiment in the
+nature of man.  To yield this sentiment reasonable
+satisfaction is the problem of problems at the present
+hour.  And grotesque in relation to scientific culture as
+many of the religions of the world have been and are&mdash;dangerous,
+nay destructive, to the dearest privileges of free-men
+as some of them undoubtedly have been, and would,
+if they could, be again&mdash;it will be wise to recognize them
+as the forms of a force, mischievous, if permitted to
+intrude on the region of knowledge, over which it holds
+no command, but capable of being guided to noble
+issues in the region of emotion, which is its proper and
+elevated sphere.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+All religious theories, schemes and systems, which
+embrace notions of cosmogony, or which otherwise
+reach into the domain of science, must, <i>in so far
+as they do this</i>, submit to the control of science, and
+relinquish all thought of controlling it.  Acting otherwise
+proved disastrous in the past, and it is simply fatuous
+to-day.  Every system which would escape the fate of
+an organism too rigid to adjust itself to its environment
+must be plastic to the extent that the growth of
+knowledge demands.  When this truth has been thoroughly
+taken in, rigidity will be relaxed, exclusiveness
+diminished, things now deemed essential will be dropped, and
+elements now rejected will be assimilated.  The lifting of
+the life is the essential point; and as long as dogmatism,
+fanaticism, and intolerance are kept out, various modes
+of leverage may be employed to raise life to a higher
+level.  Science itself not unfrequently derives motive
+power from an ultra-scientific source.  Whewell speaks
+of enthusiasm of temper as a hindrance to science; but
+he means the enthusiasm of weak heads.  There is a
+strong and resolute enthusiasm in which science finds
+an ally; and it is to the lowering of this fire, rather
+than to the diminution of intellectual insight, that the
+lessening productiveness of men of science in their mature
+years is to be ascribed.  Mr. Buckle sought to detach
+intellectual achievement from moral force.  He gravely
+erred; for without moral force to whip it into action, the
+achievements of the intellect would be poor indeed.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+It has been said that science divorces itself from
+literature; but the statement, like so many others, arises from
+lack of knowledge.  A glance at the less technical
+writings of its leaders&mdash;of its Helmholtz, its Huxley, and its
+Du Bois-Reymond&mdash;would show what breadth of literary
+culture they command.  Where among modern writers
+can you find their superiors in clearness and vigour of
+literary style?  Science desires not isolation, but freely
+combines with every effort towards the bettering of man's
+estate.  Single-handed, and supported not by outward
+sympathy, but by inward force, it has built at least one
+great wing of the many-mansioned home which man in his
+totality demands.  And if rough walls and protruding
+rafter-ends indicate that on one side the edifice is still
+incomplete, it is only by wise combination of the parts
+required with those already irrevocably built that we can
+hope for completeness.  There is no necessary incongruity
+between what has been accomplished and what
+remains to be done.  The moral glow of Socrates, which
+we all feel by ignition, has in it nothing incompatible
+with the physics of Anaxagoras which he so much
+scorned, but which he would hardly scorn to-day.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And here I am reminded of one amongst us, hoary, but
+still strong, whose prophet-voice some thirty years ago, far
+more than any other of this age, unlocked whatever of
+life and nobleness lay latent in its most gifted minds&mdash;one
+fit to stand beside Socrates or the Maccabean Eleazar, and
+to dare and suffer all that they suffered and dared&mdash;fit,
+as he once said of Fichte, 'to have been the teacher of
+the Stoa, and to have discoursed of Beauty and Virtue
+in the groves of Academe.'  With a capacity to grasp
+physical principles which his friend Goethe did not possess,
+and which even total lack of exercise has not been able to
+reduce to atrophy, it is the world's loss that he, in the
+vigour of his years, did not open his mind and sympathies
+to science, and make its conclusions a portion of his
+message to mankind.  Marvellously endowed as he
+was&mdash;equally equipped on the side of the Heart and of the
+Understanding&mdash;he might have done much towards teaching
+us how to reconcile the claims of both, and to enable
+them in coming times to dwell together in unity of spirit
+and in the bond of peace.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+And now the end is come.  With more time, or
+greater strength and knowledge, what has been here said
+might have been better said, while worthy matters here
+omitted might have received fit expression.  But there
+would have been no material deviation from the views set
+forth.  As regards myself, they are not the growth of a
+day; and as regards you, I thought you ought to know
+the environment which, with or without your consent, is
+rapidly surrounding you, and in relation to which some
+adjustment on your part may be necessary.  A hint of
+Hamlet's, however, teaches us all how the troubles of
+common life may be ended; and it is perfectly possible for
+you and me to purchase intellectual peace at the price of
+intellectual death.  The world is not without refuges of
+this description; nor is it wanting in persons who seek
+their shelter and try to persuade others to do the same.
+The unstable and the weak will yield to this persuasion,
+and they to whom repose is sweeter than the truth.  But I
+would exhort you to refuse the offered shelter and to scorn
+the base repose&mdash;to accept, if the choice be forced upon
+you, commotion before stagnation, the leap of the torrent
+before the stillness of the swamp.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+In the course of this Address I have touched on debatable
+questions and led you over what will be deemed dangerous
+ground&mdash;and this partly with the view of telling you
+that as regards these questions science claims unrestricted
+right of search.  It is not to the point to say that the
+views of Lucretius and Bruno, of Darwin and Spencer,
+may be wrong.  Here I should agree with you, deeming
+it indeed certain that these views will undergo modification.
+But the point is, that, whether right or wrong, we
+ask the freedom to discuss them.  For science,
+however, no exclusive claim is here made; you are not
+urged to erect it into an idol.  The inexorable advance of
+man's understanding in the path of knowledge, and those
+unquenchable claims of his moral and emotional nature
+which the understanding can never satisfy, are here equally
+set forth.  The world embraces not only a Newton, but
+a Shakespeare&mdash;not only a Boyle, but a Raphael&mdash;not
+only a Kant, but a Beethoven&mdash;not only a Darwin, but a
+Carlyle.  Not in each of these, but in all, is human nature
+whole.  They are not opposed, but supplementary&mdash;not
+mutually exclusive, but reconcilable.  And if, unsatisfied
+with them all, the human mind, with the yearning
+of a pilgrim for his distant home, will turn to the Mystery
+from which it has emerged, seeking so to fashion it as to
+give unity to thought and faith; so long as this is done,
+not only without intolerance or bigotry of any kind, but
+with the enlightened recognition that ultimate fixity of
+conception is here unattainable, and that each succeeding
+age must be held free to fashion the Mystery in accordance
+with its own needs&mdash;then, casting aside all the
+restrictions of Materialism, I would affirm this to be a field
+for the noblest exercise of what, in contrast with the
+<i>knowing</i> faculties, may be called the <i>creative</i> faculties of
+man.
+</p>
+
+<p>
+'Fill thy heart with it,' said Goethe, 'and then name
+it as thou wilt.'  Goethe himself did this in untranslateable
+language.[<a id="chap01fn24text"></a><a href="#chap01fn24">24</a>]  Wordsworth did it in words known to
+all Englishmen, and which may be regarded as a forecast
+and religious vitalization of the latest and deepest scientific
+truth,&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<p class="poem">
+  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'For I have learned<br>
+  To look on nature; not as in the hour<br>
+  Of thoughtless youth; but hearing oftentimes<br>
+  The still, sad music of humanity,<br>
+  Nor harsh nor grating, though of ample power<br>
+  To chasten and subdue.  <i>And I have felt<br>
+  A presence that disturbs me with the joy<br>
+  Of elevated thoughts; a sense sublime<br>
+  Of something far more deeply interfused,<br>
+  Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns,<br>
+  And the round ocean, and the living air,<br>
+  And the blue sky, and in the mind of man:<br>
+  A motion and a spirit, that impels<br>
+  All thinking things, all objects of all thought,<br>
+  And rolls through all things</i>.'[<a id="chap01fn25text"></a><a href="#chap01fn25">25</a>]<br>
+</p>
+
+<p><br><br><br></p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn1"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn1text">1</a>] Hume, <i>Natural History of Religion</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn2"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn2text">2</a>] Born 460 B.C.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn3"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn3text">3</a>] Lange, 2nd edit., p. 23.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn4"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn4text">4</a>] Born 342 B.C.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn5"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn5text">5</a>] Tennyson's Lucretius.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn6"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn6text">6</a>] Born 99 B.C.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn7"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn7text">7</a>] Monro's translation.  In his criticism of this work, <i>Contemporary
+Review</i>, 1867, Dr. Hayman does not appear to be aware of the really
+sound and subtile observations on which the reasoning of Lucretius,
+though erroneous, sometimes rests.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn8"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn8text">8</a>] <i>History of the Intellectual Development of Europe</i>, p. 295.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn9"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn9text">9</a>] <i>History of the Inductive Sciences</i>, vol. i.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn10"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn10text">10</a>] Depicted with terrible vividness in <i>Renan's Antichrist</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn11"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn11text">11</a>] <i>Intellectual Development of Europe</i>, p. 359.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn12"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn12text">12</a>] Lange, 2nd edit. pp. 181, 182.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn13"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn13text">13</a>] See Huxley's admirable Essay on Descartes.  <i>Lay Sermons</i>,
+pp. 864, 365.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn14"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn14text">14</a>] Boyle's model of the universe was the Strasburg clock with an
+outside Artificer.  Goethe, on the other hand, sang
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'Ihm ziemt's die Welt im Innern zu bewegen,<br>
+  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Natur in sich, sich in Natur zu hegen.'<br>
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+See also Carlyle, <i>Past and Present</i>, Chap. V.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn15"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn15text">15</a>] Only to some; for there are dignitaries who
+even now speak of
+the earth's rocky crust as so much building material
+prepared for man
+at the Creation.  Surely it is time that this loose
+language should cease.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn16"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn16text">16</a>] <i>Zoonomia</i>, vol. i. pp. 500-510.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn17"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn17text">17</a>] In 1855 Mr. Herbert Spencer (Principles of Psychology,
+2nd edit. vol. i. p. 465) expressed 'the belief that life
+under all its forms has
+arisen by an unbroken evolution,
+and through the instrumentality of
+what are called natural causes.'
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn18"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn18text">18</a>] The behaviour of Mr. Wallace in relation
+to this subject has been
+dignified in the highest desgree.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn19"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn19text">19</a>] The first step only towards experimental
+demonstration has been
+taken.  Experiments now begun might,
+a couple of centuries hence,
+furnish data of incalculable value,
+which ought to be supplied to the
+science of the future.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn20"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn20text">20</a>] Bruno was a 'Pantheist,' not an 'Atheist' or a 'Materialist.'
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn21"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn21text">21</a>] <i>Examination of Hamilton</i>, p. 154.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn22"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn22text">22</a>] <i>Bestimmung des Menschen</i>.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn23"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn23text">23</a>] In a paper, at once popular and profound,
+entitled <i>Recent Progress in the Theory of Vision</i>,
+contained in the volume of Lectures by
+Helmholtz, published by Longmans,
+this symbolism of our states of
+consciousness is also dwelt upon.  The impressions of sense are the
+mere signs of external things.  In this paper Helmholtz contends
+strongly against the view that the consciousness of space is inborn;
+and he evidently doubts the power of the chick to pick up grains of
+corn without preliminary lessons.  On this point, he says, further
+experiments are needed.  Such experiments have been since made by
+Mr. Spalding, aided, I believe, in some of his observations by the
+accomplished and deeply lamented Lady Amberly; and they seem to
+prove conclusively that the chick does not need a single moment's
+tuition to enable it to stand, run, govern the muscles of its eyes, and
+to peck.  Helmholtz, however, is contending against the notion of
+pre-established harmony; and I am not aware of his views as to the
+organisation of experiences of race or breed.
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn24"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn24text">24</a>] Proœmium to 'Gott und Welt.'
+</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">
+<a id="chap01fn25"></a>
+[<a href="#chap01fn25text">25</a>] Tintern Abbey.
+</p>
+
+<p><br><br></p>
+
+<p class="t4">
+  LONDON: PRINTED BY<br>
+  SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE<br>
+  AND PARLIAMENT STREET<br>
+</p>
+
+<p><br><br><br><br></p>
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75664 ***</div>
+</body>
+
+</html>
+
+
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+book #75664 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/75664)