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visibility: hidden;} +.pagenum.hide {visibility: hidden;} +.red {color: red;} +.bt {border-top: thin solid black; padding-top: .3em;} +.bb {border-bottom: thin solid black;} +.v1 {border-bottom: none;} +.v2 {border-bottom: .1em solid;} + + /* ]]> */ </style> +</head> + +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75616 ***</div> + +<div class="transnote section"> +<p class="center larger">Transcriber’s Notes</p> + +<p>This is Volume I of a two-volume set. Volume II is available at +Project Gutenberg: <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/75617"> +https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/75617</a>. Index references to pages +within that volume are double-underlined here.</p> + +<p>Larger versions of most illustrations may be seen by right-clicking them +and selecting an option to view them separately, or by double-tapping and/or +stretching them.</p> + +<p class="covernote">New original cover art included with this eBook is granted +to the public domain. It uses the original cover with title and author text +added by the Transcriber.</p> + +<p><a href="#Transcribers_Notes">Additional notes</a> will be found near the end of this ebook.</p> +<div> </div> +</div> + +<div class="section"> +<h1>THE BRITISH BATTLE FLEET</h1> +<div> </div> +</div> + +<div class="section"> +<figure id="i_1" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;"> + <img src="images/i_001.jpg" width="2439" height="1634" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">SUBMARINES IN THE CHANNEL. + </figcaption> +</figure> +<div> </div> +</div> + +<div class="chapter section center wspace"> +<p class="xxlarge red bold"> +THE<br> +BRITISH BATTLE<br> +FLEET</p> + +<p class="p1 larger"><span class="gesperrt1">ITS INCEPTION AND GROWTH</span><br> +THROUGHOUT THE CENTURIES<br> +TO THE PRESENT DAY</p> + +<p class="p2"><span class="xsmall">BY</span><br> +<span class="larger red">FRED T. JANE</span></p> + +<p class="xsmall">AUTHOR OF “FIGHTING SHIPS,” “ALL THE WORLD’S AIRCRAFT,”<br> +“HERESIES OF SEA POWER,” ETC., ETC.</p> + +<p class="p4 small"><span class="smcap">With Illustrations in Colour<br> +from original water-colour drawings by</span></p> + +<p class="larger red">W. L. WYLLIE, R.A.</p> + +<p class="p0"><span class="smcap small">And Numerous Plans and Photographs</span>.</p> + +<p class="p2"><span class="smcap">Vol. I.</span></p> + +<p class="p2"><span class="bold">London</span><br> +<span class="larger bold red">The Library Press, Limited</span><br> +<span class="bold">26 Portugal St., W.C.</span><br> +<span class="smaller">1915</span> +</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div> </div> +</div> + +<div class="chapter section center vspace"> +<p> +TO THOSE<br> +WHO IN ALL AGES BUILT THE SHIPS OF<br> +THE BRITISH NAVY<br> +AND TO THE UNKNOWN MEN<br> +WHO HAVE WORKED THOSE SHIPS<br> +AND SO MADE POSSIBLE THE<br> +FAME OF MANY ADMIRALS. +</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> +<div> </div> +</div> + +<div class="chapter section"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">This</span> book is not intended to be a “history” of the +British Navy in the generally accepted sense of +the term. For this reason small space is devoted to +various strategical and tactical matters of the past which +generally bulk largely in more regular “naval histories”—of +which a sufficiency already exist.</p> + +<p>In such histories primary interest naturally attaches +to what the admirals did with the ships provided for them. +Here I have sought rather to deal with how the ships +came to be provided, and how they were developed from +the crude warships of the past to the intricate and complicated +machines of to-day; and the strictly “history” +part of the book is compressed with that idea principally +in view. The “live end” of naval construction is +necessarily that which directly or indirectly concerns the +ships of our own time. The warships of the past are +of special interest in so far as they were steps to the +warships of to-day; but, outside that, practical interest +seems confined to what led to these “steps” being +what they were.</p> + +<p>Thus regarded, Trafalgar becomes of somewhat +secondary interest as regards the tremendous strategical +questions involved, but of profound importance by reason +of the side-issue that the <i>Victory’s</i> forward bulkhead<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span> +was so slightly built that she sustained an immense +number of casualties which would never have occurred +had she been designed for the particular purpose that +Nelson used her for at Trafalgar. The tactics of Trafalgar +have merely a literary and sentimental interest +now, and even the strategies which led to the battle +are probably of little utility to the strategists of our +own times. But the <i>Victory’s</i> thin forward bulkhead +profoundly affected, and to some extent still affects, +modern British naval construction. Trafalgar, of course, +sanctified for many a year “end-on approach,” and so +eventually concentrated special attention on bulkheads. +But previous to Trafalgar, the return of the <i>Victory</i> +after it for refit, and Seppings’ inspection of her, the +subject of end-on protection had been ignored. The +cogitations of Seppings helped to make what would have +very much influenced history had any similar battle +occurred in the years that followed his constructional +innovations.</p> + +<p>Again, at an earlier period much naval history turned +upon the ventilation of bilges. Improvements in this +respect (devised by men never heard of to-day) enabled +British ships to keep the seas without their crews being +totally disabled by diseases which often overmastered +their foes. The skill of the admirals, the courage of the +crews, both form more exciting reading. Yet there is +every indication to prove that this commonplace matter +of bilges was the secret of victory more than once!</p> + +<p>Coming back to more recent times, the loss of the +<i>Vanguard</i>, which cost no lives, involved greater subsequent +constructional problems than did the infinitely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span> +more terrible loss of the <i>Captain</i> a few years before. +Who shall say on how many seeming constructional +failures of the past, successes of the yet unborn future +may not rest?</p> + +<p>A number of other things might be cited, but these +suffice to indicate the particular perspective of this book, +and to show why, if regarded as an orthodox “history” +of the British Navy, it is occasionally in seemingly distorted +perspective.</p> + +<p>To say that in the scheme of this book the ship-builder +is put in the limelight instead of the ship-user, +would in no way be precisely correct, though as a vague +generalisation it may serve well enough. In exact fact +each, of course, is and ever has been dependent on the +other. Nelson himself was curtailed by the limitations +of the tools provided for him. Had he had the same +problems one or two hundred years before he would +have been still more limited. Had he had them fifty +or a hundred years later—who shall say?</p> + +<p>With Seppings’ improvements, Trafalgar would have +been a well-nigh bloodless victory for the British Fleet. +It took Trafalgar, however, to inspire and teach Seppings. +Of every great sea-fight something of the same kind may +be said. The lead had to be given.</p> + +<p>Yet those who best laboured to remove the worst +disabilities of “the means” of Blake, contributed in that +measure to Nelson’s successes years and years later on. +Their efforts may surely be deemed worthy of record, +for all that between the unknown designer of the <i>Great +Harry</i> in the sixteenth century and the designers of +Super-Dreadnoughts of to-day there may have been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">x</span> +lapses and defects in details. There was never a lapse +on account of which the user was unable to defeat any +hostile user with whom he came into conflict. The +“means” provided served. The creators of warships +consistently improved their creations: but they were not +improved without care and thought on the part of those +who produced them.</p> + +<p>To those who provided the means and to the rank +and file it fell that many an admiral was able to do +what he did. These admirals “made history.” But ever +there were “those others” who made that “history +making” possible, and who so made it also.</p> + +<p>In dealing with the warships of other eras, I have +been fortunate in securing the co-operation of Mr. W. L. +Wyllie, R.A., who has translated into vivid pictorial +obviousness a number of details which old prints of an +architectural nature entirely fail to convey. With a +view to uniformity, this scheme, though reinforced by +diagrams and photographs, has been carried right into +our own times.</p> + +<p>Some things which I might have written I have on +that account left unrecorded. There are some things that +cold print and the English language cannot describe. +These things must be sought for in Mr. Wyllie’s pictures.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, I would leave the dedication page to +explain the rest of what I have striven for in this book.</p> + +<p class="right"> +F. T. J. +</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter section"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE_TO_NEW_EDITION">PREFACE TO NEW EDITION</h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">This</span> book was originally written three years ago. +Since it was first published the greatest war ever +known has broken out. To meet that circumstance this +particular edition has been revised and brought to date +in order to present to the reader the exact state of our +Navy when the fighting began.</p> + +<p>Modern naval warfare differs much from the warfare +of the past; at any rate from the warfare of the Nelson +era. But if men and <i lang="fr">matériel</i> have altered, the general +principles of naval war have remained unchanged. +Indeed, there is some reason to believe that the wheel of +fortune has brought us back to some similitude of those +early days when to kill the enemy was the sole idea that +obtained, when there were no “rules of civilised war,” +when it was simply kill and go on killing.</p> + +<p>To these principles Germany has reverted. The +early history of the British Navy indicates that we were +able to render a good account of ourselves under such +conditions. For that matter we made our Navy under +such training. It is hard to imagine that by adopting +old time methods the Germans will take from us the Sea +Empire which we thus earned in the past.</p> + +<p class="right b0"> +F. T. J. +</p> + +<p class="p0 in0"><i>18th June, 1915.</i></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">xiii</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> +</div> + +<table id="toc"> +<tr class="xsmall"> + <td class="tdr">CHAPTER</td> + <td class="tdl"></td> + <td class="tdr">PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">I.</td> + <td class="tdl">THE BIRTH OF BRITISH NAVAL POWER</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_1">1</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">II.</td> + <td class="tdl">THE NORMAN AND PLANTAGENET ERAS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_10">10</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">III.</td> + <td class="tdl">THE TUDOR PERIOD AND BIRTH OF A REGULAR NAVY</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_35">35</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">IV.</td> + <td class="tdl">THE PERIOD OF THE DUTCH WARS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_59">59</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">V.</td> + <td class="tdl">THE EARLY FRENCH WARS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_88">88</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">VI.</td> + <td class="tdl">THE GREAT FRENCH WAR</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_133">133</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">VII.</td> + <td class="tdl">FROM THE PEACE OF AMIENS TO THE FINAL FALL OF NAPOLEON</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_165">165</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">VIII.</td> + <td class="tdl">GENERAL MATTERS IN THE PERIOD OF THE FRENCH WARS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_194">194</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">IX.</td> + <td class="tdl">THE BIRTH OF MODERN WARSHIP IDEAS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_211">211</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">X.</td> + <td class="tdl">THE COMING OF THE IRONCLAD</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_229">229</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdr top">XI.</td> + <td class="tdl">THE REED ERA</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_264">264</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">xv</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> +</div> + +<table id="loi"> +<tr> + <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><span class="small">IN COLOUR</span><br><br> +FROM PICTURES BY W. L. WYLLIE, R.A.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="xsmall"> + <td class="tdl"></td> + <td class="tdr">PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">SUBMARINES IN THE CHANNEL + <i class="in4"><a href="#i_1">Frontispiece</a></i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">WARSHIP OF THE TIME OF KING ALFRED</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_3">3</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">RICHARD I. IN ACTION WITH THE SARACEN SHIP</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_13">13</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">BATTLE OF SLUYS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_25">25</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">PORTSMOUTH HARBOUR, 1912</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_31">31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">THE “GRACE DE DIEU,” 1515</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_39">39</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">THE SPANISH ARMADA, 1588</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_51">51</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">THE END OF A “GENTLEMAN ADVENTURER”</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_55">55</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">BLAKE AND TROMP—PERIOD OF THE DUTCH WARS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_77">77</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">BATTLESHIPS OF THE WHITE ERA AT SEA</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_117">117</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">THE “FOUDROYANT,” ONE OF NELSON’S OLD SHIPS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_143">143</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">BATTLE OF TRAFALGAR, 1805</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_173">173</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">THE END OF AN OLD WARSHIP</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_191">191</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">A TRAFALGAR ANNIVERSARY</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_205">205</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">THE OLD “INVINCIBLE,” 1872</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_293">293</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">xvi</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">SHIP PHOTOGRAPHS</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">“SALAMANDER,” PADDLE WARSHIP</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_217">217</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">OLD SCREW WOODEN LINE-OF-BATTLESHIP “LONDON”</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_221">221</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">“WARRIOR”</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_251">251</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">“ACHILLES” (WITH FOUR MASTS)</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_259">259</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">“MINOTAUR” (AS A FIVE-MASTER)</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_261">261</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">“BELLEROPHON”</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_269">269</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">“ROYAL SOVEREIGN”</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_273">273</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">“WATERWITCH”</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_277">277</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">“CAPTAIN”</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_289">289</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">“VANGUARD”</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_297">297</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">“HOTSPUR” AS ORIGINALLY COMPLETED</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_309">309</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">“DEVASTATION” AS ORIGINALLY COMPLETED</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_313">313</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">PORTRAITS</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">PHINEAS PETT</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_67">67</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">SIR ANTHONY DEANE</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_93">93</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">GENERAL BENTHAM</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_155">155</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">JOHN SCOTT RUSSELL</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_245">245</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">SIR E. J. REED</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_265">265</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">PLANS, DIAGRAMS, ETC.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">PHINEAS PETT’S “ROYAL SOVEREIGN”</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_71">71</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">POSITIONS OF THE FLEETS AT THE OUTBREAK OF WAR</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_167">167</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">EARLY BROADSIDE IRONCLADS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_255">255</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">REED ERA BROADSIDE SHIPS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_281">281</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">REED ERA TURRET SHIPS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_285">285</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">RAMS OF THE REED ERA</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_301">301</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">BREASTWORK MONITORS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_305">305</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_BRITISH_BATTLE_FLEET"><span class="larger">THE BRITISH BATTLE FLEET.</span></h2> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="I"><span id="toclink_1"></span>I.<br> + +<span class="subhead">THE BIRTH OF BRITISH NAVAL POWER.</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> birth of British naval power is involved in +considerable obscurity and a good deal of legend. +The Phœnicians and the Romans have both been +credited with introducing nautical ideas to these islands, +but of the Phœnicians there is nothing but legend so far as +any “British Navy” is concerned. That the Phœnicians +voyaged here we know well enough, and a “British fleet” +of the B.C. era <em>may</em> have existed, a fleet due to possible +Phœnicians who, having visited these shores, remained in +the land. Equally well it may be mythical.</p> + +<p>Whatever share the ancient Britons may have +had in the supposed commercial relations with Gaul, +it is clear that no fleet as we understand a fleet existed +in the days of Julius Cæsar. Later, while England +was a Roman province, Roman fleets occasionally +fought upon British waters against pirates and in +connection with Roman revolutions, but they were +ships of the ruling power.</p> + +<p>Roman power passed away. Saxons invaded and +remained; but having landed they became people of +the land—not of the sea. Danes and other seafarers +pilaged English shores much as they listed till Alfred +the Great came to the throne.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span></p> + +<p>Alfred has been called the “Father and Founder +of the British Fleet.” It is customary and dramatic +to suppose that Alfred was seized with the whole +modern theory of “Sea Power” as a sudden inspiration—that +“he recognised that invaders could only be +kept off by defeating them on the sea.”</p> + +<p>This is infinitely more pretty than accurate. To +begin with, even at the beginning of the present +Twentieth Century it was officially put on record that +“while the British fleet could prevent invasion, <em>it +could not guarantee immunity from small raids</em> on our +great length of coast line.” In Alfred’s day, one +mile was more than what twenty are now; messages +took as many days to deliver as they now do minutes, +and the “raid” was the only kind of over-sea war +to be waged. It is altogether chimerical to imagine +that Alfred “thought things out” on the lines of a +modern naval theorist.</p> + +<p>In actual fact,<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> what happened was that Alfred +engaged in a naval fight in the year 875, somewhere +on the South Coast. There is little or no evidence to +show where, though near Wareham is the most likely +locality.</p> + +<p>In 877 something perhaps happened to the Danes +at Swanage, but the account in Asser is an interpolated +one, and even so suggests shipwreck rather than a +battle.</p> + +<p>In 882 (possibly 881) two Danish ships sank: “the +rest” (number not recorded) surrendered later on.</p> + +<figure id="i_3" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> + <img src="images/i_003.jpg" width="1640" height="2556" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">WARSHIP OF THE TIME OF KING ALFRED. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In 884 occurred the battle of the Stour. Here +the Saxon fleet secured a preliminary success, in which +thirteen Danish ships were captured. This may or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> +may not have been part of an ambush—at any rate +the final result was the annihilation of King Alfred’s +fleet.</p> + +<p>In 896 occurred the alleged naval reform so often +alluded to as the “birth of the British Navy”—those +ships supposed to have been designed by Alfred, which +according to Asser<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> were “full nigh twice as long as +the others ... shapen neither like Frisian nor the +Danish, but so as it seemed to him that they would be +most efficient.”</p> + +<p>Around these “early Dreadnoughts” much has +been weaved, but there is no evidence acceptable to the +best modern historians that Alfred really built any +such ships—they tend to reject the entire theory.</p> + +<p>The actual facts of that “naval battle of the +Solent” in 897 from which the history of our navy +is popularly alleged to date, appear to be as follows:</p> + +<p>There were nine of King Alfred’s ships, manned +by Frisian pirates, who were practically Danes. These +nine encountered three Danish vessels in a land-locked +harbour—probably Brading—and all of them ran +aground, the Danish ships being in the middle between +two Saxon divisions. A land fight ensued, till, the +tide rising, the Danish ships, which were of lighter +draught than the Saxon vessels, floated. The Danes +then sailed away, but in doing so two of them were +wrecked.</p> + +<p>All the rest of the story seems to be purely +legendary. Our real “island story”—as events during +the next few hundred years following Alfred clearly +indicate—is not that of a people born to the sea; but +the story of a people forced thereto by circumstances +and the need of self-preservation.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span></p> + +<p>It is a very unromantic beginning. There is a +strange analogy between it and the beginning in later +days of the Sea Power of the other “Island Empire”—Japan. +Japan to-day seeks—as we for centuries +have sought—for an historical sequence of the “sea +spirit” and all such things as an ideal islander should +possess. Neither we nor they have ever understood or +ever properly realised that it was the Continentals who +long ago first saw that it was necessary to command +the sea to attack the islanders. The more obvious +contrary has always been assumed. It has never +been held, or even suggested, that the Little Englander +protesting against “bloated naval armaments,” so far +from being a modern anachronism, an ultra-Radical +or Socialist exotic, may really claim to be the true +exponent of “the spirit of the Islanders” for all time. +That is one reason why (excluding the mythical Minos +of Crete) only two island-groups have ever loomed big +in the world’s history.</p> + +<p>When Wilhelm II of Germany said: “<i>Unsere +Zukunft liegt auf dem Wasser</i>,” he uttered a far more +profound truth than has ever been fully realised. Fleets +came into being to attack Islanders with.</p> + +<p>The Islanders saw the sea primarily as a protection +existing between them and the enemy. To the +Continental the sea was a road to, or obstacle between +him and the enemy, only if the enemy filled it with +ships. The Islanders have ever tended to trust to the +existence of the sea itself as a defence, except in so far +as they have been taught otherwise by individuals who +realised the value of shipping. Those millions of British +citizens who to-day are more or less torpid on the +subject of naval defence are every whit as normal as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span> +those Germans who, in season and out, preach naval +expansion.</p> + +<p>The explanation of all this is probably to be found +in the fact that the earliest warfare known either to +Continentals or to Islanders was <em>military warfare</em>. The +ship as at first employed was used entirely as a means +of transport for reaching the enemy—first, presumably, +against outlying islands near the coast, later for more +over-sea expeditions.</p> + +<p>Ideas of attack are earlier than ideas of defence, +and the primary idea of defence went no further than +the passive defensive. King Alfred, merely in realising +the offensive defensive, did a far greater thing than any +of the legendary exploits associated with his history. +The idea was submerged many a time in the years +that followed, but from time to time it appeared and +found its ultimate fruition in the Royal Navy.</p> + +<p>Yet still, the wonder is not that only two Island +Empires have ever come into existence, but that any +should have come into existence at all. The real +history of King Alfred’s times is that the Continental +Danes did much as they listed against the insular +Saxons of England, till the need was demonstrated for +an endeavour to meet the enemy on his own element.</p> + +<p>In the subsequent reigns of Athelstan and Edmund, +some naval expeditions took place. Under Edgar, the +fleet reached its largest. Although the reputed number +of 3,600 vessels is, of course, an exaggerated one, there +was enough naval power at that time to secure peace.</p> + +<p>This “navy” had, however, a very transient existence, +because in the reign of Ethelred, who succeeded to +the throne, it had practically ceased to exist, and an +attempt was made to revive it. This attempt was so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> +little successful that Danish ships had to be hired for +naval purposes.</p> + +<p>A charter of the time of Ethelred II exists which +is considered by many to be the origin of that Ship +Money which, hundreds of years later, was to cause so +much trouble to England. Under this, the maintenance +of the Navy was made a State charge on landowners, +the whole of whom were assessed at the rate of producing +one galley for every three hundred and ten hides of +land that they possessed.</p> + +<p>This view is disputed by some historians, who +maintain that the charter is possibly a forgery, and that +it is not very clear in any case. However, it does not +appear to have produced any useful naval power.</p> + +<p>That naval power was insufficient is abundantly clear +from the ever increasing number of Danish settlements. +In the St. Bride’s Day massacre, which was an attempt +to kill off the leading Danes amongst the recent arrivals, +further trouble arose; and in the year 1013, Swain, King +of Denmark, made a large invasion of England, and in +the year 1017, his son Canute ascended to the throne.</p> + +<p>Under Canute, the need of a navy to protect the +coast against Danish raids passed away. The bulk of +the Danish ships were sent back to Denmark, forty +vessels only being retained.</p> + +<p>Once or twice during the reign of Canute successful +naval expeditions were undertaken, but at the time of +the King’s death the regular fleet consisted of only +sixteen ships. Five years later, an establishment was +fixed at thirty-two, and remained more or less at about +that figure, till, in the reign of Edward the Confessor +trouble was caused by Earl Godwin, who had created +a species of fleet of his own. With a view to suppressing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span> +these a number of King’s ships were fitted out; but +as the King and Godwin came to terms the fleet was not +made use of.</p> + +<p>Close following upon this came the Norman invasion, +which of all the foolhardy enterprises ever embarked +on by man was theoretically one of the most foolish. +William’s intentions were perfectly well known. A +certain “English fleet” existed, and there was nothing +to prevent its expansion into a force easily able to +annihilate the heterogeneous Norman flotilla.</p> + +<p>How many ships and men William actually got +together is a matter upon which the old chroniclers +vary considerably. But he is supposed to have had +with him some 696 ships<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a>; and since his largest ships +were not over twenty tons and most of them a great +deal smaller, it is clear that they must have been crowded +to excess and in poor condition to give battle against +anything of the nature of a determined attack from an +organised fleet.</p> + +<p>No English fleet put in appearance, however. +Harold had collected a large fleet at Sandwich, but +after a while, for some unknown reason, it was dispersed, +probably owing to the lateness of the season. The +strength of the fleet collected, or why it was dispersed, +are, however, immaterial issues; the fact of importance +is that the fleet was “inadequate” because it failed to +prevent the invasion. A neglected fleet entailed the +destruction of the Saxon dominion.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="II"><span id="toclink_10"></span>II.<br> + +<span class="subhead">THE NORMAN AND PLANTAGENET ERAS.</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">William</span> the Conqueror’s first act on landing was +to burn all his ships—a proceeding useful enough +in the way of preventing any of his followers +retiring with their spoils, but inconvenient to him shortly +after he became King of England. Fleets from Denmark +and Norway raided the coasts, and, though the raiders +were easily defeated on shore, the pressure from them +was sufficient to cause William to set about recreating +a navy, of which he made some use in the year 1071. +In 1078 the Cinque Ports were established, five ports +being granted certain rights in return for policing the +Channel and supplying ships to the King as required. +But the amount of naval power maintained was very +small, both in the reign of William the First and his +successors.</p> + +<p>Not until the reign of Henry II was any appreciable +attention paid to nautical matters. Larger ships than +heretofore were built, as we assume from records of the +loss of one alleged to carry 300 men. It was Henry II +who first claimed the “Sovereignty of the British Seas” +and enacted the Assize of Arms whereby no ship or +timber for shipbuilding might be sold out of England.</p> + +<p>When Richard I came to the throne in 1189, fired +with ambition to proceed to the Crusades, he ordered +all ports in his dominions to supply him with ships<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span> +in proportion to their population. The majority of +these ships came, however, from Acquitaine. The fleet +thus collected is said to have consisted of nine large +ships, 150 small vessels, thirty galleys, and a number +of transports. The large ships, which have also been +given as thirteen in number, were known at the time +as “busses.” They appear to have been three-masters. +The fleet sailed in eight divisions. This expedition to +the Holy Land was the first important over-sea voyage +ever participated in by English ships, the greatest +distance heretofore traversed having been to Norway +in the time of Canute. This making of a voyage into +the unknown was, however, not quite so difficult as it +might at first sight be supposed to be, because there +is no doubt whatever that the compass was by then +well-known and used. Records from 1150 and onwards +exist which describe the compass of that period. A +contemporary chronicler<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> wrote of <span class="locked">it:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“This [polar] star does not move. They [the seamen] have an +art which cannot deceive, by virtue of the <em>manite</em>, an ill brownish +stone to which iron spontaneously adheres. They search for the +right point, and when they have touched a needle on it, and fixed +it to a bit of straw, they lay it on water, and the straw keeps it +afloat. Then the point infallibly turns towards the star; and when +the night is dark and gloomy, and neither star nor moon is visible, +they set a light beside the needle, and they can be assured that the +star is opposite to the point, and thereby the mariner is directed +in his course. This is an art which cannot deceive.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The compass would seem to have existed, so far +as northern nations were concerned, about the time of +William the Conqueror. Not till early in the Fourteenth +Century did it assume the form in which we now know +it, but its actual antiquity is considerably more.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span></p> + +<p>In connection with this expedition to the Holy +Land, Richard issued a Code of Naval Discipline, which +has been described as the germ of our Articles of War. +Under this Code if a man killed another on board ship, +he was to be tied to the corpse and thrown into the sea. +If the murder took place on shore, he was to be buried +alive with the corpse. The penalty for drawing a knife +on another man, or drawing blood from him in any +manner was the loss of a hand. For “striking another,” +the offender was plunged three times into the sea. For +reviling or insulting another man, compensation of an +ounce of silver to the aggrieved one was awarded. The +punishment for theft was to shave the head of the +thief, pour boiling pitch upon it and then feather him. +This was done as a mark of recognition. The subsequent +punishment was to maroon a man upon the first land +touched. Severe penalties were imposed on the mariners +and servants for gambling.</p> + +<p>Of these punishments the two most interesting are +those for theft and the punishment of “ducking.” +This last was presumably keel-hauling, a punishment +which survived well into the Nelson era. It is to be +found described in the pages of Marryat. It consisted +in drawing the offender by ropes underneath the bottom +of the ship. As his body was thus scraped along the +ship’s hull, the punishment was at all times severe; +but in later days, as ships grew larger and of deeper +draught, it became infinitely more cruel and heavy than +in the days when it was first instituted.</p> + +<p>The severe penalty for theft is to be noted on +account of the fact that, even in the early times, theft, +as now, was and is recognised as a far more serious +offence on ship board than it is on shore—the reason +being the greater facilities that a ship affords for +theft.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum hide" id="Page_14">14</span></p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span></p> + +<figure id="i_13" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;"> + <img src="images/i_013.jpg" width="2441" height="1535" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">RICHARD <span class="allsmcap">1ST</span> IN ACTION WITH THE SARACEN SHIP. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>On his way to the Holy Land, Richard had a dispute +at Sicily with the King of France, out of which he +increased his fleet somewhat. Leaving Sicily, somewhere +between Cyprus and Acre he encountered a very +large Saracen ship, of the battle with which very +picturesque and highly coloured accounts exist. There +is no doubt that the ship was something a great deal +larger than anything the English had ever seen heretofore, +although the crew of 1,500 men with which +she is credited by the chroniclers is undoubtedly an +exaggeration.</p> + +<p>The ship carried an armament of Greek fire and +“serpents.” The exact composition of Greek fire is +unknown. It was invented by the Byzantines, who by +means of it succeeded in keeping their enemies at bay for +a very long time. It was a mixture of chemicals which, +upon being squirted at the enemy from tubes, took +fire, and could only be put out by sand or vinegar. +“Serpents” were apparently some variation of Greek +fire of a minor order, discharged by catapults.</p> + +<p>In the first part of the attack the English fleet +was able to make no impression upon the enemy, as +her high sides and the Greek fire rendered boarding +impossible. Not until King Richard had exhilarated +his fleet by informing them that if the galley escaped +they “should be crucified or put to extreme torture,” +was any progress made. After that, according to the +contemporary account, some of the English jumped +overboard and succeeded in fastening ropes to the +rudder of the Saracen ship, “steering her as they +pleased.” They then obtained a footing on board, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> +were subsequently driven back. As a last resource +King Richard formed his galleys into line and rammed +the ship, which afterwards sank.</p> + +<p>The relation of Richard’s successor, King John, to +the British Navy, is one of some peculiar interest. +More than any king before him he appears to have +appreciated the importance of naval power, and naval +matters received more attention than heretofore. In +the days of King John the crews of ships appropriated +for the King’s service were properly provisioned with +wine and food, and there are also records of pensions +for wounds, one of the earliest being that of Alan le +Walleis, who received a pension of sixpence a day for +the loss of his hand.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a></p> + +<p>King John is popularly credited with having made +the first claim to the “Sovereignty of the Seas” and +of having enacted that all foreign vessels upon sighting +an English one were to strike their flags to her, and +that if they did not that it was lawful to destroy them. +The authenticity of this is, however, very doubtful; +and it is more probable that, on account of various +naval regulations which first appeared in the reign of +King John, this particular regulation was fathered upon +him at a later date with the view to giving it an historical +precedent.</p> + +<p>In the reign of King John the “Laws of Oleron” +seem to have first appeared, but it is not at all clear +that they had any specific connection with England. +They appear rather to have been of a general European +nature. The gist of the forty-seven articles +of the “Laws of Oleron,” of which the precise +date of promulgation cannot be ascertained, is +as <span class="locked">follows:—<a id="FNanchor_5a" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“By the first article, if a vessel arrived at Bordeaux, Rouen, +or any other similar place, and was there freighted for Scotland, or +any other foreign country, and was in want of stores or provisions, +the master was not permitted to sell the vessel, but he might with +the advice of his crew raise money by pledging any part of her +tackle or furniture.</p> + +<p>“If a vessel was wind or weather bound, the master, when a +change occurred, was to consult his crew, saying to them, “Gentlemen, +what think you of this wind?” and to be guided by the majority +whether he should put to sea. If he did not do this, and any +misfortune happened, he was to make good the damage.</p> + +<p>“If a seaman sustained any hurt through drunkenness or +quarrelling, the master was not bound to provide for his cure, +but might turn him out of his ship; if, however, the injury occurred +in the service of his ship, he was to be cured at the cost of the said +ship. A sick sailor was to be sent on shore, and a lodging, candles, +and one of the ship’s boys, or a nurse provided for him, with the +same allowance of provisions as he would have received on board. +In case of danger in a storm, the master might, with the consent +of the merchants on board, lighten the ship by throwing part of +the cargo overboard; and if they did not consent, or objected to +his doing so, he was not to risk the vessel but to act as he thought +proper; on their arrival in port, he and the third part of the crew +were to make oath that it was done for the preservation of the vessel; +and the loss was to be borne equally by the merchants. A similar +proceeding was to be adopted before the mast or cables were cut +away.</p> + +<p>“Before goods were shipped the master was to satisfy the +merchants of the strength of his ropes and slings; but if he did +not do so, or they requested him to repair them and a cask were +stove, the master was to make it good.</p> + +<p>“In cases of difference between a master and one of his crew, +the man was to be denied his mess allowance thrice, before he was +turned out of the ship, or discharged; and if the man offered +reasonable satisfaction in the presence of the crew, and the master +persisted in discharging him, the sailor might follow the ship to her +place of destination, and demand the same wages as if he had not +been sent ashore.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span></p> + +<p>“In case of a collision by a ship undersail running on board one +at anchor, owing to bad steering, if the former were damaged, the +cost was to be equally divided; the master and crew of the latter +making oath that the collision was accidental. The reason for this +law was, it is said, ‘that an old decayed vessel might not purposely +be put in the way of a better.’ It was specially provided that all +anchors ought to be indicated by buoys or ‘anchor-marks.’</p> + +<p>“Mariners of Brittany were entitled only to one meal a day, +because they had beverage going and coming; but those of +Normandy were to have two meals, because they had only water +as the ship’s allowance. As soon as the ship arrived in a wine +country, the master was, however, to procure them wine.</p> + +<p>“Several regulations occur respecting the seamen’s wages, which +show that they were sometimes paid by a share of the freight. On +arriving at Bordeaux or any other place, two of the crew might go +on shore and take with them one meal of such victuals as were on +board, and a proportion of bread, but no drink; and they were to +return in sufficient time to prevent their master losing the tide. +If a pilot from ignorance or otherwise failed to conduct a ship in +safety, and the merchants sustained any damage, he was to make full +satisfaction if he had the means to; if not, he was to lose his head; +and, if the master or any one of the mariners cut off his head, they +were not bound to answer for it; but, before they had recourse to +so strong a measure, ‘they must be sure he had not wherewith to +make satisfaction.’</p> + +<p>“Two articles of the code prove, that from an ‘accursed custom’ +in some places, by which the third or fourth part of ships that were +lost belonged to the lord of the place—the pilots, to ingratiate +themselves with these nobles, ‘like faithless and treacherous +villains,’ purposely ran the vessel on the rocks. It was therefore +enacted that the said lords, and all others assisting in plundering +the wreck, shall be accursed and excommunicated, and punished as +robbers and thieves; that ‘all false and treacherous pilots should +suffer a most rigorous and merciless death,’ and be suspended to +high gibbets near the spot, which gibbets were to remain as an +example in succeeding ages. The barbarous lords were to be tied +to a post in the middle of their own houses, and, being set on fire +at the four corners, all were to be burned together; the walls<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> +demolished, its site converted into a marketplace for the sale only +of hogs and swine, and all their goods to be confiscated to the use +of the aggrieved parties.</p> + +<p>“Such of the cargoes as floated ashore were to be taken care of for +a year or more; and, if not then claimed, they were to be sold by the +lord, and the proceeds distributed among the poor, in marriage portions +to poor maids and other charitable uses. If, as often happened, +‘people more barbarous, cruel, and inhuman than mad dogs,’ +murdered shipwrecked persons, they were to be plunged into the sea +till they were half-dead, and then drawn out and stoned to death.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Those laws, unconnected though they appear to be +with strictly naval matters, are none the less of extreme +interest as indicating the establishment of “customs of +the sea,” and the consequent segregation of a “sailor +class.” It has ever to be kept very clearly in mind +that there was no such thing as a “Navy” as we +understand it in these days. When ships were required +for war purposes they were hired, just as waggons may +be hired by the Army to-day; nor did the mariners count +for much more than horses. The “Laws of Oleron,” +however, gave them a certain general status which they +had not possessed before; and the regulations of John +as to providing for those engaged upon the King’s +service—though they in no way constituted a Royal +Navy—played their part many years later in making +a Royal Navy possible, or, perhaps, it may be said, +“necessary.” Necessity has ever been the principal +driving force in the naval history of England.</p> + +<p>To resume. The limitations of the powers of the +master (<i>i.e.</i> captain) in these “Laws of Oleron” deserve +special attention. “Gentlemen, what think you of this +wind?” from the captain to his crew would be considered +“democracy” carried to extreme and extravagant +limits in the present day; in the days when it was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> +promulgated as “the rule” it was surely stranger still! +Little wonder that seamen at an early stage segregated +from the ordinary body of citizens and became, as +described by Clarendon in his “History of the Rebellion” +a few hundred years later, when he <span class="locked">wrote:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The seamen are a nation by themselves, a humorous and +fantastic people, fierce and rude and resolute in whatsoever they +resolve or are inclined to, but unsteady and inconstant in pursuing it, +and jealous of those to-morrow by whom they are governed to-day.”</p> +</div> + +<p>To this, to the earlier things that produced it, +those who will may trace the extreme rigour of naval +discipline and naval punishments, as compared with +contemporaneous shore punishments at any given time, +and the extraordinary difference at present existing +between the American and European navies. The +difference is usually explained on the circumstance that +“Europe is Europe, and America, America.” But +“differences” having their origin in the “Laws of +Oleron” may play a greater part than is generally +allowed.</p> + +<p>The year 1213 saw the Battle of Damme. This +was the first real naval battle between the French and +English. The King of France had collected a fleet of +some “seventeen hundred ships” for the invasion of +England, but having been forbidden to do so by the +Pope’s Legate, he decided to use his force against +Flanders. This Armada was surprised and totally +destroyed by King John’s fleet.</p> + +<p>After the death of John the nautical element in +England declared for Henry III, son of John, and +against Prince Louis of France, who had been invited +to the throne of England by the barons. Out of this +came the battle of Sandwich, 1217, where Hubert de<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> +Burgh put into practice, though in different form, +those principles first said to have been evolved by +Alfred the Great—namely, to attack with an assured +and complete superiority.</p> + +<p>Every English ship took on board a large quantity +of quick-lime and sailed to meet the French, who were +commanded by Eustace the Monk. De Burgh manœuvred +for the weather gauge. Having gained it, +the English ships came down upon the French with +the wind, the quick-lime blowing before them, and +so secured a complete victory over the tortured and +blinded French. This is the first recorded instance +of anything that may be described as “tactics” in +Northern waters.</p> + +<p>The long reign of Henry III saw little of interest +in connection with nautical matters. But towards the +end of Henry’s reign a private quarrel between English +and Norman ships, both seeking fresh water off the +Coast of Bayonne, had momentous consequences. The +Normans, incensed over the quarrel, captured a couple +of English ships and hanged the crew on the yards +interspersed with an equal number of dead dogs. +Some English retaliated in a similar fashion on such +Normans as they could lay hands on, and, retaliation +succeeding retaliation, it came about that in the reign +of Edward I, though England and France were still +nominally at peace, the entire mercantile fleets of both +were engaged in hanging each other, over what was +originally a private quarrel as to who should be first +to draw water at a well.</p> + +<p>Ultimately the decision appears to have been come +by “to fight it out.” Irish and Dutch ships assisted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> +the English. Flemish and Genoese ships assisted the +Normans and French. The English to the number of +60 were under Sir Robert Tiptoft. The number of the +enemy is placed at 200, though it was probably considerably +less. In the battle that ensued the Norman +and French fleets were annihilated.</p> + +<p>This battle, even more than others of the period, +cannot be considered as one of the battles of “the +British fleet.” It is merely a conflict between one +clique of pirates and traders against another clique. +But it is important on account of the light that it sheds +on a good deal of subsequent history; for the fashion +thus started lasted in one way and another for two or +three hundred years.</p> + +<p>Nor were these disputes always international. Four +years later than the fight recorded above, in 1297, the +King wished to invade Flanders with an army of 50,000 +men. The Cinque Ports being unable to supply the +requisite number of ships to transport this army, +requisitions were also made at Yarmouth. Bad blood +soon arose between the two divisions, with the result +that they attacked each other. Thirty of the Yarmouth +ships with their crews were destroyed and the expedition +greatly hampered thereby.</p> + +<p>Two events of importance in British naval history +happened in the reign of Edward I. The first of these, +which took place about the year 1300, arose out of acts +of piracy on foreigners, to which English ships were +greatly addicted at that time. In an appeal made to +Edward by those Continentals who had suffered most +from these depredations, the King was addressed as “Lord +of the Sea.” This was a definite recognition of that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> +sea claim first formulated by Henry II and which was +afterwards to lead to so much fighting and bloodshed.</p> + +<p>The second event was the granting of the first +recorded “Letters of Marque” in the year 1295. These +were granted to a French merchant who had been taking +a cargo of fruit from Spain to England and had been +robbed by the Portuguese. He was granted a five year +license to attack the Portuguese in order to recoup +his loss.</p> + +<p>In the reign of Edward II the only naval event of +interest is, that when the Queen came from abroad and +joined those who were fighting against the King, the +nautical element sided with her.</p> + +<p>The reign of Edward III saw some stirring phases +in English history. With a view to carrying on his +war against France, Edward bestowed considerable +attention on naval matters, and in the year 1338, he +got together a fleet stated to have consisted of 500 +vessels. These were used as transports to convey the +Army to France, and are estimated to have carried on +the average about eighty men each.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the French had also got together a +fleet of about equal size, and no sooner had the English +expedition reached the shores of France than the whole +of the south coast of England was subjected to a series +of French raids. Southampton, Plymouth and the +Cinque Ports were sacked and burned with practical +impunity. These raids continued during 1338 and 1339; +the bulk of the English fleet still lying idle on transport +service at Edward’s base in Flanders. A certain number +of ships had been sent back, but most of these had +been as hastily sent on to Scotland, where their services<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> +had been urgently needed. Matters in the Channel +culminated with the capture of the two largest English +ships of the time. A fleet of small vessels hastily fitted +out at the Cinque Ports succeeded in destroying Boulogne +and a number of ships that lay there, but generally +speaking the French had matters very much their own +way on the sea.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of 1339, Edward and his expedition +returned to England to refit, with a view to preparing +for a fresh invasion of France during the following +summer.</p> + +<p>As Edward was about to embark, he learned that +the French King had got together an enormous fleet +at Sluys. After collecting some additional vessels, +bringing the total number of ships up to 250 or thereabouts, +Edward took command and sailed for Sluys, +at which port he found the French fleet. He localised +the French on Friday, July 3rd, but it was not until +the next day that the battle took place.</p> + +<p>The recorded number of the enemy in all these +early sea fights requires to be accepted with caution. +For what it is worth the number of French ships has +been given at 400 vessels, each carrying 100 men. The +French, as on a later occasion they did on the Nile, +lay on the defensive at the mouth of the harbour, the +ships being lashed together by cables. Their boats, filled +with stones, had been hoisted to the mast-heads. In +the van of their fleet lay the <i>Christopher</i>, <i>Edward</i>, and +various other “King’s ships,” which they captured in +the previous year.</p> + +<figure id="i_25" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;"> + <img src="images/i_025.jpg" width="2435" height="1411" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">BATTLE OF SLUYS—1340. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The English took the offensive, and in doing so +manœuvred to have the sun behind them. Then, with +their leading ships crowded with archers they bore<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span> +down upon the main French division and grappled with +them. The battle, which lasted right throughout the +night, was fought with unexampled fury, and for a +long time remained undecisive, considerable havoc +being wrought by the French with the then novel idea +of dropping large stones from aloft. The combatants, +however, were so mixed up that it is doubtful whether +the French did not kill as many of their own number +as of the enemy; whereas, on the other side, the use +of English archers who were noted marksmen told +only against those at whom the arrows were directed. +Furthermore, the English had the tactical advantage +of throwing the whole of their force on a portion of +the enemy, whom they ultimately totally destroyed.</p> + +<p>This Battle of Sluys took place in 1340. In 1346, +after various truces, the English again attacked France +in force, and the result was the Battle of Cressy. A +side issue of this was the historic siege of Calais, which +held out for about twelve months. 738 ships and +14,956 men are said to have been employed in the +sea blockade.</p> + +<p>Up to this time the principal English ship had +been a galley, <i>i.e.</i>, essentially a row boat. About the +year 1350 the galley began to disappear as a capital +ship, and the galleon, with sail as its main motive power, +took its place. Also a new enemy appeared; for at +that time England first came into serious conflict with +Spain.</p> + +<p>To a certain extent the galleon was to the fleets +of the Mid-Fourteenth Century much what the ironclad +was to the last quarter of the Nineteenth Century, +or “Dreadnoughts” at the end of the first decade of +the Twentieth Century.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span></p> + +<p>The introduction of this type of vessel came about +as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> + +<p>A fleet of Castillian galleons, bound for Flanders, +whiled away the monotony of its trip by acts of piracy +against all English ships that it met. It reached Sluys +without interference. Here it loaded up with rich cargoes +and prepared to return to Spain. The English meanwhile +collected a fleet to intercept it, this fleet being +in command of King Edward himself, who selected the +“cog <i>Thomas</i>” as his flagship.</p> + +<p>The English tactics would seem to have been +carefully thought out beforehand. The Castillian ships +were known to be of relatively vast size and more or +less unassailable except by boarding. The result was +that when at length they appeared, the English charged +their ships into them, sinking most of their own ships +in the impact, sprang aboard and carried the enemy +by boarding. The leading figure on the English side +was a German body-servant of the name of Hannekin, +who distinguished himself just at the crisis of the +battle by leaping on board a Castillian ship and cutting +the halyards. Otherwise the result of the battle might +have been different, because the Castillians, when +about half only of the English ships were grappled +with them, hoisted their sails, with the object of +sailing away and destroying the enemy in detail. +Hannekin’s perception of this intention frustrated the +attempt.</p> + +<p>The advantages of the galleons (or carracks as they +were then called), must have been rendered obvious in +this battle of “Les Espagnols-sur-Mer,” as immediately +afterwards ships on the models of those captured began +to be hired for English purposes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span></p> + +<p>Concurrent, however, with this building of a larger +type of ship, a decline of naval power began; and ten +years later, English shipping was in such a parlous +state that orders were issued to the effect that should +any of the Cinque Ports be attacked from the sea, any +ships there were to be hauled up on land, as far away +from the water as possible, in order to preserve them.</p> + +<p>In the French War of 1369, almost the first act +of the French fleet was to sack and burn Portsmouth +without encountering any naval opposition.</p> + +<p>In 1372 some sort of English fleet was collected, +and under the Earl of Pembroke sent to relieve La +Rochelle, which was then besieged by the French and +Spanish. The Spanish ships of that period had improved +on those of twenty years before, to the extent that +(according to Froissart), some carried guns. In any +case they proved completely superior to the English, +whose entire fleet was captured or sunk.</p> + +<p>This remarkable and startling difference is only to +be accounted for by the difference in the naval policy +of the two periods. In the early years of Edward III’s +reign, when a fleet was required it was in an efficient +state, and when it encountered the enemy, it was used +by those who had obviously thought out the best means +of making the most of the material available. In the +latter stage, there was neither efficiency nor purpose. +The result was annihilation.</p> + +<p>How far the introduction of cannon on shipboard +contributed to this result it is difficult to say exactly. +In so far as it may have, the blame rests with the +English, who were perfectly familiar with cannon at +that time. If, therefore, the very crude stone-throwing +cannon of those days had any particular advantages<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span> +over the stone-throwing catapults previously employed, +failure to fit them is merely a further proof of the +inefficiency of those responsible for naval matters in +the closing years of Edward III’s reign. Probably, however, +the cannon contributed little to the result of +La Rochelle, for, like all battles of the era, it was a +matter of boarding—of “land fighting on the water.”</p> + +<p>The reign of Richard II saw England practically +without any naval power at all. The French and +Spaniards raided the Channel without interference worth +mention. Once or twice retaliatory private expeditions +were made upon the French coast; but speaking +generally the French and Spaniards had matters entirely +their own way, and the latter penetrated the Thames +so far as Gravesend.</p> + +<p>In the year 1380, an English army was sent over +to France, but this, as Calais was British, was a simple +operation, and although two years later ships were +collected for naval purposes, English sea impotence +remained as conspicuous as ever. In 1385, when a +French armada was collected at Sluys for the avowed +purpose of invading England on a large scale, no attempt +whatever seems to have been made to meet this with +another fleet. Fortunately for England, delays of one +kind and another led to the French scheme of invasion +being abandoned.</p> + +<p>Under Henry IV, matters remained much the same, +until in the summer of 1407, off the coast of Essex, +the King, who was voyaging with five ships, was attacked +by French privateers, which succeeded in capturing all +except the Royal vessel.</p> + +<figure id="i_31" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;"> + <img src="images/i_031.jpg" width="2442" height="1623" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">PORTSMOUTH HARBOUR—1912. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This led to the organisation of a “fleet” and a +successful campaign against the privateers. The necessity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span> +of Sea Power began to be realised again, and this so +far bore fruit that in the reign of Henry V no less +than 1,500 ships were (it is said) collected in the Solent, +for an invasion of France. But since some of these +were hired from the Dutch and as every English vessel +of over twenty tons was requisitioned by the King, +the large number got together does not necessarily +indicate the existence of any very great amount of +naval power. This fleet, however, indicated a revival +of sea usage.</p> + +<p>In 1417, large ships known as “Dromons” were +built at Southampton, and bought for the Crown, but +these were more of the nature of “Royal Yachts” than +warships. The principal British naval base at and +about this period was at Calais, of which, at the time of +the War of the Roses, the Earl of Warwick was the +governor.</p> + +<p>The first act of the Regency of Henry VI was to +sell by auction such ships as had been bought for the +Crown under Henry V. The duty of keeping the Channel +free from pirates was handed over to London merchants, +who were paid a lump sum to do this, but did not do +it at all effectively.</p> + +<p>Edward IV made some use of a Fleet to secure his +accession, or later restoration. Richard III would seem +to have realised the utility of a Fleet, and during his +short reign he did his best to begin a revival of “the +Navy” by buying some ships, which, however, he hired +out to merchants for trade purposes; and so, at the +critical moment, he had apparently nothing available +to meet the mild over-sea expedition of Henry of +Richmond. So—right up to <em>comparatively</em> recent times—there +was never any Royal Navy in the proper meaning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> +of the word, nor even any organised attempt to create +an equivalent, except on the part of those two Kings +who we are always told were the worst Kings England +ever had—John and Richard III. Outside these two, +there is not the remotest evidence that anyone ever +dreamed of “naval power,” “sea power,” or anything +of the sort, till Henry VII became King of England, +and founded the British Navy on the entirely unromantic +principle that it was a financial economy.</p> + +<p>Such was the real and prosaic birth of the British +Navy in relatively recent times. It was made equally +prosaic in 1910 by Lord Charles Beresford, when he +said, “Battleships are cheaper than war.”</p> + +<p>There is actually no poetry about the British Navy. +There never has been—it will be all the better for us if +there never is. It is merely a business-like institution +founded to secure these islands from foreign invasion. +Dibden in his own day, Kipling in ours, have done their +best to put in the poetry. It has been pretty and nice +and splendid. But over and above it all I put the +words of a stoker whose name I never knew, “It’s just +this—do your blanky job!”</p> + +<p>That is the real British Navy. Henry VII did not +create this watchword, nor anyone else, except perhaps +Nelson.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="III"><span id="toclink_35"></span>III.<br> + +<span class="subhead">THE TUDOR PERIOD AND BIRTH OF A REGULAR NAVY.</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">That</span> Henry VII assimilated the lesson of the utility +of naval power is abundantly clear. Henry VII it +was who first established a regular navy as we now +understand it. Previous to his reign, ships were requisitioned +as required for war purposes, and, the war being +over, reverted to the mercantile service. The liability of +the Cinque Ports to provide ships when called upon +constituted a species of navy, and certain ships were +specially held as “Royal ships” for use as required, +but under Henry ships primarily designed for fighting +purposes appeared. The first of these ships was a +vessel generally spoken of as the “<i>Great Harry</i>,” though +her real name seems to have been <i>The Regent</i>, built in +1485. Incidentally this ship remained afloat till 1553, +when she was burned by accident. She has been called +“the first ship of the Royal Navy”; and though her +right to the honour has been contested, she appears +fully entitled to it. The real founder of the Navy as +we understand a navy to-day was Henry VII.</p> + +<p>Another important event of this reign is that during +it the first dry dock was built at Portsmouth. Up till +then there had been no facilities for the underwater +repair of ships other than the primitive method of +running them on to the mud and working on them at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> +low tide. While ships were small this was not a matter +of much moment, but directly larger vessels began to +be built, it meant that efficient overhauls were extremely +difficult, if not impossible.</p> + +<p>Yet another step that had far reaching results was +the granting of a bounty to all who built ships of over +120 tons. This bounty, which was “per ton” and on a +sliding scale, made the building of large private ships +more profitable and less risky than it had been before, +and so assisted in the creation of an important auxiliary +navy as complement to the Royal Navy.</p> + +<p>The bounty system did more, however, than encourage +the building of large private ships. The loose +method of computing tonnage already referred to, +became more elastic still when a bounty was at stake; +and even looser when questions of the ship being hired +per ton for State purposes was at issue. Henry VII, +who was nothing if not economical, felt the pinch; +the more so, as just about this time Continentals with +ships for hire became alarmingly scarce. Something +very like a “corner in ships” was created by English +merchants.</p> + +<p>Henry VII was thus, by circumstances beyond his +own control, forced into creating a permanent navy +in self defence. He died with a “navy” of eighteen +ships, of which, however, only two were genuinely +entitled to be called “H.M.S.” He had to hire the +others!</p> + +<p>This foundation of the “regular navy” is not at +all romantic. But it is how a regular navy came to +be founded—by force of circumstances. Henry VII, +“founder of the Royal Navy,” undoubtedly realized +clearer than any of his predecessors for many a hundred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> +years the meaning of naval power. But—his passion +for economy and the advantage taken by such of his +subjects as had ships available when hired ships were +scarce, had probably a deal more to do with the +institution of a regular navy than any preconceived +ideas. In two words—“Circumstances compelled.” +And that is how things stood when Henry VIII came +to the throne.</p> + +<p>The nominal permanent naval power established by +Henry VII consisted of fifty-seven ships, and the crew +of each was twenty-one men and a boy, so that the +<i>Great Harry</i>, which must have required a considerably +larger crew, would seem to have been an experimental +vessel. The actual force, however, was but two fighting +ships proper.</p> + +<p>Under Henry VIII, however, the policy of monster +ships was vigorously upheld, and one large ship built in +the early years of his reign—the <i>Sovereign</i>—was reputed +to be “the largest ship in Europe.” In 1512 the King +reviewed at Portsmouth “twenty-five ships of great +burthen,” which had been collected in view of hostilities +with France. These ships having been joined by others, +and amounting to a fleet of forty-four sail, encountered +a French fleet of thirty-nine somewhere off the coast +of Brittany.</p> + +<p>This particular battle is mainly noteworthy owing +to the fact that the two flagships grappled, and while +in this position one of them caught fire. The flames +being communicated to the other, both blew up. This +catastrophe so appalled the two sides that they abandoned +the battle by mutual consent; from which it is to +be presumed that the nautical mind of the day had,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> +till then, little realised that risks were run by carrying +explosives.</p> + +<p>The English, however, were less impressed by the +catastrophe than the enemy, since next day they rallied +and captured or sank most of the still panic-stricken +French ships.</p> + +<p>Henry replaced the lost flagship by a still larger ship, +the <i>Grace de Dieu</i>, a two-decker with the lofty poop and +forecastle of the period. She was about 1,000 tons. +Tonnage, however, was so loosely calculated in those +days that measurements are excessively approximate.</p> + +<p>When first cannon were introduced, they were (as +previously remarked) merely a substitute for the old-fashioned +catapults, and discharged stones for some +time till more suitable projectiles were evolved. Like +the catapults they were placed on the poop or forecastle, +as portholes had not then been introduced. These +were invented by a Frenchman, one Descharges, of +Brest. By means of portholes it was possible to +mount guns on the main deck and so increase their +numbers.</p> + +<figure id="i_39" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> + <img src="images/i_039.jpg" width="2432" height="1640" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">THE “GRACE DE DIEU” 1515. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Although the earliest portholes were merely small +circular holes which did not allow of any training, and +though the idea of them was probably directly derived +from the loopholes in castle walls, the influence of the +porthole on naval architecture was soon very great +indeed. By means of this device a new relation +between size and power was established, hence the +“big displacements” which began to appear at this +time. The hole for a gun muzzle to protrude through, +quickly became an aperture allowing of training the +gun on any ordinary bearing in English built ships. +The English (for a very long time it was English only)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> +realisation of the possibilities of the porthole in Henry +VIII’s reign contributed very materially to the defeat +of the Spanish Armada some decades later. Indeed, +it is no exaggeration to say that the porthole was to +that era what the torpedo has been in the present one. +Introduced about 1875 as a trivial alternative to the +gun, in less than forty years the torpedo came to +challenge the gun in range to an extent that as early +as 1905 or thereabouts began profoundly to affect all +previous ideas of naval tactics, and that by 1915 has +changed them altogether!</p> + +<p>Another great change of these Henry VIII days +was in the form of the ships.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> At this era they began +to be built with “tumble-home” sides, instead of sides +slanting outwards upwards, and inwards downwards as +heretofore. With the coming of the porthole came the +decline of the cross-bow as a naval arm. In the pre-porthole +days every record speaks of “showers of +arrows,” and the gun appears to have been a species of +accessory. In the early years of the Sixteenth Century +it became the main armament, and so remained unchallenged +till the present century and the coming of +the long-range torpedo.</p> + +<p>Henry VIII’s reign is also remarkable for the +first institution of those “cutting out” expeditions +which were afterwards to become such a particular +feature of British methods of warfare. This first +attempt happened in the year 1513, when Sir Edward +Howard, finding the French fleet lying in Brest Harbour +refusing to come out, “collected boats and barges” +and attacked them with those craft. The attempt was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> +not successful, but it profoundly affected subsequent +naval history.</p> + +<p>Therefrom the French were impressed with the idea +that if a fleet lay in a harbour awaiting attack it +acquired an advantage thereby. The idea became +rooted in the French mind that to make the enemy +attack under the most disadvantageous circumstances +was the most wise of policies. That “the defensive +is compelled to await attack, compelled to allow the +enemy choice of the moment” was overlooked!</p> + +<p>From this time onward England was gradually +trained by France into the role of the attacker, and +the French more and more sank into the defensive +attitude. Many an English life was sacrificed between +the “discovery of the attack” in the days of Henry +VIII, and its triumphant apotheosis when centuries +later Nelson won the Battle of the Nile; but the +instincts born in Henry’s reign, on the one hand to +fight with any advantage that the defensive might offer, +on the other hand to attack regardless of these advantages, +are probably the real key to the secret of later +victories.</p> + +<p>The Royal ships at this period were manned by +voluntary enlistment, supplemented by the press-gang +as vacancies might dictate. The pay of the mariner +was five shillings a month; but petty officers, gunners +and the like received additional pickings out of what +was known as “dead pay.” By this system the names +of dead men, or occasionally purely fancy names, were +on the ship’s books, and the money drawn for these +was distributed in a fixed ratio. The most interesting +feature of Henry VII and Henry VIII’s navies is the +presence in them of a number of Spaniards, who presumably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span> +acted as instructors. These received normal +pay of seven shillings a month plus “dead pay.”</p> + +<p>The messing of the crews was by no means indifferent. +It was as follows per <span class="locked">man:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday: ¾ lb. beef and ½ lb. +bacon.</p> + +<p>Monday, Wednesday, Saturday: Four herrings and +two pounds of cheese.</p> + +<p>Friday: To every mess of four men, half a cod, +ten herrings, one pound of butter and one +pound of cheese.</p> +</div> + +<p>There was also a daily allowance of one pound of bread +or biscuit. The liquid allowance was either beer, or a +species of grog consisting of one part of sack to two of +water. Taking into account the value of money in +those days and the scale of living on shore at the time, +the conditions of naval life were by no means bad, +though complaints of the low pay were plentiful enough. +Probably, few received the full measure of what on +paper they were entitled to.</p> + +<p>Henry VIII died early in 1547. In the subsequent +reigns of Edward VI and Mary, the Navy declined, and +little use was made of it except for some raiding +expeditions.</p> + +<p>When Elizabeth came to the throne the regular +fleet had dwindled to very small proportions, and, war +being in progress, general permission was given for +privateering as the only means of injuring the enemy. +It presently degenerated into piracy and finally had to +be put down by the Royal ships.</p> + +<p>No sooner, however, was the war over than the Queen +ordered a special survey to be made of the Navy. +New ships were laid down and arsenals established for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> +the supply of guns and gunpowder, which up to that +time had been imported from Germany. Full advantage +was taken of the privateering spirit, the erstwhile +pirates being encouraged to undertake distant voyages. +In many of these enterprises the Queen herself had a +personal financial interest. She thus freed the country +from various turbulent spirits who were inconvenient +at home, and at one and the same time increased her +own resources by doing so.</p> + +<p>There is every reason to believe that this action +of Elizabeth’s was part of a well-designed and carefully +thought out policy. The type of ship suitable for +distant voyages and enterprises was naturally bound to +become superior to that which was merely evolved +from home service. The type of seamen thus bred was +also necessarily bound to be better than the home-made +article. Elizabeth can hardly have failed to realise +these points also.</p> + +<p>To the <em>personnel</em> of the regular Navy considerable +attention was also given. Pay was raised to 6/8 per +month for the seamen, and 5/- a month with 4/- a month +for clothing for soldiers afloat. Messing was also increased +to a daily ration of one pound of biscuit, a gallon +of beer, with two pounds of beef per man four days out +of the seven, and a proportionate amount of fish on the +other three days. Subsequently, and just previous to +the Armada, the pay of seamen rose to 10/- a month, +with a view to inducing the better men not to desert.</p> + +<p>The regular navy was thus by no means badly +provided for as things went in those days; while service +with “gentlemen adventurers” offered attractions to a +very considerable potential reserve, and so England +contained a large population which, from one cause<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span> +and another, was available for sea service. To these +circumstances was it due that the Spanish Armada, +when it came, never had the remotest possibility of +success. It was doomed to destruction the day that +Elizabeth first gave favour to the “gentlemen +adventurers.”</p> + +<p>Of these adventurers the greatest of all was Francis +Drake, who in 1577 made his first long voyage with five +ships to the Pacific Ocean. Drake, alone, in the <i>Pelican</i>, +succeeded in reaching the Pacific and carrying out his +scheme of operations, which—not to put too fine a point +on it—consisted of acts of piracy pure and simple +against the Spaniards. He returned to England after +an absence of nearly three years, during which he +circumnavigated the globe.</p> + +<p>There is little doubt that Drake in this voyage, +and others like him in similar expeditions, learned a +great deal about the disadvantages of small size in +ships. Drake, however, learned another thing also. +Up to this day the crew of a ship had consisted of +the captain and a certain military element; also the +master, who was responsible for a certain number of +“mariners.” The former were concerned entirely with +fighting the ship—the latter entirely with manœuvring it.</p> + +<p>This system of specialisation, awkward as it appears +thus baldly stated, may have worked well enough in +ordinary practice. It did not differ materially from the +differentiation between deck hands and the engineering +departments, which to a greater or less extent is very +marked in every navy of the present day.</p> + +<p>Drake, however, started out with none too many +men, and it was not long before he lost some of those +he had and found himself short-handed. His solution of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> +the difficulty is in his famous phrase, “I would have the +gentlemen haul with the mariners.” How far this was a +matter of expediency, how far the revelation of a new +policy, is a matter of opinion. It must certainly have +been outside the purview of Elizabeth. But out of it +gradually came that every English sailor knew how to +fight his ship and how to sail her too, and this amounted +to doubling the efficiency of the crew of any ship at one +stroke.</p> + +<p>Of Drake himself, the following contemporary pen-picture, +from a letter written by one of his Spanish victims, +Don Franciso de Zarate,<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> explains almost <span class="locked">everything:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“He received me favourably, and took me to his room, where +he made me seated and said to me: ‘I am a friend to those who +speak the truth, that is what will have the most weight with me. +What silver or gold does this ship bring?’</p> + +<p>“... We spoke together a great while, until the dinner-hour. +He told me to sit beside him and treated me from his dishes, bidding +me have no fear, for my life and goods were safe; for which I kissed +his hands.</p> + +<p>“This English General is a cousin of John Hawkins; he is the +same who, about five years ago, took the port of Nombre de Dios; +he is called Francis Drake; a man of some five and thirty years, +small of stature and red-bearded, one of the greatest sailors on the +sea, both from skill and power of commanding. His ship carried +about 400 tons, is swift of sail, and of a hundred men, all skilled and +in their prime, and all as much experienced in warfare as if they +were old soldiers of Italy. Each one, in particular, <em>takes great pains +to keep his arms clean</em>;<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> he treats them with affection, and they treat +him with respect. I endeavoured to find out whether the General +was liked, and everyone told me he was adored.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Less favourable pictures of Drake have been penned, +and there is no doubt that some of his virtues have +been greatly exaggerated. At the present day there is +perhaps too great a tendency to reverse the process.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> +Stripped of romance, many of his actions were petty, +while those of some of his fellow adventurers merit a +harsher name. Hawkins, for instance, was hand-in-glove +with Spanish smugglers and a slave trader. +Many of the victories of the Elizabethan “Sea-Kings” +were really trifling little affairs, magnified into an +importance which they never possessed.</p> + +<p>But, when all is said and done, it is in these men +that we find the birth of a sea spirit which still lingers +on, despite that other insular spirit previously referred +to—the natural tendency of islanders to regard the +water itself as a bulwark, instead of the medium on +which to meet and defeat the enemy.</p> + +<p>The Spanish, already considerably incensed by the +piratical acts of the English “gentlemen adventurers,” +presently found a further cause of grievance in the +assistance rendered by Elizabeth to their revolting +provinces in the Netherlands. Drake had not returned +many years from his famous voyage when it became +abundantly clear that the Spaniards no longer intended +quietly to suffer from English interference.</p> + +<p>Spain at that time was regarded as the premier +naval power of Europe. Her superiority was more +mythical than actual, for reasons which will later on be +referred to: however, her commercial oversea activities +were very great. The wealth which she wrung from +the Indies—though probably infinitely less than its +supposed value—was sufficient to enable her to equip +considerable naval forces, certainly larger ones numerically +than any which England alone was able to bring +against them.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span></p> + +<p>Knowledge of the fact that Spain was preparing the +Armada for an attack on England, led to the sailing +of Drake in April, 1587, with a fleet consisting of four +large and twenty-six smaller ships, for the hire of which +the citizens of London were nominally or actually +responsible. His real instructions are not known, but +there is little question that, as in all similar expeditions, +he started out knowing that his success would be +approved of, although in the event of any ill-success +or awkward questions, he would be publicly disavowed.</p> + +<p>Reaching Cadiz, he destroyed 100 store ships which +he found there; and then proceeding to the Tagus, +offered battle to the Spanish war fleet. The Spanish +admiral, however, declined to come out—a fact which +of itself altogether discredits the popular idea about the +vast all-powerful ships of Spain, and the little English +ships, which, in the Armada days, could have done +nothing against them but for a convenient tempest. +On account of this expedition of Drake’s, the sailing +of the Armada was put off for a year. So far as +stopping the enterprise was concerned, Drake’s expedition +was a failure. Armada preparations still went on.</p> + +<p>It is by no means to be supposed that the Armada +in its conception was the foolhardy enterprise that on +the face of things it looks to have been. The idea of +it was first mooted by the Duke of Alva so long ago +as 1569. In 1583 it became a settled project in the +able hands of the Marquis of Santa Cruz, who alone +among the Spaniards was not more or less afraid of +the English. In the battle of Tercera in 1583, certain +ships, which if not English were at any rate supposed +to be, had shown the white feather. Santa Cruz assumed +therefrom that the English were easily to be overwhelmed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> +by a sufficiently superior force, and he designed a scheme +whereby he would use 556 ships and an army of 94,222 +men.</p> + +<p>Philip of Spain had other ideas. Having a large +army under the Duke of Parma in the Netherlands, +he proposed that this force should be transported thence +to England in flat-bottomed boats, while Santa Cruz +should take with him merely enough ships to hold the +Channel, and prevent any interference by the English +ships with the invasion.</p> + +<p>Before the delayed Armada could sail Santa Cruz +died; and despite his own protestations Medina Sidonia +was appointed in Santa Cruz’s place to carry out an +expedition in which he had little faith or confidence. +His total force at the outset consisted of 130 ships and +30,493 men. Of these ships not more than sixty-two +at the outside were warships, and some of these did +not carry more than half-a-dozen guns.</p> + +<p>The main English fighting force consisted of forty-nine +warships, some of which were little inferior to the +Spanish in tonnage, though all were much smaller to +the eye, as they were built with a lower freeboard and +without the vast superstructures with which the +Spaniards were encumbered. As auxiliaries, the +English had a very considerable force of small ships; +also the Dutch fleet in alliance with them.</p> + +<p>The guns of the English ships were, generally +speaking, heavier, all their gunners were well trained, +and their portholes especially designed to give a considerable +arc of fire, whereas the Spanish had very +indifferent gunners and narrow portholes. The Spaniards +themselves thoroughly recognised their inferiority in +the matter of gunnery, and the specific instructions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> +of their admiral were that he was to negative this +inferiority by engaging at close quarters, and trust to +destroying the enemy by small-arm fire from his lofty +superstructures.</p> + +<p>The small portholes of the Spanish ships, which +permitted neither of training, nor elevation, nor +depression, are not altogether to be put down to +stupidity or neglect of progress, for all that they were +mainly the result of ultra-conservatism. The gun—as +Professor Laughton has made clear—was regarded in +Spain as a somewhat dishonourable weapon. Ideals +of “cold steel” held the field. Portholes were kept +very small, so that enemies relying on musketry should +not be able to get the advantage that large portholes +might supply. To close with the enemy and carry by +boarding was the be-all and end-all of Spanish ideas +of naval warfare. When able to employ their own +tactics they were formidable opponents, though to the +English tactics merely so many helpless haystacks.</p> + +<p>On shore, in England, the coming of the Armada +provoked a good deal of panic; though the army +which Elizabeth raised and reviewed at Tilbury was +probably got together more with a view to allaying +this panic than from any expectations that it would +be actually required. The views of the British seamen +on the matter were entirely summed up in Drake’s +famous jest on Plymouth Hoe, that there was plenty +of time to finish the game of bowls and settle the +Spaniards afterwards!</p> + +<figure id="i_51" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;"> + <img src="images/i_051.jpg" width="2440" height="1634" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">THE SPANISH ARMADA—1588. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Yet this very confidence might have led to the +undoing of the English. The researches of Professor +Laughton have made it abundantly clear that had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> +Medina Sidonia followed the majority opinion of a +council of war held off the Lizard, he could and would +have attacked the English fleet in Plymouth Sound +with every prospect of destroying it, because there, and +there only, did opportunity offer them that prospect of +a close action upon which their sole chance of success +depended. Admiral Colomb has elaborated the point +still further, with a quotation from Monson to the +effect that had the Armada had a pilot able to recognise +the Lizard, which the Spaniards mistook for Ramehead, +they might have surprised the English fleet at Plymouth. +This incident covers the whole of what Providence +or luck really did for England against the Spanish.</p> + +<p>To a certain extent a parallel of our own day +exists. When Rodjestvensky with the Baltic fleet +reached Far Eastern waters, there came a day when +his cruisers discovered the entire Japanese fleet lying +in Formosan waters. The Russian admiral ignored +them and went on towards Vladivostok. The parallel +ends here because the “Japanese fleet” was merely a +collection of dummies intended to mislead him.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a></p> + +<p>The first engagement with the Spanish Armada +took place on Sunday, June 21st. It was more in the +nature of a skirmish than anything else. The Spaniards +made several vain and entirely ineffectual attempts to +close with the swifter and handier English vessels. +They took care, however, to preserve their formation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> +and so to that extent defeated the English tactics, +which were to destroy in detail what could not be +destroyed without heavy loss in the mass. So the +Spaniards reached Calais on the 27th with a loss of +only three large ships.</p> + +<p>They there discovered that Parma’s flat-bottomed +boats were all blockaded by the Dutch, and that any +invasion of England was therefore entirely out of the +question. It must have been perfectly obvious to the +most sanguine of them by this that they could not +force action with the swifter English ships, while they +could not relieve the blockaded boats without being +attacked at the outset. In a word, the Armada was +an obvious failure.</p> + +<p>On the night of the 28th, fire ships were sent into +the Spanish fleet by the English. This, though the +damage done was small, brought the Spanish to sea, +and the next morning they were attacked off Gravelines +by the English. The battle was hardly of the nature +of a fleet action, so much as well-designed tactical +operations intended to keep the enemy on the move. +It resulted in the Spaniards losing only seven ships in +a whole day’s fighting. The only really serious loss +that the Spaniards sustained was that they were driven +into the North Sea, with no prospect of returning home +except by way of the North of Scotland.</p> + +<p>Followed for awhile and harried by a portion of the +English fleet, which fell upon and destroyed stragglers, +the Spaniards were driven into what to most of them +were unknown waters and uncharted seas. To the +last the retreating fleet maintained a show of order. +Fifty-three ships succeeded in returning to Spain.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span></p> + +<figure id="i_55" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;"> + <img src="images/i_055.jpg" width="2435" height="1635" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">THE END OF A “GENTLEMAN-ADVENTURER.”—THE “REVENGE.”—CAPTURED BY SPANIARDS, 1591. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span></p> + +<p>Stripped of romance this is the real prosaic history +of the defeat of the Spanish Armada. The wonder is +not that so few Spanish ships returned, but that so +many did! The loss in Spanish warships proper appears +to have been little over a dozen all told, and of these +not more than three at the outside can be attributed +to “the winds.”</p> + +<p>Havoc was undoubtedly wrought, but the “galleons” +which “perished by scores” on the Scotch and Irish +coasts were mainly the auxiliaries, transports, and small +fry; the battle fleet proper kept together all the time, +and with a couple of exceptions the ships reached home +together as a fleet.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a></p> + +<p>At no time in the advance of the Spanish—probably +at no time in the retreat either—could the English +have engaged close action with any certainty of success. +Victory was attributable solely and entirely to the +evolution of a type of ship, fast, speedy and handy, +able to hit hard, and which had been more or less +specially designed with an eye to offering a very small +target to the clumsily designed Spanish style of gun +mounting.</p> + +<p>It was “history repeating itself” in another way. +As Alfred overcame the Danes by evolving something +superior to the Danish galleys; so, in Elizabethan days, +there was evolved a type of warship meet for the +occasion.</p> + +<p>From the defeat of the Armada and onwards, +English naval operations were mainly confined to raiding +expeditions against the Spanish coast, with a view +to checking the collection of any further Armadas.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> +These operations were chiefly carried out by the “gentlemen +adventurers”; but the real Navy itself was +maintained and added to, and at the death of Elizabeth +in 1603, it consisted of forty-two ships, of which the +68-gun <i>Triumph</i> of 1,000 tons was the largest. This +Navy was relied upon as the premier arm in case of +any serious trouble.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="IV"><span id="toclink_59"></span>IV.<br> + +<span class="subhead">THE PERIOD OF THE DUTCH WARS.</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">With</span> the accession of James I peace with Spain +came about, but the Dutch being ignored in the +transaction, out of this there arose that ill-feeling +and rivalry which was later on to culminate in the +Dutch wars.</p> + +<p>In James I’s reign no naval operations of great +importance took place, but considerable interest attaches +to the despatch of eighteen ships (of which six were +“King’s Ships”), to Algiers in 1520. This was the first +appearance of an English squadron in the Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>Under James I the numerical force of the Navy +declined somewhat. The art of shipbuilding, however, +made considerable advance.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> A Shipwrights’ Company +was established in 1656, and Phineas Pett, as its first +master, built and designed a 1,400 ton ship named the +<i>Prince Royal</i>. Pett introduced a variety of novelties into +his designs, and the <i>Prince Royal</i> and her successors +were esteemed superior to anything set afloat elsewhere +at the time.</p> + +<p>Here it is desirable to turn aside for a moment +in order to realise the influences at work behind Phineas +Pett. It has ever been the peculiar fortune of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> +Royal Navy—and for that matter of the inchoate +“Navy” which preceded its establishment—to have +had men capable of “looking ahead” and forcing the +pace in such a way that new conditions were prepared +for when they arrived.</p> + +<p>Of such a nature, each in his own way, were +King Alfred, King John, Richard III, and Henry VII, but +greater than any of these was Sir Walter Raleigh, +whose visions in the days of Elizabeth and James I +ran so clearly and so far that even now we cannot +be said to have left him behind where “principles” +are concerned. Drake was the national hero of +Elizabethan days, but in utility to the future, Raleigh +was a greater than he, albeit his best service was of +the “armchair” kind.</p> + +<p>The following extracts from Raleigh’s writings, +except for geographical and political differences, stand +as true to-day as when he wrote them about 300 years +ago. The idea of a main fleet, backed up by smaller +vessels, the idea of meeting the enemy on the water and +so forth, are commonplaces now, but in Raleigh’s time +they were quite otherwise. The italicised portions in +particular indicate quite clearly in Elizabethan words +the naval policy of to-day.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Another benefit which we received by this preparation was, +that <em>our men were now taught suddenly to arm, every man knowing his +command, and how to be commanded</em>, which before they were ignorant +of; and who knows not that sudden and false alarms in any army +are sometimes necessary? To say the truth, the expedition which +was then used in drawing together so great an army by land, and +rigging so great and royal a navy to sea, in so little a space of +time, was so admirable in other countries, that they received a +terror by it; and many that came from beyond the seas said +<i>the Queen was never more dreaded abroad for anything she ever did</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span></p> + +<p>“Frenchmen that came aboard our ships did wonder (as at a +thing incredible) that Her Majesty had rigged, victualled, and +furnished her royal ships to sea in twelve days’ time; and Spain, +as an enemy, had reason to fear and grieve to see this sudden +preparation.</p> + +<p>“It is not the meanest mischief we shall do to the King of +Spain, if we thus war upon him, to force him to keep his shores +still armed and guarded, to the infinite vexation, charge and +discontent of his subjects; for no time or place can secure them so +long as they see or know us to be upon that coast.</p> + +<p>“The sequel of all these actions being duly considered, we may +be confident that <i>whilst we busy the Spaniard at home, they dare not +think of invading England or Ireland</i>; for by their absence their fleet +from the Indies may be endangered<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> and in their attempts they +have as little hope of prevailing.</p> + +<p>“Surely I hold that the <em>best way is to keep our enemies from +treading upon our ground: wherein, if we fail, then</em> must we seek to +make him wish that he had stayed at his own home. In such a case, +if it should happen, our judgments are to weigh many particular +circumstances, that belong not to this discourse. But making the +question general, <i>the position, whether England, without that it is unable +to do so</i>: and, therefore, I think it most dangerous to make the +adventure. For the encouragements of a first victory to an enemy, +and the discouragement of being beaten to the invaded, may draw +after it a most perilous consequence.</p> + +<p>“Great difference, I know there is, and diverse consideration to +be had, between such a country as France is, strengthened with +many fortified places, and this of ours, where our ramparts are but +the bodies of men. But I say that an army to be transported over +sea, and to be landed again in an enemy’s country, and the place +left to the choice of the invader <i>cannot be resisted on the coast of +England without a fleet to impeach it; no, nor on the coast of France, or +any other country, except every creek, port, or sandy bay had a powerful +army in each of them to make opposition.... For there is no man +ignorant that ships, without putting themselves out of breath, will easily +outrun the soldiers that coast them</i>.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span></p> + +<p>“Whosoever were the inventors, we find that every age hath +added somewhat to ships, and to all things else. And in mine own +time the shape of our English ships hath been greatly bettered. It +is not long since the striking of the topmast (a wonderful ease to +great ships, both at sea and in harbour) hath been devised, together +with the chain pump, which takes up twice as much water as the +ordinary did. We have lately added the Bonnet and the Drabler. +To the courses we have devised studding-sails, topgallant-masts, +spritsails, topsails. The weighing of anchors by the capstone is also +new. We have fallen into consideration of the lengths of cable, and +by it we resist the malice of the greatest winds that can blow. +Witness our small Millbroke men of Cornwall, that ride it out at +anchor half seas over between England and Ireland, all the winter +quarter. And witness the Hollanders that were wont to ride before +Dunkirk with the wind at north-west, making a lee-shoar in all +weathers. For true it is, that the length of the cable is the life of +the ship, riding at length, is not able to stretch it; and nothing +breaks that is not stretched in extremity. We carry our ordnance +better than we were wont, because our nether over-loops are raised +commonly from the water, to wit, between the lower part of +the sea.</p> + +<p>“In King Henry VIII time, and in his presence at Portsmouth, +the Mary Rose, by a little sway of the ship in tacking about, her +ports being within sixteen inches of the water, was overset and lost.</p> + +<p>“We have also raised our second decks, and given more vent +thereby to our ordnance lying on our nether-loop. We have added +cross pillars<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> in our royal ships to strengthen them, which be +fastened from the keels on to the beam of the second deck to keep +them from setting or from giving way in all distresses.</p> + +<p>“We have given longer floors to our ships than in elder times, +and better bearing under water, whereby they never fall into the +sea after the head and shake the whole body, nor sink astern, nor +stoop upon a wind, by which the breaking loose of our ordnance, +or of the not use of them, with many other discommodities are +avoided.</p> + +<p>“And, to say the truth, a miserable shame and dishonour it were +for our shipwrights if they did not exceed all others in the setting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> +up of our Royal ships, <em>the errors of other nations being far more excusable +than ours</em>. For the Kings of England have for many years <i>being at +the charge to build and furnish a navy of powerful ships for their own +defence, and for the wars only. Whereas the</i> French, the Spaniards, the +Portuguese, and the Hollanders (till of late) <i>have had no proper fleet +belonging to their Princes or States.</i> Only the Venetians for a long +time have maintained their arsenal of gallies. And the Kings of +Denmark and Sweden have had good ships for these last fifty years.</p> + +<p>“I say that the aforenamed Kings, especially the Spaniards and +Portugals, have ships of great bulk, but fitter for the merchant than +for the man-of-war, for burthen than for <em>battle</em>. But as Popelimire +well observeth, ‘the forces of Princes by sea are marques de +grandeur d’estate—marks of the greatness of an estate—for <em>whosoever +commands the sea, commands the trade; whosoever commands the trade +of the world commands the riches of the world, and consequently the +world itself</em>.’</p> + +<p>“Yet, can I not deny but that the Spaniards, being afraid of +their Indian fleets, have built some few very good ships; <em>but he hath +no ships in garrison</em>, as His Majesty hath; and to say the truth, no +sure place to keep them in, but in all invasions he is driven to take up +of all nations which come into his ports for trade....</p> + +<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> + +<p>“But there’s no estate grown in haste but that of the United +Provinces, and especially in their sea forces, and by a contrary way +to that of Spain and France; the latter by invasion, the former by +oppression. For I myself may remember <i>when one ship of Her +Majesty’s would have made forty Hollanders strike sail and come to an +anchor</i>. They did not then dispute de Mari Libero, but readily +acknowledged the English to be Domini Maria Britannici. That we +are less powerful than we were, I do hardly believe it; for, although +we have not at this time 135 ships belonging to the subject of 500 +tons each ship, as it is said we had in the twenty-fourth year of +Queen Elizabeth; at which time also, upon a general view and +muster, there were found in England of able men fit to bear arms, +1,172,000, yet are our merchant ships now far more warlike and better +appointed than they were, and the Navy royal double as strong as +it then was. For these were the ships of Her Majesty’s Navy at +that time:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span></p> + +<ul> +<li> 1. The Triumph</li> +<li> 2. The Elizabeth Jonas</li> +<li> 3. The White Bear</li> +<li> 4. The Philip and Mary</li> +<li> 5. The Bonadventure</li> +<li> 6. The Golden Lyon</li> +<li> 7. The Victory</li> +<li> 8. The Revenge</li> +<li> 9. The Hope</li> +<li>10. The Mary Rose</li> +<li>11. The Dreadnought</li> +<li>12. The Minion</li> +<li>13. The Swiftsure</li> +</ul> + +<p class="in0">to which there have been <span class="locked">added:—</span></p> + +<ul> +<li>14. The Antilope</li> +<li>15. The Foresight</li> +<li>16. The Swallow</li> +<li>17. The Handmaid</li> +<li>18. The Jennett</li> +<li>19. The Bark of Ballein</li> +<li>20. The Ayde</li> +<li>21. The Achates</li> +<li>22. The Falcon</li> +<li>23. The Tyger</li> +<li>24. The Bull</li> +</ul> + +<p>“We have not, therefore, less force than we had, the fashion, and +furnishing of our ships considered, for there are in England at this +time 400 sail or merchants, and fit for the wars, which the Spaniards +would call galleons; to which we may add 200 sail of crumsters, +or hoyes of Newcastle, which, each of them, will bear six Demi-culverins +and four Sakers, needing no other addition of building +than a slight spar deck fore and aft, as the seamen call it, which is +a slight deck throughout....</p> + +<p>“I say, then, if a vanguard be ordained of those hoyes, who will +easily recover the wind of any other sort of ships, with a battle of +400 other warlike ships, and a rear of thirty of His Majesty’s ships +to sustain, relieve, and countenance the rest (if God beat them not) +I know not what strength can be gathered in all Europe to beat +them. And if it be objected that the States can furnish a far +greater number, I answer that His Majesty’s forty ships, added to +the 600 beforenamed, are of incomparable greater force than all that +Holland and Zealand can furnish for the wars. As also, that a +greater number would breed the same confusion that was found in +Xerxes’ land army of 1,700,000 soldiers; <em>for there is a certain proportion, +both by sea and land, beyond which the excess brings nothing +but disorder and amazement</em>.”</p> +</div> + +<p>I have quoted from Raleigh at considerable length—a +length which may seem to some out of all proportion +to the general historical scheme of this work. But of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> +the three possible “founders of the British Navy,” +King Alfred by legend, King Henry VII by force of +circumstances, and Sir Walter Raleigh, Knight, by his +realisation of certain eternal verities of naval warfare, +the palm goes best to Raleigh, to whose precepts it +was mainly due that England did not succumb to +Holland in the days of the Dutch wars. Compared to +the struggle with the Dutch, neither the Spanish wars, +which preceded them, nor the great French wars which +followed, were of any like importance as regarded the +relative risks and dangers. And the interest is the +greater in that where the United Provinces were, about +and just after Raleigh’s time, Germany stands towards +the British Navy to-day.</p> + +<p>In 1618 the Duke of Buckingham was appointed +Lord High Admiral and continued in that position after +the accession of Charles I. Of the incapacity of the Duke +much has been written, but whatever may be said in +connection with various unsuccessful oversea enterprises, +for which he was officially responsible, naval shipbuilding +under his régime made very considerable progress.</p> + +<p>Things were quite otherwise, however, with the +<em>personnel</em>. Abuses of every sort and kind crept in unchecked, +and the men were the first to feel the pinch. +The unscrupulous contractor appeared, and with him +the era of offal foods and all kinds of similar abuses, +of which many have lasted well into our own time, +and some exist still. The money allotted for the men +of the fleet became the prey of every human vulture, +the officers, as a rule, being privy thereunto. Besides +food, clothing also fell into the hands of contractors +who supplied shoddy at ridiculously high prices, with +the commission to officers stopped out of the men’s pay.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span></p> + +<p>Pay, nominally, rose a good deal, and in 1653 +reached twenty-four shillings a month for the seaman, +but the figures (approximately equal in purchasing +value to the pay of to-day) convey nothing. The men +were half-starved, or worse, on uneatable food, and +their clothing was such that they went about in rags +and died like rats in their misery.</p> + +<p>The first naval event in Charles I’s reign is mainly +of interest because of the peculiar personal circumstances +that attended it. One King’s ship and six +hired ships were despatched, nominally to assist the +French against the Genoese. On arriving at Dieppe, +however, the English officers and men discovered that +they were really to be used against the revolted French +Protestants of La Rochelle. This being against their +taste, they returned to the Downs and reported themselves +to the King. They were ordered to sail again +for La Rochelle. One captain, however, point blank +refused to do so. The other ships went, but the officers +and men, with a single exception, having handed their +ships over to the French, returned to England.</p> + +<p>Little or nothing seems to have been done in the +way of punishment to the mutineers (possibly on account +of public opinion). But the incident sheds an interesting +sidelight on the state of the Navy at the time. It is +hardly to be conceived that the Army at the same +period could have acted in similar fashion with equal +impunity.</p> + +<figure id="i_67" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;"> + <img src="images/i_067.jpg" width="1544" height="1793" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p>PHINEAS PETT, 1570–1647.</p> + +<p>From the contemporary portrait by William Dobson in the National Portrait Gallery.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The history of the British Navy of this period +is the history of a navy lacking in discipline, and its +officers divided against each other. Such expeditions +as were undertaken against France and Spain signally +failed. It is usual to attribute these failures to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> +mal-administration of the Duke of Buckingham, an +unpopular figure. But whether this is just or not is +another matter. The entire Navy was rotten to the +core in its <em>personnel</em>. But Buckingham’s share in it +would seem to have been inability to understand rather +than direct carelessness.</p> + +<p>Under the Duke’s régime the building of efficient +warships continued to progress. The “ship money,” +which was to cause so much trouble inland later, is +outside the scope of this work, save in so far as its +direct naval aspect is concerned. This, of course, was +the principle that inland places benefited from sea +defence quite as much as seaside districts. A great +deal of the money was undoubtedly spent on shipbuilding; +indeed, some of the trouble lay over alleged +(and seemingly obvious) excessive expenditure on the +“Dreadnought” of the period, Phineas Pett’s <i>Royal +Sovereign</i>, a ship altogether superior to anything before +built in England, and the first three-decker ever constructed +in this country. She was laid down in 1635 +and launched in 1657. An immense amount of gilding +and carving about her irritated the economically minded, +but it is questionable whether the objections were well +informed.</p> + +<p>Just about this time elaborate ornamentations of +warships was the “vogue,” and it carried moral effect +accordingly. What to the uninitiated landsmen merely +spelt “waste of money on unnecessary display” spelt +something else to those who went across the seas. +Even in our own present utilitarian days a fresh coat +of paint to a warship has been found to have a political +value; and fireworks and illuminations (seemingly pure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> +waste of money) have played their share in helping to +preserve the peace.</p> + +<p>John Hampden, according to his lights, was a +patriot, and according to the purely political questions +with which he was concerned he may also have been; +but on the naval issue of Ship Money he was little more +or less than the First Little Englander, and hampered by +just that same inability to see beyond his nose which +characterised the modern Little Englander who protested +against “bloated naval expenditure.” The intentions +were excellent—the intelligence circumscribed.</p> + +<p>A contemporary account of the <i>Royal Sovereign</i> is +as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Her length by the keele is 128 foote or thereabout, within +some few inches; her mayne breadth or wideness from side to side, +48 foote; her utmost length from the fore-end to the stern, <i lang="la">a prova +ad pupin</i>, 232 foote. Shee is in height, from the bottom of her +keele to the top of her lanthorne, 76 foote; she beareth five +lanthornes, the biggest of which will hold ten persons to stand +upright, and without shouldering or pressing one on the other.</p> + +<p>“Shee hath three flush deckes and a forecastle, an halfe decke, a +quarter-decke, and a round house. Her lower tyre hath thirty ports, +which are to be furnished with demi-cannon and whole cannon, +throughout being able to beare them; her middle tyre hath also +thirty ports for demi-culverin and whole culverin; her third tyre +hath twentie sixe ports for other ordnance; her forecastle hath +twelve ports, and her halfe decke hath fourteen ports; she hath +thirteene or fourteene ports more within board for murdering-pieces, +besides a great many loope-holes out of the cabins for musket shot. +Shee carrieth, moreover, ten pieces of chase ordnance in her right +forward, and ten right off, according to lande service in the front +and the reare. Shee carrieth eleven anchores, one of them weighing +foure thousand foure hundred pounds; and according to these are +her cables, mastes, sayles, cordage.”</p> +</div> + +<figure id="i_71" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;"> + <img src="images/i_071.jpg" width="2454" height="1638" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + +<p class="right"><i>Ex. Fincham.</i></p> + +<p>THE <i>ROYAL SOVEREIGN</i>.</p> + +<p>The dotted lines represent a ship of the time of 1850.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>It remains to add that the ship was extraordinarily +well built. She fought many a battle and survived some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span> +fifty years, and then only perished because, when laid up +for refit in 1696, she was accidentally burned. And about +sixty-three years ago (1852) naval architects still alluded +to her with respect, nor did their designs differ from her +very materially.</p> + +<p>Wherever and however Charles I and the Duke of +Buckingham failed, their shipbuilding policy cannot but +command both respect and admiration. It is the curious +irony of fate that—excepting King Alfred, and also +Queen Elizabeth—it is the Sovereigns of England with +black marks against them who ever did most for the +Navy or understood its importance. And understanding +what the Navy meant, generally secured these marks at +the hands of some quite well meaning but intellectually +circumscribed prototype or successor of John Hampden, +to whom “meeting the enemy on the water” was an +entirely indigestible theory, and a waste of money into +the bargain. There is no question whatever that to them +the sea appeared a natural rampart and ships upon it +pure superfluity, save in so far as inconvenience to the +shore counties might result. Later on, Cromwell, of +course, acted on a different principle—but Cromwell +was an Imperialist. Hampden was merely the “Insular +Spirit” personified.</p> + +<p>In 1639, a naval incident occurred which goes to +discredit the popular idea of the impotence of the British +Navy under Charles I, whatever its internal condition. +Naval operations were in progress between Holland and +France on the one side, and Spain on the other. The +British fleet was fitted out under Sir John Pennington +(that same Pennington who had commanded the squadron +which refused to attack La Rochelle) with orders to +maintain British neutrality.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span></p> + +<p>The Spanish fleet took refuge from the Dutch in +the Downs, whereupon Pennington informed the rival +admirals that he should attack whichever of them +violated the neutrality of an English harbour. The +Spanish having fired upon the Dutch, the Dutch Admiral +Van Tromp applied to Pennington for permission to +attack the Downs. This was given, and the bulk of +the Spanish fleet destroyed. The incident suggests that +the English fleet was recognised as a neutral able to +enforce its orders against all and sundry.</p> + +<p>In connection with this, it is interesting to record +the existence of a naval medal of the period, bearing +the motto: “<i>Nec meta mihi quae terminus orbi</i>”—a free +translation of which would be, “Nothing limits me but +the size of the World.” However short practice may +have fallen, Charles and his advisers had undoubtedly +grasped the theory of “Sea Power.”</p> + +<h3><i>THE CIVIL WAR.</i></h3> + +<p>When the Civil war began in 1642, the regular fleet +consisted of forty-two ships. It was seized by the +Parliamentarians and put under the Earl of Warwick, +who held command for six years. With his fleet he +very effectually patrolled the Channel, rendering abortive +all over-sea attempts to assist the King with arms and +ammunition.</p> + +<p>On Warwick being superseded in 1648, the fleet +mutinied, and seventeen ships sailed for Holland to join +Prince Charles; but upon Warwick being reinstated +the bulk of the fleet returned to its allegiance to the +Parliamentarians. That the Parliamentarians were fully +alive to the importance of naval power is evidenced by +the fact that they seized every opportunity to lay down +new ships; and “Parliament” once in power made it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> +very clear indeed that the Sovereignty of the Seas +would be upheld at all costs.</p> + +<h3 id="fdw"><i>THE FIRST DUTCH WAR.</i></h3> + +<p>Some forty years before, Sir Walter Raleigh, discussing +the rise of the Dutch United Provinces, remarked: +“But be their estate what it will, let them not deceive +themselves in believing that they can make themselves +masters of the sea.” He advised the Dutch to remember +that their inward and outward passages were through +British seas. There were but two courses open to the +Dutch: amity with England or destruction of English +naval power.</p> + +<p>Since both nations had large commercial fleets, +rivalries were inevitable; and for some long while +previous to 1652, both sides were ready enough for a +quarrel. Minor acts of hostility occurred. The Dutch +failed to pay the annual tax for fishing in British waters. +In May, 1652, a Dutch squadron refused to pay respect +to the English flag. It was fired on accordingly, and +after some negotiations, war was declared two months +later.</p> + +<p>The war is interesting because it saw an end to +the old ideas of cross-raiding with ships regarded +primarily as transports in connection with raids or to +cover such. In this war fighting on the sea for the +command of the sea first made a distinct appearance. +Its birth was necessarily obscure and involved, both +sides having the primary idea of attacking the commerce +of the enemy and defending their own, rather than +of attacking the enemy’s fleet. The earlier battles +which took place were brought about by the defence +of merchant fleets.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span></p> + +<p>None of the battles of 1652 were conclusive, and +though marked with extraordinary determination on +both sides the damage done was, relatively speaking, +small. The general advantage for the year rested +slightly with the Dutch, mainly owing to Tromp’s +victory over Blake, who was found in considerably +inferior force in the Downs.</p> + +<p>In February of the following year Tromp, with a +fleet of seventy warships and a convoy of 250 merchant +ships, some of which were armed, met Blake with sixty-six +sail in the famous Three Days’ Battle.</p> + +<p>In the course of this fight the Dutch lost at least +eight warships, and a number of merchant-men variously +estimated at from twenty-four to forty. The English +admitted to the loss of only one ship. At the end +of the third day, however, Blake drew off, and the +Dutch admiral got what was left of his convoy into +harbour.</p> + +<p>Oliver Cromwell being now in full power, naval +preparations were pressed forward with unexampled +vigour, and on June 2nd an English fleet of ninety-five +sail under Monk and Deane met Van Tromp and forced +him to retreat. Reinforced by Blake with eighteen +more ships the English fleet renewed the battle, +ultimately driving Van Tromp into harbour with the +loss of several ships.</p> + +<p>On the 29th July the Dutch ran the blockade +and came out. On the 31st a battle began in which +Van Tromp was killed, and the Dutch with the loss +of many ships driven into the Texel.</p> + +<p>The English fleet, though it lost few ships, appears +to have been badly mauled in this final battle, on +account of which the Dutch claimed a victory.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span></p> + +<figure id="i_77" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;"> + <img src="images/i_077.jpg" width="2447" height="1466" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">BLAKE AND TROMP. PERIOD OF THE DUTCH WARS. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span></p> + +<p>In the following month the Dutch fleet again came +out, and under De Witt took one convoy to the Sound +and brought another back without interference. Just +afterwards, however, their fleet was so severely injured +by a tremendous three days’ gale that further naval +operations were out of the question. Overtures for +peace were therefore made, and concluded.</p> + +<p>The types of English warships in this first Dutch +war are given in Pepys’ Miscellany as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> + +<table id="t79" class="tbdr"> +<tr class="thead"> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Rate.</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Name.</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Length<br>of Keel.<br>ft.</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Breadth.<br><br>ft. in.</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Depth.<br><br>ft. in.</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Burthen<br>Tons.</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Highest No. of</td> +</tr> +<tr class="theadsub"> + <td class="tdc">Men.</td> + <td class="tdc">Guns.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">First</td> + <td class="tdl"><i>Sovereign</i></td> + <td class="tdc">127</td> + <td class="tdc">46 6</td> + <td class="tdc">19 4</td> + <td class="tdc fsr1">1141</td> + <td class="tdc">600</td> + <td class="tdc fsr1">100</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Second</td> + <td class="tdl"><i>Fairfax</i></td> + <td class="tdc">116</td> + <td class="tdc">34 9</td> + <td class="tdc fs1p">17 4½</td> + <td class="tdc">745</td> + <td class="tdc">260</td> + <td class="tdc">52</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Third</td> + <td class="tdl"><i>Worcester</i></td> + <td class="tdc">112</td> + <td class="tdc">32 8</td> + <td class="tdc">16 4</td> + <td class="tdc">661</td> + <td class="tdc">180</td> + <td class="tdc">46</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Fourth</td> + <td class="tdl"><i>Ruby</i></td> + <td class="tdc fs1p">105½</td> + <td class="tdc">31 6</td> + <td class="tdc">15 9</td> + <td class="tdc">556</td> + <td class="tdc">150</td> + <td class="tdc">40</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Fifth</td> + <td class="tdl"><i>Nightingale</i></td> + <td class="tdc fs1">88</td> + <td class="tdc">25 4</td> + <td class="tdc">12 8</td> + <td class="tdc">300</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">90</td> + <td class="tdc">24</td> +</tr> +<tr class="tlast"> + <td class="tdl">Sixth</td> + <td class="tdl"><i>Greyhound</i></td> + <td class="tdc fs1">60</td> + <td class="tdc">20 3</td> + <td class="tdc">10 0</td> + <td class="tdc">120</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">80</td> + <td class="tdc">18</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The principal Dutch vessels were conspicuously +inferior to the best of these English ones, and the war +may be said to have been considerably decided by ship +superiority. In the peace that followed—which was +really very little better than an armed truce—the Dutch +set themselves to build warships more on English lines. +And, as we shall presently see, they evolved from the +war,<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> future strategies based on its lessons.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span></p> + +<p>Considering the number of battles and the desperate +nature of them, it is perhaps curious to note the +relatively small amount of damage done. With the +advent of the porthole and the consequent multiplication +of guns a hundred and fifty years before, it had +seemed that any naval engagement must result in swift +mutual destruction. Much the same kind of idea +obtained as when at the end of 1910 a squadron of +Dreadnoughts almost instantly obliterated a target five +miles off. But as in the Armada fights, so in this First +Dutch War, an immense amount of fighting was done +with comparatively, and relatively to what might have +been anticipated, small harm on either side.</p> + +<p>This result is partly to be attributed to the fact that +defence increased with offence. The warship proper +was designed to stand hammering, and every increase in +size, involving increased gun-carrying capacity, involved +also increased strength of construction. Something may +also be put down to the very inferior artillery then in +use, and the great deal of boarding which took place.</p> + +<p>There is some reason to believe that Cromwell, with +his complete recognition of the advantages of naval +power, with his assiduous energy in the creation of a +strong fleet, recognised—as perhaps both Buckingham +and Phineas Pett had done before—the advantages of +the “big ship.” Yet under his rule no appreciable +advance in size took place. Nor, for that matter, did +it take place any time within a hundred and fifty years +later on.</p> + +<p>The reason is interesting. It was purely a matter +of trees. The length of a ship was circumscribed by the +height of trees; other dimensions by similar hard facts. +The beam was dependent on the ship’s length; while<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> +the draught was governed by the harbours and docking +facilities. It is doubtful whether any man ever sought +to solve the problem of an invincible navy with more +energy than Oliver Cromwell; yet under his rule nothing +in the way of improvement was evolved at all comparable +with the step taken with the <i>Royal Sovereign</i> under +the weaker Charles Stuart—Buckingham régime. The +limitations of the tree proved the limitations of the ship.</p> + +<p>When Cromwell died, his record was left in numbers. +The Navy at his death consisted of 157 ships. His +architectural improvements were but a new form of +bottoms.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a></p> + +<p>Oliver Cromwell had not been long dead when the +Navy—then under Monk—decided to restore the +Monarchy. It sailed to Holland, embarked Charles II +and James, Duke of York, and established Charles on +the throne without opposition. Monk is popularly +regarded as a political time-server. But in his change +of sides he made one very important stipulation: that +Charles was to pledge himself to the upkeep of the fleet. +The fleet accomplished the Restoration. The bulk of +evidence is that it did so with little regard for any issue +other than the naval one.</p> + +<h3><i>THE SECOND DUTCH WAR.</i></h3> + +<p>The second Dutch War broke out in 1665. As usual +a state of unofficial war had preceded it. Both sides, +having thought over the first war, had come to the +conclusion that protecting their own merchant ships and +attacking those of the enemy at one and the same time +was an impossible proposition.</p> + +<p>Both officially ordered their merchant ships to keep +inside harbour; but in both nations there were traders<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> +who took their own risks at sea and found warships +handy to protect them. None the less, this war is of +much importance as the first in which the command of +the sea, fleet against fleet, received general recognition.</p> + +<p>The battles themselves of this war are of little +interest. They were marked by that same equality of +courage and determination which was an outstanding +feature of the First War. Slight early English successes +led to little but attacks on merchant shipping; then the +Great Plague paralysed English efforts. The Dutch +got to the mouth of the Thames, but a sudden sickness +among their crews scared them off after a sixteen days’ +blockade.</p> + +<p>Following this the French took side with the Dutch; +but inconclusive fighting still resulted, till the Dutch, +imagining that they had done better than they really +had, found themselves engaged in the battle of the +North Foreland.</p> + +<p>Defeated in this they retired to Ostend, and the +English scored on their trade by landing operations and +harbour attacks, the result of which Admiral Colomb +has estimated as proportionately equivalent to sixty-six +million pounds’ worth of damage at the present day! +But it was conceded on the English side (<i lang="la">vide</i> Pepys) +that it was mainly a matter of luck that this immense +blow was struck.</p> + +<p>Shortly after this event, the Insular spirit asserted +itself with what in these days is known as “Economy +and Efficiency.” The Duke of York (afterwards +James II) opposed it, but it was generally carried that +the Dutch were defeated, and that a few economical +fortifications would save the country against any further +Dutch danger. No one having knowledge of the Dutch<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> +agreed. Indeed, the situation was precisely the same +as when a few years ago the British Government cut +down the Naval Programme. Charles II, peace talk +being in the air, cut down expenses probably for his own +ends; British Governments of the 1906–1907 era cut +down with a view to expending the saving on “social +reforms.” But the practical results were identical. The +Dutch in their era did what the Germans did in our +own—met the decrease by an increase. They omitted +to consider the ethics involved; they looked merely after +their own ends. The result was a great Dutch attack +on the Thames, which, though not so serious as the +similar previous English attack on them, produced an +enormous amount of mischief.</p> + +<p>That the Dutch did not bombard London itself +was purely a matter of contrary winds and luck. They +did destroy numerous new warships on the river, +and Sheerness fell entirely into their hands. “Dutch +guns were heard in London”—to quote the popular +histories. Actually luck favoured the English, and +diplomacy secured a peace which the reduced fleet could +never have achieved. The pen, for the moment, proved +mightier than the sword. England obtained thereby a +peace favourable to her, while the Dutch secured a +breathing space to enable them to prepare for the Third +Dutch War, which, had the Second been carried to its +end against them, would never have occurred.</p> + +<h3><i>THE THIRD DUTCH WAR.</i></h3> + +<p>This War also began in the usual way—irregular +attacks on commerce, without any declaration of war, and +in March, 1672, an English Squadron wrecked havoc on +the Dutch Indiamen. As in the Second War, the Dutch +after this prohibited their merchant ships from proceeding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> +to sea. No such prohibition took effect in England, +where the merchant navy rapidly increased.</p> + +<p>In the Second War the French were the allies of the +Dutch. In the Third, they joined in with the English. +In both cases their underlying political motive appears +to have been to egg Great Britain and the Dutch on to +mutual destruction. The assistance actually obtained by +the Dutch from the French in the Second War was a +minus quantity, and though in the Third, French ships +actually joined the English fleet, the advantage therefrom +ended there.</p> + +<p>The allied fleet, under the command of the Duke of +York, consisted of sixty-five English and thirty-six French +warships, twenty-two fire ships, and a number of small +craft. This fleet lay at Sole Bay (Southwold on the +Suffolk coast). Here they were surprised by De Ruyter +with ninety-one men of war, forty-four fire ships, and a +number of small craft.</p> + +<p>The <i>Royal James</i>, flagship of the Earl of Sandwich, +who commanded one of the two divisions of the English +Fleet, was attacked and destroyed by fire-ships, and the +Earl was drowned in attempting to escape. The French +Squadron under D’Estrées fell back and took little +part in the fight. None the less, however, victory rested +with the English, and the Dutch retreated to their own +coasts, and were blockaded in the Texel. On shore the +Dutch were badly pressed by the French armies, their +naval energies being restricted accordingly.</p> + +<p>With the approach of winter, the Allied fleet was +broken up and returned to its harbours. In the early +part of the following year, the Dutch conceived the +project of blocking the English fleet in the Thames, and +prepared eight ships full of stones with that object in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span> +view. This appears to have been the first instance of a +device similar to that more recently unsuccessfully +undertaken by the Americans, at Santiago de Cuba, in +the Spanish-American War, and by the Japanese, at +Port Arthur, in the Russo-Japanese War. The Dutch +attack was never actually made; presumably circumstances +did not admit of it. In the view of Admiral +Colomb, it was frustrated by the English fleet putting to +sea at an earlier date than had been expected.</p> + +<p>The Allied fleet formed a junction off Rye, in +May. It consisted altogether of eighty-four men-of-war, +twenty-six fire-ships and auxiliaries. The English +divisions were commanded by Prince Rupert and +Spragge. The third division was under D’Estrées as +before, but in order to avoid a repetition of what had +happened at Sole Bay, the French ships were distributed +in all three divisions of the fleet, instead of in a single +division as they previously had been.</p> + +<p>Having embarked a number of troops, the Allies +sailed for Zealand, and found the Dutch fleet concentrating +at the mouth of the Scheldt. It consisted of +about seventy men-of-war, under De Ruyter, Tromp and +Bankert. For some days, owing to fog and bad weather, +no fighting was possible; but on the 28th of May, the +Dutch weighed anchor and a battle of the usual sort +took place, both sides claiming victory. The loss of +life in the Allied fleet, crowded as it was with troops, +was very heavy, and no attempt was made to follow +up the Dutch, who had retired inside the mouth of the +river.</p> + +<p>On the 4th of June, the Dutch fleet again came out. +The English retired before it. An entirely inconclusive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span> +action eventually resulted, after which each fleet returned +to harbour.</p> + +<p>Having embarked a number of fresh troops at +Sheerness, the Allies again put to sea and appeared on +the Dutch coast. No landing was, however, attempted; +and on the 10th of August the final battle took place. +The French fleet on this occasion was allowed to act by +itself, and, as before, drew off and left the English to +shift for themselves. Spragge, having had two flagships +disabled, was drowned in moving to a third, and victory, +such as it was, went to the Dutch. No further battles +took place, and in 1664 peace was concluded.</p> + +<p>The net result of these three wars was in favour of +the English, but mainly on the trade issue.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the First, the Dutch had by far +the larger merchant shipping. At the end of the Third, +the proportion was reversed.</p> + +<p>Although tactics, as we understand them, cannot be +said to have been employed, certain definite war lessons +were undoubtedly learned. It came to be thoroughly +believed that the principal use of a fleet was to attack +the fleet of the enemy; and on that account these wars +are an important feature of English naval history.</p> + +<p>Following the conclusion of peace, the English +Navy was entirely neglected, and the condition of the +ships became so bad that in 1679 a Commission was +appointed and thirty new ships were laid down. But +the majority of these ships, having been launched, were +allowed to decay; Charles II’s early interest in the +fleet having become a dead letter in his later years.</p> + +<p>When James II came to the throne in 1685, he +appointed another Special Commission, and the repair of +the Navy was systematically undertaken. The <em>personnel</em>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> +however, was neglected. It remained in a very dissatisfied +state, and tacitly agreed to his deposition.</p> + +<p>At the abdication of James II, in December, 1688, +the Navy consisted of 173 ships, manned by 42,003 men, +and carrying 6,930 guns. Of these ships, nine were first-rate, +11 second, 39 third, 41 fourth, 3 fifth, and 6 sixth. +There were 26 fire-ships and 39 small craft. The best of +the first-rates in those days was the <i>Britannia</i>. She was +of 1,739 tons, carried 100 guns and a crew of 780 men. +Her length was 146 feet, her beam 47 feet 4 inches, and +her draught 20 feet. The second-rate ships were 90 gun-vessels, +third-rate 70 guns, and fourth-rate 54.</p> + +<p>During James II’s reign, bomb vessels were first +introduced and regular establishments of stores were +instituted. It is somewhat difficult to assess how far +naval progress was actually indebted to this, the first +King of England who was a naval officer, and how far +to the efforts of a determined few who realised the +absolute importance of naval power. Probably of +James I, as of all the Stuarts,<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> it may be said that +they realised the principle, but required pressing to act +upon it. To thus acting may be traced the unpopularity +of at least some of the Stuarts—there are practically no +signs that the nation generally understood the importance +of a powerful Navy. All the indications are in a contrary +direction.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="V"><span id="toclink_88"></span>V.<br> + +<span class="subhead">THE EARLY FRENCH WARS.</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> accession of William of Orange and the French +support of James soon brought about a war. +Early in 1689 James invaded Ireland with French +ships and men. He did sufficiently well there for a +considerable English army to be employed against him, +and in the summer of 1690, William himself went over +to take command, leaving Queen Mary as Regent with +little save the militia as military defence and a more or +less unprepared fleet.</p> + +<p>A Jacobite rising in England was planned. In +conjunction with it the French proposed to hold the +Channel in superior force to cover the landing of troops +in England, and then, by a blockade in the Irish Channel, +prevent the return of King William and his army. The +attitude of the English fleet was uncertain—a strong +Jacobite element being in it—and the scheme was +generally a very promising one for the French.</p> + +<p>A personal appeal from Queen Mary is said to have +secured the allegiance of the English fleet: but in +everything else the subsequent French failure was due +only to luck and the wisdom of the British Admiral, +Lord Torrington.</p> + +<p>It was more or less realised that the French would +concentrate at Brest. Squadrons were sent out to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> +interfere with this, but convoys and the like bulked +largely in their orders. There is not the remotest +indication that the Home Government appreciated the +danger, which ended in Torrington finding himself +opposed by a greatly superior French fleet, which he was +ordered to fight at all costs.</p> + +<p>Therefrom ensued the battle of Beachy Head, a +defeat and a “strategical retirement to the rear” for +which Torrington was subsequently court-martialled and +acquitted. He alone appears to have realised that his +defeat would have meant the success of the French plans, +while so long as he could avoid action the threat of his +existence must interfere with invasion.</p> + +<p>The French movements throughout were somewhat +obscure. On the 25th June, according to Torrington, +they might have attacked him but did not do so. When +the battle took place on the 30th, it was Torrington who +attacked. In the subsequent retreat, the French pursued +for four days, but did so in line of battle and without much +energy. They captured or destroyed five disabled ships, +but of real following up of the victory there was none.</p> + +<p>The Anglo-Dutch fleet took shelter at the Nore; but +the French drew off at Dover, and sailing west attacked +Teignmouth and then returned to Brest. Their failure +to follow up and destroy Torrington has never been +satisfactorily explained.</p> + +<p>The panic which they had created in England bore +early fruit. Thirty new ships were laid down. Of these +seventeen were eighty-gun ships of 1000 tons, three were +1050 tons but carried seventy guns only, the remaining +ten, sixty-gun ships of 900 tons.</p> + +<p>In 1692 another Jacobite rising was planned, and a +French army collected to assist it. Taught by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span> +experience of Beachy Head the Anglo-Dutch fleet +concentrated early. It consisted of no less than +ninety-eight ships of the line,<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> besides frigates and +auxiliaries, the whole being under command of Russell. +A descent upon St. Malo was the principal objective +contemplated.</p> + +<p>Neither side appears to have had much conception +of the intentions of the other. De Tourville, with a fleet +of only fifty ships of the line, is supposed to have sailed +under the impression that the Dutch had not joined up +with the English.</p> + +<p>In the fog of early morning on May 19th, he +blundered into the entire Anglo-Dutch fleet off Cape La +Hogue, and sustained a crushing defeat. At least twenty-one +French ships of the line were lost in the battle itself +or destroyed in the harbours they had escaped into.</p> + +<p>Following upon this victory came a lull in operations. +It would seem to have been the English idea that the +French fleet, having been beaten and dispersed, all that +remained to do was to get ready to defeat the new fleet +that France was preparing, and so the year 1693 passed +uneventfully, except that damage was done to trade on +either side.</p> + +<p>In July, 1694, the Allies made a move, bombarding +Dieppe and Havre from a squadron of bombs which had +been specially prepared. In September, Dunkirk received +attention from a new war device called “smoak-boats”<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> +the invention of one Meerlers, which did not inconvenience +anyone very much. Meerlers also had “machine ships,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span> +which likewise did no harm. These appear to have been +an elementary idea on large scale of the modern torpedo—improved +fire-ships.</p> + +<p>A fleet was generally busy defending trade in the +Mediterranean, where for the first time it was permanently +stationed. Nothing in the way of fleet action was +attempted by the French, and the next few years were +spent in privateering on their part, and bombardments +of ports which sheltered privateers on the part of the +Allies.</p> + +<p>English naval estimates in 1695 amounted to +£2,382,172, and the House of Lords, in an address to the +King, advocated an increase of the fleet on the grounds +that it was essential to the nation that its fleets should +always be superior to any possible enemy. A French +invasion was projected in the winter months; but +abandoned on the appearance of a fleet under Russell.</p> + +<p>There is no question that in this war the French did +more mischief with their privateers than with their fleet. +English trade suffered very heavily; and there were +continual complaints about the inability of the fleet to +suppress the corsairs, a Parliamentary enquiry being +eventually made into the matter.</p> + +<p>The French privateers—“corsairs” is the more +correct term—were in substance a species of naval +militia, of a quite different status from English privateers +sailing under letters of marque. They hailed principally +from St. Malo; trading in peace time and preying on +commerce in time of war. There were special regulations +under which they were governed. The owner had to +deposit a sum of about £600 with the Admiralty as +security. He had to pay ten per cent. of the profits to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> +the Admiralty and five per cent. to the Church. Two-thirds +of the balance was his profit, the remaining third +went to the crew. Often enough the privateer was a +royal ship, let out for the purpose, and in the years +following the battle of Cape La Hogue, most of the +French frigates were on this service, with naval officers +and men on board very often.</p> + +<p>The privateers carried few guns, their object being +to capture prizes, not to sink them. They sailed mostly +in small squadrons, so making a considerable number of +guns, and were rarely particular about using false colours. +It was therefore comparatively easy for them successfully +to attack weak convoys: some dealing with the warships +and others making prizes; and the inefficiency laid to +the blame of the English fleet in trade protection at that +period was, in some measure, at any rate, due to a failure +to appreciate the enormous difficulties. Duguay-Trouin +himself records using the English flag to approach an +English warship, and firing on her under these colours.</p> + +<p>The unhandy warships of those days, faced with +light enemies, which they could never overhaul, had a +tremendous task set them. That the Navy of William III +era successfully defended anything against men like +Duguay-Trouin and Jean Bart, is of far more moment +and more to be wondered at than any failures. In this +particular war the fast lightly-armed corsair reached its +apotheosis at the hands of veritable experts to a degree +impossible to-day, or for that matter, ever hereafter, +unless aircraft prove able to act as “privateers” of the +future—a role which, to date, has been entirely forgotten +in all discussions as to the value of aircraft.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span></p> + +<figure id="i_93" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20em;"> + <img src="images/i_093.jpg" width="1239" height="1634" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">ANTHONY DEANE. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In 1697, the peace of Ryswick was signed. According +to Burchett, the net result of the war was the loss of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span> +fifty English warships and fifty-nine French ones. The +historians generally indicate that the French were worn +out with the struggle; but on the whole the English +seem to have been well out of the war also.</p> + +<p>It was about this time that Peter the Great appeared +in England, and engaged John Deane, brother of the +famous naval architect, Sir Anthony, to go back to +Russia with him to establish a navy. This is the first +instance of the foundation or reorganisation of a foreign +navy by this country. The experiment was by no means +very successful; the bulk of the English naval officers +taken over by Peter being men who, for various reasons, +had been dismissed from the Royal Navy. Some proved +incompetent, and all of them were quarrelsome.</p> + +<h3><i>WAR OF THE SUCCESSION.</i></h3> + +<p>The war of the Spanish Succession synchronised +with the accession of Queen Anne, in 1702. In the +interval following the peace of Ryswick the French +fleet had had considerable attention paid to it. The +principal innovation consisted in increasing the size +without (as hitherto) increasing the armament in ratio. +The French three-deckers were now built of 2,000 tons +instead of 1,500 as formerly. The superior sailing +qualities, ever a feature of French ships, were still +further enhanced.</p> + +<p>In England, though shipbuilding had also been +vigorously pursued, improvements commensurate with +those of France were not made. English ships of the +period were, generally speaking, overgunned.</p> + +<p>At the outbreak of the war of the Succession, the +fleet consisted of seven first-rate, fourteen second-rate, +forty-five third, sixty-three fourth, thirty-six fifth, +twenty-nine sixth, eight fire ships, thirteen bombs, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span> +ten yachts—a total tonnage of 158,992; an increase of +about a third in thirteen years. The first-rates were +a new type of ship; the second-rates consisted of +the old type first and second rates—the three deckers +of ninety guns and special service eighty-gun two +deckers. The third-rates were the staple battle type—two +deckers of seventy guns on home service and +mounting sixty-two guns when sent abroad. The +fourth-rates carried nominally fifty guns and forty-four +on foreign service.</p> + +<p>One third of the naval power of Europe was +English; France and Holland between them made up +another third, the balance being represented by the rest +of the Powers.<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> Though the phrase, “Two Power +Standard,” was then unknown, the fleet, representing as +it did the result of agitations in Parliament and elsewhere +for suitable naval power, was clearly based on a +similar general idea, and the Two Power Standard theory +may be dated from the time of William of Orange.</p> + +<p>The general idea of the campaign on the English +side was combined naval and military attack on Ferrol—the +fleet, consisting of fifty English and Dutch ships of +the line and some frigates and transports to the number +of 110, being under Sir George Rooke. The military +element amounted to 12,000 troops under the Duke of +Ormonde. Nothing came of the attempt owing to +internal dissentions; and the expedition was on its way +back when news was received of Chateau-Renault with +a French-Spanish fleet of twenty-one warships at Vigo. +A combined attack was delivered and the entire hostile +fleet was sunk or captured without much loss, and a +valuable convoy captured also.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span></p> + +<p>In this year there also happened the greatest +disgrace that ever befell the Royal Navy. Admiral +Benbow, who had risen from the “Lower Deck,” was +detached with six ships of the line to the West Indies, +where he met a French squadron of five, under du-Casse. +Two of his captains refused to engage the enemy +altogether, and the others, save one, did so but half-heartedly. +Benbow was mortally wounded and a French +victory gained. On their return to England two of the +captains were executed “for cowardice,” but timidity +had actually nothing whatever to do with the business. +It was purely and entirely an act of personal hostility. +It is generally put down to Benbow’s lowly origin; +but officers of the Benbow class were so plentiful, +and Benbow had so long been in important positions +afloat,<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> that the “obvious reason” played but a minor +part. Benbow’s great defect was a lack of that +“personality” of which in later years Nelson was the +prime exponent. Coupled with this was the state of +much of the Navy generally owing to Jacobite intrigues +with those who were unable to forget their old allegiance +to the Stuarts.</p> + +<p>In 1703 very special orders were issued as to cutting +down expenditure on non-essentials in ship construction. +In this year the ornamental work so conspicuous in ships +of the Stuart era was reduced almost to extinction.</p> + +<p>The naval events were inconsiderable. A few French +prizes were made, and it was found from these that +the French theory of increasing dimensions without +increasing the armament had reached such a stage that +fifty-gun French ships were larger than sixty-gun English<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span> +ones,<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> but it was not for some years that practical +attention was directed to the point.</p> + +<p>In 1704 there took place another of the combined +naval and military operations peculiar to this war. This +was to Lisbon and in connection with the Austrian +Archduke Charles. It is mainly of interest because it +led to the more or less accidental capture of Gibraltar, +and in that it otherwise had much to do with the +prevention of a junction of the French Brest and Toulon +fleets which was destined to loom so largely in future +history that to this day “junctions” remain a principal +“idea” for naval manœuvres.</p> + +<p>Sir George Rooke, who commanded the main fleet, +had with him forty-eight ships of the line and details; +Sir Cloudesley Shovell was in the channel with some +twenty-two more.</p> + +<p>The Brest fleet sailed for Toulon under the Count +de Toulouse. They were chased without effect by +Rooke, till near Toulon, when on the evening of May +29th, he gave up the pursuit as too risky, and returned +to Lagos, where Shovell joined him on June 16th.</p> + +<p>The combined English fleet being now assumed +superior to the combined French fleet, attacks on Cadiz +and Barcelona were contemplated, but as insufficient +troops were available it was decided to attack Gibraltar +instead. The motive for doing so does not appear to +have been anything greater than that the King of +Portugal and the Archduke Charles were worrying the fleet +to “do something.” Gibraltar was suggested and settled +on, apparently, as being as suitable as any other place.</p> + +<p>Gibraltar lies at the end of a narrow peninsula. On +this peninsula, on July 21st, 1,800 marines from the fleet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> +landed under the Prince of Hesse. As they carried only +eighteen rounds per man, the presumption is obvious +that either little opposition was expected or else that +the attack was merely delivered to satisfy those who had +urged that something should be done. The former is +generally assumed to be the case, but the latter is by +no means improbable. In any case, the marines met +with little opposition and demanded the surrender of the +fortress, while some of the English ships, under Byng, +were warped into bombarding positions under a mild +fire from the forts. This occupied a whole day.</p> + +<p>Early on the 23rd, fire was opened on both sides, +and the inhabitants of the town fled to a chapel on the +hill. The bombardment continued till noon, when the +“cease fire” was ordered, so that results might be +ascertained. It was found that some of the batteries +were disabled, and it was then decided to land in the +boats and capture them.</p> + +<p>On the cessation of fire, the inhabitants, mostly +women and priests, who had fled out of the town, began +to come back. Sir Cloudesley Shovell (who was on board +Byng’s flagship) ordered a gun to be fired across these; +whereupon they all ran back to the chapel in which they +had been sheltered. This gun was taken by the fleet +generally to be a signal to re-open the bombardment. +Under cover of this firing, the landing party got ashore, +and had things much their own way till about a hundred +of them were killed or wounded by the blowing up of +the Castle.</p> + +<p>At this they began to retreat, but reinforcements +arriving, they retrieved the position and captured other +works without difficulty, establishing themselves between +the town and the chapel where the women had taken<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span> +refuge. Giving this as his reason, the Governor +capitulated next day. His entire garrison, according to +Torrington’s Memoirs, consisted of but eighty men. +The Anglo-Dutch force lost three officers and fifty-seven +men killed, eight officers and 207 men wounded.</p> + +<p>Thus the capture of Gibraltar, “the impregnable.” +At Toulon, a large French fleet was getting ready for +sea—a fleet quite large enough to have done to the +English what Teggethoff, in 1866, did to the bombarding +Italians at Lissa.</p> + +<p>There seems little doubt that Rooke under-estimated +his fleet. On the other hand, as he had look-outs, and +the wind was not in the enemy’s favour, the risks he +actually ran were trifling compared to those taken by +Persano. From which many lessons have been deduced +and morals drawn.</p> + +<p>In actual fact, however, it is greatly to be doubted +whether either commander thought round the matter at +all. The “science” of naval warfare is a thing of quite +modern origin, and the strategies displayed by most +admirals in the past—if studied with an unbiassed mind—are +just as likely to be luck as forethought. Analogous +to this is Ruskin on the artist Turner. Turner painted +wonderful pictures: Ruskin found wonderful meanings +in them. These “meanings” were, however, more news +to Turner than to anyone else!</p> + +<p>On August 10th, the French fleet, reported as +sixty-six sail, was sighted thirty miles off by a look-out +ship. Rooke’s fleet at that time was short of five Dutch +ships which he had sent away, twelve other ships were +watering at Tetuan—miles away from him—and all the +marines of the fleet were on shore at Gibraltar as garrison. +The light craft were sent into Gibraltar to bring back<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span> +half the marines as quickly as possible, while the main +fleet retreated to pick up the Tetuan division, and later +got its marines on board.</p> + +<p>The French, meanwhile, either ignorant of the state +of affairs, or else from general incompetence, made no +attack at the time, and it was not till the 13th that +battle was joined by the English bearing down on them. +The resulting engagement was indecisive, and the fleets +withdrew to repair damages. The French, however, +declined to renew action, eventually retreated to Toulon, +and never attempted a fleet action again during the war.</p> + +<p>Rooke’s fleet consisted of fifty-three ships of the line. +The French had fifty-two, of which they lost five.</p> + +<p>Following the battle of Malaga, the marines were +landed again at Gibraltar, together with some gunners +and forty-eight guns. The fleet then returned to England, +leaving at Lisbon a dozen ships under Sir John Leake—the +only ships which, after survey, were considered not +to be in urgent need of refit at home. This squadron +was subsequently reinforced by eight ships of the line.</p> + +<p>The French and Spaniards presently invested +Gibraltar by land and sea. In the first attempt the +blockading fleet was short of supplies and had to retire to +Cadiz. Leake arrived, but finding nothing there returned +to the Tagus.</p> + +<p>The French then sent a light squadron to assist the +siege, and the whole of those were surprised and captured +by Leake, on October 29th, 1704. There is reason to +believe that this action saved the fortress, as a grand +assault was on the <em>tapis</em>.</p> + +<p>Leake remained at Gibraltar three months, during +which time stores and some 2,000 troops were brought +in from England; then, the garrison being now in no<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span> +straits, the English ships withdrew in January, 1705, to +Lisbon to refit, leaving the land investment to proceed. +In March, a squadron of fourteen French ships of the +line appeared off Gibraltar, but owing to a gale only +five got into the harbour. Here they were presently +surprised and captured by the English. The remaining +ships fled to Toulon and the siege was then raised—having +lasted five months.</p> + +<p>From these operations it is abundantly clear that +the English had by now realised that Gibraltar was +perfectly safe so long as its sea communications were +kept open. De Pointis, the French Admiral, realised the +same thing, and in the whole of the naval operations he +appears to have been obeying, under protest, orders +from the French Government, which at no time appears +to have realised the futility of such operations in face +of a superior Anglo-Dutch fleet.</p> + +<p>Following the abandonment of the siege of Gibraltar, +the French became very active with their corsairs, +inflicting heavy losses on English trade. On the ultimate +inutility of this <i lang="fr">guerre de course</i> much has been written; +but perhaps hardly proper attention has been bestowed +on the other side of the question. The French had +small stomach for anything of the nature of a fleet action, +and there is little or no reason to suppose that had they +concentrated on line operations any success would have +attended their efforts. Their <em>personnel</em> was generally +inferior. Their <em>materiel</em> on the other hand was superior, +and the problem really before them surely was, not +which method, “grand battle” or <i lang="fr">guerre de course</i>, was +better, but how best to inflict damage with the +means available. And here the <i lang="fr">guerre de course</i> held +obvious promise.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span></p> + +<p>In the summer of 1705, a combined land and sea +attack was delivered on Barcelona, the Earl of Peterborough +being in supreme command of both forces. The +town surrendered on October 3rd. The history of +Gibraltar was then repeated. The fleet withdrew, leaving +Leake with a few ships to watch. The enemy then +invested the place, which was relieved just in time by +Leake so heavily reinforced that the French squadron +made no attempt to fight him. A variety of other towns +was then captured by combined attacks, also the +Balearic Islands, except Minorca.</p> + +<p>In 1706, combined operations on the north of +France were arranged for, but ultimately abandoned +owing to the weather. Ostend was captured in this year; +but a combined attack on Toulon, in 1707, signally failed.</p> + +<p>In 1708, the French attempted combined operations +on Scotland and reached the Firth of Forth with twenty +sail, but an English squadron under Byng arriving they +sailed away again at once. The superior mobility of the +French was evidenced by the fact that Byng’s pursuit +resulted in nothing but the capture of an ex-English +ship which could not keep up with her French-built +consorts. The Anglo-Dutch combined operations of +the year resulted in the capture of Minorca. Minor +operations took place in the West Indies.</p> + +<p>1709 passed mostly in the relief of places which +had been acquired and were now besieged. In 1710, the +French became more active, capturing one or two +English warships and making a combined attempt +against Sardinia. This last was frustrated by Sir John +Norris. An English attempt on Cette in the same year +proved a failure; but conspicuous success attended +similar operations in Nova Scotia.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span></p> + +<p>In the following years the principal of such +operations as took place were on the American coast. +Of these, the chief was an abortive attack on Quebec, +mainly remarkable for an extraordinary escape of the +entire English fleet one night in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. +A military officer, one Captain Goddard, insisted that he +saw breakers ahead. As no one would credit him he +finally dragged the Admiral out of bed and up on deck, +by which time the fleet was close on to the breakers. As +things were, seven transports were wrecked and nearly a +thousand soldiers drowned. The warships very narrowly +escaped.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a></p> + +<p>This disaster led to the abandonment of the +expedition. Peace was declared in 1713. The English +loss in the war was thirty-eight ships, mounting 1,596 +guns; the French lost fifty-two ships, mounting 3,094 +guns.<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> A very large number of English ships became +unserviceable during the war, because, despite the fact +that many new ships were built and that the bulk of +the ships lost by the French entered the English service, +the entire navy diminished by twenty-five vessels.</p> + +<p>Most of the ships were in poor condition, and in the +early years of George I’s reign, large sums had to be +expended on refits. Foul bilge water was the main cause +of internal decay, and in 1715 organised steps were +taken for the ventilation of the bilges. A certain +increase in size for ships of all classes was also ordered, +those of 100 guns being increased by 319 tons, and the +eighty-gun ships by sixty-seven tons. This increase, +however, by no means brought the tonnage to gun ratio<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> +down to the French limits, nor were the improvements +in underwater form of much serious moment. The +French maintained a superiority in this respect which +they held till the present century. To-day, of course, +the situation is completely reversed, and for any given +horse-power any British ship is appreciably faster than +a French one.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a></p> + +<p>Some special attention was also devoted to the +preparation of timber for immediate use in shipbuilding. +This subject was first drawn attention to in 1694, and +the net result of the enquiries in 1715 did not really go +much further. It was not till eleven years later that the +problem was seriously grappled with.</p> + +<p>In 1715, an English fleet under Norris was in the +Baltic, acting against Sweden and allied with the +Russians and Danes, Peter the Great himself being in +chief command. Nothing of moment happened. These +operations extended to 1719, when sides were changed.</p> + +<p>In 1718, Spain, which had recently made some considerable +efforts towards the creation of naval power, +used her power for an attack on Sicily. Admiral Byng +arriving with a superior English fleet, attacked and +destroyed the greater part of the Spanish squadron in +the Battle of Cape Passaro. No state of war existed. +The Spaniards had attacked an English ally, and this +was Byng’s only excuse for action. A few months later +war was formally declared against Spain, and early in +1719 a curious replica of the Armada took place. Forty +Spanish transports, escorted by merely five warships, +sailed from Cadiz for the coast of Scotland; the idea +being that the 5,000 troops which they carried should +co-operate in a Jacobite rising. This “Armada” was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> +dispersed by a severe gale off Cape Finisterre, and only +a small fraction of it reached the coast of Ross, where a +landing, easily defeated by the military, was made. It +is noteworthy that no fleet met the expedition, and it +was not till a month after its dispersal in a gale that +Norris sailed to look for it.</p> + +<p>The remainder of this particular war, which lasted +only three years, was devoted to the re-conquest of +Sicily and the capture of Vigo. Peace was concluded in +1721. In the course of this war the usual combined +attack was made upon Gibraltar in 1720; but the arrival +of an English fleet easily relieved the garrison.</p> + +<p>At and about this time the Russian fleet, hitherto +allies, became the enemy, and early in 1720 Admiral +Norris was despatched to assist the Swedes against them. +He appears to have done very little save squabble with +the Swedish admiral as to precedence. In any case the +Russians did much as they listed against the Swedish +coast till Sweden had to sue for peace, and Russia +became the predominant Baltic naval power. Her +position as such was the more extraordinary in that the +Russian fleet was technically very incompetent. The +situation was mainly brought about by the personal +genius of Peter the Great. His ships were generally the +speedier, and he issued the strictest orders that no enemy +was to be engaged unless at least one-third inferior in +power. In the presence of an enemy the Swedes considered +nothing,<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> the English comparatively little. The +brain of Peter, was, therefore, an easy match for them, +despite the technical inferiority of his <em>personnel</em>. This +campaign is a most striking illustration of Alexander the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span> +Great’s maxim “that an army of sheep led by a lion is +better than an army of lions led by a sheep.”</p> + +<p>In 1726, an Anglo-Danish naval demonstration +against Russia took place at Kronstadt, but nothing came +of the incident, which was repeated equally ineffectually in +the following year, when larger preparations were made.</p> + +<p>In 1726, the preservation of ships’ timbers came once +more on the <em>tapis</em>, when the results of some experiments, +commenced six years before, were inspected. Up to +about 1720, woods were prepared for use by a system +known as “charring.” This consisted in building a fire +one side of the plank and keeping the other side wet till +the required condition was produced. One, Cumberland, +invented a system known as “stoving.” By this, the +wood was put into wet sand and then subjected to heat +till the juices were extracted and the wood in suitable +condition. A ship was planked with both systems, +side by side, and on these being examined in 1726, it +was found that while the “stoved” planks were in good +condition the “charred” ones were already rotten.</p> + +<p>A grateful country vaguely presented Cumberland +with one tenth of whatever might be the saving which +his system would produce. Cumberland, however, was +equally vague, since he could supply no data as to the +amount of heat or time of subjection, and experiments +had to be carried out in the Yards in order to ascertain this. +The authorities were apparently still ascertaining when +one Boswell, of Deptford Yard, in 1736, hit upon using +steam, and his system became at once general—though +a few years later it was replaced by boiling the timber.</p> + +<p>When George II came to the throne the country +was at peace, but this peace was mainly and entirely +secured by the policy of Walpole, who kept the Navy on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span> +a war footing. Feeling against Spain ran so high on +account of the action of the <i>Guarda-Costas</i> in searching +English ships in the West Indies, that Walpole’s hands +were forced in 1739. In the House of Commons, Captain +Vernon announced that with six ships he could capture +Porto Bello. Promoted to Rear Admiral, he essayed the +task, and accomplished it, by coming into close range +and landing under cover of a bombardment. His loss +was trifling—nineteen killed and wounded, all told. The +garrison turned out to have been only 300 strong, of +whom forty surrendered. The rest had either been killed +or had fled. It is to be observed that no state of war +existed at the time.</p> + +<p>War with Spain was declared in October, 1739. The +English fleet in commission consisted of thirty-eight +ships of the line, and there was a reserve of twenty-four +ready for immediate service. There were also thirty-six +minor vessels in commission and eight in reserve.</p> + +<p>An interesting circumstance of this war was the +whole-world scale on which naval operations were +planned. In substance the scheme was as follows:—Admiral +Vernon was to attack the east coast of Darien. +Captain Cornwall was to round the Horn, attack the +west coast of Darien and then go to the Philippines, where +he was to meet Captain Anson, who was to voyage thither +via the Cape of Good Hope. The scheme was not carried +out in its entirety, as the Cape of Good Hope expedition +never sailed, Anson being substituted for Cornwall.</p> + +<p>Vernon, having been reinforced with a number of +bombs and fire-ships, proceeded, in March, 1740, to +attack Cartagena, which he bombarded for four days +without much material result. Then he proceeded to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span> +Chagres, which, after a two days’ bombardment, surrendered +to him. A considerable Spanish squadron being +reported on its way out, and a French fleet (suspected of +hostile designs) also sailing, Vernon withdrew to Jamaica, +where he lay till reinforced by twenty ships under Ogle.</p> + +<p>Ogle performed his voyage without adventure, +except that six of his ships encountered a French squadron +and fought it for some little time under the impression +that a state of war existed. The error being discovered, +the squadrons parted with mutual apologies.<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a></p> + +<p>Ogle arrived in January, 1741. After a short refit +the fleet sailed to look for the French and observe them. +They presently learned that the French, short of men and +provisions, had gone back to Europe. Upon receipt of +this news it was decided to attack Cartagena.</p> + +<p>Vernon had with him twenty-nine ships of the line, +twenty-two lesser craft and a number of transports, +carrying 12,000 troops. The seamen and marines of the +fleet totalled 15,000. For a time some success was met +with, but divided councils, mutual recrimination between +Navy and Army, sickness in the troops, all did their +share, and eventually the attack was abandoned.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a></p> + +<p>Attacks on other places led to no happier results, +and while efforts were thus being frittered away in +the West Indies, the commerce was suffering badly. +Petitions from the commercial world to Parliament were +of almost daily occurrence. Vernon requested to be +recalled, and eventually was superseded, but his +successor fared no better than he.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, we must turn aside for a moment to +consider the operations of Anson. The following items<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span> +in connection therewith are summarised from Barrow’s +<i>Voyages and Discoveries</i>, published in 1765.</p> + +<p>On arriving at Madeira, Anson, who had left England +on the 13th of September, 1740, learned of a Spanish +squadron, under Pizarro, lying in wait for him. This +squadron, attempting to round the Horn ahead of Anson, +encountered a furious gale, and was eventually driven +back to Buenos Ayres, with only three ships left, and +these reduced to the utmost extremities. A second +attempt to round the Horn fared no better, and eventually +Pizarro returned to Spain in his own ship, manned +chiefly by English prisoners and some pressed Indians. +These latter mutinied, but not being joined by the +English prisoners, as they had hoped, were defeated.</p> + +<p>Anson left Madeira on November 3rd, 1740, and +shortly afterwards his crews fell sick, through lack of +air, the ships being too deep for the lower ports to be +opened. Anson had several ventilating holes cut. Then +fever came, carrying off many. Just before Christmas he +arrived at St. Catherine’s, Brazil, but his hopes of +recruiting his men’s health were abortive. His own +flagship, the <i>Centurion</i>, lost twenty-eight men dead and +had ninety-six others on the sick list.</p> + +<p>On January 18th, 1741, Anson sailed for the Horn. +A gale scattered his squadron, one ship being separated +for a month; eventually, however, all rejoined. There +followed three months’ tempests rounding the Horn. +Scurvy appeared, and the ships got separated again. +Finally, on June 9th, the <i>Centurion</i> alone reached +Juan Fernandez, short of water and only about ten +men fit for duty in a watch.</p> + +<p>A few days later the <i>Tryal</i> appeared at the island,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span> +her captain, lieutenant and three men being all who were +available for service. A third ship, the <i>Gloucester</i>, +appeared on June 21st, but so short-handed was she +that, though assistance was sent her, it took her an +entire fortnight to make harbour! On August 16th, the +victualler ship, <i>Anna Pink</i>, arrived, all her crew in good +condition, she having put into some harbour en route. +Of the other three ships, two (the <i>Severn</i> and <i>Pearl</i>), +failed to round the Horn and returned to Brazil; the +third, the <i>Wager</i>, was wrecked.</p> + +<p>In September, a sail was sighted. The <i>Centurion</i> +put to sea and found her to be a Spanish merchant ship. +From the prisoners it was learned that a Spanish +squadron from Chili had been on the look out for Anson, +that a ship had been lying off Juan Fernandez till just +before his arrival, but that assuming him lost they had +now all gone back to Valparaiso.</p> + +<p>Thereafter several prizes were taken, one being fitted +out to replace the <i>Tryal</i>, which was abandoned. The +<i>Anna Pink</i> had also had to be abandoned as useless.</p> + +<p>Now began the most extraordinary part of the +enterprise. Treasure ships were captured, thirty-eight +men landed, held up and captured Payta, a good half of +these attired in feminine costume, which they found in +houses wherein they had sought substitutes for their +rags—only one man drunk in all the sack of the town—the +terror of prisoners, who, when released, refused to +accept liberty till they had thanked Anson for his +courtesy—Anson’s insistence on treasure being divided +equally between those who attacked and those who kept +ship, while giving his own share to the attackers—the +night chase of a supposed galleon which turned out to +be but a fire on shore—the fearful sufferings of boats’<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> +crews sent out to look for the treasure ship<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a>—the release +of prisoners, and the Spanish reply thereto by the +despatch of luxuries to the English—the final loss of the +<i>Gloucester</i>, worn out by keeping the sea—the arrival at +Guam of the <i>Centurion</i> with only seventy-one men +capable of “standing at a gun” under even any +emergencies—these things belong to special histories. +Here it suffices to give but a general outline, of which +the first event is that having reached Macao and refitted, +Anson went into the Pacific again, and, having given his +men considerable training in marksmanship and gun-handling, +finally intercepted and captured the Spanish +treasure ship that he sought.</p> + +<p>On his subsequent return to China with his prize, +the experiences of “Mr. Anson” (as he is generally called +throughout the history from which I quote) were mainly +of a personal nature. Visited by a mandarin who +showed a liking for wine, Anson had to plead illness and +delegate his duties of glass for glass to the most robust +officer he had. He provisioned by weight with ducks +(found to be filled with stones to make them heavier) +and pigs filled with water. Ultimately he had to go up +to Canton with (so far as I can ascertain) the first +instance of a crew in regular uniform. To quote from +the entertaining contemporary <span class="locked">narrative:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Towards the end of September, the commodore finding that +he was deceived by those who had contracted to supply him with +sea provisions; and that the viceroy had not, according to his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span> +promise, invited him to an interview, found it impossible to surmount +the difficulty he was under, without going to Canton and visiting the +viceroy. He, therefore, prepared for this expedition: the boat’s crew +were clothed, in a uniform dress, resembling that of the water-men of +the Thames. There were in number eighteen, and a coxswain; they +had scarlet jackets, and blue silk waistcoats, the whole trimmed with +silver buttons, and had also silver badges on their jackets and caps.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Leaving Macao, the <i>Centurion</i> reached the Cape of +Good Hope on the 11th of March, 1744. From here, +signing on forty Dutchmen, Anson proceeded home.</p> + +<p>So ended the most prodigious oversea combined +enterprise ever before attempted. Anson was not the +first to circumnavigate the world, but few had done so +before him, and on that account the real purpose of +his expedition has been generally overlooked in the +circumnavigation feat.</p> + +<p>As ever in British naval history luck was with him; +but something more than “luck” must have been in an +enterprise where Pizarro, sent to intercept him, gave up, +while Anson fought through the perils of Cape Horn, +with his sickly crews and crazy ships.</p> + +<p>To resume the general history of the war. In +October, 1742, the <i>Victory</i> (100) was lost, presumably +on the Caskets, though her actual fate was never +ascertained. France had now entered into the war; her +fleet consisted of forty-five ships of the line; the +corresponding English fleet totalling ninety ships of the +line.</p> + +<p>In 1742, Ogle succeeded Vernon in the West Indies, +and a series of small bombardments resulted, usually +without success.</p> + +<p>Formal hostilities with France (delayed as was the +custom of the time) were declared in 1744, and outlying<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span> +possessions changed hands. Anson, in command of the +Channel Fleet in 1747, defeated and captured the Brest +fleet, and some minor actions took place, mostly in +connection with convoys. The war ended in 1748; its +net naval results being as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> + +<table id="t114"> +<tr class="lrpad"> + <td class="tdl"></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">English.</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Spanish.</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">French.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Warships lost or captured</td> + <td class="tdc fs2">49</td> + <td class="tdc fs2">24</td> + <td class="tdc fs2">56</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Merchant ships captured</td> + <td class="tdc">3,238</td> + <td class="tdc">1,249</td> + <td class="tdc">2,185</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The economy order referred to on a previous page +was possibly in part responsible for the bad showing +made by the English as warships in this war. In any +case the standardisation of classes had disappeared, and +no two ships were of the same dimensions. Many ships +were found so weak at sea that they had to be shored +up between decks,<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> and of all the complaint was +continual that they were very “crank” and unable to +open their lee ports in weather in which foreign ships +could do so. The seamanship, however, was of a high +order compared to that of either the French or +Spaniards; possibly the very badness of the English +ships helped to make the seamanship what it was.</p> + +<p>After the war many constructional improvements +were suggested and some few of them carried into +practice. Among the prizes of the war was a Spanish +ship, the <i>Princessa</i> of seventy guns, which attracted +general admiration. In 1746, a glorified copy of her, the +<i>Royal George</i>, was laid down.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> At and about this time +an era of slow shipbuilding set in; for example, this +<i>Royal George</i> was ten years on the stocks. The slow +building was part and parcel of the naval policy of the +period, and in no way to be connected with what any +such tardiness would mean to-day.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span></p> + +<p>A ship on the stocks was more easily preserved +from decay than one in the water. With precisely the +same idea the authorities at the end of the war disbanded +the bulk of the <em>personnel</em>. Upon a war appearing +likely, the press-gang was always available to supplement +any deficiency in the rank and file not filled by allowing +jail-birds to volunteer.</p> + +<p>Officering the fleet was a less easy matter. The +choice lay between retired officers more or less rusty, +and the best of the “prime seamen,” who had been afloat +in such warships as were retained in commission. The +Admiralty selected its officers from both indiscriminately. +There is this much, but no more, warrant for the idea +that in the old days the sailor from forward could rise +to the highest ranks, while to-day he cannot do so. +The fact is correct enough, but the circumstance had +nothing to do with inducements and encouragements. +Once on the quarter deck the tarpaulin seaman, if he +had it in him, might win his way to high rank and fame, +as did Benbow, Sir John Balchen, Captain Cook, and +several others. But he obtained his footing on entirely +utilitarian grounds which passed away when a more +regular system of <em>personnel</em> came into custom.</p> + +<p>In the year 1753, a Dr. Hales was instrumental in +one of the greatest improvements ever effected in the +navy. To him was due the adoption of a system of +ventilation with wind-mills and air pumps. The +immediate result was a very great reduction in the +sickness and death-rate on shipboard, the Earl of +Halifax placing it on record that for twelve men who +died in non-ventilated ships, only one succumbed in the +ventilated vessels.</p> + +<p>Early in 1755, a war with France became probable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span> +on account of hostile preparations made in North +America. As a matter of precaution a French squadron +on its way out was attacked and two ships captured. +Something like three hundred French merchant ships +were also taken during the year. War, however, was not +declared on either side!</p> + +<p>Early in 1756, news was received of French designs +on Minorca, a considerable expedition collecting at +Toulon. After some delay, Byng left England with ten +ships of the line, picked up three more at Gibraltar, and +sailed to relieve Minorca, where Fort St. Philip was +closely invested by 15,000 troops. Supporting these last +was a French squadron of twelve ships of the line, +under La Gallisonniére.</p> + +<p>On Byng arriving, La Gallisonniére embarked 450 +men from the attacking force to reinforce his crews, +and on May 20th ensued the battle of Minorca, which +resulted in the defeat and retreat of Byng.<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> Ten days +later the British force in the island surrendered.</p> + +<p>Byng was subsequently court-martialled and shot at +Portsmouth for having failed to do his utmost to destroy +the French fleet. His ships were indifferently manned +and in none too good condition. He encountered a +better man than himself, and there is no reason to +suppose that had he resumed action, anything but his +total defeat would have resulted. At the same time, the +execution of Byng, <i lang="fr">pour encourager les autres</i>, probably +bore utilitarian fruit in the years that were to follow. +The execution has since been condemned as little better +than a revengeful judicial murder; but a realisation of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> +the circumstances of the times suggests that other +motives than punishment of an individual were +paramount.</p> + +<figure id="i_117" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;"> + <img src="images/i_117.jpg" width="2444" height="1942" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">BATTLESHIPS OF THE WHITE ERA AT SEA. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>War was formally declared shortly after the fall of +Minorca. No events of much moment marked the rest +of the year 1756, but early in the following year, +Calcutta, which had fallen to the natives, was recaptured +by Clive, assisted by a naval force.</p> + +<p>In 1758, the Navy consisted of 156 of the line and +164 lesser vessels. The <em>personnel</em> was 60,000.</p> + +<p>The situation at this time was that in North +America the French colonies were being hotly pressed, +Louisbourg being invested. The French had a species +of double plan—to relieve Louisbourg directly, and also +the usual invasion of England.</p> + +<p>The relief of Louisbourg came to nought; a Toulon +squadron which came out being driven back by Osborne, +while Hawke destroyed the convoys in the Basque Roads. +Louisbourg finally fell, four ships of the line that were +lying there being burned, and one other captured, +together with some smaller craft.</p> + +<p>Nearer home, combined naval and military attacks +were pressed upon the French coast, Anson wrecking +havoc on St. Malo, while Howe destroyed practically +everything at Cherbourg.</p> + +<p>The invasion of England project remained, however. +In 1759, the French had somewhere about twenty ships +of the line, under De Conflans, at Brest, twelve at +Toulon, under De la Clue, five with a fleet of transports +at Quiberon, five frigates at Dunkirk with transports, +a division of small craft and flat-bottomed boats at +Havre, and a squadron of nine ships of the line with +auxiliaries in the West Indies.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span></p> + +<p>These were watched or blockaded by superior British +squadrons in every case—the maintenance of blockades +being mainly possible owing to the improved ventilation +of the ships. Provisions were still bad and scurvy +plentiful, but the blockade maintained was better and +closer than anything that the French can have anticipated. +This war, indeed, saw the birth of scientific +blockade in place of the somewhat haphazard methods +which had previously existed. In part, it arose from a +better perception of naval warfare, the study of history +and the growth of definite objectives. But since side +by side with these improvements tactical ideas were +nearly non-existent and ships in fighting kept a line of +the barrack-ground type regardless of all circumstances,<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> +improvements in naval architecture may claim at least +as big a part as the wit of man. Ideas of blockading +and watching were as old as the Peloponnesian War, +but means to carry them into effect had hitherto been +sadly lacking.</p> + +<p>To resume, the French fleets being cornered by +superior forces, had no option but to wait for lucky +opportunity to effect the usual attempted junctions. +This opportunity was long in coming, and meanwhile +Rodney made an attack on the invading flotilla at Havre, +bombarded it for fifty-two hours, and utterly destroyed +the flat-bottomed boats which had been collected.</p> + +<p>In July, 1759, Boscawen, having run short of water +and provisions, had to withdraw from Toulon to +Gibraltar, where he began to refit his ships, and De la +Clue, learning of this, came out of Toulon in August,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span> +slipping through the straits at midnight, with the English +fleet in pursuit shortly afterwards.</p> + +<p>De la Clue had intended to rendezvous at Cadiz, but +having altered his mind, made the almost inevitable +failure of getting all his ships to comprehend it.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> So it +came about that daylight found him near Cape St. +Vincent, with only six sail, and eight of Boscawen’s ships +(which he at first took to be his own stragglers) coming +up. In the action that followed, three of the French +ships were captured, two burned and one escaped. +The stragglers of the French fleet got into Cadiz as +originally directed, and a few months later escaped back +to Toulon.</p> + +<p>Thurot, with a small squadron, slipped out from +Dunkirk, in October, merely to intern himself in a +Swedish harbour.</p> + +<p>Hawke continued his blockade of Brest, being now +and then driven off by gales, and during one of these +absences, Bempart, with his nine West Indian ships, got +into Brest. The Brest fleet was apparently very short-handed, +or else the West Indian squadron in a very bad +way; in any case the crews of the latter were distributed +among the former, and De Conflans sailed with only +twenty-one ships on November 14th.</p> + +<p>The expeditionary force which he proposed to +convoy lay at Quiberon, which place owing to weather he +did not make till the 20th. There he sighted and gave +chase to the blockading English frigates, and in doing so +met Hawke’s fleet of twenty-three ships of the line.</p> + +<p>In the battle of Quiberon which followed, the French +lost six ships of the line. Eleven, by throwing their guns +overboard, escaped into shallow water, the remainder<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span> +reached safety at Rochefort. Two English ships ran +aground, otherwise little damage was sustained.<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a></p> + +<p>Out of these happenings the French fleet—which, in +this year alone, lost thirty-one ships of the line—ceased +to have any importance; while to the general naval +activity of the English must be attributed the capture of +Quebec, by Wolfe.</p> + +<p>In 1760, the British ships of the line had sunk to +120 in number, though the <em>personnel</em> rose to 73,000. +Naval operations were mainly confined to the relief of +Quebec and the consequent capture of the whole of +Canada, and the suppression of privateering—over a +hundred French corsairs being captured in 1760 alone.</p> + +<p>The results of privateering have been put at 2,500 +English merchant vessels being captured in the four +years ending 1760; the French merchant-ship loss being +little more than one-third. In 1761, when French naval +power had practically ceased to exist, 812 English +merchant ships were captured. It must, however, be +borne in mind that every year saw great increases in +English shipping. Heavy as the numerical losses were, +they did not exceed ten per cent., and the bulk of vessels +captured were coasters.</p> + +<p>French mercantile losses were considerably smaller, +but simply for the reason that France had fewer and +fewer ships to lose, for her trade was being swept from +the sea. English trade on the other hand grew and +multiplied exceedingly. It may even be argued that so +far from really injuring our trade, the <i lang="fr">guerre de course</i> in +this war actually fostered it by the enhanced profits +which safe arrival entailed, this attracting the speculative. +But for the speculative the loss of larger vessels would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span> +have been smaller than it was. These were they, who, +on a convoy nearing home waters, sailed on ahead, +chancing attack in the hopes of the greatly increased +profits to be made by early arrivals. Ships which +obeyed the orders of the escorting warships were very +rarely captured.</p> + +<p>The following years saw the capture of Pondicherry, +Dominica, a successful attack on Belle Isle and also a +general loss of French colonial possessions. To quote +Mahan, “At the end of seven years the Kingdom of +Great Britain has become the British Empire.”</p> + +<p>In 1762, Spain declared war. She had a fleet +consisting nominally of eighty-nine sail, but joined in +far too late to be of any assistance to France. No +naval battle of importance took place.</p> + +<p>Peace was signed early in 1763. By it England +secured Canada from France, and Spain lost Florida.</p> + +<p>During this war the usual complaints about ships’ +bottoms were made, especially from the West Indian +Station; and in October, 1761, the Admiralty ordered +a frigate to be sheathed with thin sheets of copper as an +experiment. This was at first found extremely successful, +but after the lapse of a few years it was noted that +chemical action had set up between the copper and the +iron bolts at the ships’ bottom—most of these bolts +being rusted away.</p> + +<p>Experiments were, however, continued, since, though +the life of a copper bottom was but three to four years, +its general advantages were very great. Ultimately iron +bolts were abandoned in favour of copper ones. The +cost of this came to £2,272 for a ship of the first-rate, +and was only relatively satisfactory.</p> + +<p>Ever since the Treaty of Paris in 1763, friction had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> +been growing between the Home Country and the North +American Colonies. The causes which led to it concern +the British Navy only in so far as it was used for the +harsh enforcement of the regulations entailed by the +Treaty in question—regulations which bore heavily on +the Colonists. The rest of the story is merely the tale +of political incapacity at home.</p> + +<p>The American Colonists, in addition to a few fast +sailing frigates which they handled with unexpected +aptitude, possessed a so very considerable mercantile +fleet that it was estimated that 18,000 of their seamen +had served in the English ships in the late war with +France. Consequently, the Colonists were in a position +to fit our privateers, and with these, in the first eight years +of the war, they captured nearly 1,000 English merchant +ships. Their own losses were, however, greater, and it is +probable that despite all the military blunders which +characterised English conduct of the war, the Colonists +would eventually have been worn down but for the active +intervention of France in 1778, and Spain a little later.</p> + +<p>As regards naval operations against the Americans +themselves, these were mainly in the nature of sea +transport. Where they were otherwise, they were of an +inglorious nature, owing to the total inability of the +Home Government to appreciate the position. The naval +story of the war is, in the main, the story of frigates +attempting difficult channels, and going aground in the +attempt. It is of interest mainly because in 1776 one +David Bushnell made the first submarine ever actually +used in war, and attempted to torpedo the English flagship, +<i>Eagle</i> (64). He reached his quarry unsuspected, +but the difficulties of attaching his “infernal machine” +were such that he had to rise to the surface for air and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> +abandon the enterprise. His subsequent fate was +undramatic—he and his boat were captured at sea on +board a merchant ship, which was carrying him elsewhere +for further operations.</p> + +<p>France, which had been rendering considerable +secret assistance to the revolted Colonists, had, ever +since the Treaty of Paris, been steadily building up her +Navy, till she had eighty ships of the line and 67,000 +men. The efficiency of the <em>personnel</em> had been increased +by the enrolment of a special corps of gunners, who +practiced weekly. Efforts—which, however, were only +moderately successful—had also been made to break +down the serious class rivalries between those officers +who were of the <i lang="fr">noblesse</i> and those who were tarpaulin +seamen. But the majority of officers were skilled +tactically, and special orders were issued that to seek +out and attack the enemy was an objective.<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> Here, +again, another weak point existed: d’Orvilliers, who +commanded the main fleet, also received orders to be +cautious—orders very similar in tenor to those by which +his predecessors in previous wars were hampered.</p> + +<p>The fleet of Great Britain, spread over many quarters +of the world, including ships being fitted, consisted of +about 150 ships of the line, besides auxiliaries; but the +actual available force of Home water fleet with which +Keppel sailed just before the opening of the war was +twenty ships only!</p> + +<p>Capturing two French frigates and learning from +them that thirty-two ships were at Brest, Keppel got +reinforcements of ten ships, and on the 27th of July, +1778, met d’Orvilliers, also with thirty ships, off Ushant. +The battle lasted three hours, when the fleets drew<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> +apart without any material result having been achieved. +The tactical ability lay with the French, and but for +the inefficiency of the leader of one French division, the +Duc de Chartres (the future “Phillipe Egalité”), would +have done so still more. Yet, though Keppel had +obviously done his best, public opinion in England +had expected a great naval victory, and Keppel was +the subject of a most violent controversy, which soon +developed on political lines.</p> + +<p>At and about the time of the battle of Ushant, +D’Estaing, with twelve ships of the line and five frigates, +reached the Delaware. The English fleet under Howe, +which consisted of only nine inferior ships of the line, +took refuge inside Sandy Hook. D’Estaing came outside +and remained ten days in July, but then sailed away.</p> + +<p>His failure to operate has been put down to the +advice of pilots, but more probably, as pointed out by +Admiral Mahan, he had secret instructions not to assist +the Colonists too actively. The destruction of Hood’s +fleet would have meant the capture of New York, +peace between England and America, and a considerable +force released for operations against France. Most of +the subsequent movements of the year seem to have +been coloured by a similar policy. In 1779, the West +Indian islands of St. Vincent and Grenada fell into +the hands of the French. Subsequently D’Estaing +returned to the North American Coast, but no important +operations took place there. Finally he returned with +some ships to France, sending the others to the West +Indies.</p> + +<p>Spain declared war against England in 1780. Her +fleet then consisted of nearly sixty ships of the line, +which—like the French—were in a more efficient state<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span> +than in previous wars. Her prime object was the +recovery of Gibraltar.</p> + +<p>A combined Franco-Spanish fleet of sixty-four ships +of the line appeared in the Channel, causing an immense +panic in England. The only available English fleet consisted +of thirty-seven sail of the line, under Sir Charles +Hardy, and this wandered away to the westward, leaving +the Channel quite open to the allies, who, however, also +wandered about without accomplishing anything. As +usual with allies, there were divided councils, and in +addition the French fleet, having had to wait long for +the unwilling Spaniards, was badly incapacitated from +sickness. Thus, and thus only, is their failure to invade +to be explained: they had 40,000 men ready to be +transported over, also a naval force ample to defeat +any available English fleet, and able to cover landing +operations as well.</p> + +<p>When the war first began, there was in France an +English admiral—that same Rodney who had destroyed +the invading flotilla at Havre in the previous war—who +by reason of his debts was unable to return to his own +country. In private life he was a merry old soul of +sixty or so, and at a dinner one night boasted that if he +could pay his debts and go back to England, he would +get a command and easily smash the French fleet. +Hearing this, a French nobleman promptly paid his +debts for him, and sarcastically told Rodney to go back +and prove his words.</p> + +<p>Rodney, who had the reputation of being an able +officer, but nothing more, got home in 1779. In 1780, +having secured a command for the West Indies, he left +Portsmouth with twenty sail of the line and a convoy +for the relief of Gibraltar. Off Finisterre, he captured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span> +a Spanish convoy carrying provisions to the besiegers. +Off Cape St. Vincent he fell in with eleven Spanish ships +and attacked them at night, in a gale, blowing up one, +and capturing six. Thence he proceeded to Gibraltar, +relieved it from all immediate danger, Minorca also; and +then sailed for the West Indies. Here, on April 17th, +some three weeks after arrival, he met the French under +Guichen, and made the first attempt at that “breaking +the line” associated with his name. The attempt was +not a success, as his orders were misunderstood by +several of his own captains and his intentions realised +and foiled by his opponents.<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a></p> + +<p>This action was indecisive; as also were two more +that followed.</p> + +<p>In this year (1780), Captain Horatio Nelson, then only +twenty-two years old, made his first appearance in the +<i>Hinchinbrook</i> (28), in an attack on San Juan, Nicaragua. +He succeeded, after terrible loss of <em>personnel</em> from disease.</p> + +<p>A Spanish squadron then joined the French, but +an epidemic—that most fruitful of all sources for the +upsetting of naval plans—overtook it. The Spaniards +were incapacitated and the French returned home. +Rodney went to New York, where his operations delayed +the cause of the Colonists; then returning to the West +Indies, operated against the Dutch, who had by now +joined the French and Spaniards.</p> + +<p>The general position of Great Britain, in 1781 and +1782, was well nigh desperate. Gibraltar was only held +by a remarkable combination of luck and resolution. +To quote Mahan, “England stood everywhere on the +defensive.” She fought with her back to the wall. In the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span> +East Indies, Suffren kept the French flag flying: and things +were generally at a very low ebb, when in 1782 Rodney +“broke the line” in the victory of the Battle of the Saints.</p> + +<p>On April 9th, the fleets had come into contact +without much result on either side. On the 12th, De +Grasse, being then in some disorder, with thirty-four +ships, encountered the English with thirty-six in good +order. Rodney and Hood broke the line in two places. +Admiral Mahan has been at pains to show us that this +result was much a matter of luck and change of wind, +and that the victory was by no means followed up as it +might have been. One French ship was sunk and five +were taken, including De Grasse himself, whose losses in +his flagship, the <i>Ville de Paris</i>, were greater than those +in the entire English fleet.</p> + +<p>To the nation at this juncture, however, anything +savouring of victory was a thing to be made the utmost +of, and Rodney has probably received more than his +meed of merit over what was mainly a matter of luck.</p> + +<p>Two features of special interest in connection with +this battle are that, though up to it, British ships had +recently, owing to coppering, proved better sailers than +the French; in the sequel to this fight, the French proved +equal to sail away. The rapid deterioration of coppering, +already mentioned, may account for some of this, but in +this battle there is also reason to believe that the French +fleet instituted firing at the rigging. Contemporary +statements exist as to the French having made a +wonderful number of holes in English hulls without much +material result, but these may be dismissed as pardonable +temporary bluster. More germane is the fact that +the English ships were supplied with carronades<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a>—harmless<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> +at long range and deadly at short—for which +reason the French tried to keep them at a distance, so +that altogether superior efficiency with men and weapons +would seem to have played a greater part than any +tactical genius on the part of Rodney, in whom a dogged +insistence to get at the enemy was ever the main +characteristic rather than “thinking things out.” The +Mahan estimate of him sorts better with known facts +than the estimate of his accomplishment at the time.</p> + +<p>As regards Rodney himself, it is interesting to record +that Navy and Party were so synonymous at the time +that he, being a strong Tory, had already been superseded +by political influence when he won the battle that +broke French power in the West Indies. It lies to the +credit of the Whigs that both he and Hood, his second +in command, received peerages; but the most difficult +thing of all to understand to-day is, that in a life and +death struggle such as this war was, the personal political +element should have managed to find expression.</p> + +<p>In 1782, Gibraltar, which had been twice relieved, +was once more in grievous straits. The French had +evolved floating batteries for the attack, similar in +principle to those which, some seventy years later, were +to figure so prominently in the Crimea.</p> + +<p>Being merely armoured with heavy wood planks, +however, they were easily set on fire with red-hot shot, +and the great bombardment failed long before the +relieving force, under Howe, arrived. The garrison, +however, were in great straits for supplies, and their real +relief was Howe’s fleet, which the combined Franco-Spanish +squadrons did not dare to attack.</p> + +<p>The Treaty of Versailles, in 1783, followed soon +afterwards. By it the United States of America were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span> +recognised, Minorca was given up, but most of the +captured West Indian islands restored to Great Britain.</p> + +<p>Just before the close of the war, the relative naval +strengths were assessed as follows:—<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a></p> + +<table id="t131" class="tbdr"> +<tr class="thead"> + <td class="tdc">Description<br>of Vessels.</td> + <td class="tdc">Great<br>Britain.</td> + <td class="tdc">France.</td> + <td class="tdc">Spain.</td> + <td class="tdc">Holland.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Ships of the Line</td> + <td class="tdc">105</td> + <td class="tdc">89</td> + <td class="tdc">53</td> + <td class="tdc">32</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Fifty-gun Ships</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">13</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">7</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">3</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Large Frigates</td> + <td class="tdc">63</td> + <td class="tdc">49</td> + <td class="tdc">12</td> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 2em;">{</span>28</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Small Frigates</td> + <td class="tdc">69</td> + <td class="tdc">54</td> + <td class="tdc">36</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Sloops</td> + <td class="tdc fsr1">217</td> + <td class="tdc">86</td> + <td class="tdc">31</td> + <td class="tdc">13</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Cutters</td> + <td class="tdc">43</td> + <td class="tdc">22</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">0</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Armed Ships</td> + <td class="tdc">24</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">0</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">0</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Bombs</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">7</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">5</td> + <td class="tdc">14</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Fire-Ships</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">9</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">7</td> + <td class="tdc">11</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">6</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Yachts</td> + <td class="tdc fs1 bb">5</td> + <td class="tdc fs1 bb">0</td> + <td class="tdc fs1 bb">0</td> + <td class="tdc fs1 bb">0</td> +</tr> +<tr class="tlast"> + <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap in2">Total</span></td> + <td class="tdc fsr1">555</td> + <td class="tdc fsr1">319</td> + <td class="tdc fsr1">160</td> + <td class="tdc">79</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>In this list it is interesting to note the British +inability to maintain even a Two-Power Standard in +ships of the line, whereas in sloops and such like, an +enormous preponderance prevailed. For the suppression +of privateering on the coastal trade, these small craft +proved very useful. Also worthy of note is the decline +of the fire-ship as a naval arm.<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a></p> + +<p>The figures as a whole suggest with much clarity +that had the Allies been able to act together, Great +Britain would never have emerged from the war so well +as she did.</p> + +<p>The ten years’ peace that followed was little more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> +than a breathing space. War was constantly apprehended, +and known improvement in French ships were +such that they had to be carefully watched. The frigates +built in England were made longer than before, with a +view to keeping pace with French sailing qualities.</p> + +<p>Considerable interest was taken in how far the +country was self-supporting in the matter of timber for +shipbuilding, a certain reliance on foreign supplies having +previously existed. At, and about 1775, the cost of +shipbuilding for the East India Company had exactly +doubled in a few years. The home supply trouble arose, +partly from the increased size of shipping, partly from +the tendency of owners to fell trees as early as possible. +Out of which special oak plantations were set up in the +New Forest and elsewhere, though oak happened to cease +to be of value for shipbuilding long before they had +grown large enough for the larger timbers.</p> + +<p>The question of repairs also came in for consideration, +an average of twenty-five years’ repair totalling the cost +of a new ship. At and about this time also, the building +of ships by contract in peace time was first recommended +on the grounds that thus the private yards would be +better available in case of war.</p> + +<p>Regular stores for ships in the dockyards were also +instituted, with a view to the speedy equipment of ships +in reserve.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> It was mainly owing to this last provision, +introduced by Lord Barham in 1783, that, though when +the war of the French Revolution broke out in 1793 but +twelve ships of the line and thirty lesser vessels were in +commission, a few months later seventy-one ships of the +line and 104 smaller craft were in service. The number +of men voted in 1793 was 45,000.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="VI"><span id="toclink_133"></span>VI.<br> + +<span class="subhead">THE GREAT FRENCH WAR.</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> first incident of the war was connected with +Toulon, which was partly Royalist and partly +Republican. The story in full is to be found most +dramatically rendered in <i>Ships and Men</i>, by David +Hannay. Here it suffices to say that the Royalists +and Moderates having coalesced at the eleventh hour, +surrendered the town to Admiral Hood; that the British +Government repudiated Hood’s arrangements, and that +eventually in December, 1793, he was compelled to +evacuate the place after doing such damage as he could +and bringing away with him a few ships of the French +navy.<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> The incident little concerns our naval history, +the Navy being but a pawn in the political game of the +moment. Indeed, it is mostly of some naval interest +only because two figures, destined to bulk largely in +future history, loomed up in it—Captain Horatio Nelson, +of the <i>Agamemnon</i>, who laughed when the Spanish fleet +excused its inaction by saying that it had been six weeks +at sea and was disabled accordingly; and Napoleon, who, +as much as anyone, served to hurry the English out.</p> + +<p>Early in 1794 the British fleet had ninety-five ships +of the line in commission, besides 194 lesser vessels. The +<em>personnel</em> amounted to 85,000.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span></p> + +<p>The centre of interest was the French Brest fleet. +Under Villaret-Joyeuse, a captain of the old Navy, made +Admiral by the Terrorists, whose cause he had espoused, +this fleet was by no means inefficient, like the undisciplined +Toulon fleet had been. It carried on board +the flagship Jean Bon St. André, the deputy of the State, +who, whatever his faults, realised the meaning of +“efficiency.” The bulk of the crew were men who had +done well in America. Howe, on the other hand, +commanded a somewhat raw fleet, hastily brought up +to strength and still by no means “shaken down.”</p> + +<p>Howe’s orders were threefold—to convoy a British +merchant fleet; to destroy the French fleet; and to +intercept a convoy of French grain coming from America.</p> + +<p>From the 5th to the 28th May, Howe was keeping +an eye on Brest and looking for the French convoy, the +interception of which was more important than anything +else, as France was dependent on these grain ships for +the means to live.</p> + +<p>On the 28th, the French fleet was sighted a long +way out in the Atlantic. Villaret-Joyeuse, who was out +to protect the grain convoy at all costs, drew still +further out to sea, Howe following in pursuit.<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> Towards +evening, the last French ship <i>Revolutionnaire</i> (100), was +come up with and engaged by six British (seventy-four’s), +of which one, the <i>Audacious</i>, was badly crippled. The +<i>Revolutionnaire</i> herself was dismasted, but was towed +away by a frigate in the night.</p> + +<p>This particular incident is one of the most +prominent examples of the power of the “monster” ship<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span> +as compared with the “moderate dimension” ship<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a> of +the period. The six did not attack her simultaneously, +and some were never closely engaged. She was magnificently +fought also; but even when these elements are +subtracted, the fact of the extraordinary resisting power +exhibited remains. As only the <i>Audacious</i>, which +attacked last, did much harm to the Frenchman, the +explanation in this particular case probably lies in the +stouter scantlings required for a ship of 110 guns, +compared to smaller ships.</p> + +<p>On the following day the action was renewed. +Villaret-Joyeuse allowed his tail ships to drop into range +of the leading British vessels with a view to crippling +them. Howe cut the line, but being somewhat outmanœuvred +by the French admiral, obtained no special +advantage therefrom. Some of the French ships were, +however, disabled, and had to be towed in the general +action that was to follow later.</p> + +<p>Two days’ fog now interrupted operations, but on +Sunday, June 1st, battle was joined. The opposing fleets +then consisted as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> + +<table id="t135"> +<tr> + <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">British.</span></td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">French.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">3</span> of 100 guns.</td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">1</span> of 120 guns.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">4</span> of <span class="fs1">98</span> guns.</td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">2</span> of 100 guns.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">2</span> of <span class="fs1">80</span> guns.</td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">4</span> of <span class="fs1">80</span> guns.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">16</span> of <span class="fs1">74</span> guns.</td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">19</span> of <span class="fs1">74</span> guns.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">25</span></td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">26</span></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>This gives 2,036 British to 2,066 French guns, but +as, at least, one Frenchman was considerably disabled, +there was probably a slight British superiority.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span></p> + +<p>Howe, more or less, arranged his heavy ships to +correspond with the heavy ships of the enemy, and +having hove-to half-an-hour for breakfast, flung the old +fighting instructions<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> to the winds and bore right down +into the enemy. In the <em>melee</em> that ensued, some of the +English failed to close, and seven of the French drifted +to leeward out of action.</p> + +<p>Of the French fleet, two eighty-gun and four +seventy-four’s were badly mauled and eventually struck, +while a seventh French ship, the <i>Vengeur</i> (seventy-four) +was sunk.<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> Four were badly disabled, but drifted +to leeward out of the fight. On the British side a +number of ships were badly damaged.</p> + +<p>The fleets, having drawn apart, Villaret-Joyeuse +succeeded in getting a portion of his fleet into some sort +of order again, and threatened the disabled English ships. +Howe protected these, but did not renew action; and +the French, with the disabled ships in tow, made off.</p> + +<p>Such was the battle of “the glorious First of June.” +Howe has been greatly blamed since then for not having +followed up his victory, but there are not wanting indications +that the caution of Curtis, his captain of the fleet, who +pleaded with Howe not to re-engage lest the advantage +gained should be lost, was justified. Villaret-Joyeuse, the +captain, hastily placed in command of a large fleet, was +one of the most, if not the most, capable admirals France +ever had against us. How badly all the French ships had +suffered we now know, but the means of telling it were +absent then. The all-important question of intercepting +the grain convoy was also possibly present in Howe’s mind.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span></p> + +<p>Be that as it may, the convoy was not intercepted. +It reached France in safety, and all question of starving +the Revolution into surrender was at an end. On that +account the battle was reckoned as a victory by the +French as well as in England.<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a></p> + +<p>Other naval events of this year (1794) were the capture +of Corsica, by Hood; and in the West Indies, the capture +of Martinique and St. Lucia. Guadaloupe was also taken, +but quickly re-captured. Among the prizes of the year +was the French forty-gun frigate <i>Pomone</i>, which proved +infinitely faster than anything in the English fleet. This led +to much discussion in the House of Commons. A considerable +party denied that any such superiority existed; others +alleged that even if so, British ships were better and more +strongly built. Others again attributed the circumstance +to the heavy premiums awarded by the French Government +to constructors who produced swift sailing ships.</p> + +<p>Nothing of much moment came out of the discussion. +Orders were issued that ships were to be built a little +longer in future, and with the lower deck ports less near +the water than heretofore, but the general tendency to +over-gun ships in relation to their size still remained.</p> + +<p>For the year 1795, the <em>personnel</em> of the fleet was +increased to 100,000, and provision was made for a very +considerable increase of small craft. The Dutch declared +war in January, but the year was not marked by any +operations of much moment so far as they were concerned.</p> + +<p>The principal theatres of naval operations were in +the Mediterranean and the Channel. This year is marked +by a curious indecisiveness, which had much to do with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> +the formation of Nelson’s (who was serving in the Mediterranean +as captain of the <i>Agamemnon</i>, sixty-four), +subsequent character as an admiral.</p> + +<p>The British fleet consisted of fifteen ships of the line, +under Hotham. The French had got together fifteen sail +at Toulon. These made for Corsica, in March, and on the +way captured one of Hotham’s ships, the <i>Berwick</i>. With +the remainder, Hotham put to sea, and on the 12th, off +Genoa, he was sighted by the French. His fleet was in considerable +disorder, and in the view of Professor Laughton, +the incapacity of the French alone averted a disaster. In +the desultory operations of the next two days, two prizes +were taken and two English ships crippled. Nelson, who +was mainly responsible for the prizes, urged Hotham to +pursue and destroy the enemy, but the admiral refused.<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a></p> + +<p>In July, Nelson, who was on detached service, was +met and chased back to Genoa by the whole French +fleet, which, however, drew off when Hotham’s fleet was +sighted. Hotham, with a greatly superior fleet, came +out, and eventually found the enemy off Hyeres. Chase +was ordered and one French ship overhauled and +captured; then, on the grounds that the shore was +too near, Hotham hauled off.</p> + +<p>These operations (or lack of them) on the part of +Hotham, are important beyond most. In the view of +Professor Laughton,<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a> Hotham’s indecision was mainly +responsible for the rise and grandeur of Napoleon’s +career. Vigorous action on his part would have written<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> +differently the history of the world. As like as not, in +addition to no Napoleon, there would also have been no +Nelson, to go down as the leading figure in British naval +history. The survival of the French fleet rendered possible +that invasion of Italy which “made” Napoleon, and those +sea battles which made Nelson our most famous admiral.</p> + +<p>Villaret-Joyeuse (who had commanded the French +fleet in the battle of the First of June) displayed considerable +activity in 1795, capturing a frigate and a +good many merchant ships. The weather, however, was +against him, and he lost five ships of the line wrecked. +He, notwithstanding, kept the sea with twelve ships of +the line, and with these met Cornwallis with five, off +Brest, on June 16th. Cornwallis retired, but was overhauled +the next day, and his tail ship the <i>Mars</i>, +(seventy-four) badly damaged, the French, as usual, +firing at the rigging. Cornwallis, in the <i>Royal Sovereign</i>, +(100) fell back to support the <i>Mars</i>, but was well on the +way to be defeated when he adopted the clever ruse of +sending away a frigate to signal to him that the Channel +fleet was coming up. The code used was one known to +have been captured by the French, and they, reading the +signals, hastily abandoned the pursuit and made off.</p> + +<p>Three days later, Villaret-Joyeuse did actually +encounter the Channel fleet, under Hood (now Lord +Bridport). He made off south, chased by Bridport, who +had fourteen ships, mostly three-deckers, of which the +French had but one. After a four days’ chase, Bridport +came up with the tail of the enemy, off Lorient. A +partial action ensued, in which three French ships were +captured, after which Bridport withdrew. He gave as +his reason the nearness to the French shore—exactly the +reason that Hotham gave for neglecting a possible<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span> +victory. In both cases, the reason was rather trivial. +The practical assign it to the old age of the admirals +concerned. To the imaginative, these two almost incomprehensible +failures to take advantage of circumstances +gave some colour to Napoleon’s theory of “his destiny.”</p> + +<p>In this year, a number of East Indiamen were +purchased for naval use. One of these, the <i>Glatton</i>, +(fifty-six) was experimentally armed with sixty-eight +pounder carronades on her lower deck, and forty-two +pounders on the upper. On her way to join her +squadron, she was attacked by six French frigates, of +which one was a fifty-gun, and two were of thirty-six. +She easily defeated the lot—another instance of the +“big ship’s” advantage in minor combats. Despite +this instance of what might be done, the heavy gun idea +made no headway, and the <i>Glatton</i> remained a unique +curiosity, till many years later the Americans adopted it +to our great disadvantage.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of 1795 (December) Hotham was +replaced in the Mediterranean by Sir John Jervis—an +admiral of unique personality, who left upon the Navy a +mark that easily endures to this day. Somewhat hyperbolically +it has been said of him that he was the saviour +of the Navy in his own day, and the main element +towards its disruption in these times!</p> + +<p>Jervis had made his mark in the War of American +Independence, as captain of the <i>Foudroyant</i>. Discipline +was his passion; and by means of it, he had made an +easy capture of a French ship. Thereafter, he became +a unique blend of martinet and genius.</p> + +<p>He was the first openly to re-affirm Sir Walter +Raleigh’s theory, quoted in an earlier chapter, that +fortifications were useless against invasion, and that only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span> +on the water could an enemy be met successfully, +combatting Pitt himself on this point. When the Great +War broke out, his first employment was in the West +Indies, where he achieved St. Lucia, Martinique and +Guadaloupe. He went to the Mediterranean, at a time +when France was numerically superior to us in the +Channel, and when Spain was daily expected to declare +war. The fleet to which he went was like all others, +tending to a mutinous spirit, and finally he had to go out +in the frigate <i>Lively</i>. In those days, for an admiral to +take passage in anything less than a ship of the line was +considered a most undignified thing. It rankled so with +Jervis that he never forgot it, and years after harped upon +it as a grievance. Of such character was the man who +took command in the Mediterranean at the end of 1795.</p> + +<p>In 1796, the <em>personnel</em> of the Navy was increased to +110,000. Jervis, in the Mediterranean, did little beyond +blockading Toulon, and training his fleet on his own +ideas. Spain declared war in October; but her intentions +being known beforehand, Corsica was evacuated, and at +the end of the year the Mediterranean was abandoned +also, Jervis with his entire fleet lying under the guns of +Gibraltar. Nothing else was possible.</p> + +<p>Elsewhere invasion ideas were uppermost in France, +and 18,000 troops, convoyed by seventeen ships of the +line and thirteen frigates, sailed from Brest for Bantry +Bay, at the end of the year. Only eight ships of the line +reached there; a gale dispersed the transports and +nothing happened in the way of invasion. The only +other event of the year was the capture of a Dutch +squadron at the Cape of Good Hope. Matters generally +were, however, so bad, that attempts were made to +secure terms of peace from France. These attempts failed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span></p> + +<p>The year 1792 saw 108 ships of the line and 293 +lesser vessels in commission. Something like sixty ships +of the line were building or ordered, also 168 lesser craft. +The first incident was the Battle of Cape St. Vincent +(14th February, 1797). The Spaniards, having come +out of Cartagena, were making for Cadiz, when sighted +by Jervis.</p> + +<p>The rival fleets <span class="locked">were:—</span></p> + +<table id="t142"> +<tr> + <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">British.</span></td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Spanish.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">2</span> of 100 guns.</td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">1</span> of 130 guns.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">3</span> of <span class="fs1">98</span> guns.</td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">6</span> of 112 guns.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">1</span> of <span class="fs1">90</span> guns.</td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">2</span> of <span class="fs1">80</span> guns.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">8</span> of <span class="fs1">74</span> guns.</td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">18</span> of <span class="fs1">74</span> guns.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="bb fs1">1</span> of <span class="fs1">64</span> guns.</td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">27</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">15</span></td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The battle is mainly of interest on account of Nelson’s +part in it. The Spaniards were sailing in no order +whatever, the bulk of them being in one irregular mass, +the remainder in another. Jervis, in line ahead, +proposed to pass between the two divisions, and destroy +the larger before the smaller could beat up to assist +them. The Spaniards, however inefficient they may have +been in other ways, saw through this manœuvre, and +their main body was preparing to join up astern of the +British, when Nelson, in the <i>Captain</i>, flung himself across +them and captured two ships by falling foul of them and +boarding. Three other ships were captured, the rest +escaped. In this battle, as in those of the year before, +the same caution about following up the victory was +observed, and the age of the admiral concerned has +again been produced as the reason. But the thoughtful—taking +the previous career of most of those concerned +into consideration—may suspect the existence of some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span> +special secret orders about taking no risks, as yet unearthed +by any historian. The only really workable +alternative is Napoleon’s “destiny” theory already +alluded to. Of the two, the secret order hypothesis is +the more practical. Into the whole of these victories not +properly followed up, it is also possible, though hardly +probable, that the mutinous state of the <em>personnel</em> entered.</p> + +<figure id="i_143" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> + <img src="images/i_143.jpg" width="1644" height="2443" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">THE “FOUDROYANT” ONE OF NELSON’S OLD SHIPS. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the battle of Cape St. Vincent, the Spaniards +had an enormous four-decker, the <i>Santissima Trinidad</i>, +of 130 guns. She was the first ship engaged by Nelson, +and was hammered by most of the others closely engaged +as well, but her size and power saved her from the fate +of the rest of the ships that were with her.</p> + +<p>It is difficult even now to assess the exact situation +of the mutineers of 1797. The organised self-restraint +of the Spithead Mutiny is hard to understand, when we +remember the heterogeneous origin of the crews. “Jail +or Navy” was an every-day offer to prisoners. Longshoremen, +riff-raff, pressed landsmen, thieves, murderers, +smugglers, and a few degraded officers, were the raw +material of which the crews were composed. They were +stiffened with a proportion of professional seamen, and +it is these that must have leavened the mass, and kept +the jail-bird element in check.</p> + +<p>Pay was bad, ship life close akin to prison life, +discipline and punishments alike brutal, and the food +disgracefully bad. It was this last that brought about +the mutiny. There is an old saying to the effect that +you may ill-treat a sailor as you will, but if you ill-feed +him, trouble may be looked for! One or two isolated +mutinies, like that of the <i>Hermione</i>, were due to a +captain’s brutality; but mainly and mostly bad food +and mutiny were closely linked.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span></p> + +<p>Commander Robinson<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a> draws attention to the fact +that the pursers themselves were hardly the unscrupulous +rascals they were supposed to be on shore, and that the +system and regulations of victualling were recognised by +the seamen as at the bottom of the mischief.</p> + +<p>The same authority quotes a <span class="locked">contemporary:—</span></p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indentq">“The reason unto you I now will relate:</div> + <div class="verse indent0">We resolved to refuse the purser’s short weight;</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Our humble petition to Lord Howe we sent,</div> + <div class="verse indent0">That he to the Admiralty write to present</div> + <div class="verse indent0">Our provisions and wages that they might augment.”</div> + </div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Discontent had, of course, long been brewing, but +the Admiralty seems to have been without any suspicions. +They dismissed the petition as being in no way representative; +later, having received reports to the contrary, +ordered Lord Bridport’s fleet at Spithead to proceed to +sea. On April 15th, when the signal to weigh anchor +was made, the crews of every ship manned the rigging +and cheered. No violence was offered to any officer; +the men simply refused to work. Each ship supplied a +couple of delegates to explain matters, and after an +enquiry, their demands were granted and a free pardon +given. Delays, however, ensued, and on May 7th, the +fleet again refused to put to sea.</p> + +<p>On this occasion, the officers were disarmed, confined +to their cabins, and kept there, till a few days later a +general pardon was proclaimed, when this mutiny ended. +A similar mutiny at Plymouth was equally mild.</p> + +<p>Of a very different character was the mutiny at the +Nore, which broke out on May 13th, under the leadership +of the notorious Richard Parker. Parker was a +man of considerable parts, said to have been an ex-officer +dismissed the service with disgrace, and to have entered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span> +as a seaman. He possessed undoubted ability and +considerable ambition. He very clearly aimed at +something more than the redress of grievances, since his +first act was to put a rope round his own neck by +instigating the crew of the <i>Inflexible</i> to fire into a sister +ship, on board which a court-martial was being held. +Subsequently, delegates were sent to the Admiralty with +extravagant claims, which—as Parker may have anticipated—were +ignored.</p> + +<p>Eleven ships of Admiral Duncan’s fleet (then blockading +the Texel) had joined Parker by the first of June. +Duncan was left with but two ships in face of the enemy. +By showing himself much and making imaginary signals +Duncan managed to conceal the facts from the Dutch: +but he had considerable trouble to keep his two ships +from joining the mutineers now blockading the Thames.</p> + +<p>There is reason to believe that Parker was in touch +with the Revolutionists in France and the dissatisfied +Irish, but the bulk of the mutineers were altogether +uninfluenced by political ideas. The mutiny began to +waver. The ships at other home ports were unsympathetic, +and Parker and his friends found men cooling +off. In order to keep things together it was their custom +to row round the fleet<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> and inspect ships suspected of +being “cool,”—the side being piped for them. In one +case, however, the boatswain’s mate refused to do so, +and flung his call at their heads. On coming on board, +they sentenced him to thirty-six lashes for “mutinous +conduct!” On June 10th, despite this disciplinary +system, two of the mutineer ships sailed away under fire +from the others, and on the 14th, Parker’s own ship<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span> +surrendered and handed him over to the authorities. +He was hanged on June 29th.</p> + +<p>In the Mediterranean fleet, mutiny broke out in two +ships off Cadiz, but Jervis (now Earl St. Vincent), compelled +the mutineers to hang their own ringleaders. In +connection with this, Nelson, who was now rear admiral +commanding the inshore squadron, wrote to St. <span class="locked">Vincent—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“I congratulate you on the finish, as it ought, of the St. +George’s business, and I (if I may be permitted to say so) very much +approve of its being so speedily carried into execution, even although +it is Sunday. The particular situation of the service requires +extraordinary measures. I hope this will end all the disorders in +our fleet: had there been the same determined spirit at home, I do +not believe it would have been half so bad.”</p> +</div> + +<p>It is noteworthy that in Nelson’s own ship there +was no trouble whatever. The ship had had a reputation +for insubordination, but shortly after Nelson joined her, +a paper intimating that no mutiny need be feared was +dropped on the quarter-deck. Nelson brought with him +a reputation for taking a personal interest in his men. +Then, as now, hard work and a dog’s life were not +objected to, provided the personal equation were present.</p> + +<p>St. Vincent proceeded to stamp out the embers +of mutiny in his own fashion. He set himself to invest +his rank with every circumstance of pomp, awe and +ceremony. Every morning he appeared on the quarter +deck in full dress uniform, paraded the Marines, and had +“God save the King” played with all hats off. His +regulations were catholic enough to embrace lieutenants’ +shoe-laces. In all the pomp that he created the +mutinous spirit was smothered.</p> + +<p>To him is due the vast abyss between the quarter-deck +and lower-deck which marks the Navy of to-day. +Whether this, advantageous as it was a hundred odd<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span> +years ago, is equally advantageous now, is another +matter. It makes a barrier altogether different from that +existing between officer and man in the Army—it is +something closely akin to the racial differences mark in +India; and this sorts ill with the democratic ideas of +to-day, when class distinction is quite a different matter +from what it was a hundred years ago.</p> + +<p>There are still possible two views of the question. +One is embodied in a letter I received some few years +ago from a man from the lower-deck. He wrote, “When +I was a boy in a training ship, my captain seemed to +me something as far away and above me as God himself, +and the impression thus created I have carried with me +towards all officers ever since. Though in private life I +might meet his brother with feeling of perfect equality, +I could never be other than ill at ease meeting an officer +in the same conditions.”</p> + +<p>Here, at any rate, is the psychology of what St. +Vincent aimed at. To-day, however, one is far more +likely to hear about “the side of officers,” or that +“officers, when cadets, are taught to regard the men +with contempt!” The conditions are such, that despite +mixed cricket and football teams, mutual sympathy +between officers and men is well nigh impossible.</p> + +<p>Of “the great God Routine” which St. Vincent set +up, it is beyond question that it is to-day an irritating +superfluity to both officers and men alike.</p> + +<p>To resume. As the Spaniards obstinately refused to +come out from Cadiz, St. Vincent sent Nelson in to +bombard them with mortar boats; but this attempt to +force them out did not succeed. Following upon this, +Nelson, with three seventy-four’s, one fifty, three frigates +and a cutter, was despatched to Santa Cruz. On the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span> +night of July 24th, he led a boat attack in person. Most +of the boats missed the Mole and were stove in. Such +as reached the Mole were met by a withering fire. +Nelson was struck on the right elbow by a grape shot, +and taken back to the <i>Theseus</i>, where his arm was +amputated. Troubridge took command of the 300 odd +men who had got ashore, and being surrounded by the +Spanish, made terms, whereby the Spaniards found +boats for his party to return to their ships. The +squadron rejoined St. Vincent, and Nelson sailed for +England to recover.</p> + +<p>The blockade of the Texel had been vigorously +maintained till October, when Duncan returned to +Spithead to refit. He had no sooner done so than the +Dutch, under De Winter, came out—presumably with a +view to reaching Brest. Duncan’s frigates, however, +promptly reported them, and sailing at once he met +them off Camperdown, on October 11th.</p> + +<p>The rival fleets <span class="locked">were:—</span></p> + +<table id="t150"> +<tr> + <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">British.</span></td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Dutch.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">7</span> of 74 guns.</td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">4</span> of 74 guns.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">7</span> of 64 guns.</td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">7</span> of 64 guns.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1 bb">2</span> of 50 guns.</td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1 bb">4</span> of 50 guns.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">16</span></td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">15</span></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Duncan’s original plan was the old fashioned ship-to-ship +system, but in the actual event, the Dutch line +was broken. One of the Dutch fifty-gun ships fell back +to avoid the <i>Lancaster</i> (sixty-four), five others for some +reason or other following her; the remaining nine fought +desperately, till further resistance was impossible.</p> + +<p>The prizes were:—two seventy-four’s, five sixty-four’s, +two fifties, and a couple of frigates. Both the +captured fifties were lost; the other ships were with great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span> +difficulty got to England. All were found to have been +damaged beyond repair, and some of Duncan’s ships +were in little better condition. His losses in <em>personnel</em> +were over 1,000 in killed and wounded. His crews, it +is interesting to note, consisted mostly of Parker’s +erstwhile mutineers.</p> + +<p>During 1797, a few frigates only were lost. These +included the <i>Hermione</i>, whose crew mutinied and handed +her over to the enemy. The brutality of her captain, +Pigot, whose idea of efficiency was to flog the last two +men down from aloft, was the cause of this particular +outbreak.<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a></p> + +<p>In 1797, a large ninety-eight gun ship, the <i>Neptune</i>, +was added to the Navy, also a seventy-four and a sixty-four. +Private yards launched no less than forty-six +frigates and smaller craft, and the total number of warships +built, building and projected, was 696.<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a></p> + +<p>For the year 1798, the <em>personnel</em> voted was 100,000 +seamen and 20,000 marines; and the total Naval +Estimates amounted to £13,449,388.</p> + +<p>In France, Buonaparte was forging to the front, and +he threw himself into those schemes for the invasion of +England which so appealed to the French mind and so +terrified the British public. Ireland was selected as the +most suitable spot, and two expeditions were prepared, +one at Rochefort, the other at Brest. Of these, one, +the Rochefort expedition, materialised in August, reached +Killala Bay, in Ireland, and soon afterwards had to +surrender to the English Army. The Brest expedition, +escorted by a line of battle ship and a number of frigates,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span> +was more or less annihilated by Admiral Warren, on +October 12th.</p> + +<p>As already stated, the Mediterranean had become +a species of Franco-Spanish lake. St. Vincent was +outside Gibraltar, and he was still there when Nelson, in +the <i>Vanguard</i>, arrived to join him as rear-admiral, at the +end of April.</p> + +<p>Nelson, with a small squadron, was at once despatched +to discover what the French were doing at +Toulon. Rumours of all kinds were current. He found +fifteen ships of the line and a great many transports, +news of which he sent to the Admiral. On the top of +this came a gale, which dismasted the <i>Vanguard</i>. She +was, however, towed into San Pietro, Sardinia, and +hastily re-fitted, and four days later the ships were off +Toulon again, only to find that the French had sailed.</p> + +<p>Reinforced by ten sail of the line, under Troubridge, +Nelson now sailed in search of the French fleet. Reaching +Alexandria and finding nothing known there of the +French, he worked back to Syracuse, where he revictualled +in cheerful disregard of the neutrality remonstrances +of the Governor. Thence he returned eastward, +and having received information of where the French +had last been seen, eventually found them anchored in +Aboukir Bay, where he attacked them on the evening of +August 1st, 1798.</p> + +<p>The rival fleets <span class="locked">were:—</span></p> + +<table id="t152"> +<tr> + <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">British.</span></td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">French.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">13 of 74 guns.</td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">1</span> of 120 guns.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1 bb">1</span> of 50 guns.</td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1 bb">9</span> of <span class="fs1">74</span> guns.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">14</span></td> + <td class="tdc spacer"> </td> + <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">10</span>, also 4 Frigates.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The French, under Brueys, were drawn across the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> +Bay in a “defensive position.” They were in no way a +very efficient force, some of the ships being old and +short of guns, all of them rather short-handed, and even +so, manned with many new-raised raw men. On the +other hand, they were so sure of the safety of their +position that their inshore guns were not cleared for +action. By all the naval theory of the day this idea of +impregnability was justified.</p> + +<p>The battle itself was simple enough. Nelson came +down with the wind on the French van, approximately +putting two of his ships one on either side of each of the +Frenchmen, and so on, the rear being unable to beat up +to support them. The result was the practical annihilation +of the French fleet. Of the thirteen ships of the +line, only two escaped in company with two frigates.</p> + +<p>So complete a naval victory had never before been +known. In all the battles of the previous two or three +hundred years, the percentage of losses to the vanquished +had been small. The battle of the Nile, therefore, +received an attention perhaps beyond its intrinsic worth. +As Nelson wrote to Howe:—“By attacking the enemy’s +van and centre, the wind blowing directly along their +line, I was enabled to throw what force I pleased on a +few ships.” The real point of interest is not the result, +which was foregone, but Nelson’s ability to see his +opportunity and to make the utmost of it. Therein lay +his superlative greatness.</p> + +<p>Of the prizes, three were found to be new and good +ships. One of them, the <i>Franklin</i>, was renamed <i>Canopus</i>, +and as late as 1850 was still on the effective list of the +British Navy.</p> + +<p>The defeat of the French at the Nile had far reaching +effects. Russia, Austria, Turkey, Naples and Portugal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> +formed with England a great anti-French Alliance. A +large Russian fleet appeared in the Mediterranean, but +accomplished no services there. It was under suspicion +of having private designs on Malta rather than of assisting +the Alliance.</p> + +<p>From 1762 onward, when Catherine the Great came +to the throne of Russia, an enormous number of retired +or unemployed English officers took service in the Russian +Navy. To one of these, Captain Elphinstone (who +subsequently re-entered the British service), has been +traced the origin of the idea upon which Nelson acted in +the battle of the Nile. To another, General Bentham, +originally a shipwright, who returned to the British service +in 1795, was due a revolution in dockyard management. +To him was due the introduction of machinery into +dockyards: a matter needing much diplomacy and +caution, as popular feeling against machinery then ran +high. However, by 1798, Bentham had steam engines +installed in the dockyards. He also commenced the first +caisson known in England, using it for the great basin +at Portsmouth Yard. In the face of considerable +opposition he also introduced deep docks, basins and +jetties at Portsmouth, for the speedy fitting out of ships.</p> + +<p>In 1799, the <em>personnel</em> was settled at 120,000, and +the Naval Estimates were £13,654,000.</p> + +<p>In April of this year, the French, under Bruix, +with twenty-five ships of the line, came out of Brest, +which was being cruised off by Bridport with sixteen sail. +Having warned Keith, who was blockading Cadiz, and +St. Vincent, who lay at Gibraltar, Bridport fell back on +Bantry Bay, where he was reinforced with ten ships.</p> + +<figure id="i_155" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20em;"> + <img src="images/i_155.jpg" width="1239" height="1535" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">GENERAL BENTHAM. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Bruix ran down south, his orders being to join the +Spaniards in Cadiz, but the weather was unfavourable and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span> +his crews so illtrained<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> that he made no attempt to attack +Keith’s squadron, but ran on into the Mediterranean. +Keith himself joined St. Vincent at Gibraltar.</p> + +<p>On May 11th, St. Vincent arrived at Minorca with +twenty sail. Nelson, with sixteen ships (of which four +were Portuguese) was scattered over the Mediterranean, +his base being at Palermo. On the 13th, Bruix reached +Toulon, and a week later seventeen Spaniards from +Cadiz reached Cartagena.</p> + +<p>To prevent these joining up with Bruix, St. Vincent +lay between the two bases: but the risk that either fleet +might suddenly fall on Nelson was such, that he sent four +of his ships to him. He was, however, presently reinforced +with five ships, bringing his net total to twenty-one.</p> + +<p>St. Vincent’s health having now given out, he handed +the fleet over to Lord Keith, who learned that Bruix, +with twenty-two sail, had left Toulon on the 27th May; +but for some reason or other made for that place. Bruix +reached the Spaniards at Cartagena, without interference, +on June 23rd, and so had thirty-nine ships to oppose +the British twenty-one. These, falling back upon +Minorca, were there reinforced by ten ships from home, +thus bringing the total up to thirty-one.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, Bruix putting to sea again at once, made +for Cadiz, which he reached on July 12th, and leaving +again on the 21st, made for Brest; Keith, some two +weeks behind him, in pursuit.</p> + +<p>The net result of Bruix’s cruise was that the French +fleet at Brest rose to the enormous total of ninety +warships, collected to cover an invasion of England. +As, however, Napoleon, who was to command, did<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span> +not reach France until October, nothing was done in +1799, thus allowing ample time for the concentration of +English ships. Had the Brest Armada struck at once, +matters for England had been none too rosy, since the +only force guarding the Channel was Bridport’s fleet of +twenty-six sail, at Bantry.</p> + +<p>August saw 20,000 Russians landed at the Helder +from British transports. These captured the Texel +fortifications, inside of which lay what was left of the +Dutch fleet. The Dutch admiral declined to surrender, +but his crews refused to fight, and eventually the ships +were handed over without firing a shot. The ships were +found to be antiquated in design and badly built, and +were never of any use to the English Navy.</p> + +<p>In the latter part of this year, two Spanish frigates +were captured by four English. These ships were +bringing home the year’s South American treasure. +The prize money divided among the four captains +amounted to £160,000.</p> + +<p>Twenty-one vessels were lost during the year. Only +three of them, however, were lost by capture, and of +these the largest was a ten-gun brig!</p> + +<p>The prizes of the year consisted of eight French +frigates, five Spanish frigates and twenty-four Dutch +ships. In this year also the very fast French privateer, +<i>Bordelais</i>, was taken, being chased and overhauled by the +<i>Revolutionnaire</i>, an ex-French frigate, and the only +frigate in the Navy at this time able to catch up with +French ones.</p> + +<p>The <em>personnel</em> granted for the year 1800, was 110,000, +with an additional 10,000 for March and April only. +The ships in commission were 100 ships of the line,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span> +seventeen small two-deckers and 351 frigates and lesser +craft.</p> + +<p>No naval fighting of much importance took place, +but the year was otherwise very momentous. Napoleon, +who had made himself First Consul, was busy reorganising +the French Navy, and one of his first acts +was to offer terms of peace. These, however, were +refused by the British Government.</p> + +<p>On July 25th, the Danish frigate, <i>Freya</i>, out with a +convoy, was met by some British ships. She refused to +allow “the right of search.” Firing followed, and the +<i>Freya</i> was captured. An embassy, to explain matters to +the Danes, went, accompanied by a fleet of nine ships of +the line, five frigates and four bombs, under Admiral +Dickson.</p> + +<p>This action—the intentions of which were obvious—aroused +the resentment of the Russian Emperor Paul. +Nelson’s suspicion that the Russians wished to capture +Malta for themselves, have already been alluded to. +These intentions came to light now; for Paul, having +got himself declared Grand Master of the Knights of +St. John of Malta, seized some 300 British merchant +ships in Russian ports, and said that he would not let +them go till Malta (which was then besieged and about +to fall to the British) was given up to him.</p> + +<p>The British Government ignored the Malta claim, +and many of the British merchant ships equally ignored +the Russian orders about remaining in harbour. Quite +a number sailed away; the rest, however, were seized +and burned, by Paul’s orders. To reinforce himself +against very probable reprisals, Paul—presumably influenced +by Napoleon—formed the “Armed Neutrality.”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span> +Russia and Sweden signed on December 16th, and on the +19th, Denmark and Prussia.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, Malta, which had been blockaded and +besieged by the British ever since the battle of the Nile, +was in grievous straits. In February, 1800, the <i>Genereux</i>, +seventy-four (one of the two ships of the line which +escaped from the Nile), left Toulon, with some frigates, +intent on relief. She was, however, intercepted and +captured by Nelson.</p> + +<p>In March, the <i>Guillaume Tell</i>, the other survivor of +the Nile, which had been lying at Malta, attempted on +the night of the 30th to run the blockade to procure +help. In doing so, she encountered the British frigate +<i>Penelope</i>, which chased her, attacking her rigging. The +firing brought up two ships of the line, <i>Foudroyant</i> and +<i>Lion</i>, but the Frenchman made such a defence that both +these were disabled before she was reduced to submission, +and it was to the <i>Penelope</i> frigate that she ultimately +struck. This particular fight is generally reckoned as +the finest defence ever made by a French ship.</p> + +<p>Malta was eventually starved into surrender, and +the final capitulation took place on the 5th September, +1800, after a siege of practically two years.</p> + +<p>The capture of Malta was perhaps one of the finest +exhibitions of “Admiralty” in the whole war. No +waste of life in assaults took place: the fortress was +systematically starved into surrender by the judicious +use of Sea Power to prevent any relief.</p> + +<p>In this year (1800), several ships were lost, the +principal being the <i>Queen Charlotte</i> (100), which was +accidentally burned and blown up off Capraja, on the +17th of March. The majority of her crew perished with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span> +her. Eighteen other ships were wrecked, while two (a +twenty gun and a fourteen) mutinied and joined the +enemy. These were the only British ships that actually +changed hands. Captures amounted to fourteen ships +of from eighty to twenty-eight guns, and a large number +of privateers and small craft.</p> + +<p>The year 1801 saw the Estimates at £16,577,000. +The <em>personnel</em> voted was 120,000 for the first quarter of +the year, after which it was to rise to 135,000, with a +view to dealing with the Armed Neutrality. The number +of ships in commission was substantially the same as in +the previous year.</p> + +<p>The avowed objects of the Armed Neutrality were to +resist “the right of search,” to secure any property +under a neutral flag, that a blockade to be binding must +be maintained by an adequate force, and that contraband +of war must be clearly defined beforehand. In substance, +they amounted to the free importation into France of +those naval stores of which she stood most in need. +Wisely enough the British Government decided to break +up the coalition by diplomacy, if possible, and failing +that, by force. Incidentally, it may be noted that the +Tsar, who was at the head of the coalition, was more or +less a madman, in possession of a very considerable fleet.</p> + +<p>In March, 1801, a fleet of twenty ships of the line +and a large number of auxiliaries, under Sir Hyde Parker, +with Nelson as second in command, sailed for the Baltic. +On arrival at Copenhagen, the Danes were found to +be moored in a strong position under cover of shore +batteries. The attack was confided to Nelson with +twelve ships, which fared badly enough for Parker after +the battle had lasted three hours to make a signal to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span> +withdraw.<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> Nelson, however, disregarded this, and +continued till the Danish fire began to slacken an hour +later. But as the Danes continually reinforced their +disabled ships from the shore, and fired into those which +had surrendered, the slaughter promised to go on +indefinitely. Things being thus, Nelson, under a flag of +truce, threatened to set fire to the damaged ships and +leave their crews to their fate unless firing ceased. It +has been alleged that this was a clever piece of bluff in +order to extricate his ships from an awkward position: +but all the evidence goes to show that he was fully in a +position to carry out his threat, while as he made no +attempt to move during the negotiations the bluff story +is absurd. It appears to have been an act of humanity, +pure and simple.</p> + +<p>Ultimately, the bulk of the Danish fleet was +surrendered, and a fourteen weeks’ armistice arranged, +Nelson explaining that he required this amount of time +to destroy the Russian fleet!</p> + +<p>Subsequently the Swedish fleet was dealt with, but +it took refuge under fortifications. About the same time +news came that the mad Tsar had been assassinated, and +that his successor had no wish to continue hostilities.</p> + +<p>Nelson (now Commander-in-Chief) appeared off +Kronstadt, under the guns of which the Russians had +taken shelter in May. Negotiations followed,<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> and +ultimately Russia was granted the right to trade with +belligerents—probably a diplomatic concession in order +to detach her sympathy from France.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span></p> + +<p>In the meantime, Napoleon’s invasion schemes were +shaping. To this day it is unknown whether he was +serious or not at this, or for that matter, any other +period. That he intended his preparations to be taken +seriously (as they were by all save Nelson) is clear enough. +It is further clear from his vast preparations that he +would have used his flotilla had the chance occurred; +but the mere fact that he never attempted actual +invasion is of itself sufficient answer to all the homilies +that have been written about Napoleon’s inability to +understand “Sea Power.”</p> + +<p>The army at Boulogne, the flat-bottomed boats, all +served to keep England in a panic, and that was worth +much. He had experience to guide him. Past experience +was an English attack on the flotilla like that of Rodney +many years before. In August, 1801, such an attack +came, Nelson directing it. It was found fully prepared +for and defeated with ease.</p> + +<p>In the Mediterranean, Ganteaume, who had left +Brest with seven ships of the line convoying 5,000 troops, +reached Alexandria, but before he could disembark his +soldiers, Keith appeared, and he hurried back to Toulon.</p> + +<p>Linois left Toulon with a small squadron, and was +driven into Algeciras, where he beat off Samaurez and a +considerably more powerful squadron. Retreating from +this, Samaurez fell in with a Spanish squadron, the ships +of which, in the confusion of a night action, attacked each +other, with the result that the two best ships were +destroyed.</p> + +<p>In October, 1801, the preliminaries of the Peace of +Amiens were signed and hostilities ceased.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span></p> + +<p>The total losses to the enemy in the war are given as +follows by <span class="locked">Campbell:—</span></p> + +<table id="t164"> +<tr class="lrpad"> + <td class="tdl"></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">French.</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Dutch.</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Spanish.</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Total.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Ships of the line</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">45</td> + <td class="tdc">25</td> + <td class="tdc">11</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">81</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Fifties</td> + <td class="tdc fs2">2</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">1</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">0</td> + <td class="tdc fs2">3</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Frigates</td> + <td class="tdc">133</td> + <td class="tdc">31</td> + <td class="tdc">20</td> + <td class="tdc">184</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Sloops, etc.</td> + <td class="tdc">161</td> + <td class="tdc">32</td> + <td class="tdc">55</td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="bb">248</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Total</span></td> + <td class="tdc"><span class="bb">516</span></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The corresponding British loss was only twenty-one +ships of <em>all classes</em>, and of these only two ships of the +line were captured. The bulk of British losses was +accounted for by wrecks.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="VII"><span id="toclink_165"></span>VII.<br> + +<span class="subhead">FROM THE PEACE OF AMIENS TO THE FINAL FALL OF NAPOLEON.</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">With</span> the Peace of Amiens the usual reduction of +the Navy took place. The 104 ships of the line +in commission the year before sank to thirty-two +in 1802. The <em>personnel</em> fell to 50,000.</p> + +<p>It may here be remarked that of the ships put out of +commission a great number were unfit for further service: +111 ships of various classes being in so bad a way that +they were sold or broken up. Many others were cut down +to serve in inferior rates.</p> + +<p>Early in 1803 it became abundantly clear that +Napoleon was preparing for a new war, and in May, war +was declared on him by the British Government. It is +of interest to note that Napoleon, in dismissing the +British Ambassador, said to him that he “intended to +invade England,” adding that he considered it might +be “a very risky undertaking.” At the time war was +declared Napoleon was not quite ready, and never +regained the ground thus lost.</p> + +<p>Little or nothing happened to show that a great +naval struggle was in progress. The French ships lay +secure in harbour; the British tossed outside in ceaseless +blockade work. But these months of seeming inaction +settled the fate of France. The French crews, never +very efficient, grew less and less so in harbour, while<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span> +every day outside hardened the British and added to +their efficiency. Seeing that the British <em>personnel</em>, which +was but 50,000 at the early part of the year, was +suddenly expanded to 100,000 in June, the advantages +of this shaking down of raw crews were obvious enough. +When eventually battle was joined, the difference between +the English and the French <em>personnel</em> was such that for +every round got off by the latter, any British ship could +fire <em>three</em>! Victory was won long before a single battle +shot had been fired. Trafalgar was made a certainty by +the great blockades.</p> + +<p>When war broke out the general disposition of the +hostile squadrons was as follows:—(the figures in brackets +representing frigates and small <span class="locked">craft)—</span></p> + +<table id="t166"> +<tr class="lrpad2"> + <td class="tdl"></td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">British.</span></td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">French.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"></td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Outside.</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Inside.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Toulon</td> + <td class="tdc">14</td> + <td class="tdc">(32)</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">(6)</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Ferrol</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">7</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">(4)</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">5</td> + <td class="tdc">(2)</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Rochefort</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">5</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">(2)</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">4</td> + <td class="tdc">(7)</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Brest</td> + <td class="tdc">20</td> + <td class="tdc">(11)</td> + <td class="tdc">18</td> + <td class="tdc">(7)</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Texel to Dunkirk</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">9</td> + <td class="tdc">(21)</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">5</td> + <td class="tdc fsr1">(11)</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The invasion flotilla was distributed about Boulogne +to the tune of 1,450 of the flotilla, 120 brigs and a few +frigates. In the Texel district were 645 more of the +flotilla.</p> + +<p>Reserve squadrons were stationed in home waters +ample to deal with the small craft defending flotillas.</p> + +<p>So passed away the year 1803. Both sides reinforced +their squadrons as rapidly as new ships could be +produced. Beyond this nothing happened.</p> + +<figure id="i_167" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28em;"> + <img src="images/i_167.jpg" width="1730" height="2388" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">POSITIONS OF THE SHIPS OF THE LINE AT THE OUTBREAK OF WAR. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The year 1804 opened with the same lack of result. +Napoleon made himself Emperor in May, and to some +extent weakened his squadrons by the removal from +them of officers suspected of Republican views. In July,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span> +however, things were nearing completion, and Latouche +Treville was put in supreme command of the whole +expedition against England. He received explicit orders +to evade Nelson (who watched Toulon) and to rendezvous +at Brest for invasion purposes. He died, however, in +August<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> and the plans fell through.</p> + +<p>After some delay, Villeneuve was appointed in his +place; but instead of the invasion idea there came plans +of oversea enterprises, possibly designed with a view to +drawing all British forces of the moment away from the +Channel, thus leaving things clear for an invasion. But +again there comes the doubt whether Napoleon ever +expected this to succeed, whether he really thought of +much else than keeping England perturbed and busy +while he matured plans for other parts of Europe, and +whether he did not realise that “Sea Power” had its +limitations as well as its advantages, and never really +sought anything further than to cause Britain to spend +so much in naval defence that she had little left to +subsidise his Continental foes with. Better than most men +he was able to estimate Nelson’s limitations. He clearly +estimated fully enough that Nelson was no particularly +brilliant strategist, and that he was more likely to +forecast correctly what Nelson would do, than was Nelson +to divine his purpose. He under-estimated indeed what +Nelson really did mean,—the particular genius which +made Nelson invincible as a leader of men, how Nelson +was a tactician able to gauge exactly the competence of +the enemy and to win victory by doing seemingly foolish +things accordingly.</p> + +<p>At least, it would appear that there Napoleon erred. +But there is no judging Napoleon—the strangest mixture<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span> +of genius and charlatan that the world has ever seen or +is ever likely to. It is even unsafe to say that Napoleon +did not foresee Trafalgar; unsafe to believe that, in his +view, French fleets had no purpose other than to keep the +English occupied. Napoleon is ever the one man in +history that no one can ever surely know, whether we +take him as the biggest liar who ever lived, or as the +greatest genius the world has ever known.</p> + +<p>In January, 1804, the British Fleet in commission +consisted of seventy-five ships of the line, with forty +others in reserve; 281 lesser craft were in commission +and a few in reserve.</p> + +<p>The intentions of Spain had long been mistrusted +in England. As a precaution, the Spanish treasure fleet +was attacked without warning, and over a million +pounds’ worth of booty secured. Spain, thereupon, +made her intentions clear, and declared war. A few +lesser ships changed hands during the year; but even +the minor happenings were of small account.</p> + +<p>In the year 1805, the number of British ships built, +building and ordered, stood at 181 ships of the line, and +532 lesser vessels besides troop-ships, store-ships and +harbour vessels. The <em>personnel</em> was 120,000 and the +Naval Estimates £15,035,630.</p> + +<p>Napoleon’s “Army of Invasion” now amounted to +a nominal 150,000 men<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> in the Boulogne district alone, +men all trained in embarking and disembarking. The +famous “Let me be master of the Channel but for six +hours” had been uttered.<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> If ever invasion were +seriously contemplated it was so in this year 1805.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span></p> + +<p>There followed those well-known operations—the +“drawing away of Nelson,” of which so much had been +written.</p> + +<p>In substance, Napoleon quite understood the +situation so far as Nelson was concerned. He understood +that Nelson’s fleet did not watch Toulon closely. +He understood that if Villeneuve came out from Toulon +when Nelson was not close by, Nelson would blindly +seek him, probably in the wrong direction.</p> + +<p>In this, and up to a certain point beyond, Napoleon +was entirely correct. But he made one error. He +regarded Nelson as a fool. In estimating Nelson to be +easily outwitted he was not perhaps far wrong; but +beyond that, he failed to understand the man with +whom he had to deal.</p> + +<p>It was these qualities of Nelson that rendered any +invasion hopeless. Nelson had seen enough to know that +the fighting value of the enemy was small, and that for +him to attack at all costs and all hazards meant no +hazard to the result. With one single idea, to find the +enemy and destroy him, he was just the one enemy for +whom Napoleon’s genius had no answering move.</p> + +<p>Villeneuve got out of Toulon on January 20th. He +cruised about, Nelson cruising elsewhere looking for him. +Eventually, Villeneuve, damaged by a gale, returned to +Toulon, whence he presently emerged again on March +29th, and sailed for the West Indies. Ten days after he +had done so, Nelson learned that the French had passed +Gibraltar on April 8th; but delayed by contrary winds +and lack of information, the British fleet was a long way +behind. As for Villeneuve, he picked up six Spaniards +at Cadiz, and went to the West Indies with seventeen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span> +ships of the line. Nelson followed far behind with ten. +He pressed on so hard, however, that he reached +Barbadoes on June 4th, the same day that Villeneuve, not +so very far away, left Martinique, where he had been lying.</p> + +<p>Therefrom, Nelson sailed south to Trinidad, off which +he arrived at the same time as Villeneuve, sailing north, +came off Antigua.</p> + +<p>On June 11th, Villeneuve (whose crews were already +sick) set out to return to Europe. Two days later, +Nelson, who had gone north again, followed suit.</p> + +<p>These hole and corner movements, impossible to-day, +are not of much interest, save in so far as they indicate +the certainty of information in these days and the +uncertainty in those.</p> + +<p>The “decoyed away fleet” idea has nothing in it, +because in any such scheme Villeneuve could surely either +have doubled back when half-way, or in any case would +not have remained in the West Indies.</p> + +<p>Nelson sent ahead fast frigates, with information +that Villeneuve was returning; consequently arrangements +for his reception were made. Off Finisterre, +Villeneuve encountered Calder, and an indecisive action +resulted. Two Spanish ships were captured. The +following day, Villeneuve attempted to attack, but wind +and weather prevented. On the third day the wind +shifted, but Calder failed to attack. For this he was +subsequently court-martialled and severely reprimanded.</p> + +<p>Nelson, meanwhile, touched Gibraltar,<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> then proceeded +north to join Cornwallis off Brest, and thence +to England in his flagship <i>Victory</i>. Villeneuve, having +picked up a few more ships at Ferrol, making his total<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span> +force twenty-nine sail, put into Cadiz,<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> off which Collingwood +maintained a weary blockade of him.</p> + +<figure id="i_173" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;"> + <img src="images/i_173.jpg" width="2450" height="1377" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">BATTLE OF TRAFALGAR. 1805. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Early in September, news reached England that +Villeneuve was at Cadiz, and Nelson left Southsea Beach +on September 14th, sailing next day.</p> + +<p>Collingwood, off Cadiz, had been reinforced up to +twenty-four sail. A martinet officer of the old type, it +is likely enough that had Villeneuve come out, he might +have done something against the worn-out blockaders. +The arrival of Nelson, on September 28th, changed all +this. Collingwood’s red tape restrictions were countermanded, +and the spirit of the entire fleet changed +accordingly. As usual, Nelson spared no effort to keep +the men fit and healthy.</p> + +<p>On the 19th October, Villeneuve came out—driven +thereto by threats from Napoleon. As Napoleon had +broken up his Boulogne camp on August 26th and by +now had the greater part of that army in Germany, his +forcing Villeneuve to sea is one of those mysteries which +can never be fathomed. He acted in the teeth of naval +advice, and there are few more pathetic pictures in history +than the disgraced Villeneuve putting to sea to known +certain defeat, endeavouring to fire his men with hope.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a></p> + +<p>On the 20th October, the Franco-Spanish fleet was +at sea with thirty-three ships of the line, the British +consisting of twenty-seven. Nelson let the enemy get +clear of the land, and then on October 21st, attacked +them off Trafalgar.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span></p> + +<p>Of this battle so much has been written that any +detailed description here is superfluous. To this day, +the historians dispute as to what the exact tactics were, +and it is doubtful whether anything will ever get beyond +Professor Laughton’s summary in his <i>Nelson</i>. Here the +most emphasis is laid on the fact that in his memorandum +of October 9th, Nelson expected to handle forty ships +against a still larger hostile force. All these matters are, +however, but for the academicians. The main facts are +that Nelson correctly gauged the inability and gunnery +inefficiency of the enemy and sailed down on them in +two lines ahead, they lying in line abreast—a position +which, had they been able to shoot well, promised them +victory better than any other.</p> + +<p>As an exhibition of tactics, Trafalgar was not even +original—Rodney in the past had done something very +similar. On no principle of “theory” was Nelson right. +Simply and solely his genius lay in ability to calculate +the human element, to lay his plans accordingly, and to +achieve certain victory on that!</p> + +<p>Villeneuve did all that was possible; and several of +the French ships fought with remarkable courage. But +nothing could avail them against Nelson’s understanding +that it was quite safe to take this risk of sailing end-on +into them and then overwhelming a part of them with +superior numbers.</p> + +<p>After some four hours’ fighting, eighteen of the +enemy, including Villeneuve’s flagship, the <i>Bucentaure</i>, +were captured, and the rest drew off.</p> + +<p>Nelson himself, within about twenty minutes of +falling foul of the enemy, was mortally wounded by a +musket shot from the tops of the <i>Redoubtable</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span></p> + +<p>The losses to the allied Franco-Spanish fleet at +Trafalgar in killed and wounded were extraordinarily +heavy, averaging something like 300 or more per ship. +In one, the casualties amounted to five in every six. +This enormous loss was due to the raking broadsides of +the English vessels, which wrought terrible destruction.</p> + +<p>Nelson’s last order had been to anchor. Collingwood, +on whom the command now devolved, saw no object in +this; to which is generally attributed the fact that most +of the prizes were lost in a gale that followed the battle. +Some were wrecked, some re-captured by the enemy +off Cadiz, some destroyed to prevent re-capture. All +told, only four of the eighteen prizes ever reached +Gibraltar. These were the <i>Swiftsure</i> (an ex-British ship), +and three of the Spaniards, <i>Bahama</i>, <i>San Ildefonso</i>, and +<i>San Juan Nepomuceno</i>. All were old and worthless.</p> + +<p>From the battle, Dumanoir had escaped with four +French ships. With these he made for the Mediterranean, +but being intercepted by Sir R. Strachan, was compelled +to surrender his damaged ships after a short action. +One of the captured ships, the <i>Duguay Trouin</i>, was +renamed <i>Implacable</i>, and till quite recently was a +training ship at Devonport.</p> + +<p>Although some considerable Franco-Spanish naval +force still existed, it was now so scattered in different +parts, and so blockaded, that danger from it was no +longer to be apprehended. In December, however, two +divisions of the Brest fleet, the first consisting of five +ships of the line and three other vessels, under Vice-Admiral +Leissegues, and the second of six ships of the line +and four other vessels, under Rear-Admiral Willaumez, +evaded the blockade. They were destined for the West +Indies and the Cape respectively. On February 6th,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span> +1806, off San Domingo, Leissegues was met by Sir John +Duckworth, and seven ships. Three of the French were +captured and two others were run ashore and destroyed. +Willaumez eventually reached the West Indies also, but +did not accomplish anything of moment, and having lost +four ships, finally returned to France.</p> + +<p>In 1806, the British <em>personnel</em> was 120,000. Estimates +£18,864,341. Fleet 551 ships, of which 104 were of the +line. This year was mainly remarkable for the extraordinary +inaction displayed by the French, who lay +sheltered in creeks and inlets along the coast. However, +some of their frigates were captured by boat attack.</p> + +<p>For 1807, the <em>personnel</em> was 120,000, afterwards +increased to 130,000. Estimates £17,400,000. Seven +hundred and six ships in service, 104 of them being of +the line.</p> + +<p>In this year a special system of education for shipwright +apprentices and the establishment of a school of +naval architecture was recommended. It was not, +however, until some years later that anything was +actually done in this direction, the old haphazard system +of construction being still followed.</p> + +<p>In this same year the “18-gun brig-sloop” appeared, +no less than twenty-five being ordered. These vessels +were of about 380 tons, and carried sixteen thirty-two-pounder +carronades and two long six-pounders. They +were found to be extremely useful vessels. During this +year the Turkish and Italian Navies were suspected of +being likely to pass into the hands of France. Sir John +Duckworth was, therefore, sent to Turkey with orders to +force the Dardanelles and demand the surrender of the +Turkish fleet to the British. Failing this he was to +capture or destroy it and to bombard Constantinople.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span></p> + +<p>On the 19th of February, the fleet ran through +the unprepared Dardanelles without much injury. +It was fired on by a small Turkish squadron, most +of the ships of which were destroyed. The neighbourhood +of Constantinople was reached; but the +Turks refused to agree to what was demanded and +busied themselves with strengthening the fortifications +of the Dardanelles.</p> + +<p>On the 1st of March, Duckworth, having done +nothing, save realise his awkward situation, came down +through the Dardanelles, running the gauntlet of guns +which threw stones weighing nearly half-a-ton, some +considerable damage being done to such ships as were +hit. These guns were, in some cases, holes bored in the +rocks filled with powder and stones; others were genuine +“monster guns.”</p> + +<p>Operations against Copenhagen, under Admiral +Gambier, were opened on a considerably larger scale. +He had under him eighteen ships of the line, forty lesser +vessels and nearly 400 transports. This fleet arrived +early in August, and demanded the surrender of the +Danish Navy until such time as peace should come about, +when it would be returned to its original owners. This +being refused, troops were landed, and on the 1st of +September, Copenhagen was bombarded and presently +surrendered. Fifteen ships of the line and ten other +vessels were given up, and one ship, which tried to +escape, was captured. Three ships of the line were found +building; two of these were taken to pieces and carried +away; the third, being more nearly completed, was +destroyed. All the naval stores were also brought away +from the dockyard, necessitating the employment of no +less than ninety-two of the transports.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span></p> + +<p>Only five of the prizes were considered worthy of +taking into the British service. Of these, one was the +<i>Christian VII</i> (eighty), of 2,131 tons. This ship was so +good that four copies of her were built for the British +Navy.</p> + +<p>In the winter of this year, Sir Sydney Smith, with +nine ships of the line, blockaded the Tagus and demanded +the surrender of the Portuguese fleet, or else the +retirement to South America of the Prince Regent, who +naturally enough (and as had been expected) accepted +the latter condition and went to South America with the +bulk of his fleet. During the year, Curacoa was surprised +and captured from the Dutch; St. Thomas and Santa +Croix were taken from the Danes. The French being +now in possession of Portugal, Madeira was also taken +possession of by the British.</p> + +<p>Losses to the extent of thirty-nine British ships +were sustained during this year, mostly by wreck; one +sloop, two brigs and six cutters being the only ships +captured by the enemy. At the end of 1807, Russia, +which had hitherto been an ally, declared war, owing to +the peace of Tilset. England, Austria and Sweden were +thus at war with the rest of the continent.</p> + +<p>Russia had eleven ships of the line under Senyavin +in the Mediterranean. Senyavin made a bolt for the +Baltic with most of them, but having got as far as the +Tagus found himself blockaded by Sir Sidney Smith.</p> + +<p>A squadron was sent under Samaurez to the Baltic +in June to co-operate with the Swedes against the +Russians who were in Rogerswick harbour. An attempt +was made to destroy the entire Russian fleet, but owing +to a strong boom the operation failed. The blockade<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span> +was continued for two months, after which the British +fleet retired.</p> + +<p>For 1808, the <em>personnel</em> was 130,000. Estimates, +£18,087,500. Ships of the Navy, 842; of which 189 were +of the line. Of these, seventy-six were 74-gun ships.</p> + +<p>Napoleon had been steadily renovating his Navy +ever since Trafalgar, and it now consisted of over sixty +ships of the line, besides at least twenty others completing.</p> + +<p>A certain increase of naval activity consequently +ensued, and early in the year Admiral Ganteaume, with +five ships of the line, escaped from Rochefort in a gale +during the absence of the blockading fleet and succeeded +in reaching Toulon. Here he was joined by five more +ships of the line and some frigates and transports. He +sailed again and effected the relief of Corfu and thence +returned to Toulon.</p> + +<p>In August, the Russian Admiral, Senyavin, who all +this time had been blockaded in the Tagus, offered to +surrender his ships to the British on condition that they +should be given back after the war and that he and his +men should be free to return to Russia. These terms +were agreed to.</p> + +<p>This year saw the launch of the <i>Caledonia</i> of 120 +guns, the largest ship yet built in England. She was of +2,616 tons. An interesting item in connection with this +ship is that she was designed and ordered to be laid +down as long ago as 1794, but steps to build her were +not taken until eighteen years later.</p> + +<p>For 1809, the <em>personnel</em> was 130,000. Estimates, +£19,578,467. Ships of the Navy, 728; of which 113 +were of the line. In this year the maintenance allowance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span> +of the British fleet, which had been £3 15s. 0d. per man +per month, was increased to £4 16s. 0d.</p> + +<p>In February, owing to a gale, the British fleet +blockading Brest had to withdraw; and Willaumez +came out with the object of collecting a few ships at +Rochefort and Lorient, and then sailing to relieve +Martinique. He was, however, found and blockaded in +the Basque roads, and attack on him by fire-ships was +suggested.</p> + +<p>In April, Lord Cochrane was sent out with a squadron +to attack by fire-ships. Three of these were the special +invention of Cochrane. The hold of each was filled with +powder casks and sand, covered in with big booms and +topped with hand grenades and rockets.</p> + +<p>On the 11th, Cochrane, leading the expedition with +one of his “explosion vessels,” went in to attack; to +discover that the enemy had anticipated things and +built a boom. This, however, was struck by Cochrane’s +vessel, which was then blown up, shattering the boom to +pieces. The rest of the fire-ships came down through the +gap, but were badly handled in the majority of cases, +and no French ships were fallen on board of. The +“explosion vessels” had, however, created such a panic +that the French ships cut their cables and drifted ashore, +except one ship, which was grappled with, but succeeded +in disengaging.</p> + +<p>When day broke, the French ships were seen to be +mostly ashore, and Cochrane urged immediate attack. +Gambier, however, displayed considerable lack of energy, +consequent on which many of the French got off. Three +ships were, however, captured and destroyed, and two +others were destroyed by the French themselves.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span></p> + +<p>Cochrane thought that it should have been possible +to destroy the whole fleet, and made use of his being a +Member of Parliament publicly to oppose the vote of +thanks to Lord Gambier. Gambier then demanded a +court-martial, which was undoubtedly “packed.” He +was acquitted; and Cochrane, one of the most brilliant +officers of the Navy of that day, was compelled to leave +the Service. Until his re-instatement, many years afterwards, +he spent his career in the service of the revolting +Spanish colonies in South America.</p> + +<p>Napoleon had long been fortifying and improving +the Scheldt, and in 1809 the decision to destroy it was +come to. The expedition, which left England on the +28th July, consisted of thirty-seven ships of the line, +thirty-nine frigates or intermediates, fifty-four sloops or +brigs, together with 400 transports, carrying 39,000 +troops, under the Earl of Chatham. The fleet was +commanded by Rear-Admiral Sir Richard Strachan.</p> + +<p>The object of the expedition was to destroy all ships +there and demolish the dockyard and fortifications. +But, owing to delays, the French had ample warning of +the impending attack, and put all their ships up the river +out of reach. It was also found impracticable to attack +the dockyard or Antwerp. Flushing was therefore +blockaded, and surrendered on the 15th August. One +thirty-eight gun frigate was captured, and a frigate and +a brig building in the dockyard were burned, while the +timbers of a seventy-four gun ship that was building +were carried away to Woolwich, and a ship, afterwards +named the <i>Chatham</i>, built from them.</p> + +<p>Walcheren was also captured. Twelve thousand +troops were left garrisoning Walcheren. Of these, nearly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span> +half died of disease in the swamps, after which the place +was evacuated.</p> + +<p>In October, a French squadron with transports +slipped out of Toulon during the absence of Collingwood, +who was blockading the port with fifteen ships of the line +and a number of smaller vessels. On the evening of +October 24th, three French ships of the line and a frigate +were sighted and chased. On the following morning two +of the ships of the line were driven ashore, where their +crew set fire to them and abandoned them; the other +ship of the line and the frigate managed to get into +Cette, whence they subsequently got safely back to Toulon. +Of the convoy, the transports and the smaller vessels, +which had made up the rest of the French squadron, some +were captured, the others ran into Spanish harbours and +took shelter under the fortifications. Eleven of these had +taken shelter at Rosas, and were cut out by boat attack.</p> + +<p>The remaining naval operations of the year were the +capture of Senegal, Cayenne, and French Guiana.</p> + +<p>In the Baltic, the Russian fleet was blockaded. One +or two boat actions were the only incidents of the year.</p> + +<p>For the year 1810, the <em>personnel</em> rose to 145,000, +and the total estimates amounted to £18,975,120. The +number of ships in commission were 108 ships of the line +and 556 lesser vessels.</p> + +<p>In the Mediterranean, Collingwood resigned his +command on account of ill-health, and died on his way +back to England. He was succeeded by Sir Charles +Cotton. There were no incidents of moment, for though +the French had been busily building ships inside Toulon, +the only use made of these was one or two small sorties +when the blockading force happened to be weak.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span></p> + +<p>In the Channel, French frigates and large privateers +were very active. Of the privateers, several were +captured or destroyed, but the frigates held their own.</p> + +<p>Abroad, Guadaloupe was captured by a combined +naval and military attack in a series of operations in the +Antilles.</p> + +<p>In July, the Isle of Bourbon was captured, and +following this an attack was then made on Mauritius, +which was the head-quarters of a considerable French +privateer fleet. The first attack was delivered by +Captain Pym on Grand Port. He had with him four +frigates. Two French frigates and two smaller vessels +lay inside.</p> + +<p>On August 22nd, the first attempt was made, but +owing to Captain Pym’s ship, the <i>Sirius</i>, getting aground, +it was delayed until next day. In the next day’s attempt, +both the <i>Sirius</i> and <i>Magicienne</i> ran aground, almost +out of range. The other two ships, <i>Iphigenia</i> and +<i>Nereide</i>, got in and drove the French ships ashore. +Firing from them, however, still continued, and ultimately +the <i>Nereide</i> had to surrender. The two British ships +which had run ashore were blown up by orders of +Captain Pym. The <i>Iphigenia</i> succeeded in getting out +of the harbour with the crews of these two ships, but +while warping out was surprised and also captured by +another French squadron. The entire attack proved a +failure. The incident is mainly of interest as being the +only instance in the war in which a British squadron +sustained defeat.</p> + +<p>Following upon this, a more serious attack was made +on Mauritius; 10,000 troops were embarked, accompanied +by one ship of the line and twelve frigates. A landing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span> +was effected at the end of November, and the island +subsequently surrendered.</p> + +<p>In the Baltic, Sweden, which had hitherto been a +British ally, joined the French side. The Russian fleet +was still blockaded by Admiral Samaurez, but as the +Tsar was known to be wavering in his allegiance to +Napoleon, no actual hostilities took place against him, +and during the greater part of the year British merchant +ships freely traded with Russian ports.</p> + +<p>When peace was declared between England and +Russia, the ships of Senyavin which had been captured +in the Tagus were restored, but they contributed nothing +to naval history. During the year, five frigates were +captured from the French and two British frigates were +captured by the enemy. British losses of the year included +one ship of the line and seven frigates wrecked or blown +up to prevent capture, as well as some smaller vessels.</p> + +<p>For the year 1811, the <em>personnel</em> remained at 145,000. +The Estimates were £19,822,000, and the number of +ships in commission were 107 of the line, and 513 of +inferior rates.</p> + +<p>A considerable blockading squadron was still maintained +off Toulon, but the French ships there, though +they occasionally came out into the Road, were extremely +careful to avoid any engagement.</p> + +<p>On March 13th, a small battle, which took place off +Lissa between six French frigates, accompanied by five +smaller vessels, under Dubourdieu, and a British squadron +consisting of three frigates and a twenty-two gun ship, +commanded by Captain William Hoste, indicates very +clearly the inferiority to which the French fleet had +fallen. One French ship was driven ashore and two +others surrendered.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span></p> + +<p>This sort of thing was in no way unique, and a single +ship action of the same year is an even more startling +example. The British sloop <i>Atlanta</i> (eighteen) met and +engaged the <i>Entrepennant</i> (thirty-two). After an engagement +lasting two-and-a-half hours the French frigate +struck, having lost thirty men killed and wounded, the +total loss to the British ship being only five men wounded.</p> + +<p>In this year the island of Java was captured from +the Dutch, and there were a number of small actions in +the Channel, mostly the attacks of praames on small +British ships. The total loss to the enemy consisted of +three French frigates captured, two French frigates +destroyed and one wrecked. Two Venetian frigates were +also captured. The losses to the British Navy during the +same period were much more heavy: three ships of the +line, five frigates and an eighteen-gun brig-sloop were +wrecked. Three small ships were captured and various +other small vessels became unserviceable, the total loss in +these amounting to fifty-one.</p> + +<p>In January, 1811, the report of the Commission of +1806 was first brought into operation by the introduction +of apprentices to be trained at the Royal Naval College, +at Portsmouth. This was known as the School of Naval +Architecture, and was the first genuine attempt at +introducing science into naval construction. Students +were given three days technical work a week and three +days theoretical in mathematics and theory, under +Dr. Inman. From the School of Naval Architecture the +students were sent to the Navy Office, and also to the +various dockyards, for the study of routine. Unfortunately, +however, the experiment was received with disfavour +by many of the old-type of dockyard officer, with the +result that most of the students were either not proficient<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span> +or else became disgusted and found employment +elsewhere.</p> + +<p>For the year 1812, the <em>personnel</em> still remained at +145,000. The Estimates were £19,305,759. Ships in +commission amounted to 102 ships of the line and 482 +lesser vessels, with a certain number of ships in reserve. +At and about this period various experimental ships +were built, of which the most interesting was the floating +battery <i>Spanker</i>. She was of somewhat amateur construction; +intended to carry guns of the largest size and +mortars for bombardment and harbour defence. The +main deck had an over-hang fitted with scuttles, down +through which guns could be fired. The idea of this was, +that supposing she were attacked by boats, these would +go under the over-hang and very easily be destroyed. +In practice, however, there was so much miscalculation +that the over-hang was only a few inches above the +water-line. The ship was also found to be so unmanageable +that she was very shortly relegated to +harbour service.</p> + +<p>The blockades of Toulon and the Scheldt were +continued, but nothing of much naval interest took place. +A small French squadron broke out of Lorient, but after +cruising about for three weeks and making a few prizes, +returned to Brest and was blockaded there.</p> + +<p>In the Baltic, peace was made with Sweden, and +war definitely broke out between France and Russia, +this being the war which culminated in Napoleon’s +disastrous invasion of Russia.</p> + +<p>In the Channel and in the Mediterranean a number +of single ship actions took place, and one ship, the <i>Rivoli</i> +(seventy-four), built at Venice for the French Navy, was +captured. This particular ship held out for 4½ hours, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span> +at the time of her surrender had only two guns left +available and fifty per cent. of her crew were out of +action. She was captured by the <i>Victorious</i> (seventy-four).</p> + +<p>The most important naval event of the year was the +American declaration of war against England. The war +had been prepared for some time, and the American +Navy, such as there was of it, was in a very efficient and +up-to-date state. It contained no ships of the line, but +a number of very heavily-armed frigates, manned by +well-trained crews. In the single ship actions that +ensued the Americans were almost invariably victorious.</p> + +<p>For the year 1813, the <em>personnel</em> was 14,000; the +Estimates £20,096,709. Ships in commission, 102 of the +line and 468 inferior vessels. The problem of meeting +the American frigates was very seriously considered +and a certain number of large ships were razeed with +a view to meeting the American frigates on more even +terms.</p> + +<p>The most famous event of the year was the fight +between the <i>Shannon</i> (British) and the <i>Chesapeake</i> +(American). The former was rated at thirty-eight, but +actually carried fifty-two guns. The latter was rated at +thirty-six, but carried fifty. She had done well, but at +the time of the fight had just been re-commissioned with +a new crew, of whom a number were British deserters +and some forty were Portuguese. The <i>Shannon</i>, on the +other hand, had been in commission for some years; +and Captain Broke had assiduously trained his men in +gunnery, having anticipated the “dotter” of to-day.</p> + +<p>Being in this state of efficiency he came off Boston +and sent in a challenge to the captain of the <i>Chesapeake</i>. +Whether the challenge was actually received or not, the +<i>Chesapeake</i> came out accompanied by yachts crowded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span> +with sightseers and a cargo of handcuffs for the anticipated +British prisoners.</p> + +<p>Firing was not opened until the two frigates were +only fifty yards apart. It lasted only about ten minutes, +when the <i>Chesapeake</i> being almost blown to pieces, the +<i>Shannon</i> fell aboard her and carried her by boarding in +another five.</p> + +<p>The rest of the war with America, which lasted well +on into 1815, is of no great naval interest except for the +side issues involved. In a series of actions, the American +big gun theory was triumphantly demonstrated, and +more than once small British squadrons were wiped out. +No material result, however, followed in consequence. +On the other hand, Washington was attacked in 1814, +and the public buildings burned, again without much +material result. The real interest of the war lies in side +issues.</p> + +<p>The submarine appeared in this war, but the +American authorities refused to give it any official +sanction, and attempts made against British ships were +by private individuals who had ignored the express +orders of the American authorities. None of the +experimenters were successful, but this was mainly a +matter of luck.</p> + +<p>A matter of greater interest was the construction of +an American war vessel, the <i>Fulton</i>. The <i>Fulton</i>—which +was driven by a steam paddle in the centre of the vessel, +and was armoured with wood so thick that none of the +shot of the period could get through it, was armed with +two 100-pounder guns on pivot mountings and carried +a ram shaped bow—can undeniably lay claim to being +the precursor of the <i>Monitor</i> or <i>Merrimac</i>, and also to +being the first steam warship. She took too long to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span> +complete, however, to take any part in the war; but had +the war continued, few British ships could have survived +her attacks, presuming her to have been seaworthy.</p> + +<figure id="i_191" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;"> + <img src="images/i_191.jpg" width="2454" height="1644" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">THE END OF AN OLD WARSHIP. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>To resume: 1813 as regards the French was not +productive of much in the way of naval operations. +The French had by now built so many new ships at +Toulon that they were actually superior to the blockading +British squadron. But they made no attempt to use +this superiority, and nothing resulted except a few small +skirmishes. A few insignificant captures were made on +the British side.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the year 1814, there were +ninety-nine ships of the line in commission and 495 lesser +vessels. The <em>personnel</em> amounted to 140,000, and the +estimates £19,312,000.</p> + +<p>A number of single ship actions took place between +frigates, and in most of these a considerable improvement +in French efficiency was noted. Nothing, however, was +done with the larger ships, and the war ultimately ended +with the deportation of Napoleon to Elba.</p> + +<p>No sooner was peace declared than the fleet was +greatly reduced and a large number of ships sold or +broken up. Nineteen ships of the line and ninety-three +other vessels were thus disposed of. The <em>personnel</em> for +the year 1815 was reduced to 70,000 for the first three +months and 90,000 for the remainder of the year. The +estimates stood at £17,032,700, of which £2,000,000 +was for the payment of debts.</p> + +<p>The re-appearance of Napoleon and the events +which culminated in the battle of Waterloo did not lead +to any naval operations, and with the final deportation +of Napoleon to St. Helena, a further reduction of the +fleet took place. The estimates sank to £10,114,345, and +considerable reductions of officers and men were made.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="VIII"><span id="toclink_194"></span>VIII.<br> + +<span class="subhead">GENERAL MATTERS IN THE PERIOD OF THE FRENCH WARS.</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Naval</span> uniform, as we understand it, first came into +use for officers in the days of George II,<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> who so +admired a blue and white costume of the Duchess +of Bedford that he decided then and there to dress his +naval officers in similar fashion. No very precise +regulations were, however, followed, and for many years +uniform was more or less optional or at the fancy of +the captain.</p> + +<p>The first uniform consisted of a blue coat, with white +cuffs and gold buttons. The waistcoat, breeches, and +stockings were white. The hat was the ordinary three-cornered +black hat of the period with some gold lace +about it and a cockade. Other officers wore uniforms +which were slight variants upon this: while as special +distinguishing marks only the captain (if over three +years’ seniority) wore epaulettes upon both shoulders. +A lieutenant wore one only.</p> + +<p>From time to time the uniform was altered slightly, +mostly as regards the cuffs and lapels; but enormous +latitude was allowed, and some officers even dressed as +seamen.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span></p> + +<p>There was no general uniform whatever for the men; +though circumstances led to the bulk of the men in any +one ship being dressed more or less alike.</p> + +<p>This was the result of the “slop chest.” This was +introduced about the year 1650, and amounted to nothing +more than a species of ready-made tailor ship at which +men at their own expense could obtain articles of clothing. +Later on it became compulsory for newly-joined men, +whose clothes were defective, to purchase clothing on +joining, to the tune of two months’ pay.</p> + +<p>These articles being supplied to a ship wholesale, +were naturally all alike, and so the men of one ship would +all be more or less uniformly attired. Men of another ship +might be dressed quite differently, though also more or +less like each other. But any idea of uniform as +“uniform,” right up to Trafalgar, was entirely confined +to one or two dandy captains, and they mainly only +considered their own boat’s crews.<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> Some fearful and +wonderful costumes of this kind are recorded.</p> + +<p>Uniform wearing of the “slop chest” variety was, +however, always regarded as the badge of the pressed man +and jail bird. The “prime seaman” who joined decently +clad was allowed to wear his own clothes, and these were +decided by fashion. There were dudes in the Navy in +those days, and contemporary art records a good deal of +variety. In our own day, when exactitude is at a +premium, it has erred badly enough to depict bluejackets +with moustachios.<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> In the old days it was probably +even more careless still. Consequently everything as to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span> +the costume of men in the Nelson era required to be +accepted with caution. It is, however, clear from the +more reliable literary and descriptive sources that the +dandy sailor existed very freely. The “prime seaman” +loved to hall-mark himself by his costume.</p> + +<p>On board ship in dirty weather he wore anything and +his best when coming up for punishment.<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> In a general +way fashion always worked from the officers’ uniform, +with fancy additions. A natty blue jacket was the +essential feature, with as many brass buttons as the owner +could afford. A red or yellow waistcoat seems to have +been <i lang="fr">a la mode</i>. Trousers, preferably of white duck, but +sometimes of blue, were also “the fancy.” Sometimes +these were striped. In all cases they were ample, free, +and flowing, as they are at the present day. Convenience +of tucking up on wet decks is the usual explanation; +but there is good reason to believe that idle fashion of +the Nelson days had just as much or more to do with the +modern bluejacket’s trousers.</p> + +<p>The quaint little top hat of the midshipman was +generally worn by the Lower Deck dandy. A pig tail +was also a <i lang="la">sine qua non</i> during the period of the Second +Great War.</p> + +<p>The origin of the pigtail is wrapped in some mystery. +It has been variously ascribed to copying the French +Navy<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a> and to imitating the Marines, who wore wonderfully +greased pigtails at this period.</p> + +<p>To complete the rig the seamen used to decorate +themselves with coloured ribbons let into their clothes.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span> +They lived a hard life, and much has been written upon +the subject. But the evidence generally tends to prove +that the “prime seaman” as a rule had a far better time +than those who (failing to recognise that conditions +have altered to-day) appear to realise.<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> The lack of +liberty, entailed by the presence of so many men who +would assuredly desert on half a chance, was so general +and so long-standing that it is doubtful whether it was +felt to any really great extent. Customs cover most +things.</p> + +<p>To our modern ideas the punishments afloat were +horribly brutal; but here again it is necessary to +remember the difference in era. Floggings and kindred +punishments were plentiful enough ashore; and there is +a good deal of evidence to indicate that they were taken +as “all in the day’s work afloat.” The victim was usually +“doped” by his messmates, who saved up part of their +rum tots for the purpose, and the horrors of the cat have +undoubtedly been somewhat exaggerated. It was undeniably +brutal and cruel; but, to select a homely +simile, so were dental methods a few years ago. Our +fathers submitted to things in this direction which none +of us would, or, for that matter, could stand nowadays. +The bulk of contemporary evidence is that the (to our +eyes) brutal punishments of the Navy of a hundred odd +years ago were never regarded as serious grievances by +those who stood to undergo them.</p> + +<p>The actual grievances revolved entirely around the +administration of undeserved punishments. A certain +number of captains misused their powers and prerogatives, +but only a small percentage did so. At no time does the +average captain appear to have been a brutal bully.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span> +This is, however, to be qualified by the midshipmen, of +whom a certain number deliberately bullied men into +doing things for which they got brutally punished +afterwards. But outside this the conditions were by no +means so horrible as generally depicted. The real +sufferers were the pressed landsmen, who certainly +learned to be seamen in a very hard school.</p> + +<p>It is necessary, however, even here to remember the +times and the conditions. This view is borne out by the +Great Mutiny. The mutineers, even at the Nore, never +demanded the abolition of the cat. When trouble was +connected with it in any way, it was over its unreasonable +use, as, for instance, in the insensate flogging of the last +two men off the rigging, which led to the Mutiny in the +<i>Hermione</i>. This—which entailed punishing the smartest +men since these had furthest to go—goaded the “prime +seamen” to desperation and sympathy with the landsmen +element afloat, which was ever in a semi-mutinous +condition. It is impossible to hold that Captain Pigot +of the <i>Hermione</i> did not deserve his fate. But Pigots +were comparatively rare, and captains like Nelson by no +means scarce. Nelson had no hesitation in flogging men, +but he flogged justly, and no troubles ever occurred in +any ship commanded by him. For that matter it was +characteristic of the time that a captain might be a +Tartar, and yet be quite popular with his crew so long +as he was just. The “prime seamen” who formed the +nucleus of the ship’s company realised the necessity of +severe measures and strict discipline in order to tame +the human ullage which made up the rest of the crew.</p> + +<p>In this connection it is interesting to note that +towards the end of the period there began to creep in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span> +the commencement of a later classification of ratings not +liable to corporal punishment.</p> + +<p>Had life afloat in the days of the Great War been +quite as terrible as it is often depicted as having been, +the volunteer element of trained seamen could hardly +have existed, nor could the glamour of the sea have +brought so many raw volunteers as it did. When a ship +was commissioned, the first step was advertising for men. +The advertisements were specious and alluring enough; +but the captain’s character generally had most influence +on the response; and all the essential seamen element, +unless they had spent all their money, were pretty wary +as to who they shipped with.</p> + +<p>To be sure it did not take the seaman long to lose his +money. On a ship paying off he received a considerable +accumulated sum, and every kind of shark and harpy was +on the lookout to relieve him of it. He got gloriously +drunk and so remained while the money lasted, and in +this condition the press-gang often got him.</p> + +<p>The press-gang was a legalised form of naval +conscription. In theory any seafaring man who could +be laid hands on might be taken; in practice all was +fish that came to the press-gang’s net.</p> + +<p>The press-gang, armed with cudgels and cutlasses, +used to operate at night, generally in the naval towns,<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a> +but at times also further afield. It laid hands upon all +and sundry, hitting them over the head if they resisted.</p> + +<p>A cargo secured, the men were taken on board and +kept between decks under an armed guard pending +examination by the captain and surgeon. Certain people, +such as apprentices or some merchant seamen, were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span> +exempt and had to be liberated. Badly diseased men +were also let loose again. Verminous and dirty folk were +scrubbed with a brutality which created subsequent +cleanly habits. Their clothes were either fumigated or +else thrown away altogether, and fresh clothing supplied +from the “slop chest” at so much off their pay.</p> + +<p>If within a fortnight the pressed man cared to call +himself a volunteer he received a bounty; but, whether +he volunteered<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> or not, once aboard the ship there he +remained till death or the paying off of the ship years +later. It was this confinement to the ship which led to +so much agitation, and was made one of the principal +grievances of the mutineers at Spithead.</p> + +<p>On the side of the authorities it has to be remembered +that had any man been allowed ashore he would certainly +never have been seen again, at any rate, so long as he +had any money. In most fleets also, an attempt at a +substitute was made by allowing ship to ship visiting. +Such visits invariably resulted in drunken bouts and subsequent +floggings. Nelson went further—he instituted +theatricals on shipboard. It is generally clear that—very +crudely, of course—the authorities were not blind to the +desirability of relieving the tedium of imprisonment on +board ship.</p> + +<p>The feeding of the men in the days of the Great War +is generally considered to have been villainous. It was +one of the causes of the Mutiny; but there is some reason +to believe that it was not invariably bad. Rodney’s +fleet is said to have been excellently provisioned, and +much of what has been written about “thieving pursers” +in the past is now known to be mythical. It was a +classical legend that the purser stole and swindled with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span> +bad food. He might do so, and many did. But all did +not, either from honesty or because they did not get the +chance. Under Nelson or Rodney an unscrupulous +purser stood to have a very bad time indeed, and there +were others very keenly alive to the fact that good feeding +and efficiency went hand in hand. The bad food at the +time of the mutinies seem to have been a feature of that +particular time, and even so due rather to mismanagement +than much else. For the rest, the real culprits were +economists on shore, who had no connection whatever +with the Fleet, and were merely interested in husbanding +the financial resources of the country.</p> + +<p>The provisions as made were almost uniformly good, +and the stories of unscrupulous contractors who, in league +with the pursers, foisted inferior food on the Fleet, may +mostly be dismissed. Such cases occurred now and again, +but comparatively rarely. “Rogues in authority” were +mainly mythical. There are yarns by the score. There +are corresponding yarns to-day, quite as plentiful, which +the careless historian of the future will no doubt swallow. +For example, at the present day it is an article of faith +with every bluejacket that the first lieutenant pockets odd +sixpences out of the canteen, and nothing ever can or +ever will remove the impression.</p> + +<p>It is absolutely absurd; but within the last ten +years I have had it chapter and verse all about the +peculation of 1s. 4d. by a first lieutenant whose private +income ran well into five figures! It is a sea-legend so +hoary that bluejackets honour it, no matter how +ridiculously improbable. The purser of the days of the +Great War was not perhaps entirely clean handed, but +as Commander Robinson has pointed out,<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> even at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span> +Spithead Mutiny, when the provision question was very +much to the fore, the mutineers did not complain of the +purser, but of the system and regulations. It was +people on shore, not the man afloat, who, when it came +to the point, mixed up the instrument with the handlers +thereof.</p> + +<p>The Spithead trouble, which was purely naval (the +Nore Mutiny was more or less political) arose entirely, so +far as food was concerned, out of the economists already +referred to. Vast stores of provisions had been accumulated, +and many were going bad. Pursers received very +strict orders to use up the old “likely to decay soon” +before touching the new. The result was the issue of +decayed pork, stinking cheese, and mildewed biscuits to +an unprecedented degree. A badness that had hitherto +been more or less occasional chanced just about the +Mutiny period to be general.</p> + +<p>The men were by no means starved or badly fed, +presuming the food to be good. The usual scale was +somewhat as follows:—A daily issue of a pound of biscuit +and a gallon of beer or else pint of wine; and when +these were exhausted, one gill of Navy rum diluted with +three of water twice a day. On Tuesdays and Saturdays +an issue of 2lbs. of beef was made; on Sundays and +Thursdays 1lb. of pork. Over the week the issue of +other articles was 2lbs. pease, 1½lbs. oatmeal, 6ozs. of +butter, an equal amount of sugar, and 12ozs. of cheese +and half-a-pint of vinegar nominally per man; but +actually every four men took the provisions of six. Nine +pounds of meat a week could hardly be called starvation +fare even to-day, and in those times it was an extraordinarily +liberal diet for men who at home would not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span> +have had anything like it.<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a> Except in cases with +admirals like Collingwood (who in the matter of understanding +the ratio of health to efficiency was about the +most incompetent admiral the British Navy ever had), it +was generally seen to that, whenever possible, fresh +provisions could be purchased from traders who regularly +visited blockading fleets.</p> + +<p>Furthermore, rations were normally varied so far as +circumstances would permit, and when possible fresh beef +and mutton were substituted for the salt meat allowance. +Nelson went to almost extravagant lengths in these +directions; but the majority of other officers were not +far behind. Whatever hell the Lower Deck of the Fleet +entailed, the blame in hardly any case lay with the +officers, executive or otherwise, but entirely with civilian +officials and Members of Parliament with ideas of their +own about economy. All the reliable evidence is to the +effect that the responsible authorities desired their +fighting men to live (relatively speaking) like fighting +cocks, that the difference between the ideal and the real +was due to civilian influence, and that even so it was +only really thoroughly bad just before the Great Mutiny. +Had it been a regular thing the Mutinies would probably +never have happened, the men would have been too used +to the conditions to find in them a special cause of +complaint.</p> + +<p>The whole trouble in messing in the old days arose +out of quality, not quantity. The beef and pork were +almost invariably bad, owing to the system of using up +the old provisions first, with a view to economy. Every +ship carried tons of good provisions going bad, while<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span> +those already bad and decayed were being consumed. +Consequently the men starved in the midst of relative +plenty.</p> + +<p>It remains to add that the officers fared little +better.<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> On the whole, taking their general shore food +into consideration, it may be argued that they fared +worse. As a rule, they had to eat what the men ate, +a fact too often forgotten by those who believe that the +officers of those days generally peculated on provisions +for the men.</p> + +<p>Both aft and forward there was one consolation. +Liquor was plentiful enough for anyone who wanted to +be half seas over by eventime. So was the hard life +lived, with an occasional battle to break the monotony.</p> + +<p>To both officers and men battle seems to have been +the “beano” of to-day. Conditions on board were not +rosy enough to make life worth clinging to, while battle +meant a good time afterwards to those who got through +unscathed. There was only one terror—being wounded. +The horrors of the cockpit are beyond exaggeration. +The surgeons did their best. They were poorly paid +men<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> and expected to find their own instruments: only if +they could not did they borrow tools from the carpenter.<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a></p> + +<figure id="i_205" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;"> + <img src="images/i_205.jpg" width="2445" height="1639" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">A TRAFALGAR ANNIVERSARY. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>They heated their instruments before use so as +to lessen the shock of amputation; they doped their +patients with wine or spirit so far as might be. They<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span> +took all as they came in turn, whether officer or man. +If anyone seemed too badly wounded to be worth +attention they had him taken above and thrown +overboard. If, at a hasty glance, taking off an arm or +a leg, or both, seemed likely to promise a cure, they gave +the wounded man a tot of rum and a bit of leather to +chew, and set to work! The wounded who survived +were treated with a humanity which makes the “more +humanity to the wounded” of the Spithead mutineers a +little difficult to understand at first sight. They were +fed on delicacies; and anything out of the ordinary on +the wardroom table was always sent to them. They +also got all the officers’ wine.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, time in the sick bay was deducted +from their pay,<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> and they were liable to all kinds +of infectious diseases caught from the last patient.</p> + +<p>To satisfy the demands of the economists, lint was +forbidden and sponges restricted, so that a single sponge +might have to serve for a dozen wounded men. Blood-poisoning +was thus indiscriminately spread, and a +wounded man thus infected with the worst form of it, +was mulcted in his pay for medicines required. When +the Spithead mutineers demanded “more humanity to +the wounded” those were the things that probably +they had in mind. It has further to be remembered that +a man wounded too badly to be of any further use afloat +was flung ashore without pension or mercy. The +surgeons were fully as humane as their brethren ashore, +possibly much more so, from the mere fact that any +community of men flung together to sink or swim together +compels common sympathies. To the men the purser<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span> +was classically a thief, the surgeon a callous brute, the +officers generally brutes of another kind. This cheap +view of the situation has been perpetuated <i lang="la">ad lib</i>. But +all the best evidence is to the effect that, as a rule, and +save in exceptional cases, most of those on board a warship +pulled together, and that all strove to make the best +of things. Things to be made the best of were few, +no doubt, and the grumblers and growlers are the folk +who have left most records. Allowing for the different +era, similar growls can be found to-day. To-day the +contented man says nothing; the discontented says a +little, and outside sympathisers say a great deal. The +truth probably lies with the actually discontented’s +version somewhat discounted. In the days of the Great +War, the same fact probably obtained. Unquestionably +the seaman proper loved the sea and his duty, despite all +hardships and drawbacks. To this fact is to be attributed +the easy victories of the Great Wars, and, relatively to +corresponding shore life, sea life afloat can hardly have +been quite so black as most people delight to paint it.<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a></p> + +<p>The pay of the Navy of the period remains to be +mentioned. It ran as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> + +<ul> +<li>Captain—6s. to 25s. a day, according to the ship, plus +a variety of allowances.</li> +<li>Midshipmen—£2 to £2 15s. 6d. a month.</li> +<li>Surgeons—11s. to 18s. a day, with half-pay when +unemployed.</li> +<li>Assistant-Surgeons—4s. and 5s., with half-pay when +unemployed.</li> +<li>Chaplains—about 8s. 6d. a day, with allowances.</li> +<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span></li> +<li>Schoolmasters—£2 to £2 8s. a month, with bounties.</li> +<li>Boatswains—£3 to £4 16s. a month.</li> +<li>Boatswain’s Mate—£2 5s. 6d. a month.</li> +<li>Gunner—£1 16s. to £2 2s. a month.</li> +<li>Carpenter—£3 to £5 16s. a month, according to the ship.</li> +<li>Quartermaster—£2 5s. 6d. a month.</li> +<li>Sailmaker—£2 5s. 6d. a month.</li> +<li>Sailmaker’s Assistant—£1 18s. 6d. a month.</li> +<li>Master-at-Arms—£2 0s. 6d. to £2 15s. 6d. a month.</li> +<li>Ship’s Corporals—£2 2s. 6d. a month.</li> +<li>Cook—11s. 8d. a month and pickings.</li> +<li>Able Seaman—11s. a month (33s. a month after 1797).</li> +<li>Ordinary Seaman—9s. a month (25s. 6d. a month after 1797).</li> +<li>Landsman—7s. 6d. a month (23s. a month after 1797).</li> +<li>Ship’s Boy—13s. to 13s. 6d. a month.</li> +</ul> + +<p>As a rule the men received their pay in a lump when +the ship paid off. Hence those extraordinary scenes of +dissipation with which the story books have made us +sufficiently familiar. Jews<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> and women soon fleeced the +Tar, who was generally too drunk to know what he was +doing, there being dozens of willing hands ready to see +to it that he was well plied with liquor.</p> + +<h3><i>FLAGS.</i></h3> + +<p>In the year 1800 the Union flag was altered to its +present form by the incorporation of the red cross of St. +Patrick. This flag, the Union Jack, was used for flying +on the bowsprit,<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> and at the main masthead by an +Admiral of the Fleet. To hoist it correctly, <i>i.e.</i>, right<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span> +side up, was a special point of importance in the Fleet +of Nelson’s day, and many a foreigner seeking to use +British colours got bowled out from hoisting the flag +incorrectly, <i>i.e.</i>, without the greater width of white being +uppermost in the inner canton nearest the staff. To this +day many people on shore do the same.</p> + +<p>The ensign was coloured according as to whether the +Admiral was “of the white,” “blue,” or “red.” It was +flown, as till quite recently, from the mizzen peak.</p> + +<p>For battle purposes this variety ensign died out after +Trafalgar, where, in order to avoid confusion, Nelson +ordered all ships to fly the white ensign—he himself +being a Vice-Admiral of the white, while Collingwood was +Vice-Admiral of the blue. Trafalgar was thus the first +battle to be fought deliberately under the white ensign.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="IX"><span id="toclink_211"></span>IX.<br> + +<span class="subhead">THE BIRTH OF MODERN WARSHIP IDEAS.</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">In</span> 1816 took place the bombardment of Algiers, +whereby 1,200 Europeans who were in slavery +were released. None of these, however, proved +to be British subjects. A noticeable feature of the +bombardment was the heavy damage done by the large +ships engaged.</p> + +<p>For the year 1817 the <em>personnel</em> stood at 21,000 only. +Ships in commission were fourteen of the line and 100 +lesser craft. Two hundred and sixty-three (of which +eighty-four were of the line) were laid up “in ordinary” +and the remaining ships were condemned.</p> + +<p>In this year a new rating of ships was introduced. +Up till now the carronades had not been included in the +armament of ships. Under the new rating they were +included, and so the thirty-eight gun ship actually +carrying fifty-two guns appeared for the first time with +her proper armament.</p> + +<p>Although the Navy was so reduced, considerable +attention was paid to shipbuilding and improvement of +construction. Trussed frames were introduced, and a +variety of other inventions which had long been in use +in France. Much attention was paid to the strong +construction of the bow, with a view to resisting raking +fire.<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a> Sterns were also made circular to enable more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span> +guns to bear aft. A curious objection to this was made +on the grounds that in time of war it was the enemy +who would be in retreat and most in need of stern fire, +and that by the introduction of this into the British +Navy the enemy would copy and so have the advantage +of being better able to defend himself than heretofore! +It was, however, pointed out that perhaps war vessels +propelled by steam might be met with in blockades, and +that it would be extremely important to sail away from +these and be able to destroy them while so doing!</p> + +<p>The years 1818 and 1819 passed uneventfully. The +<em>personnel</em> was 20,000, and the estimates averaged +between six and seven million pounds. They remained +at about this figure for several years, and beyond some +slight operations in Burmah, in 1824, the British Navy +performed no war services till the year 1827. In the +Burmese operations, the <i>Diana</i>, a small steam paddle +vessel took part. It is also of some interest to record +that Captain Marryat, the naval novelist, commanded +the <i>Lorne</i> (twenty) in these operations.</p> + +<p>In 1827, the combined fleets of England, France +and Russia met those of the Turks and Egyptians at +Navarino, in connection with the war between Turkey +and Greece. The allied fleet consisted as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> + +<table id="t212"> +<tr> + <td class="tdl mid" rowspan="3">BRITISH</td> + <td class="tdc large3" rowspan="3">{</td> + <td class="tdl">Three ships of the line.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Four frigates.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Several other vessels.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl mid" rowspan="3">FRENCH</td> + <td class="tdc large3" rowspan="3">{</td> + <td class="tdl">Three ships of the line.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Two lesser vessels.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Two schooners.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl mid" rowspan="2">RUSSIAN</td> + <td class="tdc large2" rowspan="2">{</td> + <td class="tdl">Four ships of the line.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Four frigates.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The combined Turko-Egyptian fleet consisted of +three ships of the line, fifteen large frigates, eighteen +corvettes, and a number of gunboats, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span></p> + +<p>The Turkish fleet was anchored in the harbour. The +combined fleet sailed into the harbour and anchored to +leeward of the Turks. These fired upon some English +boats and a general action ensued, in which the greater +part of the Turko-Egyptian fleet was destroyed with the +loss of somewhere about 4,000 men. The Allies lost 650, +and the principal English ships were so damaged that +they had to be sent home for repairs.</p> + +<p>At and about this time, and right on for some years, +an enormous number of experiments were carried out +between ship and ship with a view to improving the +sailing qualities, and side by side with this, the question +of propulsion other than by sail was first seriously +considered. A certain number of small steam tugs had +been added to the Navy, there being no less than twenty-two +such built in the reign of George IV. Of these the +largest was built in 1835. Very little reliance was placed +on steam at first for any possibilities outside towing and +harbour work, and a great deal of energy was expended +in devices to enable ships to be moved by manual labour. +In place of the “sweeps” of ancient history, paddles were +fitted, and in 1829 the <i>Galatea</i> (forty-two) frigate was +thus moved at a speed of three knots in a dead calm.</p> + +<p>The <i>Galatea</i> was commanded by Captain, afterwards +Admiral Sir Charles, Napier, who so long ago as 1819 +had been concerned in financing an unsuccessful attempt +to run iron steamers on the Seine. The first ship in +which hand paddles were tried was the <i>Active</i>, frigate. +No success was met with, but Napier evolved a different +system for the <i>Galatea</i>. Those of the <i>Active</i> were worked +by the capstan; Napier installed a series of winches +along each side of the main deck. It took about two-thirds +of the ship’s company to work them.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span></p> + +<p>The earliest known use of steam was as long ago as +in the year 1543. The account of it was in the original +records which had been preserved in the Royal Archives +of Simancas, among the State Papers of the city of +Catalonia, and those of the Naval Secretary of War, in +the year 1543, and was extracted on the 27th August, 1825, +by the keeper, who signed his name “Tomas Gonzalez.”</p> + +<p>The inventor, a naval officer named Garay, never +revealed the secret of his invention, but mention is made +of a “cauldron of boiling water” and “wheels of +complicated movement on each side of the vessel.” He +succeeded in obtaining a speed of “two leagues in three +hours,” also “at least a league an hour” with his device, +fitted to a 200-ton vessel named <i>Trinidad</i>.<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a> Honours +were bestowed on Garay, but the monarch who had +patronised him, being busy with other matters, did not +follow up the invention. Otherwise much naval history +might have been different from what it is.</p> + +<p>In 1736, Jonathan Hulls took out a patent in +England for a stern wheel. It should be remembered +that at this time the question of means of propulsion +other than by sail was eagerly considered, and that +paddles came to be tried in the place of oars, with a view +to more continuity of action. Steam ideas somewhat +trended to the idea of sucking water in forward and +ejecting it aft. The screw propeller also was known +certainly at as early a date as the paddle.</p> + +<p>In 1789, a sixty-feet boat was driven for nearly seven +miles an hour with a twelve horse-power engine, but +for a very long time nothing was expected except canal +work and towing. Even as steam progressed, it did so +in the merchant service first.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span></p> + +<p>By the year 1818, however, the Americans had built +a sea-going steamer, <i>Savannah</i>, which crossed the Atlantic +to Russia. On her return voyage the United States was +reached twenty-five days after leaving Norway.</p> + +<p>In England, in the year 1821, a steam mail service, +between Holyhead and Dublin, was established, and in +1823 a steam mail service between England and India +was seriously asked for, and in 1829 the subject again +came upon the <em>tapis</em>.</p> + +<p>In 1839, the steam liner <i>Great Britain</i>, was laid down. +She was 322 feet long overall and a beam of fifty-one +feet, and a displacement of 2,984 tons, with 1,000 +horse-power. It was originally intended to make her a +paddle-vessel. Instead of that, however, she was made a +screw-steamer, and made her first trip in December, 1844, +when she succeeded in exceeding her anticipated speed.</p> + +<p>This serious attention to steam in the mercantile +marine naturally attracted considerable interest in +the Navy, the more so as two naval officers, Captains +Chappel and Claxton, were the principal promoters of +the mercantile enterprises. It was, however, generally +pointed out that useful as steam might be for such +purposes, it was unsuitable for warships proper, on +account of the liability of the machinery to damage, and +the practical impossibility of combining paddles with +sailing. It was laid down that the first essential of a +warship was to be able to sail, that if steam power +could be usefully applied as an auxiliary it might be +“desirable.”</p> + +<p>After considerable experiments and investigations, +it was found possible to place the machinery under the +water-line, but the paddle-wheels were still exposed, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span> +the armament space available was so slight that steam +did not gain much favour.</p> + +<p>The first steam vessel actually brought into the +British service was the <i>Monkey</i>, built about the year 1821. +She was bought into the service and used as a tug.</p> + +<p>In the following year, the <i>Comet</i> was specially built +for the packet service,<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> but none of these were steam +warships.</p> + +<p>In 1843, the success of the <i>Great Britain</i> influenced +the Admiralty, and the <i>Penelope</i> (forty-six) was cut +apart and lengthened by sixty-five feet, and had engines +of 650 horse-power fitted to her.</p> + +<p>In 1844, the Earl of Dundonald (Cochrane) submitted +plans to the Admiralty for a steamer of 760 tons, called +the <i>Janus</i>. This vessel was built with an engine of his +own design, but as this was a failure, ordinary engines +were fitted.</p> + +<p>In all these steamers the gun-fire was chiefly end-on, +but in 1845 the <i>Odin</i> and the <i>Sidon</i>, especially designed +for broadside fire, were put in hand.</p> + +<p>So long ago as the year 1825, the paddle was +recognised as a source of danger for warships, and in +that year a two-blade propeller, designed by Commander +Samuel Brown, was accepted.</p> + +<p>In 1836, Ericsson (subsequently to be of <i>Monitor</i> +fame) patented some propellers in England, but as he +met with very little sympathy from the authorities, he +retired to America. The main objections to the propeller +appears not to have been due to any lack of appreciation +so much as opposition from those who had invested +heavily in paddle-propulsion plant.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span></p> + +<figure id="i_217" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 42em;"> + <img src="images/i_217.jpg" width="2657" height="1304" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><i>SALAMANDER</i> PADDLE WARSHIP. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum hide" id="Page_218">218</span></p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span></p> + +<p>In 1842, however, the Admiralty seriously took the +question up. The <i>Rattler</i>, of 777 tons, and 200-horse-power, +was lashed stern-to-stern with the paddle-yacht +<i>Electro</i> of the same displacement and horse-power. Both +ships were driven away from each other at full speed, +and the <i>Rattler</i> succeeded in towing the <i>Electro</i> after her. +After this, in 1844, a screw frigate, the <i>Dauntless</i>, was +ordered to be constructed; but as late as the year 1850, +steam was merely regarded as an auxiliary, and received +little or no consideration outside that.</p> + +<p>The use of iron instead of oak as a material for +shipbuilding was first seriously considered about the year +1800. In 1821, an iron steamer was in existence, and +in 1839 the <i>Dover</i> was ordered to be built for Government +service as a steam packet. In 1841, the <i>Mohawk</i> was +ordered by the Admiralty for service on Lake Huron, but +the first iron warship for the Royal Navy proper was the +<i>Trident</i>, of 1850 tons and 300 horse-power, built at +Blackwall, by Admiralty orders, in 1843.</p> + +<p>Iron, as a material for warship construction, was +looked on with considerable suspicion, both in England +and in France. Experiments were conducted at Woolwich +with some plates rivetted together like the sides of an +iron ship, these plates being lined inside with cork and +india-rubber (the first idea of a cofferdam). It was +expected that this preparation, which was known as +“kamptulicon,” would close up after shot had passed +through and prevent ingress of water. This was found +to be quite correct, but the egress of shot on the other +side had quite the opposite result. The plates were +sometimes packed with wood and sometimes cased with +it, but the general result of the experiments was held<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span> +prejudicial to the use of iron, which was supposed to +splinter unduly compared to wood.</p> + +<p>The importance of deciding whether warships should +be built of iron or wood was accentuated by the necessity +of replacing those heavy warships which had been +converted to auxiliary steam vessels. All such proved to +be cramped in stowage and bad sea boats.</p> + +<p>So long ago as 1822 shell-guns had been adopted. +Consequently, in the experiments as regards iron, shell-fire +had to be taken into consideration.</p> + +<p>In 1842, experiments were made with iron plates +three-eighths of an inch thick, rivetted together to make +a total thickness of six inches. It was, however, reported +that at 400 yards these were not proof against eight-inch +guns or heavy thirty-two pounders. These matters were +taken into consideration by Captain Chads, whose official +report was as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The shot going through the exposed or near side generally +makes a clean smooth hole of its own size, which might be readily +stopped; and even where it strikes a rib it has much the same +effect; but on the opposite side all the mischief occurs; the shot +meets with so little resistance that it must inevitably go through +the vessel, and should it strike on a rib on the opposite side the +effect is terrific, tearing off the iron sheets to a very considerable +extent; and even those shot that go clean through the fracture being +on the off side, the rough edges are outside the vessel, precluding +the possibility almost of stopping them.</p> + +<p>“As it is most probable that steam vessels will engage directly +end-on I have thought it desirable to try to-day what the effect of +shot would be on this vessel<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> so placed, and it has been such as +might be expected, each shot cutting aways the ribs, and tearing +the iron plates away sufficient to sink the vessel in an instant.”</p> +</div> + +<figure id="i_221" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;"> + <img src="images/i_221.jpg" width="2439" height="1656" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p>THE <i>LONDON</i>—TWO DECKER WOODEN CONVERTED SCREW SHIP OF THE LINE.</p> + +<p>Designed by Sir William Symonds. Launched 1840. Damaged at the bombardment of Fort Constantine, Sevastopol, 1854. Turned into +hulk at Zanzibar, 1874.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In 1849 an official report stated <span class="locked">that:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Shot of every description in passing through iron makes such +large holes that the material is improper for the bottom of ships.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span></p> + +<p>“Iron and oak of equal weight offering equal resistance to shot, +iron for the topsides affords better protection for the men than oak, +as the splinters from it are not so destructive.</p> + +<p>“Iron offering no lodgment for shells in passing through the side, +if made with single plates it will be free from the destructive effects +that would occur by a shell exploding in a side of timber.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Certain modifications were then introduced and +tried in the year 1850, and Captain Chad’s report was +<span class="locked">that:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“With high charges the splinters from the shot were as numerous +and as severe as before, with the addition in this, and in the former +case, of the evils that other vessels are subject to, that of the +splinters from the timber.</p> + +<p>“From these circumstances I am confirmed in the opinion that +iron cannot be beneficially employed as a material for the construction +of vessels of war.”</p> +</div> + +<p>As a result of this report, seventeen iron ships which +were building, the largest being the <i>Simoon</i>, of nearly +2,000 tons, were condemned; and it was definitely +decided that ships must be built of wood, and that iron +in any form was disadvantageous.</p> + +<p>The advantages of the shell were fully understood, +and at least half of the guns of the ships of the line of +the period were sixty-five cwt. shell guns. Experiments +had fully taught what shell-fire might be expected to +accomplish. General Paixham, the inventor of the +shell gun, had long ago stated that armour was the only +antidote to shell, and the fact that armour up to six +inches had been experimented with indicates that this +also was understood. Between the appreciation of the +fact and acting upon it, there was, however, a decided +gulf. In the British Navy, as in others also, the natural +conservatism of the sea held its usual sway.</p> + +<p>Matters were at about this stage when, in the year +1853, the Russian Admiral Nachimoff, with a fleet consisting +of six ships of the line, entered the harbour of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span> +Sinope, on the 30th November, 1853, and absolutely +annihilated, by shell fire, a Turkish squadron of seven +frigates which were lying there. The damage wrought +by this shell-fire was terrific. “For God’s sake keep out +the shells!” is generally believed to have been the cry of +most naval officers about that period, though there is +some lack of evidence as to whether this demand was +ever actually made, except by the Press. The terrible +effect of shell-fire was, however, obvious enough; but as +stated above it was really well-known before the war test +that so impressed the world.</p> + +<p>When the Crimean War broke out in 1854, the +British <em>personnel</em> stood at 45,500, and the Estimates +were £7,197,804. On the 28th March, war was formally +declared. Naval operations in the Crimean war were +almost entirely of secondary note. Some frigates +bombarded Odessa, in April, and a certain amount of +damage was done along the Caucasian coast.</p> + +<p>In September, the British fleet, consisting of ten ships +of the line, two frigates and thirteen armed steamers, +convoyed an enormous fleet of Turkish and French warships +crammed with troops for an attack on Sebastopol. +The Russian fleet lay inside that harbour and made no +attempt whatever to destroy the invading flotilla, though +it might easily have done considerable mischief, if not +more. Instead of that, the ships were sunk at the +entrance of the harbour, and the siege of Sebastopol +presently commenced. On October 17th, the Allied fleet +attempted to bombard Fort Constantine, but the ships +were soon defeated by the shore defences and many of +them badly injured.</p> + +<p>The French, who had formed somewhat more favourable +opinions of iron armour than we had, had, after<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span> +Sinope, already commenced the construction of five +floating batteries which were to carry armour. They +were wooden ships of 1,400 tons displacement, with four-inch +armour over their hulls. They carried eighteen +fifty-pounder guns and a crew of 320. As originally +designed they were intended to sail, although they were +fitted with slight auxiliary steam power. When completed +they were found unable to sail, so pole masts were +fitted to them. Artificial ventilation was also supplied +and their funnels were made telescopic. The designs of +these vessels were sent to the British Admiralty, who, +after considerable delay, built four copies, the <i>Glatton</i>, +<i>Meteor</i>, <i>Thunder</i>, and <i>Trusty</i>. These, however, were not +completed in time to take any part in the war.</p> + +<p>So soon as the French armoured batteries were ready +they were sent out to the Crimea, where they joined a +large fleet which had been prepared to attack Kinburn, +which was bombarded in October, 1855. In a very short +while the forts were totally destroyed, and with very +small loss to the armoured batteries. The effect created +by this was so great that four more armoured batteries +were ordered in England, the <i>Etna</i>, <i>Erebus</i>, <i>Terror</i>, and +<i>Thunderbolt</i>.</p> + +<p>In the Baltic, to which a British fleet, under +Admiral Napier, had been sent, the Russians kept +behind the fortifications at Kronstadt, and nothing was +accomplished beyond the bombardment of Sveaborg, +and the destruction of the town and dockyard. Some +small bombardments also took place in the White Sea +and on the Siberian coast, where Petropavlovsk was +attacked and the attack was defeated, and such other +actions as took place were generally unsuccessful. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span> +had become abundantly clear that against fortifications +wooden ships had very small chance of success.</p> + +<p>Incidental items of naval interest are that in this +particular war Captain Cowper Coles mounted a sixty-eight-pounder +gun upon a raft named the <i>Lady Nancy</i>. +This attracted so much attention from the small target, +light draft and steady platform, that Coles was sent +home to develop his ideas. In this war, also, mines +appeared, the Russians dropping a good many off +Kronstadt. Those used by the Russians were filled +with seventy pounds of powder, and exploded on contact +by the familiar means of a glass tube of sulphuric acid +being broken and the acid falling into chlorate of potash.</p> + +<p>No material damage was done to ships by this means, +but a considerable number of those who had picked them +up and investigated them were injured.</p> + +<p>The ingenuity and new means of offence were, +however, by no means confined to the Russians, for a +Mr. Macintosh, after the failure of the first bombardment +of Sebastopol, evolved a system of attacking fortifications +with a long hose supported by floats, through which +naptha was to be pumped. Being set alight with some +potassium, the fort attacked would be immediately +smoked out.</p> + +<p>Experiments at Portsmouth having proved that this +system was “simple, certain and cheap,” Mr. Macintosh +proceeded to the Crimea with his invention at his own +expense. He was eventually given £1000 towards his +expenses, but no attempt was made to employ the system. +It is by no means clear how the necessary potassium was +to be got into the water at the requisite spot.</p> + +<p>The same war also produced the fire-shell of the +British Captain Norton. This appears to have been a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span> +resurrection of the old idea of Greek fire. It could be +used from a rifle or from a shell-gun, and like the previous +invention “rendered war impossible,” and again like the +previous invention does not appear to have ever +materialised into practice.</p> + +<p>On the practical side more results were achieved. +The Lancaster gun which fired an oval shot was actually +used with success in the war. From it the rifled gun +presently emerged. There also emerged the then +amateur invention of one Warry, who invented a new +type of gun capable of firing sixteen to eighteen rounds +per minute. The idea of wire wound guns was also +apparent, and Mr. Armstrong<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> (as he then was), +suggested the idea of percussion shell. It is interesting +to note that these last were received with extreme +dissatisfaction in the Navy on the grounds that they +might go off at the wrong time.</p> + +<p>Of the Crimean War, however, it may be said that +though it was not noted for naval actions, it was probably +the most important war in its indirect results on the Navy +that ever took place. It brought in the armoured ship, +the rifled gun, and what was ultimately to develop into +the torpedo. It saw the crude birth of “blockade +mines” and rapid fire guns; everyone of them inventions +that, judging by the slow progress of steam, would—failing +war to necessitate swift development—have been +still in the experimental stage even to-day.</p> + +<p>In our own times war having ever been a nearer +possibility than in the 1850 era, peace progress has +always been more rapid, and no invention of practical +value ever failed to secure full tests. Yet there were not +wanting those who prophesied that the Dreadnoughts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span> +of to-day merely reproduced in another form the 120 +screw ships of the line of sixty years ago; and that the +next great naval war might well bring about changes +every whit as drastic as any that the Crimean War +caused to come into being.</p> + +<p>The torpedo had become fully as great a menace +to the modern ship of the line as the shell gun was to the +big ship of 1853. The submarine was an infinitely greater +menace to it than the crude Russian mines of the Crimean +War ever were. Endless potentialities resided in aircraft.</p> + +<p>Wherefrom it was well argued that out of the +next great naval war (despite whatever lesser wars in +between may have taught), the battleship was likely to +be profoundly modified.</p> + +<p>That it will be swept out of existence was improbable. +The whole lesson of history is that the “capital ship” +will ever adjust itself to the needs of the hour. It has +always been the essential rallying point of lesser craft—the +mobile base to meet the mobile base of the enemy.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, it is beyond question that at the time +of the Crimean War the British Navy from one cause +and another was little better than a paper force. It is +plain enough that little remained of the fleet of the +Nelson era. The fleet “worried through,” but very +clearly it had reached the end of its tether.</p> + +<p>The reason why will be found in the next chapter.</p> + +<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>The above paragraphs were originally written in 1912. Since then +much has happened. In this edition they have only been revised to the +extent of substituting the past for the present tense. Nothing has +occurred to alter what then was the obvious.</p> +</div> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="X"><span id="toclink_229"></span>X.<br> + +<span class="subhead">THE COMING OF THE IRONCLAD.</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> period immediately following the Crimean War +saw a gradual change in the relations between +England and France. In 1858 a panic similar to +those with which later years have familiarised us began +to arise, and in December, 1858, and January, 1859, a +committee sat under the Administration of Lord Derby +“to consider the very serious increase which had taken +place of late years in the Navy Estimates, while it +represented that the naval force of the country was far +inferior to what it ought to be with reference to that of +other Powers, and especially France, and that increased +efforts and increased expenditure were imperatively called +for to place it on a proper footing.”</p> + +<p>This committee found that whereas in 1850 there +were eighty-six British ships of the line to forty-five +French ones, this ratio had altogether ceased to exist; +and that both Powers had now twenty-nine screw ships +of the line. Any other large ships had ceased to count.</p> + +<p>In 1859 there also appeared the famous “Leipsic +Article,” commenting on the decline of the British Fleet +and the rise of the French. Certain extracts from this, +though dealing with the past for the most part, are here +given <i lang="fr">en bloc</i>, for they indicate very clearly the circumstances +in which, <i>under pressure from German influences, +the modern British Navy came to be founded</i>. It is, to say<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span> +the least of it, questionable whether but for this Teutonic +agitation public opinion in England would ever have been +aroused from its lethargy in time. This epoch-making +article appeared in the <i>Conversations Lexicon</i>, of Leipsic.</p> + +<p>After some prelude the article referred to the appearance +of the French Fleet in the Crimean <span class="locked">War:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The late war in the East (Crimean) first opened the eyes of +Englishmen to the true position of affairs, and it was not without +some sensation of alarm that they gazed at this vision of the +unveiled reality. Here and there, indeed, an allusion, having some +foundation in fact, had been heard, during the Presidency of Louis +Napoleon, and had drawn attention to the menaced possibility of +an invasion of the British Isles; but such notions were soon overwhelmed +by the derision with which they were jeeringly greeted by +the national pride.</p> + +<p>“Those expressions of contempt were, however, not doomed to +be silenced in their turn by the sudden apparition in the autumn of +1854 of thirty-eight French ships of the line and sixty-six frigates +and corvettes, fully manned and ready for immediate action. During +the three preceding years Louis Napoleon had built twenty-four +line-of-battle ships, and in the course of the year 1854 alone thirteen +men-of-war were launched, nine of which were ships of the line. In +addition to these, the keels of fifty-two more, comprising three ships +of the line and six frigates, were immediately laid down. The +English had thus the mortification to be obliged not only to cede to +their allies the principal position in the camp, but also reluctantly to +acknowledge their equality on that element whereon they had hoped +to reign supreme....</p> + +<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> + +<p>“If we carried our investigation no further than this we +should naturally conclude that, with such a numerical superiority, +sufficient in itself to form a very respectable armament for a second-rate +power, England has very little to fear from the marine of +France. We must not forget, however, that quality as well as +numbers must be considered in estimating the strength of a Fleet. +When we take this element into our calculations, we shall find the +balance very soon turned in favour of France. We perceive, then,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span> +that while the English list comprises every individual sail the +country possesses, whether fit for commission or altogether antiquated +and past service (and some, like the <i>Victory</i>, built towards the close +of the last or the beginning of this century), the French Navy, as +we have observed, scarcely contains a single ship built prior to +the year 1840; so that nearly all are less than twenty years old. +This is a fact of the greatest importance, and indicates an immense +preponderance in favour of France. Though many of England’s +oldest craft figure in the ‘Navy List’ as seaworthy and fit for active +service, we have no less an authority than that of Sir Charles Napier +(in his Letter to the First Lord of the Admiralty in 1849) that some +are mere lumber, and many others cannot be reckoned upon to add +any appreciable strength to a Fleet in case of need. Independently, +too, of the introduction of the screw, such fundamental changes have +been introduced, within the last fifty years, both into the principles +of naval architecture and of gunnery, that a modern 120-gun ship, +built with due regard to recent improvements, and carrying guns of +the calibre now in ordinary use, would in a very short space of time +put <em>ten</em> ships like the <i>Victory</i> <i lang="fr">hors de combat</i>, with, at the same time, +little chance of injury to herself.</p> + +<p>“It is time, however, to turn our attention to another important +part of the <em>material</em>, namely, artillery. Under this head we purpose +designating, not only to the number of guns and their calibre, but +also the mode in which they are served, for in actual warfare this, of +course, is a primary consideration. If we take the received history +of naval warfare for the basis of our investigation, we cannot fail to +remark one notable circumstance in favour of the English, which +can only be ascribed to their superiority in the use of this arm. That +circumstance is the important and uniform advantage they have had +in the fewer number of casualties they have sustained as compared +with other nations with whom they may have chanced to have been +engaged. To prove that our assertions are not made at random, +we subjoin some statistics in support of this position. In April, +1798, then, the English ship <i>Mars</i> took the French <i>L’Hercule</i>; the +former had ninety killed and wounded, the latter 290. In the +preceding February there had been an engagement between the +English <i>Sybil</i> and French <i>La Forte</i>, in which the killed and wounded +of the former numbered twenty-one, and those of the latter 143. In +March, 1806, the English ship <i>London</i> took the French <i>Marengo</i>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span> +the English with a loss of thirty-two, the latter of 145 men. On +the 4th November, 1805, two English ships of the line engaged four +French vessels, and the respective losses were, again, 135 and 730. +On the 14th February, 1797, in an action between the Fleets of +England and Spain, the English lost 300 and the Spaniards 800. +On the 11th of October of the same year, in the engagement off +Camperdown between the English and Dutch, the respective losses +were 825 and 1,160. On the 5th July, 1808, the English frigate +<i>Seahorse</i> took the Turkish frigate <i>Badere Zuffer</i>, and of the Turks +there fell 370 against fifteen English. Finally, in the same year the +Russian ship of the line <i>Wsewolod</i> was taken by two English ships of +the line, with a loss to the latter of 303, and to the former of only +sixty-two.</p> + +<p>“This contrast, so favourable to England, has been constantly +maintained, and can only be attributable to her superior artillery. +Her seamen not only aimed with greater precision, and fired more +steadily than those of the French and of other nations, but they had +the reputation of loading with far greater rapidity. It was remarked, +in 1805, that the English could fire a round with ball every minute, +whereas it took the French gunners three minutes to perform the +same operation. Then, again, the English tactics were superior. +It was the universal practice of the French to seek to dismast an +adversary; they consequently aimed high, while the English +invariably concentrated their fire upon the hulls of their adversaries; +and clearly the broadside of a vessel presents a much better +mark to aim at than the mere masts and rigging. British guns were +also usually of higher calibre, for though they bore the same +denomination, they were in reality much heavier. Thus, the English +<i>Lavinia</i>, though nominally a frigate of forty guns, actually carried +fifty; and thirty-six and 38-gun frigates nearly always carried +forty-four and forty-six. The English ship <i>Belleisle</i>, at Trafalgar, +though said to be a seventy-four, carried ninety pieces of ordnance, +while the Spanish ship she engaged, though called eighty-four had, +in fact, only seventy-eight guns. From this disparity in the number +and calibre of their guns, as well as in the mode in which they were +served, it resulted that France and her allies lost eighty-five ships +of the line and 180 frigates, while her antagonist only suffered to the +extent of thirteen ships of the line and eighty-three frigates.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span></p> + +<p>“It was not until the close of the war that France became fully +aware to what an extent her inferiority in the above respects had +contributed to her reverses; otherwise the unfortunate Admiral +Villeneuve would not invariably have ascribed his mishaps to the +inexperience of his officers and men, and to the incomplete and +inferior equipment of his vessels. The truth was, that not only was +the artillery, as we have shown, inferior, but the whole system in +vogue at that period on board French ships was antiquated, having +continued without reform or improvement for two hundred years; +it was deficient, too, in enforcing subordination, that most essential +condition of the power and efficiency of a ship of war.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The French <i lang="fr">inscription maritime</i> is then dealt with at +great length, after which occur the following passages, +even more interesting perhaps to-day than when they +were <span class="locked">written:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“In considering, then, what perfect seamanship really is, we +must first adopt a correct standard by which to estimate it. The +English sailor has been so long assumed as the perfect type of the +<i lang="la">genus</i> seaman, that the world has nearly acquiesced in that view, and +<i>even we in Germany have been accustomed to rank our crews below the +English, though it is an unfair estimate</i>. <i>There are no better sailors +in the world than the German seamen, and there is no foreign nation +that would assert the contrary.</i><a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a> On the other hand, it has also been +the fashion universally to abuse French seamanship, and to speak of +her sailors as below criticism. None proclaimed this opinion more +loudly than the English; but in doing so they recurred to the men +they had beaten under the Revolution and Bonaparte. The Crimean +War, however, opened their eyes, and taught them that the French +sailors of to-day were no longer the men of 1806, and that, to say the +least, they are in no respect inferior to the British. England had for +years been compelled to keep up a large effective force always ready +for action, in consequence of the nature of her dependencies, which, +as they consist of remote colonies across distant seas, required such +a provision for their protection. This gave her an immeasurable +superiority in days gone by. But since France in 1840 discovered her +deficiency, it has been supplied by the maintenance of a permanent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span> +<i>experimental Fleet</i>, which, under the command of such Admirals as +Lalande de Joinville, Ducas, Hamelin, and Bruat, has been the +nursery of the present most effective body of officers and men; +which, since 1853, have not ceased to humble the boasted superiority +of England, besides causing her many anxious misgivings.</p> + +<p>“Anyone who had the opportunity of viewing the two Fleets +together in the Black Sea or the Baltic, and was in a position to +draw a comparison, could not fail to be convinced that everything +connected with manœuvring, evolutions, and gunnery was, beyond +comparison, more smartly, quickly, and exactly executed by the +French than by the English, and <i>must have observed the brilliant +prestige which had so long surrounded England’s tars pale sensibly +beside the rising glories of her rival</i>.”<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a></p> +</div> + +<p>That this was not merely captious criticism is borne +out by the following extracts from “The Life and +Correspondence of Admiral Sir Charles Napier, <span class="locked">K.C.B.”:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“We have great reason to be afraid of France, because she +possesses a large disposable army, and our arsenals are comparatively +undefended—London entirely so—and we have no sufficient naval +force at home. Of ships (with the exception of steamers) we have +enough; but what is the use of them without men? They are only +barracks, and are of no more use for defence than if we were to build +batteries all over the country, without soldiers to put into them.</p> + +<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> + +<p>“Such were our inadequate resources for defence, had the +Russians been able to get out of the Baltic, and make an attempt +on our unprotected shores.</p> + +<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> + +<p>“The great difficulty consisted in the manning of such a fleet. +Impressment was no longer to be thought of; but, strange to say, +the Bill which had passed through Parliament, empowering, in case +of war, the grant of an ample bounty to seamen, was not acted upon, +and consequently most of the ships were very inefficiently manned—some +of them chiefly with the landsmen of the lowest class. Nothing +had been done towards the training of the men, and no provision was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span> +even made to clothe them in a manner required by the climate to +which they were about to be sent....</p> + +<p>“Our Ambassador likewise warned the British Government +that the Navy of Russia could not with safety be under-estimated, +and, moreover, the Russian gunners were all well trained, while those +of the British Squadron were <em>most deficient in this respect</em>. The +object of the Russians, in wishing to get their best ships to Sveaborg, +was the impression that Cronstadt would be first attacked; in +which case, calculating on the strength of the forts to repel an +assault, <em>they would have fresh ships wherewith to assail our disabled +and weakened fleet, should they be obliged to retreat</em>.<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> Sir Hamilton +Seymour warned our Government of the great number of gunboats +the Russians could bring out, eighty of which were to be manned by +Finns, fifty men to each boat....</p> + +<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> + +<p>“Such,” says the author of the biography, “were the reasons, +no doubt powerful enough, for hurrying off, even without pilots, the +ill-appointed and under-manned squadron placed under Sir Charles +Napier’s command, at this inclement season of the year, when the +periodical gales of the vernal equinox might be daily expected. The +squadron, on leaving Spithead, consisted of four sail-of-the-line, four +blockships, four frigates, and four steamers (not a single gunboat); +and with this force, hastily got together, for the most part manned +with the refuse of London and other towns, destitute of even clothing, +their best seamen consisting of dockyard riggers and a few coastguard +men—and without the latter, it has been alleged, the squadron could +not have put to sea—with this inefficient force did Sir Charles +Napier leave our shores, to offer battle to the Russian Fleet, consisting +of seven-and-twenty well-trained and well-appointed ships of the +line, eight or ten frigates, seven corvettes and brigs, and nine +steamers, besides small craft and flotillas of gunboats, supposed in +the aggregate to number one hundred and eighty....</p> + +<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> + +<p>“It is, probably, an unprecedented event in the annals of war, +or, at least, in those of our history, that a fleet should be sent out, on +a most momentous service so ill-manned that the Commander was +directed to endeavour to ‘pick up,’ if possible, foreign seamen in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span> +foreign ports, and so ill-provided with munitions of war, that he was +restricted in the use of what he most required, in order to render his +inexperienced crews as efficient as possible. It is equally worthy of +record that the Board of Admiralty, throughout the whole campaign, +never supplied the Fleet with a single Congreve rocket, although it +was no secret that great numbers had been made in London for the +Russians, to whom they were of far less use than to the British +Fleet, which could not well undertake any bombardment without +them. The Board of Admiralty must have been perfectly aware of +the conditions, in these respects, of that Fleet on whose efficiency +so much depended, and from which so much was expected, for, +in a letter to Sir Charles Napier, from a member of that Board, I +find it recorded as his opinion, that the Emperor of Russia ought +either to burn his Fleet, or try his strength with the British Squadron +whilst he mustered double their numbers, and whilst our crews were +‘so miserably raw!’ Yet this inefficiency was fully and frankly +admitted by Sir James Graham, from whom infrequent instructions +arrived to supply the deficiency of good men by picking up foreign +sailors in the Baltic. The anxiety of the First Lord upon this point +was excessive. He was continually inquiring whether the Admiral +had been able to ‘<i>pick up any Swedes or Norwegians</i>, who were good +sailors and quite trustworthy.’ He was told to ‘enter them +quietly.’ If he could not get Swedes and Norwegians, ‘even Danes +would strengthen him, for they were hardy seamen and brave. +There was, it is true, a difficulty with their Governments, but if the +men enlisted freely, and came over to the Fleet, the First Lord did +not see why the Admiral should be over-nice, and refuse good seamen +without much inquiry as to the place from whence they came.’</p> + +<p>“Admiral Berkeley, moreover, instructed the Admiral to the +same effect. ‘Have any of your ships tried for men in a Norwegian +port? <i>It is said that you might have any number of good seamen from +that country.</i>’ On the 18th of March the Admiral had been apprised +that the <i>James Watt</i>, the <i>Prince Regent</i> and <i>Majestic</i> would now +join him; ‘<em>but men are wanting</em>, and it is impossible to say how long +it will be before they are completed.’ On the 4th of April Admiral +Berkeley stated: ‘Notwithstanding the number of landsmen +entered, we are come nearly to a dead standstill as to seamen; and +after the <i>James Watt</i> and <i>Prince Regent</i> reach you, I do not know<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span> +when we shall be able to send you a further reinforcement, <em>for want +of men</em>! <i>Something must be done, and done speedily, or there will be +a breakdown in our present rickety system.</i>’”</p> +</div> + +<p>The German article produced a great stir in +England. This was followed up by the publication in +1859 of <i>The Navies of the World</i>, by Hans Busk, M.A., +of Trinity College, Cambridge, who, while nominally +casting cold water on the “Leipsic Article,” added fuel +to the fire. This writer was one of the first to concentrate +attention upon the fact that the French were building +“iron-plated ships.”</p> + +<p>From this scarce and remarkably interesting work I +quote the <span class="locked">following:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The determination of the French Government to build a +number of iron or steel-cased ships imperatively obliges us to follow +their example. The original idea of plating ships in this way, so +as to render them shot-proof, is due, not, as is generally supposed in +this country, to the present Emperor, but to a Captain in the French +Navy, who, about a quarter of a century since, suggested that all +wooden vessels should be sheathed with composite slabs of iron of +fourteen or fifteen centimetres in thickness; that is to say, with +stout plates of wrought-iron having blocks of cast metal between. +A similar suggestion was made among others by General Paixhans; +but one of the first to reduce it to practice was Mr. Stevens, of New +York, the well-known steamship builder, who about ten years ago +communicated to Mr. Scott Russell the results of a long series of +experiments, instituted by the American Government, for the purpose +of testing the power of plates of iron and steel to resist cannon-shot. +Mr. Lloyd, of the Admiralty, proposed the adoption of plates 4ins. +in thickness, instead of a number of thinner sheets, as recommended +by the Emperor. The English and French floating batteries were, +as is well known, protected upon Mr. Lloyd’s plan. From trials +recently made, however, it has been pretty well ascertained that +this iron planking, on whatever principle applied, will only repel +hollow shot or shells; heavy solid projectiles of wrought iron, or +those faced with steel, having been found, on repeated trials, to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span> +perforate the thickest covering which has ever been adopted, and +that, too, even at considerable ranges.</p> + +<p>“Mr. Reed,<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> already alluded to, proposes to protect only the +midship portion of the ship, and to separate it from the parts fore +and aft by strong watertight compartments, so that, however much +the extremities might suffer, the ship would still be safe and the +crew below protected; but, as he himself admits, there would +obviously be no defence against raking shot.</p> + +<p>“The French vessels last alluded to, follow the lines and +dimensions of the <i>Napoleon</i> (one of the best, if not the finest ship in +their Navy); but they will only carry thirty or thirty-six guns, and +the metal sheathing will be from ten to eleven centimetres (about +4¼ins.) in thickness. Two similar ships are to be commenced here +forthwith; and as the First Lord of the Admiralty has prophetically +warned us that they will be the most expensive ships ever constructed +in this country, it is earnestly to be hoped that they may be found +proportionately valuable, should their powers ever come to be +tested; they will each cost from £126,000 to £130,000, or £4,200 per +gun; the ordinary expense of a sailing man-of-war being about +£1,000, and of a steamer from £1,800 to £2,000 per gun.”</p> +</div> + +<p>After this follow various statistics of the French +Fleet of no particular interest here except for the +following <span class="locked">passage:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Irrespective of the above are the four <i lang="fr">frégates blindées</i>, or iron-plated +frigates, two of which are now in an advanced state at Toulon.</p> + +<p>“These ships are to be substituted for line-of-battle ships; +their timbers are of the scantling of three-deckers; they will be +provided with thirty-six heavy guns, twenty-four of them rifled, +and 50-pounders, calculated to throw an eighty pound percussion +shell. Such is the opinion of French naval officers respecting the +tremendous power of these ships, that they fully anticipate the +complete abolition, within ten or a dozen years, of all line-of-battle +ships.”<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a></p> +</div> + +<p>Here it is desirable to leave ships for a moment +and deal with the corresponding stage of gunnery, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span> +began to take on its modern form contemporaneously +with the ironclad ship. In 1858–9 began that contest +between the gun and armour, which can hardly be said +to be ended even in our own day, for improved kinds +of armour are still being sought and experimented +with. To quote the work of Hans Busk and its contemporary +<span class="locked">summary:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“A number of guns, cast at Woolwich, were sent to Mr. Whitworth’s +works at Manchester to be bored and rifled. In April, 1856, +trial was made with a brass 24-pounder of the construction above +described. The projectiles employed on that occasion varied from +two to six diameters in length, and a very rapid rotary motion was +communicated to them. The gun itself weighed 13cwt.; the bore, +instead of being of a calibre fitted to receive a spherical 24-pound +shot, was only of sufficient capacity to admit one of 9 pounds. +The hexagonal bore measured 4ins. in diameter, and was rather +more than 54ins. long. It was entirely finished by machinery, and +the projectiles were fitted with mathematical precision, the spiral in +both cases being formed with absolute accuracy. The gun, externally, +had only the dimensions of a 24-pound howitzer, but it projected +missiles of 24 pounds, 32 pounds, and 48 pounds each, the additional +weight having been obtained by increased length. Upon this new +system, then, it will be seen that guns capable, under the old plan, +of supporting the strain of a 24-pound ball, may be made with ease +to throw a 48-pound shot; the reduction of the calibre allowing of +a sufficient thickness of metal being left to ensure safety. The +32-pound and 48-pound projectiles used in the above experiments +were respectively 11¾ins. and 16½ins. in length. They were pointed +at the foremost extremity, being shaped and rounded somewhat +like the smaller end of an egg. At the base they were flat, and +slightly hollowed towards the centre. The gun was mounted for +the occasion upon an ordinary artillery carriage, which shows no +symptoms of having been strained, nor of being in any way injured +by the concussions to which it had been subjected.</p> + +<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> + +<p>“Subsequently, some further experiments were made with the +same gun with reduced elevation, when the projectiles, striking the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span> +ground at comparatively short distances, rebounded again and +again till their momentum was expended. The first shot thus fired +weighed 32 pounds, the charge of powder being only 3 ounces, and +the gun having an elevation of 2 degrees. The projectile made its +first graze at a distance of 92 yards, furrowing the ground for about +7ft., and leaving distinct indications of its rotary axial motion. It +rose again to an elevation of about 6ft., grazing, after a further +flight of 64 yds. The third graze (owing probably to the hard nature +of the soil at the point struck) was at a distance of 70yds. further; +after which it traversed some ploughed land, grazing several times, +coming finally to rest after having accomplished altogether a distance +of 492yds.</p> + +<p>“The second shot also weighed 32 pounds; the charge, as +before, consisted of 3 ounces of powder; but this time the elevation +given to the gun was 3 degrees. The projectile first grazed the ground +at a point 108yds. from the muzzle; the second graze was 126yds. +further; but happening to touch the lower bar of an iron fence—a +circumstance which appeared to affect its flight—it dropped +finally after having accomplished 490yds. Some further experiments +were then made with shot weighing 48 pounds each.</p> + +<p>“These very reduced charges rendered it necessary to make +use of wooden wads to fill the cavities in the base of the projectiles. +This had a tendency to reduce very much the power of the gun.</p> + +<p>“A further trial with the hexagonal gun was made at Liverpool +on the 7th of May. Several shots, varying from 24 to 48 pounds in +weight, were fired. The first, weighing 24 pounds, with a charge +of 11 pounds of powder, attained a distance of 2,800 yards, the +elevation given having been 8 degrees. These experiments could +hardly be said to have exhibited the <em>maximum</em> capacity of the gun, +having been interrupted by the rapid rising of the tide. The average +range of several 48-pound shots was 3,000 yards, but there is little +doubt that a much greater distance will be achieved when Mr. +Whitworth has perfected some guns he is now constructing.</p> + +<p>“A good deal of attention having previously been drawn to +the subject of Armstrong’s gun, respecting which few particulars +had been allowed to transpire, on the 4th of March last the Secretary-at-War +made an official statement to the House, and gave some +details as to its alleged capabilities. Without describing its construction, +he stated that one piece, throwing a projectile of 18<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span> +pounds, weighed but one-third as much as the ordinary gun of that +calibre. With a charge of 5 pounds of powder, a 32-pounder attained +a range of 5¼ miles; at 3,000 yards its accuracy, as compared with +that of a common gun, was stated to be in the proportion of 7 to 1. +At 1,000 yards it had struck the target 57 times successively, and +after 13,000 rounds the gun showed symptoms of deterioration. +In conclusion, it was said that the destructive effects occasioned +by this new ordnance exceeded anything that had been previously +witnessed, and that in all probability it was destined to effect a +complete revolution in warfare.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Armstrong’s own statement <span class="locked">was:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Schemers whose invention merely figure upon paper, have +little idea of the difficulties that are encountered by those who carry +inventions into practice. For my part, I had my full share of such +difficulties, and it took me nearly three years of continual application +to surmount them.... Early last year a committee was +appointed to investigate the whole subject of rifled cannon. They +consisted of officers of great experience in gunnery; and after having +given much time for a period of five months to the guns, projectiles, +and fuses which I submitted to them, they returned a unanimous +verdict in favour of my system. With respect to the precision and +range which have been attained with these guns, I may observe that +at a distance of 600 yards an object no larger than the muzzle of an +enemy’s gun may be struck at almost every shot. At 3,000 yards a +target of 9ft. square, which at that distance looks like a mere speck, +has on a calm day been struck five times in ten shots. A ship would +afford a target large enough to be hit at much longer distances, and +shells may be thrown into a town or fortress at a range of more than +five miles. But to do justice to the weapon when used at long +distances, it will be necessary that gunners should undergo a more +scientific training than at present; and I believe that both the +naval and military departments of Government will take the +necessary measures to afford proper instruction, both to officers and +men. It is an interesting question to consider what would be the +effect of the general introduction of these weapons upon the various +conditions of warfare. In the case of ships opposed to ships in the +open sea, it appears to me that they would simply destroy each other, +if both were made of timber. The day has gone by for putting men<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span> +in armour. Fortunately, however, no nation can play at that game +like England; for we have boundless resources, both in the production +and application of iron, which must be the material for the armour. +In the case of a battery against a ship, the advantage would be greatly +in favour of the battery, because it would have a steady platform for +its guns, and would be made of a less vulnerable material, supposing +the ship to be made of timber. But, on the other hand, in bombarding +fortresses, arsenals, or dockyards, when the object to be struck +is very extended, ships would be enabled to operate from a great +distance, where they could bid defiance to land defences.”</p> +</div> + +<p>After some observations, the author <span class="locked">continued:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Notwithstanding the high estimation in which Sir William +Armstrong’s guns are held, and deservedly so from their great +intrinsic merit, they have certainly in Mr. Warry’s great invention +a rival that may eventually be found to eclipse them.</p> + +<p>“The Armstrong gun cannot be fired oftener than three times +a minute, and the bore, it is said, has to be constantly sluiced with +water; whereas Warry’s admits, as has been affirmed, of being +discharged 16 or 18 times a minute, or 1,000 an hour, without +difficulty, though of course not without heating, as some reporters +have misrepresented. Guns of the former description are expensive, +and must be made expressly by means of special machinery. Mr. +Warry, on the other hand, asserts that he can convert every existing +gun into a breech-loader upon his principle, and at a moderate +outlay: an advantage of the greatest moment at the present time.</p> + +<p>“This gun is fired by means of a lock. On one side of the breech +there is a lever, so contrived that by one motion of the hand it is +made to cock the hammer and to open the chamber. A second +movement closes the charger again, pierces or cuts the cartridge, +places a cap on the nipple, and fires the gun almost simultaneously.</p> + +<p>“With a due supply of ammunition, therefore, a destructive +torrent of shot and shell may be maintained <i lang="la">ad libitum</i>. It is not +difficult to form a conception of the havoc even one such gun would +occasion if brought to bear upon the head of an advancing column.</p> + +<p>“The inventor has, besides, made application for a patent for +a new coating he has devised for all kinds of projectiles, in lieu of +any leaden or metallic covering, which has been found very objectionable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span> +in actual practice. The new coating, it is said, reduces the +‘fouling’ to a minimum.</p> + +<p>“But we cannot turn even from this very brief consideration +of the improvements in modern cannon without offering a few +observations relative to an invention of a different kind, but one +that may possibly prove of greater moment than either of the guns +that have been described. This is the composition known as +‘Norton’s liquid fire.’ In the terrific character of its effect it rivals +all that has been recorded of the old Greek fire; at the same time +it is perfectly manageable, and may be projected from an +Enfield rifle, from a field-piece, or from heavier ordnance. The +composition Captain Norton uses consists of a chemical combination +of sulphur, carbon, and phosphorus. He merely encloses this in a +metal or even in a wooden shell, and its effect upon striking the +side or sails of a ship, a wooden building, or indeed any object at +all combustible, is to cause its instant ignition. This ‘liquid fire’ +has apparently the property of penetrating or of saturating any +substance against which it may be projected, and such is its affinity +for oxygen that it even decomposes water and combines with its +component oxygen. Water, consequently, has no power to quench +it, and if burning canvas, set on fire in this way, be trodden under +foot and apparently extinguished it soon bursts again into flames.”</p> +</div> + +<p>It is not uninteresting to reflect that although +Norton’s liquid fire came to nothing, yet the present +century has already seen three variations on the idea.</p> + +<p>The first instance is the type of big shell used by the +Japanese at Tsushima. Little is known as to their +exact composition, but they were undoubtedly extremely +inflammable. Captain Semenoff in “The Battle of +Tsushima” thus describes <span class="locked">them:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The Japanese had apparently succeeded in realising what the +Americans had endeavoured to attain in inventing their ‘Vesuvium.’</p> + +<p>“In addition to this there was the unusual high temperature +and liquid flame of the explosion, which seemed to spread over +everything. I actually watched a steel plate catch fire from a burst. +Of course, the steel did not burn, but the paint on it did. Such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span> +almost non-combustible materials as hammocks, and rows of boxes, +drenched with water, flared up in a moment. At times it was +impossible to see anything with glasses, owing to everything being +so distorted with the quivering, heated air.</p> + +<div class="tb">* * * * *</div> + +<p>“According to thoroughly trustworthy reports, the Japanese +in the battle of Tsushima were the first to employ a new kind of +explosive in their shells, the secret of which they bought during the +war from the inventor, a colonel in one of the South American +Republics. It was said that these shells could only be used in guns +of large calibre in the armoured squadrons, and that is how those +of our ships engaged with Admiral Kataoka’s squadron did not +suffer the same amount of damage, or have so many fires, as the +ships engaged with the battleships and armoured cruisers.”</p> +</div> + +<p>The second instance is the Krupp fire shell designed +for use against dirigible balloons. The third is the +“Thermite shell,” which, early in 1912, was proposed +for adoption in France. It was calculated that one +12-inch <span class="allsmcap">A.P.</span> shell exploding would melt half a ton of +steel.</p> + +<p>The following passage from Hans Busk is of +<span class="locked">interest:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“In 1855 Mr. Longridge, C.E., proposed to construct cannon +of tubes covered with wire wound round them so tightly as almost +entirely to relieve the inside from strain. On the 25th of June of +the same year Mr. Mallet read a paper advocating the construction +of cannon of successive layers of cylinders, so put together that all +should be equally strained when the gun is fired; thus the inside +would not be subject to fracture, while the outside would be useless +as in a cast mass. His method of effecting this was, as is well known, +to have each cylinder slightly too small to go over the one under it +till expanded by heat, so that when cool it compresses the interior +and is slightly strained itself. Thirty-six-inch mortars have been +made on the principle, and if they have failed with 40lbs. of powder, +cast-iron must have failed still less. In 1856 Professor Daniel +Treadwell, Vice-President of the American Academy, read a paper to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span> +that body recommending the same principle of construction; and +Captain Blakely has himself for some years been endeavouring to +urge its adoption by argument and direct experiments. In December, +1857, some trials were made with guns constructed by that officer; +and the result of a comparative trial of a 9-pounder with a cast-iron +service gun of similar size and weight gave results proving the +soundness of his views; for Captain Blakely’s gun bore about double +the amount of firing the service gun did, and being then uninjured, +was loaded to the muzzle, and was thus fired 158 times before it +burst.”</p> +</div> + +<figure id="i_245" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20em;"> + <img src="images/i_245.jpg" width="1233" height="1673" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">JOHN SCOTT RUSSELL. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>From these contemporary extracts it will be seen +that by 1859 the germ of nearly every modern idea in +connection with gunnery existed, and has since developed +somewhat on “trial and error” lines for at any rate the +greater part of the intervening period.</p> + +<p>The contemporary situation as regards defence is +also best summed up from the authority from whom the +above gunnery extracts are <span class="locked">taken:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The result of numerous trials appeared to convince those best +competent to judge of such matters that iron plates, or, rather, slabs, +eleven centimetres (about 4½ins.) in thickness, would offer adequate +protection to a ship from the effects of hollow shot. Acting upon this +impression, four floating batteries, resembling in most respects those +constructed here, were ordered to be built, and notwithstanding the +enormous difficulties connected with such an undertaking, these four +vessels were turned out, complete in all respects, in ten months—an +astonishing instance of the resources of French dockyards and the +ability of French engineers.</p> + +<p>“From this event may be dated the commencement of a new +epoch in naval tactics. The next problem was to determine whether +a form better adapted for progression than that of these batteries +could not be given to vessels sheathed in a similar manner. Hence +originated the iron-plated frigates (<i lang="fr">frégates blindées</i>). The intention +of their designer is, that they should have a speed and an armament +at least equal to that of the swiftest existing frigates, but their +colossal weight, and consequently their great draught of water, must<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span> +almost preclude the fulfilment of this expectation. Should they +prove successful, a number of larger ships of the same kind are to be +commenced forthwith. It is difficult to understand how, in the case +of these ships being found to answer, it will be possible for us to avert +a real “reconstruction” of our Navy, or, how any other nation, +aiming to rank as a maritime Power, can avoid the adoption of a +similar course. In fact, the necessity has been appreciated, and we +are already at work. But a good deal has to be accomplished ere the +use of such vessels become universal. If these iron-plated vessels +do resist shell, it seems certain, as has been already stated, that solid +shot will either perforate at short ranges any thickness of metal that +has yet been tried, or will so indent the sheathing at longer distances +that the internal lining and rib-work of oak will be riven, shattered, +loosened, or crushed to an extent that would almost as speedily put +the ship <i lang="fr">hors de combat</i> as if she had but been built after the old +fashion, much, as in days gone by, upon the introduction of gunpowder +into warfare, the use of armour was found rather to aggravate, +than to ward off, the injuries inflicted by gunshot. It was the +result of the operations against Kinburn that more particularly gave +rise to the high opinion at present entertained in favour of these +<i lang="fr">vaisseaux blindées</i>. Unwieldy and cumbersome as they appeared, +they were certainly a great improvement upon the floating batteries +used by the French and Spanish against Gibraltar in 1782. Those +were merely enormous hulks, destitute of masts, sails, or rigging; +their sides were composed of solid carpentry, 6ft. 6ins. in thickness, +and they carried from nine to twenty-four guns. When in action, +streams of water were made to flow constantly over their decks and +sides, but notwithstanding every precaution, such an overwhelming +storm of shell and red-hot shot was poured upon them by the English +garrison that they were all speedily burnt. Not so the <i>Devastation</i>, +<i>La Lave</i>, and <i>La Tonnante</i> before the Russian fortress above +mentioned, on the memorable 14th October, 1855. At 9 p.m. they +opened fire, and in an hour and twenty-five minutes the enemy was +silenced, nearly all the gunners being killed, their pieces dismounted, +and all the ramparts themselves being for the most part demolished. +To accomplish this destruction in so short a space of time, the three +batteries, each carrying eighteen fifty pounders (supported, of course, +by the fire of the English vessels), advanced in very shallow water<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span> +within 800 yards of the walls, receiving themselves very little +damage in comparison with the immense havoc they occasioned.”</p> +</div> + +<p>From the above extract it is clear that the “impenetrable +coat of mail” idea, popularly supposed to +have led to the introduction of ironclads, never existed +to any appreciable extent. Indeed, when the Committee, +alluded to on an earlier page, concluded its +labours in 1859, it merely recommended the conversion +of nineteen more sailing ships into steamers. It was +Sir John Pakington who decided to lay down a couple +of “armoured steam frigates,” and to build them of +iron instead of wood.</p> + +<p>The French <i lang="fr">frégates blindées</i> were wooden ships, +armoured. John Scott Russell is said to have been +Pakington’s chief adviser in this matter of building +iron armoured ships and disregarding all the laborious +conclusions of Captain Chads against iron hulls.</p> + +<p>As regards the general recommendations of the +committee already referred to, these had resulted in +1861 in there being no less than sixty-seven wooden +unarmoured ships of the line building or converting into +“screw ships.”</p> + +<p>The two iron-plated steam frigates were decided on +without any popular enthusiasm concerning them. Now +and again retired Admirals paid surreptitious visits to +the French “<i lang="fr">blindées</i>” and returned with alarming +reports; but, with the possible exception of flying +machines, no epoch-making thing ever came in quite +so quietly as the ironclad. The wildest dreamer saw +nothing in it beyond a variation on existing types. The +ironclad was something which, by carrying a great deal +of weight, could keep out shell; beyond that no one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span> +seems to have had any particular ideals whatever, except +perhaps Sir Edward Reed.</p> + +<p>Early in 1859 designs for a type of ship to “answer” +the French <i lang="fr">frégates blindées</i> were called for, and fourteen +private firms submitted designs. All, however, were +discarded.</p> + +<p>Details of the designs submitted were as <span class="locked">follows:<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a>—</span></p> + +<table id="t250" class="tbdr"> +<tr class="thead"> + <td class="tdc">Designer.</td> + <td class="tdc">Length.</td> + <td class="tdc">Breadth</td> + <td class="tdc">Displ’m’t.<br>Tons.</td> + <td class="tdc">Speed.<br>Knots.</td> + <td class="tdc">Wt. of<br>Armour<br>Displ.</td> + <td class="tdc">Wt. of<br>Hull<br>Displ.</td> + <td class="tdc">I.H.P.<br>of<br> Eng.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Laird</td> + <td class="tdc">400.0</td> + <td class="tdc">60.0</td> + <td class="tdc">9779</td> + <td class="tdc">13½</td> + <td class="tdc">.11</td> + <td class="tdc">.51</td> + <td class="tdc">3250</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Thames Co.</td> + <td class="tdc">430.0</td> + <td class="tdc">60.0</td> + <td class="tdc fsr1">11180</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc">.10</td> + <td class="tdc">.58</td> + <td class="tdc">4000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Mare</td> + <td class="tdc">380.0</td> + <td class="tdc">57.0</td> + <td class="tdc">7341</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc">.13</td> + <td class="tdc">.46</td> + <td class="tdc">3000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Scott Russell</td> + <td class="tdc">385.0</td> + <td class="tdc">58.0</td> + <td class="tdc">7256</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc">.18</td> + <td class="tdc">.38</td> + <td class="tdc">3000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Napier</td> + <td class="tdc">365.0</td> + <td class="tdc">56.0</td> + <td class="tdc">8000</td> + <td class="tdc">13½</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc">4120</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Westwood & Baillie</td> + <td class="tdc">360.0</td> + <td class="tdc">55.0</td> + <td class="tdc">7600</td> + <td class="tdc">13½</td> + <td class="tdc">.16</td> + <td class="tdc">.36</td> + <td class="tdc">4000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Samuda</td> + <td class="tdc">382.0</td> + <td class="tdc">55.0</td> + <td class="tdc">8084</td> + <td class="tdc">13½</td> + <td class="tdc">.16</td> + <td class="tdc">.57</td> + <td class="tdc">2500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Palmer</td> + <td class="tdc">340.0</td> + <td class="tdc">58.0</td> + <td class="tdc">7690</td> + <td class="tdc">13½</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc">4500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Abethell</td> + <td class="tdc">336.0</td> + <td class="tdc">57.0</td> + <td class="tdc">7668</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc">2500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Henwood</td> + <td class="tdc">372.0</td> + <td class="tdc">52.0</td> + <td class="tdc">6507</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc">.18</td> + <td class="tdc">.40</td> + <td class="tdc">2500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Peake</td> + <td class="tdc">354.9</td> + <td class="tdc">56.0</td> + <td class="tdc">7000</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc">.14</td> + <td class="tdc">.46</td> + <td class="tdc">3000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Chatfield</td> + <td class="tdc">343.6</td> + <td class="tdc">59.6</td> + <td class="tdc">7791</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc">.14</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Lang</td> + <td class="tdc">400.0</td> + <td class="tdc">55.0</td> + <td class="tdc">8511</td> + <td class="tdc fsr1p">15</td> + <td class="tdc">.14</td> + <td class="tdc">.53</td> + <td class="tdc">2500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Cradock</td> + <td class="tdc">360.0</td> + <td class="tdc">57.6</td> + <td class="tdc">7724</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc">.20</td> + <td class="tdc">.42</td> + <td class="tdc">2500</td> +</tr> +<tr class="tlast"> + <td class="tdl">Admiralty Office</td> + <td class="tdc">380.0</td> + <td class="tdc">58.0</td> + <td class="tdc">8625</td> + <td class="tdc fsr1p">14</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc"></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The Abethell and Peake designs were wooden +hulled, all the others iron ships.</p> + +<p>The two ships, <i>Warrior</i> and <i>Black Prince</i>, as actually +laid down, differed from the Admiralty design in certain +details. The beam was increased slightly, and the +displacement rose from 8625 to 9210.</p> + +<p>The <i>Warrior</i> was laid down on the 25th May, 1859, +at the Thames Ironworks, Blackwall; the <i>Black Prince</i> +a little later at Glasgow.</p> + +<figure id="i_251" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> + <img src="images/i_251.jpg" width="2429" height="1260" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">THE <i>WARRIOR</i>, AS COMPLETED, 1861. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In substances they were ordinary “wooden frigates,” +built of iron instead of wood, with armour to protect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span> +most (but not all) of the guns. This was done by a patch +of armour amidships, covering about 60% of the side. +It was deemed advisable to protect the engines; otherwise +as like as not the armour would have been over +the battery only. Waterline protection was entirely +unrealised, the steering gear of the <i>Warrior</i> being at +the mercy of the first lucky shot.</p> + +<p>This, as Sir N. Barnaby has pointed out, was due +to accepting existing <span class="locked">conditions:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The tiller was necessarily above the water-line and was outside +of the cover of the armour. The wooden line-of-battle ships, with +which the designers of these first iron-cased ships were familiar, had +required no special water-line protection, and when wheel ropes or +tiller were shot away the ship did not cease to be able to fight. The +line-of-battle ships, which they knew so well, had a lower, or gun +deck about four feet above the water-line, and an orlop deck about +three feet below the water-line. Between these two decks the ship’s +sides were stouter than in any other part, and shot did not easily +perforate them. When a shot did enter there, between wind and +water, as it was called, ample provision was made to prevent the +serious admission of water.</p> + +<p>“In this between-deck space the sides of the ship were kept free +from all erections or obstructions. The ‘wing passages’ on the +orlop were clear, from end to end of the ship, and they were patrolled +by the carpenter’s crew, who were provided with shot plugs of wood +and oakum and sail cloth with which to close any shot holes. As +against disabled steering gear there were spare tillers and tiller ropes, +and only injury to the rudder head itself was serious.”</p> +</div> + +<p>It is easy to-day to indicate where the old-time +designers erred; and later on they realised and repaired +their error with commendable promptitude. The really +interesting point is that British designers evolved the +ideal thing for the day, while the French evolved the +idea of the ideal thing for the to-morrow. Unhappily +for the latter, their evolution was unable to survive its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span> +birth till the day of its utility. <i>La Gloire</i>, the first +French ironclad, was broken up more years ago than +any can remember; the <i>Warrior</i> and the <i>Black Prince</i>, +though long ago reduced to hulk service,<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> still float as +sound as when in 1861 the <i>Warrior</i> first took the water. +To the French belongs the honour of realising what +armour protection might mean; but to England goes the +credit of reducing the idea to practical application.</p> + +<p>The <i>Warrior</i> was designed by Messrs. Scott Russell +and Isaac Watts, the Chief Constructor. Her length +between perpendiculars was 380 feet. She carried +originally a uniform armament of forty-eight 68-pounders +smooth bores, weighing 95cwt. each. These fired shell +and cast-iron spherical shot. The guns were carried as +follows:—Main deck, thirty-eight, of which twelve were +not protected by armour. On the upper-deck, ten, also +unprotected.</p> + +<p>This armament was subsequently changed to two +110-pounder rifled Armstrongs on pivot mountings, and +four 40-pounders on the upper-deck; while the main-deck +battery was reduced to thirty-four guns. At a later +date it was again altered to four 8-inch 9-ton M.L.R., +and twenty-eight 7-inch 6½-ton M.L.R.</p> + +<p>In addition to her armour the <i>Warrior</i> was divided +into 92 watertight compartments, fore and aft. She +had a double bottom amidships, considerably subdivided +(fifty-seven of the compartments), but no double +bottom in the modern sense.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum hide" id="Page_255">255</span></p> + +<p>The <i>Warrior’s</i> engines, by Penn, were horizontal +single expansion. On trial they developed 5,267 I.H.P., +and the then excellent speed of 14.079 knots.<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> Her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span> +six hours’ sea speed trial resulted in a mean 5,092 H.P. +and 13.936 knots.</p> + +<figure id="i_255" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> + <img src="images/i_255.jpg" width="1656" height="2666" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <p>FRENCH LA GLOIRE<br> + WARRIOR & BLACK PRINCE<br> + HECTOR<br> + ACHILLES<br> + MINOTAUR<br> + NORTHUMBERLAND</p> + <p class="larger">EARLY BRITISH BROADSIDE IRONCLADS</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Save for her unprotected steering gear, the <i>Warrior</i> +may be described as a brilliant success for her era. She +was launched on December 29th, 1860, and completed in +the following year. The <i>Black Prince</i> was completed in +1862.</p> + +<p>The <i>Warrior</i> and <i>Black Prince</i>, under a system +which long endured in the British Navy, were followed +by a certain number of diminutives, of which the first +were the <i>Defence</i> and <i>Resistance</i>, of 6,150 tons, with +speeds of just under 12 knots, and an armament of +16 guns. The armour was the same, but the battery +protection was extended fore and aft, so that all guns +were inside it. These ships were completed in 1862.</p> + +<p>Three more ships were projected, of which the +<i>Hector</i> and <i>Valiant</i>, completed in 1864 and 1865, were of +precisely the same type as the <i>Resistance</i>, but displaced +6,710 tons, with about a knot more speed, and carried +a couple of extra guns.</p> + +<p>A third ship, originally intended to have been of +the same class, was the <i>Achilles</i>, but, mainly owing to +the influence of Mr. Reed (of whom more anon), who +pointed out the danger of unprotected steering gear, her +design was altered and a complete belt of 4½-inch armour +given to her instead of a partial one.</p> + +<p>Those changes in the design, together with an +increased horse-power which produced on trial 14.32 +knots, advanced the displacement of the <i>Achilles</i> to +9,820 tons, while the armament was brought up to +fourteen 12-ton guns and two 6½-ton. The weight of +armour was 1,200 tons.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span></p> + +<p>The <i>Achilles</i>, like many another ship that was to +follow her, was the “last word” of her own day. No +expense was spared in seeking to secure a maximum of +efficiency in her. As originally completed she was a +ship-rigged vessel, but with a view to improving her +sailing efficiency, this was subsequently altered to a +four-masted rig, which proved so little successful that +eventually she reverted to three masts again.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the authorities were so pleased +with the <i>Achilles</i> that three improved editions of her +were designed. They were not completed until a new +type of ship, which was completed before they were, +replaced them; but chronologically they followed close +upon the <i>Achilles</i>. They were laid down in 1861, and +designed by Isaac Watts. They were named <i>Agincourt</i>, +<i>Minotaur</i>, and <i>Northumberland</i>. They differed in minor +details, but in substance were all about 1,000 tons more +than the <i>Achilles</i>, and their increased displacement +mostly went in one inch extra armour protection (5½-inch +against 4½-inch).</p> + +<p>As originally designed they were intended to mount +seven 12-ton and twenty 9-ton guns, but at a very early +date the first two were given a uniform armament of +seventeen 12-ton. A small portion of this armament +of the upper deck was provided with armoured protection +for right-ahead fire.</p> + +<figure id="i_259" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;"> + <img src="images/i_259.jpg" width="2435" height="1419" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p>THE <i>ACHILLES</i> AS A FOUR-MASTER.</p> + +<p>Photographed about 1866.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In appearance they were magnificent ships, fitted +with five masts. Being 400 feet between perpendiculars +they were the largest ships of their time, and at sea +always proved very steady under both sail and steam.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum hide" id="Page_261">261</span></p> + +<p>These ships were the subject of violent disputes +between the Controller of the Navy and their constructor. +The Controller insisted that they were extravagantly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span> +large ships, as compared to French ships. The constructor +insisted that it was essential that for any given power and +protection a British ship must be larger than a foreign +one, because of her more extended probable duties, and +the consequent necessity of a larger coal supply.<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a></p> + +<figure id="i_261" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> + <img src="images/i_261.jpg" width="2427" height="1381" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">THE <i>MINOTAUR</i>, 1867, ORIGINAL RIG. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>At and about this period there were a number of +wooden ships-of-the-line building, which had been laid +down from the year 1859 onwards. Following the +French fashion, they were converted into ironclads. +These ships, displacing from 6,100 to 6,830 tons, were +the <i>Repulse</i>, <i>Royal Alfred</i>, <i>Zealous</i> (laid down 1859), +<i>Caledonia</i>, <i>Ocean</i>, <i>Prince Consort</i>, <i>Royal Oak</i> (1860).<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a></p> + +<p>The upper-decks of these ships were removed, and +they were fitted with side armour, which was 4½ inches in +the earliest to be treated, and 5½ inches in the latest. +All of them carried sixteen 9-ton guns and four 6½-ton, +with provision for ahead fire.</p> + +<p>The experiment, though useful as a temporary +expedient, was very expensive, and several of the ships +had to be lengthened before anything could be done to +them. None of them were very successful, and most of +them disappeared from the Navy List at an early date.</p> + +<p>This ends the period of “broadside ironclads”; +of the best of which it may be said that they were +nothing but efforts to adapt new ideals to old methods.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="XI"><span id="toclink_264"></span>XI.<br> + +<span class="subhead">THE REED ERA.</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">In</span> 1862 Mr. (afterwards Sir) E. J. Reed, was appointed +Chief Constructor, and proceeded at once to produce +the type of ship chiefly associated with his name. +His ideals ran in the direction of short, handy ships of +medium size, as heavily armed as possible, and with a +good turn of speed. His arguments in favour of these +ideals he afterwards described as <span class="locked">follows:—<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The merits of ironclad ships do not consist in carrying a large +proportion of weights to engine-power, or having a high speed in +proportion to that power; but rather in possessing great powers +of offence and defence, being comparatively short, cheap, and +handy, and steaming at a high speed, not in the most economical +way possible, but by means of a moderate increase of power on +account of the moderate proportions adopted in order to decrease +the weight and cost, and to increase the handiness.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Generally speaking, his views were very revolutionary. +The greatness of Sir E. J. Reed lay in the fact +that he was the first man to conceive of the ironclad as +a separate and distinct entity. Previously to him the +ironclad was merely an ordinary steamer with some +armour plating on her.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span></p> + +<figure id="i_265" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;"> + <img src="images/i_265.jpg" width="1383" height="1830" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"><p>SIR E. J. REED.</p> + +<p>From a portrait made when he was Chief Constructor of the British Navy</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>His first ship was the <i>Bellerophon</i>, of 7,550 tons +displacement. She embodied distinct novelties in the +construction of her hull, described by her designer in the +following <span class="locked">passages:—<a id="FNanchor_95a" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The <i>Warrior</i> and the earlier ironclads are constructed with +deep frames, or girders, running in a longitudinal direction through +the greater part of the length of the ship, combined with numerous +strong transverse frames, formed of plates and angle-irons, crossing +them at right angles. In fact, up to the height of the armour the +ship’s framing very closely resembles in its character that of the +platform or roadway of a common girder bridge, in which the +principal or longitudinal strength is contributed by the continuous +girders that stretch from pier to pier, and the transverse framing +consists of short girders fitted between and fastened to the continuous +girders. If we conceive such a platform to be curved transversely +to a ship-shape form, and the under side to be covered with iron +plating, we have a very fair idea of the construction of the lower +part of the <i>Warrior</i>. If, instead of this arrangement, we conceive +the continuous longitudinal girders to be considerably deepened, +and the transverse girders to be replaced by so-called ‘bracket-frames,’ +and then, after curving this to a ship-form, add iron-plating +on both the upper and the under sides, we have a correspondingly +good idea of the construction of the lower part of the <i>Bellerophon</i>. +The <i>Bellerophon’s</i> construction is, therefore, identical in character +with the cellular system carried out in the Menai and other tubular +bridges, which system has been proved by the most elaborate and +careful experiments to be that which best combines lightness and +strength in wrought-iron structures of tubular cross-section. The +<i>Warrior’s</i> system, wanting, as it does, an inner skin of iron—except +in a few places, such as under the engines and boilers—is not in +accordance with the cellular system, and is inferior to it in strength. +As regards safety, also, no comparison can be made between the +system of the <i>Warrior</i> and that of the <i>Bellerophon</i>. If the bottom +plating is penetrated, in most places the water must enter the +<i>Warrior’s</i> hold, and she must depend for safety entirely on the +efficiency of her watertight bulkheads. If the <i>Bellerophon’s</i> bottom +is broken through, no danger of this kind is run. The water cannot +enter the hold until the inner bottom is broken through, and this +inner bottom is not likely to be damaged by an ordinary accident, +seeing that it is two or three feet distant from the outer bottom. +Should some exceptional accident occur by which the inner bottom +is penetrated, the <i>Bellerophon</i> would still have her watertight +bulkheads to depend on, being, in fact, under these circumstances<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span> +in a position similar to that occupied by the <i>Warrior</i> whenever her +bottom plating is broken through; while an accident which would +prove fatal to the <i>Warrior</i> might leave the <i>Bellerophon</i> free from +danger so long as the inner bottom remained intact.”</p> +</div> + +<p>As to be related later, the <i>Vanguard</i> disaster tended +to contravert this optimism—but of that further on. +The point of present interest is the recognition and +establishment of a principle which, however commonplace +to-day, was in those days a complete novelty and +a special feature of the iron ship as a peculiar war entity.</p> + +<p>Equally of interest, in some ways more so, are the +following anticipations of torpedo possibilities. The +torpedo is such a familiar thing to-day that it is hard +to throw ourselves back into the point of view necessary +to appreciate the prophetic instincts of the man who +created the first vessels which can really be called +“battleships.”</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“It may be proper in this connection to draw attention to the +fact that the probable employment of torpedoes in a future naval +war has not been lost sight of in carrying out these structural +improvements. Up to the present time torpedoes have been used +almost solely for coast and harbour defence, and have, under those +circumstances, proved most destructive, as a glance through the +reports of the operations of the Federal Fleet at Charleston and +other Confederate ports will show. It is still doubtful, however, +whether these formidable engines of war can be supplied with +anything like the same efficiency at sea under the vastly different +conditions which they will there have to encounter. The Americans +have, it is true, proposed to fit torpedo-booms to their unarmoured +ocean-cruisers, such as the <i>Wampanoag</i>, and a naval war would +doubtless at once bring similar schemes into prominence. Nothing +less than actual warfare can be expected to set the question at rest; +but whatever the result of such a test may be, it is obviously a +proper policy of construction to provide as much as possible against +the dangers of torpedoes; and it must be freely admitted that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span> +strongest ironclad yet designed, although practically impenetrable +by the heaviest guns yet constructed, would be very liable to damage +from the explosion of a submerged torpedo. No ship’s bottom +can, in fact, be made strong enough to resist the shock of such an +explosion; and the question consequently arises: How best can the +structure be made to give safety against a mode of attack which +cannot fail to cause a more or less extensive fracture of the ship’s +bottom, even if it does no more serious damage? In our recent +ships, as I have said, attempts have been made to give a practical +answer to this question. Seeing that the bottom must inevitably be +broken through by the explosion of a torpedo which exerts its full +force upon the ship, it obviously becomes necessary to provide, as +far as possible, against the danger resulting from a great in-flow of +water. This is the leading idea which has been kept in view in +arranging the structural details of our ships to meet this danger, +and the reader cannot fail to perceive that the double bottom and +watertight subdivisions described above are as available against +injury from torpedoes as they are against the injuries resulting +from striking the ground.”</p> +</div> + +<figure id="i_269" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;"> + <img src="images/i_269.jpg" width="2442" height="1543" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">THE <i>BELLEROPHON</i>, COMPLETED 1866. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Details of the <i>Bellerophon</i> were as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> + +<ul> +<li>Displacement—7,550 tons.</li> +<li>Length—300 ft. between perpendiculars.</li> +<li>Beam—56ft. 1in.</li> +<li>H.P.—6,520.</li> +<li>Mean Draught—26ft. 7ins.</li> +<li>Guns—Ten 12-ton M.L.R., five 6½-ton M.L.R. +(changed in 1890 to ten 8-in. 14-ton B.L.R., +four 6-in., six 4-in. ditto.)</li> +<li>Armour (iron)—Belt 6in., Battery 6in., Bulkhead +5in., Conning tower 8in.</li> +<li>Speed—14.17 knots.</li> +<li>Coal—650 tons.</li> +<li>Launched—1865; completed, 1866.</li> +<li>Cost—Hull and machinery—£322,701.</li> +<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span></li> +</ul> + +<p>The 12-ton guns were on the main deck, the 6½-ton +on the upper deck, two of them being in an armoured bow +battery. The <i>Bellerophon</i>, completed in 1866, was ship +rigged, and carried the then novel feature of an armoured +conning tower, abaft the mainmast.<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> She proved +extremely handy, her turning circle being 559yds. as +against 939yds. for the <i>Minotaur</i> and 1,050yds. for the +<i>Warrior</i>. A balanced rudder, introduced in her for the +first time, helped this result to some extent; but the +well thought-out design of this, the first real “battleship,” +was the main cause.</p> + +<p>The <i>Bellerophon</i> was followed by a series of +“improved <i>Bellerophons</i>,” which will be dealt with later. +First, however, it is necessary to revert to the coming of +the turret-ship.</p> + +<p>So long ago as the Crimean War Captain Cowper-Coles +had introduced the <i>Lady Nancy</i>, “gun-raft,” +previously mentioned in connection with that war. In +the year 1860 his plans had matured sufficiently for him +to make public the designs of a proposed turret ship, +with no less than nine turrets in the centre line, each +carrying two guns which were to recoil up a slope and +return automatically to position.</p> + +<p>There has been much discussion in the past as to +whether Coles or Ericsson, the designer of the <i>Monitor</i>, +first hit upon the turret-ship idea. As a matter of fact +neither of them invented it, as the idea was first propounded +in the 16th century, and “pivot guns” had +long existed. In so far as adapting the idea to modern +uses is concerned, Ericsson was first in the field, but his +turret revolved on a spindle. The merit of the Cowper-Coles +design was that he evolved the idea of mounting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span> +the turret on a series of rollers, thus making it of real +practical utility.</p> + +<figure id="i_273" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> + <img src="images/i_273.jpg" width="2411" height="1552" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">THE <i>ROYAL SOVEREIGN</i>, 1864. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Coles’ ideal turret ship was not received officially +with any great show of enthusiasm; as a matter of fact it +was an impracticable sort of ship. The famous fight +between the <i>Monitor</i> and the <i>Merrimac</i>, early in 1862, in +the American Civil War, was, however, followed by a +perfect “turret craze.” Turret ships were popularly +acclaimed as essential to the preservation of British +naval power. The idea of a sea-going ship without sail +power was unthinkable; but the turret ships for coast +defence purposes were demanded with such insistence +that in 1862 Captain Coles, now more or less a popular +hero, was put to supervise the reconstruction of the old +steam wooden line-of-battleship <i>Royal Sovereign</i> into a +turret ironclad.</p> + +<p>This ship was originally a three-decker. Coles cut +her down to the lower deck, leaving a freeboard of ten +feet. The sides were covered with 4½-inch iron armour. +Four turrets were mounted on Coles’ roller system, the +forward turret carrying two and the other three one 12½-ton +guns. These turrets were generally five inches thick, +but at the portholes were increased up to ten inches. +They were rotated by hand power. There was one +funnel, in front of which a thinly armoured conning +tower was placed. Three pole masts were fitted. This +ship was completed in 1864, and was fairly successful on +trials. The cost of conversion was very heavy, and +being wooden-hulled her weight-carrying ratio was small, +1837 tons to 3,243 tons, weight of hull.</p> + +<p>Coles was at no time satisfied with this old three-decker +an a proper test of his ideas, and his agitation +was so far successful that the <i>Prince Albert</i> was presently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span> +built to his design. She was an iron turret-ship, +generally resembling the <i>Royal Sovereign</i>, though carrying +only one gun in each turret.</p> + +<p>Particulars of her <span class="locked">are:—</span></p> + +<ul> +<li>Displacement—3,880 tons.</li> +<li>Length—240ft. p.p.</li> +<li>Beam—48ft. 1in.</li> +<li>H.P.—2,130.</li> +<li>Mean Draught—20ft. 4ins.</li> +<li>Speed—11.65 knots.</li> +<li>Coal—230 tons.</li> +<li>Guns—Four 9-in. 12-ton M.L.R.</li> +</ul> + +<p>To the same era belong three armoured gunboats—<i>Viper</i>, +<i>Vixen</i>, and <i>Waterwitch</i>—of about 1,230 tons each, +armed with a couple of 6½-ton M.L.R. guns, armour +4½ins. The <i>Waterwitch</i>, which was slightly the heavier, +was fitted with a species of turbine, sucking water in +ahead and ejecting it astern (a very old idea revived). +This was moderately successful, as the trial speeds of the +three <span class="locked">were:—</span></p> + +<ul> +<li><i>Viper</i>—8.89 knots.</li> +<li><i>Vixen</i>—9.59 knots.</li> +<li><i>Waterwitch</i>—9.24 knots.</li> +</ul> + +<p>In the <i>Vixen</i> twin screws were for the first time +tried.</p> + +<p>The <i>Prince Albert</i> was completed in 1866, the same +year as the <i>Bellerophon</i>. Long before she was completed, +Coles was agitating for the application of his principles +to a sea-going masted ship.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span></p> + +<figure id="i_277" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;"> + <img src="images/i_277.jpg" width="2436" height="1509" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">THE <i>WATERWITCH</i>, COMPLETED 1867. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Sir E. J. Reed has left it on record that his attitude +in the matter was that of an interested observer. He was +at no time blind to the advantages that the turret system +conferred; but, unlike the Coles’ party, he was equally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span> +observant of its disadvantages. At a very early date he +threw cold water on the masted turret-ship idea, and +insisted that for a sea-going turret-ship to become +practicable she must be mastless. He further pointed out +that for a given weight eight guns could be mounted +broadside fashion for four carried in turrets.</p> + +<p>He developed his own ideas in the <i>Hercules</i>, laid down +in 1866. The <i>Hercules</i>, except that recessed ports were +introduced to supply something like end-on fire to the +battery, was an amplified <i>Bellerophon</i>. Particulars of the +<i>Hercules</i> (which was always a very successful ship) <span class="locked">are:—</span></p> + +<ul> +<li>Displacement—8,680 tons.</li> +<li>Length—325ft.</li> +<li>Beam—59ft. ½in.</li> +<li>Mean Draught—26ft. 6ins.</li> +<li>H.P.—6,750.</li> +<li>Guns—Eight 18-ton M.L.R., two 12½-ton M.L.R., four 6½-ton M.L.R.</li> +<li>Armour (iron)—9in. 6in. Belt and Battery.</li> +<li>Speed—14.00 kts. (14.69 on the measured mile trials).</li> +<li>Coal—610 tons.</li> +<li>Cost—Hull and machinery, £361,134.</li> +</ul> + +<p>The <i>Hercules</i> was completed in 1868, contemporaneously +with the completion of the <i>Agincourt</i> and +<i>Northumberland</i>, which were very slowly finished.</p> + +<p>At and about the same time the <i>Penelope</i> was built. +She was designed for light draught and river service, her +maximum draught being kept down to 17½ft. She +carried eight 9-ton guns and had a 6-inch belt. Sir E. +J. Reed being absent from office, his chief assistant, +afterwards Sir N. Barnaby, was mainly responsible for +this ship. She was given twin screws.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span></p> + +<p>Captain Coles meanwhile continued to demand +turret-ships, and in 1865 submitted a design for a sea-going +turret-ship, which was referred to a Committee of +Naval Officers. They declined to approve the design, +but expressed much interest in the principle involved, +and recommended that an Admiralty design on similar +principles should be worked out, and a ship built to it. +This eventuated in the <i>Monarch</i>, which in substance was +an ordinary ironclad of less freeboard than usual (14ft.) +with two turrets on the upper deck, carrying each a pair +of the heaviest guns then in existence (25 tons).</p> + +<figure id="i_281" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28em;"> + <img src="images/i_281.jpg" width="1789" height="2451" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <p>BELLEROPHON.<br> + HERCULES.<br> + AUDACIOUS.<br> + SULTAN.<br> + ALEXANDRA.</p> + <p class="larger">BROADSIDE AND CENTRAL BATTERY SHIPS OF THE REED ERA.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>It is difficult to ascertain what part (if any) Sir +E. J. Reed had in the design of the <i>Monarch</i>. At a later +date in the work already referred to (1869) he criticised +her severely enough.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“I have already intimated that the enlarged adoption of the +turret system has usually been associated in my mind with those +classes of vessels in which masts and sails are not required. It is +well known that others have taken a wider view of its applicability, +and have contended that it is, and has all along been, perfectly well +adapted for rigged vessels. I have never considered it wholly +inapplicable to such vessels: on the contrary, I have myself projected +designs of sea-going and rigged turret-ships, which I believe to be +safe, commodious, and susceptible of perfect handling under canvas. +But most assuredly the building of such vessels was urged by many +persons long before satisfactory methods of designing them had +been devised; and my clear and strong conviction at the moment +of writing these lines (March 31, 1869) is that no satisfactorily +designed turret-ship with rigging has yet been built, or even laid +down.</p> + +<p>“The most cursory consideration of the subject will, I think, +result in the feeling that the middle of the upper deck of a full-rigged<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span><span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span> +ship is not a very eligible position for fighting large guns. +Anyone who has stood upon the deck of a frigate, amid the maze +of ropes of all kinds and sizes that surrounds him, must feel that to +bring even guns of moderate size away from the port holes, to +place them in the midst of these ropes, and discharge them there, +is utterly out of the question; and the impracticability of that +mode of proceeding must increase in proportion as the size and +power of the guns are increased. But as a central position, or a +nearly central position, is requisite for the turret, this difficulty +has had to be met by many devices, some of them tending to reduce +the number of the ropes, and others to get them stopped short above +the guns. In the former category come tripod masts; in the latter, +flying-decks over the turrets; the former have proved successful +in getting rid of shrouds, but they interfere seriously with the fire +of the turret guns, and are exposed to the danger of being shot +away by them in the smoke of action; the latter are under trial, +but however successful they may prove in some respects, they will +be very inferior in point of comfort and convenience to the upper +decks of broadside frigates. In the case of the <i>Monarch</i>, which has +a lofty upper deck, neither a tripod system nor a flying deck for +working the ropes upon has been adopted. A light flying deck to +receive a portion of the boats, and to afford a passage for the officers +above the turrets, has been fitted; but the ropes will be worked +upon the upper deck over which the turrets have to fire, and consequently +a thousand contrivances have had to be made for keeping +both the standing and running rigging tolerably clear of the guns. +It seems to me out of the question to suppose that such an arrangement +can ever become general in the British Navy, especially when +one contrasts the <i>Monarch</i> with the <i>Hercules</i> as a rigged man-of-war. +Nor is the matter at all improved, in my opinion, in the case of +the <i>Captain</i> and other rigged turret-ships in which the ropes have +to be worked upon bridges or flying-decks poised in the air above +the turrets. Such bridges or decks, even if they withstand for long +the repeated fire of the ship’s own guns, must of necessity be +mounted upon a few supports only; and I am apprehensive that +in action an enemy’s fire would bring down parts, at least, of these +cumbrous structures, with their bitts, blocks, ropes, and the thousand +and one other fittings with which a rigged ship’s deck is encumbered, +with what result I need not predict.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span></p> + +<p>“It is well known that both in the <i>Captain</i> and in the <i>Monarch</i> +the turrets have been deprived of their primary and supreme +advantage, that of providing an all-round fire for the guns, and +more especially a head fire. This deprivation is consequent upon +the adoption of forecastles, which are intended to keep the ships +dry in steaming against a head sea, and to enable the head-sails to +be worked. When it first became known that the <i>Monarch</i> was +designed with a forecastle (by order of the then Board of Admiralty) +there were not wanting persons who considered the plan extremely +objectionable, and who took it for granted that as a turret-ship the +new vessel would be fatally defective. The design of the <i>Captain</i> +shortly afterwards, under the direction of Captain Coles, with a +similar but much larger forecastle, was an admission, however, that +the Board of Admiralty did not stand alone in the belief that this +feature was a necessity, however objectionable. Both these ships, +therefore, are without a right-ahead fire from the turrets, the +<i>Monarch</i> having this deficiency partly compensated by two forecastle +(6½-ton) guns protected with armour, while the <i>Captain</i> has +no protected head-fire at all, but merely one gun (6½-ton) standing +exposed on the top of the forecastle.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Time has shown that he was quite correct in his +views; but in 1866 and the years that followed he was +regarded as unduly conservative and non-progressive.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span></p> + +<figure id="i_285" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> + <img src="images/i_285.jpg" width="1637" height="2636" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <p>ROYAL SOVEREIGN.<br> + TYPICAL U.S. MONITOR.<br> + SCORPION.<br> + CAPTAIN.<br> + MONARCH.<br> + REED IDEAL OF A MASTED TURRET SHIP.</p> + <p class="larger">TURRET-SHIPS OF THE REED ERA.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Captain Coles objected to the <i>Monarch</i> altogether. +He insisted with vehemence that she did not in the least +express his ideas. She had a high forecastle, also a +poop; these features depriving her of end-on fire, except +in so far as a couple of 6½-ton guns in an armoured +forecastle supplied the deficiency. The Admiralty +replied that a forecastle was essential for sea-worthiness; +but Coles was so insistent that eventually he was allowed +to design a sea-going turret-ship on his own ideas, in +conjunction with Messrs. Laird, of Birkenhead, who had +already had considerable experience in producing masted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span> +turret-ships.<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> Coles was given a free hand. As a naval +officer his form of turret displays the practical mind; +as a ship designer he was simply the raw amateur. The +<i>Captain</i>, which he produced, accentuated every fault of +the <i>Monarch</i>, except in the purely technical matter of +rigging being in the way of the guns. Coles got over this +by fitting tripod masts (which Laird’s had evolved before +him<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a>); but for the light flying bridges of the <i>Monarch</i> +he substituted a very considerable superstructure erection. +For the <i>Monarch’s</i> armoured two-gun forecastle, which +he had so violently condemned, he substituted a much +larger unarmoured, one-gun structure. Owing to an +error in design, his intended 8-ft. freeboard was actually +only 6ft., and his ideal ship resulted in nothing but a +<i>Monarch</i> of less gun power, and of 8ft. less freeboard. +Her fate is dealt with later. Details of the two ships +<span class="locked">are:—</span></p> + +<table id="t287" class="tbdr"> +<tr class="thead"> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc"><i>Captain.</i></td> + <td class="tdc"><i>Monarch.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Displacement</td> + <td class="tdl">6900 tons.</td> + <td class="tdl">8320 tons.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Length (<i>p.p.</i>)</td> + <td class="tdl">320 feet.</td> + <td class="tdl">330 feet.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Beam</td> + <td class="tdl">53 feet.</td> + <td class="tdl">57½ feet.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Draught</td> + <td class="tdl">25ft. 9½in. (<i>mean</i>).</td> + <td class="tdl">26ft. 7in. (<i>max.</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Guns</td> + <td class="tdl">Four 25 ton M.L.R., two 6½ ton, do.</td> + <td class="tdl">Four 25 ton M.L.R., three 6½ ton, do.<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Coal</td> + <td class="tdl">500 tons.<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a></td> + <td class="tdl">630 tons.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Speed</td> + <td class="tdl">14.25 kts. (twin screws).</td> + <td class="tdl">14.94 (single screw).</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Waterline Belt</td> + <td class="tdl">8.6 inches.</td> + <td class="tdl">7.6 inches.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Turrets</td> + <td class="tdl">13.8 inches.</td> + <td class="tdl">10.8 inches.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="tlast"> + <td class="tdl">Completed</td> + <td class="tdl">1869.</td> + <td class="tdl">1869.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>It has been said that Captain Coles was tied down +by Admiralty ideas that a sea-going ship must have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span> +auxiliary sail power. All the evidence is, however, to +the effect that not only did he recognise this limitation +from the first, but that he concurred with it and believed +his design to fill the conditions best. It failed to do so, +the <i>Monarch</i> under all conditions doing far better than +the <i>Captain</i> on trial (except occasionally under sail).</p> + +<p>Sir E. J. Reed’s objections to the <i>Captain</i> design +have already been mentioned. He was not the only +critic, since Laird’s, of Birkenhead, who built the ship, +were so suspicious of the design that they requested the +Admiralty to submit her to severe tests for stability.</p> + +<p>The ship, however, came through these tests very +well, and the public were more convinced than ever that +she was the finest warship ever built. One or two naval +officers who had criticised her also modified their opinions +after she had done a couple of very successful cruises +across the Bay of Biscay. Her crew had the utmost +confidence in her. She was commanded by Captain +Burgoyne, and Captain Coles was also on board her +when she made her third cruise in September, 1871.</p> + +<p>On the 6th September she was off Cape Finisterre in +company with the Channel Fleet, consisting of the <i>Lord +Warden</i>, <i>Minotaur</i>, <i>Agincourt</i>, <i>Northumberland</i>, <i>Monarch</i>, +<i>Hercules</i>, <i>Bellerophon</i>, and the unarmoured ships <i>Inconstant</i> +and <i>Bristol</i>. Admiral Milne came on board her +from the <i>Lord Warden</i>, and drew attention to the fact +that she was rolling a great deal,<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a> but nobody on board +the <i>Captain</i> agreed with him that this was dangerous. +During the night a heavy gale suddenly arose, and +in the morning the <i>Captain</i> was missing. Eighteen +survivors reached the land with the story of what had +happened.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span></p> + +<figure id="i_289" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 32em;"> + <img src="images/i_289.jpg" width="2044" height="1149" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">THE <i>CAPTAIN</i>. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span></p> + +<p>From this it appears that about midnight the ship +was under her topsails, double reefed. She had steam up, +but was not using her screw. The ship gave a heavy +lurch, righted herself, and the captain gave the order, +“Let go the topsail halyards,” and immediately afterwards, +“Let go fore and main topsail sheets.” The ship, +however, continued to heel, and “18 degrees” was +called out. This increased until 28 degrees was arrived +at. With the ship lying over on her side some of the +crew succeeded in walking over her bottom, and these +were practically the only survivors. Immediately afterwards +the ship went down stern first. There were at +this time some five and twenty survivors, including +Captain Burgoyne and Mr. May, the gunner. Some of +these were in the launch, others clinging to the pinnace, +which was floating bottom upwards. Captain Burgoyne +was amongst those who were clinging to the pinnace, +and that was the last seen of him. A few of the men in +the pinnace succeeded in jumping into the launch and +so escaped. The rest were never seen again.</p> + +<p>The subsequent court-martial placed it on record +that “the <i>Captain</i> was built in deference to public +opinion and in opposition to the views and opinions of +the Controller of the Navy and his Department.” The +instability of the ship and the incompetence of Captain +Coles to design her were emphasised.</p> + +<p>After the loss of the <i>Captain</i> considerable panic on +the subject of turret-ships arose. The <i>Monarch</i> was +submitted to a number of tests which, however, generally +proved satisfactory, and there was never anything to be +said against her except that the forecastle and the poop +necessitated by her being a rigged ship, negatived one of +the principal advantages of the turret system.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span></p> + +<p>To the loss of the <i>Captain</i> is to be traced some of +the extraordinary opposition which the <i>Devastation</i> idea +subsequently encountered.</p> + +<p>The various writings of Sir E. J. Reed make it +abundantly clear that just as in the <i>Bellerophon</i> he had +realised that an ironclad battleship must be something +more than an old-type vessel with some armour on her, +so he realised from the first that the ordinary sea-going +warship with turrets on deck, instead of guns in the +battery, was no true solution of the turret problem. +There is ample evidence that he studied the monitors of +the American Civil War with a balanced intelligence far +ahead of his day, taking into consideration every <i lang="la">pro</i> and +<i lang="la">con</i> with absolute impartiality, and applying the knowledge +thus gained to the different conditions required for +the British Fleet. It is no exaggeration to say that +he was the only man who really kept his head while the +turret-ship controversy reigned; the one man who +thought while others argued.</p> + +<p>He swiftly recognised the tremendous limitations of +the American low-freeboard monitors, and at an early +date evolved his own idea of the “breastwork monitor,” +which began with the Australian <i>Cerberus</i>, and ended with +the predecessor of the present <i>Dreadnought</i>. The ships +of this type varied considerably from each other in detail; +but the general principle of all was identical. All, +whether coast-defence or sea-going, were “mastless”; +all, while of low freeboard fore and aft, carried their +turrets fairly high up on a heavily armed redoubt amidships. +Side by side with them he developed the central +battery ironclads of this particular era. He ceased to +be Chief Constructor before either type reached its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span> +apotheosis; but all may be deemed lineal descendants of +his original creations.</p> + +<figure id="i_293" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> + <img src="images/i_293.jpg" width="2427" height="1634" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">THE OLD “INVINCIBLE.” 1872. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>First, however, it is desirable to revert to the Reed +broadside and central battery-ships.</p> + +<p>The <i>Audacious</i> class, which followed closely upon +the <i>Hercules</i>, and were contemporary in the matter of +design, were avowedly “second-class ships,” intended +for service in distant seas. The ships of this class, of +which the first was completed in 1869 and the last +in 1873, were the <i>Audacious</i>, <i>Invincible</i>, <i>Iron Duke</i>, +<i>Vanguard</i>, <i>Swiftsure</i>, and <i>Triumph</i>. As the sketch plan +illustrations indicate, the main deck battery in them +was more centralised than in the <i>Hercules</i>, while instead +of the bow battery they carried on their upper decks four +6½-ton guns capable of firing directly ahead or astern.</p> + +<p>Excluding the converted ships, the <i>Audacious</i> was +the eleventh British ironclad to be designed in point of +date of laying down, but in the matter of design she +followed directly on the eighth ship—<i>Hercules</i>.</p> + +<p>Her weights, as compared with the <i>Bellerophon</i>, +<span class="locked">were:—</span></p> + +<table id="t295" class="tbdr"> +<tr class="thead"> + <td class="tdc"> Name.</td> + <td class="tdc"> Weight of hull.</td> + <td class="tdc"> Weight carried.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><i>Bellerophon</i></td> + <td class="tdl">3652 tons.</td> + <td class="tdl">3798 tons.</td> +</tr> +<tr class="tlast"> + <td class="tdl"><i>Audacious</i></td> + <td class="tdl">2675 tons.</td> + <td class="tdl">3234 tons.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>In some of these ships the principle of wood-copper +sheathing was re-introduced; the iron ships having +been found to foul their hulls more quickly than wooden +hulled ships. The <i>Swiftsure</i> and <i>Triumph</i> (the two +latest) were the ones so treated. Sir E. J. Reed was not +responsible for the experiment, which was entirely an +Admiralty one. It proved successful enough, the loss +of speed being trifling.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span></p> + +<p>Details of the <i>Audacious</i> class:—<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a></p> + +<ul> +<li>Displacement—6,010.</li> +<li>Length—280ft.</li> +<li>Beam—54ft.</li> +<li>H.P.—4,830.</li> +<li>Mean Draught—23ft. 8ins.</li> +<li>Guns—Ten 12-ton M.L.R.</li> +<li>Coal—500 tons.</li> +<li>Belt Armour—8ins. to 6ins.</li> +</ul> + +<table id="t296" class="tbdr"> +<tr class="thead"> + <td class="tdl"></td> + <td class="tdc"><i>Audacious</i></td> + <td class="tdc"><i>Iron Duke</i></td> + <td class="tdc"><i>Invincible</i></td> + <td class="tdc"><i>Vanguard</i></td> + <td class="tdc"><i>Swiftsure</i></td> + <td class="tdc"><i>Triumph</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Speed</td> + <td class="tdc">13.2</td> + <td class="tdc">13.64</td> + <td class="tdc">14.09</td> + <td class="tdc">13.64</td> + <td class="tdc">13.75</td> + <td class="tdc">13.75</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Builder of Ship</td> + <td class="tdc">Glasgow</td> + <td class="tdc">Pembroke</td> + <td class="tdc">Glasgow</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc">Jarrow</td> + <td class="tdc">Jarrow</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Builder of Machin’y</td> + <td class="tdc">Ravenhill</td> + <td class="tdc">Ravenhill</td> + <td class="tdc">Napier</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc">Maudslay</td> + <td class="tdc">Maudslay</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Launched</td> + <td class="tdc">1869</td> + <td class="tdc">1870</td> + <td class="tdc">1869</td> + <td class="tdc">1869</td> + <td class="tdc">1870</td> + <td class="tdc">1870</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Completed</td> + <td class="tdc">1869</td> + <td class="tdc">1871</td> + <td class="tdc">1870</td> + <td class="tdc">1871</td> + <td class="tdc">1872</td> + <td class="tdc">1873</td> +</tr> +<tr class="tlast"> + <td class="tdl">Cost—Hull & Machin’y</td> + <td class="tdc">£246,482</td> + <td class="tdc">£196,479</td> + <td class="tdc">£239,441</td> + <td class="tdc"></td> + <td class="tdc">£257,081</td> + <td class="tdc">£258,322</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The sheathing increased the displacement of the two +latest ships by about 900 tons in the <i>Swiftsure</i>, and some +600 tons in the <i>Triumph</i>. These two were single-screw +ships only, whereas all the others were twin-screw.</p> + +<p>In September, 1875, the <i>Vanguard</i> was rammed and +sunk by the <i>Iron Duke</i>.</p> + +<figure id="i_297" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;"> + <img src="images/i_297.jpg" width="2427" height="1486" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">THE <i>VANGUARD</i>, COMPLETED 1874. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The finding of the Court Martial was as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“The court having heard the evidence which had been adduced +in this inquiry and trial, is of opinion that the loss of Her Majesty’s +ship <i>Vanguard</i> was occasioned by Her Majesty’s ship <i>Iron Duke</i> +coming into collision with her off the Kisbank, the Irish Channel, +at about 12-50 on the 1st September, from the effects of which she +foundered; that such collision was caused—First, by the high rate +of speed at which the squadron, of which these vessels formed a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span> +part, was proceeding whilst in a fog; secondly, by Captain Dawkins, +when leader of his division, leaving the deck of the ship before the +evolution which was being performed was completed, as there were +indications of foggy weather at the time; thirdly, by the unnecessary +reduction of speed of H.M.S. <i>Vanguard</i> without a signal from the +vice-admiral in command of the squadron, and without H.M.S. +<i>Vanguard</i> making the proper signals to the <i>Iron Duke</i>; fourthly, +by the increase of speed of H.M.S. <i>Iron Duke</i> during a dense fog, +the speed being already high; fifthly, by H.M.S. <i>Iron Duke</i> +improperly shearing out of the line; sixthly, for want of any fog +signals on the part of H.M.S. <i>Iron Duke</i>.</p> + +<p>“The court is further of opinion that the cause of the loss of +H.M.S. <i>Vanguard</i> by foundering was a breach being made in her side +by the prow of H.M.S. <i>Iron Duke</i> in the neighbourhood of the most +important transverse bulkhead—namely, that between the engine +and boiler rooms, causing a great rush of water into the engine-room, +shaft-alley, and stoke-hole, extinguishing the fires in a few minutes, +the water eventually finding its way into the provision room flat, +and provision rooms through imperfectly fastened watertight doors, +and owing to leakage of 99 bulkhead. The court is of opinion that +the foundering of H.M.S. <i>Vanguard</i> might have been delayed, if not +averted, by Captain Dawkins giving instructions for immediate +action being taken to get all available pumps worked, instead of +employing his crew in hoisting out boats, and if Captain Dawkins, +Commander Tandy, Navigating-Lieutenant Thomas, and Mr. David +Tiddy, carpenter, had shown more resource and energy in endeavouring +to stop the breach from the outside by means at their command, +such as hammocks and sails—and the court is of opinion that Captain +Dawkins should have ordered Captain Hickley, of H.M.S. <i>Iron Duke</i>, +to tow H.M.S. <i>Vanguard</i> into shallow water. The court is of opinion +that blame is imputable to Captain Dawkins for exhibiting want of +judgment and for neglect of duty in handling his ship, and that he +showed a want of resource, promptitude, and decision in the means +be adopted for saving H.M.S. <i>Vanguard</i> after the collision. The +court is further of opinion that blame is imputable to Navigating-Lieutenant +Thomas for neglect of duty in not pointing out to his +captain that there was shallower water within a short distance, and +in not having offered any suggestion as to the stopping of the leak +on the outside. The court is further of opinion that Commander<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span> +Tandy showed great want of energy as second in command under +the circumstances. The court is further of opinion that Mr. Brown, +the chief engineer, showed want of promptitude in not applying the +means at his command to relieve the ship of water. The court is +further of opinion that blame is imputable to Mr. David Tiddy, of +H.M.S. <i>Vanguard</i>, for not offering any suggestions to his captain +as to the most efficient mode of stopping the leak, and for not taking +immediate steps for sounding the compartments and reporting from +time to time the progress of the water. The court adjudges Captain +Richard Dawkins to be severely reprimanded and dismissed from +H.M.S. <i>Vanguard</i> and he is hereby severely reprimanded and so +sentenced accordingly. The court adjudges Commander Lashwood +Goldie Tandy and Navigating-Lieutenant James Cambridge Thomas +to be severely reprimanded, and they hereby are severely reprimanded +accordingly. The court imputes no blame to the other officers and +ship’s company of H.M.S. <i>Vanguard</i> in reference to the loss of the +ship, and they are hereby acquitted accordingly.”</p> +</div> + +<figure id="i_301" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;"> + <img src="images/i_301.jpg" width="1661" height="2649" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <p>HOTSPUR<br> + <span class="smcap">French Ram</span> TAUREAU (1865)<br> + GLATTON<br> + RUPERT</p> + <p class="larger">RAMS OF THE REED ERA.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This disaster drew attention to the ram, the more +so when it became known that the <i>Iron Duke</i> was +uninjured. Ram tactics had, of course, been heard of +before, and had been discussed at great length by Sir +Edward Reed in 1868. At that date, although one or +two special ram-ships had been built, Sir E. J. Reed had +expressed a certain amount of scepticism as to whether +the ram could be successfully used in connection with a +ship in motion, and pointed out that in the historical +instance of the <i>Re d’Italia</i> at the battle of Lissa, the ship +was stationary. He further had written:—<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“Even if the side were thus broken through, any one of our +iron-built ships would most probably remain afloat, although her +efficiency would be considerably impaired, the water which would +enter being confined to the watertight compartment of the hold, +enclosed by bulkheads crossing the ship at a moderate distance +before and abaft the part broken through. In fact, under these +circumstances the ship struck would be in exactly the same condition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span> +as an ordinary iron ship which by any accident has had the bottom +plating broken, and one of the hold-compartments filled with water, +so that we have good reason to believe that her safety need not be +despaired of, unless, by the blow being delivered at, or very near, +a bulkhead, more than one compartment should be injured and +filled. All iron ships can thus be protected to some extent against +being sunk by a single blow of a ram, and our own vessels have the +further and important protection of the watertight wings just +described; but wood ships are not similarly safe. One hole in the +side of the <i>Re d’Italia</i> sufficed to sink her; but this would scarcely +have been possible in an iron ship with properly arranged watertight +compartments. The French, in their latest ironclads, have become +alive to this danger, and have fitted transverse iron bulkheads +in the holds of wood-built ships in order to add to their safety. +No doubt this is an improvement, but our experience with wood +ships leads us to have grave doubts whether these bulkheads can be +made efficient watertight divisions in the hold, on account of the +working that is sure to take place in a wood hull. This fact adds +another to the arguments previously advanced in favour of iron +hulls for armoured ships; for it appears that an iron-built ship, +constructed on the system of our recent ironclads, is comparatively +safe against destruction by a ram, unless she is repeatedly attacked +when in a disabled state, while a wood-built ship may, and most +likely will, be totally lost in consequence of one well-delivered +heavy blow.”</p> +</div> + +<p>This is in strange contrast to the fate of the <i>Vanguard</i>, +but the finding of the court-martial indicates +that the precautions taken were hardly such as were +contemplated by the ship’s designer! Furthermore, she +appears to have been struck immediately on one of the +watertight bulkheads, and so, instead of being left with +seven of her eight compartments unfilled, she had only +six unfilled. The shock, also, was such that most of the +other bulkheads started leaking; and in addition to this +the double bottom is said to have been filled with bricks<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span> +and cement,<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> and so less operative than it might otherwise +have been, since any shock on the outer bottom +would thus be immediately communicated to the inner +one.</p> + +<p>The actual successor of the <i>Hercules</i>, in the matter +of first-class ships, was the <i>Sultan</i>. She differed from +the <i>Hercules</i> merely in a somewhat increased draught +and displacement, and increased provision for end-on +bow fire—four 12½-ton guns able to fire ahead being +substituted for the one smaller gun in the <i>Hercules</i>.</p> + +<p>This end-on fire was given because ram-tactics were +then coming greatly into favour. Particulars of the +<i>Sultan</i>,<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> which was the last of the central battery ironclads +to be designed and built by Sir E. J. Reed, are as +<span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> + +<ul> +<li>Displacement—9,290 tons.</li> +<li>Length—325ft.</li> +<li>Beam—59ft. ½-in.</li> +<li>H.P.—7,720.</li> +<li>Mean Draught—26ft. 5ins.</li> +<li>Guns—Eight 18-ton M.L.R., four 12½-ton M.L.R.</li> +<li>Coal—810 tons.</li> +<li>Armour (iron)—9ins., 8ins., and 6ins.</li> +<li>Speed—14.13 knots (single screw).</li> +<li>Builder of Ship—Chatham.</li> +<li>Builder of Machinery—Penn.</li> +<li>Cost—Hull and machinery, £357,415.</li> +<li>Launched—1870; completed for sea in 1871.</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span></p> + +<figure id="i_305" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;"> + <img src="images/i_305.jpg" width="1665" height="2690" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + <p>CERBERUS.<br> + DEVASTATION.<br> + FURY.<br> + DREADNOUGHT.</p> + <p class="larger">BREASTWORK MONITORS.</p> + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span></p> + +<p>Sir E. J. Reed’s “breastwork monitors” have +already been referred to. They were received with little +enthusiasm by the Admiralty, and the first of them were +merely Colonial coast defence vessels. These <span class="locked">were:—</span></p> + +<table id="t307" class="tbdr"> +<tr class="thead"> + <td class="tdc">Name.</td> + <td class="tdc">Displ’m’t. Tons.</td> + <td class="tdc">Speed. Knots.</td> + <td class="tdc">Armour. Inches.</td> + <td class="tdc">Turret Armour.</td> + <td class="tdc">Completed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><i>Cerberus</i></td> + <td class="tdc">3480</td> + <td class="tdc">9.75</td> + <td class="tdc">8</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">1870</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl"><i>Abyssinia</i></td> + <td class="tdc">2900</td> + <td class="tdc">9.59</td> + <td class="tdc">7</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">1870</td> +</tr> +<tr class="tlast"> + <td class="tdl"><i>Magdala</i></td> + <td class="tdc">3340</td> + <td class="tdc fsr1">10.67</td> + <td class="tdc">8</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">1870</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>In general design all were identical, a redoubt amidships +carrying two centre line turrets and a small oval +superstructure between. Twin screws were employed.</p> + +<p>The belief in the ram already alluded to had by now +attained such proportions that a ship specially designed +for ramming was called for, and the <i>Hotspur</i> was the +result. Nothing written by Sir E. J. Reed (and he wrote +a great deal) indicates that he was in sympathy with her +design, though nominally responsible. The <i>Hotspur</i> was +not even a turret-ship. She carried a fixed armoured +structure of considerable size,<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a> inside of which a single +25-ton gun revolved, firing through the most convenient +of several ports. She was fitted with two masts with +fore and aft sails. Particulars of her <span class="locked">were:—</span></p> + +<ul> +<li>Displacement—4,010 tons.</li> +<li>Length—235ft.</li> +<li>Beam—50ft.</li> +<li>H.P.—3,060.</li> +<li>Mean Draught—21ft. 10ins.</li> +<li>Guns—One 25-ton M.L.R., two 6½-ton.</li> +<li>Belt Armour—11in. to 8in.; complete belt.</li> +<li>Turret Armour—10in.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span></li> +<li>Coal—300 tons.</li> +<li>Speed—12.8 knots (twin-screw).</li> +<li>Builder—Napier, Glasgow.</li> +<li>Launched—1870; completed, 1871.</li> +<li>Cost—Hull and machinery, £171,528.</li> +</ul> + +<p>She was built solely and simply as an “answer” to +a series of “rams” projected for the French Navy, +apparently more with an Admiralty idea of not being +caught napping “in case,” than from any belief in her +efficacy.</p> + +<figure id="i_309" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 42em;"> + <img src="images/i_309.jpg" width="2649" height="1424" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">THE <i>HOTSPUR</i>, AS ORIGINALLY COMPLETED, 1871. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Sir E. J. Reed’s ideas in the matter of turret-ships +now found expression in four ships of the <i>Cerberus</i> type +enlarged. These were the <i>Cyclops</i>, <i>Gorgon</i>, <i>Hecate</i>, and +<i>Hydra</i>. Like their prototype, they were of the breastwork +type, and differed only in having an inch more belt +armour and a displacement of 3,560 tons. Differing from +them, and perhaps more on Reed lines, was the <i>Glatton</i>. +Her special feature was the introduction of water to +reduce her freeboard in action. She had a single turret +only, but her belt was 12ins. thick, and she represented +the, then, “last word” in coast defence ships, so far as +the British Navy was concerned. Details of her are as +<span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> + +<ul> +<li>Displacement—4,910 tons.</li> +<li>Length—245ft.</li> +<li>Beam—54ft.</li> +<li>H.P.—2,870.</li> +<li>Mean Draught—19ft. 5ins.</li> +<li>Guns—Two 25-ton M.L.R.</li> +<li>Armour (iron)—12-10in. Belt Turret, 14in.</li> +<li>Coal—540 tons.</li> +<li>Speed—12.11 knots (twin screw).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span></li> +<li>Builder of Ship—Chatham Dockyard.</li> +<li>Builder of Machinery—Laird.</li> +<li>Floated out of Dock—1871; completed, 1871.</li> +<li>Cost—Hull and Machinery, £219,529.</li> +</ul> + +<p>The last ship of this group was the ram <i>Rupert</i>, of +5,440 tons, laid down at Chatham, in 1870. She was, +in substance, merely an enlarged <i>Hotspur</i>, carrying two +18-ton guns in a single revolving turret forward and two +64-pounders behind the bulwarks aft. Her armour was +slightly inferior to the <i>Glatton’s</i>: her speed considerably +higher—14 knots being aimed at, though it was never +reached. She was one of the very few ships which had +their engines built in a Royal Dockyard, hers being +constructed at Portsmouth Yard.</p> + +<p>About the year 1890, when re-construction was very +much to the fore, the <i>Rupert</i> was re-constructed. She +was given a couple of 10in. breech-loaders instead of her +old 10in. M.L., a military-top, and a few other improvements. +The net result of this re-construction was that +when, after it, she first proceeded to coal she began to +submerge herself almost at once. Her torpedo tubes +were awash before she had received her normal quota of +coal, and she was, generally, the most futile example of +re-construction ever experienced.</p> + +<p>The failure was such that thereafter no further +attempt to modernise old ships was ever made; instead, +a policy of “scrapping” all such was introduced. This +is probably the best service that the <i>Rupert</i> ever rendered +to the Navy. She demonstrated for all time that—so +far as the British Navy was concerned—modernising was +a hopeless task. It took France and Germany many +years to learn a similar lesson. To-day, it is generally +recognised that, as a ship is completed, she represents<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span> +the best that can be got out of her; and that any +attempt to improve her in any one direction merely +spells reduced efficiency in some other. Hence the +apparently early scrapping of many ships of later date +and the present day proverb, “Re-construction never +pays.”</p> + +<p>The whole of the series, however, can only be +regarded as improvements on the old <i>Prince Albert</i> idea. +Sir E. J. Reed’s real answer to the <i>Captain</i> was the +<i>Devastation</i>, designed in 1868, but not completed till +1873; at which date he had left the Admiralty. The +<i>Devastation</i> and the <i>Thunderer</i> (completed four years later +than her sister) cost Sir E. J. Reed his position. In them +he introduced all his ideas as to what the sea-going +turret-ship should be. He carried the Admiralty with +him; but before ever the <i>Devastation</i> was set afloat, it +was “proved” to the satisfaction of the general public +that she was an “egregious failure.” The date of her +design is about 1868, though, as mentioned above, she +was not completed till 1873. The <i>Dreadnought</i> of more +or less these times was nothing in the way of novelty +compared to the <i>Devastation</i> of the later sixties.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum hide" id="Page_313">313</span></p> + +<p>Details of the <i>Devastation</i> (laid down Nov., 1869), +<span class="locked">were:—</span></p> + +<ul> +<li>Displacement—9,330 tons.</li> +<li>Length—385ft.</li> +<li>Beam—62ft. 3ins.</li> +<li>Mean Draught—25ft. 6ins.</li> +<li>H. P.—6,650.</li> +<li>Guns—Four 35-ton M.L.R.<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a></li> +<li>Belt Armour—12in. and 10in. (iron).</li> +<li>Turret Armour—14in. (iron).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span></li> +<li>Coal—1,800 tons.</li> +<li>Speed—13.84 knots (twin-screw).</li> +<li>Where Built—Portsmouth Dockyard.</li> +<li>Builder of Machinery—Humphrys.</li> +<li>Launched—1871; completed, 1873.</li> +<li>Cost—Hull and Machinery, £353,848.</li> +</ul> + +<p>On her trials the <i>Devastation</i> proved completely +successful. An interesting and little known item in +connection with her is that as designed she was to carry +two signal masts,<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> one forward of the turrets, one aft. +For these, on completion, a single mast on the superstructure +was substituted.</p> + +<figure id="i_313" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;"> + <img src="images/i_313.jpg" width="2450" height="1533" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">THE <i>DEVASTATION</i>, AS COMPLETED, 1873. + </figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>How the <i>Devastation</i>, even after successful completion, +was received by the public can be gleaned +from the following extracts from the contemporary +press:—<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p>“It is a weakness with the officers and men of any of Her +Majesty’s ships to ‘crack up’ the vessels to which they belong, and +it is rarely that a bluejacket growls openly against his ship. The +warm confidence expressed in the ill-fated <i>Captain</i> by her unfortunate +crew is well remembered, and is sufficient to prove that even the +first of this necessarily uncomfortable class of monitors was not met +by the seamen of the Fleet in any complaining spirit, but that they +submitted to the discomforts imposed upon them with characteristic +cheerfulness. When, therefore, an unmistakable feeling of dissatisfaction +prevails throughout a ship, and no hesitation is shown +in expressing it, we may be certain that there is some valid reason +for so unusual an occurrence. We hesitated to give currency to +reports which reached us during the cruise of the <i>Devastation</i> +around the coast with the Channel Squadron, as we had good +reason to believe that it was the intention of the Admiralty to +pay her off, and berth her in Portsmouth harbour as a tender to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span> +the <i>Excellent</i>, the advantage of so doing being that a very large +number of men passing through the School of Gunnery would thus +be enabled to become acquainted with the latest improvements in +the turret system.... But since the arrival at the Admiralty +of Rear-Admiral Hornby, late in command of the Channel Squadron, +who certainly should be able to form a correct estimate of the +<i>Devastation’s</i> fitness in every respect for sea service, it has been +determined that she shall be ordered to Gibraltar, there probably +to remain during the coming winter as a kind of ‘guardo.’ A cruise +across the bay in the month of November is not looked forward to +by the present crew, who have had a little experience both of being +stifled by being battened down and of being nearly blown out of +their hammocks when efforts at ventilation are made by opening +every hatch. Her qualities as a sea-boat have been fairly tested, +and the present notion of filling her up with stores for six months’ +further service, and then stowing her away at Gibraltar, leads to +the conclusion that on this point at least the value of the counsel +of the First Lord’s new Naval adviser is not altogether apparent.</p> + +<p>“... It is needless to comment on the facts. They speak +for themselves. The condensers will be repaired, no doubt, and +strengthened and modified; but no engineer can guarantee that they +will not fail again, or, if they turn out a permanent job, that the +cylinders will not split, or some other of the mishaps to which +marine engines in the Navy are subject may not happen. If the +failure takes place in the day of battle it will constitute little short +of a national calamity. Even as it is, it must be looked on as a most +fortunate circumstance that the sea was perfectly smooth and the +vessel near a port. Had the breakdown occurred during the six +hours’ run of the ship—which was to have been made on Wednesday—and +in a stiff breeze blowing on a lee shore, the ship might have +been lost before an effort could have been made to save her. Very +important improvements in marine engines of large size must be +made before we can reconcile ourselves to the adoption of mastless +sea-going monitors.”</p> +</div> + +<p>With such labour and travail was the modern +British battleship born! Public opinion decidedly +modified naval construction—leading, as it did, to a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span> +considerable delay with the <i>Thunderer</i>,<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">111</a> the re-designing +of the <i>Fury</i>, and the building of some old-type ships +which else had probably never been constructed.</p> + +<p>As already mentioned, Sir E. J. Reed left the +Admiralty before the <i>Devastation</i> was completed. None +the less the ships which immediately followed were in +all essential particulars “Reed Ships,” and so are +included in this chapter.</p> + +<p>The <i>Devastation</i>, owing to the Committee on Designs, +received certain minor modifications before completion. +These mainly concerned the hatches. Her sister ship, +the <i>Thunderer</i>, built at Pembroke and engined by +Humphrys, was held back, pending the <i>Devastation’s</i> +trials, and not completed till 1877.</p> + +<p>Save that in one turret she carried a couple of 38 +ton (12.5-inch) instead of 35 ton (12-inch) guns, she was +a replica of the <i>Devastation</i>.</p> + +<p>A third ship of the same type, named the <i>Fury</i>, +was in hand, but criticisms of the <i>Devastation</i> caused +her to be re-designed, and she was eventually completed +as the <i>Dreadnought</i>. In her the very low freeboard +forward and aft of the <i>Devastation</i> type was done away with +and freeboard maintained at a uniform medium height.</p> + +<p>The <i>Devastation</i> and <i>Thunderer</i> had their armour-plates +amidships pierced with square portholes. These +with some reason were attacked as likely to weaken the +armour very considerably, and the <i>Dreadnought</i> was +built entirely wall-sided and so depended on artificial +ventilation, known in the Navy in those days as “potted +air,” even more than her predecessors.</p> + +<p>Particulars of the <span class="locked"><i>Dreadnought</i>:—</span></p> + +<ul> +<li>Displacement—10,820 tons.</li> +<li>Length—320ft.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span></li> +<li>Beam—63ft. 10in.</li> +<li>Draught—26ft. 9in.</li> +<li>Armament—Four 38-ton M.L.R., two 14in. torpedo tubes.</li> +<li>Armour (iron)—Belt 14-11in., Bulkheads 13in., Turrets 14in.</li> +<li>H.P.—8,210 = 12.40 knots.</li> +</ul> + +<p>In the original design of the <i>Fury</i> provision was +made for a conning tower with a heavily-armoured +communication tube. She proved a very successful +ship. No sisters were ordered, probably because the +Admiralty wished to see how she did before committing +themselves to the type. Ere she was finished a +different fashion in warships had set in. The cost of the +<i>Dreadnought</i> was about £600,000.</p> + +<p>The <i>Alexandra</i> was designed long after Reed had +left the Admiralty. That famous constructor had nothing +whatever to do with her. None the less she was the +apotheosis of his box-battery ironclad ideas and for that +reason is included in his era. She was simply an +“improved <i>Sultan</i>.”</p> + +<p>Particulars of <span class="locked">her:—</span></p> + +<ul> +<li>Displacement—9,490 tons.</li> +<li>Length (between perpendiculars)—325ft.</li> +<li>Beam—63⅔ft.</li> +<li>Draught—26½ft.</li> +<li>Armament—Four 25-ton M.L., ten 18-ton M.L., +four above-water torpedo dischargers (14in.)</li> +<li>Armour (iron)—12-6in. belt, flat deck on top of +it. Bulkheads 8-5in. Battery 12-6in.</li> +<li>Horse-power—9,810 = 15 knots.</li> +<li>Coal—680 tons = 2,700 knots at 10 knots (nominal).</li> +</ul> + +<p>She was built at Chatham Dockyard; engined by +Humphrys; completed for sea, 1877.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span></p> + +<p>Four of the 18-ton guns were carried in an upper +deck battery, and had end-on training. The other guns +were carried in the main-deck battery, which was some +10ft. high. The 25-ton guns had a right-ahead training.</p> + +<p>After completion she served as Mediterranean flagship, +though at the bombardment of Alexandria the flag +was transferred to the <i>Invincible</i>, which, being of lighter +draught, was able to enter the inner harbour. At a later +date (about 1890) she was “partially reconstructed.” +For her original barque rig a three-masted military rig +was substituted, and six 4-inch Q.F. were mounted on top +of her upper deck battery. She has been described as the +apotheosis of Reed broadside ideas, and a very apotheosis +she was. No broadside or central battery ironclad of +the British or any other Navy ever equalled her, and she +dropped out of the first rank only because the big gun +rendered broadside ships entirely obsolete.</p> + +<h3><i>GUNS IN THE ERA.</i></h3> + +<p>The principal guns (all M.L.R.) in the Reed Era +were as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> + +<table id="t319" class="tbdr"> +<tr class="thead"> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Weight in tons.</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Bore in inches.</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Length in Calibres.</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Weight of Projectile lbs.</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Muzzle Velocity. f.s.</td> + <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Muzzle Energy. f.t.</td> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Penet’n Iron at</td> +</tr> +<tr class="theadsub"> + <td class="tdc">yds. 2000</td> + <td class="tdc">yds. 1000</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc">38</td> + <td class="tdc fs1p">12.5</td> + <td class="tdc">16</td> + <td class="tdc">810</td> + <td class="tdc">1575</td> + <td class="tdc">13,930 </td> + <td class="tdc">16</td> + <td class="tdc">18</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc">35</td> + <td class="tdc">12</td> + <td class="tdc fs1p">13½</td> + <td class="tdc">707</td> + <td class="tdc">1390</td> + <td class="tdc">9470</td> + <td class="tdc">13</td> + <td class="tdc">15</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc">25</td> + <td class="tdc">12</td> + <td class="tdc">12</td> + <td class="tdc">609</td> + <td class="tdc">1288</td> + <td class="tdc">7006</td> + <td class="tdc">11</td> + <td class="tdc">12</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc">25</td> + <td class="tdc">11</td> + <td class="tdc">12</td> + <td class="tdc">544</td> + <td class="tdc">1314</td> + <td class="tdc">6560</td> + <td class="tdc">13</td> + <td class="tdc">14</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc">18</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc fs1p">14½</td> + <td class="tdc">406</td> + <td class="tdc">1370</td> + <td class="tdc">5360</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> + <td class="tdc">12</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc fs1p">12½</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">9</td> + <td class="tdc">14</td> + <td class="tdc">253</td> + <td class="tdc">1440</td> + <td class="tdc">3695</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">9</td> + <td class="tdc">10</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdc fs1">9</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">8</td> + <td class="tdc">15</td> + <td class="tdc">174</td> + <td class="tdc">1384</td> + <td class="tdc">2391</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">7</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">8</td> +</tr> +<tr class="tlast"> + <td class="tdc fs2p">6½</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">7</td> + <td class="tdc">16</td> + <td class="tdc">112</td> + <td class="tdc">1325</td> + <td class="tdc">1400</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">6</td> + <td class="tdc fs1">7</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span></p> + +<p>In the early part of the period Armstrong breech-loaders +up to 120 pounders had been in use, but the +elementary breech blocks were so unsatisfactory that +the Navy quickly discarded them, and adhered to +muzzle-loaders long after all other Powers had given +them up.</p> + +<p>The big muzzle loaders tabulated were of a very +elementary type also. They were made by shrinking +red hot wrought-iron collars over a steel tube; and it +was never quite certain how far the interior would be +affected. The projectiles never fitted accurately, with +the result that there was considerable leakage of gas and +very erratic firing. The rifling consisted of five or six +grooves into which studs in the projectile fitted.</p> + +<p>In 1872 some experiments were carried out, the +<i>Hotspur</i> firing at the <i>Glatton’s</i> turret at a range of 200 +yards. The first shot missed altogether, the other two +struck the turret, but not at the point aimed at. The +turret was not appreciably damaged, though theoretically +it should have been completely penetrated. This +eventually led to the invention of an improved gas +check—reference to which will be found at the end of +the Barnaby Era.</p> + +<h3><i>UNARMOURED SHIPS OF THE ERA.</i></h3> + +<p>Contemporaneously with the <i>Hercules</i> the <i>Inconstant</i> +was designed. She was inspired by the United States +<i>Wampanoag</i>, a type of large, fast, unprotected, heavily-gunned +frigate, to which the Americans had always been +partial. The <i>Wampanoag</i>, as a matter of fact, never +reached expectations, whereas the <i>Inconstant</i> was a +decided success so far as she went. She marked, so far +as the British Navy was concerned, the first appearance +of the theory that speed and gun power—in other words,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span> +“the offensive”—might be developed advantageously, +at the cost of defensive arrangements, a theory which +still survives in the “battle-cruisers” of to-day, though +of course in a very modified form. None the less, the +<i>Inconstant</i> represents the germ idea of our present +battle-cruisers, and is supremely important on that +account.</p> + +<p>Particulars of the <i>Inconstant</i> <span class="locked">were:—</span></p> + +<ul> +<li>Displacement—5,780 tons.</li> +<li>Length (between perpendiculars)—337⅓ ft.</li> +<li>Beam—50¼ft.</li> +<li>Draught (mean)—25½ft.</li> +<li>Guns—Ten 12½ ton M.L.R., six 6½ ton M.L.R.</li> +<li>H.P.—7,360 = 16 knots (trial 16.2).</li> +<li>Speed—Sixteen knots (trial 16.2).</li> +<li>Built at Pembroke Dockyard. Completed for +sea 1868 at a cost of £213,324. She had an +iron hull, wood-sheathed and coppered. A +coal supply of 750 tons gave a nominal radius +of 2780 miles. She was ship-rigged and sailed +well.</li> +</ul> + +<p>She was followed by a couple of variants on her, +the <i>Raleigh</i> and <i>Shah</i>, the former 5,200 tons and the +latter 6,250 tons.</p> + +<p>The <i>Shah</i> was originally named the <i>Blonde</i>, but +rechristened out of compliment to the Shah of Persia, +who was visiting England at the time of her launch.</p> + +<p>At a later stage in her career (1877) the <i>Shah</i>, then +flagship on the S.W. Coast of America, fought a much-criticised +action with the Peruvian turret-ship <i>Huascar</i>, +a Laird-built monitor, carrying a couple of 12½ ton guns, +launched in 1865, and generally of the same type (though +smaller) as the British <i>Hotspur</i> and <i>Rupert</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span></p> + +<p>The <i>Huascar</i> had been seized by the Revolutionists +and practically turned into a pirate ship. In attacking +her the British Admiral de Horsey gave hostages to +fortune, seeing that it was an axiom of those days that +an unarmoured ship was helpless against an ironclad +monitor. He had, however, no alternative.</p> + +<p>As things turned out, the <i>Huascar</i> never succeeded +in hitting either the <i>Shah</i>, or the <i>Amethyst</i> which accompanied +her, while the British flagship, having a speed +advantage, the efforts of the <i>Huascar</i> to ram her were +futile. The <i>Huascar</i> was hit about thirty times, and one +man was killed on board her, but the damage done to the +turret-ship was practically nil. The engagement is of +further special interest as for the first time a torpedo was +used from a big ship in action. The range, however, was +too great and no hit was secured.</p> + +<p>During the night following the action an attempt +was made to torpedo the <i>Huascar</i> from the <i>Shah’s</i> steam +pinnace, but the enemy could not be found. Yet it is +probable that the knowledge of the <i>Shah’s</i> torpedoes was +the reason why Pierola surrendered the <i>Huascar</i> next +morning to the Peruvian fleet.</p> + +<p>It must have been abundantly clear to him that he +had next to nothing to fear from the British gun-fire, +while a single water-line hit from him would probably +have put the <i>Shah</i> entirely at his mercy, save in so far +as her torpedoes might make attempts to ram fatal to +him.</p> + +<p class="p2 center wspace">END OF VOL. I.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="A_SHORT_GLOSSARY_OF_COMMON_NAVAL_TERMS">A SHORT GLOSSARY OF COMMON NAVAL TERMS.</h2> +</div> + +<p><b>ABAFT.</b>—Behind or towards the +stern of the vessel. Thus one would +say that the aftermost turret guns in +any ship are “abaft” the mainmast.</p> + +<p><b>ABEAM.</b>—On the side of a vessel +amidships. To say an object is abeam +(or on the beam) means that its +bearing by compass is at right angles +to the vessel’s course.</p> + +<p><b><a id="ADMIRALTY"></a>ADMIRALTY, BOARD OF.</b>—That +department of State which is responsible +for the proper constitution, +maintenance, disposition, and direction +of the Fleet in its material and personal +elements, executing the duties formerly +charged upon the Lord High Admiral; +it is presided over by the First Lord (a +Cabinet Minister) and consists of Naval +Officers—the Sea Lords—and Civil +Officials.</p> + +<p><b>AHEAD.</b>—In advance—an object +is said to be ahead of the ship when its +compass bearing is nearly the same as +the vessel’s course.</p> + +<p><b>AHEAD FIRE.</b>—The discharge of +guns along the line of the keel directly +ahead of the vessel.</p> + +<p><b>AMIDSHIPS.</b>—Generally speaking, +in the middle portion of a vessel. +The point of intersection of two lines—one +drawn from stem to stern, the +other across the beam (or widest part)—is +the actual “midships.”</p> + +<p><b>ANCHOR.</b>—A ship carries several +distinct kinds of anchor: the bowers, +which are always used for anchoring +or mooring the ship; the sheet anchor, +as an auxiliary to the bowers; the +stream and kedge anchors, which can +be used for special purposes.</p> + +<p><b>ANTI-TORPEDO ARMAMENT.</b>—Those +guns in a ship which are +specially mounted for repelling attack +by torpedo craft.</p> + +<p><b>ARC OF FIRE.</b>—That sector of a +circle through which a gun can be +moved or trained for effective practice.</p> + +<p><b>ARMAMENT.</b>—The weapons of +offence with which a ship is armed, +including guns and torpedo tubes.</p> + +<p><b>ARMOUR.</b>—Any effective covering +which protects a ship. The following +specify a few main features of armour +<span class="locked">protection:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot hang2"> + +<p>1. <b>Armour Belt.</b>—The vertical +belt of armour which forms +the citadel or fortress of a +ship, and may extend right +forward to the bows and +right aft the stern.</p> + +<p>2. <b>Side Armour.</b>—Vertical armour +placed on the exterior of a +ship, being both the belt +and additional thereto.</p> + +<p>3. <b><a id="Armoured_Deck"></a>Armoured Deck.</b>—A curved +steel deck protecting the +engine room and other +vital portions of a ship +inside the citadel. A ship +may have as many as three +armoured decks.</p> + +<p>4. <b>Armour Backing.</b>—A thick +layer of teak which acts as +a cushion behind the +armour and to which it is +secured.</p> + +<p>5. <b>Bulkhead Armour.</b>—Vertical +armour in the interior of +the ship, placed across it +from side to side.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>ASTERN.</b>—The opposite to ahead.</p> + +<p><b>ASTERN FIRE.</b>—The discharge of +guns along the line of the keel directly +astern of a vessel.</p> + +<p><b>ATHWARTSHIPS.</b>—At right angles +to the keel.</p> + +<p><b>AUXILIARY.</b>—A ship—not necessarily +a fighting ship—which forms a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span> +component part of a Fleet. These +include Repair vessels, Hospital ships, +Depôt, Submarine and Destroyer +Mother-ships, Colliers, etc.</p> + +<p><b>AUXILIARY ENGINES.</b>—The machinery +employed for boat-hoisting, +pumping, electric lighting, refrigerating, +ventilating, and other purposes on +board ships.</p> + +<p><b>BACKSTAYS.</b>—Ropes stretched from +a mast or topmast head to the sides of +a vessel—some way abaft the mast—to +give support to the mast and +prevent it going forward.</p> + +<p><b>BALLAST.</b>—Weighty material +placed in the bottom of a ship to give +her “stiffness”; that is, to increase +her tendency to return to the upright +position when inclined or heeled over +by the force of the wind or other +cause.</p> + +<p><b>BALLISTICS.</b>—That branch of +science particularly devoted to the +theory of gunnery.</p> + +<p><b><a id="BARBETTE"></a>BARBETTE.</b>—The steel platform +or mounting on which a power-worked +gun rests and within which it revolves.</p> + +<p><b>BARGE.</b>—A general term given to +flat-bottomed boats. The <i>Admiral’s</i> +(or <i>Captain’s</i>) Barge is usually a +special steamboat belonging to a +warship reserved for the use of the +Admiral or Captain.</p> + +<p><b>BATTEN.</b>—Long strips of wood +used for various purposes.</p> + +<div class="blockquot hang2"> + +<p><b>To batten down.</b>—To cover up and +fix down, usually spoken of +hatches when they are covered +over in rough weather.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>BATTERY.</b>—That portion of a +ship’s armament inside the citadel. +The entire armament is frequently +spoken of as a “battery.”</p> + +<p><b><a id="BATTLE-CRUISER"></a>BATTLE CRUISER.</b>—A vessel combining +the speed and other essential +qualities of a cruiser with an armament +and protection sufficient to enable her +to take her place in the fighting-line +beside the battleships.</p> + +<p><b>BATTLE PRACTICE.</b>—An annual +practice carried out in the Navy, to +test the battle or fighting efficiency of +the component parts of a ship’s +armament.</p> + +<p><b>BATTLESHIP.</b>—A ship specially +designed to take and give the hard +knocks of a Fleet action.</p> + +<p><b>BEAK.</b>—The extreme fore part of a +vessel.</p> + +<p><b>BEAM.</b>—The widest measurement +across a ship.</p> + +<p><b>BEARINGS.</b>—This word properly +belongs to the art of navigation, in +which it signifies the direction (by +compass) in which an object is seen.</p> + +<p><b>BEFORE.</b>—Forward or in front of; +the opposite to abaft.</p> + +<p><b>BERTHON BOAT.</b>—A collapsible +boat used in destroyers and small +craft.</p> + +<p><b>BETWEEN DECKS.</b>—In a vessel of +more than one deck, to be between the +upper and the lower.</p> + +<p><b>BINNACLE.</b>—The fixed case and +stand in which the compass in any +vessel is placed.</p> + +<p><b>BLOCKADE.</b>—So to besiege a port +that no communication can take place +from seaward.</p> + +<p><b>BLUE PETER.</b>—A square blue flag +with a square white centre, hoisted to +denote that a vessel is about to sail +and that all persons concerned must +repair on board immediately (the letter +“P” in the international flag signal +code.)</p> + +<p><b>BOOM.</b>—A boom is a pole extending +outboard—i.e., away from the sides of +a vessel.</p> + +<div class="blockquot hang2"> + +<p><b>Lower and Quarter Booms.</b>—Booms, +conveniently placed, to +which boats can make fast.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>BORE.</b>—The interior diameter of a +gun at the muzzle; also the name +given to the interior of a gun. Also +a word used to express a sudden rise +of the tide in certain estuaries as in the +Severn.</p> + +<div class="blockquot hang2"> + +<p><b>To bore.</b>—When down by the +head a ship is said to “bore.”</p> +</div> + +<p><b>BOTTOMRY.</b>—The hull of a ship +pledged as security for a loan.</p> + +<p><b>BOWS.</b>—A term indicating those +portions of a vessel immediately on +either side of her stem (q.v.). Differentiated +in association with the terms +“Port” or “Starboard.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span></p> + +<p><b>BOWSPRIT.</b>—A pole of “sprit” +projecting forward from the stem of +the ship.</p> + +<p><b>BOX THE COMPASS.</b>—To name the +points of the compass in regular order, +i.e., in the direction taken by the hands +of the clock.</p> + +<p><b>BREAKWATER.</b>—An artificial wall +or bank, set up either outside a harbour +or along the coast, to break the violence +of the sea and so create a smooth +shelter.</p> + +<p><b>BREECH.</b>—The end of the gun into +which the projectile and cartridge are +inserted when loading.</p> + +<p><b>BREECH-BLOCK.</b>—A heavy steel +block which seals the breech when the +gun is loaded.</p> + +<p><b><a id="BREECH-LOADER"></a>BREECH-LOADER</b> (<b>B.L.</b>)—Formerly +a gun which was loaded at the +breech end as opposed to a muzzle-loader. +Now used to denote a gun +the cartridge of which is not contained +in a metal cylinder.</p> + +<p><b>BROADSIDE.</b>—The number of guns +which can be brought to bear on one +side of, or the total weight of metal +which can be fired at once from either +side of a ship.</p> + +<p><b>BULKHEAD.</b>—A structure, transverse +or longitudinal, dividing the +interior of a ship into compartments.</p> + +<p><b>BURDEN.</b>—The capacity of a vessel, +as 100 tons burden, etc.</p> + +<p><b>BURGEE.</b>—Properly a flag ending +in a swallow-tail. Yacht clubs’ +burgees are frequently “pennants” +which are flags ending in a point.</p> + +<p><b>CADET, NAVAL.</b>—A youth who is +under training to become a commissioned +officer in the Navy.</p> + +<p><b>CAISSON.</b>—A hollow, watertight +vessel which can be raised or sunk by +compressed air or water, and which is +used when building foundations under +water; or, specifically a lock gate +used for closing the entrance to dry +docks.</p> + +<p><b>CAISSON DISEASE.</b>—A disease to +which divers are subject.</p> + +<p><b>CALIBRE.</b>—The calibre of a gun is +the diameter of the bore (q.v.). This +diameter is used as a unit of measurement. +Thus, a 50-calibre 12-in. gun +is a 12-in. gun which is 50 ft. long, etc.</p> + +<p><b>CAMEL.</b>—A hollow tank or vessel +filled with water and placed under the +hull of a stranded ship. When well +secured, the water it contains is +pumped out, and the buoyancy thus +created helps to lift the ship to +which it is attached.</p> + +<p><b>CAPITAL-SHIP.</b>—A general term +for all warships of such high standard +in fighting capacity as would enable +them to take part in a Fleet action.</p> + +<p><b>CAREEN.</b>—To heel a ship or make +her lie over on one side.</p> + +<p><b>CASEMATE.</b>—An armoured gun-emplacement +in the side of a ship.</p> + +<p><b>CATAMARAN.</b>—Properly a species +of sailing craft used in the Indies. +The heavy wooden rafts which are +used to protect the ship’s side when +she is lying alongside a dockyard wall.</p> + +<p><b>CAULKING.</b>—The operation performed +in making the sides or wooden +decks of a ship watertight.</p> + +<p><b>CLASS.</b>—A ship is said to belong to +a certain “class” when there are +others identical in appearance or +design.</p> + +<p><b>CLEARING.</b>—The passing of a vessel +through the Customs after she has +visited a foreign port.</p> + +<p><b>COAMING.</b>—A raised edge of iron +or wood placed round a hatchway to +prevent water from washing below.</p> + +<p><b>COASTAL-DESTROYER.</b>—A large +torpedo-boat not considered sufficiently +strong structurally to do more than +coastal work.</p> + +<p><b>COASTGUARD.</b>—A semi-naval organisation +of seamen, mostly living +along the shores of the United Kingdom +intended originally for the prevention +of smuggling, but now converted into +a force for the defence of the coast or +to assist wrecks.</p> + +<p><b>COMMISSION.</b>-A ship is said to be +commissioned when she is manned for +service in the fleet.</p> + +<div class="blockquot hang2"> + +<p>A <b>commission</b>, the length of time +the crew remain in a ship; the +order by which a person becomes +an officer.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span></p> + +<p><b>COMMODORE.</b>—A Naval Captain +specially appointed to take command +as such of a squadron of war vessels, +or perform some special duty not +assigned to an officer of flag rank.</p> + +<p><b>COMPLEMENT.</b>—The total number +of officers and men forming the crew +of a ship.</p> + +<p><b>COMPOSITE BATTERY.</b>—A battery +consisting of more than one type of gun.</p> + +<p><b>CON.</b>—To direct the steering of a +vessel.</p> + +<p><b>CONNING-TOWER.</b>—An armoured +compartment in a ship from which she +can be steered, or the gun-fire in an +action controlled if necessary. A ship +may have more than one conning-tower.</p> + +<p><b>CONTINUOUS VOYAGE, DOCTRINE +OF.</b>—The doctrine or principle which +enables contraband of war to be +captured when consigned to a neutral +port, but intended for a belligerent.</p> + +<p><b>CONTRABAND.</b>—Munitions of war +or other goods which are prohibited +entry into a belligerent State.</p> + +<div class="blockquot hang2"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Absolute Contraband, material +which is always contraband.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Conditional Contraband, material +which may be declared +contraband.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>CONTROL STATION.</b>—A platform +whence range-finding instruments are +managed, or from which the gunnery +officers of a ship control gun-fire in an +action.</p> + +<p><b>CONVERSION OF MERCHANTMEN.</b> The +right or practice of converting +merchant vessels into warships on the +high seas or in neutral ports.</p> + +<p><b>CONVOY.</b>—A number of merchant +steamers crossing the ocean under the +protection of warships.</p> + +<p><b>CORDITE.</b>—The explosive used in +guns for discharging projectiles.</p> + +<p><b>COUNTER.</b>—That portion of a vessel +which overhangs the keel towards the +stern (q.v.).</p> + +<p><b>COUNTER MINING.</b>—To lay out and +explode mines in the vicinity of hostile +ones, in order to destroy them by +percussion.</p> + +<p><b>CRANK.</b>—A vessel is said to be +crank when she lists over easily.</p> + +<p><b>CRUISER.</b>—A warship of high speed, +usually employed in scouting, commerce +protection, and special service. +They fall into various <span class="locked">categories:—</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot hang2"> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) Armoured Cruiser, a vessel +having vertical external +armour. See also “<a href="#BATTLE-CRUISER">Battle-Cruiser</a>.”</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Light Cruiser, a vessel with +deck protection only; or, +if armoured, of but small +size and with a thin belt.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) Unprotected Cruiser, a cruising +vessel having no +armour; included in the +Light Cruiser class.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>CRUISING SPEED.</b>—The most economical +speed from the point of view of +fuel consumption at which a ship can +travel.</p> + +<p><b>DEMURRAGE.</b>—Compensation paid +to the owner of a vessel when she has +been detained longer than her time for +unloading.</p> + +<p><b>DERELICT.</b>—A ship whose crew +have abandoned her when at sea.</p> + +<p><b><a id="DESTROYER"></a>DESTROYER.</b>—A large type of +torpedo-boat originally intended to +destroy such craft by gun-fire—now, +with submarines, the chief medium for +torpedo-attack.</p> + +<p><b>DEVIATION OF THE COMPASS.</b>—The +amount of the variation of a ship’s +compass from the true magnetic +meridian, caused by the proximity +of iron.</p> + +<p><b>DIRECTOR TOWER.</b>—An armoured +compartment in a ship whence torpedoes +are fired.</p> + +<p><b>DISPLACEMENT.</b>—The weight of +water a ship displaces when floating.</p> + +<div class="blockquot hang2"> + +<p><b>Normal Displacement.</b>—The weight +of water a ship displaces when +she has her normal amount of +stores, etc., on board.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>DOCK.</b>—A place in which a ship may +be placed for repair or loading and +unloading. See “<a href="#FLOATING_DOCK">Floating Dock</a>” and +“<a href="#GRAVING_DOCK">Graving Dock</a>.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span></p> + +<p><b>DOCKYARD.</b>—The works, etc., where +ships are built or repairs can be carried +out. In the Government dockyards +ships are commissioned and supplied +with stores, ammunition, coal, etc.</p> + +<p><b>DRAUGHT.</b>—The vertical distance +between the lowest portion of the keel +and the water line.</p> + +<p>“<b>DREADNOUGHT.</b>”—Battleships +and cruisers evoked by H.M.S. <b>Dreadnought</b>, +which was the first ship to be +armed with one type of big gun. +“A.B.G. ships”—All-big-gun-ships.</p> + +<p><b>“DREADNOUGHT” CRUISERS.</b>—Cruisers +derived from the principle of +design of H.M.S. <i>Dreadnought</i>, now +called Battle Cruisers (q.v.).</p> + +<p><b>ECHELON.</b>—Guns are said to be +mounted <b>en echelon</b> when they are not +mounted symmetrically but are placed +diagonally athwart-ship.</p> + +<p><b>ENGINES.</b>—The reciprocating, turbine, +or internal-combustion machinery +for propelling vessels.</p> + +<p><b>ENSIGN.</b>—(Usually pronounced +“ens’n.”) The flag carried by a ship +as the insignia of her nationality or the +nature of her duties.</p> + +<p><b>ESTIMATES.</b>—The annual estimate +or expenditure on the Royal Navy for +its administration, personnel, and for +the upkeep or building of new vessels.</p> + +<p><b>FIRST LORD OF THE ADMIRALTY</b>—The +Cabinet Minister who presides over +the Board of Admiralty. See +“<a href="#ADMIRALTY">Admiralty</a>.”</p> + +<p><b>FIRST SEA LORD.</b>—The Senior +<b>Naval Officer</b> serving on the Board of +Admiralty.</p> + +<p><b>FLARE.</b>—The over-hang of the upper +part of a ship’s sides beneath the +forecastle. The peculiar outward and +upward curve in the form of a vessel’s +bow. When it hangs over she is said +to have a “Flaring Bow.”</p> + +<p><b>FLEET.</b>—A number of vessels in +company, be they war or other vessels.</p> + +<p><b>FLEET IN BEING.</b>—An inferior +naval force, capable of action and +influencing or impeding the operations +of an enemy.</p> + +<p><b>FLEET RESERVE.</b>—Short-service +men who have left continuous service, +but are liable to be called upon in case +of war.</p> + +<p><b>FLEET-UNIT.</b>—A vessel fit to form +a unit in a fleet.</p> + +<p><b><a id="FLOATING_DOCK"></a>FLOATING DOCK.</b>—An oblong +floating structure in which a ship may +be placed, and out of which the water +may be pumped, bringing her above +water-level, so that the bottom of the +ship can be repaired, etc.; they have +usually no motive power.</p> + +<p><b>FLOTTENVEREIN.</b>—The German +Navy League.</p> + +<p><b>FLUSH DECK.</b>—A deck having +neither raised nor sunken part, so that +it runs continuously from stem to stern.</p> + +<p><b>FORE AND AFT.</b>—In the direction +of a line drawn from stem to stern of a +vessel—at right angles to athwartships.</p> + +<p><b>FORWARD.</b>—In front of—the forepart, +in the vicinity of the bows of a +vessel.</p> + +<p><b><a id="GRAVING_DOCK"></a>GRAVING DOCK.</b>—A dock excavated +out of the land into which entry +is made from seaward.</p> + +<p><b>GUN.</b>—A weapon used for firing shot +or shell. See “<a href="#BREECH-LOADER">Breech-loader</a>” and +“<a href="#QF_GUN">Q.F. Gun</a>.”</p> + +<p><b>GUNBOAT.</b>—A small type of slow +cruiser armed with light guns, specially +adapted for harbour or river service.</p> + +<p><b>GUN-COTTON.</b>—A high explosive +used in torpedoes and submarine mines, +etc.</p> + +<div class="blockquot hang2"> + +<p><b>Wet Gun-Cotton.</b>—Gun-Cotton +with a certain percentage of +moisture in it; it is useless as +an explosive unless dry gun-cotton +is present to detonate it.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>GUNLAYER.</b>—A man specially +qualified to train (lay) and fire a gun.</p> + +<div class="blockquot hang2"> + +<p><b>Gunlayers’ Test.</b>—An annual +practice carried out in every +ship to test the efficiency of the +gun-layers individually.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>GUN-POWER.</b>—The fighting efficiency +of a ship expressed in the total +weight of metal capable of being +discharged in a single broadside or a +specified period of time.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span></p> + +<p><b>HALYARD.</b>—A rope with which a +sail, flag, or yard is hoisted.</p> + +<p><b>HARVEYISED.</b>—Armour made by +the “Harvey” process. Now obsolete.</p> + +<p><b>HATCH, HATCHWAY.</b>—An opening +in the deck of a ship through which +persons or cargo may descend or be +lowered.</p> + +<p><b>HEAVY GUN.</b>—Any gun greater +than and including a 4-in. Q.F. or B.L.</p> + +<p><b>HOG.</b>—When a vessel has a tendency +to droop at her ends she is said to hog.</p> + +<p><b>HORNPIPE.</b>—The dance once popular +among the sailors of the British +Navy and still sometimes performed +at festive times.</p> + +<p><b>HOSPITAL SHIP.</b>—An auxiliary +vessel specially designed for the +reception of sick and wounded men; +by nature of her duties and under +rules of International Law she is +immune from attack.</p> + +<p><b>HULL.</b>—The body, framework, and +plating of a vessel.</p> + +<p><b>HURRICANE DECK.</b>—In large +steamships a light upper deck extending +across the vessel amidships.</p> + +<p><b>HYDRO-AEROPLANE.</b>—A seaplane. +(q.v.)</p> + +<p><b>HYDROPLANE.</b>—A type of boat +the flattened keel of which is so +constructed that, after a certain speed +has been attained, the hull rises in the +water and skims lightly over the surface, +thus driving forward <em>above</em> rather than +<em>through</em> the water. The hydroplane +<b>cannot</b> rise into the air and fly.</p> + +<p><b>IDLERS.</b>—Those, being liable to +constant duty by day, who are not +required to keep the night watches, +such as carpenters, sail-makers, etc., +also called “Daymen.”</p> + +<p><b>JACK-STAFF.</b>—A flagpole for flying +the Union Jack, invariably at the bows +of the ship.</p> + +<p><b>KEEL.</b>—That portion of a ship +running fore and aft in the middle of +a ship’s bottom.</p> + +<p><b>KEEL-PLATE.</b>—The lowest plate of +all in the keel; this plate is the first +to be laid down when building is +commenced.</p> + +<p><b>KNOT.</b>—The unit of speed for ships. +A ship is said to be going <b>x</b> knots, when +she is going <b>x</b> sea (or nautical) miles +in one hour. One sea mile = 6,080 ft.</p> + +<p class="in0">N.B.—The word <b>knot</b> should never be +used to indicate distance.</p> + +<p><b>KRUPP STEEL.</b>—Steel hardened by +a special process discovered and +applied at Essen.</p> + +<p><b>LABOUR.</b>—When a vessel pitches +or strains in a heavy sea she is said to +“labour.”</p> + +<p><b>LANDLOCKED.</b>—Sheltered on all +sides by the land.</p> + +<p><b>LARBOARD.</b>—The old term for +port. (q.v.)</p> + +<p><b>LATITUDE.</b>—Distance north or +south of the equator, expressed in +degrees.</p> + +<p><b>LAUNCH.</b>—To place a ship in the +water for the first time.</p> + +<p><b>LAY DOWN.</b>—To commence building +a ship.</p> + +<p><b>LEE.</b>—Or Leeward (pronounced +Loo’ard). The side of a vessel opposite +to that upon which the wind blows.</p> + +<p><b>LIGHTER.</b>—A powerful hull or +barge with a flat bottom, used for +transporting heavy goods, such as +coal, ammunition, etc.</p> + +<p><b>LIST.</b>—A vessel is said to have a list +if she heeled temporarily or permanently +to one side.</p> + +<p><b>LOG.</b>—The instrument used to +measure a vessel’s speed through the +water. Also the ship’s daily journal.</p> + +<p><b>LONGITUDE.</b>—Distance east or +west of a first meridian, expressed in +degrees.</p> + +<p><b>MAGAZINE.</b>—The place on board +ship or on shore where ammunition is +stored.</p> + +<p><b>MAN.</b>—To place the right complement +of men in a ship or boat to work her.</p> + +<p><b>MARINE.</b>—A soldier specially +trained for sea service. “Soldier and +sailor too.”</p> + +<p><b>MAST.</b>—The tall structure in a ship +formerly for the carrying of sail, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span> +now carrying control stations, fighting +tops, and wireless telegraphy apparatus.</p> + +<p><b>MASTER.</b>—The Captain of a +merchant vessel who holds a master’s +or extra master’s certificate.</p> + +<p><b>MINE.</b>—A weapon of war which is +placed in the sea by the enemy, and +explodes on a ship striking it; or can +be fired from the shore or ship by +means of an electric current.</p> + +<p><b>MINEFIELD.</b>—A space near a +harbour specially devoted to mining +operations.</p> + +<p><b>MINE-LAYER.</b>—A ship specially +fitted to lay mines out.</p> + +<p><b>MINE-SWEEPER.</b>—A ship whose +duty it is to discover and destroy the +enemy’s mines in order to leave a clear +passage for friendly craft.</p> + +<p><b>MOLE.</b>—A stone break-water or +sea-wall.</p> + +<p><b>MOOR.</b>—To anchor a ship with two +anchors.</p> + +<p><b>MOTHER-SHIP.</b>—A depot ship for +torpedo craft, submarines, etc., +victualling and issuing stores to the +crews of the vessels under her command +controlled by her officers.</p> + +<p><b>MUZZLE ENERGY.</b>—The force +which is propelling the projectile when +it leaves the gun.</p> + +<p><b>MUZZLE VELOCITY.</b>—The speed +at which a projectile is travelling when +it leaves the gun.</p> + +<p><b>NAUTICAL MILE.</b>—One sixtieth of +a degree of latitude. It varies from +6,046 ft. at the equator to 6,092 ft. in +lat. 60° N. or S. The nautical mile +for speed trials, generally called the +Admiralty Measured Mile, = 6,080 ft., +1.151 statute miles, 1,833 metres.</p> + +<p><b>NAVIGATION.</b>—That branch of +science which teaches the sailor to +conduct his ship from place to place.</p> + +<p><b>NAVY LEAGUE, THE.</b>—A strictly +non-party organisation formed in +January, 1895, with Admiral of the +Fleet, Sir G. Phipps Hornby, G.C.B., +etc., as its first President, for the +purpose of urging upon the Government +and the electorate the paramount +importance of a supreme Fleet as the +best guarantee of peace.</p> + +<p>Its agencies are employed in all parts +of the Empire spreading information +on matters affecting the Royal Navy.</p> + +<p><b>NUCLEUS CREW.</b>—The essential +part of a crew of a ship such as the +gun-layers, petty officers, etc. Some +ships are manned by nucleus crews +only, being completed to full strength +in case of mobilisation. Such ships +are sometimes colloquially known as +“Nucoloid.”</p> + +<p><b>OAKUM.</b>—The substance to which +old ropes are reduced when unpicked.</p> + +<p><b>OCEAN GOING DESTROYER.</b>—A +large type of torpedo boat destroyer, +specially designed for service in any +wind or weather.</p> + +<p><b>ORDNANCE.</b>—A general term +applied to guns collectively, and to +the Department concerned with them.</p> + +<p><b>ORLOP DECK.</b>—The lowest deck +in the ship.</p> + +<p><b>PAY OFF.</b>—To end a “Commission.”</p> + +<p><b>PENDANT OR PENNANT.</b>—A long, +pointed flag.</p> + +<div class="blockquot hang2"> + +<p><b>Paying-off Pennant.</b>—A long +streamer hoisted at the mainmast +of a war vessel to denote +she is “paying off.”</p> +</div> + +<p><b>POOP.</b>—An extra deck on the after +part of a vessel.</p> + +<p><b>PORT.</b>—The left-hand side of the +ship as you stand looking forward.</p> + +<p><b>PRIMARY (or main) ARMAMENT.</b>—The +largest guns mounted in a ship.</p> + +<p><b>PRIZE.</b>—In war time, any vessel +taken at sea from an enemy.</p> + +<p><b>PROJECTED.</b>—A ship is said to be +“projected” before keel plate is +actually laid.</p> + +<p><b>PROTECTIVE DECK.</b>—See “<a href="#Armoured_Deck">Armoured +Deck</a>.”</p> + +<p><b>PROW.</b>—The beak or pointed cutwater +of a ship.</p> + +<p><b><a id="QF_GUN"></a>Q.F. GUN.</b>—Quick-firing gun. A +gun the cartridge of which is contained +in a metal cylinder, as opposed to the +B.L. gun.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span></p> + +<p><b>QUARTERS.</b>—A term indicating +those portions of a vessel immediately +on either side of her stern (q.v.). +Differentiated in association with the +terms “Port” or “Starboard.” +“Quarters” also designates the living +space for the personnel and the +stations of the crew when in action.</p> + +<p><b>RAKE.</b>—The inclination of the mast +(or funnels) from the perpendicular; +the “rake” is very nearly always in +a direction aft, but when the mast +slants forward it is said to have a +“Forward rake.”</p> + +<p><b>RAKISH.</b>—Having a smart or fast +appearance. (Applied to ships.)</p> + +<p><b>RANGE.</b>—The distance in yards of the +object fired at. The extreme range is +the longest distance to which a projectile +can be fired by any particular gun.</p> + +<p><b>RANGE-FINDER.</b>—An instrument +used for determining ranges.</p> + +<p><b>RATE.</b>—The classification of a vessel +for certain purposes.</p> + +<p><b>RATLINES.</b>—Small lines crossing +the shrouds of a ship and thus forming +ladders.</p> + +<p><b>REFIT.</b>—To place a ship in dockyard +hands for overhauling her machinery, +etc.</p> + +<p><b>REPAIR SHOP.</b>—A Fleet auxiliary +(q.v.) which is fitted with a foundry, +etc. on board, and can carry out minor +repair work.</p> + +<p><b>RIBS.</b>—The timbers which form the +skeleton of a ship or boat.</p> + +<p><b>RICOCHET.</b>—A leap or bound such +as a flat piece of stone makes when +thrown obliquely along the surface of +the water. Generally spoken of with +reference to projectiles. A “<em>ricochet +hit</em>” is made when a projectile hits +the enemy or target after it has first +struck the water.</p> + +<p><b>RIG.</b>—The rig of a vessel is the +manner in which her masts and sails +are fitted to her hull.</p> + +<p><b>RIGGING.</b>—The system of ropes in +a vessel whereby the masts are +supported and the sails hoisted. +There are two kinds of rigging, viz., +standing rigging and running rigging, +the latter term including all movable +ropes.</p> + +<p><b>ROLL.</b>—The oscillation of a vessel +in a heavy sea.</p> + +<p><b>SAG.</b>—A drooping or depression. A +ship is said to sag when her centre +tends to droop below the line joining +her stem and stern; the opposite to +hogging.</p> + +<p><b>SALVO.</b>—A discharge of fire from +several guns simultaneously.</p> + +<p><b>SCOUT.</b>—A light, swift, protected +cruiser specially adapted for scouting +work.</p> + +<p><b>SCREENING CRUISERS.</b>—Cruisers +separated from the battle fleet to +deceive the enemy as to the Fleet’s +position.</p> + +<p><b>SEAPLANE.</b>—The official naval +designation of the Hydro-aeroplane +which is a man-carrying apparatus +equally capable of flight in the air and +navigation on water. Also called +Navyplane, Waterplane, Flying-Boat, +Airboat.</p> + +<p><b>SEARCH, RIGHT OF.</b>—The right +to search neutral vessels for the +discovery of contraband.</p> + +<p><b>SECONDARY ARMAMENT.</b>—The +guns which support the primary +armament.</p> + +<p><b>SHEET.</b>—The rope attached to a +sail so that it can be “worked” as +occasion demands.</p> + +<p><b>SHROUDS.</b>—Strong ropes (generally +wire) which support the mast laterally.</p> + +<p><b>SLIP.</b>—The wooden “way” on +which a ship is built.</p> + +<p><b>SPEED TRIALS.</b>—Trials carried out +periodically to test a vessel’s speed.</p> + +<p><b>SQUADRON.</b>—A number of ships +under command of a single officer.</p> + +<p><b>STANCHION.</b>—An upright post +supporting the deck above in a ship.</p> + +<p><b>STARBOARD.</b>—The right-hand side +of the ship as you stand looking +forward.</p> + +<p><b>STAYS.</b>—Strong ropes supporting +spars and masts in a ship.</p> + +<p><b>STEM.</b>—The “nose” or “cutwater” +of any ship.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span></p> + +<p><b>STERN.</b>—The aftermost part of a +vessel.</p> + +<p><b>STRAKE.</b>—A line of planking extending +the length of a vessel.</p> + +<p><b>STRATEGY.</b>—The disposition and +handling of Squadrons or Fleets to +dominate the forces of an enemy or +control the time or place of an +engagement. The broad disposition +of naval forces.</p> + +<p><b>SUBMARINE.</b>—A war-vessel the +chief work of which is to operate below +the surface.</p> + +<p><b>SUBMERGED SPEED.</b>—The speed +at which a submersible or submarine +can travel under water.</p> + +<p><b>SUBMERSIBLE.</b>—A vessel which +can be made to dive but which +generally navigates on the surface.</p> + +<p><b>SUPERIMPOSED BARBETTES.</b>—Barbettes +or turrets mounted behind +and above other barbettes or turrets +so that the guns in the first are enabled +to fire over those in the second.</p> + +<p><b>SURFACE SPEED.</b>—The speed at +which a submersible or submarine can +travel when navigating on the surface.</p> + +<p><b>TACTICS.</b>—The handling and conduct +of ships or squadrons in actual +contact with an antagonist, or exercises +for training for such engagements.</p> + +<p><b>TENDER.</b>—A vessel attached to +a parent ship.</p> + +<p><b>TOP.</b>—A position or platform on +the mast of a vessel. A fighting top +in a top armed with light guns.</p> + +<p><b>TOPHAMPER.</b>—The upper works +of the ship, such as masts, funnels, +bridges, cowls, etc.</p> + +<p><b>TORPEDO.</b>—An engine of war which +is discharged from a tube (submerged +or above water) and which travels +under water; it is loaded with a +charge of gun-cotton which explodes +on impact.</p> + +<p><b>TORPEDO-BOAT.</b>—A vessel specially +designed for attack on larger ships +by means of torpedoes.</p> + +<p><b>TORPEDO BOAT DESTROYER</b> +(<b>T.B.D.</b>)—See “<a href="#DESTROYER">Destroyer</a>.”</p> + +<p><b>TORPEDO-NET.</b>—A steel wire net +which is thrown over the side of a ship +and held extended by means of booms; +it hangs down about 20 to 30 ft. below +the surface, and acts as a defence +against torpedoes.</p> + +<p><b>TORPEDO TUBE.</b>—A tube from +which torpedoes are ejected either by +means of a small charge of gunpowder +or compressed air.</p> + +<p><b>TRAJECTORY.</b>—The line of flight +of a projectile after leaving the gun.</p> + +<p><b>TROUGH.</b>—The hollow between two +waves.</p> + +<p><b>TRUCK.</b>—The cap at the head of +the mast or a flagstaff. It generally +contains one or more holes for the +reception of signal halyards.</p> + +<p><b>TURRET.</b>—The revolving armoured +structure in which big guns are +mounted, including the turn-table, +ammunition hoists, etc. See +“<a href="#BARBETTE">Barbette</a>.”</p> + +<p><b>TWO-KEELS-TO-ONE-STANDARD.</b> +The standard under which the British +Fleet should be maintained at a +strength, as against the next strongest +Power, of two completed capital-ships +to one.</p> + +<p><b>TWO-POWER STANDARD.</b>—The +standard which indicated that the +British Fleet was equal in strength to +the fleets of the two next strongest +Powers. This standard has been +abandoned.</p> + +<p><b>WAIST.</b>—That portion of a ship on +the upper deck between the forecastle +and quarter deck.</p> + +<p><b>WATER-TUBE BOILER.</b>—A boiler +in which the water is contained in +tubes round which the hot gases +circulate.</p> + +<p><b>WAY (Momentum).</b>—It is important +to note the difference between this +and the term “<em>weigh</em>,” the two being +very often confounded. A vessel in +motion is said to have “way” on her; +and when she ceases to move to have +“no way.” But a vessel under weigh +in one not at anchor or secured to the +shore.</p> + +<p><b>WEATHER-SIDE.</b>—The side on +which the wind blows.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span></p> + +<p><b>WEEPING (or Sweating).</b>—Drops of +water oozing through the sides of a +vessel or caused by condensation on +the surface of the beams, etc.</p> + +<p><b>WEIGH.</b>—To lift the anchor from +the ground.</p> + +<p><b>WIRE-WOUND.</b>—All big British +guns are made by winding miles of +steel wire or ribbon round a tube over +which the exterior tubes are afterwards +shrunk.</p> + +<p><b>YARD.</b>—A spar suspended to a mast +for the purpose of hoisting or extending +a sail, or to which signal halyards can +be taken.</p> + +<p class="p2 center smaller"> +From “The Navy League Annual,” by the courtesy of<br> +Alan H. Burgoyne, Esq., M.P. +</p> + +<p class="p4 center smaller bt b2">Netherwood, Dalton & Co., Rashcliffe, Huddersfield.</p> + +<div class="chapter footnotes"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</h2> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">1</a> All statements as to King Alfred’s navy are taken directly from the +Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Asser, and Florence of Worcester.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">2</a> An interpolated passage</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">3</a> Wace.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">4</a> Guyot de Provins <i>ex</i> Nicholas.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">5</a> <i>ex</i> Nicolas.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">6</a> Henry VIII introduced a new form of warship in the “pinnaces,” which +were, to a certain extent, analogous to the torpedo craft of to-day.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">7</a> Records of the Drake family.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">8</a> The italics are mine.—F.T.J.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">9</a> So far as I am aware nothing about this appears in any official account. +I have no Japanese confirmation, but accounts gleaned at the time from the +Russian auxiliaries—who, being foreigners had no object in lying—make it +perfectly clear to my mind that the Russian admirals believed that the +Japanese were astern of them till they met them at Tsushima. It is the only +logical explanation of why Rodjestvensky essayed the narrow passage with +his best ships, when he could equally well have gone round Japan with them +unopposed, and so secured at Vladivostok that refit of which he was so much +in need.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">10</a> It was badly weather-beaten, of course, and in sore straits on account of +its lengthy voyage.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">11</a> In 1620 the first submarine appeared. It was invented by a Dutch +physician, C. Van Drebel; and James I went for a lengthy underwater trip +in a larger replica.—See <i>Submarine Navigation</i>, by Alan H. Burgoyne.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">12</a> In this connection, <i>see</i> <a href="#fdw">The First Dutch War</a>, a few pages further on.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">13</a> It is interesting to note that this particular argument, seemingly rather +hyperbolical to-day on account of railways, is so <em>only if the hostile ships can be +kept under observation</em>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">14</a> This practice appears to have been allowed to die out. At any rate it +was re-introduced in the time of Queen Anne.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">15</a> Admiral Colomb (<i>Naval Warfare</i>) traced the Dutch defeat—or perhaps +one should write, “lack of advantage”—mainly to the fact that the Dutch +had a larger mercantile marine to protect, and merely mentions incidentally +the constant complaints of Van Tromp and others to the inferiority of Dutch +warships compared to English ones. But since so many of the Dutch +merchantmen carried very fair armaments, and as “tactics” played no part +in this war, I prefer to accept the explanation of the Dutch Admirals, none +of whom assigned failures to the more obvious excuse of being hampered by +convoys. Dutch contemporary accounts of this and following wars appear +generally to be nearer the actual truth than English ones.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">16</a> Churnock, <i>ex</i> Fincham.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">17</a> Charles II always had an eye for and interest in improvements in +detail, and himself invented new forms of hull, which, however, did not come +up to his expectations. Both he and James wore devoted to yachting +and steered their own boats.</p> + +<p>A singular defect of all the Stuarts in naval matters was their inability to +appreciate the importance of the human as well as the material element. In +the Cromwell régime, all the old abuses in connection with food, clothing and +delayed pay, wore done away with; to re-appear, however, almost as bad as +ever soon after the Restoration.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">18</a></p> + +<p class="center b0"><span class="smcap">English.</span></p> + +<table id="tfn18a" class="notp"> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Ships</td> + <td class="tdr">62</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Men</td> + <td class="tdr">27,725</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Guns</td> + <td class="tdr">4,500</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Frigates, etc.</td> + <td class="tdr">23</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="center b0"><span class="smcap">Dutch.</span></p> + +<table id="tfn18b" class="notp"> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Ships</td> + <td class="tdr">36</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Men</td> + <td class="tdr">12,950</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Guns</td> + <td class="tdr">2,494</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="tdl">Frigates, etc.</td> + <td class="tdr">14</td> +</tr> +</table> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">19</a> See Crimean War in a later chapter for a revival of this.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">20</a> Fincham.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">21</a> He was Master of the fleet at Beachy Head and also at Cape La Hogue.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">22</a> The <i>Pembroke</i> (sixty-four) captured by the French in 1710, in this war, +had her armament reduced to fifty guns by them.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">23</a> This extraordinary story of a soldier saving the fleet is made all the +stranger by the fact that Sir Hovenden Walker, the Admiral, was a teetotaller +and a vegetarian, an almost unheard of thing in those days.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">24</a> Fincham.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">25</a> See later references to Sir William White and Sir Philip Watts.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">26</a> Their recklessness was such that Peter had to give orders that no Swedish +ship was to be boarded unless the superior officers were killed. Swedish +captains, attacked by superior forces, made a regular practice of allowing +themselves to be boarded and then blowing up their ships!</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">27</a> Colomb.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">28</a> For a very full and detailed account see Chapter XV. of Colomb’s +<i>Naval Warfare</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">29</a> The treasure ship was well armed and did not hesitate to engage him. +Anson’s success was in some considerable measure attributable to the fact that +not having enough men for the broadside firing of the period, he ordered +independent firing. It was the Spanish custom to lie down as the enemy fired +a broadside, then jump up and fire back. Anson’s independent firing caused +much unexpected slaughter on them. This rule of “broadsides” compares +interestingly with the salvo firing of the present day.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">30</a> See earlier reference to the same thing in Raleigh’s time.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">31</a> Is the well-known <i>Royal George</i>, which capsized at Spithead, in 1782.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">32</a> Admiral Mahan (<i>Influence of Sea Power upon History</i>, p. 286) shows how +Byng’s dread of anything unconventional in the way of tactics led to the +action being indecisive.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">33</a> Time after time, hostile ships, having had enough of it, passed away +ahead and escaped, because to have pressed them would have “disorganised +the line.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">34</a> Our own naval manœuvres in recent years have seen more than one +disaster from the change of a rendezvous.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">35</a> While this battle of Quiberon was in progress, people in England were +burning Hawke in effigy for having allowed the French fleet to escape!</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">36</a> This appears to be the solitary instance in French history in which a use +of the fleet on English lines was ever contemplated.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">37</a> Admiral Mahan (<i>Influence of Sea Power upon History</i>) has quoted at +length (p. 380) from French authorities to show that only the action of the +captain of the <i>Destin</i> (74), in hurrying to block the gap, prevented Rodney +from getting through the line on this occasion.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">38</a> I draw this from Mahan (<i>Influence of Sea Power upon History</i>) (page 494). +Fincham specifically mentions (p. 107) the introduction of carronades <em>ten</em> +years later.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">39</a> Fincham <i>ex</i> Campbell.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">40</a> The fire-ship grew to be less and less of a menace owing to the improved +handiness of warships.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">41</a> Here again see Raleigh on Elizabethan Customs.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">42</a> By the burning of the bulk of the ships in Toulon, the French Toulon +fleet was rendered non-existent; but the state of affairs with that fleet was +such that its fighting value had long been a cypher.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">43</a> In order to bring the enemy to action, Howe formed a detached squadron +of his faster ships. Hannay (<i>Ships and Men</i>) extols him because, in this and +certain other movements in the battle, he reverted to the tactics of Monk and +other Commonwealth admirals, and threw aside the conventional practice of +his own day.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">44</a> For two opposite views of this particular incident, see Admiral Mahan’s +<i>Influence of Sea Power on the French Revolution</i>, and Chapter X. of Brassey, +1894.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">45</a> The preservation of an orderly line throughout the battle.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">46</a> The story of this ship going down firing, her crew crying <i>Vive la +Republique</i>, is pure fiction. She surrendered after a very gallant fight, and +sank with an English flag flying.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">47</a> Seeing that, had Howe sunk the grain convoy and then been totally +destroyed himself, the Revolution would still have come to nothing from +starvation, this French view of the matter is intelligible enough and also very +reasonable.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">48</a> It was in connection with this engagement that Nelson wrote, “Had I +commanded our fleet on the 14th, either the whole of the French fleet would +have graced my triumph, or I should have been in a confounded scrape.” +Also, commenting on Hotham’s, “We must be contented, we have done very +well”—“Now, had we taken ten sail and allowed the eleventh to escape, +when it had been possible to have got at her, I could never have called it well +done.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">49</a> <i>Nelson</i>, by J. K. Laughton.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">50</a> <i>The British Tar in Fact and Fiction.</i></p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">51</a> The title of “delegates” seems quaintly enough to have led Parker and +his friends into trouble. The men got hold of the word as “<em>delicates</em>,” and +interpreted it more or less literally as a claim to superiority.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">52</a> For a very interesting detailed account, see <i>Ships and Men</i>, by David +Hannay.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">53</a> Fincham.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">54</a> Troude.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">55</a> He, at the same time, sent a private message to Nelson that if he wished +to continue, he was at liberty to do so. The telescope to his blind eye was +merely a little jest on Nelson’s part, and in no way disobedience of orders. +Parker’s whole object in making the signal to withdraw was to intimate to +Nelson that if he deemed himself defeated, he (Parker) would accept +responsibility.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">56</a> Paul had just been murdered, and Alexander changed his policy.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">57</a> Compare with the similar delay of the Spanish Armada.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">58</a> Actually never exceeded 93,000.—<i>Campaign of Trafalgar.</i>—Corbett.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">59</a> Six was sometimes twelve, sometimes longer periods still. The most +reasonable explanation is that Napoleon’s <em>real</em> intentions were to use the +army to invade England, if luck and chance threw the opportunity in his +way; but otherwise to use it only as a threat.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">60</a> It was here that he recorded in his diary that he went on shore on +July 20th—the first time for close on two years!</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">61</a> His orders were to go to Brest; but having been frightened by some +purely mythical news of a British fleet of twenty-five sail (sent him <i lang="la">via</i> a +neutral ship), he went to Cadiz. As, had he got to Brest, he would have +found Cornwallis with thirty-five ships of the line, this piece of precaution +(which incidentally led to Trafalgar) saved him for a while.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">62</a> Rodjestvensky, seeking to inspire the Baltic fleet on its way to Tsushima, +is a close modern parallel.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">63</a> <i>The British Tar in Fact and Fiction</i>, Commander Robinson, R.N.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">64</a> <i>Vide</i> Anson’s boat’s crew in his trip up to Canton. Some captains +spent a good deal of money in providing white shirts for their boat’s crews. +Others indulged in purely fanciful attires.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">65</a> A year or two ago a famous Royal Academy picture showed a fleet of +Dreadnoughts cruising at sea with the steam trial water tanks on board!</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">66</a> To wear the smartest possible clothes on coming up for punishment was +invariable routine. It was hoped that a smart appearance would mitigate +the captain’s wrath.—<i>Vide</i>, <i>Sea Life in Nelson’s Time</i>, John Masefield.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">67</a> To this day the British bluejacket calls himself a “matlo”—a corruption +of the French matelot; so this pigtail introduction theory may be correct +enough.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">68</a> See Food, a page or so further on.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">69</a> The curious, who wander into the by-lanes off Queen Street, Portsea, +will still find heavy iron gates in places. Inside these gates those anxious +to escape the press-gangs used to take refuge.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">70</a> The “bounty” offered, however, was a decided inducement. Cases of +bounties as high as £70 can be found.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">71</a> <i>The British Tar in Fact and Fiction.</i></p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">72</a> There are West Country villages to-day in which, to my own knowledge, +one pound of meat a week is an outside estimate of what is eaten per head.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">73</a> There were those who accepted weevils in ship’s biscuits as mites in +Gorgonzola cheese are accepted to-day! Unpalatable as ship’s biscuit is, +there is a certain acquired taste about it. In the later nineties I have +frequently seen it handed round as a species of dessert in the wardroom, +every senior officer taking some and enjoying it. In the 1890 manœuvres +the wardroom officers of “C fleet” did three weeks on “ships” only, in +quite a casual way, though the quality even then left something to be desired.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">74</a> They began at 4s. a day, working up to 11s. a day after six years, and +18s. a day at twenty years’ service, which few ever reached.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">75</a> For extremely detailed accounts of surgery in action see <i>Sea Life in +Nelson’s Times</i>, John Masefield.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">76</a> A form of this rule exists to-day. A man wounded in action is not now +mulcted; but a man who tumbles down a hatchway and breaks his leg has to +suffer “hospital stoppages,” and “pay for his own cure,” to a certain extent.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">77</a> Commander Robinson, R.N., in <i>The British Tar in Fact and Fiction</i>, +seems to have got nearer the true picture than those who have painted +things in darker and more lurid colours. He is practically the only writer +upon the subject who has realised that many old yarns are capable of being +discounted.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">78</a> It is only fair to the Hebrew race to say that “Jew” was a generic +term for a special type of person who grew rich on advancing money to +sailors and selling them shoddy articles at ridiculously enhanced prices. +Quite a large number of them were not of the Jewish race.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">79</a> To-day this is flown at the bow only when a ship is at anchor.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">80</a> At Trafalgar, the <i>Victory</i>, as she bore down, suffered heavily from the +shot that penetrated her thin forward bulkhead.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">81</a> <i>Ex</i> Fincham, where the report is given in full.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">82</a> The mail packet service was under the Admiralty in those days.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">83</a> The seventy-three ton iron steamboat <i>Ruby</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">84</a> The Lord Armstrong, founder of Elswick, etc.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">85</a> The italics are mine.—F.T.J.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">86</a> My italics. In the Germany of to-day (May, 1915), exactly the same +style of argument is being advanced.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">87</a> c.f. the Dardanelles in May, 1915.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">88</a> Subsequently Sir E. J. Reed, Chief Constructor.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">89</a> c.f. Views expressed about Dreadnoughts, for another reason in the +present year (1915).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">90</a> From <i>Naval Development of the Century</i>, by Sir N. Barnaby, K.C.B.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">91</a> The <i>Warrior</i> now forms part of the <i>Vernon</i> Establishment at +Portsmouth.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">92</a> <i>Our Ironclad Ships</i>, by (Sir) E. J. Reed. Sir N. Barnaby in <i>Naval +Development of the Century</i> gives 5,470 = 14.36 knots.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">93</a> Apparently the first instance of the putting forward of a principle which +later on profoundly affected construction.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">94</a> In 1863, three ironclads, the <i>Lord Clyde</i> and <i>Lord Warden</i>, of 7,840 tons, +and a small ship, the <i>Pallas</i>, 3,660 tons, were constructed with wooden hulls, +in order to use up the stores of timber which had been accumulated.—See +p. 70, <i>Our Ironclad Ships</i>, by Sir E. J. Reed.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">95</a> <i>Our Ironclad Ships</i>, by Sir E. J. Reed.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">96</a> The American monitors all had conning towers; but British masted +battleships were without them.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">97</a> At a subsequent date, after he had left the Admiralty, he designed the +<i>Independencia</i> for Brazil. This ship, afterwards bought into the British +Navy as the <i>Neptune</i>, was simply an enlarged <i>Monarch</i>. Probably, however, +the general features of the ship were specified by the Brazilians.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">98</a> The <i>Scorpion</i> and <i>Wivern</i>, built for the Confederate States and bought +in 1865. The Peruvian <i>Huascar</i> also ante-dated the <i>Captain</i> in design. All +of these were low freeboard ships. Coles had something to do with the +designs of all.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">99</a> All the above ships had one or more tripod masts.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">100</a> For two of these, 12½ ton M.L.R. were afterwards substituted.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">101</a> Coles had projected 1,000 tons; but 500 was all that she could take.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">102</a> She was then rolling from 12½ to 14 degrees.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">103</a> The <i>Audacious</i> herself was “modernised” in the later eighties. Her +sailing rig was removed and a “military rig” substituted. Some minor +changes in her lesser guns were also made.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">104</a> <i>Our Ironclad Ships</i>, by Sir E. J. Reed.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">105</a> <i>Ironclads in Action</i>, by H. W. Wilson.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">106</a> The <i>Sultan</i> was built as a ship-rigged ship. In 1894–96 she was “reconstructed,” +two military masts being substituted for her original rig. She +was also re-engined and re-boilered by Messrs. Thompson, of Clydebank. +Beyond going out for the naval manœuvres one year she did not, however, +perform any service in her altered condition, and is now used as a hulk.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">107</a> Later on this was removed and an ordinary revolving turret, carrying +<em>two</em> 25 ton guns, substituted.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">108</a> About the year 1890–2 <i>Devastation</i> and <i>Thunderer</i> were re-boilered and +re-armed with 10-inch B.L.R.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">109</a> c.f. Frontispiece to <i>Our Ironclad Ships</i>, E. J. Reed.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">110</a> <i>Naval and Military Gazette.</i></p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">111</a> She was about nine years from laying down to completion!</p> + +</div> +</div> + + + + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Index">Index.</h2> + +<div class="index"> +<ul class="index"> +<li class="ifrst">Aboukir, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_152">152</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Abuses, Naval, <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Acquitaine, <a class="v1" href="#Page_11">11</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Admiral Bacon’s Theory, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Admiral Hopkins—Earliest Advocate of Centre-Line in England, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Aerial Bombs First Provided Against, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Aerial Dreadnoughts, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Aerial Experiments in Austria, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_228">228</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Aerial Guns, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Aeroplanes for Naval Purposes, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Agreement with the Colonies, Naval, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Aircraft, Possibilities of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_95">95</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Aircraft, Potentialities in, <a class="v1" href="#Page_228">228</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Alexander, <a class="v1" href="#Page_162">162</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Alexandria, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Alfred the Great, <a class="v1" href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_14">14</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Alfred, King, <a class="v1" href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_73">73</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Algiers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_59">59</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">All-Big-Gun Ship Arguments, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Alterations to “Lion,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Alternative “Dreadnought” Ideal, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Alva, Duke of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_48">48</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">American Colonies Revolution, <a class="v1" href="#Page_124">124</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">American Frigates, <a class="v1" href="#Page_189">189</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Americanising of British Naval Designs, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_176">176</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">American Monitors and Conning Towers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_272">272</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">American Monitors, limitations of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_292">292</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">American Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_189">189</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">American War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_189">189</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Amiens, Peace of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Anson, Commodore, <a class="v1" href="#Page_109">109</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Answer” British, to frégates blindées, <a class="v1" href="#Page_249">249</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Antigua, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Antwerp, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Appreciation of Barnaby, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Arch Duke Charles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_98">98</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Archers, English, <a class="v1" href="#Page_27">27</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Armada, Defeat of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_57">57</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Armada, Delayed, <a class="v1" href="#Page_48">48</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Armada, Force of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_49">49</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Armada, Indifferent Gunnery of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_50">50</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Armada, Real History of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_57">57</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Armament, Ratio of Size, <a class="v1" href="#Page_95">95</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Armed Neutrality, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Armour, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Armoured Cruisers Re-appear, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Armour Experiments at Woolwich, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Armoured Forecastles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_284">284</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Armoured Scouts, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Armstrong and Percussion Shell, <a class="v1" href="#Page_227">227</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Army of Invasion,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_170">170</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Articles of War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_11">11</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Artificial Ventilation, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Armstrong, Guns of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_241">241</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Artillery, Superior, <a class="v1" href="#Page_229">229</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Assize of Arms, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Athelston, <a class="v1" href="#Page_7">7</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Australia, Navy of, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Auxiliary Navies, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Battle of Trafalgar, <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Belle Island Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_122">122</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Berwick Captured by French (1795), <a class="v1" href="#Page_138">138</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Blockade, Scientific, First Instituted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_120">120</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Blockade Work, <a class="v1" href="#Page_165">165</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Bomb Dropping, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_228">228</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Bombs from Airships, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_228">228</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Bomb Vessels Introduced, <a class="v1" href="#Page_87">87</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Bonaparte (see <a href="#Napoleon">Napoleon</a>), <a class="v1" href="#Page_230">230</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Bordelais Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_158">158</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Boscawen, <a class="v1" href="#Page_120">120</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Boswell, Invention of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_107">107</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Bounty, <a class="v1" href="#Page_200">200</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Bounty, Given by Henry VII, <a class="v1" href="#Page_36">36</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Bounty to Seamen, <a class="v1" href="#Page_234">234</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Bourbon, Isle of, Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_185">185</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Box-Battery Ironclads, <a class="v1" href="#Page_318">318</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Brading, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_5">5</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Breaking the Line, First Attempt at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_128">128</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Breaking the Line by Rodney, <a class="v1" href="#Page_129">129</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Breastwork Monitors, <a class="v1" href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_308">308</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Breech Blocks, Elementary, <a class="v1" href="#Page_320">320</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Breechloaders, Armstrongs, <a class="v1" href="#Page_320">320</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Brest, <a class="v1" href="#Page_157">157</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Brest, Cornwallis off, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Bridport, <a class="v1" href="#Page_139">139</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Brig Sloop of 18 Guns, <a class="v1" href="#Page_178">178</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">British Battle Fleet, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">British Defects in the Crimean War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_234">234</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">British Empire, an English-Speaking Confederation, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">British Flag, <a class="v1" href="#Page_75">75</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">British and French Ideals, <a class="v1" href="#Page_249">249</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">British v. French Ships Discussed in Parliament, <a class="v1" href="#Page_37">37</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">British Guns, <a class="v1" href="#Page_232">232</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">British Merchant Ships Trade with Russia During War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_186">186</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">British Methods of Warfare, <a class="v1" href="#Page_41">41</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">British Navy, Birth of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_34">34</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">British Squadron, Defeat of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_186">186</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">British Tactics, <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Broadside Ironclads, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Broke, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_189">189</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Brown, Samuel, Invents a Propeller (1825), <a class="v1" href="#Page_216">216</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Bruat, <a class="v1" href="#Page_234">234</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Brueys, <a class="v1" href="#Page_152">152</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Bruix, <a class="v1" href="#Page_154">154</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Buckingham, Duke of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Bullivant Torpedo Defence, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Burchett, <a class="v1" href="#Page_92">92</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Burgoyne, Alan H., <a class="v1" href="#Page_59">59</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Burgoyne, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_288">288</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Bushnell, David, and his Submarine, <a class="v1" href="#Page_124">124</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Busk, Hans, <a class="v1" href="#Page_237">237</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Busses, <a class="v1" href="#Page_11">11</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Byng, <a class="v1" href="#Page_99">99</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Byng, Shot, <a class="v1" href="#Page_116">116</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Cadiz, <a class="v1" href="#Page_171">171</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cadiz, Collingwood off, <a class="v1" href="#Page_175">175</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Calais, <a class="v1" href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Colder, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Calcutta, Recapture of (1757), <a class="v1" href="#Page_119">119</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Calypso, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Campaign of Trafalgar (Corbett), <a class="v1" href="#Page_170">170</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Camperdown, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_150">150</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Canada Acquired by England, <a class="v1" href="#Page_123">123</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Canadian Dockyards, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Canadian Navy, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Cannon, Early, <a class="v1" href="#Page_38">38</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cannon, First use of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_29">29</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Canute, <a class="v1" href="#Page_8">8</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cape St. Vincent, Battle of (1759), <a class="v1" href="#Page_121">121</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Capital Ship” Adjusts Itself, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Capital Ship, Galley Replaced by Galleon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_27">27</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cape La Hogue, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_90">90</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Capraja, “Queen Charlotte” blown up off (1880), <a class="v1" href="#Page_160">160</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Captain,” Nelson in, <a class="v1" href="#Page_142">142</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Carronades, <a class="v1" href="#Page_129">129</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Carronades, Part of Armament, <a class="v1" href="#Page_201">201</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cartagena, Vernon Fails at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_109">109</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Catapults, <a class="v1" href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_38">38</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Catherine the Great, <a class="v1" href="#Page_154">154</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cayenne Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_184">184</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cellular Construction, <a class="v1" href="#Page_267">267</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Central Africa, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Central Battery Ironclads, <a class="v1" href="#Page_292">292</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Centre-line, System, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Cerberus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Cette, <a class="v1" href="#Page_103">103</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Chads, Captain and Gunnery Experiments, <a class="v1" href="#Page_220">220</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Chads, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_223">223</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Chagres Bombarded, <a class="v1" href="#Page_109">109</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Channel Policed, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Channel Protected by Merchants, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Chappel, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_215">215</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Charles I, <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Charles II, <a class="v1" href="#Page_81">81</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Charles, Prince, <a class="v1" href="#Page_73">73</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Charring, <a class="v1" href="#Page_107">107</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Charter of Ethelred, <a class="v1" href="#Page_8">8</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Chartres, Duke of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_126">126</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Chateau, Renault, <a class="v1" href="#Page_96">96</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Chatham, Earl of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Christian VII, <a class="v1" href="#Page_180">180</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cinque Ports, <a class="v1" href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_35">35</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cinque Ports Established, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Civil War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_75">75</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Claxton, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_215">215</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Clive, <a class="v1" href="#Page_119">119</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Clothing, <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Clydebank, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Coal, Larger Store of, Affects</li> + +<li class="indx">Construction, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Coal Stores, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">“Coastals,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">“Coastal Destroyers,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Coast Defence Ironclads, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Coat of Mail Idea, <a class="v1" href="#Page_249">249</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cockpit, Horrors of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_204">204</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cochrane, Lord, and Fire Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cochrane Opposes Vote of Thanks to Lord Gambier, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Code of Naval Discipline, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Colonials and Local Defence, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Colour Experiments, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Command of the Sea (First Appearance of), <a class="v1" href="#Page_75">75</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Commerce Defence, <a class="v1" href="#Page_75">75</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Commission, Report of (1806), <a class="v1" href="#Page_187">187</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Compass, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Coles, Captain Cowper, <a class="v1" href="#Page_272">272</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Coles, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_280">280</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Coles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_275">275</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Coles, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_284">284</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Collingwood Incompetent, <a class="v1" href="#Page_202">202</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Collingwood, Resignation of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_148">148</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Colomb, Admiral, Quoted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_53">53</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Communication Tube, First for</li> + +<li class="indx">Conning Tower, <a class="v1" href="#Page_318">318</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Conflict Between Steam and Gas Engines, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Congreve Rocket, <a class="v1" href="#Page_236">236</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Conning Towers in American Monitors, <a class="v1" href="#Page_272">272</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Constantinople Bombarded, <a class="v1" href="#Page_179">179</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Continuous Service, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_251">251</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Contractors, Unscrupulous, <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Contemporary Art, <a class="v1" href="#Page_195">195</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Contraband of War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Contract-Built Ships First Advocated, <a class="v1" href="#Page_280">280</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Controller of the Navy and Constructor, Disputes Between, <a class="v1" href="#Page_258">258</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Converted Ironclads, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_258">258</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Convoys, <a class="v1" href="#Page_92">92</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cook, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_115">115</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Copper Bottoms, <a class="v1" href="#Page_123">123</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Copper Bottoms, Rapid Deterioration of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_129">129</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Copenhagen, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cornwall, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_108">108</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cornwallis off Brest, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cornwallis, <a class="v1" href="#Page_139">139</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Corsairs, <a class="v1" href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_102">102</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cost per Gun for Sailing Man-of-War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_238">238</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cost per Gun for Steamers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_238">238</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cotton, Sir Charles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_184">184</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Crimean War, British Defects in, <a class="v1" href="#Page_237">237</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Crimean War, the British Navy in: Little Better than a Paper Force, <a class="v1" href="#Page_228">228</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cromwell, <a class="v1" href="#Page_73">73</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cronstadt, <a class="v1" href="#Page_226">226</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cross Raiding, <a class="v1" href="#Page_75">75</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cruisers of the Super-Dreadnought Era, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Crusaders, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Conditional” Ships, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Cost of Oak, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cost per Gun for Early Ironclads, <a class="v1" href="#Page_238">238</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cumberland, Inventor of Stoving, <a class="v1" href="#Page_107">107</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Cuniberti, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Cuniberti’s Conception of All Big-Gun ships, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Curtis, Captain of the Fleet, <a class="v1" href="#Page_136">136</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Curtiss Aeroplane, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Curtiss Turbines, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Cutting Out Expeditions Instituted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_41">41</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Daedalus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_221">221</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">“Dandy” Captains, <a class="v1" href="#Page_195">195</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Dandy” Sailors, <a class="v1" href="#Page_195">195</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Danes, <a class="v1" href="#Page_1">1</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Danish Fleet Surrendered, <a class="v1" href="#Page_162">162</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Danish Ships Hired, <a class="v1" href="#Page_5">5</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Darien, <a class="v1" href="#Page_108">108</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Dawkins, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_299">299</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Dean, Sir Anthony, <a class="v1" href="#Page_94">94</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Dean, Sir John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_94">94</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Decline of the Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_43">43</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">De Conflans, <a class="v1" href="#Page_121">121</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Defects of the échelon System, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Defects of the “Royal Sovereigns,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">De la Clue, <a class="v1" href="#Page_120">120</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Delegates of Mutineers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_147">147</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Democracy on the Quarter Deck,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_257">257</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">De Pontis, <a class="v1" href="#Page_102">102</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">De Witt, <a class="v1" href="#Page_79">79</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Deptford Yard, <a class="v1" href="#Page_107">107</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">De Ruyter, <a class="v1" href="#Page_85">85</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">D’Estaing, <a class="v1" href="#Page_126">126</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">D’Estrees, <a class="v1" href="#Page_85">85</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Descharges, Inventor of Portholes, <a class="v1" href="#Page_38">38</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Destroyer Attack Bound to Succeed, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Destroyers in the Dreadnought Era, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">De Tourville, <a class="v1" href="#Page_90">90</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Devastation idea evolved, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Devonport Yard, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Dibden (ref.), <a class="v1" href="#Page_34">34</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Diesel Engine, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Dirigibles, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_222">222</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Discipline, <a class="v1" href="#Page_20">20</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_258">258</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Discipline, Jervis Idea of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_141">141</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Discipline, Lack of, in time of Charles I, <a class="v1" href="#Page_66">66</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Disputes Between the Controller of the Navy and Constructor, <a class="v1" href="#Page_258">258</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Doctors, Naval, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_256">256</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Dominion of Canada, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">D’Orvilliers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_125">125</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Double Bottoms, <a class="v1" href="#Page_267">267</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Dover, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Downs, Battle in (1639), <a class="v1" href="#Page_76">76</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Drake, Character of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_48">48</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Drake, Sir Francis, <a class="v1" href="#Page_47">47</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Drake, Methods of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_48">48</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Dreadnought (analogy), <a class="v1" href="#Page_69">69</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Dreadnought, first idea of, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_164">164</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Dromons, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Dropping Bombs, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Dry Dock, First, <a class="v1" href="#Page_35">35</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Dubourdieu, <a class="v1" href="#Page_186">186</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Du Casse, <a class="v1" href="#Page_97">97</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ducas, <a class="v1" href="#Page_234">234</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Duchess of Bedford and Uniform, <a class="v1" href="#Page_194">194</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ducking, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Duckworth, Sir John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_179">179</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Duguay-Trouin, <a class="v1" href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Dumanoir, <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Duncan, <a class="v1" href="#Page_147">147</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Dundonald, Earl of (Cochrane), <a class="v1" href="#Page_216">216</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Dutch Fleet Captured by Anglo-Russian Force, <a class="v1" href="#Page_159">159</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Dutch War, First, <a class="v1" href="#Page_75">75</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Dutch War, Second, <a class="v1" href="#Page_81">81</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Dutch War, Third, <a class="v1" href="#Page_83">83</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Eagle attacked by Submarine, <a class="v1" href="#Page_124">124</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Earliest Advocate of the centre-line in England, Admiral Hopkins, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Early Aerial Ideas, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Early Wire Guns, <a class="v1" href="#Page_247">247</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Economists Limit Lint and Sponges, <a class="v1" href="#Page_207">207</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Economists on Shore, <a class="v1" href="#Page_201">201</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Economy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_114">114</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Economy in Construction, <a class="v1" href="#Page_97">97</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Edgar, <a class="v1" href="#Page_7">7</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Edmund, <a class="v1" href="#Page_7">7</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Edward I, <a class="v1" href="#Page_22">22</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Edward II, <a class="v1" href="#Page_23">23</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Edward III, <a class="v1" href="#Page_23">23</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Edward IV, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Edward the Confessor, <a class="v1" href="#Page_8">8</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Effects of Shell Fire, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Egyptian Government, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Electro, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Elementary Quickfirers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_243">243</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Elizabeth, <a class="v1" href="#Page_73">73</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Elizabeth, First Acts of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_44">44</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Elizabethan Fleet, <a class="v1" href="#Page_73">73</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Elphinstone, Captain in Russian Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_154">154</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Elswick, <a class="v1" href="#Page_227">227</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">End-on Fire, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_176">176</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">End-on Idea, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">End of the White Era, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Engineer Agitation, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Engines of “Glatton” built in Royal Dockyard, <a class="v1" href="#Page_311">311</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">England, Austria, and Sweden at war, <a class="v1" href="#Page_180">180</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Equal Efficiency,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Ericsson, <a class="v1" href="#Page_272">272</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ericsson Patents Propeller (1836), <a class="v1" href="#Page_216">216</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Espagnols-sur-Mer, Les, <a class="v1" href="#Page_29">29</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ethelred’s Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_8">8</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Excellence of the “Warrior” Class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Experiments, Gunnery, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Experiments to Improve Sailing Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_211">211</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Explosion” Vessels, <a class="v1" href="#Page_182">182</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Eustace the Monk, <a class="v1" href="#Page_21">21</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Feeding of Men During Great War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_200">200</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ferrol, <a class="v1" href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Fight—Shannon (British) v. Chesapeake (U.S.), <a class="v1" href="#Page_189">189</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Finisterre, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Finisterre, Rodney off, <a class="v1" href="#Page_127">127</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Fire, Raking, <a class="v1" href="#Page_211">211</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Fire Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_182">182</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Fire Ships, Decline of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_131">131</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Fireworks, Use of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_69">69</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">First English Over-Sea Voyage, <a class="v1" href="#Page_11">11</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">First of June, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_135">135</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">First Ship of Royal Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_35">35</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Fisher, Admiral Lord, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Flag, Neutral, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Fleet Decoyed Away, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Fleet Saved by a Military Officer, <a class="v1" href="#Page_103">103</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Fleet of Richard I, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Floating Batteries, First Use of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_130">130</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Florida Acquired by England, <a class="v1" href="#Page_123">123</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Flotilla, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Flotilla Invasion, <a class="v1" href="#Page_166">166</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Flushing Blockaded, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Food, <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Forecastle, Armoured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_284">284</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Forecastles on Turret Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_284">284</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Fort, S. Phillip, <a class="v1" href="#Page_116">116</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Frames, Trussed, Introduced, <a class="v1" href="#Page_210">210</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">France, Why Beaten in Great War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">France, War with, <a class="v1" href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_113">113</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Frégates Blindées, <a class="v1" href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_250">250</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">French Fleet in Crimean War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_230">230</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">French and British Ideals, <a class="v1" href="#Page_253">253</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">French Warships, Superb Qualities of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_92">92</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">French Fleet Superior to British, <a class="v1" href="#Page_193">193</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">French Floating Batteries, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">French Revolution, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Freya, Danish Frigate, Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_159">159</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Frisians, <a class="v1" href="#Page_5">5</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Fulton” Driven by steam Paddle, <a class="v1" href="#Page_193">193</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Future Fights, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">“Galatea” Fitted with Paddles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_213">213</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Galleon as Dreadnought of the 14th Century, <a class="v1" href="#Page_27">27</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Galley, Replaced as Capital Ship, <a class="v1" href="#Page_27">27</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Gambier, Admiral, <a class="v1" href="#Page_179">179</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Gambier, Lack of Energy of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_182">182</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Gambier, Lord, Acquitted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Gambier, Lord, Vote of Thanks to Opposed by Cochrane, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Gambling, Punishment for, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ganteaume, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ganteaume, Admiral Escapes from Rochefort, <a class="v1" href="#Page_181">181</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Garay, Inventor of Steamship, (1543), <a class="v1" href="#Page_214">214</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Genereux Captured by Nelson, <a class="v1" href="#Page_160">160</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Genius of Famous Admirals, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Genoa, Hotham’s Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_138">138</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Gentlemen Adventurers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_45">45</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">George I, <a class="v1" href="#Page_104">104</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">George II, <a class="v1" href="#Page_107">107</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">George II and Institution of Uniform, <a class="v1" href="#Page_194">194</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">German Seamen, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Germans Agitate for British Naval Efficiency, <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Germany, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Germany (analogy), <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Germany, Guns from, <a class="v1" href="#Page_43">43</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Gibraltar, <a class="v1" href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Gibraltar, Nelson at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Glasgow, “Black Prince,” Built at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_250">250</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Globe Circumnavigated by Drake, <a class="v1" href="#Page_45">45</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Godwin, <a class="v1" href="#Page_9">9</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Good Hope, Cape Dutch Squadron Captured at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_141">141</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Graham, Sir James, <a class="v1" href="#Page_236">236</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Grasse, De, <a class="v1" href="#Page_129">129</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Greek Fire, <a class="v1" href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_243">243</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Guadaloup Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_185">185</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Guarda-Costas, <a class="v1" href="#Page_108">108</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Guerre de Course, <a class="v1" href="#Page_102">102</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Guichen, <a class="v1" href="#Page_128">128</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Guillaume Tell Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Gunners, Training of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_241">241</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Gunnery, Enemy’s Inefficiency of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_176">176</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Gunnery Errors, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Gunnery Experiments, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Guns Against Aircraft, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Guns, British, <a class="v1" href="#Page_232">232</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Guns in the Reed Era, <a class="v1" href="#Page_319">319</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Guns in Submarine, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Guns of the Watts Era, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_202">202</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Guns, Pivot, <a class="v1" href="#Page_272">272</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Guns, Rapid Fire, Development of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_227">227</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Guns, Turkish Monster, <a class="v1" href="#Page_179">179</a>, v. i</li> + + + +<li class="ifrst">Hales, Dr., Ventilation System of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_115">115</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Hamelin, <a class="v1" href="#Page_234">234</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Hampden, John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_73">73</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Hanniken, <a class="v1" href="#Page_28">28</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Hardcastle Torpedo, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Hardy, Sir Charles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_127">127</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Harvey-Nickel Armour Introduced, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Hawkins, <a class="v1" href="#Page_46">46</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Hawthorn, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">“Heavier than Air,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_221">221</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Heavy Rolling of the “Orion,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Henry II, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Henry III, <a class="v1" href="#Page_20">20</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Henry IV, <a class="v1" href="#Page_30">30</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Henry V, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Henry VII, <a class="v1" href="#Page_34">34</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Henry VIII, <a class="v1" href="#Page_37">37</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Hermione,” Mutiny in, <a class="v1" href="#Page_145">145</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Hickley, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_299">299</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Hire of Danish Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_8">8</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Hired Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_36">36</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Holy Land, <a class="v1" href="#Page_11">11</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Hood, <a class="v1" href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_137">137</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Hopkins, Admiral, Ideas of, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Horsey, Admiral de, <a class="v1" href="#Page_322">322</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Hoste, Captain William, <a class="v1" href="#Page_186">186</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Hotham, <a class="v1" href="#Page_138">138</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Howard, Sir Edward, <a class="v1" href="#Page_41">41</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Howe, <a class="v1" href="#Page_134">134</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Hubert de Burgh, <a class="v1" href="#Page_20">20</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Hurrying Ships, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Hyeres, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_138">138</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Icarus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Imperial British Fleet, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Imperial Needs, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Impressment, <a class="v1" href="#Page_234">234</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Increased Gun-Power, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Increased Smashing Power of Projectiles, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Indecisiveness in British Operations, <a class="v1" href="#Page_137">137</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Indies, Spanish Wealth from, <a class="v1" href="#Page_47">47</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Inexperienced Officers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Inflexible” at the Nore Mutiny, <a class="v1" href="#Page_147">147</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Inman, Dr., <a class="v1" href="#Page_187">187</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Inscription, Maritime, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Instructors, Spanish, in English Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_42">42</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Insular Spirit,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_82">82</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Insurance, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Internal Armour, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Introduction of Steam, <a class="v1" href="#Page_214">214</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Introduction of 13.5-inch Gun, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Invasion, <a class="v1" href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Invasion, Nelson’s Schemes Against, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Invasion of England, <a class="v1" href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_119">119</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Invasion Projected by French, <a class="v1" href="#Page_91">91</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ironclads, Converted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ironclads, The First British, <a class="v1" href="#Page_249">249</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ironclad Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_229">229</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Iron for Shipbuilding Instead of Oak, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Iron-plated Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_237">237</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Iron Ships Condemned (1850), <a class="v1" href="#Page_223">223</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Iron Steamer Existed in 1821, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Island Empires, <a class="v1" href="#Page_6">6</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Jacobite Element in the Fleet, <a class="v1" href="#Page_88">88</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Jacobite Rising, <a class="v1" href="#Page_105">105</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">James I, <a class="v1" href="#Page_59">59</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">James II, <a class="v1" href="#Page_86">86</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">James Watt, <a class="v1" href="#Page_236">236</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Jarrow, <a class="v1" href="#Page_232">232</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Java, Isle of, Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_187">187</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Jean Bart, <a class="v1" href="#Page_92">92</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Jervis, Sir John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_141">141</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Jews, <a class="v1" href="#Page_209">209</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">John, King, <a class="v1" href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_60">60</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Juan, Fernandez, <a class="v1" href="#Page_110">110</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Julius Cæsar, <a class="v1" href="#Page_1">1</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Junction of the Fleets, <a class="v1" href="#Page_98">98</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">“Kamptulicon,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Keel-Hauling, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Keeping the Air,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Keith, <a class="v1" href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Keppel, <a class="v1" href="#Page_125">125</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Killala Bay, French Expedition to, <a class="v1" href="#Page_151">151</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Kinburn Bombarded, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_248">248</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Kipling (ref.), <a class="v1" href="#Page_34">34</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Kronstadt, <a class="v1" href="#Page_162">162</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Kronstadt, Anglo-Danish Demonstration at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_107">107</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Krupp Fire, Shell, <a class="v1" href="#Page_244">244</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">La Gallisonnier, <a class="v1" href="#Page_116">116</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Labour” and the Navy, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Lagane, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Laird, Messrs., of Birkenhead, <a class="v1" href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_288">288</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Laird, <a class="v1" href="#Page_321">321</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Lalande de Joinville, <a class="v1" href="#Page_234">234</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Lancaster Guns, <a class="v1" href="#Page_227">227</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Lancaster,” The, at Camperdown, <a class="v1" href="#Page_150">150</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Landsmen,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">La Rochelle, <a class="v1" href="#Page_30">30</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">La Rochelle, Expedition to, in time of Charles I, <a class="v1" href="#Page_66">66</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Last Word,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_258">258</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Latouche-Treville, <a class="v1" href="#Page_169">169</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Laughton, Professor, Quoted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_50">50</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Laughton’s, Professor, Summary, <a class="v1" href="#Page_176">176</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Laws of Oberon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_17">17</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Leake, Sir John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_101">101</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Leave, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Legends of Floating Rocks, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Leissegues, Vice-Admiral, <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Louisbourg Invested (1758), <a class="v1" href="#Page_119">119</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Lighter than Air,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_221">221</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Linois, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Liquid Fire, Norton’s, <a class="v1" href="#Page_243">243</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Lisbon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_102">102</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Lissa, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_300">300</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Little Englanders, <a class="v1" href="#Page_73">73</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Lloyd, <a class="v1" href="#Page_237">237</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Loading, Greater Rapidity in, <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">London, Citizens of, Fit out Fleet Against Spain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_48">48</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">London, Dutch Guns heard in, <a class="v1" href="#Page_83">83</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Longridge, C. + E., <a class="v1" href="#Page_244">244</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Lord Charles Beresford, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Lord of the Sea, <a class="v1" href="#Page_22">22</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Lorient, French Squadron, break-out of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_188">188</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Lorient, Partial Battle of (1795), <a class="v1" href="#Page_139">139</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Loss of the “Victoria,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Louis Napoleon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_230">230</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Lower Deck, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_97">97</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Lowestoft, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Machine of Meerlers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_90">90</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Macintosh, <a class="v1" href="#Page_226">226</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Maderia Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_180">180</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Maintenance Allowance Increased, <a class="v1" href="#Page_182">182</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Malaga, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_101">101</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Mallett, <a class="v1" href="#Page_244">244</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Malta, Russian Designs on, <a class="v1" href="#Page_159">159</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Malta Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_160">160</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Malta Starved into Surrender, <a class="v1" href="#Page_160">160</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Marines, Objection to New Scheme, of the, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_251">251</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Marryat, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_212">212</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Martinique, <a class="v1" href="#Page_137">137</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Masefield, John, Quoted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_204">204</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Mastless Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_292">292</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Masts, Tripod, <a class="v1" href="#Page_287">287</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Mauritius Attacked, <a class="v1" href="#Page_185">185</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Medal, Tempus, Charles I, <a class="v1" href="#Page_74">74</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Medine Sidonia, <a class="v1" href="#Page_53">53</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Mediterranean, <a class="v1" href="#Page_59">59</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Mediterranean, English Fleet First Stationed, <a class="v1" href="#Page_91">91</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Meerlers, Machine Ships of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_90">90</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Meerlers “Smoak-boat,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_90">90</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Memoirs of Torrington, <a class="v1" href="#Page_100">100</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Men Wanting, <a class="v1" href="#Page_237">237</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Men, Lack of Training of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_236">236</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Messing, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Messing in Tudor Times, <a class="v1" href="#Page_43">43</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Methods of Drake, <a class="v1" href="#Page_45">45</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Military Officer Saves Fleet, <a class="v1" href="#Page_103">103</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Military Warfare, <a class="v1" href="#Page_7">7</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Milne, Admiral, <a class="v1" href="#Page_288">288</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Mines Appear, <a class="v1" href="#Page_226">226</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Mines, Russian, <a class="v1" href="#Page_226">226</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Minorca, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_119">119</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Moderate Dimensions, <a class="v1" href="#Page_135">135</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Modern Protective Decks Introduced, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_85">85</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Modern Variant of “Case Shot,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Monk, <a class="v1" href="#Page_76">76</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Monitor and Merrimac, Fight between, <a class="v1" href="#Page_275">275</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Montgolfier, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_221">221</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Motor-Destroyers, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Mounting of Small Guns Between the échelon Turrets done away with, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Murder, Punishment for, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Mutiny at Spithead, <a class="v1" href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_200">200</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Mutiny, The Great, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Muzzle Loaders, <a class="v1" href="#Page_320">320</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Nachimoff, Admiral (Russian), <a class="v1" href="#Page_223">223</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Napier, Admiral Sir Charles, K.C.B., <a class="v1" href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_235">235</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Napoleon"></a>Napoleon, at Toulon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_133">133</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Napoleon, Deportation of, to Elba, <a class="v1" href="#Page_193">193</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Napoleon, Deportation of, to St. Helena, <a class="v1" href="#Page_193">193</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Napoleon, Emperor, <a class="v1" href="#Page_164">164</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Napoleon, First Consul, <a class="v1" href="#Page_159">159</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia, <a class="v1" href="#Page_188">188</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Napoleon and Nelson, <a class="v1" href="#Page_169">169</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Napoleon, Re-appearance of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_193">193</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Napoleon, Renovates his Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_181">181</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Napoleon and “Sea Power,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">National Interests, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Naval Abuses, <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Naval Aeroplanes, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Naval Agreement with the Colonies, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Naval Aviation, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_222">222</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Naval Defence Act, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Naval Defence Act Cruisers, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Naval Commission, <a class="v1" href="#Page_81">81</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Naval Regulations of John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_16">16</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Naval Pay in Great War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_209">209</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Naval Scare of 1887–89, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Naval Punishments, <a class="v1" href="#Page_20">20</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Naval War, The Next, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_265">265</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Navarino, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_213">213</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Navy of Canute, <a class="v1" href="#Page_8">8</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Navy, Non-Existence of, in Early Times, <a class="v1" href="#Page_19">19</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nelson, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_162">162</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Nelson (analogy), <a class="v1" href="#Page_42">42</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nelson at Gibraltar, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nelson at Toulon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_133">133</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nelson in the “Agamemnon,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_138">138</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nelson in the Mediterranean, <a class="v1" href="#Page_157">157</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nelson (ref.), <a class="v1" href="#Page_34">34</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nelson at Cadiz, <a class="v1" href="#Page_149">149</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nelson, First Appearance of (1780), <a class="v1" href="#Page_128">128</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nelson, Costume of Men, in Era of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_196">196</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nelson Defeated at Santa Cruz, <a class="v1" href="#Page_150">150</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nelson, Drawing Away of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_171">171</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nelson Institutes Theatricals, <a class="v1" href="#Page_200">200</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nelson, Last Order of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nelson’s Limitations, <a class="v1" href="#Page_169">169</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nelson Mortally Wounded, <a class="v1" href="#Page_176">176</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nelson and Mutineers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_151">151</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nelson’s Schemes of Invasion, <a class="v1" href="#Page_162">162</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Neutral Flag, Property Under, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Neutrality, Armed, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">New Forest, Oak Plantations, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">New Scheme, The, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Newfoundland Naval Reserve, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">New Zealand and the British Fleet, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">New Zealand’s Interest in the Imperial Navy, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Nore, Mutiny at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_146">146</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Norman Invasion, <a class="v1" href="#Page_9">9</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Normans, <a class="v1" href="#Page_21">21</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Norris, Sir John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_105">105</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Norton’s Liquid Fire, <a class="v1" href="#Page_243">243</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">North Foreland, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_82">82</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nova Scotia, <a class="v1" href="#Page_103">103</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Nile, Battle of (analogy), <a class="v1" href="#Page_42">42</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">North and South Nigeria, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">“Numbers Only Can Annihilate,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Oak Plantations, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Oberon, Laws of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_17">17</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ocean-going Destroyers, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Odessa Bombarded, <a class="v1" href="#Page_224">224</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Odin, <a class="v1" href="#Page_216">216</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Officering the Fleet, <a class="v1" href="#Page_115">115</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Officers, Inexperience of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Officers’ Wine for Wounded, <a class="v1" href="#Page_207">207</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ogle, <a class="v1" href="#Page_109">109</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Oil Fuel, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Original Conception of the Dreadnought Era, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Ormonde, Duke of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_96">96</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ornamental Work Reduced, <a class="v1" href="#Page_97">97</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ostend Attacked, <a class="v1" href="#Page_82">82</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ostend Captured (1706), <a class="v1" href="#Page_103">103</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Paddle Experiments, <a class="v1" href="#Page_212">212</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Paddles, “Galatea” Fitted with, <a class="v1" href="#Page_213">213</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Paddle Recognised as a Source of Danger (1825), <a class="v1" href="#Page_216">216</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Paddle Wheels Exposed, <a class="v1" href="#Page_216">216</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Paint on Warships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_69">69</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Paixham, General, <a class="v1" href="#Page_223">223</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Palmer’s, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Parma, Duke of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_49">49</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Parker, Sir Hyde, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Parliament Discusses French v. British Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_137">137</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Parliamentarians, <a class="v1" href="#Page_74">74</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Parson’s Turbine, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Paul, Russia, <a class="v1" href="#Page_159">159</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Pay (1653), <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Pay, Modern, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_257">257</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Payta Captured by Captain Anson, <a class="v1" href="#Page_111">111</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Peace of Amiens, <a class="v1" href="#Page_86">86</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Pembroke, Earl of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_29">29</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Penelope” Fitted with Engines, <a class="v1" href="#Page_216">216</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Penelope Frigate attacks Guillaume Tell, <a class="v1" href="#Page_160">160</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Pennington, Sir John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_73">73</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Pensions for Wounds, Time of John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_17">17</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Pepys, <a class="v1" href="#Page_79">79</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Period of Broadside Ironclads Ends, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Personality, <a class="v1" href="#Page_97">97</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Peterborough, Earl of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_103">103</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Peter the Great, <a class="v1" href="#Page_95">95</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Phineas Petts, <a class="v1" href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_80">80</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Phœnicians, <a class="v1" href="#Page_1">1</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Pierola, <a class="v1" href="#Page_322">322</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Pigot, Captain of “Hermione,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_151">151</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Pigtail, Origin of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_197">197</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Pinnaces, <a class="v1" href="#Page_41">41</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Piracy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_44">44</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Piracy, English Acts of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_22">22</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Pirates, <a class="v1" href="#Page_30">30</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Pitt and Sea Power, <a class="v1" href="#Page_141">141</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Pivot Guns, <a class="v1" href="#Page_272">272</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Pizarro, <a class="v1" href="#Page_110">110</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Plymouth Hoe, Drake on, <a class="v1" href="#Page_50">50</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Plymouth, Mutiny at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_146">146</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Plymouth Sacked, <a class="v1" href="#Page_23">23</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Policing the Channel, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Politics and Admirals, <a class="v1" href="#Page_130">130</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Pomone, French Frigate, Captured (1794), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Portholes, <a class="v1" href="#Page_49">49</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Portsmouth, Review at (1512), <a class="v1" href="#Page_37">37</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Portsmouth Sacked, <a class="v1" href="#Page_29">29</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Portsmouth Yard, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Possibility of Airships in the Future, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Possibility of Dreadnoughts Considered, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Present Stage of Aerial Progress, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_229">229</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Press Gang, <a class="v1" href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_200">200</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Presumed End of Ironclads, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Prime Seamen, <a class="v1" href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_196">196</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_251">251</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Prince Charles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_74">74</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Prince of Hesse, <a class="v1" href="#Page_99">99</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Private Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_36">36</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Privateering, <a class="v1" href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_111">111</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Privateers Attack Henry IV, <a class="v1" href="#Page_30">30</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Privateers, French, Activity of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_189">189</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Private Yards, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Progress Nullified During the Last Twenty Years, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Progressive Naval Ideas, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Promotion on the Lower Deck, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Protection of Boats in Action, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_184">184</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Providence and the Armada, <a class="v1" href="#Page_53">53</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Provisioning of Ships Under John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_17">17</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Punishments, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Punishments (Modern), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Pursers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_146">146</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Pym, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_185">185</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Quebec, Abortive Attack on, <a class="v1" href="#Page_104">104</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Queen Anne, <a class="v1" href="#Page_95">95</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Queensland, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Quiberon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_121">121</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Quick Firers, Elementary, <a class="v1" href="#Page_243">243</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Quick Lime, Use of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_21">21</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Raking Fire, <a class="v1" href="#Page_211">211</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Raleigh, Sir Walter, <a class="v1" href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ram Tactics, <a class="v1" href="#Page_300">300</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ramming, <a class="v1" href="#Page_17">17</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Rapidity in Loading, <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Rates in English Navy, Time of Queen Anne, <a class="v1" href="#Page_95">95</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Rating, New, of Ships Introduced (1817), <a class="v1" href="#Page_211">211</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Re-construction Never Pay,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_312">312</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Reed, Sir E. + J., <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_266">266</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Reed, Sir E. + J., Anticipates Torpedoes, <a class="v1" href="#Page_268">268</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Reed Broadside Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_283">283</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Reed Ideals in the White Era, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Reed, Sir E. + J., Turret Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_292">292</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Regular Stores Instituted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Repairs, Cost of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Reserve Ships, Speedy Equipment of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Restoration, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_81">81</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Retirement of Sir W. White, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Richard I, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Richard II, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_30">30</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Richard III, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_60">60</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Right Ahead Fire, <a class="v1" href="#Page_258">258</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Rigging, Firing at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_129">129</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Right of Search, <a class="v1" href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Robinson, Commander, on Causes of Mutiny, <a class="v1" href="#Page_146">146</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Robinson, Commander, R.N., Quoted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_194">194</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Rocket, Congreve, <a class="v1" href="#Page_236">236</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Rodjestvensky (analogy), <a class="v1" href="#Page_53">53</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Rodney, <a class="v1" href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_129">129</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Rogerswick, Harbour of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_180">180</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Rogues in Authority, <a class="v1" href="#Page_201">201</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Rolling of the “Orion,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Romans in Britain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_1">1</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Rooke, Sir George, <a class="v1" href="#Page_96">96</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Routine, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Row Boats, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_222">222</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Royal Indian Marine, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Royal Naval College Established, Portsmouth, <a class="v1" href="#Page_187">187</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Royal Navy, Birth of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_35">35</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Royal Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_35">35</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Royal Yachts, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Ruinous Competition in Naval Armaments,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Russel, <a class="v1" href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_91">91</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Russell, John Scott, <a class="v1" href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_249">249</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Russia, War with (1720), <a class="v1" href="#Page_106">106</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Russian Mines, <a class="v1" href="#Page_226">226</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Russian Navy Established by England, <a class="v1" href="#Page_95">95</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Russo-Japanese War, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_205">205</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Ryswick, Peace of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_92">92</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Samaurez, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Samaurez in the Baltic, <a class="v1" href="#Page_180">180</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">San Domingo, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_178">178</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sandwich, Earl of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_84">84</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Saints, Battle of the, <a class="v1" href="#Page_129">129</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">San Juan Nicaragua, Nelson at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_128">128</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Santa Croix, Capture of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_180">180</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Santa Cruz, Marquis of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_49">49</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Santissima Trinidad (130), <a class="v1" href="#Page_145">145</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Saxon Fleet, <a class="v1" href="#Page_8">8</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Saxons, <a class="v1" href="#Page_1">1</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Scantlings, <a class="v1" href="#Page_135">135</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Scarcity of Oak, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Scouts” Appear, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">“Scrapping,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_311">311</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Scheldt, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">School of Naval Architecture, <a class="v1" href="#Page_187">187</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Scotts, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Scott Shipbuilding and Engineering Company, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Sea-Fights with the Danes, <a class="v1" href="#Page_2">2</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Seamen, Bounty to, <a class="v1" href="#Page_234">234</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Seamen, Foreign, <a class="v1" href="#Page_235">235</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Seamen, German, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sea-Going Masted Turret Ship, <a class="v1" href="#Page_276">276</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sea-Going Qualities of Barnaby Ships, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Seamen, Improved, <a class="v1" href="#Page_44">44</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sea Kings, Elizabethan, <a class="v1" href="#Page_47">47</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Seamanship, <a class="v1" href="#Page_114">114</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sea Power and Napoleon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_169">169</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sea Regiment, The, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_251">251</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Search, Right of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sebastopol Attacked, <a class="v1" href="#Page_224">224</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sebastopol, Siege of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_224">224</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Semenoff, Captain (quoted), <a class="v1" href="#Page_243">243</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Semi-Dreadnoughts,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Senegal Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_184">184</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Senyavin in the Mediterranean, <a class="v1" href="#Page_181">181</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Senyavin, Ships of, Restored, <a class="v1" href="#Page_186">186</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Serpents, <a class="v1" href="#Page_15">15</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Seymour, Sir Hamilton, <a class="v1" href="#Page_235">235</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Shah and Huascar Action, <a class="v1" href="#Page_322">322</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Shell Guns, Adopted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_220">220</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Shell, Percussion, <a class="v1" href="#Page_227">227</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Shell, Thermite, <a class="v1" href="#Page_244">244</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sheerness, Dutch at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_83">83</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ships, Engaging exactly End-on, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Ships, Iron-plated, <a class="v1" href="#Page_237">237</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ships, Ironclad, <a class="v1" href="#Page_239">239</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ships of King Alfred, <a class="v1" href="#Page_5">5</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst"><i>SHIPS MENTIONED BY NAME.</i></li> + +<li class="isub1">Aboukir, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Abyssinia, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Acheron class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Achilles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_258">258</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Acorn class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Active, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Admiral class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Adventure, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Aeolus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Africa, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Agamemnon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_138">138</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Agincourt, <a class="v1" href="#Page_279">279</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Ajax, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Aki, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_146">146</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Alarm, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Albemarle, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Albion, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Alexandra, <a class="v1" href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_318">318</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Amphitrite, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Amethyst, <a class="v1" href="#Page_322">322</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Antrim, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Amokoura, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Amphion, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Andromache, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Andromeda, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Anna Pink (1740), <a class="v1" href="#Page_111">111</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Antelope, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Apollo class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Aquidaban, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Archer, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Argonaut, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Arethusa, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Ariadne, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Argyll, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Assaye, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Astraeas, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Atalanta, <a class="v1" href="#Page_187">187</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Attack, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Attentive, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Audacious, <a class="v1" href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_295">295</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Audacious (1794), <a class="v1" href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_295">295</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Aurora, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Australia, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Bacchante, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Badere Zaffer (Turkish), <a class="v1" href="#Page_232">232</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1"> Bahama (Spanish), <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Baluch, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Barfluer, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_70">70</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Beagle class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Bellerophon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_279">279</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_169">169</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Belleisle, <a class="v1" href="#Page_232">232</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Bellona, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Berwick, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Birmingham, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Black Prince, <a class="v1" href="#Page_250">250</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_35">35</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Blake, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Blanco Encalada (Chilian), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Blanche, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Blenheim, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Blonde, <a class="v1" href="#Page_321">321</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Boadicea, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Bonaventure, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Boomerang, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Brilliant, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Britannia (1688), <a class="v1" href="#Page_87">87</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Britannia, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Brisbane, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Bulwark, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Cæsar, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Caledonia, <a class="v1" href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Calypso, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Cambrian, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Camperdown, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Canopus, ex-Franklin (French prize), <a class="v1" href="#Page_150">150</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Canopus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Carnarvon, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_283">283</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Captain, Loss of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_291">291</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Centurion (1740), <a class="v1" href="#Page_112">112</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Centurion (1891), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Cerebus (Australian), <a class="v1" href="#Page_292">292</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Charybdis, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Chatham, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Chen Yuen (Chinese), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Chicago (U.S.), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Circe, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Cog, Thomas, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_28">28</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Commonwealth, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Conqueror, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Cornwall, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Cornwallis, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">County class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Crescent, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Cressy, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Cumberland, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Cyclops, <a class="v1" href="#Page_308">308</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Dalhousie, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Dartmouth, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Dauntless, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Defence, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Devastation (1870), <a class="v1" href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_312">312</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Devonshires, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Diadem, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Diana, <a class="v1" href="#Page_212">212</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Dominion, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Donegal, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Drake, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Dreadnought (old), <a class="v1" href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_317">317</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Dreadnought (1908), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_164">164</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Dublin, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Dufferin, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Duncans, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Edgar, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Elphinstone, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Endymion, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Entrepennant (French), <a class="v1" href="#Page_187">187</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Erebus, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Essex, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Etna, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Europa, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Euryalus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1"> Exmouth, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Fearless, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Flora, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Formidable, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Foresight, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Forth, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Forward, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Foudroyant, <a class="v1" href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_160">160</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Franklin (French prize), <a class="v1" href="#Page_150">150</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Fulton, <a class="v1" href="#Page_190">190</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Galatea, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Gayundah, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Gazelle, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Gibraltar, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Glasgow, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Glatton (1795), <a class="v1" href="#Page_140">140</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Glatton, <a class="v1" href="#Page_308">308</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Gleaner, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Glory, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Gloucester (1740), <a class="v1" href="#Page_112">112</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Gloucester, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Goliath, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Good Hope, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Gorgon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_308">308</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Gossamer, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Grace de Dieu, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_38">38</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Grafton, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Great Harry, <a class="v1" href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_37">37</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Ghurka, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Hampshire, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Hannibal, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Hardinge, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Havock, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Hawke, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Hebe, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Hecate, <a class="v1" href="#Page_308">308</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Hector, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Hela (German), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Henri IV (French), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Hercules, <a class="v1" href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_295">295</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Hermione, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Hero, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Hibernia, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Hindustan, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Holland, <a class="v1" href="#Page_218">218</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Hood, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Hornet, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Hotspur (British), <a class="v1" href="#Page_321">321</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Huascar (Peruvian), <a class="v1" href="#Page_322">322</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Hydra, <a class="v1" href="#Page_308">308</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Immortalitie, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Inflexible, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Intrepid, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Imperieuse, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Iphigenia, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Iron Duke, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_187">187</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Illustrious, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Implacable, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Inconstant, <a class="v1" href="#Page_321">321</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Indefatigable, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Independencia, <a class="v1" href="#Page_280">280</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Invincible, <a class="v1" href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_319">319</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Iphigenia, <a class="v1" href="#Page_185">185</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Irresistible, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Italia (Italian), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Jupiter, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Kahren, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Karrahatta, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Katoomba, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Kent, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">King Alfred, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">King Edward VII class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">King George V, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Lady Nancy (Gun raft), <a class="v1" href="#Page_272">272</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">La Forte (French), <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">La Gloire (French), <a class="v1" href="#Page_254">254</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Lancaster, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Latona, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1"> Lave La, <a class="v1" href="#Page_248">248</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Lavinia, <a class="v1" href="#Page_232">232</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Leander, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Lepanto (Italian), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Leviathan, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">L’Hercule (French), <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Liberté class (French), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Lion, The (1800), <a class="v1" href="#Page_160">160</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Lively, frégate, <a class="v1" href="#Page_141">141</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Liverpool, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">London, <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Lord Clyde, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Lord Nelson, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Lord Warden (British), <a class="v1" href="#Page_288">288</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Lorne, <a class="v1" href="#Page_212">212</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Lynch, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Magdala class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Magnificent, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Maharatta, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Majestic, <a class="v1" href="#Page_236">236</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_85">85</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Marengo (French), <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Marlborough, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_187">187</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Mars, <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Melampus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Melbourne, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Melpomene, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Merrimac, <a class="v1" href="#Page_190">190</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Mersey, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Meteor, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Mildura, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Minotaur, <a class="v1" href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_272">272</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Monarch, <a class="v1" href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_284">284</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Monarch, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Montagu, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Naiad, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Narcissus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Neptune (1797), <a class="v1" href="#Page_151">151</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Newcastle, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">New Zealand, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Nile, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Niobe, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Northbrook, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Northumberland, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_258">258</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Nottingham, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Oberon, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Ocean, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Olympic, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Orion, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Orlando, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Pallas class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Paluma, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Pandora, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Pathan, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Pathfinder, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Pearl (1740), <a class="v1" href="#Page_112">112</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Pelican, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_45">45</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Pelorus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Penelope, <a class="v1" href="#Page_279">279</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Persian, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Phaeton, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Phœbe, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Philomel, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Pique, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Plassy, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Polyphemus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_64">64</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Powerful, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Prince Albert, <a class="v1" href="#Page_275">275</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Prince Consort, <a class="v1" href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Prince George, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Prince of Wales, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Prince Regent, <a class="v1" href="#Page_236">236</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Prince Royal, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_59">59</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Princessa (Spanish), <a class="v1" href="#Page_114">114</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Protector, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Psyche, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Queen, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1"> Queen Charlotte, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Queen Mary, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Rainbow, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Rajput, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Raleigh, <a class="v1" href="#Page_321">321</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Ram, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_300">300</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Rattler, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Rattlesnake class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Re d’Italia, <a class="v1" href="#Page_300">300</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Regent, <a class="v1" href="#Page_35">35</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Renard, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Renown, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Republique (French), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Repulse, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Resistance, <a class="v1" href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Retribution, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Revolutionaire (French), (1794), <a class="v1" href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_158">158</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Ringarooma, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">“River” class destroyers, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_131">131</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Rossiya (Russian), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Royal Alfred, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Royal Arthur, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Royal George, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_114">114</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Royal James, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_84">84</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Royal Oak, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Royal Sovereign, <a class="v1" href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_284">284</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Royal Sovereign (1657), <a class="v1" href="#Page_69">69</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Royal Sovereign (1795), <a class="v1" href="#Page_139">139</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Royal Sovereigns, (old), <a class="v1" href="#Page_81">81</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Roxburgh, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Rupert reconstructed, <a class="v1" href="#Page_311">311</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Rurik (Russian), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Russell, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Salamander, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Sampaio, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">San Ildefonso (Spanish), <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Sappho, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Satsuma (Japanese), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_146">146</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Scorpion, <a class="v1" href="#Page_287">287</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Scylla, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Sea Gull, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Sea-horse, <a class="v1" href="#Page_232">232</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Sentinel, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Severn, <a class="v1" href="#Page_112">112</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Shah, <a class="v1" href="#Page_321">321</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Sharpshooter class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_90">90</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Sheldrake, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Sikh, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Sirius, <a class="v1" href="#Page_185">185</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Skipjack, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Skirmisher, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Southampton, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Sovereign, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_37">37</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Spanker, floating battery, <a class="v1" href="#Page_188">188</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Spanker, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Spartan, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Spartiate, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Speedwell, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Speedy, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">St. George, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Suffolk, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Sultan, <a class="v1" href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_318">318</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Sutlej, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Swift, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Swiftsure, <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_295">295</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Sybil, <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Sydney, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Talbot, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Tauranga, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Terpsichore, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Terrible, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Terror, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Thames, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Thetis, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Thunder, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1"> Thunderer, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Thunderbolt, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Tiger, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Ting Yuen (Chinese), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Tonnant (French), <a class="v1" href="#Page_248">248</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">“Town” class cruisers, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Trafalgar, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_64">64</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Transports, <a class="v1" href="#Page_22">22</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">“Tribals,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Tribune, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Triumph, <a class="v1" href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_295">295</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Trusty, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Tryal (1740), <a class="v1" href="#Page_111">111</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Tsarevitch (Russian), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Undaunted, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Valiant, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Vanguard, <a class="v1" href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_295">295</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_169">169</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Venerable, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Vengeance, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Vernon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_254">254</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Victoria, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Victoria (Colonial), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Victorious, <a class="v1" href="#Page_189">189</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Victory, <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Viper, <a class="v1" href="#Page_276">276</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Vixen, <a class="v1" href="#Page_276">276</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Von der Tann (German), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Wager (1740), <a class="v1" href="#Page_111">111</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Wallaroo, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_256">256</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Wampanoag (U.S.), <a class="v1" href="#Page_320">320</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Warrior, <a class="v1" href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_267">267</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Warspite, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Waterwitch, <a class="v1" href="#Page_276">276</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Weymouth class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Whiting, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Wizard, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="isub1">Wsewolod (Russian), <a class="v1" href="#Page_232">232</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Yarmouth, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="isub1 tpad">Zealous, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="isub1">Zelandia, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, v. ii</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Ship Money, <a class="v1" href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_69">69</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ships, Short, handy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_264">264</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Shipwrights’ Company Established, <a class="v1" href="#Page_59">59</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Short Service System, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Shovell, Sir Cloudesley, <a class="v1" href="#Page_98">98</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sidon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_216">216</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Simoon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_223">223</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sinope, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_224">224</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Syracuse, Neutrality of, Disregarded by Nelson, <a class="v1" href="#Page_152">152</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sir Charles Napier, <a class="v1" href="#Page_213">213</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Sirius” and “Magicienne” Aground, <a class="v1" href="#Page_185">185</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sir W. White’s Views on the “Sovereigns,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">“Slop Chest,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_195">195</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sluys, <a class="v1" href="#Page_24">24</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Small Cruisers and First Cost, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Small German Protected Cruisers, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Smith, Sir Sidney, <a class="v1" href="#Page_180">180</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Smoak-Boat” of Meerlers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_90">90</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sole Bay, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_85">85</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Solid Bulkhead, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Suffren, <a class="v1" href="#Page_129">129</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Southampton Sacked, <a class="v1" href="#Page_23">23</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">South Australia, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Southsea Beach, <a class="v1" href="#Page_175">175</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sovereignty of the British Seas, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_16">16</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sovereignty of the Seas upheld by Cromwell, <a class="v1" href="#Page_75">75</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Spain, First War with, <a class="v1" href="#Page_28">28</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Spain, Operations against, <a class="v1" href="#Page_45">45</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Spanish Instructors in English Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_43">43</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Spanish Wars (Succession), <a class="v1" href="#Page_95">95</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Spanish Treasure Ship Captured by Captain Anson, <a class="v1" href="#Page_111">111</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Spanish Treasure Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_158">158</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Specialisation in Elizabethan Times, <a class="v1" href="#Page_46">46</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Speed in the “Drake” class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">“Spit and Polish,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Spithead Mutiny, <a class="v1" href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_202">202</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Spragge, <a class="v1" href="#Page_85">85</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">St. Andre, Jean Bon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_134">134</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">St. Bride’s Day Massacre, <a class="v1" href="#Page_8">8</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">St. Lucia Captured (1794), <a class="v1" href="#Page_137">137</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">St. Malo, <a class="v1" href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_119">119</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">St. Thomas Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_180">180</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">St. Vincent, <a class="v1" href="#Page_145">145</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">St. Vincent, Cape, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_145">145</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Steam Ships Anticipated, <a class="v1" href="#Page_212">212</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Steam Tugs added to Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_213">213</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Steam Vessel, The First, <a class="v1" href="#Page_215">215</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Steam Vessels, Auxiliary, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Steam Warships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_215">215</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Steering Gear Unprotected, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sterns made Circular, <a class="v1" href="#Page_211">211</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Stewart Kings and the Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_87">87</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Stones from Aloft, <a class="v1" href="#Page_27">27</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Stores regularly Instituted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Stour, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_2">2</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Stoving, <a class="v1" href="#Page_107">107</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Strachan, Rear Admiral Sir E., <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sub-divisions, <a class="v1" href="#Page_271">271</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Submarine, Americans refuse to officially sanction, <a class="v1" href="#Page_190">190</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Submarine Battleship may appear, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Submarine, First, <a class="v1" href="#Page_59">59</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Submarine, First appearance of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_190">190</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Submarine, First use of, in War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_125">125</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Submarine, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_228">228</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Submarines, a Danger to Big Ships, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_194">194</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Submarines and Harbour Defence, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Succession, War of the Spanish, <a class="v1" href="#Page_95">95</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Super-Dreadnoughts, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Super-heated Steam, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Superior Artillery, <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Supply of Oak, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Surgeons, <a class="v1" href="#Page_207">207</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_257">257</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Sveaborg, <a class="v1" href="#Page_235">235</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Swain, King of Denmark, <a class="v1" href="#Page_8">8</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sweden becomes French Ally, <a class="v1" href="#Page_186">186</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sweden, War with (1715), <a class="v1" href="#Page_105">105</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sweden, Peace with, Declared (1812), <a class="v1" href="#Page_188">188</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Swedish Fleet, <a class="v1" href="#Page_162">162</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Sweeps superseded by Paddles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_213">213</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Tactics, <a class="v1" href="#Page_60">60</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Tactics at Trafalgar, <a class="v1" href="#Page_176">176</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Tactics, Early, <a class="v1" href="#Page_28">28</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Tactics, English, <a class="v1" href="#Page_230">230</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Tactics, First appearance of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_21">21</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Tagus Blockaded, <a class="v1" href="#Page_181">181</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Tailoring,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Tarpaulin Seamen, <a class="v1" href="#Page_115">115</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Tegethoff at Lissa (analogy), <a class="v1" href="#Page_100">100</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Tercera, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_48">48</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Teignmouth Attacked, <a class="v1" href="#Page_89">89</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Texel, <a class="v1" href="#Page_84">84</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Thames Iron Works, Blackwall, <a class="v1" href="#Page_250">250</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Thames, Project to Block, <a class="v1" href="#Page_84">84</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">The Australian Navy, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">The “Battle of the Boilers,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">The Cape, <a class="v1" href="#Page_176">176</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">The Coming of the Torpedo, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">The “Dreadnought” Commenced, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">The Duties of Naval Airships, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">The Earliest Naval Manœuvres, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">The “Échelon” System Resurrected, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">The First British Ironclads, <a class="v1" href="#Page_249">249</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Theft, Punishment for, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">The Future of Submarines, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">“The Offensive,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_321">321</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">The Origin of “Dreadnoughts,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">The Periscope, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">“The Torpedo Boat, the Answer to the Torpedo Boat,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">“The Trafalgar of the Air,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_228">228</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Thermite Shell, <a class="v1" href="#Page_244">244</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Theseus,” Nelson’s Ship at Santa Croix, <a class="v1" href="#Page_150">150</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Thieving Pursers,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_201">201</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Thompson, Messrs, of Clydebank, <a class="v1" href="#Page_304">304</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Thornycroft, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Three Days’ Battle, <a class="v1" href="#Page_76">76</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Three-Masters, <a class="v1" href="#Page_11">11</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Thurot, <a class="v1" href="#Page_121">121</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ticklers, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Tiddy, Mr. David, <a class="v1" href="#Page_299">299</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Tilset, Peace of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_180">180</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Timber, Boiling, <a class="v1" href="#Page_107">107</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Timber, Supply of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Tiptoft, Sir Robert, <a class="v1" href="#Page_22">22</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Torpedo (analogy), <a class="v1" href="#Page_41">41</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Torpedo Boat, <a class="v1" href="#Page_120">120</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Torpedoes anticipated by Reed, <a class="v1" href="#Page_268">268</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Torpedo, First use of, from Big Ship in Action, <a class="v1" href="#Page_322">322</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Torpedo Gun-Boats, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Torpedo, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_228">228</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Torpedoes, <a class="v1" href="#Page_322">322</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Torpedo Progress, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Torrington, <a class="v1" href="#Page_88">88</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Toulon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_171">171</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Toulon Abandoned, <a class="v1" href="#Page_133">133</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Toulon, Attack on Defeated (1707), <a class="v1" href="#Page_103">103</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Toulon, Royalists at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_133">133</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Toulouse, Comte de, <a class="v1" href="#Page_98">98</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Trafalgar, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_232">232</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Trafalgar, First Battle deliberately fought under White Ensign, <a class="v1" href="#Page_210">210</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Trafalgar, Losses to the Allied Fleets at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Trafalgar Made a Certainty, <a class="v1" href="#Page_166">166</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Trafalgar, Tactics at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_175">175</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Training, Lack of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Training of Gunners, <a class="v1" href="#Page_241">241</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Treadwell, Professor Daniel, <a class="v1" href="#Page_244">244</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Treasure Ships Captured (Spanish), <a class="v1" href="#Page_158">158</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Trident,” First Iron Warship, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Trinidad, <a class="v1" href="#Page_214">214</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Tripod Masts, <a class="v1" href="#Page_287">287</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Troubridge, <a class="v1" href="#Page_152">152</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Trousers, Ample, <a class="v1" href="#Page_196">196</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Tsushima, <a class="v1" href="#Page_244">244</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Tudor Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_35">35</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Tumble Home Sides, <a class="v1" href="#Page_41">41</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Turbines Introduced for Big Ships, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Turning Circles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_272">272</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Turkish Monster Guns, <a class="v1" href="#Page_179">179</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Turret Craze, <a class="v1" href="#Page_275">275</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Turret on Rollers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_275">275</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Turret Ships, Idea of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_275">275</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Turret Ship, Sea-Going Masted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_276">276</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Turret Ship Controversy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_292">292</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Turret Ships, Panic About, <a class="v1" href="#Page_292">292</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Twelve-Inch “A,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Two-Power Standard, <a class="v1" href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_131">131</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Under-Water Protection, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Uniform, Anson’s Use of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_113">113</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Uniform, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Uniform Badge of Pressed Men and Jail Birds, <a class="v1" href="#Page_195">195</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Uniform, Description of First, <a class="v1" href="#Page_194">194</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Uniform, First Use of, for Officers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_194">194</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Union Flag Altered, <a class="v1" href="#Page_209">209</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Union Jack, <a class="v1" href="#Page_209">209</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">United Provinces, <a class="v1" href="#Page_63">63</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Unprotected Steering Gear, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Unscrupulous Contractors, <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ushant, <a class="v1" href="#Page_125">125</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">U.S. Monitors, <a class="v1" href="#Page_285">285</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Vaisseaux Blindées, <a class="v1" href="#Page_248">248</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Van Drebel, <a class="v1" href="#Page_59">59</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Vanguard,” The, Nelson in, <a class="v1" href="#Page_152">152</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Van Tromp, <a class="v1" href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_84">84</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Venetian Frigates Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_187">187</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“Vengeur” Sunk (1795), <a class="v1" href="#Page_136">136</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ventilation, <a class="v1" href="#Page_115">115</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Ventilation, Artificial, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Vernon, Admiral, <a class="v1" href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_109">109</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Versailles, Treaty of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_130">130</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Vickers, Lts., <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Villaret-Joyeuse, <a class="v1" href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_139">139</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Villeneuve, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Villeneuve Appointed, <a class="v1" href="#Page_169">169</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Villeneuve Gets Out of Toulon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_171">171</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Villeneuve Returns to Toulon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Victualling, <a class="v1" href="#Page_146">146</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Walpole, <a class="v1" href="#Page_107">107</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">War, Contraband of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">“War Scare” with Germany in 1911, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Wars of the Roses, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Warwick, Earl of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, v. i; + <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Warry (Early Idea of Quick Firer), <a class="v1" href="#Page_242">242</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Walcheren Expedition, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Watts, Isaac, Sir, <a class="v1" href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_258">258</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Waterloo, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_193">193</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Weather Gauge, <a class="v1" href="#Page_21">21</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Western Australia, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">West Indies, <a class="v1" href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Whitehead, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">White, of Cowes, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Whitworth, Works of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_239">239</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Who First Adopted Cuniberti Ideas?, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_159">159</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">Why France was Beaten, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Willaumez, Leaves Brest, <a class="v1" href="#Page_182">182</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Willaumez, Rear Admiral, <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Willaumez Blockaded in Basque Roads, <a class="v1" href="#Page_182">182</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Will Dreadnoughts Die Out?, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">William of Orange, <a class="v1" href="#Page_88">88</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">William the Conqueror, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Wire Guns, Early, <a class="v1" href="#Page_247">247</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Wolfe, <a class="v1" href="#Page_122">122</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Wood-Copper Sheathing Re-introduced, <a class="v1" href="#Page_295">295</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Woolwich, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">World Circumnavigated by Drake, <a class="v1" href="#Page_45">45</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Yarmouth Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_22">22</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Yarrow Boilers, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li> + +<li class="indx">York, New, <a class="v1" href="#Page_237">237</a>, v. i</li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Zarate, Don Francisco de, <a class="v1" href="#Page_46">46</a>, v. i</li> + +<li class="indx">Zeppelin Type (Dirigible), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>, v. ii</li> +</ul> +</div></div> + + + +<div class="chapter section transnote"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> + +<p>Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made +consistent when a predominant preference was found +in the original book; otherwise they were not changed.</p> + +<p>Omitted and incorrect accent marks have not been +remedied.</p> + +<p>Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced +quotation marks were remedied when the change was +obvious, and otherwise left unbalanced.</p> + +<p>Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned +between paragraphs and outside quotations. In versions +of this eBook that support hyperlinks, the page +references in the List of Illustrations lead to the +corresponding illustrations.</p> + +<p>Footnotes, originally at the bottoms of the pages that referenced them, +have been collected, sequentially renumbered, and placed at the end of +the book. +</p> + +<p>In the original two-volume set, the index for both volumes was +printed at the end of the second volume. The Transcriber has copied +that index to the first volume. In versions of this ebook that support +hyperlinks, both copies of the index link to pages in both volumes, by +referencing the Project Gutenberg copy of the other volume. Those links +to the other volume are double-underlined, and generally will work only +within a Browser.</p> + +<p>Many alphebetization errors in the index were +remedied, but some may remain. Page references in +the index were checked automatically, but some may +be incorrect.</p> +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75616 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/75616-h/images/cover.jpg b/75616-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..738e049 --- /dev/null +++ b/75616-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/75616-h/images/i_001.jpg b/75616-h/images/i_001.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..943918b --- /dev/null +++ b/75616-h/images/i_001.jpg diff --git a/75616-h/images/i_003.jpg b/75616-h/images/i_003.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3e0f47a --- /dev/null +++ b/75616-h/images/i_003.jpg diff --git a/75616-h/images/i_013.jpg b/75616-h/images/i_013.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..60549d1 --- /dev/null +++ b/75616-h/images/i_013.jpg diff --git a/75616-h/images/i_025.jpg b/75616-h/images/i_025.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 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