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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75616 ***
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Notes:
+
+
+This is Volume I of a two-volume set. Volume II is available at Project
+Gutenberg: https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/75617.
+
+Italics are enclosed in _underscores_. Boldface text is enclosed in
+=equals signs=. Additional notes will be found near the end of this
+ebook.
+
+
+
+
+THE BRITISH BATTLE FLEET
+
+[Illustration: SUBMARINES IN THE CHANNEL.]
+
+
+
+
+                                  THE
+                             BRITISH BATTLE
+                                 FLEET
+
+                        ITS INCEPTION AND GROWTH
+                        THROUGHOUT THE CENTURIES
+                           TO THE PRESENT DAY
+
+
+                                   BY
+                              FRED T. JANE
+
+        AUTHOR OF “FIGHTING SHIPS,” “ALL THE WORLD’S AIRCRAFT,”
+                  “HERESIES OF SEA POWER,” ETC., ETC.
+
+                      WITH ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR
+                 FROM ORIGINAL WATER-COLOUR DRAWINGS BY
+
+                           W. L. WYLLIE, R.A.
+
+                  AND NUMEROUS PLANS AND PHOTOGRAPHS.
+
+
+                                VOL. I.
+
+
+                                 London
+                       The Library Press, Limited
+                         26 Portugal St., W.C.
+                                  1915
+
+
+
+
+                                TO THOSE
+                   WHO IN ALL AGES BUILT THE SHIPS OF
+                            THE BRITISH NAVY
+                         AND TO THE UNKNOWN MEN
+                      WHO HAVE WORKED THOSE SHIPS
+                        AND SO MADE POSSIBLE THE
+                         FAME OF MANY ADMIRALS.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This book is not intended to be a “history” of the British Navy in the
+generally accepted sense of the term. For this reason small space is
+devoted to various strategical and tactical matters of the past which
+generally bulk largely in more regular “naval histories”--of which a
+sufficiency already exist.
+
+In such histories primary interest naturally attaches to what the
+admirals did with the ships provided for them. Here I have sought
+rather to deal with how the ships came to be provided, and how they
+were developed from the crude warships of the past to the intricate
+and complicated machines of to-day; and the strictly “history” part
+of the book is compressed with that idea principally in view. The
+“live end” of naval construction is necessarily that which directly or
+indirectly concerns the ships of our own time. The warships of the past
+are of special interest in so far as they were steps to the warships of
+to-day; but, outside that, practical interest seems confined to what
+led to these “steps” being what they were.
+
+Thus regarded, Trafalgar becomes of somewhat secondary interest as
+regards the tremendous strategical questions involved, but of profound
+importance by reason of the side-issue that the _Victory’s_ forward
+bulkhead was so slightly built that she sustained an immense number
+of casualties which would never have occurred had she been designed
+for the particular purpose that Nelson used her for at Trafalgar. The
+tactics of Trafalgar have merely a literary and sentimental interest
+now, and even the strategies which led to the battle are probably of
+little utility to the strategists of our own times. But the _Victory’s_
+thin forward bulkhead profoundly affected, and to some extent still
+affects, modern British naval construction. Trafalgar, of course,
+sanctified for many a year “end-on approach,” and so eventually
+concentrated special attention on bulkheads. But previous to Trafalgar,
+the return of the _Victory_ after it for refit, and Seppings’
+inspection of her, the subject of end-on protection had been ignored.
+The cogitations of Seppings helped to make what would have very much
+influenced history had any similar battle occurred in the years that
+followed his constructional innovations.
+
+Again, at an earlier period much naval history turned upon the
+ventilation of bilges. Improvements in this respect (devised by men
+never heard of to-day) enabled British ships to keep the seas without
+their crews being totally disabled by diseases which often overmastered
+their foes. The skill of the admirals, the courage of the crews, both
+form more exciting reading. Yet there is every indication to prove that
+this commonplace matter of bilges was the secret of victory more than
+once!
+
+Coming back to more recent times, the loss of the _Vanguard_, which
+cost no lives, involved greater subsequent constructional problems than
+did the infinitely more terrible loss of the _Captain_ a few years
+before. Who shall say on how many seeming constructional failures of
+the past, successes of the yet unborn future may not rest?
+
+A number of other things might be cited, but these suffice to indicate
+the particular perspective of this book, and to show why, if regarded
+as an orthodox “history” of the British Navy, it is occasionally in
+seemingly distorted perspective.
+
+To say that in the scheme of this book the ship-builder is put in
+the limelight instead of the ship-user, would in no way be precisely
+correct, though as a vague generalisation it may serve well enough.
+In exact fact each, of course, is and ever has been dependent on the
+other. Nelson himself was curtailed by the limitations of the tools
+provided for him. Had he had the same problems one or two hundred years
+before he would have been still more limited. Had he had them fifty or
+a hundred years later--who shall say?
+
+With Seppings’ improvements, Trafalgar would have been a well-nigh
+bloodless victory for the British Fleet. It took Trafalgar, however, to
+inspire and teach Seppings. Of every great sea-fight something of the
+same kind may be said. The lead had to be given.
+
+Yet those who best laboured to remove the worst disabilities of “the
+means” of Blake, contributed in that measure to Nelson’s successes
+years and years later on. Their efforts may surely be deemed worthy of
+record, for all that between the unknown designer of the _Great Harry_
+in the sixteenth century and the designers of Super-Dreadnoughts of
+to-day there may have been lapses and defects in details. There was
+never a lapse on account of which the user was unable to defeat any
+hostile user with whom he came into conflict. The “means” provided
+served. The creators of warships consistently improved their creations:
+but they were not improved without care and thought on the part of
+those who produced them.
+
+To those who provided the means and to the rank and file it fell that
+many an admiral was able to do what he did. These admirals “made
+history.” But ever there were “those others” who made that “history
+making” possible, and who so made it also.
+
+In dealing with the warships of other eras, I have been fortunate in
+securing the co-operation of Mr. W. L. Wyllie, R.A., who has translated
+into vivid pictorial obviousness a number of details which old prints
+of an architectural nature entirely fail to convey. With a view to
+uniformity, this scheme, though reinforced by diagrams and photographs,
+has been carried right into our own times.
+
+Some things which I might have written I have on that account left
+unrecorded. There are some things that cold print and the English
+language cannot describe. These things must be sought for in Mr.
+Wyllie’s pictures.
+
+In conclusion, I would leave the dedication page to explain the rest of
+what I have striven for in this book.
+
+                                                            F. T. J.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO NEW EDITION
+
+
+This book was originally written three years ago. Since it was first
+published the greatest war ever known has broken out. To meet that
+circumstance this particular edition has been revised and brought to
+date in order to present to the reader the exact state of our Navy when
+the fighting began.
+
+Modern naval warfare differs much from the warfare of the past; at any
+rate from the warfare of the Nelson era. But if men and _matériel_ have
+altered, the general principles of naval war have remained unchanged.
+Indeed, there is some reason to believe that the wheel of fortune has
+brought us back to some similitude of those early days when to kill the
+enemy was the sole idea that obtained, when there were no “rules of
+civilised war,” when it was simply kill and go on killing.
+
+To these principles Germany has reverted. The early history of the
+British Navy indicates that we were able to render a good account of
+ourselves under such conditions. For that matter we made our Navy under
+such training. It is hard to imagine that by adopting old time methods
+the Germans will take from us the Sea Empire which we thus earned in
+the past.
+
+                                                            F. T. J.
+
+  _18th June, 1915._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                           PAGE
+
+     I. THE BIRTH OF BRITISH NAVAL POWER                               1
+
+    II. THE NORMAN AND PLANTAGENET ERAS                               10
+
+   III. THE TUDOR PERIOD AND BIRTH OF A REGULAR NAVY                  35
+
+    IV. THE PERIOD OF THE DUTCH WARS                                  59
+
+     V. THE EARLY FRENCH WARS                                         88
+
+    VI. THE GREAT FRENCH WAR                                         133
+
+   VII. FROM THE PEACE OF AMIENS TO THE FINAL FALL OF NAPOLEON       165
+
+  VIII. GENERAL MATTERS IN THE PERIOD OF THE FRENCH WARS             194
+
+    IX. THE BIRTH OF MODERN WARSHIP IDEAS                            211
+
+     X. THE COMING OF THE IRONCLAD                                   229
+
+    XI. THE REED ERA                                                 264
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                               IN COLOUR
+                  FROM PICTURES BY W. L. WYLLIE, R.A.
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+  SUBMARINES IN THE CHANNEL                       _Frontispiece_
+
+  WARSHIP OF THE TIME OF KING ALFRED                                   3
+
+  RICHARD I. IN ACTION WITH THE SARACEN SHIP                          13
+
+  BATTLE OF SLUYS                                                     25
+
+  PORTSMOUTH HARBOUR, 1912                                            31
+
+  THE “GRACE DE DIEU,” 1515                                           39
+
+  THE SPANISH ARMADA, 1588                                            51
+
+  THE END OF A “GENTLEMAN ADVENTURER”                                 55
+
+  BLAKE AND TROMP--PERIOD OF THE DUTCH WARS                           77
+
+  BATTLESHIPS OF THE WHITE ERA AT SEA                                117
+
+  THE “FOUDROYANT,” ONE OF NELSON’S OLD SHIPS                        143
+
+  BATTLE OF TRAFALGAR, 1805                                          173
+
+  THE END OF AN OLD WARSHIP                                          191
+
+  A TRAFALGAR ANNIVERSARY                                            205
+
+  THE OLD “INVINCIBLE,” 1872                                         293
+
+
+                           SHIP PHOTOGRAPHS
+
+  “SALAMANDER,” PADDLE WARSHIP                                       217
+
+  OLD SCREW WOODEN LINE-OF-BATTLESHIP “LONDON”                       221
+
+  “WARRIOR”                                                          251
+
+  “ACHILLES” (WITH FOUR MASTS)                                       259
+
+  “MINOTAUR” (AS A FIVE-MASTER)                                      261
+
+  “BELLEROPHON”                                                      269
+
+  “ROYAL SOVEREIGN”                                                  273
+
+  “WATERWITCH”                                                       277
+
+  “CAPTAIN”                                                          289
+
+  “VANGUARD”                                                         297
+
+  “HOTSPUR” AS ORIGINALLY COMPLETED                                  309
+
+  “DEVASTATION” AS ORIGINALLY COMPLETED                              313
+
+
+                               PORTRAITS
+
+  PHINEAS PETT                                                        67
+
+  SIR ANTHONY DEANE                                                   93
+
+  GENERAL BENTHAM                                                    155
+
+  JOHN SCOTT RUSSELL                                                 245
+
+  SIR E. J. REED                                                     265
+
+
+                         PLANS, DIAGRAMS, ETC.
+
+  PHINEAS PETT’S “ROYAL SOVEREIGN”                                    71
+
+  POSITIONS OF THE FLEETS AT THE OUTBREAK OF WAR                     167
+
+  EARLY BROADSIDE IRONCLADS                                          255
+
+  REED ERA BROADSIDE SHIPS                                           281
+
+  REED ERA TURRET SHIPS                                              285
+
+  RAMS OF THE REED ERA                                               301
+
+  BREASTWORK MONITORS                                                305
+
+
+
+
+THE BRITISH BATTLE FLEET.
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+THE BIRTH OF BRITISH NAVAL POWER.
+
+
+The birth of British naval power is involved in considerable obscurity
+and a good deal of legend. The Phœnicians and the Romans have both been
+credited with introducing nautical ideas to these islands, but of the
+Phœnicians there is nothing but legend so far as any “British Navy” is
+concerned. That the Phœnicians voyaged here we know well enough, and
+a “British fleet” of the B.C. era _may_ have existed, a fleet due to
+possible Phœnicians who, having visited these shores, remained in the
+land. Equally well it may be mythical.
+
+Whatever share the ancient Britons may have had in the supposed
+commercial relations with Gaul, it is clear that no fleet as we
+understand a fleet existed in the days of Julius Cæsar. Later, while
+England was a Roman province, Roman fleets occasionally fought
+upon British waters against pirates and in connection with Roman
+revolutions, but they were ships of the ruling power.
+
+Roman power passed away. Saxons invaded and remained; but having
+landed they became people of the land--not of the sea. Danes and other
+seafarers pilaged English shores much as they listed till Alfred the
+Great came to the throne.
+
+Alfred has been called the “Father and Founder of the British Fleet.”
+It is customary and dramatic to suppose that Alfred was seized with the
+whole modern theory of “Sea Power” as a sudden inspiration--that “he
+recognised that invaders could only be kept off by defeating them on
+the sea.”
+
+This is infinitely more pretty than accurate. To begin with, even at
+the beginning of the present Twentieth Century it was officially put on
+record that “while the British fleet could prevent invasion, _it could
+not guarantee immunity from small raids_ on our great length of coast
+line.” In Alfred’s day, one mile was more than what twenty are now;
+messages took as many days to deliver as they now do minutes, and the
+“raid” was the only kind of over-sea war to be waged. It is altogether
+chimerical to imagine that Alfred “thought things out” on the lines of
+a modern naval theorist.
+
+In actual fact,[1] what happened was that Alfred engaged in a naval
+fight in the year 875, somewhere on the South Coast. There is little
+or no evidence to show where, though near Wareham is the most likely
+locality.
+
+In 877 something perhaps happened to the Danes at Swanage, but the
+account in Asser is an interpolated one, and even so suggests shipwreck
+rather than a battle.
+
+In 882 (possibly 881) two Danish ships sank: “the rest” (number not
+recorded) surrendered later on.
+
+[Illustration: WARSHIP OF THE TIME OF KING ALFRED.]
+
+In 884 occurred the battle of the Stour. Here the Saxon fleet secured a
+preliminary success, in which thirteen Danish ships were captured. This
+may or may not have been part of an ambush--at any rate the final
+result was the annihilation of King Alfred’s fleet.
+
+In 896 occurred the alleged naval reform so often alluded to as the
+“birth of the British Navy”--those ships supposed to have been designed
+by Alfred, which according to Asser[2] were “full nigh twice as long as
+the others ... shapen neither like Frisian nor the Danish, but so as it
+seemed to him that they would be most efficient.”
+
+Around these “early Dreadnoughts” much has been weaved, but there is no
+evidence acceptable to the best modern historians that Alfred really
+built any such ships--they tend to reject the entire theory.
+
+The actual facts of that “naval battle of the Solent” in 897 from which
+the history of our navy is popularly alleged to date, appear to be as
+follows:
+
+There were nine of King Alfred’s ships, manned by Frisian pirates, who
+were practically Danes. These nine encountered three Danish vessels in
+a land-locked harbour--probably Brading--and all of them ran aground,
+the Danish ships being in the middle between two Saxon divisions. A
+land fight ensued, till, the tide rising, the Danish ships, which were
+of lighter draught than the Saxon vessels, floated. The Danes then
+sailed away, but in doing so two of them were wrecked.
+
+All the rest of the story seems to be purely legendary. Our real
+“island story”--as events during the next few hundred years following
+Alfred clearly indicate--is not that of a people born to the sea; but
+the story of a people forced thereto by circumstances and the need of
+self-preservation.
+
+It is a very unromantic beginning. There is a strange analogy between
+it and the beginning in later days of the Sea Power of the other
+“Island Empire”--Japan. Japan to-day seeks--as we for centuries have
+sought--for an historical sequence of the “sea spirit” and all such
+things as an ideal islander should possess. Neither we nor they have
+ever understood or ever properly realised that it was the Continentals
+who long ago first saw that it was necessary to command the sea to
+attack the islanders. The more obvious contrary has always been
+assumed. It has never been held, or even suggested, that the Little
+Englander protesting against “bloated naval armaments,” so far from
+being a modern anachronism, an ultra-Radical or Socialist exotic, may
+really claim to be the true exponent of “the spirit of the Islanders”
+for all time. That is one reason why (excluding the mythical Minos
+of Crete) only two island-groups have ever loomed big in the world’s
+history.
+
+When Wilhelm II of Germany said: “_Unsere Zukunft liegt auf dem
+Wasser_,” he uttered a far more profound truth than has ever been fully
+realised. Fleets came into being to attack Islanders with.
+
+The Islanders saw the sea primarily as a protection existing between
+them and the enemy. To the Continental the sea was a road to, or
+obstacle between him and the enemy, only if the enemy filled it with
+ships. The Islanders have ever tended to trust to the existence of the
+sea itself as a defence, except in so far as they have been taught
+otherwise by individuals who realised the value of shipping. Those
+millions of British citizens who to-day are more or less torpid on the
+subject of naval defence are every whit as normal as those Germans
+who, in season and out, preach naval expansion.
+
+The explanation of all this is probably to be found in the fact that
+the earliest warfare known either to Continentals or to Islanders was
+_military warfare_. The ship as at first employed was used entirely as
+a means of transport for reaching the enemy--first, presumably, against
+outlying islands near the coast, later for more over-sea expeditions.
+
+Ideas of attack are earlier than ideas of defence, and the primary idea
+of defence went no further than the passive defensive. King Alfred,
+merely in realising the offensive defensive, did a far greater thing
+than any of the legendary exploits associated with his history. The
+idea was submerged many a time in the years that followed, but from
+time to time it appeared and found its ultimate fruition in the Royal
+Navy.
+
+Yet still, the wonder is not that only two Island Empires have ever
+come into existence, but that any should have come into existence at
+all. The real history of King Alfred’s times is that the Continental
+Danes did much as they listed against the insular Saxons of England,
+till the need was demonstrated for an endeavour to meet the enemy on
+his own element.
+
+In the subsequent reigns of Athelstan and Edmund, some naval
+expeditions took place. Under Edgar, the fleet reached its largest.
+Although the reputed number of 3,600 vessels is, of course, an
+exaggerated one, there was enough naval power at that time to secure
+peace.
+
+This “navy” had, however, a very transient existence, because in the
+reign of Ethelred, who succeeded to the throne, it had practically
+ceased to exist, and an attempt was made to revive it. This attempt
+was so little successful that Danish ships had to be hired for naval
+purposes.
+
+A charter of the time of Ethelred II exists which is considered by many
+to be the origin of that Ship Money which, hundreds of years later, was
+to cause so much trouble to England. Under this, the maintenance of
+the Navy was made a State charge on landowners, the whole of whom were
+assessed at the rate of producing one galley for every three hundred
+and ten hides of land that they possessed.
+
+This view is disputed by some historians, who maintain that the charter
+is possibly a forgery, and that it is not very clear in any case.
+However, it does not appear to have produced any useful naval power.
+
+That naval power was insufficient is abundantly clear from the ever
+increasing number of Danish settlements. In the St. Bride’s Day
+massacre, which was an attempt to kill off the leading Danes amongst
+the recent arrivals, further trouble arose; and in the year 1013,
+Swain, King of Denmark, made a large invasion of England, and in the
+year 1017, his son Canute ascended to the throne.
+
+Under Canute, the need of a navy to protect the coast against Danish
+raids passed away. The bulk of the Danish ships were sent back to
+Denmark, forty vessels only being retained.
+
+Once or twice during the reign of Canute successful naval expeditions
+were undertaken, but at the time of the King’s death the regular fleet
+consisted of only sixteen ships. Five years later, an establishment was
+fixed at thirty-two, and remained more or less at about that figure,
+till, in the reign of Edward the Confessor trouble was caused by Earl
+Godwin, who had created a species of fleet of his own. With a view to
+suppressing these a number of King’s ships were fitted out; but as the
+King and Godwin came to terms the fleet was not made use of.
+
+Close following upon this came the Norman invasion, which of all the
+foolhardy enterprises ever embarked on by man was theoretically one
+of the most foolish. William’s intentions were perfectly well known.
+A certain “English fleet” existed, and there was nothing to prevent
+its expansion into a force easily able to annihilate the heterogeneous
+Norman flotilla.
+
+How many ships and men William actually got together is a matter upon
+which the old chroniclers vary considerably. But he is supposed to have
+had with him some 696 ships[3]; and since his largest ships were not
+over twenty tons and most of them a great deal smaller, it is clear
+that they must have been crowded to excess and in poor condition to
+give battle against anything of the nature of a determined attack from
+an organised fleet.
+
+No English fleet put in appearance, however. Harold had collected a
+large fleet at Sandwich, but after a while, for some unknown reason,
+it was dispersed, probably owing to the lateness of the season. The
+strength of the fleet collected, or why it was dispersed, are, however,
+immaterial issues; the fact of importance is that the fleet was
+“inadequate” because it failed to prevent the invasion. A neglected
+fleet entailed the destruction of the Saxon dominion.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+THE NORMAN AND PLANTAGENET ERAS.
+
+
+William the Conqueror’s first act on landing was to burn all his
+ships--a proceeding useful enough in the way of preventing any of his
+followers retiring with their spoils, but inconvenient to him shortly
+after he became King of England. Fleets from Denmark and Norway raided
+the coasts, and, though the raiders were easily defeated on shore,
+the pressure from them was sufficient to cause William to set about
+recreating a navy, of which he made some use in the year 1071. In 1078
+the Cinque Ports were established, five ports being granted certain
+rights in return for policing the Channel and supplying ships to the
+King as required. But the amount of naval power maintained was very
+small, both in the reign of William the First and his successors.
+
+Not until the reign of Henry II was any appreciable attention paid to
+nautical matters. Larger ships than heretofore were built, as we assume
+from records of the loss of one alleged to carry 300 men. It was Henry
+II who first claimed the “Sovereignty of the British Seas” and enacted
+the Assize of Arms whereby no ship or timber for shipbuilding might be
+sold out of England.
+
+When Richard I came to the throne in 1189, fired with ambition to
+proceed to the Crusades, he ordered all ports in his dominions to
+supply him with ships in proportion to their population. The majority
+of these ships came, however, from Acquitaine. The fleet thus collected
+is said to have consisted of nine large ships, 150 small vessels,
+thirty galleys, and a number of transports. The large ships, which
+have also been given as thirteen in number, were known at the time as
+“busses.” They appear to have been three-masters. The fleet sailed
+in eight divisions. This expedition to the Holy Land was the first
+important over-sea voyage ever participated in by English ships, the
+greatest distance heretofore traversed having been to Norway in the
+time of Canute. This making of a voyage into the unknown was, however,
+not quite so difficult as it might at first sight be supposed to
+be, because there is no doubt whatever that the compass was by then
+well-known and used. Records from 1150 and onwards exist which describe
+the compass of that period. A contemporary chronicler[4] wrote of it:--
+
+    “This [polar] star does not move. They [the seamen] have an art
+    which cannot deceive, by virtue of the _manite_, an ill brownish
+    stone to which iron spontaneously adheres. They search for the
+    right point, and when they have touched a needle on it, and fixed
+    it to a bit of straw, they lay it on water, and the straw keeps it
+    afloat. Then the point infallibly turns towards the star; and when
+    the night is dark and gloomy, and neither star nor moon is visible,
+    they set a light beside the needle, and they can be assured that
+    the star is opposite to the point, and thereby the mariner is
+    directed in his course. This is an art which cannot deceive.”
+
+The compass would seem to have existed, so far as northern nations were
+concerned, about the time of William the Conqueror. Not till early in
+the Fourteenth Century did it assume the form in which we now know it,
+but its actual antiquity is considerably more.
+
+In connection with this expedition to the Holy Land, Richard issued
+a Code of Naval Discipline, which has been described as the germ of
+our Articles of War. Under this Code if a man killed another on board
+ship, he was to be tied to the corpse and thrown into the sea. If the
+murder took place on shore, he was to be buried alive with the corpse.
+The penalty for drawing a knife on another man, or drawing blood from
+him in any manner was the loss of a hand. For “striking another,”
+the offender was plunged three times into the sea. For reviling or
+insulting another man, compensation of an ounce of silver to the
+aggrieved one was awarded. The punishment for theft was to shave the
+head of the thief, pour boiling pitch upon it and then feather him.
+This was done as a mark of recognition. The subsequent punishment was
+to maroon a man upon the first land touched. Severe penalties were
+imposed on the mariners and servants for gambling.
+
+Of these punishments the two most interesting are those for theft and
+the punishment of “ducking.” This last was presumably keel-hauling,
+a punishment which survived well into the Nelson era. It is to be
+found described in the pages of Marryat. It consisted in drawing the
+offender by ropes underneath the bottom of the ship. As his body was
+thus scraped along the ship’s hull, the punishment was at all times
+severe; but in later days, as ships grew larger and of deeper draught,
+it became infinitely more cruel and heavy than in the days when it was
+first instituted.
+
+The severe penalty for theft is to be noted on account of the fact
+that, even in the early times, theft, as now, was and is recognised
+as a far more serious offence on ship board than it is on shore--the
+reason being the greater facilities that a ship affords for theft.
+
+[Illustration: RICHARD 1ST IN ACTION WITH THE SARACEN SHIP.]
+
+On his way to the Holy Land, Richard had a dispute at Sicily with the
+King of France, out of which he increased his fleet somewhat. Leaving
+Sicily, somewhere between Cyprus and Acre he encountered a very large
+Saracen ship, of the battle with which very picturesque and highly
+coloured accounts exist. There is no doubt that the ship was something
+a great deal larger than anything the English had ever seen heretofore,
+although the crew of 1,500 men with which she is credited by the
+chroniclers is undoubtedly an exaggeration.
+
+The ship carried an armament of Greek fire and “serpents.” The
+exact composition of Greek fire is unknown. It was invented by the
+Byzantines, who by means of it succeeded in keeping their enemies at
+bay for a very long time. It was a mixture of chemicals which, upon
+being squirted at the enemy from tubes, took fire, and could only be
+put out by sand or vinegar. “Serpents” were apparently some variation
+of Greek fire of a minor order, discharged by catapults.
+
+In the first part of the attack the English fleet was able to make
+no impression upon the enemy, as her high sides and the Greek fire
+rendered boarding impossible. Not until King Richard had exhilarated
+his fleet by informing them that if the galley escaped they “should
+be crucified or put to extreme torture,” was any progress made. After
+that, according to the contemporary account, some of the English jumped
+overboard and succeeded in fastening ropes to the rudder of the Saracen
+ship, “steering her as they pleased.” They then obtained a footing
+on board, but were subsequently driven back. As a last resource
+King Richard formed his galleys into line and rammed the ship, which
+afterwards sank.
+
+The relation of Richard’s successor, King John, to the British Navy, is
+one of some peculiar interest. More than any king before him he appears
+to have appreciated the importance of naval power, and naval matters
+received more attention than heretofore. In the days of King John
+the crews of ships appropriated for the King’s service were properly
+provisioned with wine and food, and there are also records of pensions
+for wounds, one of the earliest being that of Alan le Walleis, who
+received a pension of sixpence a day for the loss of his hand.[5]
+
+King John is popularly credited with having made the first claim to
+the “Sovereignty of the Seas” and of having enacted that all foreign
+vessels upon sighting an English one were to strike their flags to
+her, and that if they did not that it was lawful to destroy them.
+The authenticity of this is, however, very doubtful; and it is more
+probable that, on account of various naval regulations which first
+appeared in the reign of King John, this particular regulation was
+fathered upon him at a later date with the view to giving it an
+historical precedent.
+
+In the reign of King John the “Laws of Oleron” seem to have first
+appeared, but it is not at all clear that they had any specific
+connection with England. They appear rather to have been of a general
+European nature. The gist of the forty-seven articles of the “Laws
+of Oleron,” of which the precise date of promulgation cannot be
+ascertained, is as follows:--[5]
+
+    “By the first article, if a vessel arrived at Bordeaux, Rouen, or
+    any other similar place, and was there freighted for Scotland, or
+    any other foreign country, and was in want of stores or provisions,
+    the master was not permitted to sell the vessel, but he might with
+    the advice of his crew raise money by pledging any part of her
+    tackle or furniture.
+
+    “If a vessel was wind or weather bound, the master, when a change
+    occurred, was to consult his crew, saying to them, “Gentlemen, what
+    think you of this wind?” and to be guided by the majority whether
+    he should put to sea. If he did not do this, and any misfortune
+    happened, he was to make good the damage.
+
+    “If a seaman sustained any hurt through drunkenness or quarrelling,
+    the master was not bound to provide for his cure, but might
+    turn him out of his ship; if, however, the injury occurred in
+    the service of his ship, he was to be cured at the cost of the
+    said ship. A sick sailor was to be sent on shore, and a lodging,
+    candles, and one of the ship’s boys, or a nurse provided for him,
+    with the same allowance of provisions as he would have received on
+    board. In case of danger in a storm, the master might, with the
+    consent of the merchants on board, lighten the ship by throwing
+    part of the cargo overboard; and if they did not consent, or
+    objected to his doing so, he was not to risk the vessel but to
+    act as he thought proper; on their arrival in port, he and the
+    third part of the crew were to make oath that it was done for the
+    preservation of the vessel; and the loss was to be borne equally by
+    the merchants. A similar proceeding was to be adopted before the
+    mast or cables were cut away.
+
+    “Before goods were shipped the master was to satisfy the merchants
+    of the strength of his ropes and slings; but if he did not do so,
+    or they requested him to repair them and a cask were stove, the
+    master was to make it good.
+
+    “In cases of difference between a master and one of his crew, the
+    man was to be denied his mess allowance thrice, before he was
+    turned out of the ship, or discharged; and if the man offered
+    reasonable satisfaction in the presence of the crew, and the master
+    persisted in discharging him, the sailor might follow the ship to
+    her place of destination, and demand the same wages as if he had
+    not been sent ashore.
+
+    “In case of a collision by a ship undersail running on board one at
+    anchor, owing to bad steering, if the former were damaged, the cost
+    was to be equally divided; the master and crew of the latter making
+    oath that the collision was accidental. The reason for this law
+    was, it is said, ‘that an old decayed vessel might not purposely
+    be put in the way of a better.’ It was specially provided that all
+    anchors ought to be indicated by buoys or ‘anchor-marks.’
+
+    “Mariners of Brittany were entitled only to one meal a day,
+    because they had beverage going and coming; but those of Normandy
+    were to have two meals, because they had only water as the ship’s
+    allowance. As soon as the ship arrived in a wine country, the
+    master was, however, to procure them wine.
+
+    “Several regulations occur respecting the seamen’s wages, which
+    show that they were sometimes paid by a share of the freight. On
+    arriving at Bordeaux or any other place, two of the crew might go
+    on shore and take with them one meal of such victuals as were on
+    board, and a proportion of bread, but no drink; and they were to
+    return in sufficient time to prevent their master losing the tide.
+    If a pilot from ignorance or otherwise failed to conduct a ship
+    in safety, and the merchants sustained any damage, he was to make
+    full satisfaction if he had the means to; if not, he was to lose
+    his head; and, if the master or any one of the mariners cut off
+    his head, they were not bound to answer for it; but, before they
+    had recourse to so strong a measure, ‘they must be sure he had not
+    wherewith to make satisfaction.’
+
+    “Two articles of the code prove, that from an ‘accursed custom’ in
+    some places, by which the third or fourth part of ships that were
+    lost belonged to the lord of the place--the pilots, to ingratiate
+    themselves with these nobles, ‘like faithless and treacherous
+    villains,’ purposely ran the vessel on the rocks. It was therefore
+    enacted that the said lords, and all others assisting in plundering
+    the wreck, shall be accursed and excommunicated, and punished as
+    robbers and thieves; that ‘all false and treacherous pilots should
+    suffer a most rigorous and merciless death,’ and be suspended to
+    high gibbets near the spot, which gibbets were to remain as an
+    example in succeeding ages. The barbarous lords were to be tied to
+    a post in the middle of their own houses, and, being set on fire
+    at the four corners, all were to be burned together; the walls
+    demolished, its site converted into a marketplace for the sale only
+    of hogs and swine, and all their goods to be confiscated to the use
+    of the aggrieved parties.
+
+    “Such of the cargoes as floated ashore were to be taken care of
+    for a year or more; and, if not then claimed, they were to be
+    sold by the lord, and the proceeds distributed among the poor, in
+    marriage portions to poor maids and other charitable uses. If, as
+    often happened, ‘people more barbarous, cruel, and inhuman than mad
+    dogs,’ murdered shipwrecked persons, they were to be plunged into
+    the sea till they were half-dead, and then drawn out and stoned to
+    death.”
+
+Those laws, unconnected though they appear to be with strictly naval
+matters, are none the less of extreme interest as indicating the
+establishment of “customs of the sea,” and the consequent segregation
+of a “sailor class.” It has ever to be kept very clearly in mind that
+there was no such thing as a “Navy” as we understand it in these days.
+When ships were required for war purposes they were hired, just as
+waggons may be hired by the Army to-day; nor did the mariners count
+for much more than horses. The “Laws of Oleron,” however, gave them a
+certain general status which they had not possessed before; and the
+regulations of John as to providing for those engaged upon the King’s
+service--though they in no way constituted a Royal Navy--played their
+part many years later in making a Royal Navy possible, or, perhaps, it
+may be said, “necessary.” Necessity has ever been the principal driving
+force in the naval history of England.
+
+To resume. The limitations of the powers of the master (_i.e._ captain)
+in these “Laws of Oleron” deserve special attention. “Gentlemen,
+what think you of this wind?” from the captain to his crew would be
+considered “democracy” carried to extreme and extravagant limits in
+the present day; in the days when it was promulgated as “the rule” it
+was surely stranger still! Little wonder that seamen at an early stage
+segregated from the ordinary body of citizens and became, as described
+by Clarendon in his “History of the Rebellion” a few hundred years
+later, when he wrote:--
+
+    “The seamen are a nation by themselves, a humorous and fantastic
+    people, fierce and rude and resolute in whatsoever they resolve or
+    are inclined to, but unsteady and inconstant in pursuing it, and
+    jealous of those to-morrow by whom they are governed to-day.”
+
+To this, to the earlier things that produced it, those who will may
+trace the extreme rigour of naval discipline and naval punishments,
+as compared with contemporaneous shore punishments at any given time,
+and the extraordinary difference at present existing between the
+American and European navies. The difference is usually explained on
+the circumstance that “Europe is Europe, and America, America.” But
+“differences” having their origin in the “Laws of Oleron” may play a
+greater part than is generally allowed.
+
+The year 1213 saw the Battle of Damme. This was the first real naval
+battle between the French and English. The King of France had collected
+a fleet of some “seventeen hundred ships” for the invasion of England,
+but having been forbidden to do so by the Pope’s Legate, he decided to
+use his force against Flanders. This Armada was surprised and totally
+destroyed by King John’s fleet.
+
+After the death of John the nautical element in England declared for
+Henry III, son of John, and against Prince Louis of France, who had
+been invited to the throne of England by the barons. Out of this came
+the battle of Sandwich, 1217, where Hubert de Burgh put into practice,
+though in different form, those principles first said to have been
+evolved by Alfred the Great--namely, to attack with an assured and
+complete superiority.
+
+Every English ship took on board a large quantity of quick-lime and
+sailed to meet the French, who were commanded by Eustace the Monk. De
+Burgh manœuvred for the weather gauge. Having gained it, the English
+ships came down upon the French with the wind, the quick-lime blowing
+before them, and so secured a complete victory over the tortured and
+blinded French. This is the first recorded instance of anything that
+may be described as “tactics” in Northern waters.
+
+The long reign of Henry III saw little of interest in connection with
+nautical matters. But towards the end of Henry’s reign a private
+quarrel between English and Norman ships, both seeking fresh water off
+the Coast of Bayonne, had momentous consequences. The Normans, incensed
+over the quarrel, captured a couple of English ships and hanged the
+crew on the yards interspersed with an equal number of dead dogs. Some
+English retaliated in a similar fashion on such Normans as they could
+lay hands on, and, retaliation succeeding retaliation, it came about
+that in the reign of Edward I, though England and France were still
+nominally at peace, the entire mercantile fleets of both were engaged
+in hanging each other, over what was originally a private quarrel as to
+who should be first to draw water at a well.
+
+Ultimately the decision appears to have been come by “to fight it out.”
+Irish and Dutch ships assisted the English. Flemish and Genoese ships
+assisted the Normans and French. The English to the number of 60 were
+under Sir Robert Tiptoft. The number of the enemy is placed at 200,
+though it was probably considerably less. In the battle that ensued the
+Norman and French fleets were annihilated.
+
+This battle, even more than others of the period, cannot be considered
+as one of the battles of “the British fleet.” It is merely a conflict
+between one clique of pirates and traders against another clique. But
+it is important on account of the light that it sheds on a good deal of
+subsequent history; for the fashion thus started lasted in one way and
+another for two or three hundred years.
+
+Nor were these disputes always international. Four years later than
+the fight recorded above, in 1297, the King wished to invade Flanders
+with an army of 50,000 men. The Cinque Ports being unable to supply the
+requisite number of ships to transport this army, requisitions were
+also made at Yarmouth. Bad blood soon arose between the two divisions,
+with the result that they attacked each other. Thirty of the Yarmouth
+ships with their crews were destroyed and the expedition greatly
+hampered thereby.
+
+Two events of importance in British naval history happened in the reign
+of Edward I. The first of these, which took place about the year 1300,
+arose out of acts of piracy on foreigners, to which English ships were
+greatly addicted at that time. In an appeal made to Edward by those
+Continentals who had suffered most from these depredations, the King
+was addressed as “Lord of the Sea.” This was a definite recognition of
+that sea claim first formulated by Henry II and which was afterwards
+to lead to so much fighting and bloodshed.
+
+The second event was the granting of the first recorded “Letters of
+Marque” in the year 1295. These were granted to a French merchant who
+had been taking a cargo of fruit from Spain to England and had been
+robbed by the Portuguese. He was granted a five year license to attack
+the Portuguese in order to recoup his loss.
+
+In the reign of Edward II the only naval event of interest is, that
+when the Queen came from abroad and joined those who were fighting
+against the King, the nautical element sided with her.
+
+The reign of Edward III saw some stirring phases in English history.
+With a view to carrying on his war against France, Edward bestowed
+considerable attention on naval matters, and in the year 1338, he got
+together a fleet stated to have consisted of 500 vessels. These were
+used as transports to convey the Army to France, and are estimated to
+have carried on the average about eighty men each.
+
+Meanwhile, the French had also got together a fleet of about equal
+size, and no sooner had the English expedition reached the shores of
+France than the whole of the south coast of England was subjected to
+a series of French raids. Southampton, Plymouth and the Cinque Ports
+were sacked and burned with practical impunity. These raids continued
+during 1338 and 1339; the bulk of the English fleet still lying idle
+on transport service at Edward’s base in Flanders. A certain number of
+ships had been sent back, but most of these had been as hastily sent on
+to Scotland, where their services had been urgently needed. Matters
+in the Channel culminated with the capture of the two largest English
+ships of the time. A fleet of small vessels hastily fitted out at the
+Cinque Ports succeeded in destroying Boulogne and a number of ships
+that lay there, but generally speaking the French had matters very much
+their own way on the sea.
+
+Towards the end of 1339, Edward and his expedition returned to England
+to refit, with a view to preparing for a fresh invasion of France
+during the following summer.
+
+As Edward was about to embark, he learned that the French King had got
+together an enormous fleet at Sluys. After collecting some additional
+vessels, bringing the total number of ships up to 250 or thereabouts,
+Edward took command and sailed for Sluys, at which port he found the
+French fleet. He localised the French on Friday, July 3rd, but it was
+not until the next day that the battle took place.
+
+The recorded number of the enemy in all these early sea fights requires
+to be accepted with caution. For what it is worth the number of French
+ships has been given at 400 vessels, each carrying 100 men. The French,
+as on a later occasion they did on the Nile, lay on the defensive at
+the mouth of the harbour, the ships being lashed together by cables.
+Their boats, filled with stones, had been hoisted to the mast-heads.
+In the van of their fleet lay the _Christopher_, _Edward_, and various
+other “King’s ships,” which they captured in the previous year.
+
+[Illustration: BATTLE OF SLUYS--1340.]
+
+The English took the offensive, and in doing so manœuvred to have the
+sun behind them. Then, with their leading ships crowded with archers
+they bore down upon the main French division and grappled with them.
+The battle, which lasted right throughout the night, was fought with
+unexampled fury, and for a long time remained undecisive, considerable
+havoc being wrought by the French with the then novel idea of dropping
+large stones from aloft. The combatants, however, were so mixed up
+that it is doubtful whether the French did not kill as many of their
+own number as of the enemy; whereas, on the other side, the use of
+English archers who were noted marksmen told only against those at whom
+the arrows were directed. Furthermore, the English had the tactical
+advantage of throwing the whole of their force on a portion of the
+enemy, whom they ultimately totally destroyed.
+
+This Battle of Sluys took place in 1340. In 1346, after various truces,
+the English again attacked France in force, and the result was the
+Battle of Cressy. A side issue of this was the historic siege of
+Calais, which held out for about twelve months. 738 ships and 14,956
+men are said to have been employed in the sea blockade.
+
+Up to this time the principal English ship had been a galley, _i.e._,
+essentially a row boat. About the year 1350 the galley began to
+disappear as a capital ship, and the galleon, with sail as its main
+motive power, took its place. Also a new enemy appeared; for at that
+time England first came into serious conflict with Spain.
+
+To a certain extent the galleon was to the fleets of the Mid-Fourteenth
+Century much what the ironclad was to the last quarter of the
+Nineteenth Century, or “Dreadnoughts” at the end of the first decade of
+the Twentieth Century.
+
+The introduction of this type of vessel came about as follows:--
+
+A fleet of Castillian galleons, bound for Flanders, whiled away the
+monotony of its trip by acts of piracy against all English ships that
+it met. It reached Sluys without interference. Here it loaded up with
+rich cargoes and prepared to return to Spain. The English meanwhile
+collected a fleet to intercept it, this fleet being in command of King
+Edward himself, who selected the “cog _Thomas_” as his flagship.
+
+The English tactics would seem to have been carefully thought out
+beforehand. The Castillian ships were known to be of relatively vast
+size and more or less unassailable except by boarding. The result was
+that when at length they appeared, the English charged their ships into
+them, sinking most of their own ships in the impact, sprang aboard and
+carried the enemy by boarding. The leading figure on the English side
+was a German body-servant of the name of Hannekin, who distinguished
+himself just at the crisis of the battle by leaping on board a
+Castillian ship and cutting the halyards. Otherwise the result of the
+battle might have been different, because the Castillians, when about
+half only of the English ships were grappled with them, hoisted their
+sails, with the object of sailing away and destroying the enemy in
+detail. Hannekin’s perception of this intention frustrated the attempt.
+
+The advantages of the galleons (or carracks as they were then
+called), must have been rendered obvious in this battle of “Les
+Espagnols-sur-Mer,” as immediately afterwards ships on the models of
+those captured began to be hired for English purposes.
+
+Concurrent, however, with this building of a larger type of ship, a
+decline of naval power began; and ten years later, English shipping
+was in such a parlous state that orders were issued to the effect that
+should any of the Cinque Ports be attacked from the sea, any ships
+there were to be hauled up on land, as far away from the water as
+possible, in order to preserve them.
+
+In the French War of 1369, almost the first act of the French fleet was
+to sack and burn Portsmouth without encountering any naval opposition.
+
+In 1372 some sort of English fleet was collected, and under the Earl
+of Pembroke sent to relieve La Rochelle, which was then besieged by
+the French and Spanish. The Spanish ships of that period had improved
+on those of twenty years before, to the extent that (according to
+Froissart), some carried guns. In any case they proved completely
+superior to the English, whose entire fleet was captured or sunk.
+
+This remarkable and startling difference is only to be accounted for
+by the difference in the naval policy of the two periods. In the early
+years of Edward III’s reign, when a fleet was required it was in an
+efficient state, and when it encountered the enemy, it was used by
+those who had obviously thought out the best means of making the most
+of the material available. In the latter stage, there was neither
+efficiency nor purpose. The result was annihilation.
+
+How far the introduction of cannon on shipboard contributed to this
+result it is difficult to say exactly. In so far as it may have, the
+blame rests with the English, who were perfectly familiar with cannon
+at that time. If, therefore, the very crude stone-throwing cannon of
+those days had any particular advantages over the stone-throwing
+catapults previously employed, failure to fit them is merely a further
+proof of the inefficiency of those responsible for naval matters in
+the closing years of Edward III’s reign. Probably, however, the cannon
+contributed little to the result of La Rochelle, for, like all battles
+of the era, it was a matter of boarding--of “land fighting on the
+water.”
+
+The reign of Richard II saw England practically without any naval
+power at all. The French and Spaniards raided the Channel without
+interference worth mention. Once or twice retaliatory private
+expeditions were made upon the French coast; but speaking generally the
+French and Spaniards had matters entirely their own way, and the latter
+penetrated the Thames so far as Gravesend.
+
+In the year 1380, an English army was sent over to France, but this,
+as Calais was British, was a simple operation, and although two years
+later ships were collected for naval purposes, English sea impotence
+remained as conspicuous as ever. In 1385, when a French armada was
+collected at Sluys for the avowed purpose of invading England on a
+large scale, no attempt whatever seems to have been made to meet this
+with another fleet. Fortunately for England, delays of one kind and
+another led to the French scheme of invasion being abandoned.
+
+Under Henry IV, matters remained much the same, until in the summer
+of 1407, off the coast of Essex, the King, who was voyaging with five
+ships, was attacked by French privateers, which succeeded in capturing
+all except the Royal vessel.
+
+[Illustration: PORTSMOUTH HARBOUR--1912.]
+
+This led to the organisation of a “fleet” and a successful campaign
+against the privateers. The necessity of Sea Power began to be
+realised again, and this so far bore fruit that in the reign of Henry
+V no less than 1,500 ships were (it is said) collected in the Solent,
+for an invasion of France. But since some of these were hired from the
+Dutch and as every English vessel of over twenty tons was requisitioned
+by the King, the large number got together does not necessarily
+indicate the existence of any very great amount of naval power. This
+fleet, however, indicated a revival of sea usage.
+
+In 1417, large ships known as “Dromons” were built at Southampton,
+and bought for the Crown, but these were more of the nature of “Royal
+Yachts” than warships. The principal British naval base at and about
+this period was at Calais, of which, at the time of the War of the
+Roses, the Earl of Warwick was the governor.
+
+The first act of the Regency of Henry VI was to sell by auction
+such ships as had been bought for the Crown under Henry V. The duty
+of keeping the Channel free from pirates was handed over to London
+merchants, who were paid a lump sum to do this, but did not do it at
+all effectively.
+
+Edward IV made some use of a Fleet to secure his accession, or later
+restoration. Richard III would seem to have realised the utility of a
+Fleet, and during his short reign he did his best to begin a revival
+of “the Navy” by buying some ships, which, however, he hired out to
+merchants for trade purposes; and so, at the critical moment, he had
+apparently nothing available to meet the mild over-sea expedition of
+Henry of Richmond. So--right up to _comparatively_ recent times--there
+was never any Royal Navy in the proper meaning of the word, nor even
+any organised attempt to create an equivalent, except on the part of
+those two Kings who we are always told were the worst Kings England
+ever had--John and Richard III. Outside these two, there is not the
+remotest evidence that anyone ever dreamed of “naval power,” “sea
+power,” or anything of the sort, till Henry VII became King of England,
+and founded the British Navy on the entirely unromantic principle that
+it was a financial economy.
+
+Such was the real and prosaic birth of the British Navy in relatively
+recent times. It was made equally prosaic in 1910 by Lord Charles
+Beresford, when he said, “Battleships are cheaper than war.”
+
+There is actually no poetry about the British Navy. There never has
+been--it will be all the better for us if there never is. It is
+merely a business-like institution founded to secure these islands
+from foreign invasion. Dibden in his own day, Kipling in ours, have
+done their best to put in the poetry. It has been pretty and nice and
+splendid. But over and above it all I put the words of a stoker whose
+name I never knew, “It’s just this--do your blanky job!”
+
+That is the real British Navy. Henry VII did not create this watchword,
+nor anyone else, except perhaps Nelson.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+THE TUDOR PERIOD AND BIRTH OF A REGULAR NAVY.
+
+
+That Henry VII assimilated the lesson of the utility of naval power
+is abundantly clear. Henry VII it was who first established a regular
+navy as we now understand it. Previous to his reign, ships were
+requisitioned as required for war purposes, and, the war being over,
+reverted to the mercantile service. The liability of the Cinque Ports
+to provide ships when called upon constituted a species of navy, and
+certain ships were specially held as “Royal ships” for use as required,
+but under Henry ships primarily designed for fighting purposes
+appeared. The first of these ships was a vessel generally spoken of
+as the “_Great Harry_,” though her real name seems to have been _The
+Regent_, built in 1485. Incidentally this ship remained afloat till
+1553, when she was burned by accident. She has been called “the first
+ship of the Royal Navy”; and though her right to the honour has been
+contested, she appears fully entitled to it. The real founder of the
+Navy as we understand a navy to-day was Henry VII.
+
+Another important event of this reign is that during it the first dry
+dock was built at Portsmouth. Up till then there had been no facilities
+for the underwater repair of ships other than the primitive method of
+running them on to the mud and working on them at low tide. While
+ships were small this was not a matter of much moment, but directly
+larger vessels began to be built, it meant that efficient overhauls
+were extremely difficult, if not impossible.
+
+Yet another step that had far reaching results was the granting of a
+bounty to all who built ships of over 120 tons. This bounty, which was
+“per ton” and on a sliding scale, made the building of large private
+ships more profitable and less risky than it had been before, and so
+assisted in the creation of an important auxiliary navy as complement
+to the Royal Navy.
+
+The bounty system did more, however, than encourage the building of
+large private ships. The loose method of computing tonnage already
+referred to, became more elastic still when a bounty was at stake; and
+even looser when questions of the ship being hired per ton for State
+purposes was at issue. Henry VII, who was nothing if not economical,
+felt the pinch; the more so, as just about this time Continentals with
+ships for hire became alarmingly scarce. Something very like a “corner
+in ships” was created by English merchants.
+
+Henry VII was thus, by circumstances beyond his own control, forced
+into creating a permanent navy in self defence. He died with a “navy”
+of eighteen ships, of which, however, only two were genuinely entitled
+to be called “H.M.S.” He had to hire the others!
+
+This foundation of the “regular navy” is not at all romantic. But it is
+how a regular navy came to be founded--by force of circumstances. Henry
+VII, “founder of the Royal Navy,” undoubtedly realized clearer than
+any of his predecessors for many a hundred years the meaning of naval
+power. But--his passion for economy and the advantage taken by such of
+his subjects as had ships available when hired ships were scarce, had
+probably a deal more to do with the institution of a regular navy than
+any preconceived ideas. In two words--“Circumstances compelled.” And
+that is how things stood when Henry VIII came to the throne.
+
+The nominal permanent naval power established by Henry VII consisted
+of fifty-seven ships, and the crew of each was twenty-one men and a
+boy, so that the _Great Harry_, which must have required a considerably
+larger crew, would seem to have been an experimental vessel. The actual
+force, however, was but two fighting ships proper.
+
+Under Henry VIII, however, the policy of monster ships was vigorously
+upheld, and one large ship built in the early years of his reign--the
+_Sovereign_--was reputed to be “the largest ship in Europe.” In 1512
+the King reviewed at Portsmouth “twenty-five ships of great burthen,”
+which had been collected in view of hostilities with France. These
+ships having been joined by others, and amounting to a fleet of
+forty-four sail, encountered a French fleet of thirty-nine somewhere
+off the coast of Brittany.
+
+This particular battle is mainly noteworthy owing to the fact that the
+two flagships grappled, and while in this position one of them caught
+fire. The flames being communicated to the other, both blew up. This
+catastrophe so appalled the two sides that they abandoned the battle
+by mutual consent; from which it is to be presumed that the nautical
+mind of the day had, till then, little realised that risks were run by
+carrying explosives.
+
+The English, however, were less impressed by the catastrophe than the
+enemy, since next day they rallied and captured or sank most of the
+still panic-stricken French ships.
+
+Henry replaced the lost flagship by a still larger ship, the _Grace de
+Dieu_, a two-decker with the lofty poop and forecastle of the period.
+She was about 1,000 tons. Tonnage, however, was so loosely calculated
+in those days that measurements are excessively approximate.
+
+When first cannon were introduced, they were (as previously remarked)
+merely a substitute for the old-fashioned catapults, and discharged
+stones for some time till more suitable projectiles were evolved. Like
+the catapults they were placed on the poop or forecastle, as portholes
+had not then been introduced. These were invented by a Frenchman, one
+Descharges, of Brest. By means of portholes it was possible to mount
+guns on the main deck and so increase their numbers.
+
+[Illustration: THE “GRACE DE DIEU” 1515.]
+
+Although the earliest portholes were merely small circular holes which
+did not allow of any training, and though the idea of them was probably
+directly derived from the loopholes in castle walls, the influence of
+the porthole on naval architecture was soon very great indeed. By means
+of this device a new relation between size and power was established,
+hence the “big displacements” which began to appear at this time. The
+hole for a gun muzzle to protrude through, quickly became an aperture
+allowing of training the gun on any ordinary bearing in English built
+ships. The English (for a very long time it was English only)
+realisation of the possibilities of the porthole in Henry VIII’s
+reign contributed very materially to the defeat of the Spanish Armada
+some decades later. Indeed, it is no exaggeration to say that the
+porthole was to that era what the torpedo has been in the present one.
+Introduced about 1875 as a trivial alternative to the gun, in less
+than forty years the torpedo came to challenge the gun in range to an
+extent that as early as 1905 or thereabouts began profoundly to affect
+all previous ideas of naval tactics, and that by 1915 has changed them
+altogether!
+
+Another great change of these Henry VIII days was in the form of the
+ships.[6] At this era they began to be built with “tumble-home” sides,
+instead of sides slanting outwards upwards, and inwards downwards as
+heretofore. With the coming of the porthole came the decline of the
+cross-bow as a naval arm. In the pre-porthole days every record speaks
+of “showers of arrows,” and the gun appears to have been a species of
+accessory. In the early years of the Sixteenth Century it became the
+main armament, and so remained unchallenged till the present century
+and the coming of the long-range torpedo.
+
+Henry VIII’s reign is also remarkable for the first institution of
+those “cutting out” expeditions which were afterwards to become such a
+particular feature of British methods of warfare. This first attempt
+happened in the year 1513, when Sir Edward Howard, finding the French
+fleet lying in Brest Harbour refusing to come out, “collected boats
+and barges” and attacked them with those craft. The attempt was not
+successful, but it profoundly affected subsequent naval history.
+
+Therefrom the French were impressed with the idea that if a fleet lay
+in a harbour awaiting attack it acquired an advantage thereby. The idea
+became rooted in the French mind that to make the enemy attack under
+the most disadvantageous circumstances was the most wise of policies.
+That “the defensive is compelled to await attack, compelled to allow
+the enemy choice of the moment” was overlooked!
+
+From this time onward England was gradually trained by France into
+the role of the attacker, and the French more and more sank into the
+defensive attitude. Many an English life was sacrificed between the
+“discovery of the attack” in the days of Henry VIII, and its triumphant
+apotheosis when centuries later Nelson won the Battle of the Nile; but
+the instincts born in Henry’s reign, on the one hand to fight with any
+advantage that the defensive might offer, on the other hand to attack
+regardless of these advantages, are probably the real key to the secret
+of later victories.
+
+The Royal ships at this period were manned by voluntary enlistment,
+supplemented by the press-gang as vacancies might dictate. The pay of
+the mariner was five shillings a month; but petty officers, gunners and
+the like received additional pickings out of what was known as “dead
+pay.” By this system the names of dead men, or occasionally purely
+fancy names, were on the ship’s books, and the money drawn for these
+was distributed in a fixed ratio. The most interesting feature of Henry
+VII and Henry VIII’s navies is the presence in them of a number of
+Spaniards, who presumably acted as instructors. These received normal
+pay of seven shillings a month plus “dead pay.”
+
+The messing of the crews was by no means indifferent. It was as follows
+per man:--
+
+  Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday: ¾ lb. beef and ½ lb. bacon.
+
+  Monday, Wednesday, Saturday: Four herrings and two pounds of cheese.
+
+  Friday: To every mess of four men, half a cod, ten herrings, one
+      pound of butter and one pound of cheese.
+
+There was also a daily allowance of one pound of bread or biscuit.
+The liquid allowance was either beer, or a species of grog consisting
+of one part of sack to two of water. Taking into account the value of
+money in those days and the scale of living on shore at the time, the
+conditions of naval life were by no means bad, though complaints of the
+low pay were plentiful enough. Probably, few received the full measure
+of what on paper they were entitled to.
+
+Henry VIII died early in 1547. In the subsequent reigns of Edward VI
+and Mary, the Navy declined, and little use was made of it except for
+some raiding expeditions.
+
+When Elizabeth came to the throne the regular fleet had dwindled to
+very small proportions, and, war being in progress, general permission
+was given for privateering as the only means of injuring the enemy. It
+presently degenerated into piracy and finally had to be put down by the
+Royal ships.
+
+No sooner, however, was the war over than the Queen ordered a special
+survey to be made of the Navy. New ships were laid down and arsenals
+established for the supply of guns and gunpowder, which up to that
+time had been imported from Germany. Full advantage was taken of
+the privateering spirit, the erstwhile pirates being encouraged to
+undertake distant voyages. In many of these enterprises the Queen
+herself had a personal financial interest. She thus freed the country
+from various turbulent spirits who were inconvenient at home, and at
+one and the same time increased her own resources by doing so.
+
+There is every reason to believe that this action of Elizabeth’s was
+part of a well-designed and carefully thought out policy. The type of
+ship suitable for distant voyages and enterprises was naturally bound
+to become superior to that which was merely evolved from home service.
+The type of seamen thus bred was also necessarily bound to be better
+than the home-made article. Elizabeth can hardly have failed to realise
+these points also.
+
+To the _personnel_ of the regular Navy considerable attention was
+also given. Pay was raised to 6/8 per month for the seamen, and 5/- a
+month with 4/- a month for clothing for soldiers afloat. Messing was
+also increased to a daily ration of one pound of biscuit, a gallon of
+beer, with two pounds of beef per man four days out of the seven, and a
+proportionate amount of fish on the other three days. Subsequently, and
+just previous to the Armada, the pay of seamen rose to 10/- a month,
+with a view to inducing the better men not to desert.
+
+The regular navy was thus by no means badly provided for as things
+went in those days; while service with “gentlemen adventurers” offered
+attractions to a very considerable potential reserve, and so England
+contained a large population which, from one cause and another, was
+available for sea service. To these circumstances was it due that the
+Spanish Armada, when it came, never had the remotest possibility of
+success. It was doomed to destruction the day that Elizabeth first gave
+favour to the “gentlemen adventurers.”
+
+Of these adventurers the greatest of all was Francis Drake, who in 1577
+made his first long voyage with five ships to the Pacific Ocean. Drake,
+alone, in the _Pelican_, succeeded in reaching the Pacific and carrying
+out his scheme of operations, which--not to put too fine a point on
+it--consisted of acts of piracy pure and simple against the Spaniards.
+He returned to England after an absence of nearly three years, during
+which he circumnavigated the globe.
+
+There is little doubt that Drake in this voyage, and others like him in
+similar expeditions, learned a great deal about the disadvantages of
+small size in ships. Drake, however, learned another thing also. Up to
+this day the crew of a ship had consisted of the captain and a certain
+military element; also the master, who was responsible for a certain
+number of “mariners.” The former were concerned entirely with fighting
+the ship--the latter entirely with manœuvring it.
+
+This system of specialisation, awkward as it appears thus baldly
+stated, may have worked well enough in ordinary practice. It did not
+differ materially from the differentiation between deck hands and the
+engineering departments, which to a greater or less extent is very
+marked in every navy of the present day.
+
+Drake, however, started out with none too many men, and it was not long
+before he lost some of those he had and found himself short-handed.
+His solution of the difficulty is in his famous phrase, “I would have
+the gentlemen haul with the mariners.” How far this was a matter of
+expediency, how far the revelation of a new policy, is a matter of
+opinion. It must certainly have been outside the purview of Elizabeth.
+But out of it gradually came that every English sailor knew how to
+fight his ship and how to sail her too, and this amounted to doubling
+the efficiency of the crew of any ship at one stroke.
+
+Of Drake himself, the following contemporary pen-picture, from a letter
+written by one of his Spanish victims, Don Franciso de Zarate,[7]
+explains almost everything:--
+
+    “He received me favourably, and took me to his room, where he made
+    me seated and said to me: ‘I am a friend to those who speak the
+    truth, that is what will have the most weight with me. What silver
+    or gold does this ship bring?’
+
+    “... We spoke together a great while, until the dinner-hour. He
+    told me to sit beside him and treated me from his dishes, bidding
+    me have no fear, for my life and goods were safe; for which I
+    kissed his hands.
+
+    “This English General is a cousin of John Hawkins; he is the same
+    who, about five years ago, took the port of Nombre de Dios; he is
+    called Francis Drake; a man of some five and thirty years, small of
+    stature and red-bearded, one of the greatest sailors on the sea,
+    both from skill and power of commanding. His ship carried about 400
+    tons, is swift of sail, and of a hundred men, all skilled and in
+    their prime, and all as much experienced in warfare as if they were
+    old soldiers of Italy. Each one, in particular, _takes great pains
+    to keep his arms clean_;[8] he treats them with affection, and
+    they treat him with respect. I endeavoured to find out whether the
+    General was liked, and everyone told me he was adored.”
+
+Less favourable pictures of Drake have been penned, and there is no
+doubt that some of his virtues have been greatly exaggerated. At the
+present day there is perhaps too great a tendency to reverse the
+process. Stripped of romance, many of his actions were petty, while
+those of some of his fellow adventurers merit a harsher name. Hawkins,
+for instance, was hand-in-glove with Spanish smugglers and a slave
+trader. Many of the victories of the Elizabethan “Sea-Kings” were
+really trifling little affairs, magnified into an importance which they
+never possessed.
+
+But, when all is said and done, it is in these men that we find the
+birth of a sea spirit which still lingers on, despite that other
+insular spirit previously referred to--the natural tendency of
+islanders to regard the water itself as a bulwark, instead of the
+medium on which to meet and defeat the enemy.
+
+The Spanish, already considerably incensed by the piratical acts of the
+English “gentlemen adventurers,” presently found a further cause of
+grievance in the assistance rendered by Elizabeth to their revolting
+provinces in the Netherlands. Drake had not returned many years from
+his famous voyage when it became abundantly clear that the Spaniards no
+longer intended quietly to suffer from English interference.
+
+Spain at that time was regarded as the premier naval power of Europe.
+Her superiority was more mythical than actual, for reasons which will
+later on be referred to: however, her commercial oversea activities
+were very great. The wealth which she wrung from the Indies--though
+probably infinitely less than its supposed value--was sufficient to
+enable her to equip considerable naval forces, certainly larger ones
+numerically than any which England alone was able to bring against
+them.
+
+Knowledge of the fact that Spain was preparing the Armada for an attack
+on England, led to the sailing of Drake in April, 1587, with a fleet
+consisting of four large and twenty-six smaller ships, for the hire of
+which the citizens of London were nominally or actually responsible.
+His real instructions are not known, but there is little question that,
+as in all similar expeditions, he started out knowing that his success
+would be approved of, although in the event of any ill-success or
+awkward questions, he would be publicly disavowed.
+
+Reaching Cadiz, he destroyed 100 store ships which he found there;
+and then proceeding to the Tagus, offered battle to the Spanish war
+fleet. The Spanish admiral, however, declined to come out--a fact
+which of itself altogether discredits the popular idea about the vast
+all-powerful ships of Spain, and the little English ships, which,
+in the Armada days, could have done nothing against them but for a
+convenient tempest. On account of this expedition of Drake’s, the
+sailing of the Armada was put off for a year. So far as stopping the
+enterprise was concerned, Drake’s expedition was a failure. Armada
+preparations still went on.
+
+It is by no means to be supposed that the Armada in its conception was
+the foolhardy enterprise that on the face of things it looks to have
+been. The idea of it was first mooted by the Duke of Alva so long ago
+as 1569. In 1583 it became a settled project in the able hands of the
+Marquis of Santa Cruz, who alone among the Spaniards was not more or
+less afraid of the English. In the battle of Tercera in 1583, certain
+ships, which if not English were at any rate supposed to be, had shown
+the white feather. Santa Cruz assumed therefrom that the English were
+easily to be overwhelmed by a sufficiently superior force, and he
+designed a scheme whereby he would use 556 ships and an army of 94,222
+men.
+
+Philip of Spain had other ideas. Having a large army under the Duke
+of Parma in the Netherlands, he proposed that this force should be
+transported thence to England in flat-bottomed boats, while Santa Cruz
+should take with him merely enough ships to hold the Channel, and
+prevent any interference by the English ships with the invasion.
+
+Before the delayed Armada could sail Santa Cruz died; and despite his
+own protestations Medina Sidonia was appointed in Santa Cruz’s place
+to carry out an expedition in which he had little faith or confidence.
+His total force at the outset consisted of 130 ships and 30,493 men. Of
+these ships not more than sixty-two at the outside were warships, and
+some of these did not carry more than half-a-dozen guns.
+
+The main English fighting force consisted of forty-nine warships, some
+of which were little inferior to the Spanish in tonnage, though all
+were much smaller to the eye, as they were built with a lower freeboard
+and without the vast superstructures with which the Spaniards were
+encumbered. As auxiliaries, the English had a very considerable force
+of small ships; also the Dutch fleet in alliance with them.
+
+The guns of the English ships were, generally speaking, heavier,
+all their gunners were well trained, and their portholes especially
+designed to give a considerable arc of fire, whereas the Spanish had
+very indifferent gunners and narrow portholes. The Spaniards themselves
+thoroughly recognised their inferiority in the matter of gunnery,
+and the specific instructions of their admiral were that he was to
+negative this inferiority by engaging at close quarters, and trust to
+destroying the enemy by small-arm fire from his lofty superstructures.
+
+The small portholes of the Spanish ships, which permitted neither of
+training, nor elevation, nor depression, are not altogether to be put
+down to stupidity or neglect of progress, for all that they were mainly
+the result of ultra-conservatism. The gun--as Professor Laughton has
+made clear--was regarded in Spain as a somewhat dishonourable weapon.
+Ideals of “cold steel” held the field. Portholes were kept very small,
+so that enemies relying on musketry should not be able to get the
+advantage that large portholes might supply. To close with the enemy
+and carry by boarding was the be-all and end-all of Spanish ideas
+of naval warfare. When able to employ their own tactics they were
+formidable opponents, though to the English tactics merely so many
+helpless haystacks.
+
+On shore, in England, the coming of the Armada provoked a good deal of
+panic; though the army which Elizabeth raised and reviewed at Tilbury
+was probably got together more with a view to allaying this panic than
+from any expectations that it would be actually required. The views of
+the British seamen on the matter were entirely summed up in Drake’s
+famous jest on Plymouth Hoe, that there was plenty of time to finish
+the game of bowls and settle the Spaniards afterwards!
+
+[Illustration: THE SPANISH ARMADA--1588.]
+
+Yet this very confidence might have led to the undoing of the English.
+The researches of Professor Laughton have made it abundantly clear that
+had Medina Sidonia followed the majority opinion of a council of
+war held off the Lizard, he could and would have attacked the English
+fleet in Plymouth Sound with every prospect of destroying it, because
+there, and there only, did opportunity offer them that prospect of a
+close action upon which their sole chance of success depended. Admiral
+Colomb has elaborated the point still further, with a quotation from
+Monson to the effect that had the Armada had a pilot able to recognise
+the Lizard, which the Spaniards mistook for Ramehead, they might have
+surprised the English fleet at Plymouth. This incident covers the whole
+of what Providence or luck really did for England against the Spanish.
+
+To a certain extent a parallel of our own day exists. When
+Rodjestvensky with the Baltic fleet reached Far Eastern waters, there
+came a day when his cruisers discovered the entire Japanese fleet
+lying in Formosan waters. The Russian admiral ignored them and went
+on towards Vladivostok. The parallel ends here because the “Japanese
+fleet” was merely a collection of dummies intended to mislead him.[9]
+
+The first engagement with the Spanish Armada took place on Sunday,
+June 21st. It was more in the nature of a skirmish than anything else.
+The Spaniards made several vain and entirely ineffectual attempts to
+close with the swifter and handier English vessels. They took care,
+however, to preserve their formation, and so to that extent defeated
+the English tactics, which were to destroy in detail what could not
+be destroyed without heavy loss in the mass. So the Spaniards reached
+Calais on the 27th with a loss of only three large ships.
+
+They there discovered that Parma’s flat-bottomed boats were all
+blockaded by the Dutch, and that any invasion of England was therefore
+entirely out of the question. It must have been perfectly obvious to
+the most sanguine of them by this that they could not force action with
+the swifter English ships, while they could not relieve the blockaded
+boats without being attacked at the outset. In a word, the Armada was
+an obvious failure.
+
+On the night of the 28th, fire ships were sent into the Spanish fleet
+by the English. This, though the damage done was small, brought the
+Spanish to sea, and the next morning they were attacked off Gravelines
+by the English. The battle was hardly of the nature of a fleet action,
+so much as well-designed tactical operations intended to keep the enemy
+on the move. It resulted in the Spaniards losing only seven ships in a
+whole day’s fighting. The only really serious loss that the Spaniards
+sustained was that they were driven into the North Sea, with no
+prospect of returning home except by way of the North of Scotland.
+
+Followed for awhile and harried by a portion of the English fleet,
+which fell upon and destroyed stragglers, the Spaniards were driven
+into what to most of them were unknown waters and uncharted seas. To
+the last the retreating fleet maintained a show of order. Fifty-three
+ships succeeded in returning to Spain.
+
+[Illustration: THE END OF A “GENTLEMAN-ADVENTURER.”--THE
+“REVENGE.”--CAPTURED BY SPANIARDS, 1591.]
+
+Stripped of romance this is the real prosaic history of the defeat
+of the Spanish Armada. The wonder is not that so few Spanish ships
+returned, but that so many did! The loss in Spanish warships proper
+appears to have been little over a dozen all told, and of these not
+more than three at the outside can be attributed to “the winds.”
+
+Havoc was undoubtedly wrought, but the “galleons” which “perished by
+scores” on the Scotch and Irish coasts were mainly the auxiliaries,
+transports, and small fry; the battle fleet proper kept together all
+the time, and with a couple of exceptions the ships reached home
+together as a fleet.[10]
+
+At no time in the advance of the Spanish--probably at no time in the
+retreat either--could the English have engaged close action with any
+certainty of success. Victory was attributable solely and entirely to
+the evolution of a type of ship, fast, speedy and handy, able to hit
+hard, and which had been more or less specially designed with an eye to
+offering a very small target to the clumsily designed Spanish style of
+gun mounting.
+
+It was “history repeating itself” in another way. As Alfred overcame
+the Danes by evolving something superior to the Danish galleys; so,
+in Elizabethan days, there was evolved a type of warship meet for the
+occasion.
+
+From the defeat of the Armada and onwards, English naval operations
+were mainly confined to raiding expeditions against the Spanish coast,
+with a view to checking the collection of any further Armadas. These
+operations were chiefly carried out by the “gentlemen adventurers”; but
+the real Navy itself was maintained and added to, and at the death of
+Elizabeth in 1603, it consisted of forty-two ships, of which the 68-gun
+_Triumph_ of 1,000 tons was the largest. This Navy was relied upon as
+the premier arm in case of any serious trouble.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+THE PERIOD OF THE DUTCH WARS.
+
+
+With the accession of James I peace with Spain came about, but the
+Dutch being ignored in the transaction, out of this there arose that
+ill-feeling and rivalry which was later on to culminate in the Dutch
+wars.
+
+In James I’s reign no naval operations of great importance took place,
+but considerable interest attaches to the despatch of eighteen ships
+(of which six were “King’s Ships”), to Algiers in 1520. This was the
+first appearance of an English squadron in the Mediterranean.
+
+Under James I the numerical force of the Navy declined somewhat.
+The art of shipbuilding, however, made considerable advance.[11] A
+Shipwrights’ Company was established in 1656, and Phineas Pett, as its
+first master, built and designed a 1,400 ton ship named the _Prince
+Royal_. Pett introduced a variety of novelties into his designs,
+and the _Prince Royal_ and her successors were esteemed superior to
+anything set afloat elsewhere at the time.
+
+Here it is desirable to turn aside for a moment in order to realise the
+influences at work behind Phineas Pett. It has ever been the peculiar
+fortune of the Royal Navy--and for that matter of the inchoate “Navy”
+which preceded its establishment--to have had men capable of “looking
+ahead” and forcing the pace in such a way that new conditions were
+prepared for when they arrived.
+
+Of such a nature, each in his own way, were King Alfred, King John,
+Richard III, and Henry VII, but greater than any of these was Sir
+Walter Raleigh, whose visions in the days of Elizabeth and James I ran
+so clearly and so far that even now we cannot be said to have left him
+behind where “principles” are concerned. Drake was the national hero of
+Elizabethan days, but in utility to the future, Raleigh was a greater
+than he, albeit his best service was of the “armchair” kind.
+
+The following extracts from Raleigh’s writings, except for geographical
+and political differences, stand as true to-day as when he wrote them
+about 300 years ago. The idea of a main fleet, backed up by smaller
+vessels, the idea of meeting the enemy on the water and so forth, are
+commonplaces now, but in Raleigh’s time they were quite otherwise. The
+italicised portions in particular indicate quite clearly in Elizabethan
+words the naval policy of to-day.
+
+    “Another benefit which we received by this preparation was, that
+    _our men were now taught suddenly to arm, every man knowing his
+    command, and how to be commanded_, which before they were ignorant
+    of; and who knows not that sudden and false alarms in any army are
+    sometimes necessary? To say the truth, the expedition which was
+    then used in drawing together so great an army by land, and rigging
+    so great and royal a navy to sea, in so little a space of time, was
+    so admirable in other countries, that they received a terror by it;
+    and many that came from beyond the seas said _the Queen was never
+    more dreaded abroad for anything she ever did_.
+
+    “Frenchmen that came aboard our ships did wonder (as at a thing
+    incredible) that Her Majesty had rigged, victualled, and furnished
+    her royal ships to sea in twelve days’ time; and Spain, as an
+    enemy, had reason to fear and grieve to see this sudden preparation.
+
+    “It is not the meanest mischief we shall do to the King of Spain,
+    if we thus war upon him, to force him to keep his shores still
+    armed and guarded, to the infinite vexation, charge and discontent
+    of his subjects; for no time or place can secure them so long as
+    they see or know us to be upon that coast.
+
+    “The sequel of all these actions being duly considered, we may be
+    confident that _whilst we busy the Spaniard at home, they dare not
+    think of invading England or Ireland_; for by their absence their
+    fleet from the Indies may be endangered[12] and in their attempts
+    they have as little hope of prevailing.
+
+    “Surely I hold that the _best way is to keep our enemies from
+    treading upon our ground: wherein, if we fail, then_ must we seek
+    to make him wish that he had stayed at his own home. In such
+    a case, if it should happen, our judgments are to weigh many
+    particular circumstances, that belong not to this discourse. But
+    making the question general, _the position, whether England,
+    without that it is unable to do so_: and, therefore, I think it
+    most dangerous to make the adventure. For the encouragements of a
+    first victory to an enemy, and the discouragement of being beaten
+    to the invaded, may draw after it a most perilous consequence.
+
+    “Great difference, I know there is, and diverse consideration to be
+    had, between such a country as France is, strengthened with many
+    fortified places, and this of ours, where our ramparts are but the
+    bodies of men. But I say that an army to be transported over sea,
+    and to be landed again in an enemy’s country, and the place left
+    to the choice of the invader _cannot be resisted on the coast of
+    England without a fleet to impeach it; no, nor on the coast of
+    France, or any other country, except every creek, port, or sandy
+    bay had a powerful army in each of them to make opposition.... For
+    there is no man ignorant that ships, without putting themselves out
+    of breath, will easily outrun the soldiers that coast them_.[13]
+
+    “Whosoever were the inventors, we find that every age hath added
+    somewhat to ships, and to all things else. And in mine own time the
+    shape of our English ships hath been greatly bettered. It is not
+    long since the striking of the topmast (a wonderful ease to great
+    ships, both at sea and in harbour) hath been devised, together
+    with the chain pump, which takes up twice as much water as the
+    ordinary did. We have lately added the Bonnet and the Drabler.
+    To the courses we have devised studding-sails, topgallant-masts,
+    spritsails, topsails. The weighing of anchors by the capstone is
+    also new. We have fallen into consideration of the lengths of
+    cable, and by it we resist the malice of the greatest winds that
+    can blow. Witness our small Millbroke men of Cornwall, that ride it
+    out at anchor half seas over between England and Ireland, all the
+    winter quarter. And witness the Hollanders that were wont to ride
+    before Dunkirk with the wind at north-west, making a lee-shoar in
+    all weathers. For true it is, that the length of the cable is the
+    life of the ship, riding at length, is not able to stretch it; and
+    nothing breaks that is not stretched in extremity. We carry our
+    ordnance better than we were wont, because our nether over-loops
+    are raised commonly from the water, to wit, between the lower part
+    of the sea.
+
+    “In King Henry VIII time, and in his presence at Portsmouth, the
+    Mary Rose, by a little sway of the ship in tacking about, her ports
+    being within sixteen inches of the water, was overset and lost.
+
+    “We have also raised our second decks, and given more vent thereby
+    to our ordnance lying on our nether-loop. We have added cross
+    pillars[14] in our royal ships to strengthen them, which be
+    fastened from the keels on to the beam of the second deck to keep
+    them from setting or from giving way in all distresses.
+
+    “We have given longer floors to our ships than in elder times, and
+    better bearing under water, whereby they never fall into the sea
+    after the head and shake the whole body, nor sink astern, nor stoop
+    upon a wind, by which the breaking loose of our ordnance, or of the
+    not use of them, with many other discommodities are avoided.
+
+    “And, to say the truth, a miserable shame and dishonour it were for
+    our shipwrights if they did not exceed all others in the setting
+    up of our Royal ships, _the errors of other nations being far more
+    excusable than ours_. For the Kings of England have for many years
+    _being at the charge to build and furnish a navy of powerful ships
+    for their own defence, and for the wars only. Whereas the_ French,
+    the Spaniards, the Portuguese, and the Hollanders (till of late)
+    _have had no proper fleet belonging to their Princes or States._
+    Only the Venetians for a long time have maintained their arsenal of
+    gallies. And the Kings of Denmark and Sweden have had good ships
+    for these last fifty years.
+
+    “I say that the aforenamed Kings, especially the Spaniards and
+    Portugals, have ships of great bulk, but fitter for the merchant
+    than for the man-of-war, for burthen than for _battle_. But
+    as Popelimire well observeth, ‘the forces of Princes by sea
+    are marques de grandeur d’estate--marks of the greatness of an
+    estate--for _whosoever commands the sea, commands the trade;
+    whosoever commands the trade of the world commands the riches of
+    the world, and consequently the world itself_.’
+
+    “Yet, can I not deny but that the Spaniards, being afraid of their
+    Indian fleets, have built some few very good ships; _but he hath no
+    ships in garrison_, as His Majesty hath; and to say the truth, no
+    sure place to keep them in, but in all invasions he is driven to
+    take up of all nations which come into his ports for trade....
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    “But there’s no estate grown in haste but that of the United
+    Provinces, and especially in their sea forces, and by a contrary
+    way to that of Spain and France; the latter by invasion, the former
+    by oppression. For I myself may remember _when one ship of Her
+    Majesty’s would have made forty Hollanders strike sail and come to
+    an anchor_. They did not then dispute de Mari Libero, but readily
+    acknowledged the English to be Domini Maria Britannici. That we are
+    less powerful than we were, I do hardly believe it; for, although
+    we have not at this time 135 ships belonging to the subject of
+    500 tons each ship, as it is said we had in the twenty-fourth
+    year of Queen Elizabeth; at which time also, upon a general view
+    and muster, there were found in England of able men fit to bear
+    arms, 1,172,000, yet are our merchant ships now far more warlike
+    and better appointed than they were, and the Navy royal double as
+    strong as it then was. For these were the ships of Her Majesty’s
+    Navy at that time:
+
+           1. The Triumph
+           2. The Elizabeth Jonas
+           3. The White Bear
+           4. The Philip and Mary
+           5. The Bonadventure
+           6. The Golden Lyon
+           7. The Victory
+           8. The Revenge
+           9. The Hope
+          10. The Mary Rose
+          11. The Dreadnought
+          12. The Minion
+          13. The Swiftsure
+
+    to which there have been added:--
+
+          14. The Antilope
+          15. The Foresight
+          16. The Swallow
+          17. The Handmaid
+          18. The Jennett
+          19. The Bark of Ballein
+          20. The Ayde
+          21. The Achates
+          22. The Falcon
+          23. The Tyger
+          24. The Bull
+
+    “We have not, therefore, less force than we had, the fashion, and
+    furnishing of our ships considered, for there are in England at
+    this time 400 sail or merchants, and fit for the wars, which the
+    Spaniards would call galleons; to which we may add 200 sail of
+    crumsters, or hoyes of Newcastle, which, each of them, will bear
+    six Demi-culverins and four Sakers, needing no other addition of
+    building than a slight spar deck fore and aft, as the seamen call
+    it, which is a slight deck throughout....
+
+    “I say, then, if a vanguard be ordained of those hoyes, who will
+    easily recover the wind of any other sort of ships, with a battle
+    of 400 other warlike ships, and a rear of thirty of His Majesty’s
+    ships to sustain, relieve, and countenance the rest (if God beat
+    them not) I know not what strength can be gathered in all Europe
+    to beat them. And if it be objected that the States can furnish a
+    far greater number, I answer that His Majesty’s forty ships, added
+    to the 600 beforenamed, are of incomparable greater force than all
+    that Holland and Zealand can furnish for the wars. As also, that
+    a greater number would breed the same confusion that was found in
+    Xerxes’ land army of 1,700,000 soldiers; _for there is a certain
+    proportion, both by sea and land, beyond which the excess brings
+    nothing but disorder and amazement_.”
+
+I have quoted from Raleigh at considerable length--a length which may
+seem to some out of all proportion to the general historical scheme of
+this work. But of the three possible “founders of the British Navy,”
+King Alfred by legend, King Henry VII by force of circumstances, and
+Sir Walter Raleigh, Knight, by his realisation of certain eternal
+verities of naval warfare, the palm goes best to Raleigh, to whose
+precepts it was mainly due that England did not succumb to Holland in
+the days of the Dutch wars. Compared to the struggle with the Dutch,
+neither the Spanish wars, which preceded them, nor the great French
+wars which followed, were of any like importance as regarded the
+relative risks and dangers. And the interest is the greater in that
+where the United Provinces were, about and just after Raleigh’s time,
+Germany stands towards the British Navy to-day.
+
+In 1618 the Duke of Buckingham was appointed Lord High Admiral and
+continued in that position after the accession of Charles I. Of the
+incapacity of the Duke much has been written, but whatever may be said
+in connection with various unsuccessful oversea enterprises, for which
+he was officially responsible, naval shipbuilding under his régime made
+very considerable progress.
+
+Things were quite otherwise, however, with the _personnel_. Abuses of
+every sort and kind crept in unchecked, and the men were the first to
+feel the pinch. The unscrupulous contractor appeared, and with him the
+era of offal foods and all kinds of similar abuses, of which many have
+lasted well into our own time, and some exist still. The money allotted
+for the men of the fleet became the prey of every human vulture, the
+officers, as a rule, being privy thereunto. Besides food, clothing also
+fell into the hands of contractors who supplied shoddy at ridiculously
+high prices, with the commission to officers stopped out of the men’s
+pay.
+
+Pay, nominally, rose a good deal, and in 1653 reached twenty-four
+shillings a month for the seaman, but the figures (approximately equal
+in purchasing value to the pay of to-day) convey nothing. The men were
+half-starved, or worse, on uneatable food, and their clothing was such
+that they went about in rags and died like rats in their misery.
+
+The first naval event in Charles I’s reign is mainly of interest
+because of the peculiar personal circumstances that attended it. One
+King’s ship and six hired ships were despatched, nominally to assist
+the French against the Genoese. On arriving at Dieppe, however, the
+English officers and men discovered that they were really to be used
+against the revolted French Protestants of La Rochelle. This being
+against their taste, they returned to the Downs and reported themselves
+to the King. They were ordered to sail again for La Rochelle. One
+captain, however, point blank refused to do so. The other ships went,
+but the officers and men, with a single exception, having handed their
+ships over to the French, returned to England.
+
+Little or nothing seems to have been done in the way of punishment to
+the mutineers (possibly on account of public opinion). But the incident
+sheds an interesting sidelight on the state of the Navy at the time. It
+is hardly to be conceived that the Army at the same period could have
+acted in similar fashion with equal impunity.
+
+[Illustration: PHINEAS PETT, 1570–1647.
+
+From the contemporary portrait by William Dobson in the National
+Portrait Gallery.]
+
+The history of the British Navy of this period is the history of a
+navy lacking in discipline, and its officers divided against each
+other. Such expeditions as were undertaken against France and Spain
+signally failed. It is usual to attribute these failures to the
+mal-administration of the Duke of Buckingham, an unpopular figure.
+But whether this is just or not is another matter. The entire Navy
+was rotten to the core in its _personnel_. But Buckingham’s share in
+it would seem to have been inability to understand rather than direct
+carelessness.
+
+Under the Duke’s régime the building of efficient warships continued
+to progress. The “ship money,” which was to cause so much trouble
+inland later, is outside the scope of this work, save in so far
+as its direct naval aspect is concerned. This, of course, was the
+principle that inland places benefited from sea defence quite as much
+as seaside districts. A great deal of the money was undoubtedly spent
+on shipbuilding; indeed, some of the trouble lay over alleged (and
+seemingly obvious) excessive expenditure on the “Dreadnought” of the
+period, Phineas Pett’s _Royal Sovereign_, a ship altogether superior
+to anything before built in England, and the first three-decker ever
+constructed in this country. She was laid down in 1635 and launched in
+1657. An immense amount of gilding and carving about her irritated the
+economically minded, but it is questionable whether the objections were
+well informed.
+
+Just about this time elaborate ornamentations of warships was the
+“vogue,” and it carried moral effect accordingly. What to the
+uninitiated landsmen merely spelt “waste of money on unnecessary
+display” spelt something else to those who went across the seas.
+Even in our own present utilitarian days a fresh coat of paint to a
+warship has been found to have a political value; and fireworks and
+illuminations (seemingly pure waste of money) have played their share
+in helping to preserve the peace.
+
+John Hampden, according to his lights, was a patriot, and according
+to the purely political questions with which he was concerned he may
+also have been; but on the naval issue of Ship Money he was little more
+or less than the First Little Englander, and hampered by just that
+same inability to see beyond his nose which characterised the modern
+Little Englander who protested against “bloated naval expenditure.” The
+intentions were excellent--the intelligence circumscribed.
+
+A contemporary account of the _Royal Sovereign_ is as follows:--
+
+    “Her length by the keele is 128 foote or thereabout, within some
+    few inches; her mayne breadth or wideness from side to side, 48
+    foote; her utmost length from the fore-end to the stern, _a prova
+    ad pupin_, 232 foote. Shee is in height, from the bottom of her
+    keele to the top of her lanthorne, 76 foote; she beareth five
+    lanthornes, the biggest of which will hold ten persons to stand
+    upright, and without shouldering or pressing one on the other.
+
+    “Shee hath three flush deckes and a forecastle, an halfe decke,
+    a quarter-decke, and a round house. Her lower tyre hath thirty
+    ports, which are to be furnished with demi-cannon and whole
+    cannon, throughout being able to beare them; her middle tyre
+    hath also thirty ports for demi-culverin and whole culverin;
+    her third tyre hath twentie sixe ports for other ordnance; her
+    forecastle hath twelve ports, and her halfe decke hath fourteen
+    ports; she hath thirteene or fourteene ports more within board
+    for murdering-pieces, besides a great many loope-holes out of the
+    cabins for musket shot. Shee carrieth, moreover, ten pieces of
+    chase ordnance in her right forward, and ten right off, according
+    to lande service in the front and the reare. Shee carrieth eleven
+    anchores, one of them weighing foure thousand foure hundred pounds;
+    and according to these are her cables, mastes, sayles, cordage.”
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                                                          _Ex. Fincham._
+
+THE _ROYAL SOVEREIGN_.
+
+The dotted lines represent a ship of the time of 1850.]
+
+It remains to add that the ship was extraordinarily well built. She
+fought many a battle and survived some fifty years, and then only
+perished because, when laid up for refit in 1696, she was accidentally
+burned. And about sixty-three years ago (1852) naval architects still
+alluded to her with respect, nor did their designs differ from her very
+materially.
+
+Wherever and however Charles I and the Duke of Buckingham failed, their
+shipbuilding policy cannot but command both respect and admiration.
+It is the curious irony of fate that--excepting King Alfred, and
+also Queen Elizabeth--it is the Sovereigns of England with black
+marks against them who ever did most for the Navy or understood its
+importance. And understanding what the Navy meant, generally secured
+these marks at the hands of some quite well meaning but intellectually
+circumscribed prototype or successor of John Hampden, to whom “meeting
+the enemy on the water” was an entirely indigestible theory, and a
+waste of money into the bargain. There is no question whatever that
+to them the sea appeared a natural rampart and ships upon it pure
+superfluity, save in so far as inconvenience to the shore counties
+might result. Later on, Cromwell, of course, acted on a different
+principle--but Cromwell was an Imperialist. Hampden was merely the
+“Insular Spirit” personified.
+
+In 1639, a naval incident occurred which goes to discredit the popular
+idea of the impotence of the British Navy under Charles I, whatever its
+internal condition. Naval operations were in progress between Holland
+and France on the one side, and Spain on the other. The British fleet
+was fitted out under Sir John Pennington (that same Pennington who had
+commanded the squadron which refused to attack La Rochelle) with orders
+to maintain British neutrality.
+
+The Spanish fleet took refuge from the Dutch in the Downs, whereupon
+Pennington informed the rival admirals that he should attack whichever
+of them violated the neutrality of an English harbour. The Spanish
+having fired upon the Dutch, the Dutch Admiral Van Tromp applied to
+Pennington for permission to attack the Downs. This was given, and the
+bulk of the Spanish fleet destroyed. The incident suggests that the
+English fleet was recognised as a neutral able to enforce its orders
+against all and sundry.
+
+In connection with this, it is interesting to record the existence of
+a naval medal of the period, bearing the motto: “_Nec meta mihi quae
+terminus orbi_”--a free translation of which would be, “Nothing limits
+me but the size of the World.” However short practice may have fallen,
+Charles and his advisers had undoubtedly grasped the theory of “Sea
+Power.”
+
+
+_THE CIVIL WAR._
+
+When the Civil war began in 1642, the regular fleet consisted of
+forty-two ships. It was seized by the Parliamentarians and put under
+the Earl of Warwick, who held command for six years. With his fleet he
+very effectually patrolled the Channel, rendering abortive all over-sea
+attempts to assist the King with arms and ammunition.
+
+On Warwick being superseded in 1648, the fleet mutinied, and seventeen
+ships sailed for Holland to join Prince Charles; but upon Warwick being
+reinstated the bulk of the fleet returned to its allegiance to the
+Parliamentarians. That the Parliamentarians were fully alive to the
+importance of naval power is evidenced by the fact that they seized
+every opportunity to lay down new ships; and “Parliament” once in power
+made it very clear indeed that the Sovereignty of the Seas would be
+upheld at all costs.
+
+
+_THE FIRST DUTCH WAR._
+
+Some forty years before, Sir Walter Raleigh, discussing the rise of
+the Dutch United Provinces, remarked: “But be their estate what it
+will, let them not deceive themselves in believing that they can make
+themselves masters of the sea.” He advised the Dutch to remember that
+their inward and outward passages were through British seas. There were
+but two courses open to the Dutch: amity with England or destruction of
+English naval power.
+
+Since both nations had large commercial fleets, rivalries were
+inevitable; and for some long while previous to 1652, both sides were
+ready enough for a quarrel. Minor acts of hostility occurred. The Dutch
+failed to pay the annual tax for fishing in British waters. In May,
+1652, a Dutch squadron refused to pay respect to the English flag. It
+was fired on accordingly, and after some negotiations, war was declared
+two months later.
+
+The war is interesting because it saw an end to the old ideas of
+cross-raiding with ships regarded primarily as transports in connection
+with raids or to cover such. In this war fighting on the sea for the
+command of the sea first made a distinct appearance. Its birth was
+necessarily obscure and involved, both sides having the primary idea
+of attacking the commerce of the enemy and defending their own, rather
+than of attacking the enemy’s fleet. The earlier battles which took
+place were brought about by the defence of merchant fleets.
+
+None of the battles of 1652 were conclusive, and though marked with
+extraordinary determination on both sides the damage done was,
+relatively speaking, small. The general advantage for the year rested
+slightly with the Dutch, mainly owing to Tromp’s victory over Blake,
+who was found in considerably inferior force in the Downs.
+
+In February of the following year Tromp, with a fleet of seventy
+warships and a convoy of 250 merchant ships, some of which were armed,
+met Blake with sixty-six sail in the famous Three Days’ Battle.
+
+In the course of this fight the Dutch lost at least eight warships, and
+a number of merchant-men variously estimated at from twenty-four to
+forty. The English admitted to the loss of only one ship. At the end of
+the third day, however, Blake drew off, and the Dutch admiral got what
+was left of his convoy into harbour.
+
+Oliver Cromwell being now in full power, naval preparations were
+pressed forward with unexampled vigour, and on June 2nd an English
+fleet of ninety-five sail under Monk and Deane met Van Tromp and forced
+him to retreat. Reinforced by Blake with eighteen more ships the
+English fleet renewed the battle, ultimately driving Van Tromp into
+harbour with the loss of several ships.
+
+On the 29th July the Dutch ran the blockade and came out. On the 31st a
+battle began in which Van Tromp was killed, and the Dutch with the loss
+of many ships driven into the Texel.
+
+The English fleet, though it lost few ships, appears to have been badly
+mauled in this final battle, on account of which the Dutch claimed a
+victory.
+
+[Illustration: BLAKE AND TROMP. PERIOD OF THE DUTCH WARS.]
+
+In the following month the Dutch fleet again came out, and under De
+Witt took one convoy to the Sound and brought another back without
+interference. Just afterwards, however, their fleet was so severely
+injured by a tremendous three days’ gale that further naval operations
+were out of the question. Overtures for peace were therefore made, and
+concluded.
+
+The types of English warships in this first Dutch war are given in
+Pepys’ Miscellany as follows:--
+
+  =====================================================================
+        |             | Length |Breadth.|Depth. |Burthen|Highest No. of
+  Rate. |    Name.    |of Keel.|        |       | Tons. +--------------
+        |             |   ft.  |ft. in. |ft. in.|       | Men.  | Guns.
+  ------+-------------+--------+--------+-------+-------+-------+------
+  First |_Sovereign_  |  127   |46   6  |19   4 | 1141  |  600  |  100
+  Second|_Fairfax_    |  116   |34   9  |17   4½|  745  |  260  |   52
+  Third |_Worcester_  |  112   |32   8  |16   4 |  661  |  180  |   46
+  Fourth|_Ruby_       |  105½  |31   6  |15   9 |  556  |  150  |   40
+  Fifth |_Nightingale_|   88   |25   4  |12   8 |  300  |   90  |   24
+  Sixth |_Greyhound_  |   60   |20   3  |10   0 |  120  |   80  |   18
+  =====================================================================
+
+The principal Dutch vessels were conspicuously inferior to the best of
+these English ones, and the war may be said to have been considerably
+decided by ship superiority. In the peace that followed--which was
+really very little better than an armed truce--the Dutch set themselves
+to build warships more on English lines. And, as we shall presently
+see, they evolved from the war,[15] future strategies based on its
+lessons.
+
+Considering the number of battles and the desperate nature of them, it
+is perhaps curious to note the relatively small amount of damage done.
+With the advent of the porthole and the consequent multiplication of
+guns a hundred and fifty years before, it had seemed that any naval
+engagement must result in swift mutual destruction. Much the same kind
+of idea obtained as when at the end of 1910 a squadron of Dreadnoughts
+almost instantly obliterated a target five miles off. But as in the
+Armada fights, so in this First Dutch War, an immense amount of
+fighting was done with comparatively, and relatively to what might have
+been anticipated, small harm on either side.
+
+This result is partly to be attributed to the fact that defence
+increased with offence. The warship proper was designed to stand
+hammering, and every increase in size, involving increased gun-carrying
+capacity, involved also increased strength of construction. Something
+may also be put down to the very inferior artillery then in use, and
+the great deal of boarding which took place.
+
+There is some reason to believe that Cromwell, with his complete
+recognition of the advantages of naval power, with his assiduous
+energy in the creation of a strong fleet, recognised--as perhaps both
+Buckingham and Phineas Pett had done before--the advantages of the “big
+ship.” Yet under his rule no appreciable advance in size took place.
+Nor, for that matter, did it take place any time within a hundred and
+fifty years later on.
+
+The reason is interesting. It was purely a matter of trees. The length
+of a ship was circumscribed by the height of trees; other dimensions
+by similar hard facts. The beam was dependent on the ship’s length;
+while the draught was governed by the harbours and docking facilities.
+It is doubtful whether any man ever sought to solve the problem of an
+invincible navy with more energy than Oliver Cromwell; yet under his
+rule nothing in the way of improvement was evolved at all comparable
+with the step taken with the _Royal Sovereign_ under the weaker Charles
+Stuart--Buckingham régime. The limitations of the tree proved the
+limitations of the ship.
+
+When Cromwell died, his record was left in numbers. The Navy at his
+death consisted of 157 ships. His architectural improvements were but a
+new form of bottoms.[16]
+
+Oliver Cromwell had not been long dead when the Navy--then under
+Monk--decided to restore the Monarchy. It sailed to Holland, embarked
+Charles II and James, Duke of York, and established Charles on the
+throne without opposition. Monk is popularly regarded as a political
+time-server. But in his change of sides he made one very important
+stipulation: that Charles was to pledge himself to the upkeep of the
+fleet. The fleet accomplished the Restoration. The bulk of evidence is
+that it did so with little regard for any issue other than the naval
+one.
+
+
+_THE SECOND DUTCH WAR._
+
+The second Dutch War broke out in 1665. As usual a state of unofficial
+war had preceded it. Both sides, having thought over the first war, had
+come to the conclusion that protecting their own merchant ships and
+attacking those of the enemy at one and the same time was an impossible
+proposition.
+
+Both officially ordered their merchant ships to keep inside harbour;
+but in both nations there were traders who took their own risks at sea
+and found warships handy to protect them. None the less, this war is
+of much importance as the first in which the command of the sea, fleet
+against fleet, received general recognition.
+
+The battles themselves of this war are of little interest. They were
+marked by that same equality of courage and determination which was an
+outstanding feature of the First War. Slight early English successes
+led to little but attacks on merchant shipping; then the Great Plague
+paralysed English efforts. The Dutch got to the mouth of the Thames,
+but a sudden sickness among their crews scared them off after a sixteen
+days’ blockade.
+
+Following this the French took side with the Dutch; but inconclusive
+fighting still resulted, till the Dutch, imagining that they had done
+better than they really had, found themselves engaged in the battle of
+the North Foreland.
+
+Defeated in this they retired to Ostend, and the English scored on
+their trade by landing operations and harbour attacks, the result of
+which Admiral Colomb has estimated as proportionately equivalent to
+sixty-six million pounds’ worth of damage at the present day! But it
+was conceded on the English side (_vide_ Pepys) that it was mainly a
+matter of luck that this immense blow was struck.
+
+Shortly after this event, the Insular spirit asserted itself with what
+in these days is known as “Economy and Efficiency.” The Duke of York
+(afterwards James II) opposed it, but it was generally carried that
+the Dutch were defeated, and that a few economical fortifications
+would save the country against any further Dutch danger. No one having
+knowledge of the Dutch agreed. Indeed, the situation was precisely the
+same as when a few years ago the British Government cut down the Naval
+Programme. Charles II, peace talk being in the air, cut down expenses
+probably for his own ends; British Governments of the 1906–1907 era cut
+down with a view to expending the saving on “social reforms.” But the
+practical results were identical. The Dutch in their era did what the
+Germans did in our own--met the decrease by an increase. They omitted
+to consider the ethics involved; they looked merely after their own
+ends. The result was a great Dutch attack on the Thames, which, though
+not so serious as the similar previous English attack on them, produced
+an enormous amount of mischief.
+
+That the Dutch did not bombard London itself was purely a matter of
+contrary winds and luck. They did destroy numerous new warships on
+the river, and Sheerness fell entirely into their hands. “Dutch guns
+were heard in London”--to quote the popular histories. Actually luck
+favoured the English, and diplomacy secured a peace which the reduced
+fleet could never have achieved. The pen, for the moment, proved
+mightier than the sword. England obtained thereby a peace favourable
+to her, while the Dutch secured a breathing space to enable them to
+prepare for the Third Dutch War, which, had the Second been carried to
+its end against them, would never have occurred.
+
+
+_THE THIRD DUTCH WAR._
+
+This War also began in the usual way--irregular attacks on commerce,
+without any declaration of war, and in March, 1672, an English Squadron
+wrecked havoc on the Dutch Indiamen. As in the Second War, the Dutch
+after this prohibited their merchant ships from proceeding to sea.
+No such prohibition took effect in England, where the merchant navy
+rapidly increased.
+
+In the Second War the French were the allies of the Dutch. In the
+Third, they joined in with the English. In both cases their underlying
+political motive appears to have been to egg Great Britain and the
+Dutch on to mutual destruction. The assistance actually obtained by
+the Dutch from the French in the Second War was a minus quantity, and
+though in the Third, French ships actually joined the English fleet,
+the advantage therefrom ended there.
+
+The allied fleet, under the command of the Duke of York, consisted
+of sixty-five English and thirty-six French warships, twenty-two
+fire ships, and a number of small craft. This fleet lay at Sole Bay
+(Southwold on the Suffolk coast). Here they were surprised by De Ruyter
+with ninety-one men of war, forty-four fire ships, and a number of
+small craft.
+
+The _Royal James_, flagship of the Earl of Sandwich, who commanded one
+of the two divisions of the English Fleet, was attacked and destroyed
+by fire-ships, and the Earl was drowned in attempting to escape. The
+French Squadron under D’Estrées fell back and took little part in the
+fight. None the less, however, victory rested with the English, and the
+Dutch retreated to their own coasts, and were blockaded in the Texel.
+On shore the Dutch were badly pressed by the French armies, their naval
+energies being restricted accordingly.
+
+With the approach of winter, the Allied fleet was broken up and
+returned to its harbours. In the early part of the following year,
+the Dutch conceived the project of blocking the English fleet in the
+Thames, and prepared eight ships full of stones with that object in
+view. This appears to have been the first instance of a device similar
+to that more recently unsuccessfully undertaken by the Americans, at
+Santiago de Cuba, in the Spanish-American War, and by the Japanese,
+at Port Arthur, in the Russo-Japanese War. The Dutch attack was never
+actually made; presumably circumstances did not admit of it. In the
+view of Admiral Colomb, it was frustrated by the English fleet putting
+to sea at an earlier date than had been expected.
+
+The Allied fleet formed a junction off Rye, in May. It consisted
+altogether of eighty-four men-of-war, twenty-six fire-ships and
+auxiliaries. The English divisions were commanded by Prince Rupert and
+Spragge. The third division was under D’Estrées as before, but in order
+to avoid a repetition of what had happened at Sole Bay, the French
+ships were distributed in all three divisions of the fleet, instead of
+in a single division as they previously had been.
+
+Having embarked a number of troops, the Allies sailed for Zealand,
+and found the Dutch fleet concentrating at the mouth of the Scheldt.
+It consisted of about seventy men-of-war, under De Ruyter, Tromp and
+Bankert. For some days, owing to fog and bad weather, no fighting was
+possible; but on the 28th of May, the Dutch weighed anchor and a battle
+of the usual sort took place, both sides claiming victory. The loss
+of life in the Allied fleet, crowded as it was with troops, was very
+heavy, and no attempt was made to follow up the Dutch, who had retired
+inside the mouth of the river.
+
+On the 4th of June, the Dutch fleet again came out. The English retired
+before it. An entirely inconclusive action eventually resulted, after
+which each fleet returned to harbour.
+
+Having embarked a number of fresh troops at Sheerness, the Allies again
+put to sea and appeared on the Dutch coast. No landing was, however,
+attempted; and on the 10th of August the final battle took place. The
+French fleet on this occasion was allowed to act by itself, and, as
+before, drew off and left the English to shift for themselves. Spragge,
+having had two flagships disabled, was drowned in moving to a third,
+and victory, such as it was, went to the Dutch. No further battles took
+place, and in 1664 peace was concluded.
+
+The net result of these three wars was in favour of the English, but
+mainly on the trade issue.
+
+At the beginning of the First, the Dutch had by far the larger merchant
+shipping. At the end of the Third, the proportion was reversed.
+
+Although tactics, as we understand them, cannot be said to have been
+employed, certain definite war lessons were undoubtedly learned. It
+came to be thoroughly believed that the principal use of a fleet was to
+attack the fleet of the enemy; and on that account these wars are an
+important feature of English naval history.
+
+Following the conclusion of peace, the English Navy was entirely
+neglected, and the condition of the ships became so bad that in 1679 a
+Commission was appointed and thirty new ships were laid down. But the
+majority of these ships, having been launched, were allowed to decay;
+Charles II’s early interest in the fleet having become a dead letter in
+his later years.
+
+When James II came to the throne in 1685, he appointed another Special
+Commission, and the repair of the Navy was systematically undertaken.
+The _personnel_, however, was neglected. It remained in a very
+dissatisfied state, and tacitly agreed to his deposition.
+
+At the abdication of James II, in December, 1688, the Navy consisted
+of 173 ships, manned by 42,003 men, and carrying 6,930 guns. Of these
+ships, nine were first-rate, 11 second, 39 third, 41 fourth, 3 fifth,
+and 6 sixth. There were 26 fire-ships and 39 small craft. The best of
+the first-rates in those days was the _Britannia_. She was of 1,739
+tons, carried 100 guns and a crew of 780 men. Her length was 146 feet,
+her beam 47 feet 4 inches, and her draught 20 feet. The second-rate
+ships were 90 gun-vessels, third-rate 70 guns, and fourth-rate 54.
+
+During James II’s reign, bomb vessels were first introduced and regular
+establishments of stores were instituted. It is somewhat difficult to
+assess how far naval progress was actually indebted to this, the first
+King of England who was a naval officer, and how far to the efforts
+of a determined few who realised the absolute importance of naval
+power. Probably of James I, as of all the Stuarts,[17] it may be said
+that they realised the principle, but required pressing to act upon
+it. To thus acting may be traced the unpopularity of at least some of
+the Stuarts--there are practically no signs that the nation generally
+understood the importance of a powerful Navy. All the indications are
+in a contrary direction.
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+THE EARLY FRENCH WARS.
+
+
+The accession of William of Orange and the French support of James
+soon brought about a war. Early in 1689 James invaded Ireland with
+French ships and men. He did sufficiently well there for a considerable
+English army to be employed against him, and in the summer of 1690,
+William himself went over to take command, leaving Queen Mary as Regent
+with little save the militia as military defence and a more or less
+unprepared fleet.
+
+A Jacobite rising in England was planned. In conjunction with it the
+French proposed to hold the Channel in superior force to cover the
+landing of troops in England, and then, by a blockade in the Irish
+Channel, prevent the return of King William and his army. The attitude
+of the English fleet was uncertain--a strong Jacobite element being in
+it--and the scheme was generally a very promising one for the French.
+
+A personal appeal from Queen Mary is said to have secured the
+allegiance of the English fleet: but in everything else the subsequent
+French failure was due only to luck and the wisdom of the British
+Admiral, Lord Torrington.
+
+It was more or less realised that the French would concentrate at
+Brest. Squadrons were sent out to interfere with this, but convoys
+and the like bulked largely in their orders. There is not the remotest
+indication that the Home Government appreciated the danger, which ended
+in Torrington finding himself opposed by a greatly superior French
+fleet, which he was ordered to fight at all costs.
+
+Therefrom ensued the battle of Beachy Head, a defeat and a “strategical
+retirement to the rear” for which Torrington was subsequently
+court-martialled and acquitted. He alone appears to have realised that
+his defeat would have meant the success of the French plans, while
+so long as he could avoid action the threat of his existence must
+interfere with invasion.
+
+The French movements throughout were somewhat obscure. On the 25th
+June, according to Torrington, they might have attacked him but did not
+do so. When the battle took place on the 30th, it was Torrington who
+attacked. In the subsequent retreat, the French pursued for four days,
+but did so in line of battle and without much energy. They captured or
+destroyed five disabled ships, but of real following up of the victory
+there was none.
+
+The Anglo-Dutch fleet took shelter at the Nore; but the French drew off
+at Dover, and sailing west attacked Teignmouth and then returned to
+Brest. Their failure to follow up and destroy Torrington has never been
+satisfactorily explained.
+
+The panic which they had created in England bore early fruit. Thirty
+new ships were laid down. Of these seventeen were eighty-gun ships of
+1000 tons, three were 1050 tons but carried seventy guns only, the
+remaining ten, sixty-gun ships of 900 tons.
+
+In 1692 another Jacobite rising was planned, and a French army
+collected to assist it. Taught by the experience of Beachy Head the
+Anglo-Dutch fleet concentrated early. It consisted of no less than
+ninety-eight ships of the line,[18] besides frigates and auxiliaries,
+the whole being under command of Russell. A descent upon St. Malo was
+the principal objective contemplated.
+
+Neither side appears to have had much conception of the intentions of
+the other. De Tourville, with a fleet of only fifty ships of the line,
+is supposed to have sailed under the impression that the Dutch had not
+joined up with the English.
+
+In the fog of early morning on May 19th, he blundered into the entire
+Anglo-Dutch fleet off Cape La Hogue, and sustained a crushing defeat.
+At least twenty-one French ships of the line were lost in the battle
+itself or destroyed in the harbours they had escaped into.
+
+Following upon this victory came a lull in operations. It would seem to
+have been the English idea that the French fleet, having been beaten
+and dispersed, all that remained to do was to get ready to defeat
+the new fleet that France was preparing, and so the year 1693 passed
+uneventfully, except that damage was done to trade on either side.
+
+In July, 1694, the Allies made a move, bombarding Dieppe and Havre
+from a squadron of bombs which had been specially prepared. In
+September, Dunkirk received attention from a new war device called
+“smoak-boats”[19] the invention of one Meerlers, which did not
+inconvenience anyone very much. Meerlers also had “machine ships,”
+which likewise did no harm. These appear to have been an elementary
+idea on large scale of the modern torpedo--improved fire-ships.
+
+A fleet was generally busy defending trade in the Mediterranean, where
+for the first time it was permanently stationed. Nothing in the way of
+fleet action was attempted by the French, and the next few years were
+spent in privateering on their part, and bombardments of ports which
+sheltered privateers on the part of the Allies.
+
+English naval estimates in 1695 amounted to £2,382,172, and the House
+of Lords, in an address to the King, advocated an increase of the fleet
+on the grounds that it was essential to the nation that its fleets
+should always be superior to any possible enemy. A French invasion was
+projected in the winter months; but abandoned on the appearance of a
+fleet under Russell.
+
+There is no question that in this war the French did more mischief
+with their privateers than with their fleet. English trade suffered
+very heavily; and there were continual complaints about the inability
+of the fleet to suppress the corsairs, a Parliamentary enquiry being
+eventually made into the matter.
+
+The French privateers--“corsairs” is the more correct term--were in
+substance a species of naval militia, of a quite different status
+from English privateers sailing under letters of marque. They hailed
+principally from St. Malo; trading in peace time and preying on
+commerce in time of war. There were special regulations under which
+they were governed. The owner had to deposit a sum of about £600 with
+the Admiralty as security. He had to pay ten per cent. of the profits
+to the Admiralty and five per cent. to the Church. Two-thirds of the
+balance was his profit, the remaining third went to the crew. Often
+enough the privateer was a royal ship, let out for the purpose, and in
+the years following the battle of Cape La Hogue, most of the French
+frigates were on this service, with naval officers and men on board
+very often.
+
+The privateers carried few guns, their object being to capture prizes,
+not to sink them. They sailed mostly in small squadrons, so making
+a considerable number of guns, and were rarely particular about
+using false colours. It was therefore comparatively easy for them
+successfully to attack weak convoys: some dealing with the warships and
+others making prizes; and the inefficiency laid to the blame of the
+English fleet in trade protection at that period was, in some measure,
+at any rate, due to a failure to appreciate the enormous difficulties.
+Duguay-Trouin himself records using the English flag to approach an
+English warship, and firing on her under these colours.
+
+The unhandy warships of those days, faced with light enemies, which
+they could never overhaul, had a tremendous task set them. That the
+Navy of William III era successfully defended anything against men
+like Duguay-Trouin and Jean Bart, is of far more moment and more to
+be wondered at than any failures. In this particular war the fast
+lightly-armed corsair reached its apotheosis at the hands of veritable
+experts to a degree impossible to-day, or for that matter, ever
+hereafter, unless aircraft prove able to act as “privateers” of the
+future--a role which, to date, has been entirely forgotten in all
+discussions as to the value of aircraft.
+
+[Illustration: ANTHONY DEANE.]
+
+In 1697, the peace of Ryswick was signed. According to Burchett, the
+net result of the war was the loss of fifty English warships and
+fifty-nine French ones. The historians generally indicate that the
+French were worn out with the struggle; but on the whole the English
+seem to have been well out of the war also.
+
+It was about this time that Peter the Great appeared in England, and
+engaged John Deane, brother of the famous naval architect, Sir Anthony,
+to go back to Russia with him to establish a navy. This is the first
+instance of the foundation or reorganisation of a foreign navy by this
+country. The experiment was by no means very successful; the bulk of
+the English naval officers taken over by Peter being men who, for
+various reasons, had been dismissed from the Royal Navy. Some proved
+incompetent, and all of them were quarrelsome.
+
+
+_WAR OF THE SUCCESSION._
+
+The war of the Spanish Succession synchronised with the accession of
+Queen Anne, in 1702. In the interval following the peace of Ryswick the
+French fleet had had considerable attention paid to it. The principal
+innovation consisted in increasing the size without (as hitherto)
+increasing the armament in ratio. The French three-deckers were now
+built of 2,000 tons instead of 1,500 as formerly. The superior sailing
+qualities, ever a feature of French ships, were still further enhanced.
+
+In England, though shipbuilding had also been vigorously pursued,
+improvements commensurate with those of France were not made. English
+ships of the period were, generally speaking, overgunned.
+
+At the outbreak of the war of the Succession, the fleet consisted of
+seven first-rate, fourteen second-rate, forty-five third, sixty-three
+fourth, thirty-six fifth, twenty-nine sixth, eight fire ships, thirteen
+bombs, and ten yachts--a total tonnage of 158,992; an increase of
+about a third in thirteen years. The first-rates were a new type of
+ship; the second-rates consisted of the old type first and second
+rates--the three deckers of ninety guns and special service eighty-gun
+two deckers. The third-rates were the staple battle type--two deckers
+of seventy guns on home service and mounting sixty-two guns when sent
+abroad. The fourth-rates carried nominally fifty guns and forty-four on
+foreign service.
+
+One third of the naval power of Europe was English; France and Holland
+between them made up another third, the balance being represented by
+the rest of the Powers.[20] Though the phrase, “Two Power Standard,”
+was then unknown, the fleet, representing as it did the result of
+agitations in Parliament and elsewhere for suitable naval power, was
+clearly based on a similar general idea, and the Two Power Standard
+theory may be dated from the time of William of Orange.
+
+The general idea of the campaign on the English side was combined
+naval and military attack on Ferrol--the fleet, consisting of fifty
+English and Dutch ships of the line and some frigates and transports
+to the number of 110, being under Sir George Rooke. The military
+element amounted to 12,000 troops under the Duke of Ormonde. Nothing
+came of the attempt owing to internal dissentions; and the expedition
+was on its way back when news was received of Chateau-Renault with a
+French-Spanish fleet of twenty-one warships at Vigo. A combined attack
+was delivered and the entire hostile fleet was sunk or captured without
+much loss, and a valuable convoy captured also.
+
+In this year there also happened the greatest disgrace that ever befell
+the Royal Navy. Admiral Benbow, who had risen from the “Lower Deck,”
+was detached with six ships of the line to the West Indies, where he
+met a French squadron of five, under du-Casse. Two of his captains
+refused to engage the enemy altogether, and the others, save one, did
+so but half-heartedly. Benbow was mortally wounded and a French victory
+gained. On their return to England two of the captains were executed
+“for cowardice,” but timidity had actually nothing whatever to do with
+the business. It was purely and entirely an act of personal hostility.
+It is generally put down to Benbow’s lowly origin; but officers of
+the Benbow class were so plentiful, and Benbow had so long been in
+important positions afloat,[21] that the “obvious reason” played but a
+minor part. Benbow’s great defect was a lack of that “personality” of
+which in later years Nelson was the prime exponent. Coupled with this
+was the state of much of the Navy generally owing to Jacobite intrigues
+with those who were unable to forget their old allegiance to the
+Stuarts.
+
+In 1703 very special orders were issued as to cutting down expenditure
+on non-essentials in ship construction. In this year the ornamental
+work so conspicuous in ships of the Stuart era was reduced almost to
+extinction.
+
+The naval events were inconsiderable. A few French prizes were made,
+and it was found from these that the French theory of increasing
+dimensions without increasing the armament had reached such a stage
+that fifty-gun French ships were larger than sixty-gun English
+ones,[22] but it was not for some years that practical attention was
+directed to the point.
+
+In 1704 there took place another of the combined naval and military
+operations peculiar to this war. This was to Lisbon and in connection
+with the Austrian Archduke Charles. It is mainly of interest because it
+led to the more or less accidental capture of Gibraltar, and in that
+it otherwise had much to do with the prevention of a junction of the
+French Brest and Toulon fleets which was destined to loom so largely in
+future history that to this day “junctions” remain a principal “idea”
+for naval manœuvres.
+
+Sir George Rooke, who commanded the main fleet, had with him
+forty-eight ships of the line and details; Sir Cloudesley Shovell was
+in the channel with some twenty-two more.
+
+The Brest fleet sailed for Toulon under the Count de Toulouse. They
+were chased without effect by Rooke, till near Toulon, when on the
+evening of May 29th, he gave up the pursuit as too risky, and returned
+to Lagos, where Shovell joined him on June 16th.
+
+The combined English fleet being now assumed superior to the combined
+French fleet, attacks on Cadiz and Barcelona were contemplated, but as
+insufficient troops were available it was decided to attack Gibraltar
+instead. The motive for doing so does not appear to have been anything
+greater than that the King of Portugal and the Archduke Charles were
+worrying the fleet to “do something.” Gibraltar was suggested and
+settled on, apparently, as being as suitable as any other place.
+
+Gibraltar lies at the end of a narrow peninsula. On this peninsula, on
+July 21st, 1,800 marines from the fleet landed under the Prince of
+Hesse. As they carried only eighteen rounds per man, the presumption
+is obvious that either little opposition was expected or else that
+the attack was merely delivered to satisfy those who had urged that
+something should be done. The former is generally assumed to be the
+case, but the latter is by no means improbable. In any case, the
+marines met with little opposition and demanded the surrender of the
+fortress, while some of the English ships, under Byng, were warped into
+bombarding positions under a mild fire from the forts. This occupied a
+whole day.
+
+Early on the 23rd, fire was opened on both sides, and the inhabitants
+of the town fled to a chapel on the hill. The bombardment continued
+till noon, when the “cease fire” was ordered, so that results might be
+ascertained. It was found that some of the batteries were disabled, and
+it was then decided to land in the boats and capture them.
+
+On the cessation of fire, the inhabitants, mostly women and priests,
+who had fled out of the town, began to come back. Sir Cloudesley
+Shovell (who was on board Byng’s flagship) ordered a gun to be fired
+across these; whereupon they all ran back to the chapel in which they
+had been sheltered. This gun was taken by the fleet generally to be
+a signal to re-open the bombardment. Under cover of this firing, the
+landing party got ashore, and had things much their own way till about
+a hundred of them were killed or wounded by the blowing up of the
+Castle.
+
+At this they began to retreat, but reinforcements arriving, they
+retrieved the position and captured other works without difficulty,
+establishing themselves between the town and the chapel where the women
+had taken refuge. Giving this as his reason, the Governor capitulated
+next day. His entire garrison, according to Torrington’s Memoirs,
+consisted of but eighty men. The Anglo-Dutch force lost three officers
+and fifty-seven men killed, eight officers and 207 men wounded.
+
+Thus the capture of Gibraltar, “the impregnable.” At Toulon, a large
+French fleet was getting ready for sea--a fleet quite large enough
+to have done to the English what Teggethoff, in 1866, did to the
+bombarding Italians at Lissa.
+
+There seems little doubt that Rooke under-estimated his fleet. On the
+other hand, as he had look-outs, and the wind was not in the enemy’s
+favour, the risks he actually ran were trifling compared to those taken
+by Persano. From which many lessons have been deduced and morals drawn.
+
+In actual fact, however, it is greatly to be doubted whether either
+commander thought round the matter at all. The “science” of naval
+warfare is a thing of quite modern origin, and the strategies displayed
+by most admirals in the past--if studied with an unbiassed mind--are
+just as likely to be luck as forethought. Analogous to this is Ruskin
+on the artist Turner. Turner painted wonderful pictures: Ruskin found
+wonderful meanings in them. These “meanings” were, however, more news
+to Turner than to anyone else!
+
+On August 10th, the French fleet, reported as sixty-six sail, was
+sighted thirty miles off by a look-out ship. Rooke’s fleet at that time
+was short of five Dutch ships which he had sent away, twelve other
+ships were watering at Tetuan--miles away from him--and all the marines
+of the fleet were on shore at Gibraltar as garrison. The light craft
+were sent into Gibraltar to bring back half the marines as quickly
+as possible, while the main fleet retreated to pick up the Tetuan
+division, and later got its marines on board.
+
+The French, meanwhile, either ignorant of the state of affairs, or else
+from general incompetence, made no attack at the time, and it was not
+till the 13th that battle was joined by the English bearing down on
+them. The resulting engagement was indecisive, and the fleets withdrew
+to repair damages. The French, however, declined to renew action,
+eventually retreated to Toulon, and never attempted a fleet action
+again during the war.
+
+Rooke’s fleet consisted of fifty-three ships of the line. The French
+had fifty-two, of which they lost five.
+
+Following the battle of Malaga, the marines were landed again at
+Gibraltar, together with some gunners and forty-eight guns. The fleet
+then returned to England, leaving at Lisbon a dozen ships under Sir
+John Leake--the only ships which, after survey, were considered not
+to be in urgent need of refit at home. This squadron was subsequently
+reinforced by eight ships of the line.
+
+The French and Spaniards presently invested Gibraltar by land and sea.
+In the first attempt the blockading fleet was short of supplies and had
+to retire to Cadiz. Leake arrived, but finding nothing there returned
+to the Tagus.
+
+The French then sent a light squadron to assist the siege, and the
+whole of those were surprised and captured by Leake, on October 29th,
+1704. There is reason to believe that this action saved the fortress,
+as a grand assault was on the _tapis_.
+
+Leake remained at Gibraltar three months, during which time stores and
+some 2,000 troops were brought in from England; then, the garrison
+being now in no straits, the English ships withdrew in January, 1705,
+to Lisbon to refit, leaving the land investment to proceed. In March, a
+squadron of fourteen French ships of the line appeared off Gibraltar,
+but owing to a gale only five got into the harbour. Here they were
+presently surprised and captured by the English. The remaining ships
+fled to Toulon and the siege was then raised--having lasted five months.
+
+From these operations it is abundantly clear that the English had by
+now realised that Gibraltar was perfectly safe so long as its sea
+communications were kept open. De Pointis, the French Admiral, realised
+the same thing, and in the whole of the naval operations he appears to
+have been obeying, under protest, orders from the French Government,
+which at no time appears to have realised the futility of such
+operations in face of a superior Anglo-Dutch fleet.
+
+Following the abandonment of the siege of Gibraltar, the French became
+very active with their corsairs, inflicting heavy losses on English
+trade. On the ultimate inutility of this _guerre de course_ much has
+been written; but perhaps hardly proper attention has been bestowed
+on the other side of the question. The French had small stomach for
+anything of the nature of a fleet action, and there is little or no
+reason to suppose that had they concentrated on line operations any
+success would have attended their efforts. Their _personnel_ was
+generally inferior. Their _materiel_ on the other hand was superior,
+and the problem really before them surely was, not which method, “grand
+battle” or _guerre de course_, was better, but how best to inflict
+damage with the means available. And here the _guerre de course_ held
+obvious promise.
+
+In the summer of 1705, a combined land and sea attack was delivered on
+Barcelona, the Earl of Peterborough being in supreme command of both
+forces. The town surrendered on October 3rd. The history of Gibraltar
+was then repeated. The fleet withdrew, leaving Leake with a few ships
+to watch. The enemy then invested the place, which was relieved just
+in time by Leake so heavily reinforced that the French squadron made
+no attempt to fight him. A variety of other towns was then captured by
+combined attacks, also the Balearic Islands, except Minorca.
+
+In 1706, combined operations on the north of France were arranged for,
+but ultimately abandoned owing to the weather. Ostend was captured in
+this year; but a combined attack on Toulon, in 1707, signally failed.
+
+In 1708, the French attempted combined operations on Scotland and
+reached the Firth of Forth with twenty sail, but an English squadron
+under Byng arriving they sailed away again at once. The superior
+mobility of the French was evidenced by the fact that Byng’s pursuit
+resulted in nothing but the capture of an ex-English ship which could
+not keep up with her French-built consorts. The Anglo-Dutch combined
+operations of the year resulted in the capture of Minorca. Minor
+operations took place in the West Indies.
+
+1709 passed mostly in the relief of places which had been acquired and
+were now besieged. In 1710, the French became more active, capturing
+one or two English warships and making a combined attempt against
+Sardinia. This last was frustrated by Sir John Norris. An English
+attempt on Cette in the same year proved a failure; but conspicuous
+success attended similar operations in Nova Scotia.
+
+In the following years the principal of such operations as took place
+were on the American coast. Of these, the chief was an abortive attack
+on Quebec, mainly remarkable for an extraordinary escape of the entire
+English fleet one night in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. A military
+officer, one Captain Goddard, insisted that he saw breakers ahead.
+As no one would credit him he finally dragged the Admiral out of bed
+and up on deck, by which time the fleet was close on to the breakers.
+As things were, seven transports were wrecked and nearly a thousand
+soldiers drowned. The warships very narrowly escaped.[23]
+
+This disaster led to the abandonment of the expedition. Peace was
+declared in 1713. The English loss in the war was thirty-eight ships,
+mounting 1,596 guns; the French lost fifty-two ships, mounting 3,094
+guns.[24] A very large number of English ships became unserviceable
+during the war, because, despite the fact that many new ships were
+built and that the bulk of the ships lost by the French entered the
+English service, the entire navy diminished by twenty-five vessels.
+
+Most of the ships were in poor condition, and in the early years of
+George I’s reign, large sums had to be expended on refits. Foul bilge
+water was the main cause of internal decay, and in 1715 organised steps
+were taken for the ventilation of the bilges. A certain increase in
+size for ships of all classes was also ordered, those of 100 guns being
+increased by 319 tons, and the eighty-gun ships by sixty-seven tons.
+This increase, however, by no means brought the tonnage to gun ratio
+down to the French limits, nor were the improvements in underwater form
+of much serious moment. The French maintained a superiority in this
+respect which they held till the present century. To-day, of course,
+the situation is completely reversed, and for any given horse-power any
+British ship is appreciably faster than a French one.[25]
+
+Some special attention was also devoted to the preparation of timber
+for immediate use in shipbuilding. This subject was first drawn
+attention to in 1694, and the net result of the enquiries in 1715 did
+not really go much further. It was not till eleven years later that the
+problem was seriously grappled with.
+
+In 1715, an English fleet under Norris was in the Baltic, acting
+against Sweden and allied with the Russians and Danes, Peter the Great
+himself being in chief command. Nothing of moment happened. These
+operations extended to 1719, when sides were changed.
+
+In 1718, Spain, which had recently made some considerable efforts
+towards the creation of naval power, used her power for an attack on
+Sicily. Admiral Byng arriving with a superior English fleet, attacked
+and destroyed the greater part of the Spanish squadron in the Battle
+of Cape Passaro. No state of war existed. The Spaniards had attacked
+an English ally, and this was Byng’s only excuse for action. A few
+months later war was formally declared against Spain, and early in 1719
+a curious replica of the Armada took place. Forty Spanish transports,
+escorted by merely five warships, sailed from Cadiz for the coast of
+Scotland; the idea being that the 5,000 troops which they carried
+should co-operate in a Jacobite rising. This “Armada” was dispersed
+by a severe gale off Cape Finisterre, and only a small fraction of it
+reached the coast of Ross, where a landing, easily defeated by the
+military, was made. It is noteworthy that no fleet met the expedition,
+and it was not till a month after its dispersal in a gale that Norris
+sailed to look for it.
+
+The remainder of this particular war, which lasted only three years,
+was devoted to the re-conquest of Sicily and the capture of Vigo. Peace
+was concluded in 1721. In the course of this war the usual combined
+attack was made upon Gibraltar in 1720; but the arrival of an English
+fleet easily relieved the garrison.
+
+At and about this time the Russian fleet, hitherto allies, became the
+enemy, and early in 1720 Admiral Norris was despatched to assist the
+Swedes against them. He appears to have done very little save squabble
+with the Swedish admiral as to precedence. In any case the Russians
+did much as they listed against the Swedish coast till Sweden had to
+sue for peace, and Russia became the predominant Baltic naval power.
+Her position as such was the more extraordinary in that the Russian
+fleet was technically very incompetent. The situation was mainly
+brought about by the personal genius of Peter the Great. His ships were
+generally the speedier, and he issued the strictest orders that no
+enemy was to be engaged unless at least one-third inferior in power. In
+the presence of an enemy the Swedes considered nothing,[26] the English
+comparatively little. The brain of Peter, was, therefore, an easy match
+for them, despite the technical inferiority of his _personnel_. This
+campaign is a most striking illustration of Alexander the Great’s
+maxim “that an army of sheep led by a lion is better than an army of
+lions led by a sheep.”
+
+In 1726, an Anglo-Danish naval demonstration against Russia took place
+at Kronstadt, but nothing came of the incident, which was repeated
+equally ineffectually in the following year, when larger preparations
+were made.
+
+In 1726, the preservation of ships’ timbers came once more on the
+_tapis_, when the results of some experiments, commenced six years
+before, were inspected. Up to about 1720, woods were prepared for use
+by a system known as “charring.” This consisted in building a fire one
+side of the plank and keeping the other side wet till the required
+condition was produced. One, Cumberland, invented a system known as
+“stoving.” By this, the wood was put into wet sand and then subjected
+to heat till the juices were extracted and the wood in suitable
+condition. A ship was planked with both systems, side by side, and on
+these being examined in 1726, it was found that while the “stoved”
+planks were in good condition the “charred” ones were already rotten.
+
+A grateful country vaguely presented Cumberland with one tenth
+of whatever might be the saving which his system would produce.
+Cumberland, however, was equally vague, since he could supply no data
+as to the amount of heat or time of subjection, and experiments had to
+be carried out in the Yards in order to ascertain this. The authorities
+were apparently still ascertaining when one Boswell, of Deptford
+Yard, in 1736, hit upon using steam, and his system became at once
+general--though a few years later it was replaced by boiling the timber.
+
+When George II came to the throne the country was at peace, but this
+peace was mainly and entirely secured by the policy of Walpole, who
+kept the Navy on a war footing. Feeling against Spain ran so high on
+account of the action of the _Guarda-Costas_ in searching English ships
+in the West Indies, that Walpole’s hands were forced in 1739. In the
+House of Commons, Captain Vernon announced that with six ships he could
+capture Porto Bello. Promoted to Rear Admiral, he essayed the task, and
+accomplished it, by coming into close range and landing under cover of
+a bombardment. His loss was trifling--nineteen killed and wounded, all
+told. The garrison turned out to have been only 300 strong, of whom
+forty surrendered. The rest had either been killed or had fled. It is
+to be observed that no state of war existed at the time.
+
+War with Spain was declared in October, 1739. The English fleet in
+commission consisted of thirty-eight ships of the line, and there was
+a reserve of twenty-four ready for immediate service. There were also
+thirty-six minor vessels in commission and eight in reserve.
+
+An interesting circumstance of this war was the whole-world scale
+on which naval operations were planned. In substance the scheme was
+as follows:--Admiral Vernon was to attack the east coast of Darien.
+Captain Cornwall was to round the Horn, attack the west coast of Darien
+and then go to the Philippines, where he was to meet Captain Anson, who
+was to voyage thither via the Cape of Good Hope. The scheme was not
+carried out in its entirety, as the Cape of Good Hope expedition never
+sailed, Anson being substituted for Cornwall.
+
+Vernon, having been reinforced with a number of bombs and fire-ships,
+proceeded, in March, 1740, to attack Cartagena, which he bombarded
+for four days without much material result. Then he proceeded to
+Chagres, which, after a two days’ bombardment, surrendered to him.
+A considerable Spanish squadron being reported on its way out, and
+a French fleet (suspected of hostile designs) also sailing, Vernon
+withdrew to Jamaica, where he lay till reinforced by twenty ships under
+Ogle.
+
+Ogle performed his voyage without adventure, except that six of his
+ships encountered a French squadron and fought it for some little time
+under the impression that a state of war existed. The error being
+discovered, the squadrons parted with mutual apologies.[27]
+
+Ogle arrived in January, 1741. After a short refit the fleet sailed
+to look for the French and observe them. They presently learned that
+the French, short of men and provisions, had gone back to Europe. Upon
+receipt of this news it was decided to attack Cartagena.
+
+Vernon had with him twenty-nine ships of the line, twenty-two lesser
+craft and a number of transports, carrying 12,000 troops. The seamen
+and marines of the fleet totalled 15,000. For a time some success was
+met with, but divided councils, mutual recrimination between Navy and
+Army, sickness in the troops, all did their share, and eventually the
+attack was abandoned.[28]
+
+Attacks on other places led to no happier results, and while efforts
+were thus being frittered away in the West Indies, the commerce was
+suffering badly. Petitions from the commercial world to Parliament
+were of almost daily occurrence. Vernon requested to be recalled, and
+eventually was superseded, but his successor fared no better than he.
+
+Meanwhile, we must turn aside for a moment to consider the operations
+of Anson. The following items in connection therewith are summarised
+from Barrow’s _Voyages and Discoveries_, published in 1765.
+
+On arriving at Madeira, Anson, who had left England on the 13th of
+September, 1740, learned of a Spanish squadron, under Pizarro, lying
+in wait for him. This squadron, attempting to round the Horn ahead of
+Anson, encountered a furious gale, and was eventually driven back to
+Buenos Ayres, with only three ships left, and these reduced to the
+utmost extremities. A second attempt to round the Horn fared no better,
+and eventually Pizarro returned to Spain in his own ship, manned
+chiefly by English prisoners and some pressed Indians. These latter
+mutinied, but not being joined by the English prisoners, as they had
+hoped, were defeated.
+
+Anson left Madeira on November 3rd, 1740, and shortly afterwards his
+crews fell sick, through lack of air, the ships being too deep for the
+lower ports to be opened. Anson had several ventilating holes cut. Then
+fever came, carrying off many. Just before Christmas he arrived at St.
+Catherine’s, Brazil, but his hopes of recruiting his men’s health were
+abortive. His own flagship, the _Centurion_, lost twenty-eight men dead
+and had ninety-six others on the sick list.
+
+On January 18th, 1741, Anson sailed for the Horn. A gale scattered his
+squadron, one ship being separated for a month; eventually, however,
+all rejoined. There followed three months’ tempests rounding the Horn.
+Scurvy appeared, and the ships got separated again. Finally, on June
+9th, the _Centurion_ alone reached Juan Fernandez, short of water and
+only about ten men fit for duty in a watch.
+
+A few days later the _Tryal_ appeared at the island, her captain,
+lieutenant and three men being all who were available for service.
+A third ship, the _Gloucester_, appeared on June 21st, but so
+short-handed was she that, though assistance was sent her, it took her
+an entire fortnight to make harbour! On August 16th, the victualler
+ship, _Anna Pink_, arrived, all her crew in good condition, she having
+put into some harbour en route. Of the other three ships, two (the
+_Severn_ and _Pearl_), failed to round the Horn and returned to Brazil;
+the third, the _Wager_, was wrecked.
+
+In September, a sail was sighted. The _Centurion_ put to sea and found
+her to be a Spanish merchant ship. From the prisoners it was learned
+that a Spanish squadron from Chili had been on the look out for Anson,
+that a ship had been lying off Juan Fernandez till just before his
+arrival, but that assuming him lost they had now all gone back to
+Valparaiso.
+
+Thereafter several prizes were taken, one being fitted out to replace
+the _Tryal_, which was abandoned. The _Anna Pink_ had also had to be
+abandoned as useless.
+
+Now began the most extraordinary part of the enterprise. Treasure ships
+were captured, thirty-eight men landed, held up and captured Payta, a
+good half of these attired in feminine costume, which they found in
+houses wherein they had sought substitutes for their rags--only one
+man drunk in all the sack of the town--the terror of prisoners, who,
+when released, refused to accept liberty till they had thanked Anson
+for his courtesy--Anson’s insistence on treasure being divided equally
+between those who attacked and those who kept ship, while giving his
+own share to the attackers--the night chase of a supposed galleon
+which turned out to be but a fire on shore--the fearful sufferings of
+boats’ crews sent out to look for the treasure ship[29]--the release
+of prisoners, and the Spanish reply thereto by the despatch of luxuries
+to the English--the final loss of the _Gloucester_, worn out by keeping
+the sea--the arrival at Guam of the _Centurion_ with only seventy-one
+men capable of “standing at a gun” under even any emergencies--these
+things belong to special histories. Here it suffices to give but a
+general outline, of which the first event is that having reached Macao
+and refitted, Anson went into the Pacific again, and, having given his
+men considerable training in marksmanship and gun-handling, finally
+intercepted and captured the Spanish treasure ship that he sought.
+
+On his subsequent return to China with his prize, the experiences of
+“Mr. Anson” (as he is generally called throughout the history from
+which I quote) were mainly of a personal nature. Visited by a mandarin
+who showed a liking for wine, Anson had to plead illness and delegate
+his duties of glass for glass to the most robust officer he had. He
+provisioned by weight with ducks (found to be filled with stones to
+make them heavier) and pigs filled with water. Ultimately he had to go
+up to Canton with (so far as I can ascertain) the first instance of a
+crew in regular uniform. To quote from the entertaining contemporary
+narrative:--
+
+    “Towards the end of September, the commodore finding that he
+    was deceived by those who had contracted to supply him with sea
+    provisions; and that the viceroy had not, according to his
+    promise, invited him to an interview, found it impossible to
+    surmount the difficulty he was under, without going to Canton and
+    visiting the viceroy. He, therefore, prepared for this expedition:
+    the boat’s crew were clothed, in a uniform dress, resembling that
+    of the water-men of the Thames. There were in number eighteen, and
+    a coxswain; they had scarlet jackets, and blue silk waistcoats, the
+    whole trimmed with silver buttons, and had also silver badges on
+    their jackets and caps.”
+
+Leaving Macao, the _Centurion_ reached the Cape of Good Hope on the
+11th of March, 1744. From here, signing on forty Dutchmen, Anson
+proceeded home.
+
+So ended the most prodigious oversea combined enterprise ever before
+attempted. Anson was not the first to circumnavigate the world, but few
+had done so before him, and on that account the real purpose of his
+expedition has been generally overlooked in the circumnavigation feat.
+
+As ever in British naval history luck was with him; but something more
+than “luck” must have been in an enterprise where Pizarro, sent to
+intercept him, gave up, while Anson fought through the perils of Cape
+Horn, with his sickly crews and crazy ships.
+
+To resume the general history of the war. In October, 1742, the
+_Victory_ (100) was lost, presumably on the Caskets, though her actual
+fate was never ascertained. France had now entered into the war; her
+fleet consisted of forty-five ships of the line; the corresponding
+English fleet totalling ninety ships of the line.
+
+In 1742, Ogle succeeded Vernon in the West Indies, and a series of
+small bombardments resulted, usually without success.
+
+Formal hostilities with France (delayed as was the custom of the time)
+were declared in 1744, and outlying possessions changed hands. Anson,
+in command of the Channel Fleet in 1747, defeated and captured the
+Brest fleet, and some minor actions took place, mostly in connection
+with convoys. The war ended in 1748; its net naval results being as
+follows:--
+
+                             ENGLISH.  SPANISH.  FRENCH.
+  Warships lost or captured      49        24        56
+  Merchant ships captured     3,238     1,249     2,185
+
+The economy order referred to on a previous page was possibly in part
+responsible for the bad showing made by the English as warships in
+this war. In any case the standardisation of classes had disappeared,
+and no two ships were of the same dimensions. Many ships were found so
+weak at sea that they had to be shored up between decks,[30] and of
+all the complaint was continual that they were very “crank” and unable
+to open their lee ports in weather in which foreign ships could do so.
+The seamanship, however, was of a high order compared to that of either
+the French or Spaniards; possibly the very badness of the English ships
+helped to make the seamanship what it was.
+
+After the war many constructional improvements were suggested and some
+few of them carried into practice. Among the prizes of the war was a
+Spanish ship, the _Princessa_ of seventy guns, which attracted general
+admiration. In 1746, a glorified copy of her, the _Royal George_, was
+laid down.[31] At and about this time an era of slow shipbuilding set
+in; for example, this _Royal George_ was ten years on the stocks. The
+slow building was part and parcel of the naval policy of the period,
+and in no way to be connected with what any such tardiness would mean
+to-day.
+
+A ship on the stocks was more easily preserved from decay than one
+in the water. With precisely the same idea the authorities at the
+end of the war disbanded the bulk of the _personnel_. Upon a war
+appearing likely, the press-gang was always available to supplement any
+deficiency in the rank and file not filled by allowing jail-birds to
+volunteer.
+
+Officering the fleet was a less easy matter. The choice lay between
+retired officers more or less rusty, and the best of the “prime
+seamen,” who had been afloat in such warships as were retained
+in commission. The Admiralty selected its officers from both
+indiscriminately. There is this much, but no more, warrant for the idea
+that in the old days the sailor from forward could rise to the highest
+ranks, while to-day he cannot do so. The fact is correct enough, but
+the circumstance had nothing to do with inducements and encouragements.
+Once on the quarter deck the tarpaulin seaman, if he had it in him,
+might win his way to high rank and fame, as did Benbow, Sir John
+Balchen, Captain Cook, and several others. But he obtained his footing
+on entirely utilitarian grounds which passed away when a more regular
+system of _personnel_ came into custom.
+
+In the year 1753, a Dr. Hales was instrumental in one of the greatest
+improvements ever effected in the navy. To him was due the adoption of
+a system of ventilation with wind-mills and air pumps. The immediate
+result was a very great reduction in the sickness and death-rate on
+shipboard, the Earl of Halifax placing it on record that for twelve men
+who died in non-ventilated ships, only one succumbed in the ventilated
+vessels.
+
+Early in 1755, a war with France became probable on account of hostile
+preparations made in North America. As a matter of precaution a French
+squadron on its way out was attacked and two ships captured. Something
+like three hundred French merchant ships were also taken during the
+year. War, however, was not declared on either side!
+
+Early in 1756, news was received of French designs on Minorca, a
+considerable expedition collecting at Toulon. After some delay, Byng
+left England with ten ships of the line, picked up three more at
+Gibraltar, and sailed to relieve Minorca, where Fort St. Philip was
+closely invested by 15,000 troops. Supporting these last was a French
+squadron of twelve ships of the line, under La Gallisonniére.
+
+On Byng arriving, La Gallisonniére embarked 450 men from the attacking
+force to reinforce his crews, and on May 20th ensued the battle of
+Minorca, which resulted in the defeat and retreat of Byng.[32] Ten days
+later the British force in the island surrendered.
+
+Byng was subsequently court-martialled and shot at Portsmouth for
+having failed to do his utmost to destroy the French fleet. His
+ships were indifferently manned and in none too good condition. He
+encountered a better man than himself, and there is no reason to
+suppose that had he resumed action, anything but his total defeat
+would have resulted. At the same time, the execution of Byng, _pour
+encourager les autres_, probably bore utilitarian fruit in the years
+that were to follow. The execution has since been condemned as little
+better than a revengeful judicial murder; but a realisation of the
+circumstances of the times suggests that other motives than punishment
+of an individual were paramount.
+
+[Illustration: BATTLESHIPS OF THE WHITE ERA AT SEA.]
+
+War was formally declared shortly after the fall of Minorca. No
+events of much moment marked the rest of the year 1756, but early in
+the following year, Calcutta, which had fallen to the natives, was
+recaptured by Clive, assisted by a naval force.
+
+In 1758, the Navy consisted of 156 of the line and 164 lesser vessels.
+The _personnel_ was 60,000.
+
+The situation at this time was that in North America the French
+colonies were being hotly pressed, Louisbourg being invested. The
+French had a species of double plan--to relieve Louisbourg directly,
+and also the usual invasion of England.
+
+The relief of Louisbourg came to nought; a Toulon squadron which came
+out being driven back by Osborne, while Hawke destroyed the convoys in
+the Basque Roads. Louisbourg finally fell, four ships of the line that
+were lying there being burned, and one other captured, together with
+some smaller craft.
+
+Nearer home, combined naval and military attacks were pressed upon the
+French coast, Anson wrecking havoc on St. Malo, while Howe destroyed
+practically everything at Cherbourg.
+
+The invasion of England project remained, however. In 1759, the French
+had somewhere about twenty ships of the line, under De Conflans,
+at Brest, twelve at Toulon, under De la Clue, five with a fleet of
+transports at Quiberon, five frigates at Dunkirk with transports,
+a division of small craft and flat-bottomed boats at Havre, and a
+squadron of nine ships of the line with auxiliaries in the West Indies.
+
+These were watched or blockaded by superior British squadrons in every
+case--the maintenance of blockades being mainly possible owing to the
+improved ventilation of the ships. Provisions were still bad and scurvy
+plentiful, but the blockade maintained was better and closer than
+anything that the French can have anticipated. This war, indeed, saw
+the birth of scientific blockade in place of the somewhat haphazard
+methods which had previously existed. In part, it arose from a better
+perception of naval warfare, the study of history and the growth of
+definite objectives. But since side by side with these improvements
+tactical ideas were nearly non-existent and ships in fighting kept a
+line of the barrack-ground type regardless of all circumstances,[33]
+improvements in naval architecture may claim at least as big a part as
+the wit of man. Ideas of blockading and watching were as old as the
+Peloponnesian War, but means to carry them into effect had hitherto
+been sadly lacking.
+
+To resume, the French fleets being cornered by superior forces, had no
+option but to wait for lucky opportunity to effect the usual attempted
+junctions. This opportunity was long in coming, and meanwhile Rodney
+made an attack on the invading flotilla at Havre, bombarded it for
+fifty-two hours, and utterly destroyed the flat-bottomed boats which
+had been collected.
+
+In July, 1759, Boscawen, having run short of water and provisions,
+had to withdraw from Toulon to Gibraltar, where he began to refit his
+ships, and De la Clue, learning of this, came out of Toulon in August,
+slipping through the straits at midnight, with the English fleet in
+pursuit shortly afterwards.
+
+De la Clue had intended to rendezvous at Cadiz, but having altered his
+mind, made the almost inevitable failure of getting all his ships to
+comprehend it.[34] So it came about that daylight found him near Cape
+St. Vincent, with only six sail, and eight of Boscawen’s ships (which
+he at first took to be his own stragglers) coming up. In the action
+that followed, three of the French ships were captured, two burned
+and one escaped. The stragglers of the French fleet got into Cadiz as
+originally directed, and a few months later escaped back to Toulon.
+
+Thurot, with a small squadron, slipped out from Dunkirk, in October,
+merely to intern himself in a Swedish harbour.
+
+Hawke continued his blockade of Brest, being now and then driven off
+by gales, and during one of these absences, Bempart, with his nine
+West Indian ships, got into Brest. The Brest fleet was apparently very
+short-handed, or else the West Indian squadron in a very bad way; in
+any case the crews of the latter were distributed among the former, and
+De Conflans sailed with only twenty-one ships on November 14th.
+
+The expeditionary force which he proposed to convoy lay at Quiberon,
+which place owing to weather he did not make till the 20th. There he
+sighted and gave chase to the blockading English frigates, and in doing
+so met Hawke’s fleet of twenty-three ships of the line.
+
+In the battle of Quiberon which followed, the French lost six ships
+of the line. Eleven, by throwing their guns overboard, escaped into
+shallow water, the remainder reached safety at Rochefort. Two English
+ships ran aground, otherwise little damage was sustained.[35]
+
+Out of these happenings the French fleet--which, in this year alone,
+lost thirty-one ships of the line--ceased to have any importance; while
+to the general naval activity of the English must be attributed the
+capture of Quebec, by Wolfe.
+
+In 1760, the British ships of the line had sunk to 120 in number,
+though the _personnel_ rose to 73,000. Naval operations were mainly
+confined to the relief of Quebec and the consequent capture of the
+whole of Canada, and the suppression of privateering--over a hundred
+French corsairs being captured in 1760 alone.
+
+The results of privateering have been put at 2,500 English merchant
+vessels being captured in the four years ending 1760; the French
+merchant-ship loss being little more than one-third. In 1761, when
+French naval power had practically ceased to exist, 812 English
+merchant ships were captured. It must, however, be borne in mind that
+every year saw great increases in English shipping. Heavy as the
+numerical losses were, they did not exceed ten per cent., and the bulk
+of vessels captured were coasters.
+
+French mercantile losses were considerably smaller, but simply for the
+reason that France had fewer and fewer ships to lose, for her trade
+was being swept from the sea. English trade on the other hand grew
+and multiplied exceedingly. It may even be argued that so far from
+really injuring our trade, the _guerre de course_ in this war actually
+fostered it by the enhanced profits which safe arrival entailed, this
+attracting the speculative. But for the speculative the loss of larger
+vessels would have been smaller than it was. These were they, who, on
+a convoy nearing home waters, sailed on ahead, chancing attack in the
+hopes of the greatly increased profits to be made by early arrivals.
+Ships which obeyed the orders of the escorting warships were very
+rarely captured.
+
+The following years saw the capture of Pondicherry, Dominica, a
+successful attack on Belle Isle and also a general loss of French
+colonial possessions. To quote Mahan, “At the end of seven years the
+Kingdom of Great Britain has become the British Empire.”
+
+In 1762, Spain declared war. She had a fleet consisting nominally of
+eighty-nine sail, but joined in far too late to be of any assistance to
+France. No naval battle of importance took place.
+
+Peace was signed early in 1763. By it England secured Canada from
+France, and Spain lost Florida.
+
+During this war the usual complaints about ships’ bottoms were made,
+especially from the West Indian Station; and in October, 1761, the
+Admiralty ordered a frigate to be sheathed with thin sheets of copper
+as an experiment. This was at first found extremely successful, but
+after the lapse of a few years it was noted that chemical action had
+set up between the copper and the iron bolts at the ships’ bottom--most
+of these bolts being rusted away.
+
+Experiments were, however, continued, since, though the life of a
+copper bottom was but three to four years, its general advantages were
+very great. Ultimately iron bolts were abandoned in favour of copper
+ones. The cost of this came to £2,272 for a ship of the first-rate, and
+was only relatively satisfactory.
+
+Ever since the Treaty of Paris in 1763, friction had been growing
+between the Home Country and the North American Colonies. The causes
+which led to it concern the British Navy only in so far as it was used
+for the harsh enforcement of the regulations entailed by the Treaty in
+question--regulations which bore heavily on the Colonists. The rest of
+the story is merely the tale of political incapacity at home.
+
+The American Colonists, in addition to a few fast sailing frigates
+which they handled with unexpected aptitude, possessed a so very
+considerable mercantile fleet that it was estimated that 18,000 of
+their seamen had served in the English ships in the late war with
+France. Consequently, the Colonists were in a position to fit our
+privateers, and with these, in the first eight years of the war, they
+captured nearly 1,000 English merchant ships. Their own losses were,
+however, greater, and it is probable that despite all the military
+blunders which characterised English conduct of the war, the Colonists
+would eventually have been worn down but for the active intervention of
+France in 1778, and Spain a little later.
+
+As regards naval operations against the Americans themselves, these
+were mainly in the nature of sea transport. Where they were otherwise,
+they were of an inglorious nature, owing to the total inability of the
+Home Government to appreciate the position. The naval story of the war
+is, in the main, the story of frigates attempting difficult channels,
+and going aground in the attempt. It is of interest mainly because in
+1776 one David Bushnell made the first submarine ever actually used in
+war, and attempted to torpedo the English flagship, _Eagle_ (64). He
+reached his quarry unsuspected, but the difficulties of attaching his
+“infernal machine” were such that he had to rise to the surface for air
+and abandon the enterprise. His subsequent fate was undramatic--he
+and his boat were captured at sea on board a merchant ship, which was
+carrying him elsewhere for further operations.
+
+France, which had been rendering considerable secret assistance to
+the revolted Colonists, had, ever since the Treaty of Paris, been
+steadily building up her Navy, till she had eighty ships of the line
+and 67,000 men. The efficiency of the _personnel_ had been increased
+by the enrolment of a special corps of gunners, who practiced weekly.
+Efforts--which, however, were only moderately successful--had also been
+made to break down the serious class rivalries between those officers
+who were of the _noblesse_ and those who were tarpaulin seamen. But
+the majority of officers were skilled tactically, and special orders
+were issued that to seek out and attack the enemy was an objective.[36]
+Here, again, another weak point existed: d’Orvilliers, who commanded
+the main fleet, also received orders to be cautious--orders very
+similar in tenor to those by which his predecessors in previous wars
+were hampered.
+
+The fleet of Great Britain, spread over many quarters of the world,
+including ships being fitted, consisted of about 150 ships of the line,
+besides auxiliaries; but the actual available force of Home water fleet
+with which Keppel sailed just before the opening of the war was twenty
+ships only!
+
+Capturing two French frigates and learning from them that thirty-two
+ships were at Brest, Keppel got reinforcements of ten ships, and on
+the 27th of July, 1778, met d’Orvilliers, also with thirty ships, off
+Ushant. The battle lasted three hours, when the fleets drew apart
+without any material result having been achieved. The tactical ability
+lay with the French, and but for the inefficiency of the leader of one
+French division, the Duc de Chartres (the future “Phillipe Egalité”),
+would have done so still more. Yet, though Keppel had obviously done
+his best, public opinion in England had expected a great naval victory,
+and Keppel was the subject of a most violent controversy, which soon
+developed on political lines.
+
+At and about the time of the battle of Ushant, D’Estaing, with twelve
+ships of the line and five frigates, reached the Delaware. The English
+fleet under Howe, which consisted of only nine inferior ships of
+the line, took refuge inside Sandy Hook. D’Estaing came outside and
+remained ten days in July, but then sailed away.
+
+His failure to operate has been put down to the advice of pilots,
+but more probably, as pointed out by Admiral Mahan, he had secret
+instructions not to assist the Colonists too actively. The destruction
+of Hood’s fleet would have meant the capture of New York, peace between
+England and America, and a considerable force released for operations
+against France. Most of the subsequent movements of the year seem
+to have been coloured by a similar policy. In 1779, the West Indian
+islands of St. Vincent and Grenada fell into the hands of the French.
+Subsequently D’Estaing returned to the North American Coast, but no
+important operations took place there. Finally he returned with some
+ships to France, sending the others to the West Indies.
+
+Spain declared war against England in 1780. Her fleet then consisted
+of nearly sixty ships of the line, which--like the French--were in a
+more efficient state than in previous wars. Her prime object was the
+recovery of Gibraltar.
+
+A combined Franco-Spanish fleet of sixty-four ships of the line
+appeared in the Channel, causing an immense panic in England. The
+only available English fleet consisted of thirty-seven sail of the
+line, under Sir Charles Hardy, and this wandered away to the westward,
+leaving the Channel quite open to the allies, who, however, also
+wandered about without accomplishing anything. As usual with allies,
+there were divided councils, and in addition the French fleet, having
+had to wait long for the unwilling Spaniards, was badly incapacitated
+from sickness. Thus, and thus only, is their failure to invade to be
+explained: they had 40,000 men ready to be transported over, also a
+naval force ample to defeat any available English fleet, and able to
+cover landing operations as well.
+
+When the war first began, there was in France an English admiral--that
+same Rodney who had destroyed the invading flotilla at Havre in the
+previous war--who by reason of his debts was unable to return to his
+own country. In private life he was a merry old soul of sixty or so,
+and at a dinner one night boasted that if he could pay his debts and
+go back to England, he would get a command and easily smash the French
+fleet. Hearing this, a French nobleman promptly paid his debts for him,
+and sarcastically told Rodney to go back and prove his words.
+
+Rodney, who had the reputation of being an able officer, but nothing
+more, got home in 1779. In 1780, having secured a command for the West
+Indies, he left Portsmouth with twenty sail of the line and a convoy
+for the relief of Gibraltar. Off Finisterre, he captured a Spanish
+convoy carrying provisions to the besiegers. Off Cape St. Vincent
+he fell in with eleven Spanish ships and attacked them at night, in
+a gale, blowing up one, and capturing six. Thence he proceeded to
+Gibraltar, relieved it from all immediate danger, Minorca also; and
+then sailed for the West Indies. Here, on April 17th, some three weeks
+after arrival, he met the French under Guichen, and made the first
+attempt at that “breaking the line” associated with his name. The
+attempt was not a success, as his orders were misunderstood by several
+of his own captains and his intentions realised and foiled by his
+opponents.[37]
+
+This action was indecisive; as also were two more that followed.
+
+In this year (1780), Captain Horatio Nelson, then only twenty-two
+years old, made his first appearance in the _Hinchinbrook_ (28), in an
+attack on San Juan, Nicaragua. He succeeded, after terrible loss of
+_personnel_ from disease.
+
+A Spanish squadron then joined the French, but an epidemic--that most
+fruitful of all sources for the upsetting of naval plans--overtook
+it. The Spaniards were incapacitated and the French returned home.
+Rodney went to New York, where his operations delayed the cause of the
+Colonists; then returning to the West Indies, operated against the
+Dutch, who had by now joined the French and Spaniards.
+
+The general position of Great Britain, in 1781 and 1782, was well nigh
+desperate. Gibraltar was only held by a remarkable combination of
+luck and resolution. To quote Mahan, “England stood everywhere on the
+defensive.” She fought with her back to the wall. In the East Indies,
+Suffren kept the French flag flying: and things were generally at a
+very low ebb, when in 1782 Rodney “broke the line” in the victory of
+the Battle of the Saints.
+
+On April 9th, the fleets had come into contact without much result on
+either side. On the 12th, De Grasse, being then in some disorder, with
+thirty-four ships, encountered the English with thirty-six in good
+order. Rodney and Hood broke the line in two places. Admiral Mahan has
+been at pains to show us that this result was much a matter of luck
+and change of wind, and that the victory was by no means followed up
+as it might have been. One French ship was sunk and five were taken,
+including De Grasse himself, whose losses in his flagship, the _Ville
+de Paris_, were greater than those in the entire English fleet.
+
+To the nation at this juncture, however, anything savouring of victory
+was a thing to be made the utmost of, and Rodney has probably received
+more than his meed of merit over what was mainly a matter of luck.
+
+Two features of special interest in connection with this battle are
+that, though up to it, British ships had recently, owing to coppering,
+proved better sailers than the French; in the sequel to this fight, the
+French proved equal to sail away. The rapid deterioration of coppering,
+already mentioned, may account for some of this, but in this battle
+there is also reason to believe that the French fleet instituted firing
+at the rigging. Contemporary statements exist as to the French having
+made a wonderful number of holes in English hulls without much material
+result, but these may be dismissed as pardonable temporary bluster.
+More germane is the fact that the English ships were supplied with
+carronades[38]--harmless at long range and deadly at short--for which
+reason the French tried to keep them at a distance, so that altogether
+superior efficiency with men and weapons would seem to have played a
+greater part than any tactical genius on the part of Rodney, in whom a
+dogged insistence to get at the enemy was ever the main characteristic
+rather than “thinking things out.” The Mahan estimate of him sorts
+better with known facts than the estimate of his accomplishment at the
+time.
+
+As regards Rodney himself, it is interesting to record that Navy and
+Party were so synonymous at the time that he, being a strong Tory, had
+already been superseded by political influence when he won the battle
+that broke French power in the West Indies. It lies to the credit
+of the Whigs that both he and Hood, his second in command, received
+peerages; but the most difficult thing of all to understand to-day is,
+that in a life and death struggle such as this war was, the personal
+political element should have managed to find expression.
+
+In 1782, Gibraltar, which had been twice relieved, was once more in
+grievous straits. The French had evolved floating batteries for the
+attack, similar in principle to those which, some seventy years later,
+were to figure so prominently in the Crimea.
+
+Being merely armoured with heavy wood planks, however, they were easily
+set on fire with red-hot shot, and the great bombardment failed long
+before the relieving force, under Howe, arrived. The garrison, however,
+were in great straits for supplies, and their real relief was Howe’s
+fleet, which the combined Franco-Spanish squadrons did not dare to
+attack.
+
+The Treaty of Versailles, in 1783, followed soon afterwards. By it the
+United States of America were recognised, Minorca was given up, but
+most of the captured West Indian islands restored to Great Britain.
+
+Just before the close of the war, the relative naval strengths were
+assessed as follows:--[39]
+
+  ==================+==========+=========+========+==========
+    Description of  |  Great   |         |        |
+       Vessels.     | Britain. | France. | Spain. | Holland.
+  ------------------+----------+---------+--------+----------
+  Ships of the Line |   105    |    89   |   53   |     32
+  Fifty-gun Ships   |    13    |     7   |    3   |      0
+  Large Frigates    |    63    |    49   |   12   | {   28
+  Small Frigates    |    69    |    54   |   36   | {
+  Sloops            |   217    |    86   |   31   |     13
+  Cutters           |    43    |    22   |    0   |      0
+  Armed Ships       |    24    |     0   |    0   |      0
+  Bombs             |     7    |     5   |   14   |      0
+  Fire-Ships        |     9    |     7   |   11   |      6
+  Yachts            |     5    |     0   |    0   |      0
+                    +----------+---------+--------+----------
+          TOTAL     |   555    |   319   |  160   |     79
+  ==================+==========+=========+========+==========
+
+In this list it is interesting to note the British inability to
+maintain even a Two-Power Standard in ships of the line, whereas in
+sloops and such like, an enormous preponderance prevailed. For the
+suppression of privateering on the coastal trade, these small craft
+proved very useful. Also worthy of note is the decline of the fire-ship
+as a naval arm.[40]
+
+The figures as a whole suggest with much clarity that had the Allies
+been able to act together, Great Britain would never have emerged from
+the war so well as she did.
+
+The ten years’ peace that followed was little more than a breathing
+space. War was constantly apprehended, and known improvement in French
+ships were such that they had to be carefully watched. The frigates
+built in England were made longer than before, with a view to keeping
+pace with French sailing qualities.
+
+Considerable interest was taken in how far the country was
+self-supporting in the matter of timber for shipbuilding, a certain
+reliance on foreign supplies having previously existed. At, and about
+1775, the cost of shipbuilding for the East India Company had exactly
+doubled in a few years. The home supply trouble arose, partly from the
+increased size of shipping, partly from the tendency of owners to fell
+trees as early as possible. Out of which special oak plantations were
+set up in the New Forest and elsewhere, though oak happened to cease to
+be of value for shipbuilding long before they had grown large enough
+for the larger timbers.
+
+The question of repairs also came in for consideration, an average of
+twenty-five years’ repair totalling the cost of a new ship. At and
+about this time also, the building of ships by contract in peace time
+was first recommended on the grounds that thus the private yards would
+be better available in case of war.
+
+Regular stores for ships in the dockyards were also instituted, with
+a view to the speedy equipment of ships in reserve.[41] It was mainly
+owing to this last provision, introduced by Lord Barham in 1783, that,
+though when the war of the French Revolution broke out in 1793 but
+twelve ships of the line and thirty lesser vessels were in commission,
+a few months later seventy-one ships of the line and 104 smaller craft
+were in service. The number of men voted in 1793 was 45,000.
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+THE GREAT FRENCH WAR.
+
+
+The first incident of the war was connected with Toulon, which was
+partly Royalist and partly Republican. The story in full is to be found
+most dramatically rendered in _Ships and Men_, by David Hannay. Here
+it suffices to say that the Royalists and Moderates having coalesced
+at the eleventh hour, surrendered the town to Admiral Hood; that the
+British Government repudiated Hood’s arrangements, and that eventually
+in December, 1793, he was compelled to evacuate the place after doing
+such damage as he could and bringing away with him a few ships of the
+French navy.[42] The incident little concerns our naval history, the
+Navy being but a pawn in the political game of the moment. Indeed, it
+is mostly of some naval interest only because two figures, destined
+to bulk largely in future history, loomed up in it--Captain Horatio
+Nelson, of the _Agamemnon_, who laughed when the Spanish fleet excused
+its inaction by saying that it had been six weeks at sea and was
+disabled accordingly; and Napoleon, who, as much as anyone, served to
+hurry the English out.
+
+Early in 1794 the British fleet had ninety-five ships of the line in
+commission, besides 194 lesser vessels. The _personnel_ amounted to
+85,000.
+
+The centre of interest was the French Brest fleet. Under
+Villaret-Joyeuse, a captain of the old Navy, made Admiral by the
+Terrorists, whose cause he had espoused, this fleet was by no means
+inefficient, like the undisciplined Toulon fleet had been. It carried
+on board the flagship Jean Bon St. André, the deputy of the State, who,
+whatever his faults, realised the meaning of “efficiency.” The bulk
+of the crew were men who had done well in America. Howe, on the other
+hand, commanded a somewhat raw fleet, hastily brought up to strength
+and still by no means “shaken down.”
+
+Howe’s orders were threefold--to convoy a British merchant fleet; to
+destroy the French fleet; and to intercept a convoy of French grain
+coming from America.
+
+From the 5th to the 28th May, Howe was keeping an eye on Brest and
+looking for the French convoy, the interception of which was more
+important than anything else, as France was dependent on these grain
+ships for the means to live.
+
+On the 28th, the French fleet was sighted a long way out in the
+Atlantic. Villaret-Joyeuse, who was out to protect the grain convoy
+at all costs, drew still further out to sea, Howe following in
+pursuit.[43] Towards evening, the last French ship _Revolutionnaire_
+(100), was come up with and engaged by six British (seventy-four’s), of
+which one, the _Audacious_, was badly crippled. The _Revolutionnaire_
+herself was dismasted, but was towed away by a frigate in the night.
+
+This particular incident is one of the most prominent examples of the
+power of the “monster” ship as compared with the “moderate dimension”
+ship[44] of the period. The six did not attack her simultaneously, and
+some were never closely engaged. She was magnificently fought also; but
+even when these elements are subtracted, the fact of the extraordinary
+resisting power exhibited remains. As only the _Audacious_, which
+attacked last, did much harm to the Frenchman, the explanation in this
+particular case probably lies in the stouter scantlings required for a
+ship of 110 guns, compared to smaller ships.
+
+On the following day the action was renewed. Villaret-Joyeuse allowed
+his tail ships to drop into range of the leading British vessels
+with a view to crippling them. Howe cut the line, but being somewhat
+outmanœuvred by the French admiral, obtained no special advantage
+therefrom. Some of the French ships were, however, disabled, and had to
+be towed in the general action that was to follow later.
+
+Two days’ fog now interrupted operations, but on Sunday, June 1st,
+battle was joined. The opposing fleets then consisted as follows:--
+
+     BRITISH.           FRENCH.
+   3 of 100 guns.    1 of 120 guns.
+   4 of  98 guns.    2 of 100 guns.
+   2 of  80 guns.    4 of  80 guns.
+  16 of  74 guns.   19 of  74 guns.
+  --               --
+  25               26
+  --               --
+
+This gives 2,036 British to 2,066 French guns, but as, at least, one
+Frenchman was considerably disabled, there was probably a slight
+British superiority.
+
+Howe, more or less, arranged his heavy ships to correspond with
+the heavy ships of the enemy, and having hove-to half-an-hour for
+breakfast, flung the old fighting instructions[45] to the winds and
+bore right down into the enemy. In the _melee_ that ensued, some of the
+English failed to close, and seven of the French drifted to leeward out
+of action.
+
+Of the French fleet, two eighty-gun and four seventy-four’s were
+badly mauled and eventually struck, while a seventh French ship, the
+_Vengeur_ (seventy-four) was sunk.[46] Four were badly disabled, but
+drifted to leeward out of the fight. On the British side a number of
+ships were badly damaged.
+
+The fleets, having drawn apart, Villaret-Joyeuse succeeded in getting a
+portion of his fleet into some sort of order again, and threatened the
+disabled English ships. Howe protected these, but did not renew action;
+and the French, with the disabled ships in tow, made off.
+
+Such was the battle of “the glorious First of June.” Howe has been
+greatly blamed since then for not having followed up his victory, but
+there are not wanting indications that the caution of Curtis, his
+captain of the fleet, who pleaded with Howe not to re-engage lest the
+advantage gained should be lost, was justified. Villaret-Joyeuse, the
+captain, hastily placed in command of a large fleet, was one of the
+most, if not the most, capable admirals France ever had against us. How
+badly all the French ships had suffered we now know, but the means of
+telling it were absent then. The all-important question of intercepting
+the grain convoy was also possibly present in Howe’s mind.
+
+Be that as it may, the convoy was not intercepted. It reached France in
+safety, and all question of starving the Revolution into surrender was
+at an end. On that account the battle was reckoned as a victory by the
+French as well as in England.[47]
+
+Other naval events of this year (1794) were the capture of Corsica, by
+Hood; and in the West Indies, the capture of Martinique and St. Lucia.
+Guadaloupe was also taken, but quickly re-captured. Among the prizes
+of the year was the French forty-gun frigate _Pomone_, which proved
+infinitely faster than anything in the English fleet. This led to much
+discussion in the House of Commons. A considerable party denied that
+any such superiority existed; others alleged that even if so, British
+ships were better and more strongly built. Others again attributed the
+circumstance to the heavy premiums awarded by the French Government to
+constructors who produced swift sailing ships.
+
+Nothing of much moment came out of the discussion. Orders were issued
+that ships were to be built a little longer in future, and with the
+lower deck ports less near the water than heretofore, but the general
+tendency to over-gun ships in relation to their size still remained.
+
+For the year 1795, the _personnel_ of the fleet was increased to
+100,000, and provision was made for a very considerable increase of
+small craft. The Dutch declared war in January, but the year was not
+marked by any operations of much moment so far as they were concerned.
+
+The principal theatres of naval operations were in the Mediterranean
+and the Channel. This year is marked by a curious indecisiveness, which
+had much to do with the formation of Nelson’s (who was serving in the
+Mediterranean as captain of the _Agamemnon_, sixty-four), subsequent
+character as an admiral.
+
+The British fleet consisted of fifteen ships of the line, under Hotham.
+The French had got together fifteen sail at Toulon. These made for
+Corsica, in March, and on the way captured one of Hotham’s ships, the
+_Berwick_. With the remainder, Hotham put to sea, and on the 12th, off
+Genoa, he was sighted by the French. His fleet was in considerable
+disorder, and in the view of Professor Laughton, the incapacity of the
+French alone averted a disaster. In the desultory operations of the
+next two days, two prizes were taken and two English ships crippled.
+Nelson, who was mainly responsible for the prizes, urged Hotham to
+pursue and destroy the enemy, but the admiral refused.[48]
+
+In July, Nelson, who was on detached service, was met and chased back
+to Genoa by the whole French fleet, which, however, drew off when
+Hotham’s fleet was sighted. Hotham, with a greatly superior fleet, came
+out, and eventually found the enemy off Hyeres. Chase was ordered and
+one French ship overhauled and captured; then, on the grounds that the
+shore was too near, Hotham hauled off.
+
+These operations (or lack of them) on the part of Hotham, are important
+beyond most. In the view of Professor Laughton,[49] Hotham’s indecision
+was mainly responsible for the rise and grandeur of Napoleon’s career.
+Vigorous action on his part would have written differently the history
+of the world. As like as not, in addition to no Napoleon, there would
+also have been no Nelson, to go down as the leading figure in British
+naval history. The survival of the French fleet rendered possible that
+invasion of Italy which “made” Napoleon, and those sea battles which
+made Nelson our most famous admiral.
+
+Villaret-Joyeuse (who had commanded the French fleet in the battle of
+the First of June) displayed considerable activity in 1795, capturing
+a frigate and a good many merchant ships. The weather, however,
+was against him, and he lost five ships of the line wrecked. He,
+notwithstanding, kept the sea with twelve ships of the line, and with
+these met Cornwallis with five, off Brest, on June 16th. Cornwallis
+retired, but was overhauled the next day, and his tail ship the _Mars_,
+(seventy-four) badly damaged, the French, as usual, firing at the
+rigging. Cornwallis, in the _Royal Sovereign_, (100) fell back to
+support the _Mars_, but was well on the way to be defeated when he
+adopted the clever ruse of sending away a frigate to signal to him that
+the Channel fleet was coming up. The code used was one known to have
+been captured by the French, and they, reading the signals, hastily
+abandoned the pursuit and made off.
+
+Three days later, Villaret-Joyeuse did actually encounter the Channel
+fleet, under Hood (now Lord Bridport). He made off south, chased by
+Bridport, who had fourteen ships, mostly three-deckers, of which the
+French had but one. After a four days’ chase, Bridport came up with
+the tail of the enemy, off Lorient. A partial action ensued, in which
+three French ships were captured, after which Bridport withdrew. He
+gave as his reason the nearness to the French shore--exactly the reason
+that Hotham gave for neglecting a possible victory. In both cases,
+the reason was rather trivial. The practical assign it to the old
+age of the admirals concerned. To the imaginative, these two almost
+incomprehensible failures to take advantage of circumstances gave some
+colour to Napoleon’s theory of “his destiny.”
+
+In this year, a number of East Indiamen were purchased for naval use.
+One of these, the _Glatton_, (fifty-six) was experimentally armed
+with sixty-eight pounder carronades on her lower deck, and forty-two
+pounders on the upper. On her way to join her squadron, she was
+attacked by six French frigates, of which one was a fifty-gun, and
+two were of thirty-six. She easily defeated the lot--another instance
+of the “big ship’s” advantage in minor combats. Despite this instance
+of what might be done, the heavy gun idea made no headway, and the
+_Glatton_ remained a unique curiosity, till many years later the
+Americans adopted it to our great disadvantage.
+
+Towards the end of 1795 (December) Hotham was replaced in the
+Mediterranean by Sir John Jervis--an admiral of unique personality, who
+left upon the Navy a mark that easily endures to this day. Somewhat
+hyperbolically it has been said of him that he was the saviour of the
+Navy in his own day, and the main element towards its disruption in
+these times!
+
+Jervis had made his mark in the War of American Independence, as
+captain of the _Foudroyant_. Discipline was his passion; and by means
+of it, he had made an easy capture of a French ship. Thereafter, he
+became a unique blend of martinet and genius.
+
+He was the first openly to re-affirm Sir Walter Raleigh’s theory,
+quoted in an earlier chapter, that fortifications were useless
+against invasion, and that only on the water could an enemy be met
+successfully, combatting Pitt himself on this point. When the Great
+War broke out, his first employment was in the West Indies, where
+he achieved St. Lucia, Martinique and Guadaloupe. He went to the
+Mediterranean, at a time when France was numerically superior to us
+in the Channel, and when Spain was daily expected to declare war. The
+fleet to which he went was like all others, tending to a mutinous
+spirit, and finally he had to go out in the frigate _Lively_. In those
+days, for an admiral to take passage in anything less than a ship of
+the line was considered a most undignified thing. It rankled so with
+Jervis that he never forgot it, and years after harped upon it as
+a grievance. Of such character was the man who took command in the
+Mediterranean at the end of 1795.
+
+In 1796, the _personnel_ of the Navy was increased to 110,000. Jervis,
+in the Mediterranean, did little beyond blockading Toulon, and training
+his fleet on his own ideas. Spain declared war in October; but her
+intentions being known beforehand, Corsica was evacuated, and at the
+end of the year the Mediterranean was abandoned also, Jervis with
+his entire fleet lying under the guns of Gibraltar. Nothing else was
+possible.
+
+Elsewhere invasion ideas were uppermost in France, and 18,000 troops,
+convoyed by seventeen ships of the line and thirteen frigates, sailed
+from Brest for Bantry Bay, at the end of the year. Only eight ships of
+the line reached there; a gale dispersed the transports and nothing
+happened in the way of invasion. The only other event of the year was
+the capture of a Dutch squadron at the Cape of Good Hope. Matters
+generally were, however, so bad, that attempts were made to secure
+terms of peace from France. These attempts failed.
+
+The year 1792 saw 108 ships of the line and 293 lesser vessels in
+commission. Something like sixty ships of the line were building or
+ordered, also 168 lesser craft. The first incident was the Battle of
+Cape St. Vincent (14th February, 1797). The Spaniards, having come out
+of Cartagena, were making for Cadiz, when sighted by Jervis.
+
+The rival fleets were:--
+
+     BRITISH.          SPANISH.
+   2 of 100 guns.    1 of 130 guns.
+   3 of  98 guns.    6 of 112 guns.
+   1 of  90 guns.    2 of  80 guns.
+   8 of  74 guns.   18 of  74 guns.
+   1 of  64 guns.   --
+  --                27
+  15                --
+  --
+
+The battle is mainly of interest on account of Nelson’s part in it.
+The Spaniards were sailing in no order whatever, the bulk of them
+being in one irregular mass, the remainder in another. Jervis, in line
+ahead, proposed to pass between the two divisions, and destroy the
+larger before the smaller could beat up to assist them. The Spaniards,
+however inefficient they may have been in other ways, saw through this
+manœuvre, and their main body was preparing to join up astern of the
+British, when Nelson, in the _Captain_, flung himself across them and
+captured two ships by falling foul of them and boarding. Three other
+ships were captured, the rest escaped. In this battle, as in those of
+the year before, the same caution about following up the victory was
+observed, and the age of the admiral concerned has again been produced
+as the reason. But the thoughtful--taking the previous career of most
+of those concerned into consideration--may suspect the existence of
+some special secret orders about taking no risks, as yet unearthed
+by any historian. The only really workable alternative is Napoleon’s
+“destiny” theory already alluded to. Of the two, the secret order
+hypothesis is the more practical. Into the whole of these victories not
+properly followed up, it is also possible, though hardly probable, that
+the mutinous state of the _personnel_ entered.
+
+[Illustration: THE “FOUDROYANT” ONE OF NELSON’S OLD SHIPS.]
+
+In the battle of Cape St. Vincent, the Spaniards had an enormous
+four-decker, the _Santissima Trinidad_, of 130 guns. She was the first
+ship engaged by Nelson, and was hammered by most of the others closely
+engaged as well, but her size and power saved her from the fate of the
+rest of the ships that were with her.
+
+It is difficult even now to assess the exact situation of the mutineers
+of 1797. The organised self-restraint of the Spithead Mutiny is hard
+to understand, when we remember the heterogeneous origin of the crews.
+“Jail or Navy” was an every-day offer to prisoners. Longshoremen,
+riff-raff, pressed landsmen, thieves, murderers, smugglers, and a
+few degraded officers, were the raw material of which the crews were
+composed. They were stiffened with a proportion of professional
+seamen, and it is these that must have leavened the mass, and kept the
+jail-bird element in check.
+
+Pay was bad, ship life close akin to prison life, discipline and
+punishments alike brutal, and the food disgracefully bad. It was this
+last that brought about the mutiny. There is an old saying to the
+effect that you may ill-treat a sailor as you will, but if you ill-feed
+him, trouble may be looked for! One or two isolated mutinies, like that
+of the _Hermione_, were due to a captain’s brutality; but mainly and
+mostly bad food and mutiny were closely linked.
+
+Commander Robinson[50] draws attention to the fact that the pursers
+themselves were hardly the unscrupulous rascals they were supposed to
+be on shore, and that the system and regulations of victualling were
+recognised by the seamen as at the bottom of the mischief.
+
+The same authority quotes a contemporary:--
+
+     “The reason unto you I now will relate:
+      We resolved to refuse the purser’s short weight;
+      Our humble petition to Lord Howe we sent,
+      That he to the Admiralty write to present
+      Our provisions and wages that they might augment.”
+
+Discontent had, of course, long been brewing, but the Admiralty seems
+to have been without any suspicions. They dismissed the petition as
+being in no way representative; later, having received reports to the
+contrary, ordered Lord Bridport’s fleet at Spithead to proceed to sea.
+On April 15th, when the signal to weigh anchor was made, the crews of
+every ship manned the rigging and cheered. No violence was offered
+to any officer; the men simply refused to work. Each ship supplied a
+couple of delegates to explain matters, and after an enquiry, their
+demands were granted and a free pardon given. Delays, however, ensued,
+and on May 7th, the fleet again refused to put to sea.
+
+On this occasion, the officers were disarmed, confined to their cabins,
+and kept there, till a few days later a general pardon was proclaimed,
+when this mutiny ended. A similar mutiny at Plymouth was equally mild.
+
+Of a very different character was the mutiny at the Nore, which broke
+out on May 13th, under the leadership of the notorious Richard Parker.
+Parker was a man of considerable parts, said to have been an ex-officer
+dismissed the service with disgrace, and to have entered as a seaman.
+He possessed undoubted ability and considerable ambition. He very
+clearly aimed at something more than the redress of grievances, since
+his first act was to put a rope round his own neck by instigating the
+crew of the _Inflexible_ to fire into a sister ship, on board which
+a court-martial was being held. Subsequently, delegates were sent
+to the Admiralty with extravagant claims, which--as Parker may have
+anticipated--were ignored.
+
+Eleven ships of Admiral Duncan’s fleet (then blockading the Texel) had
+joined Parker by the first of June. Duncan was left with but two ships
+in face of the enemy. By showing himself much and making imaginary
+signals Duncan managed to conceal the facts from the Dutch: but he had
+considerable trouble to keep his two ships from joining the mutineers
+now blockading the Thames.
+
+There is reason to believe that Parker was in touch with the
+Revolutionists in France and the dissatisfied Irish, but the bulk
+of the mutineers were altogether uninfluenced by political ideas.
+The mutiny began to waver. The ships at other home ports were
+unsympathetic, and Parker and his friends found men cooling off. In
+order to keep things together it was their custom to row round the
+fleet[51] and inspect ships suspected of being “cool,”--the side being
+piped for them. In one case, however, the boatswain’s mate refused to
+do so, and flung his call at their heads. On coming on board, they
+sentenced him to thirty-six lashes for “mutinous conduct!” On June
+10th, despite this disciplinary system, two of the mutineer ships
+sailed away under fire from the others, and on the 14th, Parker’s own
+ship surrendered and handed him over to the authorities. He was hanged
+on June 29th.
+
+In the Mediterranean fleet, mutiny broke out in two ships off Cadiz,
+but Jervis (now Earl St. Vincent), compelled the mutineers to hang
+their own ringleaders. In connection with this, Nelson, who was now
+rear admiral commanding the inshore squadron, wrote to St. Vincent--
+
+    “I congratulate you on the finish, as it ought, of the St. George’s
+    business, and I (if I may be permitted to say so) very much approve
+    of its being so speedily carried into execution, even although
+    it is Sunday. The particular situation of the service requires
+    extraordinary measures. I hope this will end all the disorders in
+    our fleet: had there been the same determined spirit at home, I do
+    not believe it would have been half so bad.”
+
+It is noteworthy that in Nelson’s own ship there was no trouble
+whatever. The ship had had a reputation for insubordination, but
+shortly after Nelson joined her, a paper intimating that no mutiny need
+be feared was dropped on the quarter-deck. Nelson brought with him a
+reputation for taking a personal interest in his men. Then, as now,
+hard work and a dog’s life were not objected to, provided the personal
+equation were present.
+
+St. Vincent proceeded to stamp out the embers of mutiny in his own
+fashion. He set himself to invest his rank with every circumstance
+of pomp, awe and ceremony. Every morning he appeared on the quarter
+deck in full dress uniform, paraded the Marines, and had “God save the
+King” played with all hats off. His regulations were catholic enough to
+embrace lieutenants’ shoe-laces. In all the pomp that he created the
+mutinous spirit was smothered.
+
+To him is due the vast abyss between the quarter-deck and lower-deck
+which marks the Navy of to-day. Whether this, advantageous as it was a
+hundred odd years ago, is equally advantageous now, is another matter.
+It makes a barrier altogether different from that existing between
+officer and man in the Army--it is something closely akin to the racial
+differences mark in India; and this sorts ill with the democratic ideas
+of to-day, when class distinction is quite a different matter from what
+it was a hundred years ago.
+
+There are still possible two views of the question. One is embodied in
+a letter I received some few years ago from a man from the lower-deck.
+He wrote, “When I was a boy in a training ship, my captain seemed to me
+something as far away and above me as God himself, and the impression
+thus created I have carried with me towards all officers ever since.
+Though in private life I might meet his brother with feeling of perfect
+equality, I could never be other than ill at ease meeting an officer in
+the same conditions.”
+
+Here, at any rate, is the psychology of what St. Vincent aimed at.
+To-day, however, one is far more likely to hear about “the side of
+officers,” or that “officers, when cadets, are taught to regard the men
+with contempt!” The conditions are such, that despite mixed cricket and
+football teams, mutual sympathy between officers and men is well nigh
+impossible.
+
+Of “the great God Routine” which St. Vincent set up, it is beyond
+question that it is to-day an irritating superfluity to both officers
+and men alike.
+
+To resume. As the Spaniards obstinately refused to come out from Cadiz,
+St. Vincent sent Nelson in to bombard them with mortar boats; but this
+attempt to force them out did not succeed. Following upon this, Nelson,
+with three seventy-four’s, one fifty, three frigates and a cutter, was
+despatched to Santa Cruz. On the night of July 24th, he led a boat
+attack in person. Most of the boats missed the Mole and were stove
+in. Such as reached the Mole were met by a withering fire. Nelson
+was struck on the right elbow by a grape shot, and taken back to the
+_Theseus_, where his arm was amputated. Troubridge took command of the
+300 odd men who had got ashore, and being surrounded by the Spanish,
+made terms, whereby the Spaniards found boats for his party to return
+to their ships. The squadron rejoined St. Vincent, and Nelson sailed
+for England to recover.
+
+The blockade of the Texel had been vigorously maintained till October,
+when Duncan returned to Spithead to refit. He had no sooner done so
+than the Dutch, under De Winter, came out--presumably with a view to
+reaching Brest. Duncan’s frigates, however, promptly reported them, and
+sailing at once he met them off Camperdown, on October 11th.
+
+The rival fleets were:--
+
+     BRITISH.          DUTCH.
+
+   7 of 74 guns.     4 of 74 guns.
+   7 of 64 guns.     7 of 64 guns.
+   2 of 50 guns.     4 of 50 guns.
+  --                --
+  16                15
+  --                --
+
+Duncan’s original plan was the old fashioned ship-to-ship system,
+but in the actual event, the Dutch line was broken. One of the Dutch
+fifty-gun ships fell back to avoid the _Lancaster_ (sixty-four), five
+others for some reason or other following her; the remaining nine
+fought desperately, till further resistance was impossible.
+
+The prizes were:--two seventy-four’s, five sixty-four’s, two fifties,
+and a couple of frigates. Both the captured fifties were lost; the
+other ships were with great difficulty got to England. All were found
+to have been damaged beyond repair, and some of Duncan’s ships were in
+little better condition. His losses in _personnel_ were over 1,000 in
+killed and wounded. His crews, it is interesting to note, consisted
+mostly of Parker’s erstwhile mutineers.
+
+During 1797, a few frigates only were lost. These included the
+_Hermione_, whose crew mutinied and handed her over to the enemy. The
+brutality of her captain, Pigot, whose idea of efficiency was to flog
+the last two men down from aloft, was the cause of this particular
+outbreak.[52]
+
+In 1797, a large ninety-eight gun ship, the _Neptune_, was added to the
+Navy, also a seventy-four and a sixty-four. Private yards launched no
+less than forty-six frigates and smaller craft, and the total number of
+warships built, building and projected, was 696.[53]
+
+For the year 1798, the _personnel_ voted was 100,000 seamen and 20,000
+marines; and the total Naval Estimates amounted to £13,449,388.
+
+In France, Buonaparte was forging to the front, and he threw himself
+into those schemes for the invasion of England which so appealed to the
+French mind and so terrified the British public. Ireland was selected
+as the most suitable spot, and two expeditions were prepared, one at
+Rochefort, the other at Brest. Of these, one, the Rochefort expedition,
+materialised in August, reached Killala Bay, in Ireland, and soon
+afterwards had to surrender to the English Army. The Brest expedition,
+escorted by a line of battle ship and a number of frigates, was more
+or less annihilated by Admiral Warren, on October 12th.
+
+As already stated, the Mediterranean had become a species of
+Franco-Spanish lake. St. Vincent was outside Gibraltar, and he was
+still there when Nelson, in the _Vanguard_, arrived to join him as
+rear-admiral, at the end of April.
+
+Nelson, with a small squadron, was at once despatched to discover what
+the French were doing at Toulon. Rumours of all kinds were current. He
+found fifteen ships of the line and a great many transports, news of
+which he sent to the Admiral. On the top of this came a gale, which
+dismasted the _Vanguard_. She was, however, towed into San Pietro,
+Sardinia, and hastily re-fitted, and four days later the ships were off
+Toulon again, only to find that the French had sailed.
+
+Reinforced by ten sail of the line, under Troubridge, Nelson now
+sailed in search of the French fleet. Reaching Alexandria and finding
+nothing known there of the French, he worked back to Syracuse, where
+he revictualled in cheerful disregard of the neutrality remonstrances
+of the Governor. Thence he returned eastward, and having received
+information of where the French had last been seen, eventually found
+them anchored in Aboukir Bay, where he attacked them on the evening of
+August 1st, 1798.
+
+The rival fleets were:--
+
+    BRITISH.         FRENCH.
+
+  13 of 74 guns.    1 of 120 guns.
+   1 of 50 guns.    9 of  74 guns.
+  --               --
+  14               10, also 4 Frigates.
+  --               --
+
+The French, under Brueys, were drawn across the Bay in a “defensive
+position.” They were in no way a very efficient force, some of the
+ships being old and short of guns, all of them rather short-handed, and
+even so, manned with many new-raised raw men. On the other hand, they
+were so sure of the safety of their position that their inshore guns
+were not cleared for action. By all the naval theory of the day this
+idea of impregnability was justified.
+
+The battle itself was simple enough. Nelson came down with the wind on
+the French van, approximately putting two of his ships one on either
+side of each of the Frenchmen, and so on, the rear being unable to beat
+up to support them. The result was the practical annihilation of the
+French fleet. Of the thirteen ships of the line, only two escaped in
+company with two frigates.
+
+So complete a naval victory had never before been known. In all the
+battles of the previous two or three hundred years, the percentage
+of losses to the vanquished had been small. The battle of the Nile,
+therefore, received an attention perhaps beyond its intrinsic worth. As
+Nelson wrote to Howe:--“By attacking the enemy’s van and centre, the
+wind blowing directly along their line, I was enabled to throw what
+force I pleased on a few ships.” The real point of interest is not the
+result, which was foregone, but Nelson’s ability to see his opportunity
+and to make the utmost of it. Therein lay his superlative greatness.
+
+Of the prizes, three were found to be new and good ships. One of them,
+the _Franklin_, was renamed _Canopus_, and as late as 1850 was still on
+the effective list of the British Navy.
+
+The defeat of the French at the Nile had far reaching effects.
+Russia, Austria, Turkey, Naples and Portugal formed with England a
+great anti-French Alliance. A large Russian fleet appeared in the
+Mediterranean, but accomplished no services there. It was under
+suspicion of having private designs on Malta rather than of assisting
+the Alliance.
+
+From 1762 onward, when Catherine the Great came to the throne of
+Russia, an enormous number of retired or unemployed English officers
+took service in the Russian Navy. To one of these, Captain Elphinstone
+(who subsequently re-entered the British service), has been traced
+the origin of the idea upon which Nelson acted in the battle of the
+Nile. To another, General Bentham, originally a shipwright, who
+returned to the British service in 1795, was due a revolution in
+dockyard management. To him was due the introduction of machinery into
+dockyards: a matter needing much diplomacy and caution, as popular
+feeling against machinery then ran high. However, by 1798, Bentham had
+steam engines installed in the dockyards. He also commenced the first
+caisson known in England, using it for the great basin at Portsmouth
+Yard. In the face of considerable opposition he also introduced deep
+docks, basins and jetties at Portsmouth, for the speedy fitting out of
+ships.
+
+In 1799, the _personnel_ was settled at 120,000, and the Naval
+Estimates were £13,654,000.
+
+In April of this year, the French, under Bruix, with twenty-five ships
+of the line, came out of Brest, which was being cruised off by Bridport
+with sixteen sail. Having warned Keith, who was blockading Cadiz, and
+St. Vincent, who lay at Gibraltar, Bridport fell back on Bantry Bay,
+where he was reinforced with ten ships.
+
+[Illustration: GENERAL BENTHAM.]
+
+Bruix ran down south, his orders being to join the Spaniards in Cadiz,
+but the weather was unfavourable and his crews so illtrained[54]
+that he made no attempt to attack Keith’s squadron, but ran on into the
+Mediterranean. Keith himself joined St. Vincent at Gibraltar.
+
+On May 11th, St. Vincent arrived at Minorca with twenty sail. Nelson,
+with sixteen ships (of which four were Portuguese) was scattered over
+the Mediterranean, his base being at Palermo. On the 13th, Bruix
+reached Toulon, and a week later seventeen Spaniards from Cadiz reached
+Cartagena.
+
+To prevent these joining up with Bruix, St. Vincent lay between the two
+bases: but the risk that either fleet might suddenly fall on Nelson was
+such, that he sent four of his ships to him. He was, however, presently
+reinforced with five ships, bringing his net total to twenty-one.
+
+St. Vincent’s health having now given out, he handed the fleet over
+to Lord Keith, who learned that Bruix, with twenty-two sail, had left
+Toulon on the 27th May; but for some reason or other made for that
+place. Bruix reached the Spaniards at Cartagena, without interference,
+on June 23rd, and so had thirty-nine ships to oppose the British
+twenty-one. These, falling back upon Minorca, were there reinforced by
+ten ships from home, thus bringing the total up to thirty-one.
+
+Meanwhile, Bruix putting to sea again at once, made for Cadiz, which he
+reached on July 12th, and leaving again on the 21st, made for Brest;
+Keith, some two weeks behind him, in pursuit.
+
+The net result of Bruix’s cruise was that the French fleet at Brest
+rose to the enormous total of ninety warships, collected to cover an
+invasion of England. As, however, Napoleon, who was to command, did
+not reach France until October, nothing was done in 1799, thus allowing
+ample time for the concentration of English ships. Had the Brest Armada
+struck at once, matters for England had been none too rosy, since the
+only force guarding the Channel was Bridport’s fleet of twenty-six
+sail, at Bantry.
+
+August saw 20,000 Russians landed at the Helder from British
+transports. These captured the Texel fortifications, inside of which
+lay what was left of the Dutch fleet. The Dutch admiral declined to
+surrender, but his crews refused to fight, and eventually the ships
+were handed over without firing a shot. The ships were found to be
+antiquated in design and badly built, and were never of any use to the
+English Navy.
+
+In the latter part of this year, two Spanish frigates were captured by
+four English. These ships were bringing home the year’s South American
+treasure. The prize money divided among the four captains amounted to
+£160,000.
+
+Twenty-one vessels were lost during the year. Only three of them,
+however, were lost by capture, and of these the largest was a ten-gun
+brig!
+
+The prizes of the year consisted of eight French frigates, five Spanish
+frigates and twenty-four Dutch ships. In this year also the very fast
+French privateer, _Bordelais_, was taken, being chased and overhauled
+by the _Revolutionnaire_, an ex-French frigate, and the only frigate in
+the Navy at this time able to catch up with French ones.
+
+The _personnel_ granted for the year 1800, was 110,000, with an
+additional 10,000 for March and April only. The ships in commission
+were 100 ships of the line, seventeen small two-deckers and 351
+frigates and lesser craft.
+
+No naval fighting of much importance took place, but the year was
+otherwise very momentous. Napoleon, who had made himself First Consul,
+was busy reorganising the French Navy, and one of his first acts was
+to offer terms of peace. These, however, were refused by the British
+Government.
+
+On July 25th, the Danish frigate, _Freya_, out with a convoy, was met
+by some British ships. She refused to allow “the right of search.”
+Firing followed, and the _Freya_ was captured. An embassy, to explain
+matters to the Danes, went, accompanied by a fleet of nine ships of the
+line, five frigates and four bombs, under Admiral Dickson.
+
+This action--the intentions of which were obvious--aroused the
+resentment of the Russian Emperor Paul. Nelson’s suspicion that the
+Russians wished to capture Malta for themselves, have already been
+alluded to. These intentions came to light now; for Paul, having got
+himself declared Grand Master of the Knights of St. John of Malta,
+seized some 300 British merchant ships in Russian ports, and said that
+he would not let them go till Malta (which was then besieged and about
+to fall to the British) was given up to him.
+
+The British Government ignored the Malta claim, and many of the British
+merchant ships equally ignored the Russian orders about remaining in
+harbour. Quite a number sailed away; the rest, however, were seized and
+burned, by Paul’s orders. To reinforce himself against very probable
+reprisals, Paul--presumably influenced by Napoleon--formed the “Armed
+Neutrality.” Russia and Sweden signed on December 16th, and on the
+19th, Denmark and Prussia.
+
+Meanwhile, Malta, which had been blockaded and besieged by the British
+ever since the battle of the Nile, was in grievous straits. In
+February, 1800, the _Genereux_, seventy-four (one of the two ships of
+the line which escaped from the Nile), left Toulon, with some frigates,
+intent on relief. She was, however, intercepted and captured by Nelson.
+
+In March, the _Guillaume Tell_, the other survivor of the Nile, which
+had been lying at Malta, attempted on the night of the 30th to run the
+blockade to procure help. In doing so, she encountered the British
+frigate _Penelope_, which chased her, attacking her rigging. The firing
+brought up two ships of the line, _Foudroyant_ and _Lion_, but the
+Frenchman made such a defence that both these were disabled before she
+was reduced to submission, and it was to the _Penelope_ frigate that
+she ultimately struck. This particular fight is generally reckoned as
+the finest defence ever made by a French ship.
+
+Malta was eventually starved into surrender, and the final capitulation
+took place on the 5th September, 1800, after a siege of practically two
+years.
+
+The capture of Malta was perhaps one of the finest exhibitions of
+“Admiralty” in the whole war. No waste of life in assaults took place:
+the fortress was systematically starved into surrender by the judicious
+use of Sea Power to prevent any relief.
+
+In this year (1800), several ships were lost, the principal being the
+_Queen Charlotte_ (100), which was accidentally burned and blown up off
+Capraja, on the 17th of March. The majority of her crew perished with
+her. Eighteen other ships were wrecked, while two (a twenty gun and a
+fourteen) mutinied and joined the enemy. These were the only British
+ships that actually changed hands. Captures amounted to fourteen ships
+of from eighty to twenty-eight guns, and a large number of privateers
+and small craft.
+
+The year 1801 saw the Estimates at £16,577,000. The _personnel_ voted
+was 120,000 for the first quarter of the year, after which it was to
+rise to 135,000, with a view to dealing with the Armed Neutrality. The
+number of ships in commission was substantially the same as in the
+previous year.
+
+The avowed objects of the Armed Neutrality were to resist “the right of
+search,” to secure any property under a neutral flag, that a blockade
+to be binding must be maintained by an adequate force, and that
+contraband of war must be clearly defined beforehand. In substance,
+they amounted to the free importation into France of those naval stores
+of which she stood most in need. Wisely enough the British Government
+decided to break up the coalition by diplomacy, if possible, and
+failing that, by force. Incidentally, it may be noted that the Tsar,
+who was at the head of the coalition, was more or less a madman, in
+possession of a very considerable fleet.
+
+In March, 1801, a fleet of twenty ships of the line and a large number
+of auxiliaries, under Sir Hyde Parker, with Nelson as second in
+command, sailed for the Baltic. On arrival at Copenhagen, the Danes
+were found to be moored in a strong position under cover of shore
+batteries. The attack was confided to Nelson with twelve ships, which
+fared badly enough for Parker after the battle had lasted three hours
+to make a signal to withdraw.[55] Nelson, however, disregarded this,
+and continued till the Danish fire began to slacken an hour later.
+But as the Danes continually reinforced their disabled ships from
+the shore, and fired into those which had surrendered, the slaughter
+promised to go on indefinitely. Things being thus, Nelson, under a flag
+of truce, threatened to set fire to the damaged ships and leave their
+crews to their fate unless firing ceased. It has been alleged that this
+was a clever piece of bluff in order to extricate his ships from an
+awkward position: but all the evidence goes to show that he was fully
+in a position to carry out his threat, while as he made no attempt to
+move during the negotiations the bluff story is absurd. It appears to
+have been an act of humanity, pure and simple.
+
+Ultimately, the bulk of the Danish fleet was surrendered, and a
+fourteen weeks’ armistice arranged, Nelson explaining that he required
+this amount of time to destroy the Russian fleet!
+
+Subsequently the Swedish fleet was dealt with, but it took refuge
+under fortifications. About the same time news came that the mad Tsar
+had been assassinated, and that his successor had no wish to continue
+hostilities.
+
+Nelson (now Commander-in-Chief) appeared off Kronstadt, under the
+guns of which the Russians had taken shelter in May. Negotiations
+followed,[56] and ultimately Russia was granted the right to trade with
+belligerents--probably a diplomatic concession in order to detach her
+sympathy from France.
+
+In the meantime, Napoleon’s invasion schemes were shaping. To this
+day it is unknown whether he was serious or not at this, or for that
+matter, any other period. That he intended his preparations to be
+taken seriously (as they were by all save Nelson) is clear enough.
+It is further clear from his vast preparations that he would have
+used his flotilla had the chance occurred; but the mere fact that he
+never attempted actual invasion is of itself sufficient answer to all
+the homilies that have been written about Napoleon’s inability to
+understand “Sea Power.”
+
+The army at Boulogne, the flat-bottomed boats, all served to keep
+England in a panic, and that was worth much. He had experience to guide
+him. Past experience was an English attack on the flotilla like that of
+Rodney many years before. In August, 1801, such an attack came, Nelson
+directing it. It was found fully prepared for and defeated with ease.
+
+In the Mediterranean, Ganteaume, who had left Brest with seven ships
+of the line convoying 5,000 troops, reached Alexandria, but before he
+could disembark his soldiers, Keith appeared, and he hurried back to
+Toulon.
+
+Linois left Toulon with a small squadron, and was driven into
+Algeciras, where he beat off Samaurez and a considerably more powerful
+squadron. Retreating from this, Samaurez fell in with a Spanish
+squadron, the ships of which, in the confusion of a night action,
+attacked each other, with the result that the two best ships were
+destroyed.
+
+In October, 1801, the preliminaries of the Peace of Amiens were signed
+and hostilities ceased.
+
+The total losses to the enemy in the war are given as follows by
+Campbell:--
+
+                     FRENCH.  DUTCH.  SPANISH.  TOTAL.
+  Ships of the line     45      25       11       81
+  Fifties                2       1        0        3
+  Frigates             133      31       20      184
+  Sloops, etc.         161      32       55      248
+                                                 ---
+                                       TOTAL     516
+                                                 ---
+
+The corresponding British loss was only twenty-one ships of _all
+classes_, and of these only two ships of the line were captured. The
+bulk of British losses was accounted for by wrecks.
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+FROM THE PEACE OF AMIENS TO THE FINAL FALL OF NAPOLEON.
+
+
+With the Peace of Amiens the usual reduction of the Navy took place.
+The 104 ships of the line in commission the year before sank to
+thirty-two in 1802. The _personnel_ fell to 50,000.
+
+It may here be remarked that of the ships put out of commission a great
+number were unfit for further service: 111 ships of various classes
+being in so bad a way that they were sold or broken up. Many others
+were cut down to serve in inferior rates.
+
+Early in 1803 it became abundantly clear that Napoleon was preparing
+for a new war, and in May, war was declared on him by the British
+Government. It is of interest to note that Napoleon, in dismissing the
+British Ambassador, said to him that he “intended to invade England,”
+adding that he considered it might be “a very risky undertaking.” At
+the time war was declared Napoleon was not quite ready, and never
+regained the ground thus lost.
+
+Little or nothing happened to show that a great naval struggle was
+in progress. The French ships lay secure in harbour; the British
+tossed outside in ceaseless blockade work. But these months of seeming
+inaction settled the fate of France. The French crews, never very
+efficient, grew less and less so in harbour, while every day outside
+hardened the British and added to their efficiency. Seeing that the
+British _personnel_, which was but 50,000 at the early part of the
+year, was suddenly expanded to 100,000 in June, the advantages of
+this shaking down of raw crews were obvious enough. When eventually
+battle was joined, the difference between the English and the French
+_personnel_ was such that for every round got off by the latter, any
+British ship could fire _three_! Victory was won long before a single
+battle shot had been fired. Trafalgar was made a certainty by the great
+blockades.
+
+When war broke out the general disposition of the hostile squadrons was
+as follows:--(the figures in brackets representing frigates and small
+craft)--
+
+                     BRITISH.   FRENCH.
+                     Outside.   Inside.
+  Toulon             14  (32)   10  (6)
+  Ferrol              7   (4)    5  (2)
+  Rochefort           5   (2)    4  (7)
+  Brest              20  (11)   18  (7)
+  Texel to Dunkirk    9  (21)    5 (11)
+
+The invasion flotilla was distributed about Boulogne to the tune of
+1,450 of the flotilla, 120 brigs and a few frigates. In the Texel
+district were 645 more of the flotilla.
+
+Reserve squadrons were stationed in home waters ample to deal with the
+small craft defending flotillas.
+
+So passed away the year 1803. Both sides reinforced their squadrons as
+rapidly as new ships could be produced. Beyond this nothing happened.
+
+[Illustration: POSITIONS OF THE SHIPS OF THE LINE AT THE OUTBREAK OF
+WAR.]
+
+The year 1804 opened with the same lack of result. Napoleon made
+himself Emperor in May, and to some extent weakened his squadrons by
+the removal from them of officers suspected of Republican views. In
+July, however, things were nearing completion, and Latouche Treville
+was put in supreme command of the whole expedition against England.
+He received explicit orders to evade Nelson (who watched Toulon) and
+to rendezvous at Brest for invasion purposes. He died, however, in
+August[57] and the plans fell through.
+
+After some delay, Villeneuve was appointed in his place; but instead
+of the invasion idea there came plans of oversea enterprises, possibly
+designed with a view to drawing all British forces of the moment away
+from the Channel, thus leaving things clear for an invasion. But again
+there comes the doubt whether Napoleon ever expected this to succeed,
+whether he really thought of much else than keeping England perturbed
+and busy while he matured plans for other parts of Europe, and whether
+he did not realise that “Sea Power” had its limitations as well as its
+advantages, and never really sought anything further than to cause
+Britain to spend so much in naval defence that she had little left to
+subsidise his Continental foes with. Better than most men he was able
+to estimate Nelson’s limitations. He clearly estimated fully enough
+that Nelson was no particularly brilliant strategist, and that he was
+more likely to forecast correctly what Nelson would do, than was Nelson
+to divine his purpose. He under-estimated indeed what Nelson really did
+mean,--the particular genius which made Nelson invincible as a leader
+of men, how Nelson was a tactician able to gauge exactly the competence
+of the enemy and to win victory by doing seemingly foolish things
+accordingly.
+
+At least, it would appear that there Napoleon erred. But there is no
+judging Napoleon--the strangest mixture of genius and charlatan that
+the world has ever seen or is ever likely to. It is even unsafe to say
+that Napoleon did not foresee Trafalgar; unsafe to believe that, in
+his view, French fleets had no purpose other than to keep the English
+occupied. Napoleon is ever the one man in history that no one can ever
+surely know, whether we take him as the biggest liar who ever lived, or
+as the greatest genius the world has ever known.
+
+In January, 1804, the British Fleet in commission consisted of
+seventy-five ships of the line, with forty others in reserve; 281
+lesser craft were in commission and a few in reserve.
+
+The intentions of Spain had long been mistrusted in England. As a
+precaution, the Spanish treasure fleet was attacked without warning,
+and over a million pounds’ worth of booty secured. Spain, thereupon,
+made her intentions clear, and declared war. A few lesser ships changed
+hands during the year; but even the minor happenings were of small
+account.
+
+In the year 1805, the number of British ships built, building and
+ordered, stood at 181 ships of the line, and 532 lesser vessels besides
+troop-ships, store-ships and harbour vessels. The _personnel_ was
+120,000 and the Naval Estimates £15,035,630.
+
+Napoleon’s “Army of Invasion” now amounted to a nominal 150,000
+men[58] in the Boulogne district alone, men all trained in embarking
+and disembarking. The famous “Let me be master of the Channel but
+for six hours” had been uttered.[59] If ever invasion were seriously
+contemplated it was so in this year 1805.
+
+There followed those well-known operations--the “drawing away of
+Nelson,” of which so much had been written.
+
+In substance, Napoleon quite understood the situation so far as Nelson
+was concerned. He understood that Nelson’s fleet did not watch Toulon
+closely. He understood that if Villeneuve came out from Toulon when
+Nelson was not close by, Nelson would blindly seek him, probably in the
+wrong direction.
+
+In this, and up to a certain point beyond, Napoleon was entirely
+correct. But he made one error. He regarded Nelson as a fool. In
+estimating Nelson to be easily outwitted he was not perhaps far wrong;
+but beyond that, he failed to understand the man with whom he had to
+deal.
+
+It was these qualities of Nelson that rendered any invasion hopeless.
+Nelson had seen enough to know that the fighting value of the enemy was
+small, and that for him to attack at all costs and all hazards meant
+no hazard to the result. With one single idea, to find the enemy and
+destroy him, he was just the one enemy for whom Napoleon’s genius had
+no answering move.
+
+Villeneuve got out of Toulon on January 20th. He cruised about, Nelson
+cruising elsewhere looking for him. Eventually, Villeneuve, damaged by
+a gale, returned to Toulon, whence he presently emerged again on March
+29th, and sailed for the West Indies. Ten days after he had done so,
+Nelson learned that the French had passed Gibraltar on April 8th; but
+delayed by contrary winds and lack of information, the British fleet
+was a long way behind. As for Villeneuve, he picked up six Spaniards at
+Cadiz, and went to the West Indies with seventeen ships of the line.
+Nelson followed far behind with ten. He pressed on so hard, however,
+that he reached Barbadoes on June 4th, the same day that Villeneuve,
+not so very far away, left Martinique, where he had been lying.
+
+Therefrom, Nelson sailed south to Trinidad, off which he arrived at the
+same time as Villeneuve, sailing north, came off Antigua.
+
+On June 11th, Villeneuve (whose crews were already sick) set out to
+return to Europe. Two days later, Nelson, who had gone north again,
+followed suit.
+
+These hole and corner movements, impossible to-day, are not of much
+interest, save in so far as they indicate the certainty of information
+in these days and the uncertainty in those.
+
+The “decoyed away fleet” idea has nothing in it, because in any such
+scheme Villeneuve could surely either have doubled back when half-way,
+or in any case would not have remained in the West Indies.
+
+Nelson sent ahead fast frigates, with information that Villeneuve was
+returning; consequently arrangements for his reception were made.
+Off Finisterre, Villeneuve encountered Calder, and an indecisive
+action resulted. Two Spanish ships were captured. The following day,
+Villeneuve attempted to attack, but wind and weather prevented. On the
+third day the wind shifted, but Calder failed to attack. For this he
+was subsequently court-martialled and severely reprimanded.
+
+Nelson, meanwhile, touched Gibraltar,[60] then proceeded north to join
+Cornwallis off Brest, and thence to England in his flagship _Victory_.
+Villeneuve, having picked up a few more ships at Ferrol, making
+his total force twenty-nine sail, put into Cadiz,[61] off which
+Collingwood maintained a weary blockade of him.
+
+[Illustration: BATTLE OF TRAFALGAR. 1805.]
+
+Early in September, news reached England that Villeneuve was at Cadiz,
+and Nelson left Southsea Beach on September 14th, sailing next day.
+
+Collingwood, off Cadiz, had been reinforced up to twenty-four sail.
+A martinet officer of the old type, it is likely enough that had
+Villeneuve come out, he might have done something against the worn-out
+blockaders. The arrival of Nelson, on September 28th, changed all this.
+Collingwood’s red tape restrictions were countermanded, and the spirit
+of the entire fleet changed accordingly. As usual, Nelson spared no
+effort to keep the men fit and healthy.
+
+On the 19th October, Villeneuve came out--driven thereto by threats
+from Napoleon. As Napoleon had broken up his Boulogne camp on August
+26th and by now had the greater part of that army in Germany, his
+forcing Villeneuve to sea is one of those mysteries which can never be
+fathomed. He acted in the teeth of naval advice, and there are few more
+pathetic pictures in history than the disgraced Villeneuve putting to
+sea to known certain defeat, endeavouring to fire his men with hope.[62]
+
+On the 20th October, the Franco-Spanish fleet was at sea with
+thirty-three ships of the line, the British consisting of twenty-seven.
+Nelson let the enemy get clear of the land, and then on October 21st,
+attacked them off Trafalgar.
+
+Of this battle so much has been written that any detailed description
+here is superfluous. To this day, the historians dispute as to what
+the exact tactics were, and it is doubtful whether anything will ever
+get beyond Professor Laughton’s summary in his _Nelson_. Here the most
+emphasis is laid on the fact that in his memorandum of October 9th,
+Nelson expected to handle forty ships against a still larger hostile
+force. All these matters are, however, but for the academicians. The
+main facts are that Nelson correctly gauged the inability and gunnery
+inefficiency of the enemy and sailed down on them in two lines ahead,
+they lying in line abreast--a position which, had they been able to
+shoot well, promised them victory better than any other.
+
+As an exhibition of tactics, Trafalgar was not even original--Rodney
+in the past had done something very similar. On no principle of
+“theory” was Nelson right. Simply and solely his genius lay in ability
+to calculate the human element, to lay his plans accordingly, and to
+achieve certain victory on that!
+
+Villeneuve did all that was possible; and several of the French ships
+fought with remarkable courage. But nothing could avail them against
+Nelson’s understanding that it was quite safe to take this risk of
+sailing end-on into them and then overwhelming a part of them with
+superior numbers.
+
+After some four hours’ fighting, eighteen of the enemy, including
+Villeneuve’s flagship, the _Bucentaure_, were captured, and the rest
+drew off.
+
+Nelson himself, within about twenty minutes of falling foul of the
+enemy, was mortally wounded by a musket shot from the tops of the
+_Redoubtable_.
+
+The losses to the allied Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar in killed
+and wounded were extraordinarily heavy, averaging something like 300 or
+more per ship. In one, the casualties amounted to five in every six.
+This enormous loss was due to the raking broadsides of the English
+vessels, which wrought terrible destruction.
+
+Nelson’s last order had been to anchor. Collingwood, on whom the
+command now devolved, saw no object in this; to which is generally
+attributed the fact that most of the prizes were lost in a gale that
+followed the battle. Some were wrecked, some re-captured by the enemy
+off Cadiz, some destroyed to prevent re-capture. All told, only four of
+the eighteen prizes ever reached Gibraltar. These were the _Swiftsure_
+(an ex-British ship), and three of the Spaniards, _Bahama_, _San
+Ildefonso_, and _San Juan Nepomuceno_. All were old and worthless.
+
+From the battle, Dumanoir had escaped with four French ships. With
+these he made for the Mediterranean, but being intercepted by Sir R.
+Strachan, was compelled to surrender his damaged ships after a short
+action. One of the captured ships, the _Duguay Trouin_, was renamed
+_Implacable_, and till quite recently was a training ship at Devonport.
+
+Although some considerable Franco-Spanish naval force still existed,
+it was now so scattered in different parts, and so blockaded, that
+danger from it was no longer to be apprehended. In December, however,
+two divisions of the Brest fleet, the first consisting of five ships
+of the line and three other vessels, under Vice-Admiral Leissegues,
+and the second of six ships of the line and four other vessels, under
+Rear-Admiral Willaumez, evaded the blockade. They were destined for the
+West Indies and the Cape respectively. On February 6th, 1806, off San
+Domingo, Leissegues was met by Sir John Duckworth, and seven ships.
+Three of the French were captured and two others were run ashore and
+destroyed. Willaumez eventually reached the West Indies also, but did
+not accomplish anything of moment, and having lost four ships, finally
+returned to France.
+
+In 1806, the British _personnel_ was 120,000. Estimates £18,864,341.
+Fleet 551 ships, of which 104 were of the line. This year was mainly
+remarkable for the extraordinary inaction displayed by the French, who
+lay sheltered in creeks and inlets along the coast. However, some of
+their frigates were captured by boat attack.
+
+For 1807, the _personnel_ was 120,000, afterwards increased to 130,000.
+Estimates £17,400,000. Seven hundred and six ships in service, 104 of
+them being of the line.
+
+In this year a special system of education for shipwright apprentices
+and the establishment of a school of naval architecture was
+recommended. It was not, however, until some years later that anything
+was actually done in this direction, the old haphazard system of
+construction being still followed.
+
+In this same year the “18-gun brig-sloop” appeared, no less than
+twenty-five being ordered. These vessels were of about 380 tons,
+and carried sixteen thirty-two-pounder carronades and two long
+six-pounders. They were found to be extremely useful vessels. During
+this year the Turkish and Italian Navies were suspected of being likely
+to pass into the hands of France. Sir John Duckworth was, therefore,
+sent to Turkey with orders to force the Dardanelles and demand the
+surrender of the Turkish fleet to the British. Failing this he was to
+capture or destroy it and to bombard Constantinople.
+
+On the 19th of February, the fleet ran through the unprepared
+Dardanelles without much injury. It was fired on by a small Turkish
+squadron, most of the ships of which were destroyed. The neighbourhood
+of Constantinople was reached; but the Turks refused to agree to
+what was demanded and busied themselves with strengthening the
+fortifications of the Dardanelles.
+
+On the 1st of March, Duckworth, having done nothing, save realise his
+awkward situation, came down through the Dardanelles, running the
+gauntlet of guns which threw stones weighing nearly half-a-ton, some
+considerable damage being done to such ships as were hit. These guns
+were, in some cases, holes bored in the rocks filled with powder and
+stones; others were genuine “monster guns.”
+
+Operations against Copenhagen, under Admiral Gambier, were opened on a
+considerably larger scale. He had under him eighteen ships of the line,
+forty lesser vessels and nearly 400 transports. This fleet arrived
+early in August, and demanded the surrender of the Danish Navy until
+such time as peace should come about, when it would be returned to its
+original owners. This being refused, troops were landed, and on the
+1st of September, Copenhagen was bombarded and presently surrendered.
+Fifteen ships of the line and ten other vessels were given up, and one
+ship, which tried to escape, was captured. Three ships of the line were
+found building; two of these were taken to pieces and carried away; the
+third, being more nearly completed, was destroyed. All the naval stores
+were also brought away from the dockyard, necessitating the employment
+of no less than ninety-two of the transports.
+
+Only five of the prizes were considered worthy of taking into the
+British service. Of these, one was the _Christian VII_ (eighty), of
+2,131 tons. This ship was so good that four copies of her were built
+for the British Navy.
+
+In the winter of this year, Sir Sydney Smith, with nine ships of the
+line, blockaded the Tagus and demanded the surrender of the Portuguese
+fleet, or else the retirement to South America of the Prince Regent,
+who naturally enough (and as had been expected) accepted the latter
+condition and went to South America with the bulk of his fleet. During
+the year, Curacoa was surprised and captured from the Dutch; St. Thomas
+and Santa Croix were taken from the Danes. The French being now in
+possession of Portugal, Madeira was also taken possession of by the
+British.
+
+Losses to the extent of thirty-nine British ships were sustained during
+this year, mostly by wreck; one sloop, two brigs and six cutters being
+the only ships captured by the enemy. At the end of 1807, Russia, which
+had hitherto been an ally, declared war, owing to the peace of Tilset.
+England, Austria and Sweden were thus at war with the rest of the
+continent.
+
+Russia had eleven ships of the line under Senyavin in the
+Mediterranean. Senyavin made a bolt for the Baltic with most of them,
+but having got as far as the Tagus found himself blockaded by Sir
+Sidney Smith.
+
+A squadron was sent under Samaurez to the Baltic in June to co-operate
+with the Swedes against the Russians who were in Rogerswick harbour. An
+attempt was made to destroy the entire Russian fleet, but owing to a
+strong boom the operation failed. The blockade was continued for two
+months, after which the British fleet retired.
+
+For 1808, the _personnel_ was 130,000. Estimates, £18,087,500. Ships
+of the Navy, 842; of which 189 were of the line. Of these, seventy-six
+were 74-gun ships.
+
+Napoleon had been steadily renovating his Navy ever since Trafalgar,
+and it now consisted of over sixty ships of the line, besides at least
+twenty others completing.
+
+A certain increase of naval activity consequently ensued, and early in
+the year Admiral Ganteaume, with five ships of the line, escaped from
+Rochefort in a gale during the absence of the blockading fleet and
+succeeded in reaching Toulon. Here he was joined by five more ships of
+the line and some frigates and transports. He sailed again and effected
+the relief of Corfu and thence returned to Toulon.
+
+In August, the Russian Admiral, Senyavin, who all this time had been
+blockaded in the Tagus, offered to surrender his ships to the British
+on condition that they should be given back after the war and that he
+and his men should be free to return to Russia. These terms were agreed
+to.
+
+This year saw the launch of the _Caledonia_ of 120 guns, the largest
+ship yet built in England. She was of 2,616 tons. An interesting item
+in connection with this ship is that she was designed and ordered to be
+laid down as long ago as 1794, but steps to build her were not taken
+until eighteen years later.
+
+For 1809, the _personnel_ was 130,000. Estimates, £19,578,467. Ships
+of the Navy, 728; of which 113 were of the line. In this year the
+maintenance allowance of the British fleet, which had been £3 15s. 0d.
+per man per month, was increased to £4 16s. 0d.
+
+In February, owing to a gale, the British fleet blockading Brest had to
+withdraw; and Willaumez came out with the object of collecting a few
+ships at Rochefort and Lorient, and then sailing to relieve Martinique.
+He was, however, found and blockaded in the Basque roads, and attack on
+him by fire-ships was suggested.
+
+In April, Lord Cochrane was sent out with a squadron to attack by
+fire-ships. Three of these were the special invention of Cochrane. The
+hold of each was filled with powder casks and sand, covered in with big
+booms and topped with hand grenades and rockets.
+
+On the 11th, Cochrane, leading the expedition with one of his
+“explosion vessels,” went in to attack; to discover that the enemy
+had anticipated things and built a boom. This, however, was struck by
+Cochrane’s vessel, which was then blown up, shattering the boom to
+pieces. The rest of the fire-ships came down through the gap, but were
+badly handled in the majority of cases, and no French ships were fallen
+on board of. The “explosion vessels” had, however, created such a panic
+that the French ships cut their cables and drifted ashore, except one
+ship, which was grappled with, but succeeded in disengaging.
+
+When day broke, the French ships were seen to be mostly ashore,
+and Cochrane urged immediate attack. Gambier, however, displayed
+considerable lack of energy, consequent on which many of the French got
+off. Three ships were, however, captured and destroyed, and two others
+were destroyed by the French themselves.
+
+Cochrane thought that it should have been possible to destroy the whole
+fleet, and made use of his being a Member of Parliament publicly to
+oppose the vote of thanks to Lord Gambier. Gambier then demanded a
+court-martial, which was undoubtedly “packed.” He was acquitted; and
+Cochrane, one of the most brilliant officers of the Navy of that day,
+was compelled to leave the Service. Until his re-instatement, many
+years afterwards, he spent his career in the service of the revolting
+Spanish colonies in South America.
+
+Napoleon had long been fortifying and improving the Scheldt, and in
+1809 the decision to destroy it was come to. The expedition, which left
+England on the 28th July, consisted of thirty-seven ships of the line,
+thirty-nine frigates or intermediates, fifty-four sloops or brigs,
+together with 400 transports, carrying 39,000 troops, under the Earl of
+Chatham. The fleet was commanded by Rear-Admiral Sir Richard Strachan.
+
+The object of the expedition was to destroy all ships there and
+demolish the dockyard and fortifications. But, owing to delays, the
+French had ample warning of the impending attack, and put all their
+ships up the river out of reach. It was also found impracticable to
+attack the dockyard or Antwerp. Flushing was therefore blockaded,
+and surrendered on the 15th August. One thirty-eight gun frigate was
+captured, and a frigate and a brig building in the dockyard were
+burned, while the timbers of a seventy-four gun ship that was building
+were carried away to Woolwich, and a ship, afterwards named the
+_Chatham_, built from them.
+
+Walcheren was also captured. Twelve thousand troops were left
+garrisoning Walcheren. Of these, nearly half died of disease in the
+swamps, after which the place was evacuated.
+
+In October, a French squadron with transports slipped out of Toulon
+during the absence of Collingwood, who was blockading the port with
+fifteen ships of the line and a number of smaller vessels. On the
+evening of October 24th, three French ships of the line and a frigate
+were sighted and chased. On the following morning two of the ships of
+the line were driven ashore, where their crew set fire to them and
+abandoned them; the other ship of the line and the frigate managed to
+get into Cette, whence they subsequently got safely back to Toulon. Of
+the convoy, the transports and the smaller vessels, which had made up
+the rest of the French squadron, some were captured, the others ran
+into Spanish harbours and took shelter under the fortifications. Eleven
+of these had taken shelter at Rosas, and were cut out by boat attack.
+
+The remaining naval operations of the year were the capture of Senegal,
+Cayenne, and French Guiana.
+
+In the Baltic, the Russian fleet was blockaded. One or two boat actions
+were the only incidents of the year.
+
+For the year 1810, the _personnel_ rose to 145,000, and the total
+estimates amounted to £18,975,120. The number of ships in commission
+were 108 ships of the line and 556 lesser vessels.
+
+In the Mediterranean, Collingwood resigned his command on account of
+ill-health, and died on his way back to England. He was succeeded by
+Sir Charles Cotton. There were no incidents of moment, for though the
+French had been busily building ships inside Toulon, the only use
+made of these was one or two small sorties when the blockading force
+happened to be weak.
+
+In the Channel, French frigates and large privateers were very active.
+Of the privateers, several were captured or destroyed, but the frigates
+held their own.
+
+Abroad, Guadaloupe was captured by a combined naval and military attack
+in a series of operations in the Antilles.
+
+In July, the Isle of Bourbon was captured, and following this an
+attack was then made on Mauritius, which was the head-quarters of a
+considerable French privateer fleet. The first attack was delivered by
+Captain Pym on Grand Port. He had with him four frigates. Two French
+frigates and two smaller vessels lay inside.
+
+On August 22nd, the first attempt was made, but owing to Captain Pym’s
+ship, the _Sirius_, getting aground, it was delayed until next day. In
+the next day’s attempt, both the _Sirius_ and _Magicienne_ ran aground,
+almost out of range. The other two ships, _Iphigenia_ and _Nereide_,
+got in and drove the French ships ashore. Firing from them, however,
+still continued, and ultimately the _Nereide_ had to surrender. The two
+British ships which had run ashore were blown up by orders of Captain
+Pym. The _Iphigenia_ succeeded in getting out of the harbour with the
+crews of these two ships, but while warping out was surprised and
+also captured by another French squadron. The entire attack proved a
+failure. The incident is mainly of interest as being the only instance
+in the war in which a British squadron sustained defeat.
+
+Following upon this, a more serious attack was made on Mauritius;
+10,000 troops were embarked, accompanied by one ship of the line and
+twelve frigates. A landing was effected at the end of November, and
+the island subsequently surrendered.
+
+In the Baltic, Sweden, which had hitherto been a British ally, joined
+the French side. The Russian fleet was still blockaded by Admiral
+Samaurez, but as the Tsar was known to be wavering in his allegiance
+to Napoleon, no actual hostilities took place against him, and during
+the greater part of the year British merchant ships freely traded with
+Russian ports.
+
+When peace was declared between England and Russia, the ships of
+Senyavin which had been captured in the Tagus were restored, but they
+contributed nothing to naval history. During the year, five frigates
+were captured from the French and two British frigates were captured by
+the enemy. British losses of the year included one ship of the line and
+seven frigates wrecked or blown up to prevent capture, as well as some
+smaller vessels.
+
+For the year 1811, the _personnel_ remained at 145,000. The Estimates
+were £19,822,000, and the number of ships in commission were 107 of the
+line, and 513 of inferior rates.
+
+A considerable blockading squadron was still maintained off Toulon,
+but the French ships there, though they occasionally came out into the
+Road, were extremely careful to avoid any engagement.
+
+On March 13th, a small battle, which took place off Lissa between six
+French frigates, accompanied by five smaller vessels, under Dubourdieu,
+and a British squadron consisting of three frigates and a twenty-two
+gun ship, commanded by Captain William Hoste, indicates very clearly
+the inferiority to which the French fleet had fallen. One French ship
+was driven ashore and two others surrendered.
+
+This sort of thing was in no way unique, and a single ship action of
+the same year is an even more startling example. The British sloop
+_Atlanta_ (eighteen) met and engaged the _Entrepennant_ (thirty-two).
+After an engagement lasting two-and-a-half hours the French frigate
+struck, having lost thirty men killed and wounded, the total loss to
+the British ship being only five men wounded.
+
+In this year the island of Java was captured from the Dutch, and there
+were a number of small actions in the Channel, mostly the attacks of
+praames on small British ships. The total loss to the enemy consisted
+of three French frigates captured, two French frigates destroyed and
+one wrecked. Two Venetian frigates were also captured. The losses to
+the British Navy during the same period were much more heavy: three
+ships of the line, five frigates and an eighteen-gun brig-sloop were
+wrecked. Three small ships were captured and various other small
+vessels became unserviceable, the total loss in these amounting to
+fifty-one.
+
+In January, 1811, the report of the Commission of 1806 was first
+brought into operation by the introduction of apprentices to be trained
+at the Royal Naval College, at Portsmouth. This was known as the
+School of Naval Architecture, and was the first genuine attempt at
+introducing science into naval construction. Students were given three
+days technical work a week and three days theoretical in mathematics
+and theory, under Dr. Inman. From the School of Naval Architecture
+the students were sent to the Navy Office, and also to the various
+dockyards, for the study of routine. Unfortunately, however, the
+experiment was received with disfavour by many of the old-type of
+dockyard officer, with the result that most of the students were either
+not proficient or else became disgusted and found employment elsewhere.
+
+For the year 1812, the _personnel_ still remained at 145,000. The
+Estimates were £19,305,759. Ships in commission amounted to 102 ships
+of the line and 482 lesser vessels, with a certain number of ships
+in reserve. At and about this period various experimental ships
+were built, of which the most interesting was the floating battery
+_Spanker_. She was of somewhat amateur construction; intended to carry
+guns of the largest size and mortars for bombardment and harbour
+defence. The main deck had an over-hang fitted with scuttles, down
+through which guns could be fired. The idea of this was, that supposing
+she were attacked by boats, these would go under the over-hang and
+very easily be destroyed. In practice, however, there was so much
+miscalculation that the over-hang was only a few inches above the
+water-line. The ship was also found to be so unmanageable that she was
+very shortly relegated to harbour service.
+
+The blockades of Toulon and the Scheldt were continued, but nothing
+of much naval interest took place. A small French squadron broke out
+of Lorient, but after cruising about for three weeks and making a few
+prizes, returned to Brest and was blockaded there.
+
+In the Baltic, peace was made with Sweden, and war definitely broke
+out between France and Russia, this being the war which culminated in
+Napoleon’s disastrous invasion of Russia.
+
+In the Channel and in the Mediterranean a number of single ship actions
+took place, and one ship, the _Rivoli_ (seventy-four), built at Venice
+for the French Navy, was captured. This particular ship held out for
+4½ hours, and at the time of her surrender had only two guns left
+available and fifty per cent. of her crew were out of action. She was
+captured by the _Victorious_ (seventy-four).
+
+The most important naval event of the year was the American declaration
+of war against England. The war had been prepared for some time, and
+the American Navy, such as there was of it, was in a very efficient
+and up-to-date state. It contained no ships of the line, but a number
+of very heavily-armed frigates, manned by well-trained crews. In the
+single ship actions that ensued the Americans were almost invariably
+victorious.
+
+For the year 1813, the _personnel_ was 14,000; the Estimates
+£20,096,709. Ships in commission, 102 of the line and 468 inferior
+vessels. The problem of meeting the American frigates was very
+seriously considered and a certain number of large ships were razeed
+with a view to meeting the American frigates on more even terms.
+
+The most famous event of the year was the fight between the _Shannon_
+(British) and the _Chesapeake_ (American). The former was rated at
+thirty-eight, but actually carried fifty-two guns. The latter was rated
+at thirty-six, but carried fifty. She had done well, but at the time
+of the fight had just been re-commissioned with a new crew, of whom
+a number were British deserters and some forty were Portuguese. The
+_Shannon_, on the other hand, had been in commission for some years;
+and Captain Broke had assiduously trained his men in gunnery, having
+anticipated the “dotter” of to-day.
+
+Being in this state of efficiency he came off Boston and sent in a
+challenge to the captain of the _Chesapeake_. Whether the challenge
+was actually received or not, the _Chesapeake_ came out accompanied
+by yachts crowded with sightseers and a cargo of handcuffs for the
+anticipated British prisoners.
+
+Firing was not opened until the two frigates were only fifty yards
+apart. It lasted only about ten minutes, when the _Chesapeake_ being
+almost blown to pieces, the _Shannon_ fell aboard her and carried her
+by boarding in another five.
+
+The rest of the war with America, which lasted well on into 1815, is
+of no great naval interest except for the side issues involved. In
+a series of actions, the American big gun theory was triumphantly
+demonstrated, and more than once small British squadrons were wiped
+out. No material result, however, followed in consequence. On the other
+hand, Washington was attacked in 1814, and the public buildings burned,
+again without much material result. The real interest of the war lies
+in side issues.
+
+The submarine appeared in this war, but the American authorities
+refused to give it any official sanction, and attempts made against
+British ships were by private individuals who had ignored the express
+orders of the American authorities. None of the experimenters were
+successful, but this was mainly a matter of luck.
+
+A matter of greater interest was the construction of an American war
+vessel, the _Fulton_. The _Fulton_--which was driven by a steam paddle
+in the centre of the vessel, and was armoured with wood so thick that
+none of the shot of the period could get through it, was armed with
+two 100-pounder guns on pivot mountings and carried a ram shaped
+bow--can undeniably lay claim to being the precursor of the _Monitor_
+or _Merrimac_, and also to being the first steam warship. She took too
+long to complete, however, to take any part in the war; but had
+the war continued, few British ships could have survived her attacks,
+presuming her to have been seaworthy.
+
+[Illustration: THE END OF AN OLD WARSHIP.]
+
+To resume: 1813 as regards the French was not productive of much in the
+way of naval operations. The French had by now built so many new ships
+at Toulon that they were actually superior to the blockading British
+squadron. But they made no attempt to use this superiority, and nothing
+resulted except a few small skirmishes. A few insignificant captures
+were made on the British side.
+
+At the beginning of the year 1814, there were ninety-nine ships of the
+line in commission and 495 lesser vessels. The _personnel_ amounted to
+140,000, and the estimates £19,312,000.
+
+A number of single ship actions took place between frigates, and in
+most of these a considerable improvement in French efficiency was
+noted. Nothing, however, was done with the larger ships, and the war
+ultimately ended with the deportation of Napoleon to Elba.
+
+No sooner was peace declared than the fleet was greatly reduced and a
+large number of ships sold or broken up. Nineteen ships of the line
+and ninety-three other vessels were thus disposed of. The _personnel_
+for the year 1815 was reduced to 70,000 for the first three months
+and 90,000 for the remainder of the year. The estimates stood at
+£17,032,700, of which £2,000,000 was for the payment of debts.
+
+The re-appearance of Napoleon and the events which culminated in the
+battle of Waterloo did not lead to any naval operations, and with the
+final deportation of Napoleon to St. Helena, a further reduction of the
+fleet took place. The estimates sank to £10,114,345, and considerable
+reductions of officers and men were made.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+GENERAL MATTERS IN THE PERIOD OF THE FRENCH WARS.
+
+
+Naval uniform, as we understand it, first came into use for officers
+in the days of George II,[63] who so admired a blue and white costume
+of the Duchess of Bedford that he decided then and there to dress his
+naval officers in similar fashion. No very precise regulations were,
+however, followed, and for many years uniform was more or less optional
+or at the fancy of the captain.
+
+The first uniform consisted of a blue coat, with white cuffs and gold
+buttons. The waistcoat, breeches, and stockings were white. The hat
+was the ordinary three-cornered black hat of the period with some gold
+lace about it and a cockade. Other officers wore uniforms which were
+slight variants upon this: while as special distinguishing marks only
+the captain (if over three years’ seniority) wore epaulettes upon both
+shoulders. A lieutenant wore one only.
+
+From time to time the uniform was altered slightly, mostly as regards
+the cuffs and lapels; but enormous latitude was allowed, and some
+officers even dressed as seamen.
+
+There was no general uniform whatever for the men; though circumstances
+led to the bulk of the men in any one ship being dressed more or less
+alike.
+
+This was the result of the “slop chest.” This was introduced about the
+year 1650, and amounted to nothing more than a species of ready-made
+tailor ship at which men at their own expense could obtain articles of
+clothing. Later on it became compulsory for newly-joined men, whose
+clothes were defective, to purchase clothing on joining, to the tune of
+two months’ pay.
+
+These articles being supplied to a ship wholesale, were naturally all
+alike, and so the men of one ship would all be more or less uniformly
+attired. Men of another ship might be dressed quite differently,
+though also more or less like each other. But any idea of uniform as
+“uniform,” right up to Trafalgar, was entirely confined to one or
+two dandy captains, and they mainly only considered their own boat’s
+crews.[64] Some fearful and wonderful costumes of this kind are
+recorded.
+
+Uniform wearing of the “slop chest” variety was, however, always
+regarded as the badge of the pressed man and jail bird. The “prime
+seaman” who joined decently clad was allowed to wear his own clothes,
+and these were decided by fashion. There were dudes in the Navy in
+those days, and contemporary art records a good deal of variety. In our
+own day, when exactitude is at a premium, it has erred badly enough
+to depict bluejackets with moustachios.[65] In the old days it was
+probably even more careless still. Consequently everything as to the
+costume of men in the Nelson era required to be accepted with caution.
+It is, however, clear from the more reliable literary and descriptive
+sources that the dandy sailor existed very freely. The “prime seaman”
+loved to hall-mark himself by his costume.
+
+On board ship in dirty weather he wore anything and his best when
+coming up for punishment.[66] In a general way fashion always worked
+from the officers’ uniform, with fancy additions. A natty blue jacket
+was the essential feature, with as many brass buttons as the owner
+could afford. A red or yellow waistcoat seems to have been _a la mode_.
+Trousers, preferably of white duck, but sometimes of blue, were also
+“the fancy.” Sometimes these were striped. In all cases they were
+ample, free, and flowing, as they are at the present day. Convenience
+of tucking up on wet decks is the usual explanation; but there is good
+reason to believe that idle fashion of the Nelson days had just as much
+or more to do with the modern bluejacket’s trousers.
+
+The quaint little top hat of the midshipman was generally worn by the
+Lower Deck dandy. A pig tail was also a _sine qua non_ during the
+period of the Second Great War.
+
+The origin of the pigtail is wrapped in some mystery. It has been
+variously ascribed to copying the French Navy[67] and to imitating the
+Marines, who wore wonderfully greased pigtails at this period.
+
+To complete the rig the seamen used to decorate themselves with
+coloured ribbons let into their clothes. They lived a hard life, and
+much has been written upon the subject. But the evidence generally
+tends to prove that the “prime seaman” as a rule had a far better time
+than those who (failing to recognise that conditions have altered
+to-day) appear to realise.[68] The lack of liberty, entailed by the
+presence of so many men who would assuredly desert on half a chance,
+was so general and so long-standing that it is doubtful whether it was
+felt to any really great extent. Customs cover most things.
+
+To our modern ideas the punishments afloat were horribly brutal;
+but here again it is necessary to remember the difference in era.
+Floggings and kindred punishments were plentiful enough ashore; and
+there is a good deal of evidence to indicate that they were taken as
+“all in the day’s work afloat.” The victim was usually “doped” by his
+messmates, who saved up part of their rum tots for the purpose, and
+the horrors of the cat have undoubtedly been somewhat exaggerated. It
+was undeniably brutal and cruel; but, to select a homely simile, so
+were dental methods a few years ago. Our fathers submitted to things in
+this direction which none of us would, or, for that matter, could stand
+nowadays. The bulk of contemporary evidence is that the (to our eyes)
+brutal punishments of the Navy of a hundred odd years ago were never
+regarded as serious grievances by those who stood to undergo them.
+
+The actual grievances revolved entirely around the administration of
+undeserved punishments. A certain number of captains misused their
+powers and prerogatives, but only a small percentage did so. At no time
+does the average captain appear to have been a brutal bully. This is,
+however, to be qualified by the midshipmen, of whom a certain number
+deliberately bullied men into doing things for which they got brutally
+punished afterwards. But outside this the conditions were by no means
+so horrible as generally depicted. The real sufferers were the pressed
+landsmen, who certainly learned to be seamen in a very hard school.
+
+It is necessary, however, even here to remember the times and the
+conditions. This view is borne out by the Great Mutiny. The mutineers,
+even at the Nore, never demanded the abolition of the cat. When trouble
+was connected with it in any way, it was over its unreasonable use,
+as, for instance, in the insensate flogging of the last two men off
+the rigging, which led to the Mutiny in the _Hermione_. This--which
+entailed punishing the smartest men since these had furthest to
+go--goaded the “prime seamen” to desperation and sympathy with the
+landsmen element afloat, which was ever in a semi-mutinous condition.
+It is impossible to hold that Captain Pigot of the _Hermione_ did not
+deserve his fate. But Pigots were comparatively rare, and captains
+like Nelson by no means scarce. Nelson had no hesitation in flogging
+men, but he flogged justly, and no troubles ever occurred in any ship
+commanded by him. For that matter it was characteristic of the time
+that a captain might be a Tartar, and yet be quite popular with his
+crew so long as he was just. The “prime seamen” who formed the nucleus
+of the ship’s company realised the necessity of severe measures and
+strict discipline in order to tame the human ullage which made up the
+rest of the crew.
+
+In this connection it is interesting to note that towards the end
+of the period there began to creep in the commencement of a later
+classification of ratings not liable to corporal punishment.
+
+Had life afloat in the days of the Great War been quite as terrible as
+it is often depicted as having been, the volunteer element of trained
+seamen could hardly have existed, nor could the glamour of the sea have
+brought so many raw volunteers as it did. When a ship was commissioned,
+the first step was advertising for men. The advertisements were
+specious and alluring enough; but the captain’s character generally had
+most influence on the response; and all the essential seamen element,
+unless they had spent all their money, were pretty wary as to who they
+shipped with.
+
+To be sure it did not take the seaman long to lose his money. On a ship
+paying off he received a considerable accumulated sum, and every kind
+of shark and harpy was on the lookout to relieve him of it. He got
+gloriously drunk and so remained while the money lasted, and in this
+condition the press-gang often got him.
+
+The press-gang was a legalised form of naval conscription. In theory
+any seafaring man who could be laid hands on might be taken; in
+practice all was fish that came to the press-gang’s net.
+
+The press-gang, armed with cudgels and cutlasses, used to operate at
+night, generally in the naval towns,[69] but at times also further
+afield. It laid hands upon all and sundry, hitting them over the head
+if they resisted.
+
+A cargo secured, the men were taken on board and kept between decks
+under an armed guard pending examination by the captain and surgeon.
+Certain people, such as apprentices or some merchant seamen, were
+exempt and had to be liberated. Badly diseased men were also let loose
+again. Verminous and dirty folk were scrubbed with a brutality which
+created subsequent cleanly habits. Their clothes were either fumigated
+or else thrown away altogether, and fresh clothing supplied from the
+“slop chest” at so much off their pay.
+
+If within a fortnight the pressed man cared to call himself a volunteer
+he received a bounty; but, whether he volunteered[70] or not, once
+aboard the ship there he remained till death or the paying off of the
+ship years later. It was this confinement to the ship which led to so
+much agitation, and was made one of the principal grievances of the
+mutineers at Spithead.
+
+On the side of the authorities it has to be remembered that had any man
+been allowed ashore he would certainly never have been seen again, at
+any rate, so long as he had any money. In most fleets also, an attempt
+at a substitute was made by allowing ship to ship visiting. Such visits
+invariably resulted in drunken bouts and subsequent floggings. Nelson
+went further--he instituted theatricals on shipboard. It is generally
+clear that--very crudely, of course--the authorities were not blind to
+the desirability of relieving the tedium of imprisonment on board ship.
+
+The feeding of the men in the days of the Great War is generally
+considered to have been villainous. It was one of the causes of the
+Mutiny; but there is some reason to believe that it was not invariably
+bad. Rodney’s fleet is said to have been excellently provisioned, and
+much of what has been written about “thieving pursers” in the past is
+now known to be mythical. It was a classical legend that the purser
+stole and swindled with bad food. He might do so, and many did. But
+all did not, either from honesty or because they did not get the
+chance. Under Nelson or Rodney an unscrupulous purser stood to have
+a very bad time indeed, and there were others very keenly alive to
+the fact that good feeding and efficiency went hand in hand. The bad
+food at the time of the mutinies seem to have been a feature of that
+particular time, and even so due rather to mismanagement than much
+else. For the rest, the real culprits were economists on shore, who had
+no connection whatever with the Fleet, and were merely interested in
+husbanding the financial resources of the country.
+
+The provisions as made were almost uniformly good, and the stories
+of unscrupulous contractors who, in league with the pursers,
+foisted inferior food on the Fleet, may mostly be dismissed. Such
+cases occurred now and again, but comparatively rarely. “Rogues in
+authority” were mainly mythical. There are yarns by the score. There
+are corresponding yarns to-day, quite as plentiful, which the careless
+historian of the future will no doubt swallow. For example, at the
+present day it is an article of faith with every bluejacket that the
+first lieutenant pockets odd sixpences out of the canteen, and nothing
+ever can or ever will remove the impression.
+
+It is absolutely absurd; but within the last ten years I have had
+it chapter and verse all about the peculation of 1s. 4d. by a first
+lieutenant whose private income ran well into five figures! It is
+a sea-legend so hoary that bluejackets honour it, no matter how
+ridiculously improbable. The purser of the days of the Great War was
+not perhaps entirely clean handed, but as Commander Robinson has
+pointed out,[71] even at the Spithead Mutiny, when the provision
+question was very much to the fore, the mutineers did not complain
+of the purser, but of the system and regulations. It was people on
+shore, not the man afloat, who, when it came to the point, mixed up the
+instrument with the handlers thereof.
+
+The Spithead trouble, which was purely naval (the Nore Mutiny was
+more or less political) arose entirely, so far as food was concerned,
+out of the economists already referred to. Vast stores of provisions
+had been accumulated, and many were going bad. Pursers received very
+strict orders to use up the old “likely to decay soon” before touching
+the new. The result was the issue of decayed pork, stinking cheese,
+and mildewed biscuits to an unprecedented degree. A badness that had
+hitherto been more or less occasional chanced just about the Mutiny
+period to be general.
+
+The men were by no means starved or badly fed, presuming the food to
+be good. The usual scale was somewhat as follows:--A daily issue of a
+pound of biscuit and a gallon of beer or else pint of wine; and when
+these were exhausted, one gill of Navy rum diluted with three of water
+twice a day. On Tuesdays and Saturdays an issue of 2lbs. of beef was
+made; on Sundays and Thursdays 1lb. of pork. Over the week the issue
+of other articles was 2lbs. pease, 1½lbs. oatmeal, 6ozs. of butter, an
+equal amount of sugar, and 12ozs. of cheese and half-a-pint of vinegar
+nominally per man; but actually every four men took the provisions
+of six. Nine pounds of meat a week could hardly be called starvation
+fare even to-day, and in those times it was an extraordinarily liberal
+diet for men who at home would not have had anything like it.[72]
+Except in cases with admirals like Collingwood (who in the matter of
+understanding the ratio of health to efficiency was about the most
+incompetent admiral the British Navy ever had), it was generally seen
+to that, whenever possible, fresh provisions could be purchased from
+traders who regularly visited blockading fleets.
+
+Furthermore, rations were normally varied so far as circumstances would
+permit, and when possible fresh beef and mutton were substituted for
+the salt meat allowance. Nelson went to almost extravagant lengths
+in these directions; but the majority of other officers were not far
+behind. Whatever hell the Lower Deck of the Fleet entailed, the blame
+in hardly any case lay with the officers, executive or otherwise, but
+entirely with civilian officials and Members of Parliament with ideas
+of their own about economy. All the reliable evidence is to the effect
+that the responsible authorities desired their fighting men to live
+(relatively speaking) like fighting cocks, that the difference between
+the ideal and the real was due to civilian influence, and that even so
+it was only really thoroughly bad just before the Great Mutiny. Had it
+been a regular thing the Mutinies would probably never have happened,
+the men would have been too used to the conditions to find in them a
+special cause of complaint.
+
+The whole trouble in messing in the old days arose out of quality, not
+quantity. The beef and pork were almost invariably bad, owing to the
+system of using up the old provisions first, with a view to economy.
+Every ship carried tons of good provisions going bad, while those
+already bad and decayed were being consumed. Consequently the men
+starved in the midst of relative plenty.
+
+It remains to add that the officers fared little better.[73] On the
+whole, taking their general shore food into consideration, it may be
+argued that they fared worse. As a rule, they had to eat what the men
+ate, a fact too often forgotten by those who believe that the officers
+of those days generally peculated on provisions for the men.
+
+Both aft and forward there was one consolation. Liquor was plentiful
+enough for anyone who wanted to be half seas over by eventime. So was
+the hard life lived, with an occasional battle to break the monotony.
+
+To both officers and men battle seems to have been the “beano” of
+to-day. Conditions on board were not rosy enough to make life worth
+clinging to, while battle meant a good time afterwards to those who
+got through unscathed. There was only one terror--being wounded. The
+horrors of the cockpit are beyond exaggeration. The surgeons did their
+best. They were poorly paid men[74] and expected to find their own
+instruments: only if they could not did they borrow tools from the
+carpenter.[75]
+
+[Illustration: A TRAFALGAR ANNIVERSARY.]
+
+They heated their instruments before use so as to lessen the shock of
+amputation; they doped their patients with wine or spirit so far as
+might be. They took all as they came in turn, whether officer or
+man. If anyone seemed too badly wounded to be worth attention they had
+him taken above and thrown overboard. If, at a hasty glance, taking off
+an arm or a leg, or both, seemed likely to promise a cure, they gave
+the wounded man a tot of rum and a bit of leather to chew, and set to
+work! The wounded who survived were treated with a humanity which makes
+the “more humanity to the wounded” of the Spithead mutineers a little
+difficult to understand at first sight. They were fed on delicacies;
+and anything out of the ordinary on the wardroom table was always sent
+to them. They also got all the officers’ wine.
+
+On the other hand, time in the sick bay was deducted from their
+pay,[76] and they were liable to all kinds of infectious diseases
+caught from the last patient.
+
+To satisfy the demands of the economists, lint was forbidden and
+sponges restricted, so that a single sponge might have to serve for a
+dozen wounded men. Blood-poisoning was thus indiscriminately spread,
+and a wounded man thus infected with the worst form of it, was mulcted
+in his pay for medicines required. When the Spithead mutineers demanded
+“more humanity to the wounded” those were the things that probably they
+had in mind. It has further to be remembered that a man wounded too
+badly to be of any further use afloat was flung ashore without pension
+or mercy. The surgeons were fully as humane as their brethren ashore,
+possibly much more so, from the mere fact that any community of men
+flung together to sink or swim together compels common sympathies. To
+the men the purser was classically a thief, the surgeon a callous
+brute, the officers generally brutes of another kind. This cheap view
+of the situation has been perpetuated _ad lib_. But all the best
+evidence is to the effect that, as a rule, and save in exceptional
+cases, most of those on board a warship pulled together, and that
+all strove to make the best of things. Things to be made the best
+of were few, no doubt, and the grumblers and growlers are the folk
+who have left most records. Allowing for the different era, similar
+growls can be found to-day. To-day the contented man says nothing;
+the discontented says a little, and outside sympathisers say a great
+deal. The truth probably lies with the actually discontented’s version
+somewhat discounted. In the days of the Great War, the same fact
+probably obtained. Unquestionably the seaman proper loved the sea and
+his duty, despite all hardships and drawbacks. To this fact is to be
+attributed the easy victories of the Great Wars, and, relatively to
+corresponding shore life, sea life afloat can hardly have been quite so
+black as most people delight to paint it.[77]
+
+The pay of the Navy of the period remains to be mentioned. It ran as
+follows:--
+
+  Captain--6s. to 25s. a day, according to the ship, plus a variety of
+    allowances.
+
+  Midshipmen--£2 to £2 15s. 6d. a month.
+
+  Surgeons--11s. to 18s. a day, with half-pay when unemployed.
+
+  Assistant-Surgeons--4s. and 5s., with half-pay when unemployed.
+
+  Chaplains--about 8s. 6d. a day, with allowances.
+
+  Schoolmasters--£2 to £2 8s. a month, with bounties.
+
+  Boatswains--£3 to £4 16s. a month.
+
+  Boatswain’s Mate--£2 5s. 6d. a month.
+
+  Gunner--£1 16s. to £2 2s. a month.
+
+  Carpenter--£3 to £5 16s. a month, according to the ship.
+
+  Quartermaster--£2 5s. 6d. a month.
+
+  Sailmaker--£2 5s. 6d. a month.
+
+  Sailmaker’s Assistant--£1 18s. 6d. a month.
+
+  Master-at-Arms--£2 0s. 6d. to £2 15s. 6d. a month.
+
+  Ship’s Corporals--£2 2s. 6d. a month.
+
+  Cook--11s. 8d. a month and pickings.
+
+  Able Seaman--11s. a month (33s. a month after 1797).
+
+  Ordinary Seaman--9s. a month (25s. 6d. a month after 1797).
+
+  Landsman--7s. 6d. a month (23s. a month after 1797).
+
+  Ship’s Boy--13s. to 13s. 6d. a month.
+
+As a rule the men received their pay in a lump when the ship paid off.
+Hence those extraordinary scenes of dissipation with which the story
+books have made us sufficiently familiar. Jews[78] and women soon
+fleeced the Tar, who was generally too drunk to know what he was doing,
+there being dozens of willing hands ready to see to it that he was well
+plied with liquor.
+
+
+_FLAGS._
+
+In the year 1800 the Union flag was altered to its present form by the
+incorporation of the red cross of St. Patrick. This flag, the Union
+Jack, was used for flying on the bowsprit,[79] and at the main masthead
+by an Admiral of the Fleet. To hoist it correctly, _i.e._, right side
+up, was a special point of importance in the Fleet of Nelson’s day, and
+many a foreigner seeking to use British colours got bowled out from
+hoisting the flag incorrectly, _i.e._, without the greater width of
+white being uppermost in the inner canton nearest the staff. To this
+day many people on shore do the same.
+
+The ensign was coloured according as to whether the Admiral was “of the
+white,” “blue,” or “red.” It was flown, as till quite recently, from
+the mizzen peak.
+
+For battle purposes this variety ensign died out after Trafalgar,
+where, in order to avoid confusion, Nelson ordered all ships to fly
+the white ensign--he himself being a Vice-Admiral of the white, while
+Collingwood was Vice-Admiral of the blue. Trafalgar was thus the first
+battle to be fought deliberately under the white ensign.
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+THE BIRTH OF MODERN WARSHIP IDEAS.
+
+
+In 1816 took place the bombardment of Algiers, whereby 1,200 Europeans
+who were in slavery were released. None of these, however, proved to be
+British subjects. A noticeable feature of the bombardment was the heavy
+damage done by the large ships engaged.
+
+For the year 1817 the _personnel_ stood at 21,000 only. Ships in
+commission were fourteen of the line and 100 lesser craft. Two hundred
+and sixty-three (of which eighty-four were of the line) were laid up
+“in ordinary” and the remaining ships were condemned.
+
+In this year a new rating of ships was introduced. Up till now the
+carronades had not been included in the armament of ships. Under
+the new rating they were included, and so the thirty-eight gun ship
+actually carrying fifty-two guns appeared for the first time with her
+proper armament.
+
+Although the Navy was so reduced, considerable attention was paid to
+shipbuilding and improvement of construction. Trussed frames were
+introduced, and a variety of other inventions which had long been in
+use in France. Much attention was paid to the strong construction of
+the bow, with a view to resisting raking fire.[80] Sterns were also
+made circular to enable more guns to bear aft. A curious objection
+to this was made on the grounds that in time of war it was the enemy
+who would be in retreat and most in need of stern fire, and that by
+the introduction of this into the British Navy the enemy would copy
+and so have the advantage of being better able to defend himself than
+heretofore! It was, however, pointed out that perhaps war vessels
+propelled by steam might be met with in blockades, and that it would be
+extremely important to sail away from these and be able to destroy them
+while so doing!
+
+The years 1818 and 1819 passed uneventfully. The _personnel_ was
+20,000, and the estimates averaged between six and seven million
+pounds. They remained at about this figure for several years, and
+beyond some slight operations in Burmah, in 1824, the British
+Navy performed no war services till the year 1827. In the Burmese
+operations, the _Diana_, a small steam paddle vessel took part. It
+is also of some interest to record that Captain Marryat, the naval
+novelist, commanded the _Lorne_ (twenty) in these operations.
+
+In 1827, the combined fleets of England, France and Russia met those of
+the Turks and Egyptians at Navarino, in connection with the war between
+Turkey and Greece. The allied fleet consisted as follows:--
+
+          { Three ships of the line.
+  BRITISH { Four frigates.
+          { Several other vessels.
+
+          { Three ships of the line.
+  FRENCH  { Two lesser vessels.
+          { Two schooners.
+
+  RUSSIAN { Four ships of the line.
+          { Four frigates.
+
+The combined Turko-Egyptian fleet consisted of three ships of the line,
+fifteen large frigates, eighteen corvettes, and a number of gunboats,
+etc.
+
+The Turkish fleet was anchored in the harbour. The combined fleet
+sailed into the harbour and anchored to leeward of the Turks. These
+fired upon some English boats and a general action ensued, in which the
+greater part of the Turko-Egyptian fleet was destroyed with the loss
+of somewhere about 4,000 men. The Allies lost 650, and the principal
+English ships were so damaged that they had to be sent home for repairs.
+
+At and about this time, and right on for some years, an enormous
+number of experiments were carried out between ship and ship with a
+view to improving the sailing qualities, and side by side with this,
+the question of propulsion other than by sail was first seriously
+considered. A certain number of small steam tugs had been added to the
+Navy, there being no less than twenty-two such built in the reign of
+George IV. Of these the largest was built in 1835. Very little reliance
+was placed on steam at first for any possibilities outside towing and
+harbour work, and a great deal of energy was expended in devices to
+enable ships to be moved by manual labour. In place of the “sweeps”
+of ancient history, paddles were fitted, and in 1829 the _Galatea_
+(forty-two) frigate was thus moved at a speed of three knots in a dead
+calm.
+
+The _Galatea_ was commanded by Captain, afterwards Admiral Sir Charles,
+Napier, who so long ago as 1819 had been concerned in financing an
+unsuccessful attempt to run iron steamers on the Seine. The first ship
+in which hand paddles were tried was the _Active_, frigate. No success
+was met with, but Napier evolved a different system for the _Galatea_.
+Those of the _Active_ were worked by the capstan; Napier installed
+a series of winches along each side of the main deck. It took about
+two-thirds of the ship’s company to work them.
+
+The earliest known use of steam was as long ago as in the year 1543.
+The account of it was in the original records which had been preserved
+in the Royal Archives of Simancas, among the State Papers of the city
+of Catalonia, and those of the Naval Secretary of War, in the year
+1543, and was extracted on the 27th August, 1825, by the keeper, who
+signed his name “Tomas Gonzalez.”
+
+The inventor, a naval officer named Garay, never revealed the secret
+of his invention, but mention is made of a “cauldron of boiling water”
+and “wheels of complicated movement on each side of the vessel.” He
+succeeded in obtaining a speed of “two leagues in three hours,” also
+“at least a league an hour” with his device, fitted to a 200-ton
+vessel named _Trinidad_.[81] Honours were bestowed on Garay, but the
+monarch who had patronised him, being busy with other matters, did not
+follow up the invention. Otherwise much naval history might have been
+different from what it is.
+
+In 1736, Jonathan Hulls took out a patent in England for a stern wheel.
+It should be remembered that at this time the question of means of
+propulsion other than by sail was eagerly considered, and that paddles
+came to be tried in the place of oars, with a view to more continuity
+of action. Steam ideas somewhat trended to the idea of sucking water
+in forward and ejecting it aft. The screw propeller also was known
+certainly at as early a date as the paddle.
+
+In 1789, a sixty-feet boat was driven for nearly seven miles an hour
+with a twelve horse-power engine, but for a very long time nothing was
+expected except canal work and towing. Even as steam progressed, it did
+so in the merchant service first.
+
+By the year 1818, however, the Americans had built a sea-going steamer,
+_Savannah_, which crossed the Atlantic to Russia. On her return voyage
+the United States was reached twenty-five days after leaving Norway.
+
+In England, in the year 1821, a steam mail service, between Holyhead
+and Dublin, was established, and in 1823 a steam mail service between
+England and India was seriously asked for, and in 1829 the subject
+again came upon the _tapis_.
+
+In 1839, the steam liner _Great Britain_, was laid down. She was 322
+feet long overall and a beam of fifty-one feet, and a displacement
+of 2,984 tons, with 1,000 horse-power. It was originally intended to
+make her a paddle-vessel. Instead of that, however, she was made a
+screw-steamer, and made her first trip in December, 1844, when she
+succeeded in exceeding her anticipated speed.
+
+This serious attention to steam in the mercantile marine naturally
+attracted considerable interest in the Navy, the more so as two naval
+officers, Captains Chappel and Claxton, were the principal promoters
+of the mercantile enterprises. It was, however, generally pointed out
+that useful as steam might be for such purposes, it was unsuitable
+for warships proper, on account of the liability of the machinery to
+damage, and the practical impossibility of combining paddles with
+sailing. It was laid down that the first essential of a warship was to
+be able to sail, that if steam power could be usefully applied as an
+auxiliary it might be “desirable.”
+
+After considerable experiments and investigations, it was found
+possible to place the machinery under the water-line, but the
+paddle-wheels were still exposed, and the armament space available was
+so slight that steam did not gain much favour.
+
+The first steam vessel actually brought into the British service was
+the _Monkey_, built about the year 1821. She was bought into the
+service and used as a tug.
+
+In the following year, the _Comet_ was specially built for the packet
+service,[82] but none of these were steam warships.
+
+In 1843, the success of the _Great Britain_ influenced the Admiralty,
+and the _Penelope_ (forty-six) was cut apart and lengthened by
+sixty-five feet, and had engines of 650 horse-power fitted to her.
+
+In 1844, the Earl of Dundonald (Cochrane) submitted plans to the
+Admiralty for a steamer of 760 tons, called the _Janus_. This vessel
+was built with an engine of his own design, but as this was a failure,
+ordinary engines were fitted.
+
+In all these steamers the gun-fire was chiefly end-on, but in 1845 the
+_Odin_ and the _Sidon_, especially designed for broadside fire, were
+put in hand.
+
+So long ago as the year 1825, the paddle was recognised as a source of
+danger for warships, and in that year a two-blade propeller, designed
+by Commander Samuel Brown, was accepted.
+
+In 1836, Ericsson (subsequently to be of _Monitor_ fame) patented some
+propellers in England, but as he met with very little sympathy from
+the authorities, he retired to America. The main objections to the
+propeller appears not to have been due to any lack of appreciation
+so much as opposition from those who had invested heavily in
+paddle-propulsion plant.
+
+[Illustration: _SALAMANDER_ PADDLE WARSHIP.]
+
+In 1842, however, the Admiralty seriously took the question up. The
+_Rattler_, of 777 tons, and 200-horse-power, was lashed stern-to-stern
+with the paddle-yacht _Electro_ of the same displacement and
+horse-power. Both ships were driven away from each other at full speed,
+and the _Rattler_ succeeded in towing the _Electro_ after her. After
+this, in 1844, a screw frigate, the _Dauntless_, was ordered to be
+constructed; but as late as the year 1850, steam was merely regarded as
+an auxiliary, and received little or no consideration outside that.
+
+The use of iron instead of oak as a material for shipbuilding was first
+seriously considered about the year 1800. In 1821, an iron steamer
+was in existence, and in 1839 the _Dover_ was ordered to be built for
+Government service as a steam packet. In 1841, the _Mohawk_ was ordered
+by the Admiralty for service on Lake Huron, but the first iron warship
+for the Royal Navy proper was the _Trident_, of 1850 tons and 300
+horse-power, built at Blackwall, by Admiralty orders, in 1843.
+
+Iron, as a material for warship construction, was looked on with
+considerable suspicion, both in England and in France. Experiments
+were conducted at Woolwich with some plates rivetted together like the
+sides of an iron ship, these plates being lined inside with cork and
+india-rubber (the first idea of a cofferdam). It was expected that this
+preparation, which was known as “kamptulicon,” would close up after
+shot had passed through and prevent ingress of water. This was found to
+be quite correct, but the egress of shot on the other side had quite
+the opposite result. The plates were sometimes packed with wood and
+sometimes cased with it, but the general result of the experiments was
+held prejudicial to the use of iron, which was supposed to splinter
+unduly compared to wood.
+
+The importance of deciding whether warships should be built of iron or
+wood was accentuated by the necessity of replacing those heavy warships
+which had been converted to auxiliary steam vessels. All such proved to
+be cramped in stowage and bad sea boats.
+
+So long ago as 1822 shell-guns had been adopted. Consequently, in
+the experiments as regards iron, shell-fire had to be taken into
+consideration.
+
+In 1842, experiments were made with iron plates three-eighths of an
+inch thick, rivetted together to make a total thickness of six inches.
+It was, however, reported that at 400 yards these were not proof
+against eight-inch guns or heavy thirty-two pounders. These matters
+were taken into consideration by Captain Chads, whose official report
+was as follows:--
+
+    “The shot going through the exposed or near side generally makes a
+    clean smooth hole of its own size, which might be readily stopped;
+    and even where it strikes a rib it has much the same effect; but on
+    the opposite side all the mischief occurs; the shot meets with so
+    little resistance that it must inevitably go through the vessel,
+    and should it strike on a rib on the opposite side the effect
+    is terrific, tearing off the iron sheets to a very considerable
+    extent; and even those shot that go clean through the fracture
+    being on the off side, the rough edges are outside the vessel,
+    precluding the possibility almost of stopping them.
+
+    “As it is most probable that steam vessels will engage directly
+    end-on I have thought it desirable to try to-day what the effect of
+    shot would be on this vessel[83] so placed, and it has been such as
+    might be expected, each shot cutting aways the ribs, and tearing
+    the iron plates away sufficient to sink the vessel in an instant.”
+
+[Illustration: THE _LONDON_--TWO DECKER WOODEN CONVERTED SCREW SHIP OF
+THE LINE.
+
+Designed by Sir William Symonds. Launched 1840. Damaged at the
+bombardment of Fort Constantine, Sevastopol, 1854. Turned into hulk at
+Zanzibar, 1874.]
+
+In 1849 an official report stated that:--
+
+    “Shot of every description in passing through iron makes such large
+    holes that the material is improper for the bottom of ships.
+
+    “Iron and oak of equal weight offering equal resistance to shot,
+    iron for the topsides affords better protection for the men than
+    oak, as the splinters from it are not so destructive.
+
+    “Iron offering no lodgment for shells in passing through the side,
+    if made with single plates it will be free from the destructive
+    effects that would occur by a shell exploding in a side of timber.”
+
+Certain modifications were then introduced and tried in the year 1850,
+and Captain Chad’s report was that:--
+
+    “With high charges the splinters from the shot were as numerous and
+    as severe as before, with the addition in this, and in the former
+    case, of the evils that other vessels are subject to, that of the
+    splinters from the timber.
+
+    “From these circumstances I am confirmed in the opinion that iron
+    cannot be beneficially employed as a material for the construction
+    of vessels of war.”
+
+As a result of this report, seventeen iron ships which were building,
+the largest being the _Simoon_, of nearly 2,000 tons, were condemned;
+and it was definitely decided that ships must be built of wood, and
+that iron in any form was disadvantageous.
+
+The advantages of the shell were fully understood, and at least half
+of the guns of the ships of the line of the period were sixty-five
+cwt. shell guns. Experiments had fully taught what shell-fire might be
+expected to accomplish. General Paixham, the inventor of the shell gun,
+had long ago stated that armour was the only antidote to shell, and the
+fact that armour up to six inches had been experimented with indicates
+that this also was understood. Between the appreciation of the fact
+and acting upon it, there was, however, a decided gulf. In the British
+Navy, as in others also, the natural conservatism of the sea held its
+usual sway.
+
+Matters were at about this stage when, in the year 1853, the Russian
+Admiral Nachimoff, with a fleet consisting of six ships of the line,
+entered the harbour of Sinope, on the 30th November, 1853, and
+absolutely annihilated, by shell fire, a Turkish squadron of seven
+frigates which were lying there. The damage wrought by this shell-fire
+was terrific. “For God’s sake keep out the shells!” is generally
+believed to have been the cry of most naval officers about that period,
+though there is some lack of evidence as to whether this demand was
+ever actually made, except by the Press. The terrible effect of
+shell-fire was, however, obvious enough; but as stated above it was
+really well-known before the war test that so impressed the world.
+
+When the Crimean War broke out in 1854, the British _personnel_ stood
+at 45,500, and the Estimates were £7,197,804. On the 28th March, war
+was formally declared. Naval operations in the Crimean war were almost
+entirely of secondary note. Some frigates bombarded Odessa, in April,
+and a certain amount of damage was done along the Caucasian coast.
+
+In September, the British fleet, consisting of ten ships of the line,
+two frigates and thirteen armed steamers, convoyed an enormous fleet
+of Turkish and French warships crammed with troops for an attack on
+Sebastopol. The Russian fleet lay inside that harbour and made no
+attempt whatever to destroy the invading flotilla, though it might
+easily have done considerable mischief, if not more. Instead of that,
+the ships were sunk at the entrance of the harbour, and the siege of
+Sebastopol presently commenced. On October 17th, the Allied fleet
+attempted to bombard Fort Constantine, but the ships were soon defeated
+by the shore defences and many of them badly injured.
+
+The French, who had formed somewhat more favourable opinions of
+iron armour than we had, had, after Sinope, already commenced the
+construction of five floating batteries which were to carry armour.
+They were wooden ships of 1,400 tons displacement, with four-inch
+armour over their hulls. They carried eighteen fifty-pounder guns and
+a crew of 320. As originally designed they were intended to sail,
+although they were fitted with slight auxiliary steam power. When
+completed they were found unable to sail, so pole masts were fitted to
+them. Artificial ventilation was also supplied and their funnels were
+made telescopic. The designs of these vessels were sent to the British
+Admiralty, who, after considerable delay, built four copies, the
+_Glatton_, _Meteor_, _Thunder_, and _Trusty_. These, however, were not
+completed in time to take any part in the war.
+
+So soon as the French armoured batteries were ready they were sent out
+to the Crimea, where they joined a large fleet which had been prepared
+to attack Kinburn, which was bombarded in October, 1855. In a very
+short while the forts were totally destroyed, and with very small loss
+to the armoured batteries. The effect created by this was so great
+that four more armoured batteries were ordered in England, the _Etna_,
+_Erebus_, _Terror_, and _Thunderbolt_.
+
+In the Baltic, to which a British fleet, under Admiral Napier, had been
+sent, the Russians kept behind the fortifications at Kronstadt, and
+nothing was accomplished beyond the bombardment of Sveaborg, and the
+destruction of the town and dockyard. Some small bombardments also took
+place in the White Sea and on the Siberian coast, where Petropavlovsk
+was attacked and the attack was defeated, and such other actions as
+took place were generally unsuccessful. It had become abundantly clear
+that against fortifications wooden ships had very small chance of
+success.
+
+Incidental items of naval interest are that in this particular war
+Captain Cowper Coles mounted a sixty-eight-pounder gun upon a raft
+named the _Lady Nancy_. This attracted so much attention from the small
+target, light draft and steady platform, that Coles was sent home to
+develop his ideas. In this war, also, mines appeared, the Russians
+dropping a good many off Kronstadt. Those used by the Russians were
+filled with seventy pounds of powder, and exploded on contact by the
+familiar means of a glass tube of sulphuric acid being broken and the
+acid falling into chlorate of potash.
+
+No material damage was done to ships by this means, but a considerable
+number of those who had picked them up and investigated them were
+injured.
+
+The ingenuity and new means of offence were, however, by no means
+confined to the Russians, for a Mr. Macintosh, after the failure of
+the first bombardment of Sebastopol, evolved a system of attacking
+fortifications with a long hose supported by floats, through which
+naptha was to be pumped. Being set alight with some potassium, the fort
+attacked would be immediately smoked out.
+
+Experiments at Portsmouth having proved that this system was “simple,
+certain and cheap,” Mr. Macintosh proceeded to the Crimea with his
+invention at his own expense. He was eventually given £1000 towards his
+expenses, but no attempt was made to employ the system. It is by no
+means clear how the necessary potassium was to be got into the water at
+the requisite spot.
+
+The same war also produced the fire-shell of the British Captain
+Norton. This appears to have been a resurrection of the old idea of
+Greek fire. It could be used from a rifle or from a shell-gun, and
+like the previous invention “rendered war impossible,” and again like
+the previous invention does not appear to have ever materialised into
+practice.
+
+On the practical side more results were achieved. The Lancaster gun
+which fired an oval shot was actually used with success in the war.
+From it the rifled gun presently emerged. There also emerged the then
+amateur invention of one Warry, who invented a new type of gun capable
+of firing sixteen to eighteen rounds per minute. The idea of wire
+wound guns was also apparent, and Mr. Armstrong[84] (as he then was),
+suggested the idea of percussion shell. It is interesting to note that
+these last were received with extreme dissatisfaction in the Navy on
+the grounds that they might go off at the wrong time.
+
+Of the Crimean War, however, it may be said that though it was not
+noted for naval actions, it was probably the most important war in its
+indirect results on the Navy that ever took place. It brought in the
+armoured ship, the rifled gun, and what was ultimately to develop into
+the torpedo. It saw the crude birth of “blockade mines” and rapid fire
+guns; everyone of them inventions that, judging by the slow progress of
+steam, would--failing war to necessitate swift development--have been
+still in the experimental stage even to-day.
+
+In our own times war having ever been a nearer possibility than in the
+1850 era, peace progress has always been more rapid, and no invention
+of practical value ever failed to secure full tests. Yet there were not
+wanting those who prophesied that the Dreadnoughts of to-day merely
+reproduced in another form the 120 screw ships of the line of sixty
+years ago; and that the next great naval war might well bring about
+changes every whit as drastic as any that the Crimean War caused to
+come into being.
+
+The torpedo had become fully as great a menace to the modern ship of
+the line as the shell gun was to the big ship of 1853. The submarine
+was an infinitely greater menace to it than the crude Russian mines of
+the Crimean War ever were. Endless potentialities resided in aircraft.
+
+Wherefrom it was well argued that out of the next great naval war
+(despite whatever lesser wars in between may have taught), the
+battleship was likely to be profoundly modified.
+
+That it will be swept out of existence was improbable. The whole lesson
+of history is that the “capital ship” will ever adjust itself to the
+needs of the hour. It has always been the essential rallying point of
+lesser craft--the mobile base to meet the mobile base of the enemy.
+
+Meanwhile, it is beyond question that at the time of the Crimean War
+the British Navy from one cause and another was little better than a
+paper force. It is plain enough that little remained of the fleet of
+the Nelson era. The fleet “worried through,” but very clearly it had
+reached the end of its tether.
+
+The reason why will be found in the next chapter.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    The above paragraphs were originally written in 1912. Since then
+    much has happened. In this edition they have only been revised to
+    the extent of substituting the past for the present tense. Nothing
+    has occurred to alter what then was the obvious.
+
+
+
+
+X.
+
+THE COMING OF THE IRONCLAD.
+
+
+The period immediately following the Crimean War saw a gradual change
+in the relations between England and France. In 1858 a panic similar
+to those with which later years have familiarised us began to arise,
+and in December, 1858, and January, 1859, a committee sat under the
+Administration of Lord Derby “to consider the very serious increase
+which had taken place of late years in the Navy Estimates, while it
+represented that the naval force of the country was far inferior
+to what it ought to be with reference to that of other Powers, and
+especially France, and that increased efforts and increased expenditure
+were imperatively called for to place it on a proper footing.”
+
+This committee found that whereas in 1850 there were eighty-six British
+ships of the line to forty-five French ones, this ratio had altogether
+ceased to exist; and that both Powers had now twenty-nine screw ships
+of the line. Any other large ships had ceased to count.
+
+In 1859 there also appeared the famous “Leipsic Article,” commenting on
+the decline of the British Fleet and the rise of the French. Certain
+extracts from this, though dealing with the past for the most part, are
+here given _en bloc_, for they indicate very clearly the circumstances
+in which, _under pressure from German influences, the modern British
+Navy came to be founded_. It is, to say the least of it, questionable
+whether but for this Teutonic agitation public opinion in England would
+ever have been aroused from its lethargy in time. This epoch-making
+article appeared in the _Conversations Lexicon_, of Leipsic.
+
+After some prelude the article referred to the appearance of the French
+Fleet in the Crimean War:--
+
+    “The late war in the East (Crimean) first opened the eyes of
+    Englishmen to the true position of affairs, and it was not without
+    some sensation of alarm that they gazed at this vision of the
+    unveiled reality. Here and there, indeed, an allusion, having
+    some foundation in fact, had been heard, during the Presidency of
+    Louis Napoleon, and had drawn attention to the menaced possibility
+    of an invasion of the British Isles; but such notions were soon
+    overwhelmed by the derision with which they were jeeringly greeted
+    by the national pride.
+
+    “Those expressions of contempt were, however, not doomed to be
+    silenced in their turn by the sudden apparition in the autumn
+    of 1854 of thirty-eight French ships of the line and sixty-six
+    frigates and corvettes, fully manned and ready for immediate
+    action. During the three preceding years Louis Napoleon had built
+    twenty-four line-of-battle ships, and in the course of the year
+    1854 alone thirteen men-of-war were launched, nine of which were
+    ships of the line. In addition to these, the keels of fifty-two
+    more, comprising three ships of the line and six frigates, were
+    immediately laid down. The English had thus the mortification to
+    be obliged not only to cede to their allies the principal position
+    in the camp, but also reluctantly to acknowledge their equality on
+    that element whereon they had hoped to reign supreme....
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    “If we carried our investigation no further than this we should
+    naturally conclude that, with such a numerical superiority,
+    sufficient in itself to form a very respectable armament for a
+    second-rate power, England has very little to fear from the marine
+    of France. We must not forget, however, that quality as well as
+    numbers must be considered in estimating the strength of a Fleet.
+    When we take this element into our calculations, we shall find
+    the balance very soon turned in favour of France. We perceive,
+    then, that while the English list comprises every individual sail
+    the country possesses, whether fit for commission or altogether
+    antiquated and past service (and some, like the _Victory_, built
+    towards the close of the last or the beginning of this century),
+    the French Navy, as we have observed, scarcely contains a single
+    ship built prior to the year 1840; so that nearly all are less than
+    twenty years old. This is a fact of the greatest importance, and
+    indicates an immense preponderance in favour of France. Though many
+    of England’s oldest craft figure in the ‘Navy List’ as seaworthy
+    and fit for active service, we have no less an authority than
+    that of Sir Charles Napier (in his Letter to the First Lord of
+    the Admiralty in 1849) that some are mere lumber, and many others
+    cannot be reckoned upon to add any appreciable strength to a Fleet
+    in case of need. Independently, too, of the introduction of the
+    screw, such fundamental changes have been introduced, within the
+    last fifty years, both into the principles of naval architecture
+    and of gunnery, that a modern 120-gun ship, built with due regard
+    to recent improvements, and carrying guns of the calibre now in
+    ordinary use, would in a very short space of time put _ten_ ships
+    like the _Victory_ _hors de combat_, with, at the same time, little
+    chance of injury to herself.
+
+    “It is time, however, to turn our attention to another important
+    part of the _material_, namely, artillery. Under this head we
+    purpose designating, not only to the number of guns and their
+    calibre, but also the mode in which they are served, for in
+    actual warfare this, of course, is a primary consideration. If we
+    take the received history of naval warfare for the basis of our
+    investigation, we cannot fail to remark one notable circumstance
+    in favour of the English, which can only be ascribed to their
+    superiority in the use of this arm. That circumstance is the
+    important and uniform advantage they have had in the fewer number
+    of casualties they have sustained as compared with other nations
+    with whom they may have chanced to have been engaged. To prove that
+    our assertions are not made at random, we subjoin some statistics
+    in support of this position. In April, 1798, then, the English ship
+    _Mars_ took the French _L’Hercule_; the former had ninety killed
+    and wounded, the latter 290. In the preceding February there had
+    been an engagement between the English _Sybil_ and French _La
+    Forte_, in which the killed and wounded of the former numbered
+    twenty-one, and those of the latter 143. In March, 1806, the
+    English ship _London_ took the French _Marengo_; the English with
+    a loss of thirty-two, the latter of 145 men. On the 4th November,
+    1805, two English ships of the line engaged four French vessels,
+    and the respective losses were, again, 135 and 730. On the 14th
+    February, 1797, in an action between the Fleets of England and
+    Spain, the English lost 300 and the Spaniards 800. On the 11th of
+    October of the same year, in the engagement off Camperdown between
+    the English and Dutch, the respective losses were 825 and 1,160. On
+    the 5th July, 1808, the English frigate _Seahorse_ took the Turkish
+    frigate _Badere Zuffer_, and of the Turks there fell 370 against
+    fifteen English. Finally, in the same year the Russian ship of the
+    line _Wsewolod_ was taken by two English ships of the line, with a
+    loss to the latter of 303, and to the former of only sixty-two.
+
+    “This contrast, so favourable to England, has been constantly
+    maintained, and can only be attributable to her superior artillery.
+    Her seamen not only aimed with greater precision, and fired more
+    steadily than those of the French and of other nations, but they
+    had the reputation of loading with far greater rapidity. It was
+    remarked, in 1805, that the English could fire a round with ball
+    every minute, whereas it took the French gunners three minutes
+    to perform the same operation. Then, again, the English tactics
+    were superior. It was the universal practice of the French to seek
+    to dismast an adversary; they consequently aimed high, while the
+    English invariably concentrated their fire upon the hulls of their
+    adversaries; and clearly the broadside of a vessel presents a much
+    better mark to aim at than the mere masts and rigging. British guns
+    were also usually of higher calibre, for though they bore the same
+    denomination, they were in reality much heavier. Thus, the English
+    _Lavinia_, though nominally a frigate of forty guns, actually
+    carried fifty; and thirty-six and 38-gun frigates nearly always
+    carried forty-four and forty-six. The English ship _Belleisle_,
+    at Trafalgar, though said to be a seventy-four, carried ninety
+    pieces of ordnance, while the Spanish ship she engaged, though
+    called eighty-four had, in fact, only seventy-eight guns. From this
+    disparity in the number and calibre of their guns, as well as in
+    the mode in which they were served, it resulted that France and her
+    allies lost eighty-five ships of the line and 180 frigates, while
+    her antagonist only suffered to the extent of thirteen ships of the
+    line and eighty-three frigates.
+
+    “It was not until the close of the war that France became fully
+    aware to what an extent her inferiority in the above respects had
+    contributed to her reverses; otherwise the unfortunate Admiral
+    Villeneuve would not invariably have ascribed his mishaps to the
+    inexperience of his officers and men, and to the incomplete and
+    inferior equipment of his vessels. The truth was, that not only was
+    the artillery, as we have shown, inferior, but the whole system in
+    vogue at that period on board French ships was antiquated, having
+    continued without reform or improvement for two hundred years; it
+    was deficient, too, in enforcing subordination, that most essential
+    condition of the power and efficiency of a ship of war.”
+
+The French _inscription maritime_ is then dealt with at great length,
+after which occur the following passages, even more interesting perhaps
+to-day than when they were written:--
+
+    “In considering, then, what perfect seamanship really is, we
+    must first adopt a correct standard by which to estimate it. The
+    English sailor has been so long assumed as the perfect type of
+    the _genus_ seaman, that the world has nearly acquiesced in that
+    view, and _even we in Germany have been accustomed to rank our
+    crews below the English, though it is an unfair estimate_. _There
+    are no better sailors in the world than the German seamen, and
+    there is no foreign nation that would assert the contrary._[85] On
+    the other hand, it has also been the fashion universally to abuse
+    French seamanship, and to speak of her sailors as below criticism.
+    None proclaimed this opinion more loudly than the English; but
+    in doing so they recurred to the men they had beaten under the
+    Revolution and Bonaparte. The Crimean War, however, opened their
+    eyes, and taught them that the French sailors of to-day were no
+    longer the men of 1806, and that, to say the least, they are in
+    no respect inferior to the British. England had for years been
+    compelled to keep up a large effective force always ready for
+    action, in consequence of the nature of her dependencies, which, as
+    they consist of remote colonies across distant seas, required such
+    a provision for their protection. This gave her an immeasurable
+    superiority in days gone by. But since France in 1840 discovered
+    her deficiency, it has been supplied by the maintenance of a
+    permanent _experimental Fleet_, which, under the command of such
+    Admirals as Lalande de Joinville, Ducas, Hamelin, and Bruat, has
+    been the nursery of the present most effective body of officers
+    and men; which, since 1853, have not ceased to humble the boasted
+    superiority of England, besides causing her many anxious misgivings.
+
+    “Anyone who had the opportunity of viewing the two Fleets together
+    in the Black Sea or the Baltic, and was in a position to draw
+    a comparison, could not fail to be convinced that everything
+    connected with manœuvring, evolutions, and gunnery was, beyond
+    comparison, more smartly, quickly, and exactly executed by the
+    French than by the English, and _must have observed the brilliant
+    prestige which had so long surrounded England’s tars pale sensibly
+    beside the rising glories of her rival_.”[86]
+
+That this was not merely captious criticism is borne out by the
+following extracts from “The Life and Correspondence of Admiral Sir
+Charles Napier, K.C.B.”:--
+
+    “We have great reason to be afraid of France, because she possesses
+    a large disposable army, and our arsenals are comparatively
+    undefended--London entirely so--and we have no sufficient naval
+    force at home. Of ships (with the exception of steamers) we have
+    enough; but what is the use of them without men? They are only
+    barracks, and are of no more use for defence than if we were to
+    build batteries all over the country, without soldiers to put into
+    them.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    “Such were our inadequate resources for defence, had the Russians
+    been able to get out of the Baltic, and make an attempt on our
+    unprotected shores.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    “The great difficulty consisted in the manning of such a fleet.
+    Impressment was no longer to be thought of; but, strange to say,
+    the Bill which had passed through Parliament, empowering, in case
+    of war, the grant of an ample bounty to seamen, was not acted
+    upon, and consequently most of the ships were very inefficiently
+    manned--some of them chiefly with the landsmen of the lowest class.
+    Nothing had been done towards the training of the men, and no
+    provision was even made to clothe them in a manner required by the
+    climate to which they were about to be sent....
+
+    “Our Ambassador likewise warned the British Government that the
+    Navy of Russia could not with safety be under-estimated, and,
+    moreover, the Russian gunners were all well trained, while those
+    of the British Squadron were _most deficient in this respect_.
+    The object of the Russians, in wishing to get their best ships
+    to Sveaborg, was the impression that Cronstadt would be first
+    attacked; in which case, calculating on the strength of the forts
+    to repel an assault, _they would have fresh ships wherewith to
+    assail our disabled and weakened fleet, should they be obliged to
+    retreat_.[87] Sir Hamilton Seymour warned our Government of the
+    great number of gunboats the Russians could bring out, eighty of
+    which were to be manned by Finns, fifty men to each boat....
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    “Such,” says the author of the biography, “were the reasons, no
+    doubt powerful enough, for hurrying off, even without pilots, the
+    ill-appointed and under-manned squadron placed under Sir Charles
+    Napier’s command, at this inclement season of the year, when the
+    periodical gales of the vernal equinox might be daily expected. The
+    squadron, on leaving Spithead, consisted of four sail-of-the-line,
+    four blockships, four frigates, and four steamers (not a single
+    gunboat); and with this force, hastily got together, for the most
+    part manned with the refuse of London and other towns, destitute of
+    even clothing, their best seamen consisting of dockyard riggers and
+    a few coastguard men--and without the latter, it has been alleged,
+    the squadron could not have put to sea--with this inefficient force
+    did Sir Charles Napier leave our shores, to offer battle to the
+    Russian Fleet, consisting of seven-and-twenty well-trained and
+    well-appointed ships of the line, eight or ten frigates, seven
+    corvettes and brigs, and nine steamers, besides small craft and
+    flotillas of gunboats, supposed in the aggregate to number one
+    hundred and eighty....
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    “It is, probably, an unprecedented event in the annals of war, or,
+    at least, in those of our history, that a fleet should be sent out,
+    on a most momentous service so ill-manned that the Commander was
+    directed to endeavour to ‘pick up,’ if possible, foreign seamen
+    in foreign ports, and so ill-provided with munitions of war, that
+    he was restricted in the use of what he most required, in order
+    to render his inexperienced crews as efficient as possible. It is
+    equally worthy of record that the Board of Admiralty, throughout
+    the whole campaign, never supplied the Fleet with a single Congreve
+    rocket, although it was no secret that great numbers had been
+    made in London for the Russians, to whom they were of far less
+    use than to the British Fleet, which could not well undertake any
+    bombardment without them. The Board of Admiralty must have been
+    perfectly aware of the conditions, in these respects, of that Fleet
+    on whose efficiency so much depended, and from which so much was
+    expected, for, in a letter to Sir Charles Napier, from a member of
+    that Board, I find it recorded as his opinion, that the Emperor of
+    Russia ought either to burn his Fleet, or try his strength with
+    the British Squadron whilst he mustered double their numbers, and
+    whilst our crews were ‘so miserably raw!’ Yet this inefficiency
+    was fully and frankly admitted by Sir James Graham, from whom
+    infrequent instructions arrived to supply the deficiency of good
+    men by picking up foreign sailors in the Baltic. The anxiety of
+    the First Lord upon this point was excessive. He was continually
+    inquiring whether the Admiral had been able to ‘_pick up any Swedes
+    or Norwegians_, who were good sailors and quite trustworthy.’ He
+    was told to ‘enter them quietly.’ If he could not get Swedes and
+    Norwegians, ‘even Danes would strengthen him, for they were hardy
+    seamen and brave. There was, it is true, a difficulty with their
+    Governments, but if the men enlisted freely, and came over to
+    the Fleet, the First Lord did not see why the Admiral should be
+    over-nice, and refuse good seamen without much inquiry as to the
+    place from whence they came.’
+
+    “Admiral Berkeley, moreover, instructed the Admiral to the same
+    effect. ‘Have any of your ships tried for men in a Norwegian port?
+    _It is said that you might have any number of good seamen from that
+    country._’ On the 18th of March the Admiral had been apprised that
+    the _James Watt_, the _Prince Regent_ and _Majestic_ would now join
+    him; ‘_but men are wanting_, and it is impossible to say how long
+    it will be before they are completed.’ On the 4th of April Admiral
+    Berkeley stated: ‘Notwithstanding the number of landsmen entered,
+    we are come nearly to a dead standstill as to seamen; and after the
+    _James Watt_ and _Prince Regent_ reach you, I do not know when we
+    shall be able to send you a further reinforcement, _for want of
+    men_! _Something must be done, and done speedily, or there will be
+    a breakdown in our present rickety system._’”
+
+The German article produced a great stir in England. This was followed
+up by the publication in 1859 of _The Navies of the World_, by Hans
+Busk, M.A., of Trinity College, Cambridge, who, while nominally casting
+cold water on the “Leipsic Article,” added fuel to the fire. This
+writer was one of the first to concentrate attention upon the fact that
+the French were building “iron-plated ships.”
+
+From this scarce and remarkably interesting work I quote the
+following:--
+
+    “The determination of the French Government to build a number of
+    iron or steel-cased ships imperatively obliges us to follow their
+    example. The original idea of plating ships in this way, so as
+    to render them shot-proof, is due, not, as is generally supposed
+    in this country, to the present Emperor, but to a Captain in the
+    French Navy, who, about a quarter of a century since, suggested
+    that all wooden vessels should be sheathed with composite slabs of
+    iron of fourteen or fifteen centimetres in thickness; that is to
+    say, with stout plates of wrought-iron having blocks of cast metal
+    between. A similar suggestion was made among others by General
+    Paixhans; but one of the first to reduce it to practice was Mr.
+    Stevens, of New York, the well-known steamship builder, who about
+    ten years ago communicated to Mr. Scott Russell the results of a
+    long series of experiments, instituted by the American Government,
+    for the purpose of testing the power of plates of iron and steel
+    to resist cannon-shot. Mr. Lloyd, of the Admiralty, proposed the
+    adoption of plates 4ins. in thickness, instead of a number of
+    thinner sheets, as recommended by the Emperor. The English and
+    French floating batteries were, as is well known, protected upon
+    Mr. Lloyd’s plan. From trials recently made, however, it has been
+    pretty well ascertained that this iron planking, on whatever
+    principle applied, will only repel hollow shot or shells; heavy
+    solid projectiles of wrought iron, or those faced with steel,
+    having been found, on repeated trials, to perforate the thickest
+    covering which has ever been adopted, and that, too, even at
+    considerable ranges.
+
+    “Mr. Reed,[88] already alluded to, proposes to protect only the
+    midship portion of the ship, and to separate it from the parts fore
+    and aft by strong watertight compartments, so that, however much
+    the extremities might suffer, the ship would still be safe and
+    the crew below protected; but, as he himself admits, there would
+    obviously be no defence against raking shot.
+
+    “The French vessels last alluded to, follow the lines and
+    dimensions of the _Napoleon_ (one of the best, if not the
+    finest ship in their Navy); but they will only carry thirty or
+    thirty-six guns, and the metal sheathing will be from ten to eleven
+    centimetres (about 4¼ins.) in thickness. Two similar ships are to
+    be commenced here forthwith; and as the First Lord of the Admiralty
+    has prophetically warned us that they will be the most expensive
+    ships ever constructed in this country, it is earnestly to be hoped
+    that they may be found proportionately valuable, should their
+    powers ever come to be tested; they will each cost from £126,000
+    to £130,000, or £4,200 per gun; the ordinary expense of a sailing
+    man-of-war being about £1,000, and of a steamer from £1,800 to
+    £2,000 per gun.”
+
+After this follow various statistics of the French Fleet of no
+particular interest here except for the following passage:--
+
+    “Irrespective of the above are the four _frégates blindées_, or
+    iron-plated frigates, two of which are now in an advanced state at
+    Toulon.
+
+    “These ships are to be substituted for line-of-battle ships;
+    their timbers are of the scantling of three-deckers; they will be
+    provided with thirty-six heavy guns, twenty-four of them rifled,
+    and 50-pounders, calculated to throw an eighty pound percussion
+    shell. Such is the opinion of French naval officers respecting
+    the tremendous power of these ships, that they fully anticipate
+    the complete abolition, within ten or a dozen years, of all
+    line-of-battle ships.”[89]
+
+Here it is desirable to leave ships for a moment and deal with the
+corresponding stage of gunnery, which began to take on its modern form
+contemporaneously with the ironclad ship. In 1858–9 began that contest
+between the gun and armour, which can hardly be said to be ended even
+in our own day, for improved kinds of armour are still being sought and
+experimented with. To quote the work of Hans Busk and its contemporary
+summary:--
+
+    “A number of guns, cast at Woolwich, were sent to Mr. Whitworth’s
+    works at Manchester to be bored and rifled. In April, 1856,
+    trial was made with a brass 24-pounder of the construction above
+    described. The projectiles employed on that occasion varied from
+    two to six diameters in length, and a very rapid rotary motion
+    was communicated to them. The gun itself weighed 13cwt.; the
+    bore, instead of being of a calibre fitted to receive a spherical
+    24-pound shot, was only of sufficient capacity to admit one of
+    9 pounds. The hexagonal bore measured 4ins. in diameter, and
+    was rather more than 54ins. long. It was entirely finished by
+    machinery, and the projectiles were fitted with mathematical
+    precision, the spiral in both cases being formed with absolute
+    accuracy. The gun, externally, had only the dimensions of a
+    24-pound howitzer, but it projected missiles of 24 pounds, 32
+    pounds, and 48 pounds each, the additional weight having been
+    obtained by increased length. Upon this new system, then, it will
+    be seen that guns capable, under the old plan, of supporting
+    the strain of a 24-pound ball, may be made with ease to throw
+    a 48-pound shot; the reduction of the calibre allowing of a
+    sufficient thickness of metal being left to ensure safety. The
+    32-pound and 48-pound projectiles used in the above experiments
+    were respectively 11¾ins. and 16½ins. in length. They were pointed
+    at the foremost extremity, being shaped and rounded somewhat like
+    the smaller end of an egg. At the base they were flat, and slightly
+    hollowed towards the centre. The gun was mounted for the occasion
+    upon an ordinary artillery carriage, which shows no symptoms of
+    having been strained, nor of being in any way injured by the
+    concussions to which it had been subjected.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    “Subsequently, some further experiments were made with the same
+    gun with reduced elevation, when the projectiles, striking the
+    ground at comparatively short distances, rebounded again and
+    again till their momentum was expended. The first shot thus fired
+    weighed 32 pounds, the charge of powder being only 3 ounces, and
+    the gun having an elevation of 2 degrees. The projectile made its
+    first graze at a distance of 92 yards, furrowing the ground for
+    about 7ft., and leaving distinct indications of its rotary axial
+    motion. It rose again to an elevation of about 6ft., grazing,
+    after a further flight of 64 yds. The third graze (owing probably
+    to the hard nature of the soil at the point struck) was at a
+    distance of 70yds. further; after which it traversed some ploughed
+    land, grazing several times, coming finally to rest after having
+    accomplished altogether a distance of 492yds.
+
+    “The second shot also weighed 32 pounds; the charge, as before,
+    consisted of 3 ounces of powder; but this time the elevation given
+    to the gun was 3 degrees. The projectile first grazed the ground
+    at a point 108yds. from the muzzle; the second graze was 126yds.
+    further; but happening to touch the lower bar of an iron fence--a
+    circumstance which appeared to affect its flight--it dropped
+    finally after having accomplished 490yds. Some further experiments
+    were then made with shot weighing 48 pounds each.
+
+    “These very reduced charges rendered it necessary to make use of
+    wooden wads to fill the cavities in the base of the projectiles.
+    This had a tendency to reduce very much the power of the gun.
+
+    “A further trial with the hexagonal gun was made at Liverpool on
+    the 7th of May. Several shots, varying from 24 to 48 pounds in
+    weight, were fired. The first, weighing 24 pounds, with a charge
+    of 11 pounds of powder, attained a distance of 2,800 yards, the
+    elevation given having been 8 degrees. These experiments could
+    hardly be said to have exhibited the _maximum_ capacity of the
+    gun, having been interrupted by the rapid rising of the tide. The
+    average range of several 48-pound shots was 3,000 yards, but there
+    is little doubt that a much greater distance will be achieved when
+    Mr. Whitworth has perfected some guns he is now constructing.
+
+    “A good deal of attention having previously been drawn to the
+    subject of Armstrong’s gun, respecting which few particulars
+    had been allowed to transpire, on the 4th of March last the
+    Secretary-at-War made an official statement to the House, and gave
+    some details as to its alleged capabilities. Without describing
+    its construction, he stated that one piece, throwing a projectile
+    of 18 pounds, weighed but one-third as much as the ordinary gun
+    of that calibre. With a charge of 5 pounds of powder, a 32-pounder
+    attained a range of 5¼ miles; at 3,000 yards its accuracy, as
+    compared with that of a common gun, was stated to be in the
+    proportion of 7 to 1. At 1,000 yards it had struck the target 57
+    times successively, and after 13,000 rounds the gun showed symptoms
+    of deterioration. In conclusion, it was said that the destructive
+    effects occasioned by this new ordnance exceeded anything that
+    had been previously witnessed, and that in all probability it was
+    destined to effect a complete revolution in warfare.”
+
+Armstrong’s own statement was:--
+
+    “Schemers whose invention merely figure upon paper, have little
+    idea of the difficulties that are encountered by those who carry
+    inventions into practice. For my part, I had my full share of
+    such difficulties, and it took me nearly three years of continual
+    application to surmount them.... Early last year a committee was
+    appointed to investigate the whole subject of rifled cannon. They
+    consisted of officers of great experience in gunnery; and after
+    having given much time for a period of five months to the guns,
+    projectiles, and fuses which I submitted to them, they returned
+    a unanimous verdict in favour of my system. With respect to the
+    precision and range which have been attained with these guns, I may
+    observe that at a distance of 600 yards an object no larger than
+    the muzzle of an enemy’s gun may be struck at almost every shot. At
+    3,000 yards a target of 9ft. square, which at that distance looks
+    like a mere speck, has on a calm day been struck five times in ten
+    shots. A ship would afford a target large enough to be hit at much
+    longer distances, and shells may be thrown into a town or fortress
+    at a range of more than five miles. But to do justice to the weapon
+    when used at long distances, it will be necessary that gunners
+    should undergo a more scientific training than at present; and I
+    believe that both the naval and military departments of Government
+    will take the necessary measures to afford proper instruction, both
+    to officers and men. It is an interesting question to consider what
+    would be the effect of the general introduction of these weapons
+    upon the various conditions of warfare. In the case of ships
+    opposed to ships in the open sea, it appears to me that they would
+    simply destroy each other, if both were made of timber. The day
+    has gone by for putting men in armour. Fortunately, however, no
+    nation can play at that game like England; for we have boundless
+    resources, both in the production and application of iron, which
+    must be the material for the armour. In the case of a battery
+    against a ship, the advantage would be greatly in favour of the
+    battery, because it would have a steady platform for its guns,
+    and would be made of a less vulnerable material, supposing the
+    ship to be made of timber. But, on the other hand, in bombarding
+    fortresses, arsenals, or dockyards, when the object to be struck
+    is very extended, ships would be enabled to operate from a great
+    distance, where they could bid defiance to land defences.”
+
+After some observations, the author continued:--
+
+    “Notwithstanding the high estimation in which Sir William
+    Armstrong’s guns are held, and deservedly so from their great
+    intrinsic merit, they have certainly in Mr. Warry’s great invention
+    a rival that may eventually be found to eclipse them.
+
+    “The Armstrong gun cannot be fired oftener than three times a
+    minute, and the bore, it is said, has to be constantly sluiced
+    with water; whereas Warry’s admits, as has been affirmed, of being
+    discharged 16 or 18 times a minute, or 1,000 an hour, without
+    difficulty, though of course not without heating, as some reporters
+    have misrepresented. Guns of the former description are expensive,
+    and must be made expressly by means of special machinery. Mr.
+    Warry, on the other hand, asserts that he can convert every
+    existing gun into a breech-loader upon his principle, and at a
+    moderate outlay: an advantage of the greatest moment at the present
+    time.
+
+    “This gun is fired by means of a lock. On one side of the breech
+    there is a lever, so contrived that by one motion of the hand it is
+    made to cock the hammer and to open the chamber. A second movement
+    closes the charger again, pierces or cuts the cartridge, places a
+    cap on the nipple, and fires the gun almost simultaneously.
+
+    “With a due supply of ammunition, therefore, a destructive torrent
+    of shot and shell may be maintained _ad libitum_. It is not
+    difficult to form a conception of the havoc even one such gun would
+    occasion if brought to bear upon the head of an advancing column.
+
+    “The inventor has, besides, made application for a patent for a
+    new coating he has devised for all kinds of projectiles, in lieu
+    of any leaden or metallic covering, which has been found very
+    objectionable in actual practice. The new coating, it is said,
+    reduces the ‘fouling’ to a minimum.
+
+    “But we cannot turn even from this very brief consideration of the
+    improvements in modern cannon without offering a few observations
+    relative to an invention of a different kind, but one that may
+    possibly prove of greater moment than either of the guns that
+    have been described. This is the composition known as ‘Norton’s
+    liquid fire.’ In the terrific character of its effect it rivals
+    all that has been recorded of the old Greek fire; at the same
+    time it is perfectly manageable, and may be projected from an
+    Enfield rifle, from a field-piece, or from heavier ordnance. The
+    composition Captain Norton uses consists of a chemical combination
+    of sulphur, carbon, and phosphorus. He merely encloses this in a
+    metal or even in a wooden shell, and its effect upon striking the
+    side or sails of a ship, a wooden building, or indeed any object
+    at all combustible, is to cause its instant ignition. This ‘liquid
+    fire’ has apparently the property of penetrating or of saturating
+    any substance against which it may be projected, and such is its
+    affinity for oxygen that it even decomposes water and combines with
+    its component oxygen. Water, consequently, has no power to quench
+    it, and if burning canvas, set on fire in this way, be trodden
+    under foot and apparently extinguished it soon bursts again into
+    flames.”
+
+It is not uninteresting to reflect that although Norton’s liquid
+fire came to nothing, yet the present century has already seen three
+variations on the idea.
+
+The first instance is the type of big shell used by the Japanese at
+Tsushima. Little is known as to their exact composition, but they were
+undoubtedly extremely inflammable. Captain Semenoff in “The Battle of
+Tsushima” thus describes them:--
+
+    “The Japanese had apparently succeeded in realising what the
+    Americans had endeavoured to attain in inventing their ‘Vesuvium.’
+
+    “In addition to this there was the unusual high temperature
+    and liquid flame of the explosion, which seemed to spread over
+    everything. I actually watched a steel plate catch fire from a
+    burst. Of course, the steel did not burn, but the paint on it did.
+    Such almost non-combustible materials as hammocks, and rows of
+    boxes, drenched with water, flared up in a moment. At times it was
+    impossible to see anything with glasses, owing to everything being
+    so distorted with the quivering, heated air.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    “According to thoroughly trustworthy reports, the Japanese in
+    the battle of Tsushima were the first to employ a new kind of
+    explosive in their shells, the secret of which they bought during
+    the war from the inventor, a colonel in one of the South American
+    Republics. It was said that these shells could only be used in guns
+    of large calibre in the armoured squadrons, and that is how those
+    of our ships engaged with Admiral Kataoka’s squadron did not suffer
+    the same amount of damage, or have so many fires, as the ships
+    engaged with the battleships and armoured cruisers.”
+
+The second instance is the Krupp fire shell designed for use against
+dirigible balloons. The third is the “Thermite shell,” which, early in
+1912, was proposed for adoption in France. It was calculated that one
+12-inch A.P. shell exploding would melt half a ton of steel.
+
+The following passage from Hans Busk is of interest:--
+
+    “In 1855 Mr. Longridge, C.E., proposed to construct cannon of tubes
+    covered with wire wound round them so tightly as almost entirely
+    to relieve the inside from strain. On the 25th of June of the same
+    year Mr. Mallet read a paper advocating the construction of cannon
+    of successive layers of cylinders, so put together that all should
+    be equally strained when the gun is fired; thus the inside would
+    not be subject to fracture, while the outside would be useless
+    as in a cast mass. His method of effecting this was, as is well
+    known, to have each cylinder slightly too small to go over the one
+    under it till expanded by heat, so that when cool it compresses the
+    interior and is slightly strained itself. Thirty-six-inch mortars
+    have been made on the principle, and if they have failed with
+    40lbs. of powder, cast-iron must have failed still less. In 1856
+    Professor Daniel Treadwell, Vice-President of the American Academy,
+    read a paper to that body recommending the same principle of
+    construction; and Captain Blakely has himself for some years
+    been endeavouring to urge its adoption by argument and direct
+    experiments. In December, 1857, some trials were made with guns
+    constructed by that officer; and the result of a comparative trial
+    of a 9-pounder with a cast-iron service gun of similar size and
+    weight gave results proving the soundness of his views; for Captain
+    Blakely’s gun bore about double the amount of firing the service
+    gun did, and being then uninjured, was loaded to the muzzle, and
+    was thus fired 158 times before it burst.”
+
+[Illustration: JOHN SCOTT RUSSELL.]
+
+From these contemporary extracts it will be seen that by 1859 the germ
+of nearly every modern idea in connection with gunnery existed, and has
+since developed somewhat on “trial and error” lines for at any rate the
+greater part of the intervening period.
+
+The contemporary situation as regards defence is also best summed up
+from the authority from whom the above gunnery extracts are taken:--
+
+    “The result of numerous trials appeared to convince those best
+    competent to judge of such matters that iron plates, or, rather,
+    slabs, eleven centimetres (about 4½ins.) in thickness, would offer
+    adequate protection to a ship from the effects of hollow shot.
+    Acting upon this impression, four floating batteries, resembling
+    in most respects those constructed here, were ordered to be built,
+    and notwithstanding the enormous difficulties connected with such
+    an undertaking, these four vessels were turned out, complete in all
+    respects, in ten months--an astonishing instance of the resources
+    of French dockyards and the ability of French engineers.
+
+    “From this event may be dated the commencement of a new epoch
+    in naval tactics. The next problem was to determine whether a
+    form better adapted for progression than that of these batteries
+    could not be given to vessels sheathed in a similar manner. Hence
+    originated the iron-plated frigates (_frégates blindées_). The
+    intention of their designer is, that they should have a speed
+    and an armament at least equal to that of the swiftest existing
+    frigates, but their colossal weight, and consequently their great
+    draught of water, must almost preclude the fulfilment of this
+    expectation. Should they prove successful, a number of larger ships
+    of the same kind are to be commenced forthwith. It is difficult to
+    understand how, in the case of these ships being found to answer,
+    it will be possible for us to avert a real “reconstruction” of
+    our Navy, or, how any other nation, aiming to rank as a maritime
+    Power, can avoid the adoption of a similar course. In fact, the
+    necessity has been appreciated, and we are already at work. But a
+    good deal has to be accomplished ere the use of such vessels become
+    universal. If these iron-plated vessels do resist shell, it seems
+    certain, as has been already stated, that solid shot will either
+    perforate at short ranges any thickness of metal that has yet been
+    tried, or will so indent the sheathing at longer distances that
+    the internal lining and rib-work of oak will be riven, shattered,
+    loosened, or crushed to an extent that would almost as speedily
+    put the ship _hors de combat_ as if she had but been built after
+    the old fashion, much, as in days gone by, upon the introduction
+    of gunpowder into warfare, the use of armour was found rather to
+    aggravate, than to ward off, the injuries inflicted by gunshot.
+    It was the result of the operations against Kinburn that more
+    particularly gave rise to the high opinion at present entertained
+    in favour of these _vaisseaux blindées_. Unwieldy and cumbersome
+    as they appeared, they were certainly a great improvement upon
+    the floating batteries used by the French and Spanish against
+    Gibraltar in 1782. Those were merely enormous hulks, destitute
+    of masts, sails, or rigging; their sides were composed of solid
+    carpentry, 6ft. 6ins. in thickness, and they carried from nine to
+    twenty-four guns. When in action, streams of water were made to
+    flow constantly over their decks and sides, but notwithstanding
+    every precaution, such an overwhelming storm of shell and red-hot
+    shot was poured upon them by the English garrison that they were
+    all speedily burnt. Not so the _Devastation_, _La Lave_, and _La
+    Tonnante_ before the Russian fortress above mentioned, on the
+    memorable 14th October, 1855. At 9 p.m. they opened fire, and in an
+    hour and twenty-five minutes the enemy was silenced, nearly all the
+    gunners being killed, their pieces dismounted, and all the ramparts
+    themselves being for the most part demolished. To accomplish this
+    destruction in so short a space of time, the three batteries, each
+    carrying eighteen fifty pounders (supported, of course, by the fire
+    of the English vessels), advanced in very shallow water within
+    800 yards of the walls, receiving themselves very little damage in
+    comparison with the immense havoc they occasioned.”
+
+From the above extract it is clear that the “impenetrable coat of mail”
+idea, popularly supposed to have led to the introduction of ironclads,
+never existed to any appreciable extent. Indeed, when the Committee,
+alluded to on an earlier page, concluded its labours in 1859, it
+merely recommended the conversion of nineteen more sailing ships into
+steamers. It was Sir John Pakington who decided to lay down a couple of
+“armoured steam frigates,” and to build them of iron instead of wood.
+
+The French _frégates blindées_ were wooden ships, armoured. John Scott
+Russell is said to have been Pakington’s chief adviser in this matter
+of building iron armoured ships and disregarding all the laborious
+conclusions of Captain Chads against iron hulls.
+
+As regards the general recommendations of the committee already
+referred to, these had resulted in 1861 in there being no less than
+sixty-seven wooden unarmoured ships of the line building or converting
+into “screw ships.”
+
+The two iron-plated steam frigates were decided on without any popular
+enthusiasm concerning them. Now and again retired Admirals paid
+surreptitious visits to the French “_blindées_” and returned with
+alarming reports; but, with the possible exception of flying machines,
+no epoch-making thing ever came in quite so quietly as the ironclad.
+The wildest dreamer saw nothing in it beyond a variation on existing
+types. The ironclad was something which, by carrying a great deal of
+weight, could keep out shell; beyond that no one seems to have had any
+particular ideals whatever, except perhaps Sir Edward Reed.
+
+Early in 1859 designs for a type of ship to “answer” the French
+_frégates blindées_ were called for, and fourteen private firms
+submitted designs. All, however, were discarded.
+
+Details of the designs submitted were as follows:[90]--
+
+  =============+=======+=======+==========+======+======+======+======
+               |Length.|Breadth|Displ’m’t.|Speed.|Wt. of|Wt. of|I.H.P.
+    Designer.  |       |       |  Tons.   |Knots.|Armour| Hull |  of
+               |       |       |          |      |Displ.|Displ.| Eng.
+  -------------+-------+-------+----------+------+------+------+------
+  Laird        | 400.0 |  60.0 |    9779  |13½   |  .11 |  .51 | 3250
+  Thames Co.   | 430.0 |  60.0 |   11180  |      |  .10 |  .58 | 4000
+  Mare         | 380.0 |  57.0 |    7341  |      |  .13 |  .46 | 3000
+  Scott Russell| 385.0 |  58.0 |    7256  |      |  .18 |  .38 | 3000
+  Napier       | 365.0 |  56.0 |    8000  |13½   |      |      | 4120
+  Westwood &   |       |       |          |      |      |      |
+    Baillie    | 360.0 |  55.0 |    7600  |13½   |  .16 |  .36 | 4000
+  Samuda       | 382.0 |  55.0 |    8084  |13½   |  .16 |  .57 | 2500
+  Palmer       | 340.0 |  58.0 |    7690  |13½   |      |      | 4500
+  Abethell     | 336.0 |  57.0 |    7668  |      |      |      | 2500
+  Henwood      | 372.0 |  52.0 |    6507  |      |  .18 |  .40 | 2500
+  Peake        | 354.9 |  56.0 |    7000  |      |  .14 |  .46 | 3000
+  Chatfield    | 343.6 |  59.6 |    7791  |      |  .14 |      |
+  Lang         | 400.0 |  55.0 |    8511  |15    |  .14 |  .53 | 2500
+  Cradock      | 360.0 |  57.6 |    7724  |      |  .20 |  .42 | 2500
+  Admiralty    |       |       |          |      |      |      |
+    Office     | 380.0 |  58.0 |    8625  |14    |      |      |
+  =============+=======+=======+==========+======+======+======+======
+
+The Abethell and Peake designs were wooden hulled, all the others iron
+ships.
+
+The two ships, _Warrior_ and _Black Prince_, as actually laid down,
+differed from the Admiralty design in certain details. The beam was
+increased slightly, and the displacement rose from 8625 to 9210.
+
+The _Warrior_ was laid down on the 25th May, 1859, at the Thames
+Ironworks, Blackwall; the _Black Prince_ a little later at Glasgow.
+
+[Illustration: THE _WARRIOR_, AS COMPLETED, 1861.]
+
+In substances they were ordinary “wooden frigates,” built of iron
+instead of wood, with armour to protect most (but not all) of the
+guns. This was done by a patch of armour amidships, covering about 60%
+of the side. It was deemed advisable to protect the engines; otherwise
+as like as not the armour would have been over the battery only.
+Waterline protection was entirely unrealised, the steering gear of the
+_Warrior_ being at the mercy of the first lucky shot.
+
+This, as Sir N. Barnaby has pointed out, was due to accepting existing
+conditions:--
+
+    “The tiller was necessarily above the water-line and was outside
+    of the cover of the armour. The wooden line-of-battle ships, with
+    which the designers of these first iron-cased ships were familiar,
+    had required no special water-line protection, and when wheel
+    ropes or tiller were shot away the ship did not cease to be able
+    to fight. The line-of-battle ships, which they knew so well, had
+    a lower, or gun deck about four feet above the water-line, and an
+    orlop deck about three feet below the water-line. Between these two
+    decks the ship’s sides were stouter than in any other part, and
+    shot did not easily perforate them. When a shot did enter there,
+    between wind and water, as it was called, ample provision was made
+    to prevent the serious admission of water.
+
+    “In this between-deck space the sides of the ship were kept free
+    from all erections or obstructions. The ‘wing passages’ on the
+    orlop were clear, from end to end of the ship, and they were
+    patrolled by the carpenter’s crew, who were provided with shot
+    plugs of wood and oakum and sail cloth with which to close any shot
+    holes. As against disabled steering gear there were spare tillers
+    and tiller ropes, and only injury to the rudder head itself was
+    serious.”
+
+It is easy to-day to indicate where the old-time designers erred;
+and later on they realised and repaired their error with commendable
+promptitude. The really interesting point is that British designers
+evolved the ideal thing for the day, while the French evolved the idea
+of the ideal thing for the to-morrow. Unhappily for the latter, their
+evolution was unable to survive its birth till the day of its utility.
+_La Gloire_, the first French ironclad, was broken up more years ago
+than any can remember; the _Warrior_ and the _Black Prince_, though
+long ago reduced to hulk service,[91] still float as sound as when in
+1861 the _Warrior_ first took the water. To the French belongs the
+honour of realising what armour protection might mean; but to England
+goes the credit of reducing the idea to practical application.
+
+The _Warrior_ was designed by Messrs. Scott Russell and Isaac Watts,
+the Chief Constructor. Her length between perpendiculars was 380 feet.
+She carried originally a uniform armament of forty-eight 68-pounders
+smooth bores, weighing 95cwt. each. These fired shell and cast-iron
+spherical shot. The guns were carried as follows:--Main deck,
+thirty-eight, of which twelve were not protected by armour. On the
+upper-deck, ten, also unprotected.
+
+This armament was subsequently changed to two 110-pounder rifled
+Armstrongs on pivot mountings, and four 40-pounders on the upper-deck;
+while the main-deck battery was reduced to thirty-four guns. At a later
+date it was again altered to four 8-inch 9-ton M.L.R., and twenty-eight
+7-inch 6½-ton M.L.R.
+
+In addition to her armour the _Warrior_ was divided into 92 watertight
+compartments, fore and aft. She had a double bottom amidships,
+considerably subdivided (fifty-seven of the compartments), but no
+double bottom in the modern sense.
+
+The _Warrior’s_ engines, by Penn, were horizontal single expansion.
+On trial they developed 5,267 I.H.P., and the then excellent speed of
+14.079 knots.[92] Her six hours’ sea speed trial resulted in a mean
+5,092 H.P. and 13.936 knots.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  FRENCH LA GLOIRE
+  WARRIOR & BLACK PRINCE
+  HECTOR
+  ACHILLES
+  MINOTAUR
+  NORTHUMBERLAND
+
+EARLY BRITISH BROADSIDE IRONCLADS]
+
+Save for her unprotected steering gear, the _Warrior_ may be described
+as a brilliant success for her era. She was launched on December 29th,
+1860, and completed in the following year. The _Black Prince_ was
+completed in 1862.
+
+The _Warrior_ and _Black Prince_, under a system which long endured in
+the British Navy, were followed by a certain number of diminutives, of
+which the first were the _Defence_ and _Resistance_, of 6,150 tons,
+with speeds of just under 12 knots, and an armament of 16 guns. The
+armour was the same, but the battery protection was extended fore and
+aft, so that all guns were inside it. These ships were completed in
+1862.
+
+Three more ships were projected, of which the _Hector_ and _Valiant_,
+completed in 1864 and 1865, were of precisely the same type as the
+_Resistance_, but displaced 6,710 tons, with about a knot more speed,
+and carried a couple of extra guns.
+
+A third ship, originally intended to have been of the same class, was
+the _Achilles_, but, mainly owing to the influence of Mr. Reed (of whom
+more anon), who pointed out the danger of unprotected steering gear,
+her design was altered and a complete belt of 4½-inch armour given to
+her instead of a partial one.
+
+Those changes in the design, together with an increased horse-power
+which produced on trial 14.32 knots, advanced the displacement of the
+_Achilles_ to 9,820 tons, while the armament was brought up to fourteen
+12-ton guns and two 6½-ton. The weight of armour was 1,200 tons.
+
+The _Achilles_, like many another ship that was to follow her, was
+the “last word” of her own day. No expense was spared in seeking to
+secure a maximum of efficiency in her. As originally completed she
+was a ship-rigged vessel, but with a view to improving her sailing
+efficiency, this was subsequently altered to a four-masted rig, which
+proved so little successful that eventually she reverted to three masts
+again.
+
+In the meantime the authorities were so pleased with the _Achilles_
+that three improved editions of her were designed. They were not
+completed until a new type of ship, which was completed before they
+were, replaced them; but chronologically they followed close upon the
+_Achilles_. They were laid down in 1861, and designed by Isaac Watts.
+They were named _Agincourt_, _Minotaur_, and _Northumberland_. They
+differed in minor details, but in substance were all about 1,000 tons
+more than the _Achilles_, and their increased displacement mostly went
+in one inch extra armour protection (5½-inch against 4½-inch).
+
+As originally designed they were intended to mount seven 12-ton and
+twenty 9-ton guns, but at a very early date the first two were given a
+uniform armament of seventeen 12-ton. A small portion of this armament
+of the upper deck was provided with armoured protection for right-ahead
+fire.
+
+[Illustration: THE _ACHILLES_ AS A FOUR-MASTER.
+
+Photographed about 1866.]
+
+In appearance they were magnificent ships, fitted with five masts.
+Being 400 feet between perpendiculars they were the largest ships of
+their time, and at sea always proved very steady under both sail and
+steam.
+
+These ships were the subject of violent disputes between the Controller
+of the Navy and their constructor. The Controller insisted that they
+were extravagantly large ships, as compared to French ships. The
+constructor insisted that it was essential that for any given power and
+protection a British ship must be larger than a foreign one, because of
+her more extended probable duties, and the consequent necessity of a
+larger coal supply.[93]
+
+[Illustration: THE _MINOTAUR_, 1867, ORIGINAL RIG.]
+
+At and about this period there were a number of wooden
+ships-of-the-line building, which had been laid down from the year
+1859 onwards. Following the French fashion, they were converted into
+ironclads. These ships, displacing from 6,100 to 6,830 tons, were the
+_Repulse_, _Royal Alfred_, _Zealous_ (laid down 1859), _Caledonia_,
+_Ocean_, _Prince Consort_, _Royal Oak_ (1860).[94]
+
+The upper-decks of these ships were removed, and they were fitted with
+side armour, which was 4½ inches in the earliest to be treated, and 5½
+inches in the latest. All of them carried sixteen 9-ton guns and four
+6½-ton, with provision for ahead fire.
+
+The experiment, though useful as a temporary expedient, was very
+expensive, and several of the ships had to be lengthened before
+anything could be done to them. None of them were very successful, and
+most of them disappeared from the Navy List at an early date.
+
+This ends the period of “broadside ironclads”; of the best of which it
+may be said that they were nothing but efforts to adapt new ideals to
+old methods.
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+THE REED ERA.
+
+
+In 1862 Mr. (afterwards Sir) E. J. Reed, was appointed Chief
+Constructor, and proceeded at once to produce the type of ship chiefly
+associated with his name. His ideals ran in the direction of short,
+handy ships of medium size, as heavily armed as possible, and with
+a good turn of speed. His arguments in favour of these ideals he
+afterwards described as follows:--[95]
+
+    “The merits of ironclad ships do not consist in carrying a large
+    proportion of weights to engine-power, or having a high speed in
+    proportion to that power; but rather in possessing great powers
+    of offence and defence, being comparatively short, cheap, and
+    handy, and steaming at a high speed, not in the most economical way
+    possible, but by means of a moderate increase of power on account
+    of the moderate proportions adopted in order to decrease the weight
+    and cost, and to increase the handiness.”
+
+Generally speaking, his views were very revolutionary. The greatness of
+Sir E. J. Reed lay in the fact that he was the first man to conceive of
+the ironclad as a separate and distinct entity. Previously to him the
+ironclad was merely an ordinary steamer with some armour plating on her.
+
+[Illustration: SIR E. J. REED.
+
+From a portrait made when he was Chief Constructor of the British Navy]
+
+His first ship was the _Bellerophon_, of 7,550 tons displacement. She
+embodied distinct novelties in the construction of her hull, described
+by her designer in the following passages:--[95]
+
+    “The _Warrior_ and the earlier ironclads are constructed with deep
+    frames, or girders, running in a longitudinal direction through
+    the greater part of the length of the ship, combined with numerous
+    strong transverse frames, formed of plates and angle-irons,
+    crossing them at right angles. In fact, up to the height of the
+    armour the ship’s framing very closely resembles in its character
+    that of the platform or roadway of a common girder bridge, in
+    which the principal or longitudinal strength is contributed by
+    the continuous girders that stretch from pier to pier, and the
+    transverse framing consists of short girders fitted between and
+    fastened to the continuous girders. If we conceive such a platform
+    to be curved transversely to a ship-shape form, and the under
+    side to be covered with iron plating, we have a very fair idea of
+    the construction of the lower part of the _Warrior_. If, instead
+    of this arrangement, we conceive the continuous longitudinal
+    girders to be considerably deepened, and the transverse girders
+    to be replaced by so-called ‘bracket-frames,’ and then, after
+    curving this to a ship-form, add iron-plating on both the upper
+    and the under sides, we have a correspondingly good idea of
+    the construction of the lower part of the _Bellerophon_. The
+    _Bellerophon’s_ construction is, therefore, identical in character
+    with the cellular system carried out in the Menai and other tubular
+    bridges, which system has been proved by the most elaborate and
+    careful experiments to be that which best combines lightness and
+    strength in wrought-iron structures of tubular cross-section.
+    The _Warrior’s_ system, wanting, as it does, an inner skin of
+    iron--except in a few places, such as under the engines and
+    boilers--is not in accordance with the cellular system, and is
+    inferior to it in strength. As regards safety, also, no comparison
+    can be made between the system of the _Warrior_ and that of the
+    _Bellerophon_. If the bottom plating is penetrated, in most places
+    the water must enter the _Warrior’s_ hold, and she must depend for
+    safety entirely on the efficiency of her watertight bulkheads.
+    If the _Bellerophon’s_ bottom is broken through, no danger of
+    this kind is run. The water cannot enter the hold until the inner
+    bottom is broken through, and this inner bottom is not likely
+    to be damaged by an ordinary accident, seeing that it is two or
+    three feet distant from the outer bottom. Should some exceptional
+    accident occur by which the inner bottom is penetrated, the
+    _Bellerophon_ would still have her watertight bulkheads to depend
+    on, being, in fact, under these circumstances in a position
+    similar to that occupied by the _Warrior_ whenever her bottom
+    plating is broken through; while an accident which would prove
+    fatal to the _Warrior_ might leave the _Bellerophon_ free from
+    danger so long as the inner bottom remained intact.”
+
+As to be related later, the _Vanguard_ disaster tended to contravert
+this optimism--but of that further on. The point of present interest
+is the recognition and establishment of a principle which, however
+commonplace to-day, was in those days a complete novelty and a special
+feature of the iron ship as a peculiar war entity.
+
+Equally of interest, in some ways more so, are the following
+anticipations of torpedo possibilities. The torpedo is such a familiar
+thing to-day that it is hard to throw ourselves back into the point of
+view necessary to appreciate the prophetic instincts of the man who
+created the first vessels which can really be called “battleships.”
+
+    “It may be proper in this connection to draw attention to the
+    fact that the probable employment of torpedoes in a future naval
+    war has not been lost sight of in carrying out these structural
+    improvements. Up to the present time torpedoes have been used
+    almost solely for coast and harbour defence, and have, under
+    those circumstances, proved most destructive, as a glance through
+    the reports of the operations of the Federal Fleet at Charleston
+    and other Confederate ports will show. It is still doubtful,
+    however, whether these formidable engines of war can be supplied
+    with anything like the same efficiency at sea under the vastly
+    different conditions which they will there have to encounter.
+    The Americans have, it is true, proposed to fit torpedo-booms to
+    their unarmoured ocean-cruisers, such as the _Wampanoag_, and
+    a naval war would doubtless at once bring similar schemes into
+    prominence. Nothing less than actual warfare can be expected to
+    set the question at rest; but whatever the result of such a test
+    may be, it is obviously a proper policy of construction to provide
+    as much as possible against the dangers of torpedoes; and it must
+    be freely admitted that the strongest ironclad yet designed,
+    although practically impenetrable by the heaviest guns yet
+    constructed, would be very liable to damage from the explosion of
+    a submerged torpedo. No ship’s bottom can, in fact, be made strong
+    enough to resist the shock of such an explosion; and the question
+    consequently arises: How best can the structure be made to give
+    safety against a mode of attack which cannot fail to cause a more
+    or less extensive fracture of the ship’s bottom, even if it does no
+    more serious damage? In our recent ships, as I have said, attempts
+    have been made to give a practical answer to this question.
+    Seeing that the bottom must inevitably be broken through by the
+    explosion of a torpedo which exerts its full force upon the ship,
+    it obviously becomes necessary to provide, as far as possible,
+    against the danger resulting from a great in-flow of water. This
+    is the leading idea which has been kept in view in arranging the
+    structural details of our ships to meet this danger, and the reader
+    cannot fail to perceive that the double bottom and watertight
+    subdivisions described above are as available against injury from
+    torpedoes as they are against the injuries resulting from striking
+    the ground.”
+
+[Illustration: THE _BELLEROPHON_, COMPLETED 1866.]
+
+Details of the _Bellerophon_ were as follows:--
+
+    Displacement--7,550 tons.
+
+    Length--300 ft. between perpendiculars.
+
+    Beam--56ft. 1in.
+
+    H.P.--6,520.
+
+    Mean Draught--26ft. 7ins.
+
+    Guns--Ten 12-ton M.L.R., five 6½-ton M.L.R. (changed in 1890 to ten
+      8-in. 14-ton B.L.R., four 6-in., six 4-in. ditto.)
+
+    Armour (iron)--Belt 6in., Battery 6in., Bulkhead 5in., Conning
+      tower 8in.
+
+    Speed--14.17 knots.
+
+    Coal--650 tons.
+
+    Launched--1865; completed, 1866.
+
+    Cost--Hull and machinery--£322,701.
+
+The 12-ton guns were on the main deck, the 6½-ton on the upper deck,
+two of them being in an armoured bow battery. The _Bellerophon_,
+completed in 1866, was ship rigged, and carried the then novel
+feature of an armoured conning tower, abaft the mainmast.[96] She
+proved extremely handy, her turning circle being 559yds. as against
+939yds. for the _Minotaur_ and 1,050yds. for the _Warrior_. A balanced
+rudder, introduced in her for the first time, helped this result to
+some extent; but the well thought-out design of this, the first real
+“battleship,” was the main cause.
+
+The _Bellerophon_ was followed by a series of “improved
+_Bellerophons_,” which will be dealt with later. First, however, it is
+necessary to revert to the coming of the turret-ship.
+
+So long ago as the Crimean War Captain Cowper-Coles had introduced the
+_Lady Nancy_, “gun-raft,” previously mentioned in connection with that
+war. In the year 1860 his plans had matured sufficiently for him to
+make public the designs of a proposed turret ship, with no less than
+nine turrets in the centre line, each carrying two guns which were to
+recoil up a slope and return automatically to position.
+
+There has been much discussion in the past as to whether Coles or
+Ericsson, the designer of the _Monitor_, first hit upon the turret-ship
+idea. As a matter of fact neither of them invented it, as the idea
+was first propounded in the 16th century, and “pivot guns” had long
+existed. In so far as adapting the idea to modern uses is concerned,
+Ericsson was first in the field, but his turret revolved on a spindle.
+The merit of the Cowper-Coles design was that he evolved the idea of
+mounting the turret on a series of rollers, thus making it of real
+practical utility.
+
+[Illustration: THE _ROYAL SOVEREIGN_, 1864.]
+
+Coles’ ideal turret ship was not received officially with any great
+show of enthusiasm; as a matter of fact it was an impracticable sort of
+ship. The famous fight between the _Monitor_ and the _Merrimac_, early
+in 1862, in the American Civil War, was, however, followed by a perfect
+“turret craze.” Turret ships were popularly acclaimed as essential
+to the preservation of British naval power. The idea of a sea-going
+ship without sail power was unthinkable; but the turret ships for
+coast defence purposes were demanded with such insistence that in 1862
+Captain Coles, now more or less a popular hero, was put to supervise
+the reconstruction of the old steam wooden line-of-battleship _Royal
+Sovereign_ into a turret ironclad.
+
+This ship was originally a three-decker. Coles cut her down to the
+lower deck, leaving a freeboard of ten feet. The sides were covered
+with 4½-inch iron armour. Four turrets were mounted on Coles’ roller
+system, the forward turret carrying two and the other three one
+12½-ton guns. These turrets were generally five inches thick, but at
+the portholes were increased up to ten inches. They were rotated by
+hand power. There was one funnel, in front of which a thinly armoured
+conning tower was placed. Three pole masts were fitted. This ship was
+completed in 1864, and was fairly successful on trials. The cost of
+conversion was very heavy, and being wooden-hulled her weight-carrying
+ratio was small, 1837 tons to 3,243 tons, weight of hull.
+
+Coles was at no time satisfied with this old three-decker an a proper
+test of his ideas, and his agitation was so far successful that the
+_Prince Albert_ was presently built to his design. She was an iron
+turret-ship, generally resembling the _Royal Sovereign_, though
+carrying only one gun in each turret.
+
+Particulars of her are:--
+
+  Displacement--3,880 tons.
+  Length--240ft. p.p.
+  Beam--48ft. 1in.
+  H.P.--2,130.
+  Mean Draught--20ft. 4ins.
+  Speed--11.65 knots.
+  Coal--230 tons.
+  Guns--Four 9-in. 12-ton M.L.R.
+
+To the same era belong three armoured gunboats--_Viper_, _Vixen_, and
+_Waterwitch_--of about 1,230 tons each, armed with a couple of 6½-ton
+M.L.R. guns, armour 4½ins. The _Waterwitch_, which was slightly the
+heavier, was fitted with a species of turbine, sucking water in ahead
+and ejecting it astern (a very old idea revived). This was moderately
+successful, as the trial speeds of the three were:--
+
+  _Viper_--8.89 knots.
+  _Vixen_--9.59 knots.
+  _Waterwitch_--9.24 knots.
+
+In the _Vixen_ twin screws were for the first time tried.
+
+The _Prince Albert_ was completed in 1866, the same year as the
+_Bellerophon_. Long before she was completed, Coles was agitating for
+the application of his principles to a sea-going masted ship.
+
+[Illustration: THE _WATERWITCH_, COMPLETED 1867.]
+
+Sir E. J. Reed has left it on record that his attitude in the matter
+was that of an interested observer. He was at no time blind to the
+advantages that the turret system conferred; but, unlike the Coles’
+party, he was equally observant of its disadvantages. At a very
+early date he threw cold water on the masted turret-ship idea, and
+insisted that for a sea-going turret-ship to become practicable she
+must be mastless. He further pointed out that for a given weight eight
+guns could be mounted broadside fashion for four carried in turrets.
+
+He developed his own ideas in the _Hercules_, laid down in 1866.
+The _Hercules_, except that recessed ports were introduced to
+supply something like end-on fire to the battery, was an amplified
+_Bellerophon_. Particulars of the _Hercules_ (which was always a very
+successful ship) are:--
+
+  Displacement--8,680 tons.
+  Length--325ft.
+  Beam--59ft. ½in.
+  Mean Draught--26ft. 6ins.
+  H.P.--6,750.
+  Guns--Eight 18-ton M.L.R., two 12½-ton M.L.R., four 6½-ton M.L.R.
+  Armour (iron)--9in. 6in. Belt and Battery.
+  Speed--14.00 kts. (14.69 on the measured mile trials).
+  Coal--610 tons.
+  Cost--Hull and machinery, £361,134.
+
+The _Hercules_ was completed in 1868, contemporaneously with the
+completion of the _Agincourt_ and _Northumberland_, which were very
+slowly finished.
+
+At and about the same time the _Penelope_ was built. She was designed
+for light draught and river service, her maximum draught being kept
+down to 17½ft. She carried eight 9-ton guns and had a 6-inch belt. Sir
+E. J. Reed being absent from office, his chief assistant, afterwards
+Sir N. Barnaby, was mainly responsible for this ship. She was given
+twin screws.
+
+Captain Coles meanwhile continued to demand turret-ships, and in 1865
+submitted a design for a sea-going turret-ship, which was referred to a
+Committee of Naval Officers. They declined to approve the design, but
+expressed much interest in the principle involved, and recommended that
+an Admiralty design on similar principles should be worked out, and a
+ship built to it. This eventuated in the _Monarch_, which in substance
+was an ordinary ironclad of less freeboard than usual (14ft.) with two
+turrets on the upper deck, carrying each a pair of the heaviest guns
+then in existence (25 tons).
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  BELLEROPHON.
+  HERCULES.
+  AUDACIOUS.
+  SULTAN.
+  ALEXANDRA.
+
+BROADSIDE AND CENTRAL BATTERY SHIPS OF THE REED ERA.]
+
+It is difficult to ascertain what part (if any) Sir E. J. Reed had
+in the design of the _Monarch_. At a later date in the work already
+referred to (1869) he criticised her severely enough.[97]
+
+    “I have already intimated that the enlarged adoption of the turret
+    system has usually been associated in my mind with those classes
+    of vessels in which masts and sails are not required. It is well
+    known that others have taken a wider view of its applicability,
+    and have contended that it is, and has all along been, perfectly
+    well adapted for rigged vessels. I have never considered it wholly
+    inapplicable to such vessels: on the contrary, I have myself
+    projected designs of sea-going and rigged turret-ships, which I
+    believe to be safe, commodious, and susceptible of perfect handling
+    under canvas. But most assuredly the building of such vessels
+    was urged by many persons long before satisfactory methods of
+    designing them had been devised; and my clear and strong conviction
+    at the moment of writing these lines (March 31, 1869) is that no
+    satisfactorily designed turret-ship with rigging has yet been
+    built, or even laid down.
+
+    “The most cursory consideration of the subject will, I think,
+    result in the feeling that the middle of the upper deck of a
+    full-rigged ship is not a very eligible position for fighting
+    large guns. Anyone who has stood upon the deck of a frigate,
+    amid the maze of ropes of all kinds and sizes that surrounds
+    him, must feel that to bring even guns of moderate size away
+    from the port holes, to place them in the midst of these ropes,
+    and discharge them there, is utterly out of the question; and
+    the impracticability of that mode of proceeding must increase in
+    proportion as the size and power of the guns are increased. But
+    as a central position, or a nearly central position, is requisite
+    for the turret, this difficulty has had to be met by many devices,
+    some of them tending to reduce the number of the ropes, and others
+    to get them stopped short above the guns. In the former category
+    come tripod masts; in the latter, flying-decks over the turrets;
+    the former have proved successful in getting rid of shrouds, but
+    they interfere seriously with the fire of the turret guns, and are
+    exposed to the danger of being shot away by them in the smoke of
+    action; the latter are under trial, but however successful they
+    may prove in some respects, they will be very inferior in point of
+    comfort and convenience to the upper decks of broadside frigates.
+    In the case of the _Monarch_, which has a lofty upper deck, neither
+    a tripod system nor a flying deck for working the ropes upon has
+    been adopted. A light flying deck to receive a portion of the
+    boats, and to afford a passage for the officers above the turrets,
+    has been fitted; but the ropes will be worked upon the upper deck
+    over which the turrets have to fire, and consequently a thousand
+    contrivances have had to be made for keeping both the standing
+    and running rigging tolerably clear of the guns. It seems to me
+    out of the question to suppose that such an arrangement can ever
+    become general in the British Navy, especially when one contrasts
+    the _Monarch_ with the _Hercules_ as a rigged man-of-war. Nor is
+    the matter at all improved, in my opinion, in the case of the
+    _Captain_ and other rigged turret-ships in which the ropes have to
+    be worked upon bridges or flying-decks poised in the air above the
+    turrets. Such bridges or decks, even if they withstand for long the
+    repeated fire of the ship’s own guns, must of necessity be mounted
+    upon a few supports only; and I am apprehensive that in action an
+    enemy’s fire would bring down parts, at least, of these cumbrous
+    structures, with their bitts, blocks, ropes, and the thousand and
+    one other fittings with which a rigged ship’s deck is encumbered,
+    with what result I need not predict.
+
+    “It is well known that both in the _Captain_ and in the _Monarch_
+    the turrets have been deprived of their primary and supreme
+    advantage, that of providing an all-round fire for the guns, and
+    more especially a head fire. This deprivation is consequent upon
+    the adoption of forecastles, which are intended to keep the ships
+    dry in steaming against a head sea, and to enable the head-sails
+    to be worked. When it first became known that the _Monarch_
+    was designed with a forecastle (by order of the then Board of
+    Admiralty) there were not wanting persons who considered the plan
+    extremely objectionable, and who took it for granted that as a
+    turret-ship the new vessel would be fatally defective. The design
+    of the _Captain_ shortly afterwards, under the direction of Captain
+    Coles, with a similar but much larger forecastle, was an admission,
+    however, that the Board of Admiralty did not stand alone in the
+    belief that this feature was a necessity, however objectionable.
+    Both these ships, therefore, are without a right-ahead fire
+    from the turrets, the _Monarch_ having this deficiency partly
+    compensated by two forecastle (6½-ton) guns protected with armour,
+    while the _Captain_ has no protected head-fire at all, but merely
+    one gun (6½-ton) standing exposed on the top of the forecastle.”
+
+Time has shown that he was quite correct in his views; but in 1866 and
+the years that followed he was regarded as unduly conservative and
+non-progressive.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  ROYAL SOVEREIGN.
+  TYPICAL U.S. MONITOR.
+  SCORPION.
+  CAPTAIN.
+  MONARCH.
+  REED IDEAL OF A MASTED TURRET SHIP.
+
+TURRET-SHIPS OF THE REED ERA.]
+
+Captain Coles objected to the _Monarch_ altogether. He insisted with
+vehemence that she did not in the least express his ideas. She had a
+high forecastle, also a poop; these features depriving her of end-on
+fire, except in so far as a couple of 6½-ton guns in an armoured
+forecastle supplied the deficiency. The Admiralty replied that a
+forecastle was essential for sea-worthiness; but Coles was so insistent
+that eventually he was allowed to design a sea-going turret-ship on
+his own ideas, in conjunction with Messrs. Laird, of Birkenhead,
+who had already had considerable experience in producing masted
+turret-ships.[98] Coles was given a free hand. As a naval officer his
+form of turret displays the practical mind; as a ship designer he was
+simply the raw amateur. The _Captain_, which he produced, accentuated
+every fault of the _Monarch_, except in the purely technical matter
+of rigging being in the way of the guns. Coles got over this by
+fitting tripod masts (which Laird’s had evolved before him[99]); but
+for the light flying bridges of the _Monarch_ he substituted a very
+considerable superstructure erection. For the _Monarch’s_ armoured
+two-gun forecastle, which he had so violently condemned, he substituted
+a much larger unarmoured, one-gun structure. Owing to an error in
+design, his intended 8-ft. freeboard was actually only 6ft., and his
+ideal ship resulted in nothing but a _Monarch_ of less gun power, and
+of 8ft. less freeboard. Her fate is dealt with later. Details of the
+two ships are:--
+
+  ================+===========================+=========================
+                  |        _Captain._         |        _Monarch._
+  ----------------+---------------------------+-------------------------
+    Displacement  | 6900 tons.                | 8320 tons.
+  Length (_p.p._) | 320 feet.                 | 330 feet.
+  Beam            | 53 feet.                  | 57½ feet.
+  Draught         | 25ft. 9½in. (_mean_).     | 26ft. 7in. (_max._)
+  Guns            | Four 25 ton M.L.R.,       | Four 25 ton M.L.R.,
+                  |   two 6½ ton, do.         |   three 6½ ton, do.[100]
+  Coal            | 500 tons.[101]            | 630 tons.
+  Speed           | 14.25 kts. (twin screws). | 14.94 (single screw).
+  Waterline Belt  | 8.6 inches.               | 7.6 inches.
+  Turrets         | 13.8 inches.              | 10.8 inches.
+  Completed       | 1869.                     | 1869.
+  ================+===========================+=========================
+
+It has been said that Captain Coles was tied down by Admiralty ideas
+that a sea-going ship must have auxiliary sail power. All the
+evidence is, however, to the effect that not only did he recognise
+this limitation from the first, but that he concurred with it and
+believed his design to fill the conditions best. It failed to do so,
+the _Monarch_ under all conditions doing far better than the _Captain_
+on trial (except occasionally under sail).
+
+Sir E. J. Reed’s objections to the _Captain_ design have already been
+mentioned. He was not the only critic, since Laird’s, of Birkenhead,
+who built the ship, were so suspicious of the design that they
+requested the Admiralty to submit her to severe tests for stability.
+
+The ship, however, came through these tests very well, and the public
+were more convinced than ever that she was the finest warship ever
+built. One or two naval officers who had criticised her also modified
+their opinions after she had done a couple of very successful cruises
+across the Bay of Biscay. Her crew had the utmost confidence in her.
+She was commanded by Captain Burgoyne, and Captain Coles was also on
+board her when she made her third cruise in September, 1871.
+
+On the 6th September she was off Cape Finisterre in company with
+the Channel Fleet, consisting of the _Lord Warden_, _Minotaur_,
+_Agincourt_, _Northumberland_, _Monarch_, _Hercules_, _Bellerophon_,
+and the unarmoured ships _Inconstant_ and _Bristol_. Admiral Milne
+came on board her from the _Lord Warden_, and drew attention to the
+fact that she was rolling a great deal,[102] but nobody on board the
+_Captain_ agreed with him that this was dangerous. During the night
+a heavy gale suddenly arose, and in the morning the _Captain_ was
+missing. Eighteen survivors reached the land with the story of what had
+happened.
+
+[Illustration: THE _CAPTAIN_.]
+
+From this it appears that about midnight the ship was under her
+topsails, double reefed. She had steam up, but was not using her screw.
+The ship gave a heavy lurch, righted herself, and the captain gave
+the order, “Let go the topsail halyards,” and immediately afterwards,
+“Let go fore and main topsail sheets.” The ship, however, continued to
+heel, and “18 degrees” was called out. This increased until 28 degrees
+was arrived at. With the ship lying over on her side some of the crew
+succeeded in walking over her bottom, and these were practically the
+only survivors. Immediately afterwards the ship went down stern first.
+There were at this time some five and twenty survivors, including
+Captain Burgoyne and Mr. May, the gunner. Some of these were in the
+launch, others clinging to the pinnace, which was floating bottom
+upwards. Captain Burgoyne was amongst those who were clinging to the
+pinnace, and that was the last seen of him. A few of the men in the
+pinnace succeeded in jumping into the launch and so escaped. The rest
+were never seen again.
+
+The subsequent court-martial placed it on record that “the _Captain_
+was built in deference to public opinion and in opposition to the views
+and opinions of the Controller of the Navy and his Department.” The
+instability of the ship and the incompetence of Captain Coles to design
+her were emphasised.
+
+After the loss of the _Captain_ considerable panic on the subject of
+turret-ships arose. The _Monarch_ was submitted to a number of tests
+which, however, generally proved satisfactory, and there was never
+anything to be said against her except that the forecastle and the poop
+necessitated by her being a rigged ship, negatived one of the principal
+advantages of the turret system.
+
+To the loss of the _Captain_ is to be traced some of the extraordinary
+opposition which the _Devastation_ idea subsequently encountered.
+
+The various writings of Sir E. J. Reed make it abundantly clear
+that just as in the _Bellerophon_ he had realised that an ironclad
+battleship must be something more than an old-type vessel with some
+armour on her, so he realised from the first that the ordinary
+sea-going warship with turrets on deck, instead of guns in the battery,
+was no true solution of the turret problem. There is ample evidence
+that he studied the monitors of the American Civil War with a balanced
+intelligence far ahead of his day, taking into consideration every
+_pro_ and _con_ with absolute impartiality, and applying the knowledge
+thus gained to the different conditions required for the British Fleet.
+It is no exaggeration to say that he was the only man who really kept
+his head while the turret-ship controversy reigned; the one man who
+thought while others argued.
+
+He swiftly recognised the tremendous limitations of the American
+low-freeboard monitors, and at an early date evolved his own idea of
+the “breastwork monitor,” which began with the Australian _Cerberus_,
+and ended with the predecessor of the present _Dreadnought_. The ships
+of this type varied considerably from each other in detail; but the
+general principle of all was identical. All, whether coast-defence
+or sea-going, were “mastless”; all, while of low freeboard fore and
+aft, carried their turrets fairly high up on a heavily armed redoubt
+amidships. Side by side with them he developed the central battery
+ironclads of this particular era. He ceased to be Chief Constructor
+before either type reached its apotheosis; but all may be deemed
+lineal descendants of his original creations.
+
+[Illustration: THE OLD “INVINCIBLE.” 1872.]
+
+First, however, it is desirable to revert to the Reed broadside and
+central battery-ships.
+
+The _Audacious_ class, which followed closely upon the _Hercules_, and
+were contemporary in the matter of design, were avowedly “second-class
+ships,” intended for service in distant seas. The ships of this class,
+of which the first was completed in 1869 and the last in 1873, were the
+_Audacious_, _Invincible_, _Iron Duke_, _Vanguard_, _Swiftsure_, and
+_Triumph_. As the sketch plan illustrations indicate, the main deck
+battery in them was more centralised than in the _Hercules_, while
+instead of the bow battery they carried on their upper decks four
+6½-ton guns capable of firing directly ahead or astern.
+
+Excluding the converted ships, the _Audacious_ was the eleventh British
+ironclad to be designed in point of date of laying down, but in the
+matter of design she followed directly on the eighth ship--_Hercules_.
+
+Her weights, as compared with the _Bellerophon_, were:--
+
+  ==============+=================+=================
+     Name.      | Weight of hull. | Weight carried.
+  --------------+-----------------+-----------------
+  _Bellerophon_ |  3652 tons.     |  3798 tons.
+  _Audacious_   |  2675 tons.     |  3234 tons.
+  ==============+=================+=================
+
+In some of these ships the principle of wood-copper sheathing was
+re-introduced; the iron ships having been found to foul their hulls
+more quickly than wooden hulled ships. The _Swiftsure_ and _Triumph_
+(the two latest) were the ones so treated. Sir E. J. Reed was not
+responsible for the experiment, which was entirely an Admiralty one. It
+proved successful enough, the loss of speed being trifling.
+
+Details of the _Audacious_ class:--[103]
+
+  Displacement--6,010.
+  Length--280ft.
+  Beam--54ft.
+  H.P.--4,830.
+  Mean Draught--23ft. 8ins.
+  Guns--Ten 12-ton M.L.R.
+  Coal--500 tons.
+  Belt Armour--8ins. to 6ins.
+
+  ===========+===========+===========+============+==========+===========+=========
+             |_Audacious_|_Iron Duke_|_Invincible_|_Vanguard_|_Swiftsure_|_Triumph_
+  -----------+-----------+-----------+------------+----------+-----------+---------
+  Speed      |   13.2    |   13.64   |   14.09    |  13.64   |   13.75   |  13.75
+  Builder of |           |           |            |          |           |
+   Ship      |  Glasgow  | Pembroke  |  Glasgow   |          |  Jarrow   | Jarrow
+  Builder of |           |           |            |          |           |
+   Machin’y  | Ravenhill | Ravenhill |   Napier   |          | Maudslay  | Maudslay
+  Launched   |   1869    |   1870    |    1869    |   1869   |   1870    |  1870
+  Completed  |   1869    |   1871    |    1870    |   1871   |   1872    |  1873
+  Cost--Hull |           |           |            |          |           |
+   & Machin’y| £246,482  | £196,479  |  £239,441  |          | £257,081  | £258,322
+  ===========+===========+===========+============+==========+===========+=========
+
+The sheathing increased the displacement of the two latest ships by
+about 900 tons in the _Swiftsure_, and some 600 tons in the _Triumph_.
+These two were single-screw ships only, whereas all the others were
+twin-screw.
+
+In September, 1875, the _Vanguard_ was rammed and sunk by the _Iron
+Duke_.
+
+[Illustration: THE _VANGUARD_, COMPLETED 1874.]
+
+The finding of the Court Martial was as follows:--
+
+    “The court having heard the evidence which had been adduced in this
+    inquiry and trial, is of opinion that the loss of Her Majesty’s
+    ship _Vanguard_ was occasioned by Her Majesty’s ship _Iron Duke_
+    coming into collision with her off the Kisbank, the Irish Channel,
+    at about 12-50 on the 1st September, from the effects of which
+    she foundered; that such collision was caused--First, by the high
+    rate of speed at which the squadron, of which these vessels formed
+    a part, was proceeding whilst in a fog; secondly, by Captain
+    Dawkins, when leader of his division, leaving the deck of the ship
+    before the evolution which was being performed was completed, as
+    there were indications of foggy weather at the time; thirdly, by
+    the unnecessary reduction of speed of H.M.S. _Vanguard_ without
+    a signal from the vice-admiral in command of the squadron, and
+    without H.M.S. _Vanguard_ making the proper signals to the _Iron
+    Duke_; fourthly, by the increase of speed of H.M.S. _Iron Duke_
+    during a dense fog, the speed being already high; fifthly, by
+    H.M.S. _Iron Duke_ improperly shearing out of the line; sixthly,
+    for want of any fog signals on the part of H.M.S. _Iron Duke_.
+
+    “The court is further of opinion that the cause of the loss of
+    H.M.S. _Vanguard_ by foundering was a breach being made in her
+    side by the prow of H.M.S. _Iron Duke_ in the neighbourhood of
+    the most important transverse bulkhead--namely, that between the
+    engine and boiler rooms, causing a great rush of water into the
+    engine-room, shaft-alley, and stoke-hole, extinguishing the fires
+    in a few minutes, the water eventually finding its way into the
+    provision room flat, and provision rooms through imperfectly
+    fastened watertight doors, and owing to leakage of 99 bulkhead.
+    The court is of opinion that the foundering of H.M.S. _Vanguard_
+    might have been delayed, if not averted, by Captain Dawkins giving
+    instructions for immediate action being taken to get all available
+    pumps worked, instead of employing his crew in hoisting out boats,
+    and if Captain Dawkins, Commander Tandy, Navigating-Lieutenant
+    Thomas, and Mr. David Tiddy, carpenter, had shown more resource
+    and energy in endeavouring to stop the breach from the outside by
+    means at their command, such as hammocks and sails--and the court
+    is of opinion that Captain Dawkins should have ordered Captain
+    Hickley, of H.M.S. _Iron Duke_, to tow H.M.S. _Vanguard_ into
+    shallow water. The court is of opinion that blame is imputable to
+    Captain Dawkins for exhibiting want of judgment and for neglect of
+    duty in handling his ship, and that he showed a want of resource,
+    promptitude, and decision in the means be adopted for saving
+    H.M.S. _Vanguard_ after the collision. The court is further of
+    opinion that blame is imputable to Navigating-Lieutenant Thomas for
+    neglect of duty in not pointing out to his captain that there was
+    shallower water within a short distance, and in not having offered
+    any suggestion as to the stopping of the leak on the outside. The
+    court is further of opinion that Commander Tandy showed great
+    want of energy as second in command under the circumstances. The
+    court is further of opinion that Mr. Brown, the chief engineer,
+    showed want of promptitude in not applying the means at his command
+    to relieve the ship of water. The court is further of opinion
+    that blame is imputable to Mr. David Tiddy, of H.M.S. _Vanguard_,
+    for not offering any suggestions to his captain as to the most
+    efficient mode of stopping the leak, and for not taking immediate
+    steps for sounding the compartments and reporting from time to
+    time the progress of the water. The court adjudges Captain Richard
+    Dawkins to be severely reprimanded and dismissed from H.M.S.
+    _Vanguard_ and he is hereby severely reprimanded and so sentenced
+    accordingly. The court adjudges Commander Lashwood Goldie Tandy
+    and Navigating-Lieutenant James Cambridge Thomas to be severely
+    reprimanded, and they hereby are severely reprimanded accordingly.
+    The court imputes no blame to the other officers and ship’s company
+    of H.M.S. _Vanguard_ in reference to the loss of the ship, and they
+    are hereby acquitted accordingly.”
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  HOTSPUR
+  FRENCH RAM TAUREAU (1865)
+  GLATTON
+  RUPERT
+
+RAMS OF THE REED ERA.]
+
+This disaster drew attention to the ram, the more so when it became
+known that the _Iron Duke_ was uninjured. Ram tactics had, of course,
+been heard of before, and had been discussed at great length by
+Sir Edward Reed in 1868. At that date, although one or two special
+ram-ships had been built, Sir E. J. Reed had expressed a certain
+amount of scepticism as to whether the ram could be successfully used
+in connection with a ship in motion, and pointed out that in the
+historical instance of the _Re d’Italia_ at the battle of Lissa, the
+ship was stationary. He further had written:--[104]
+
+    “Even if the side were thus broken through, any one of our
+    iron-built ships would most probably remain afloat, although her
+    efficiency would be considerably impaired, the water which would
+    enter being confined to the watertight compartment of the hold,
+    enclosed by bulkheads crossing the ship at a moderate distance
+    before and abaft the part broken through. In fact, under these
+    circumstances the ship struck would be in exactly the same
+    condition as an ordinary iron ship which by any accident has
+    had the bottom plating broken, and one of the hold-compartments
+    filled with water, so that we have good reason to believe that
+    her safety need not be despaired of, unless, by the blow being
+    delivered at, or very near, a bulkhead, more than one compartment
+    should be injured and filled. All iron ships can thus be protected
+    to some extent against being sunk by a single blow of a ram, and
+    our own vessels have the further and important protection of the
+    watertight wings just described; but wood ships are not similarly
+    safe. One hole in the side of the _Re d’Italia_ sufficed to sink
+    her; but this would scarcely have been possible in an iron ship
+    with properly arranged watertight compartments. The French, in
+    their latest ironclads, have become alive to this danger, and have
+    fitted transverse iron bulkheads in the holds of wood-built ships
+    in order to add to their safety. No doubt this is an improvement,
+    but our experience with wood ships leads us to have grave doubts
+    whether these bulkheads can be made efficient watertight divisions
+    in the hold, on account of the working that is sure to take place
+    in a wood hull. This fact adds another to the arguments previously
+    advanced in favour of iron hulls for armoured ships; for it appears
+    that an iron-built ship, constructed on the system of our recent
+    ironclads, is comparatively safe against destruction by a ram,
+    unless she is repeatedly attacked when in a disabled state, while
+    a wood-built ship may, and most likely will, be totally lost in
+    consequence of one well-delivered heavy blow.”
+
+This is in strange contrast to the fate of the _Vanguard_, but the
+finding of the court-martial indicates that the precautions taken were
+hardly such as were contemplated by the ship’s designer! Furthermore,
+she appears to have been struck immediately on one of the watertight
+bulkheads, and so, instead of being left with seven of her eight
+compartments unfilled, she had only six unfilled. The shock, also, was
+such that most of the other bulkheads started leaking; and in addition
+to this the double bottom is said to have been filled with bricks
+and cement,[105] and so less operative than it might otherwise have
+been, since any shock on the outer bottom would thus be immediately
+communicated to the inner one.
+
+The actual successor of the _Hercules_, in the matter of first-class
+ships, was the _Sultan_. She differed from the _Hercules_ merely in a
+somewhat increased draught and displacement, and increased provision
+for end-on bow fire--four 12½-ton guns able to fire ahead being
+substituted for the one smaller gun in the _Hercules_.
+
+This end-on fire was given because ram-tactics were then coming greatly
+into favour. Particulars of the _Sultan_,[106] which was the last of
+the central battery ironclads to be designed and built by Sir E. J.
+Reed, are as follows:--
+
+  Displacement--9,290 tons.
+  Length--325ft.
+  Beam--59ft. ½-in.
+  H.P.--7,720.
+  Mean Draught--26ft. 5ins.
+  Guns--Eight 18-ton M.L.R., four 12½-ton M.L.R.
+  Coal--810 tons.
+  Armour (iron)--9ins., 8ins., and 6ins.
+  Speed--14.13 knots (single screw).
+  Builder of Ship--Chatham.
+  Builder of Machinery--Penn.
+  Cost--Hull and machinery, £357,415.
+  Launched--1870; completed for sea in 1871.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  CERBERUS.
+  DEVASTATION.
+  FURY.
+  DREADNOUGHT.
+
+BREASTWORK MONITORS.]
+
+Sir E. J. Reed’s “breastwork monitors” have already been referred to.
+They were received with little enthusiasm by the Admiralty, and the
+first of them were merely Colonial coast defence vessels. These were:--
+
+  ============+==========+======+=======+=======+==========
+     Name.    |Displ’m’t.|Speed.|Armour.|Turret |Completed.
+              |  Tons.   |Knots.|Inches.|Armour.|
+  ------------+----------+------+-------+-------+----------
+  _Cerberus_  |   3480   | 9.75 |   8   |  10   |   1870
+  _Abyssinia_ |   2900   | 9.59 |   7   |  10   |   1870
+  _Magdala_   |   3340   |10.67 |   8   |  10   |   1870
+  ============+==========+======+=======+=======+==========
+
+In general design all were identical, a redoubt amidships carrying
+two centre line turrets and a small oval superstructure between. Twin
+screws were employed.
+
+The belief in the ram already alluded to had by now attained such
+proportions that a ship specially designed for ramming was called for,
+and the _Hotspur_ was the result. Nothing written by Sir E. J. Reed
+(and he wrote a great deal) indicates that he was in sympathy with
+her design, though nominally responsible. The _Hotspur_ was not even
+a turret-ship. She carried a fixed armoured structure of considerable
+size,[107] inside of which a single 25-ton gun revolved, firing through
+the most convenient of several ports. She was fitted with two masts
+with fore and aft sails. Particulars of her were:--
+
+  Displacement--4,010 tons.
+  Length--235ft.
+  Beam--50ft.
+  H.P.--3,060.
+  Mean Draught--21ft. 10ins.
+  Guns--One 25-ton M.L.R., two 6½-ton.
+  Belt Armour--11in. to 8in.; complete belt.
+  Turret Armour--10in.
+  Coal--300 tons.
+  Speed--12.8 knots (twin-screw).
+  Builder--Napier, Glasgow.
+  Launched--1870; completed, 1871.
+  Cost--Hull and machinery, £171,528.
+
+She was built solely and simply as an “answer” to a series of “rams”
+projected for the French Navy, apparently more with an Admiralty idea
+of not being caught napping “in case,” than from any belief in her
+efficacy.
+
+[Illustration: THE _HOTSPUR_, AS ORIGINALLY COMPLETED, 1871.]
+
+Sir E. J. Reed’s ideas in the matter of turret-ships now found
+expression in four ships of the _Cerberus_ type enlarged. These were
+the _Cyclops_, _Gorgon_, _Hecate_, and _Hydra_. Like their prototype,
+they were of the breastwork type, and differed only in having an inch
+more belt armour and a displacement of 3,560 tons. Differing from them,
+and perhaps more on Reed lines, was the _Glatton_. Her special feature
+was the introduction of water to reduce her freeboard in action. She
+had a single turret only, but her belt was 12ins. thick, and she
+represented the, then, “last word” in coast defence ships, so far as
+the British Navy was concerned. Details of her are as follows:--
+
+  Displacement--4,910 tons.
+  Length--245ft.
+  Beam--54ft.
+  H.P.--2,870.
+  Mean Draught--19ft. 5ins.
+  Guns--Two 25-ton M.L.R.
+  Armour (iron)--12-10in. Belt Turret, 14in.
+  Coal--540 tons.
+  Speed--12.11 knots (twin screw).
+  Builder of Ship--Chatham Dockyard.
+  Builder of Machinery--Laird.
+  Floated out of Dock--1871; completed, 1871.
+  Cost--Hull and Machinery, £219,529.
+
+The last ship of this group was the ram _Rupert_, of 5,440 tons, laid
+down at Chatham, in 1870. She was, in substance, merely an enlarged
+_Hotspur_, carrying two 18-ton guns in a single revolving turret
+forward and two 64-pounders behind the bulwarks aft. Her armour was
+slightly inferior to the _Glatton’s_: her speed considerably higher--14
+knots being aimed at, though it was never reached. She was one of the
+very few ships which had their engines built in a Royal Dockyard, hers
+being constructed at Portsmouth Yard.
+
+About the year 1890, when re-construction was very much to the fore,
+the _Rupert_ was re-constructed. She was given a couple of 10in.
+breech-loaders instead of her old 10in. M.L., a military-top, and a
+few other improvements. The net result of this re-construction was
+that when, after it, she first proceeded to coal she began to submerge
+herself almost at once. Her torpedo tubes were awash before she had
+received her normal quota of coal, and she was, generally, the most
+futile example of re-construction ever experienced.
+
+The failure was such that thereafter no further attempt to modernise
+old ships was ever made; instead, a policy of “scrapping” all such was
+introduced. This is probably the best service that the _Rupert_ ever
+rendered to the Navy. She demonstrated for all time that--so far as the
+British Navy was concerned--modernising was a hopeless task. It took
+France and Germany many years to learn a similar lesson. To-day, it is
+generally recognised that, as a ship is completed, she represents the
+best that can be got out of her; and that any attempt to improve her in
+any one direction merely spells reduced efficiency in some other. Hence
+the apparently early scrapping of many ships of later date and the
+present day proverb, “Re-construction never pays.”
+
+The whole of the series, however, can only be regarded as improvements
+on the old _Prince Albert_ idea. Sir E. J. Reed’s real answer to the
+_Captain_ was the _Devastation_, designed in 1868, but not completed
+till 1873; at which date he had left the Admiralty. The _Devastation_
+and the _Thunderer_ (completed four years later than her sister) cost
+Sir E. J. Reed his position. In them he introduced all his ideas as to
+what the sea-going turret-ship should be. He carried the Admiralty with
+him; but before ever the _Devastation_ was set afloat, it was “proved”
+to the satisfaction of the general public that she was an “egregious
+failure.” The date of her design is about 1868, though, as mentioned
+above, she was not completed till 1873. The _Dreadnought_ of more or
+less these times was nothing in the way of novelty compared to the
+_Devastation_ of the later sixties.
+
+Details of the _Devastation_ (laid down Nov., 1869), were:--
+
+  Displacement--9,330 tons.
+  Length--385ft.
+  Beam--62ft. 3ins.
+  Mean Draught--25ft. 6ins.
+  H. P.--6,650.
+  Guns--Four 35-ton M.L.R.[108]
+  Belt Armour--12in. and 10in. (iron).
+  Turret Armour--14in. (iron).
+  Coal--1,800 tons.
+  Speed--13.84 knots (twin-screw).
+  Where Built--Portsmouth Dockyard.
+  Builder of Machinery--Humphrys.
+  Launched--1871; completed, 1873.
+  Cost--Hull and Machinery, £353,848.
+
+On her trials the _Devastation_ proved completely successful. An
+interesting and little known item in connection with her is that as
+designed she was to carry two signal masts,[109] one forward of the
+turrets, one aft. For these, on completion, a single mast on the
+superstructure was substituted.
+
+[Illustration: THE _DEVASTATION_, AS COMPLETED, 1873.]
+
+How the _Devastation_, even after successful completion, was received
+by the public can be gleaned from the following extracts from the
+contemporary press:--[110]
+
+    “It is a weakness with the officers and men of any of Her Majesty’s
+    ships to ‘crack up’ the vessels to which they belong, and it is
+    rarely that a bluejacket growls openly against his ship. The warm
+    confidence expressed in the ill-fated _Captain_ by her unfortunate
+    crew is well remembered, and is sufficient to prove that even the
+    first of this necessarily uncomfortable class of monitors was not
+    met by the seamen of the Fleet in any complaining spirit, but
+    that they submitted to the discomforts imposed upon them with
+    characteristic cheerfulness. When, therefore, an unmistakable
+    feeling of dissatisfaction prevails throughout a ship, and no
+    hesitation is shown in expressing it, we may be certain that there
+    is some valid reason for so unusual an occurrence. We hesitated to
+    give currency to reports which reached us during the cruise of the
+    _Devastation_ around the coast with the Channel Squadron, as we had
+    good reason to believe that it was the intention of the Admiralty
+    to pay her off, and berth her in Portsmouth harbour as a tender
+    to the _Excellent_, the advantage of so doing being that a very
+    large number of men passing through the School of Gunnery would
+    thus be enabled to become acquainted with the latest improvements
+    in the turret system.... But since the arrival at the Admiralty
+    of Rear-Admiral Hornby, late in command of the Channel Squadron,
+    who certainly should be able to form a correct estimate of the
+    _Devastation’s_ fitness in every respect for sea service, it has
+    been determined that she shall be ordered to Gibraltar, there
+    probably to remain during the coming winter as a kind of ‘guardo.’
+    A cruise across the bay in the month of November is not looked
+    forward to by the present crew, who have had a little experience
+    both of being stifled by being battened down and of being nearly
+    blown out of their hammocks when efforts at ventilation are made
+    by opening every hatch. Her qualities as a sea-boat have been
+    fairly tested, and the present notion of filling her up with stores
+    for six months’ further service, and then stowing her away at
+    Gibraltar, leads to the conclusion that on this point at least the
+    value of the counsel of the First Lord’s new Naval adviser is not
+    altogether apparent.
+
+    “... It is needless to comment on the facts. They speak for
+    themselves. The condensers will be repaired, no doubt, and
+    strengthened and modified; but no engineer can guarantee that they
+    will not fail again, or, if they turn out a permanent job, that the
+    cylinders will not split, or some other of the mishaps to which
+    marine engines in the Navy are subject may not happen. If the
+    failure takes place in the day of battle it will constitute little
+    short of a national calamity. Even as it is, it must be looked on
+    as a most fortunate circumstance that the sea was perfectly smooth
+    and the vessel near a port. Had the breakdown occurred during
+    the six hours’ run of the ship--which was to have been made on
+    Wednesday--and in a stiff breeze blowing on a lee shore, the ship
+    might have been lost before an effort could have been made to save
+    her. Very important improvements in marine engines of large size
+    must be made before we can reconcile ourselves to the adoption of
+    mastless sea-going monitors.”
+
+With such labour and travail was the modern British battleship born!
+Public opinion decidedly modified naval construction--leading, as
+it did, to a considerable delay with the _Thunderer_,[111] the
+re-designing of the _Fury_, and the building of some old-type ships
+which else had probably never been constructed.
+
+As already mentioned, Sir E. J. Reed left the Admiralty before the
+_Devastation_ was completed. None the less the ships which immediately
+followed were in all essential particulars “Reed Ships,” and so are
+included in this chapter.
+
+The _Devastation_, owing to the Committee on Designs, received certain
+minor modifications before completion. These mainly concerned the
+hatches. Her sister ship, the _Thunderer_, built at Pembroke and
+engined by Humphrys, was held back, pending the _Devastation’s_ trials,
+and not completed till 1877.
+
+Save that in one turret she carried a couple of 38 ton (12.5-inch)
+instead of 35 ton (12-inch) guns, she was a replica of the
+_Devastation_.
+
+A third ship of the same type, named the _Fury_, was in hand, but
+criticisms of the _Devastation_ caused her to be re-designed, and she
+was eventually completed as the _Dreadnought_. In her the very low
+freeboard forward and aft of the _Devastation_ type was done away with
+and freeboard maintained at a uniform medium height.
+
+The _Devastation_ and _Thunderer_ had their armour-plates amidships
+pierced with square portholes. These with some reason were attacked as
+likely to weaken the armour very considerably, and the _Dreadnought_
+was built entirely wall-sided and so depended on artificial
+ventilation, known in the Navy in those days as “potted air,” even more
+than her predecessors.
+
+Particulars of the _Dreadnought_:--
+
+    Displacement--10,820 tons.
+
+    Length--320ft.
+
+    Beam--63ft. 10in.
+
+    Draught--26ft. 9in.
+
+    Armament--Four 38-ton M.L.R., two 14in. torpedo tubes.
+
+    Armour (iron)--Belt 14-11in., Bulkheads 13in., Turrets 14in.
+
+    H.P.--8,210 = 12.40 knots.
+
+In the original design of the _Fury_ provision was made for a conning
+tower with a heavily-armoured communication tube. She proved a very
+successful ship. No sisters were ordered, probably because the
+Admiralty wished to see how she did before committing themselves to the
+type. Ere she was finished a different fashion in warships had set in.
+The cost of the _Dreadnought_ was about £600,000.
+
+The _Alexandra_ was designed long after Reed had left the Admiralty.
+That famous constructor had nothing whatever to do with her. None the
+less she was the apotheosis of his box-battery ironclad ideas and
+for that reason is included in his era. She was simply an “improved
+_Sultan_.”
+
+Particulars of her:--
+
+    Displacement--9,490 tons.
+
+    Length (between perpendiculars)--325ft.
+
+    Beam--63⅔ft.
+
+    Draught--26½ft.
+
+    Armament--Four 25-ton M.L., ten 18-ton M.L., four above-water
+      torpedo dischargers (14in.)
+
+    Armour (iron)--12-6in. belt, flat deck on top of it. Bulkheads
+      8-5in. Battery 12-6in.
+
+    Horse-power--9,810 = 15 knots.
+
+    Coal--680 tons = 2,700 knots at 10 knots (nominal).
+
+She was built at Chatham Dockyard; engined by Humphrys; completed for
+sea, 1877.
+
+Four of the 18-ton guns were carried in an upper deck battery, and had
+end-on training. The other guns were carried in the main-deck battery,
+which was some 10ft. high. The 25-ton guns had a right-ahead training.
+
+After completion she served as Mediterranean flagship, though at the
+bombardment of Alexandria the flag was transferred to the _Invincible_,
+which, being of lighter draught, was able to enter the inner harbour.
+At a later date (about 1890) she was “partially reconstructed.” For her
+original barque rig a three-masted military rig was substituted, and
+six 4-inch Q.F. were mounted on top of her upper deck battery. She has
+been described as the apotheosis of Reed broadside ideas, and a very
+apotheosis she was. No broadside or central battery ironclad of the
+British or any other Navy ever equalled her, and she dropped out of the
+first rank only because the big gun rendered broadside ships entirely
+obsolete.
+
+
+_GUNS IN THE ERA._
+
+The principal guns (all M.L.R.) in the Reed Era were as follows:--
+
+  ======+=======+=========+==========+=========+=======+=========
+  Weight|Bore in| Length  |Weight of | Muzzle  |Muzzle | Penet’n
+    in  |inches.|   in    |Projectile|Velocity.|Energy.| Iron at
+  tons. |       |Calibres.|   lbs.   |  f.s.   | f.t.  +----+----
+        |       |         |          |         |       |yds.|yds.
+        |       |         |          |         |       |2000|1000
+  ------+-------+---------+----------+---------+-------+----+----
+  38    |  12.5 |  16     |    810   |   1575  | 13,930| 16 | 18
+  35    |  12   |  13½    |    707   |   1390  |   9470| 13 | 15
+  25    |  12   |  12     |    609   |   1288  |   7006| 11 | 12
+  25    |  11   |  12     |    544   |   1314  |   6560| 13 | 14
+  18    |  10   |  14½    |    406   |   1370  |   5360| 10 | 12
+  12½   |   9   |  14     |    253   |   1440  |   3695|  9 | 10
+   9    |   8   |  15     |    174   |   1384  |   2391|  7 |  8
+   6½   |   7   |  16     |    112   |   1325  |   1400|  6 |  7
+  ======+=======+=========+==========+=========+=======+====+====
+
+In the early part of the period Armstrong breech-loaders up to 120
+pounders had been in use, but the elementary breech blocks were so
+unsatisfactory that the Navy quickly discarded them, and adhered to
+muzzle-loaders long after all other Powers had given them up.
+
+The big muzzle loaders tabulated were of a very elementary type also.
+They were made by shrinking red hot wrought-iron collars over a steel
+tube; and it was never quite certain how far the interior would be
+affected. The projectiles never fitted accurately, with the result
+that there was considerable leakage of gas and very erratic firing.
+The rifling consisted of five or six grooves into which studs in the
+projectile fitted.
+
+In 1872 some experiments were carried out, the _Hotspur_ firing at
+the _Glatton’s_ turret at a range of 200 yards. The first shot missed
+altogether, the other two struck the turret, but not at the point aimed
+at. The turret was not appreciably damaged, though theoretically it
+should have been completely penetrated. This eventually led to the
+invention of an improved gas check--reference to which will be found at
+the end of the Barnaby Era.
+
+
+_UNARMOURED SHIPS OF THE ERA._
+
+Contemporaneously with the _Hercules_ the _Inconstant_ was designed.
+She was inspired by the United States _Wampanoag_, a type of large,
+fast, unprotected, heavily-gunned frigate, to which the Americans
+had always been partial. The _Wampanoag_, as a matter of fact, never
+reached expectations, whereas the _Inconstant_ was a decided success so
+far as she went. She marked, so far as the British Navy was concerned,
+the first appearance of the theory that speed and gun power--in other
+words, “the offensive”--might be developed advantageously, at the
+cost of defensive arrangements, a theory which still survives in the
+“battle-cruisers” of to-day, though of course in a very modified form.
+None the less, the _Inconstant_ represents the germ idea of our present
+battle-cruisers, and is supremely important on that account.
+
+Particulars of the _Inconstant_ were:--
+
+    Displacement--5,780 tons.
+
+    Length (between perpendiculars)--337⅓ ft.
+
+    Beam--50¼ft.
+
+    Draught (mean)--25½ft.
+
+    Guns--Ten 12½ ton M.L.R., six 6½ ton M.L.R.
+
+    H.P.--7,360 = 16 knots (trial 16.2).
+
+    Speed--Sixteen knots (trial 16.2).
+
+    Built at Pembroke Dockyard. Completed for sea 1868 at a cost of
+      £213,324. She had an iron hull, wood-sheathed and coppered. A
+      coal supply of 750 tons gave a nominal radius of 2780 miles. She
+      was ship-rigged and sailed well.
+
+She was followed by a couple of variants on her, the _Raleigh_ and
+_Shah_, the former 5,200 tons and the latter 6,250 tons.
+
+The _Shah_ was originally named the _Blonde_, but rechristened out of
+compliment to the Shah of Persia, who was visiting England at the time
+of her launch.
+
+At a later stage in her career (1877) the _Shah_, then flagship on
+the S.W. Coast of America, fought a much-criticised action with the
+Peruvian turret-ship _Huascar_, a Laird-built monitor, carrying a
+couple of 12½ ton guns, launched in 1865, and generally of the same
+type (though smaller) as the British _Hotspur_ and _Rupert_.
+
+The _Huascar_ had been seized by the Revolutionists and practically
+turned into a pirate ship. In attacking her the British Admiral de
+Horsey gave hostages to fortune, seeing that it was an axiom of those
+days that an unarmoured ship was helpless against an ironclad monitor.
+He had, however, no alternative.
+
+As things turned out, the _Huascar_ never succeeded in hitting either
+the _Shah_, or the _Amethyst_ which accompanied her, while the British
+flagship, having a speed advantage, the efforts of the _Huascar_ to ram
+her were futile. The _Huascar_ was hit about thirty times, and one man
+was killed on board her, but the damage done to the turret-ship was
+practically nil. The engagement is of further special interest as for
+the first time a torpedo was used from a big ship in action. The range,
+however, was too great and no hit was secured.
+
+During the night following the action an attempt was made to torpedo
+the _Huascar_ from the _Shah’s_ steam pinnace, but the enemy could
+not be found. Yet it is probable that the knowledge of the _Shah’s_
+torpedoes was the reason why Pierola surrendered the _Huascar_ next
+morning to the Peruvian fleet.
+
+It must have been abundantly clear to him that he had next to nothing
+to fear from the British gun-fire, while a single water-line hit from
+him would probably have put the _Shah_ entirely at his mercy, save in
+so far as her torpedoes might make attempts to ram fatal to him.
+
+
+END OF VOL. I.
+
+
+
+
+A SHORT GLOSSARY OF COMMON NAVAL TERMS.
+
+
+=ABAFT.=--Behind or towards the stern of the vessel. Thus one would say
+that the aftermost turret guns in any ship are “abaft” the mainmast.
+
+=ABEAM.=--On the side of a vessel amidships. To say an object is abeam
+(or on the beam) means that its bearing by compass is at right angles
+to the vessel’s course.
+
+=ADMIRALTY, BOARD OF.=--That department of State which is responsible
+for the proper constitution, maintenance, disposition, and direction of
+the Fleet in its material and personal elements, executing the duties
+formerly charged upon the Lord High Admiral; it is presided over by the
+First Lord (a Cabinet Minister) and consists of Naval Officers--the Sea
+Lords--and Civil Officials.
+
+=AHEAD.=--In advance--an object is said to be ahead of the ship when
+its compass bearing is nearly the same as the vessel’s course.
+
+=AHEAD FIRE.=--The discharge of guns along the line of the keel
+directly ahead of the vessel.
+
+=AMIDSHIPS.=--Generally speaking, in the middle portion of a vessel.
+The point of intersection of two lines--one drawn from stem to stern,
+the other across the beam (or widest part)--is the actual “midships.”
+
+=ANCHOR.=--A ship carries several distinct kinds of anchor: the bowers,
+which are always used for anchoring or mooring the ship; the sheet
+anchor, as an auxiliary to the bowers; the stream and kedge anchors,
+which can be used for special purposes.
+
+=ANTI-TORPEDO ARMAMENT.=--Those guns in a ship which are specially
+mounted for repelling attack by torpedo craft.
+
+=ARC OF FIRE.=--That sector of a circle through which a gun can be
+moved or trained for effective practice.
+
+=ARMAMENT.=--The weapons of offence with which a ship is armed,
+including guns and torpedo tubes.
+
+=ARMOUR.=--Any effective covering which protects a ship. The following
+specify a few main features of armour protection:--
+
+    1. =Armour Belt.=--The vertical belt of armour which forms
+          the citadel or fortress of a ship, and may extend right
+          forward to the bows and right aft the stern.
+
+    2. =Side Armour.=--Vertical armour placed on the exterior of
+          a ship, being both the belt and additional thereto.
+
+    3. =Armoured Deck.=--A curved steel deck protecting the
+          engine room and other vital portions of a ship inside the
+          citadel. A ship may have as many as three armoured decks.
+
+    4. =Armour Backing.=--A thick layer of teak which acts as a
+          cushion behind the armour and to which it is secured.
+
+    5. =Bulkhead Armour.=--Vertical armour in the interior of
+          the ship, placed across it from side to side.
+
+=ASTERN.=--The opposite to ahead.
+
+=ASTERN FIRE.=--The discharge of guns along the line of the keel
+directly astern of a vessel.
+
+=ATHWARTSHIPS.=--At right angles to the keel.
+
+=AUXILIARY.=--A ship--not necessarily a fighting ship--which forms
+a component part of a Fleet. These include Repair vessels, Hospital
+ships, Depôt, Submarine and Destroyer Mother-ships, Colliers, etc.
+
+=AUXILIARY ENGINES.=--The machinery employed for boat-hoisting,
+pumping, electric lighting, refrigerating, ventilating, and other
+purposes on board ships.
+
+=BACKSTAYS.=--Ropes stretched from a mast or topmast head to the sides
+of a vessel--some way abaft the mast--to give support to the mast and
+prevent it going forward.
+
+=BALLAST.=--Weighty material placed in the bottom of a ship to give her
+“stiffness”; that is, to increase her tendency to return to the upright
+position when inclined or heeled over by the force of the wind or other
+cause.
+
+=BALLISTICS.=--That branch of science particularly devoted to the
+theory of gunnery.
+
+=BARBETTE.=--The steel platform or mounting on which a power-worked gun
+rests and within which it revolves.
+
+=BARGE.=--A general term given to flat-bottomed boats. The _Admiral’s_
+(or _Captain’s_) Barge is usually a special steamboat belonging to a
+warship reserved for the use of the Admiral or Captain.
+
+=BATTEN.=--Long strips of wood used for various purposes.
+
+    =To batten down.=--To cover up and fix down, usually spoken
+          of hatches when they are covered over in rough weather.
+
+=BATTERY.=--That portion of a ship’s armament inside the citadel. The
+entire armament is frequently spoken of as a “battery.”
+
+=BATTLE CRUISER.=--A vessel combining the speed and other essential
+qualities of a cruiser with an armament and protection sufficient
+to enable her to take her place in the fighting-line beside the
+battleships.
+
+=BATTLE PRACTICE.=--An annual practice carried out in the Navy, to test
+the battle or fighting efficiency of the component parts of a ship’s
+armament.
+
+=BATTLESHIP.=--A ship specially designed to take and give the hard
+knocks of a Fleet action.
+
+=BEAK.=--The extreme fore part of a vessel.
+
+=BEAM.=--The widest measurement across a ship.
+
+=BEARINGS.=--This word properly belongs to the art of navigation, in
+which it signifies the direction (by compass) in which an object is
+seen.
+
+=BEFORE.=--Forward or in front of; the opposite to abaft.
+
+=BERTHON BOAT.=--A collapsible boat used in destroyers and small craft.
+
+=BETWEEN DECKS.=--In a vessel of more than one deck, to be between the
+upper and the lower.
+
+=BINNACLE.=--The fixed case and stand in which the compass in any
+vessel is placed.
+
+=BLOCKADE.=--So to besiege a port that no communication can take place
+from seaward.
+
+=BLUE PETER.=--A square blue flag with a square white centre, hoisted
+to denote that a vessel is about to sail and that all persons concerned
+must repair on board immediately (the letter “P” in the international
+flag signal code.)
+
+=BOOM.=--A boom is a pole extending outboard--i.e., away from the sides
+of a vessel.
+
+    =Lower and Quarter Booms.=--Booms, conveniently placed, to
+          which boats can make fast.
+
+=BORE.=--The interior diameter of a gun at the muzzle; also the name
+given to the interior of a gun. Also a word used to express a sudden
+rise of the tide in certain estuaries as in the Severn.
+
+    =To bore.=--When down by the head a ship is said to “bore.”
+
+=BOTTOMRY.=--The hull of a ship pledged as security for a loan.
+
+=BOWS.=--A term indicating those portions of a vessel immediately on
+either side of her stem (q.v.). Differentiated in association with the
+terms “Port” or “Starboard.”
+
+=BOWSPRIT.=--A pole of “sprit” projecting forward from the stem of the
+ship.
+
+=BOX THE COMPASS.=--To name the points of the compass in regular order,
+i.e., in the direction taken by the hands of the clock.
+
+=BREAKWATER.=--An artificial wall or bank, set up either outside a
+harbour or along the coast, to break the violence of the sea and so
+create a smooth shelter.
+
+=BREECH.=--The end of the gun into which the projectile and cartridge
+are inserted when loading.
+
+=BREECH-BLOCK.=--A heavy steel block which seals the breech when the
+gun is loaded.
+
+=BREECH-LOADER= (=B.L.=)--Formerly a gun which was loaded at the
+breech end as opposed to a muzzle-loader. Now used to denote a gun the
+cartridge of which is not contained in a metal cylinder.
+
+=BROADSIDE.=--The number of guns which can be brought to bear on one
+side of, or the total weight of metal which can be fired at once from
+either side of a ship.
+
+=BULKHEAD.=--A structure, transverse or longitudinal, dividing the
+interior of a ship into compartments.
+
+=BURDEN.=--The capacity of a vessel, as 100 tons burden, etc.
+
+=BURGEE.=--Properly a flag ending in a swallow-tail. Yacht clubs’
+burgees are frequently “pennants” which are flags ending in a point.
+
+=CADET, NAVAL.=--A youth who is under training to become a commissioned
+officer in the Navy.
+
+=CAISSON.=--A hollow, watertight vessel which can be raised or sunk by
+compressed air or water, and which is used when building foundations
+under water; or, specifically a lock gate used for closing the entrance
+to dry docks.
+
+=CAISSON DISEASE.=--A disease to which divers are subject.
+
+=CALIBRE.=--The calibre of a gun is the diameter of the bore (q.v.).
+This diameter is used as a unit of measurement. Thus, a 50-calibre
+12-in. gun is a 12-in. gun which is 50 ft. long, etc.
+
+=CAMEL.=--A hollow tank or vessel filled with water and placed under
+the hull of a stranded ship. When well secured, the water it contains
+is pumped out, and the buoyancy thus created helps to lift the ship to
+which it is attached.
+
+=CAPITAL-SHIP.=--A general term for all warships of such high standard
+in fighting capacity as would enable them to take part in a Fleet
+action.
+
+=CAREEN.=--To heel a ship or make her lie over on one side.
+
+=CASEMATE.=--An armoured gun-emplacement in the side of a ship.
+
+=CATAMARAN.=--Properly a species of sailing craft used in the Indies.
+The heavy wooden rafts which are used to protect the ship’s side when
+she is lying alongside a dockyard wall.
+
+=CAULKING.=--The operation performed in making the sides or wooden
+decks of a ship watertight.
+
+=CLASS.=--A ship is said to belong to a certain “class” when there are
+others identical in appearance or design.
+
+=CLEARING.=--The passing of a vessel through the Customs after she has
+visited a foreign port.
+
+=COAMING.=--A raised edge of iron or wood placed round a hatchway to
+prevent water from washing below.
+
+=COASTAL-DESTROYER.=--A large torpedo-boat not considered sufficiently
+strong structurally to do more than coastal work.
+
+=COASTGUARD.=--A semi-naval organisation of seamen, mostly living along
+the shores of the United Kingdom intended originally for the prevention
+of smuggling, but now converted into a force for the defence of the
+coast or to assist wrecks.
+
+=COMMISSION.=-A ship is said to be commissioned when she is manned for
+service in the fleet.
+
+    A =commission=, the length of time the crew remain in a
+          ship; the order by which a person becomes an officer.
+
+=COMMODORE.=--A Naval Captain specially appointed to take command as
+such of a squadron of war vessels, or perform some special duty not
+assigned to an officer of flag rank.
+
+=COMPLEMENT.=--The total number of officers and men forming the crew of
+a ship.
+
+=COMPOSITE BATTERY.=--A battery consisting of more than one type of gun.
+
+=CON.=--To direct the steering of a vessel.
+
+=CONNING-TOWER.=--An armoured compartment in a ship from which she can
+be steered, or the gun-fire in an action controlled if necessary. A
+ship may have more than one conning-tower.
+
+=CONTINUOUS VOYAGE, DOCTRINE OF.=--The doctrine or principle which
+enables contraband of war to be captured when consigned to a neutral
+port, but intended for a belligerent.
+
+=CONTRABAND.=--Munitions of war or other goods which are prohibited
+entry into a belligerent State.
+
+    (_a_) Absolute Contraband, material which is always contraband.
+
+    (_b_) Conditional Contraband, material which may be declared
+          contraband.
+
+=CONTROL STATION.=--A platform whence range-finding instruments are
+managed, or from which the gunnery officers of a ship control gun-fire
+in an action.
+
+=CONVERSION OF MERCHANTMEN.= The right or practice of converting
+merchant vessels into warships on the high seas or in neutral ports.
+
+=CONVOY.=--A number of merchant steamers crossing the ocean under the
+protection of warships.
+
+=CORDITE.=--The explosive used in guns for discharging projectiles.
+
+=COUNTER.=--That portion of a vessel which overhangs the keel towards
+the stern (q.v.).
+
+=COUNTER MINING.=--To lay out and explode mines in the vicinity of
+hostile ones, in order to destroy them by percussion.
+
+=CRANK.=--A vessel is said to be crank when she lists over easily.
+
+=CRUISER.=--A warship of high speed, usually employed in scouting,
+commerce protection, and special service. They fall into various
+categories:--
+
+    (_a_) Armoured Cruiser, a vessel having vertical external
+          armour. See also “Battle-Cruiser.”
+
+    (_b_) Light Cruiser, a vessel with deck protection only; or, if
+          armoured, of but small size and with a thin belt.
+
+    (_c_) Unprotected Cruiser, a cruising vessel having no armour;
+          included in the Light Cruiser class.
+
+=CRUISING SPEED.=--The most economical speed from the point of view of
+fuel consumption at which a ship can travel.
+
+=DEMURRAGE.=--Compensation paid to the owner of a vessel when she has
+been detained longer than her time for unloading.
+
+=DERELICT.=--A ship whose crew have abandoned her when at sea.
+
+=DESTROYER.=--A large type of torpedo-boat originally intended to
+destroy such craft by gun-fire--now, with submarines, the chief medium
+for torpedo-attack.
+
+=DEVIATION OF THE COMPASS.=--The amount of the variation of a ship’s
+compass from the true magnetic meridian, caused by the proximity of
+iron.
+
+=DIRECTOR TOWER.=--An armoured compartment in a ship whence torpedoes
+are fired.
+
+=DISPLACEMENT.=--The weight of water a ship displaces when floating.
+
+    =Normal Displacement.=--The weight of water a ship displaces
+          when she has her normal amount of stores, etc., on board.
+
+=DOCK.=--A place in which a ship may be placed for repair or loading
+and unloading. See “Floating Dock” and “Graving Dock.”
+
+=DOCKYARD.=--The works, etc., where ships are built or repairs can be
+carried out. In the Government dockyards ships are commissioned and
+supplied with stores, ammunition, coal, etc.
+
+=DRAUGHT.=--The vertical distance between the lowest portion of the
+keel and the water line.
+
+“=DREADNOUGHT.=”--Battleships and cruisers evoked by H.M.S.
+=Dreadnought=, which was the first ship to be armed with one type of
+big gun. “A.B.G. ships”--All-big-gun-ships.
+
+=“DREADNOUGHT” CRUISERS.=--Cruisers derived from the principle of
+design of H.M.S. _Dreadnought_, now called Battle Cruisers (q.v.).
+
+=ECHELON.=--Guns are said to be mounted =en echelon= when they are not
+mounted symmetrically but are placed diagonally athwart-ship.
+
+=ENGINES.=--The reciprocating, turbine, or internal-combustion
+machinery for propelling vessels.
+
+=ENSIGN.=--(Usually pronounced “ens’n.”) The flag carried by a ship as
+the insignia of her nationality or the nature of her duties.
+
+=ESTIMATES.=--The annual estimate or expenditure on the Royal Navy for
+its administration, personnel, and for the upkeep or building of new
+vessels.
+
+=FIRST LORD OF THE ADMIRALTY=--The Cabinet Minister who presides over
+the Board of Admiralty. See “Admiralty.”
+
+=FIRST SEA LORD.=--The Senior =Naval Officer= serving on the Board of
+Admiralty.
+
+=FLARE.=--The over-hang of the upper part of a ship’s sides beneath
+the forecastle. The peculiar outward and upward curve in the form of a
+vessel’s bow. When it hangs over she is said to have a “Flaring Bow.”
+
+=FLEET.=--A number of vessels in company, be they war or other vessels.
+
+=FLEET IN BEING.=--An inferior naval force, capable of action and
+influencing or impeding the operations of an enemy.
+
+=FLEET RESERVE.=--Short-service men who have left continuous service,
+but are liable to be called upon in case of war.
+
+=FLEET-UNIT.=--A vessel fit to form a unit in a fleet.
+
+=FLOATING DOCK.=--An oblong floating structure in which a ship may be
+placed, and out of which the water may be pumped, bringing her above
+water-level, so that the bottom of the ship can be repaired, etc.; they
+have usually no motive power.
+
+=FLOTTENVEREIN.=--The German Navy League.
+
+=FLUSH DECK.=--A deck having neither raised nor sunken part, so that it
+runs continuously from stem to stern.
+
+=FORE AND AFT.=--In the direction of a line drawn from stem to stern of
+a vessel--at right angles to athwartships.
+
+=FORWARD.=--In front of--the forepart, in the vicinity of the bows of a
+vessel.
+
+=GRAVING DOCK.=--A dock excavated out of the land into which entry is
+made from seaward.
+
+=GUN.=--A weapon used for firing shot or shell. See “Breech-loader” and
+“Q.F. Gun.”
+
+=GUNBOAT.=--A small type of slow cruiser armed with light guns,
+specially adapted for harbour or river service.
+
+=GUN-COTTON.=--A high explosive used in torpedoes and submarine mines,
+etc.
+
+    =Wet Gun-Cotton.=--Gun-Cotton with a certain percentage of
+          moisture in it; it is useless as an explosive unless dry
+          gun-cotton is present to detonate it.
+
+=GUNLAYER.=--A man specially qualified to train (lay) and fire a gun.
+
+    =Gunlayers’ Test.=--An annual practice carried out in
+          every ship to test the efficiency of the gun-layers
+          individually.
+
+=GUN-POWER.=--The fighting efficiency of a ship expressed in the total
+weight of metal capable of being discharged in a single broadside or a
+specified period of time.
+
+=HALYARD.=--A rope with which a sail, flag, or yard is hoisted.
+
+=HARVEYISED.=--Armour made by the “Harvey” process. Now obsolete.
+
+=HATCH, HATCHWAY.=--An opening in the deck of a ship through which
+persons or cargo may descend or be lowered.
+
+=HEAVY GUN.=--Any gun greater than and including a 4-in. Q.F. or B.L.
+
+=HOG.=--When a vessel has a tendency to droop at her ends she is said
+to hog.
+
+=HORNPIPE.=--The dance once popular among the sailors of the British
+Navy and still sometimes performed at festive times.
+
+=HOSPITAL SHIP.=--An auxiliary vessel specially designed for the
+reception of sick and wounded men; by nature of her duties and under
+rules of International Law she is immune from attack.
+
+=HULL.=--The body, framework, and plating of a vessel.
+
+=HURRICANE DECK.=--In large steamships a light upper deck extending
+across the vessel amidships.
+
+=HYDRO-AEROPLANE.=--A seaplane. (q.v.)
+
+=HYDROPLANE.=--A type of boat the flattened keel of which is so
+constructed that, after a certain speed has been attained, the hull
+rises in the water and skims lightly over the surface, thus driving
+forward _above_ rather than _through_ the water. The hydroplane
+=cannot= rise into the air and fly.
+
+=IDLERS.=--Those, being liable to constant duty by day, who are not
+required to keep the night watches, such as carpenters, sail-makers,
+etc., also called “Daymen.”
+
+=JACK-STAFF.=--A flagpole for flying the Union Jack, invariably at the
+bows of the ship.
+
+=KEEL.=--That portion of a ship running fore and aft in the middle of a
+ship’s bottom.
+
+=KEEL-PLATE.=--The lowest plate of all in the keel; this plate is the
+first to be laid down when building is commenced.
+
+=KNOT.=--The unit of speed for ships. A ship is said to be going =x=
+knots, when she is going =x= sea (or nautical) miles in one hour. One
+sea mile = 6,080 ft.
+
+    N.B.--The word =knot= should never be used to indicate distance.
+
+=KRUPP STEEL.=--Steel hardened by a special process discovered and
+applied at Essen.
+
+=LABOUR.=--When a vessel pitches or strains in a heavy sea she is said
+to “labour.”
+
+=LANDLOCKED.=--Sheltered on all sides by the land.
+
+=LARBOARD.=--The old term for port. (q.v.)
+
+=LATITUDE.=--Distance north or south of the equator, expressed in
+degrees.
+
+=LAUNCH.=--To place a ship in the water for the first time.
+
+=LAY DOWN.=--To commence building a ship.
+
+=LEE.=--Or Leeward (pronounced Loo’ard). The side of a vessel opposite
+to that upon which the wind blows.
+
+=LIGHTER.=--A powerful hull or barge with a flat bottom, used for
+transporting heavy goods, such as coal, ammunition, etc.
+
+=LIST.=--A vessel is said to have a list if she heeled temporarily or
+permanently to one side.
+
+=LOG.=--The instrument used to measure a vessel’s speed through the
+water. Also the ship’s daily journal.
+
+=LONGITUDE.=--Distance east or west of a first meridian, expressed in
+degrees.
+
+=MAGAZINE.=--The place on board ship or on shore where ammunition is
+stored.
+
+=MAN.=--To place the right complement of men in a ship or boat to work
+her.
+
+=MARINE.=--A soldier specially trained for sea service. “Soldier and
+sailor too.”
+
+=MAST.=--The tall structure in a ship formerly for the carrying of
+sail, but now carrying control stations, fighting tops, and wireless
+telegraphy apparatus.
+
+=MASTER.=--The Captain of a merchant vessel who holds a master’s or
+extra master’s certificate.
+
+=MINE.=--A weapon of war which is placed in the sea by the enemy, and
+explodes on a ship striking it; or can be fired from the shore or ship
+by means of an electric current.
+
+=MINEFIELD.=--A space near a harbour specially devoted to mining
+operations.
+
+=MINE-LAYER.=--A ship specially fitted to lay mines out.
+
+=MINE-SWEEPER.=--A ship whose duty it is to discover and destroy the
+enemy’s mines in order to leave a clear passage for friendly craft.
+
+=MOLE.=--A stone break-water or sea-wall.
+
+=MOOR.=--To anchor a ship with two anchors.
+
+=MOTHER-SHIP.=--A depot ship for torpedo craft, submarines, etc.,
+victualling and issuing stores to the crews of the vessels under her
+command controlled by her officers.
+
+=MUZZLE ENERGY.=--The force which is propelling the projectile when it
+leaves the gun.
+
+=MUZZLE VELOCITY.=--The speed at which a projectile is travelling when
+it leaves the gun.
+
+=NAUTICAL MILE.=--One sixtieth of a degree of latitude. It varies from
+6,046 ft. at the equator to 6,092 ft. in lat. 60° N. or S. The nautical
+mile for speed trials, generally called the Admiralty Measured Mile, =
+6,080 ft., 1.151 statute miles, 1,833 metres.
+
+=NAVIGATION.=--That branch of science which teaches the sailor to
+conduct his ship from place to place.
+
+=NAVY LEAGUE, THE.=--A strictly non-party organisation formed in
+January, 1895, with Admiral of the Fleet, Sir G. Phipps Hornby, G.C.B.,
+etc., as its first President, for the purpose of urging upon the
+Government and the electorate the paramount importance of a supreme
+Fleet as the best guarantee of peace.
+
+Its agencies are employed in all parts of the Empire spreading
+information on matters affecting the Royal Navy.
+
+=NUCLEUS CREW.=--The essential part of a crew of a ship such as the
+gun-layers, petty officers, etc. Some ships are manned by nucleus crews
+only, being completed to full strength in case of mobilisation. Such
+ships are sometimes colloquially known as “Nucoloid.”
+
+=OAKUM.=--The substance to which old ropes are reduced when unpicked.
+
+=OCEAN GOING DESTROYER.=--A large type of torpedo boat destroyer,
+specially designed for service in any wind or weather.
+
+=ORDNANCE.=--A general term applied to guns collectively, and to the
+Department concerned with them.
+
+=ORLOP DECK.=--The lowest deck in the ship.
+
+=PAY OFF.=--To end a “Commission.”
+
+=PENDANT OR PENNANT.=--A long, pointed flag.
+
+    =Paying-off Pennant.=--A long streamer hoisted at the mainmast
+          of a war vessel to denote she is “paying off.”
+
+=POOP.=--An extra deck on the after part of a vessel.
+
+=PORT.=--The left-hand side of the ship as you stand looking forward.
+
+=PRIMARY (or main) ARMAMENT.=--The largest guns mounted in a ship.
+
+=PRIZE.=--In war time, any vessel taken at sea from an enemy.
+
+=PROJECTED.=--A ship is said to be “projected” before keel plate is
+actually laid.
+
+=PROTECTIVE DECK.=--See “Armoured Deck.”
+
+=PROW.=--The beak or pointed cutwater of a ship.
+
+=Q.F. GUN.=--Quick-firing gun. A gun the cartridge of which is
+contained in a metal cylinder, as opposed to the B.L. gun.
+
+=QUARTERS.=--A term indicating those portions of a vessel immediately
+on either side of her stern (q.v.). Differentiated in association with
+the terms “Port” or “Starboard.” “Quarters” also designates the living
+space for the personnel and the stations of the crew when in action.
+
+=RAKE.=--The inclination of the mast (or funnels) from the
+perpendicular; the “rake” is very nearly always in a direction aft, but
+when the mast slants forward it is said to have a “Forward rake.”
+
+=RAKISH.=--Having a smart or fast appearance. (Applied to ships.)
+
+=RANGE.=--The distance in yards of the object fired at. The extreme
+range is the longest distance to which a projectile can be fired by any
+particular gun.
+
+=RANGE-FINDER.=--An instrument used for determining ranges.
+
+=RATE.=--The classification of a vessel for certain purposes.
+
+=RATLINES.=--Small lines crossing the shrouds of a ship and thus
+forming ladders.
+
+=REFIT.=--To place a ship in dockyard hands for overhauling her
+machinery, etc.
+
+=REPAIR SHOP.=--A Fleet auxiliary (q.v.) which is fitted with a
+foundry, etc. on board, and can carry out minor repair work.
+
+=RIBS.=--The timbers which form the skeleton of a ship or boat.
+
+=RICOCHET.=--A leap or bound such as a flat piece of stone makes when
+thrown obliquely along the surface of the water. Generally spoken
+of with reference to projectiles. A “_ricochet hit_” is made when a
+projectile hits the enemy or target after it has first struck the water.
+
+=RIG.=--The rig of a vessel is the manner in which her masts and sails
+are fitted to her hull.
+
+=RIGGING.=--The system of ropes in a vessel whereby the masts are
+supported and the sails hoisted. There are two kinds of rigging, viz.,
+standing rigging and running rigging, the latter term including all
+movable ropes.
+
+=ROLL.=--The oscillation of a vessel in a heavy sea.
+
+=SAG.=--A drooping or depression. A ship is said to sag when her centre
+tends to droop below the line joining her stem and stern; the opposite
+to hogging.
+
+=SALVO.=--A discharge of fire from several guns simultaneously.
+
+=SCOUT.=--A light, swift, protected cruiser specially adapted for
+scouting work.
+
+=SCREENING CRUISERS.=--Cruisers separated from the battle fleet to
+deceive the enemy as to the Fleet’s position.
+
+=SEAPLANE.=--The official naval designation of the Hydro-aeroplane
+which is a man-carrying apparatus equally capable of flight in the
+air and navigation on water. Also called Navyplane, Waterplane,
+Flying-Boat, Airboat.
+
+=SEARCH, RIGHT OF.=--The right to search neutral vessels for the
+discovery of contraband.
+
+=SECONDARY ARMAMENT.=--The guns which support the primary armament.
+
+=SHEET.=--The rope attached to a sail so that it can be “worked” as
+occasion demands.
+
+=SHROUDS.=--Strong ropes (generally wire) which support the mast
+laterally.
+
+=SLIP.=--The wooden “way” on which a ship is built.
+
+=SPEED TRIALS.=--Trials carried out periodically to test a vessel’s
+speed.
+
+=SQUADRON.=--A number of ships under command of a single officer.
+
+=STANCHION.=--An upright post supporting the deck above in a ship.
+
+=STARBOARD.=--The right-hand side of the ship as you stand looking
+forward.
+
+=STAYS.=--Strong ropes supporting spars and masts in a ship.
+
+=STEM.=--The “nose” or “cutwater” of any ship.
+
+=STERN.=--The aftermost part of a vessel.
+
+=STRAKE.=--A line of planking extending the length of a vessel.
+
+=STRATEGY.=--The disposition and handling of Squadrons or Fleets to
+dominate the forces of an enemy or control the time or place of an
+engagement. The broad disposition of naval forces.
+
+=SUBMARINE.=--A war-vessel the chief work of which is to operate below
+the surface.
+
+=SUBMERGED SPEED.=--The speed at which a submersible or submarine can
+travel under water.
+
+=SUBMERSIBLE.=--A vessel which can be made to dive but which generally
+navigates on the surface.
+
+=SUPERIMPOSED BARBETTES.=--Barbettes or turrets mounted behind and
+above other barbettes or turrets so that the guns in the first are
+enabled to fire over those in the second.
+
+=SURFACE SPEED.=--The speed at which a submersible or submarine can
+travel when navigating on the surface.
+
+=TACTICS.=--The handling and conduct of ships or squadrons in actual
+contact with an antagonist, or exercises for training for such
+engagements.
+
+=TENDER.=--A vessel attached to a parent ship.
+
+=TOP.=--A position or platform on the mast of a vessel. A fighting top
+in a top armed with light guns.
+
+=TOPHAMPER.=--The upper works of the ship, such as masts, funnels,
+bridges, cowls, etc.
+
+=TORPEDO.=--An engine of war which is discharged from a tube (submerged
+or above water) and which travels under water; it is loaded with a
+charge of gun-cotton which explodes on impact.
+
+=TORPEDO-BOAT.=--A vessel specially designed for attack on larger ships
+by means of torpedoes.
+
+=TORPEDO BOAT DESTROYER= (=T.B.D.=)--See “Destroyer.”
+
+=TORPEDO-NET.=--A steel wire net which is thrown over the side of a
+ship and held extended by means of booms; it hangs down about 20 to 30
+ft. below the surface, and acts as a defence against torpedoes.
+
+=TORPEDO TUBE.=--A tube from which torpedoes are ejected either by
+means of a small charge of gunpowder or compressed air.
+
+=TRAJECTORY.=--The line of flight of a projectile after leaving the gun.
+
+=TROUGH.=--The hollow between two waves.
+
+=TRUCK.=--The cap at the head of the mast or a flagstaff. It generally
+contains one or more holes for the reception of signal halyards.
+
+=TURRET.=--The revolving armoured structure in which big guns are
+mounted, including the turn-table, ammunition hoists, etc. See
+“Barbette.”
+
+=TWO-KEELS-TO-ONE-STANDARD.= The standard under which the British Fleet
+should be maintained at a strength, as against the next strongest
+Power, of two completed capital-ships to one.
+
+=TWO-POWER STANDARD.=--The standard which indicated that the British
+Fleet was equal in strength to the fleets of the two next strongest
+Powers. This standard has been abandoned.
+
+=WAIST.=--That portion of a ship on the upper deck between the
+forecastle and quarter deck.
+
+=WATER-TUBE BOILER.=--A boiler in which the water is contained in tubes
+round which the hot gases circulate.
+
+=WAY (Momentum).=--It is important to note the difference between this
+and the term “_weigh_,” the two being very often confounded. A vessel
+in motion is said to have “way” on her; and when she ceases to move to
+have “no way.” But a vessel under weigh in one not at anchor or secured
+to the shore.
+
+=WEATHER-SIDE.=--The side on which the wind blows.
+
+=WEEPING (or Sweating).=--Drops of water oozing through the sides of a
+vessel or caused by condensation on the surface of the beams, etc.
+
+=WEIGH.=--To lift the anchor from the ground.
+
+=WIRE-WOUND.=--All big British guns are made by winding miles of
+steel wire or ribbon round a tube over which the exterior tubes are
+afterwards shrunk.
+
+=YARD.=--A spar suspended to a mast for the purpose of hoisting or
+extending a sail, or to which signal halyards can be taken.
+
+
+           From “The Navy League Annual,” by the courtesy of
+                      Alan H. Burgoyne, Esq., M.P.
+
+
+Netherwood, Dalton & Co., Rashcliffe, Huddersfield.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+[1] All statements as to King Alfred’s navy are taken directly from the
+Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Asser, and Florence of Worcester.
+
+[2] An interpolated passage
+
+[3] Wace.
+
+[4] Guyot de Provins _ex_ Nicholas.
+
+[5] _ex_ Nicolas.
+
+[6] Henry VIII introduced a new form of warship in the “pinnaces,”
+which were, to a certain extent, analogous to the torpedo craft of
+to-day.
+
+[7] Records of the Drake family.
+
+[8] The italics are mine.--F.T.J.
+
+[9] So far as I am aware nothing about this appears in any official
+account. I have no Japanese confirmation, but accounts gleaned at the
+time from the Russian auxiliaries--who, being foreigners had no object
+in lying--make it perfectly clear to my mind that the Russian admirals
+believed that the Japanese were astern of them till they met them at
+Tsushima. It is the only logical explanation of why Rodjestvensky
+essayed the narrow passage with his best ships, when he could equally
+well have gone round Japan with them unopposed, and so secured at
+Vladivostok that refit of which he was so much in need.
+
+[10] It was badly weather-beaten, of course, and in sore straits on
+account of its lengthy voyage.
+
+[11] In 1620 the first submarine appeared. It was invented by a Dutch
+physician, C. Van Drebel; and James I went for a lengthy underwater
+trip in a larger replica.--See _Submarine Navigation_, by Alan H.
+Burgoyne.
+
+[12] In this connection, _see_ The First Dutch War, a few pages further
+on.
+
+[13] It is interesting to note that this particular argument, seemingly
+rather hyperbolical to-day on account of railways, is so _only if the
+hostile ships can be kept under observation_.
+
+[14] This practice appears to have been allowed to die out. At any rate
+it was re-introduced in the time of Queen Anne.
+
+[15] Admiral Colomb (_Naval Warfare_) traced the Dutch defeat--or
+perhaps one should write, “lack of advantage”--mainly to the fact
+that the Dutch had a larger mercantile marine to protect, and merely
+mentions incidentally the constant complaints of Van Tromp and others
+to the inferiority of Dutch warships compared to English ones. But
+since so many of the Dutch merchantmen carried very fair armaments,
+and as “tactics” played no part in this war, I prefer to accept the
+explanation of the Dutch Admirals, none of whom assigned failures
+to the more obvious excuse of being hampered by convoys. Dutch
+contemporary accounts of this and following wars appear generally to be
+nearer the actual truth than English ones.
+
+[16] Churnock, _ex_ Fincham.
+
+[17] Charles II always had an eye for and interest in improvements in
+detail, and himself invented new forms of hull, which, however, did not
+come up to his expectations. Both he and James wore devoted to yachting
+and steered their own boats.
+
+A singular defect of all the Stuarts in naval matters was their
+inability to appreciate the importance of the human as well as the
+material element. In the Cromwell régime, all the old abuses in
+connection with food, clothing and delayed pay, wore done away with; to
+re-appear, however, almost as bad as ever soon after the Restoration.
+
+[18] ENGLISH.
+
+  Ships                   62
+  Men                 27,725
+  Guns                 4,500
+  Frigates, etc.          23
+
+DUTCH.
+
+  Ships                   36
+  Men                 12,950
+  Guns                 2,494
+  Frigates, etc.          14
+
+
+[19] See Crimean War in a later chapter for a revival of this.
+
+[20] Fincham.
+
+[21] He was Master of the fleet at Beachy Head and also at Cape La
+Hogue.
+
+[22] The _Pembroke_ (sixty-four) captured by the French in 1710, in
+this war, had her armament reduced to fifty guns by them.
+
+[23] This extraordinary story of a soldier saving the fleet is made all
+the stranger by the fact that Sir Hovenden Walker, the Admiral, was a
+teetotaller and a vegetarian, an almost unheard of thing in those days.
+
+[24] Fincham.
+
+[25] See later references to Sir William White and Sir Philip Watts.
+
+[26] Their recklessness was such that Peter had to give orders that
+no Swedish ship was to be boarded unless the superior officers were
+killed. Swedish captains, attacked by superior forces, made a regular
+practice of allowing themselves to be boarded and then blowing up their
+ships!
+
+[27] Colomb.
+
+[28] For a very full and detailed account see Chapter XV. of Colomb’s
+_Naval Warfare_.
+
+[29] The treasure ship was well armed and did not hesitate to engage
+him. Anson’s success was in some considerable measure attributable to
+the fact that not having enough men for the broadside firing of the
+period, he ordered independent firing. It was the Spanish custom to
+lie down as the enemy fired a broadside, then jump up and fire back.
+Anson’s independent firing caused much unexpected slaughter on them.
+This rule of “broadsides” compares interestingly with the salvo firing
+of the present day.
+
+[30] See earlier reference to the same thing in Raleigh’s time.
+
+[31] Is the well-known _Royal George_, which capsized at Spithead, in
+1782.
+
+[32] Admiral Mahan (_Influence of Sea Power upon History_, p. 286)
+shows how Byng’s dread of anything unconventional in the way of tactics
+led to the action being indecisive.
+
+[33] Time after time, hostile ships, having had enough of it, passed
+away ahead and escaped, because to have pressed them would have
+“disorganised the line.”
+
+[34] Our own naval manœuvres in recent years have seen more than one
+disaster from the change of a rendezvous.
+
+[35] While this battle of Quiberon was in progress, people in England
+were burning Hawke in effigy for having allowed the French fleet to
+escape!
+
+[36] This appears to be the solitary instance in French history in
+which a use of the fleet on English lines was ever contemplated.
+
+[37] Admiral Mahan (_Influence of Sea Power upon History_) has quoted
+at length (p. 380) from French authorities to show that only the action
+of the captain of the _Destin_ (74), in hurrying to block the gap,
+prevented Rodney from getting through the line on this occasion.
+
+[38] I draw this from Mahan (_Influence of Sea Power upon History_)
+(page 494). Fincham specifically mentions (p. 107) the introduction of
+carronades _ten_ years later.
+
+[39] Fincham _ex_ Campbell.
+
+[40] The fire-ship grew to be less and less of a menace owing to the
+improved handiness of warships.
+
+[41] Here again see Raleigh on Elizabethan Customs.
+
+[42] By the burning of the bulk of the ships in Toulon, the French
+Toulon fleet was rendered non-existent; but the state of affairs with
+that fleet was such that its fighting value had long been a cypher.
+
+[43] In order to bring the enemy to action, Howe formed a detached
+squadron of his faster ships. Hannay (_Ships and Men_) extols him
+because, in this and certain other movements in the battle, he reverted
+to the tactics of Monk and other Commonwealth admirals, and threw aside
+the conventional practice of his own day.
+
+[44] For two opposite views of this particular incident, see Admiral
+Mahan’s _Influence of Sea Power on the French Revolution_, and Chapter
+X. of Brassey, 1894.
+
+[45] The preservation of an orderly line throughout the battle.
+
+[46] The story of this ship going down firing, her crew crying _Vive
+la Republique_, is pure fiction. She surrendered after a very gallant
+fight, and sank with an English flag flying.
+
+[47] Seeing that, had Howe sunk the grain convoy and then been totally
+destroyed himself, the Revolution would still have come to nothing from
+starvation, this French view of the matter is intelligible enough and
+also very reasonable.
+
+[48] It was in connection with this engagement that Nelson wrote, “Had
+I commanded our fleet on the 14th, either the whole of the French fleet
+would have graced my triumph, or I should have been in a confounded
+scrape.” Also, commenting on Hotham’s, “We must be contented, we have
+done very well”--“Now, had we taken ten sail and allowed the eleventh
+to escape, when it had been possible to have got at her, I could never
+have called it well done.”
+
+[49] _Nelson_, by J. K. Laughton.
+
+[50] _The British Tar in Fact and Fiction._
+
+[51] The title of “delegates” seems quaintly enough to have led
+Parker and his friends into trouble. The men got hold of the word as
+“_delicates_,” and interpreted it more or less literally as a claim to
+superiority.
+
+[52] For a very interesting detailed account, see _Ships and Men_, by
+David Hannay.
+
+[53] Fincham.
+
+[54] Troude.
+
+[55] He, at the same time, sent a private message to Nelson that if
+he wished to continue, he was at liberty to do so. The telescope to
+his blind eye was merely a little jest on Nelson’s part, and in no way
+disobedience of orders. Parker’s whole object in making the signal to
+withdraw was to intimate to Nelson that if he deemed himself defeated,
+he (Parker) would accept responsibility.
+
+[56] Paul had just been murdered, and Alexander changed his policy.
+
+[57] Compare with the similar delay of the Spanish Armada.
+
+[58] Actually never exceeded 93,000.--_Campaign of Trafalgar._--Corbett.
+
+[59] Six was sometimes twelve, sometimes longer periods still. The most
+reasonable explanation is that Napoleon’s _real_ intentions were to use
+the army to invade England, if luck and chance threw the opportunity in
+his way; but otherwise to use it only as a threat.
+
+[60] It was here that he recorded in his diary that he went on shore on
+July 20th--the first time for close on two years!
+
+[61] His orders were to go to Brest; but having been frightened by some
+purely mythical news of a British fleet of twenty-five sail (sent him
+_via_ a neutral ship), he went to Cadiz. As, had he got to Brest, he
+would have found Cornwallis with thirty-five ships of the line, this
+piece of precaution (which incidentally led to Trafalgar) saved him for
+a while.
+
+[62] Rodjestvensky, seeking to inspire the Baltic fleet on its way to
+Tsushima, is a close modern parallel.
+
+[63] _The British Tar in Fact and Fiction_, Commander Robinson, R.N.
+
+[64] _Vide_ Anson’s boat’s crew in his trip up to Canton. Some captains
+spent a good deal of money in providing white shirts for their boat’s
+crews. Others indulged in purely fanciful attires.
+
+[65] A year or two ago a famous Royal Academy picture showed a fleet of
+Dreadnoughts cruising at sea with the steam trial water tanks on board!
+
+[66] To wear the smartest possible clothes on coming up for punishment
+was invariable routine. It was hoped that a smart appearance would
+mitigate the captain’s wrath.--_Vide_, _Sea Life in Nelson’s Time_,
+John Masefield.
+
+[67] To this day the British bluejacket calls himself a “matlo”--a
+corruption of the French matelot; so this pigtail introduction theory
+may be correct enough.
+
+[68] See Food, a page or so further on.
+
+[69] The curious, who wander into the by-lanes off Queen Street,
+Portsea, will still find heavy iron gates in places. Inside these gates
+those anxious to escape the press-gangs used to take refuge.
+
+[70] The “bounty” offered, however, was a decided inducement. Cases of
+bounties as high as £70 can be found.
+
+[71] _The British Tar in Fact and Fiction._
+
+[72] There are West Country villages to-day in which, to my own
+knowledge, one pound of meat a week is an outside estimate of what is
+eaten per head.
+
+[73] There were those who accepted weevils in ship’s biscuits as mites
+in Gorgonzola cheese are accepted to-day! Unpalatable as ship’s biscuit
+is, there is a certain acquired taste about it. In the later nineties
+I have frequently seen it handed round as a species of dessert in the
+wardroom, every senior officer taking some and enjoying it. In the
+1890 manœuvres the wardroom officers of “C fleet” did three weeks on
+“ships” only, in quite a casual way, though the quality even then left
+something to be desired.
+
+[74] They began at 4s. a day, working up to 11s. a day after six years,
+and 18s. a day at twenty years’ service, which few ever reached.
+
+[75] For extremely detailed accounts of surgery in action see _Sea Life
+in Nelson’s Times_, John Masefield.
+
+[76] A form of this rule exists to-day. A man wounded in action is not
+now mulcted; but a man who tumbles down a hatchway and breaks his leg
+has to suffer “hospital stoppages,” and “pay for his own cure,” to a
+certain extent.
+
+[77] Commander Robinson, R.N., in _The British Tar in Fact and
+Fiction_, seems to have got nearer the true picture than those who have
+painted things in darker and more lurid colours. He is practically the
+only writer upon the subject who has realised that many old yarns are
+capable of being discounted.
+
+[78] It is only fair to the Hebrew race to say that “Jew” was a generic
+term for a special type of person who grew rich on advancing money
+to sailors and selling them shoddy articles at ridiculously enhanced
+prices. Quite a large number of them were not of the Jewish race.
+
+[79] To-day this is flown at the bow only when a ship is at anchor.
+
+[80] At Trafalgar, the _Victory_, as she bore down, suffered heavily
+from the shot that penetrated her thin forward bulkhead.
+
+[81] _Ex_ Fincham, where the report is given in full.
+
+[82] The mail packet service was under the Admiralty in those days.
+
+[83] The seventy-three ton iron steamboat _Ruby_.
+
+[84] The Lord Armstrong, founder of Elswick, etc.
+
+[85] The italics are mine.--F.T.J.
+
+[86] My italics. In the Germany of to-day (May, 1915), exactly the same
+style of argument is being advanced.
+
+[87] c.f. the Dardanelles in May, 1915.
+
+[88] Subsequently Sir E. J. Reed, Chief Constructor.
+
+[89] c.f. Views expressed about Dreadnoughts, for another reason in the
+present year (1915).
+
+[90] From _Naval Development of the Century_, by Sir N. Barnaby, K.C.B.
+
+[91] The _Warrior_ now forms part of the _Vernon_ Establishment at
+Portsmouth.
+
+[92] _Our Ironclad Ships_, by (Sir) E. J. Reed. Sir N. Barnaby in
+_Naval Development of the Century_ gives 5,470 = 14.36 knots.
+
+[93] Apparently the first instance of the putting forward of a
+principle which later on profoundly affected construction.
+
+[94] In 1863, three ironclads, the _Lord Clyde_ and _Lord Warden_,
+of 7,840 tons, and a small ship, the _Pallas_, 3,660 tons, were
+constructed with wooden hulls, in order to use up the stores of timber
+which had been accumulated.--See p. 70, _Our Ironclad Ships_, by Sir
+E. J. Reed.
+
+[95] _Our Ironclad Ships_, by Sir E. J. Reed.
+
+[96] The American monitors all had conning towers; but British masted
+battleships were without them.
+
+[97] At a subsequent date, after he had left the Admiralty, he designed
+the _Independencia_ for Brazil. This ship, afterwards bought into
+the British Navy as the _Neptune_, was simply an enlarged _Monarch_.
+Probably, however, the general features of the ship were specified by
+the Brazilians.
+
+[98] The _Scorpion_ and _Wivern_, built for the Confederate States and
+bought in 1865. The Peruvian _Huascar_ also ante-dated the _Captain_ in
+design. All of these were low freeboard ships. Coles had something to
+do with the designs of all.
+
+[99] All the above ships had one or more tripod masts.
+
+[100] For two of these, 12½ ton M.L.R. were afterwards substituted.
+
+[101] Coles had projected 1,000 tons; but 500 was all that she could
+take.
+
+[102] She was then rolling from 12½ to 14 degrees.
+
+[103] The _Audacious_ herself was “modernised” in the later eighties.
+Her sailing rig was removed and a “military rig” substituted. Some
+minor changes in her lesser guns were also made.
+
+[104] _Our Ironclad Ships_, by Sir E. J. Reed.
+
+[105] _Ironclads in Action_, by H. W. Wilson.
+
+[106] The _Sultan_ was built as a ship-rigged ship. In 1894–96 she was
+“reconstructed,” two military masts being substituted for her original
+rig. She was also re-engined and re-boilered by Messrs. Thompson, of
+Clydebank. Beyond going out for the naval manœuvres one year she did
+not, however, perform any service in her altered condition, and is now
+used as a hulk.
+
+[107] Later on this was removed and an ordinary revolving turret,
+carrying _two_ 25 ton guns, substituted.
+
+[108] About the year 1890–2 _Devastation_ and _Thunderer_ were
+re-boilered and re-armed with 10-inch B.L.R.
+
+[109] c.f. Frontispiece to _Our Ironclad Ships_, E. J. Reed.
+
+[110] _Naval and Military Gazette._
+
+[111] She was about nine years from laying down to completion!
+
+
+
+
+Index.
+
+
+  Aboukir, Battle of, 152, v. i
+
+  Abuses, Naval, 65, v. i
+
+  Acquitaine, 11, v. i
+
+  Admiral Bacon’s Theory, 204, v. ii
+
+  Admiral Hopkins--Earliest Advocate of Centre-Line in England, 179, v.
+        ii
+
+  Aerial Bombs First Provided Against, 173, v. ii
+
+  Aerial Dreadnoughts, 171, v. ii
+
+  Aerial Experiments in Austria, 228, v. ii
+
+  Aerial Guns, 226, v. ii
+
+  Aeroplanes for Naval Purposes, 226, v. ii
+
+  Agreement with the Colonies, Naval, 237, v. ii
+
+  Aircraft, Possibilities of, 95, v. i
+
+  Aircraft, Potentialities in, 228, v. i
+
+  Alexander, 162, v. i
+
+  Alexandria, 163, v. i
+
+  Alfred the Great, 1, 14, v. i
+
+  Alfred, King, 60, 73, v. i
+
+  Algiers, 59, v. i
+
+  All-Big-Gun Ship Arguments, 143, v. ii
+
+  Alterations to “Lion,” 185, v. ii
+
+  Alternative “Dreadnought” Ideal, 165, v. ii
+
+  Alva, Duke of, 48, v. i
+
+  American Colonies Revolution, 124, v. i
+
+  American Frigates, 189, v. i
+
+  Americanising of British Naval Designs, 176, v. ii
+
+  American Monitors and Conning Towers, 272, v. i
+
+  American Monitors, limitations of, 292, v. i
+
+  American Navy, 189, v. i
+
+  American War, 189, v. i
+
+  Amiens, Peace of, 163, v. i
+
+  Anson, Commodore, 109, v. i
+
+  “Answer” British, to frégates blindées, 249, v. i
+
+  Antigua, 172, v. i
+
+  Antwerp, 183, v. i
+
+  Appreciation of Barnaby, 49, v. ii
+
+  Arch Duke Charles, 98, v. i
+
+  Archers, English, 27, v. i
+
+  Armada, Defeat of, 57, v. i
+
+  Armada, Delayed, 48, v. i
+
+  Armada, Force of, 49, v. i
+
+  Armada, Indifferent Gunnery of, 50, v. i
+
+  Armada, Real History of, 57, v. i
+
+  Armament, Ratio of Size, 95, v. i
+
+  Armed Neutrality, The, 161, v. i
+
+  Armour, 204, v. ii
+
+  Armoured Cruisers Re-appear, 101, v. ii
+
+  Armour Experiments at Woolwich, 219, v. i
+
+  Armoured Forecastles, 284, v. i
+
+  Armoured Scouts, 197, v. ii
+
+  Armstrong and Percussion Shell, 227, v. i
+
+  “Army of Invasion,” 170, v. i
+
+  Articles of War, 11, v. i
+
+  Artificial Ventilation, 225, v. i
+
+  Armstrong, Guns of, 241, v. i
+
+  Artillery, Superior, 229, v. i
+
+  Assize of Arms, The, 10, v. i
+
+  Athelston, 7, v. i
+
+  Australia, Navy of, 233, v. ii
+
+  Auxiliary Navies, 231, v. ii
+
+
+  Battle of Trafalgar, 177, v. i
+
+  Belle Island Captured, 122, v. i
+
+  Berwick Captured by French (1795), 138, v. i
+
+  Blockade, Scientific, First Instituted, 120, v. i
+
+  Blockade Work, 165, v. i
+
+  Bomb Dropping, 226, 228, v. ii
+
+  Bombs from Airships, 228, v. ii
+
+  Bomb Vessels Introduced, 87, v. i
+
+  Bonaparte (see Napoleon), 230, v. i
+
+  Bordelais Captured, 158, v. i
+
+  Boscawen, 120, v. i
+
+  Boswell, Invention of, 107, v. i
+
+  Bounty, 200, v. i
+
+  Bounty, Given by Henry VII, 36, v. i
+
+  Bounty to Seamen, 234, v. i
+
+  Bourbon, Isle of, Captured, 185, v. i
+
+  Box-Battery Ironclads, 318, v. i
+
+  Brading, Battle of, 5, v. i
+
+  Breaking the Line, First Attempt at, 128, v. i
+
+  Breaking the Line by Rodney, 129, v. i
+
+  Breastwork Monitors, 292, 307, 308, v. i
+
+  Breech Blocks, Elementary, 320, v. i
+
+  Breechloaders, Armstrongs, 320, v. i
+
+  Brest, 157, v. i
+
+  Brest, Cornwallis off, 172, v. i
+
+  Bridport, 139, v. i
+
+  Brig Sloop of 18 Guns, 178, v. i
+
+  British Battle Fleet, 257, v. i
+
+  British Defects in the Crimean War, 234, v. i
+
+  British Empire, an English-Speaking Confederation, 241, v. ii
+
+  British Flag, 75, v. i
+
+  British and French Ideals, 249, v. i
+
+  British v. French Ships Discussed in Parliament, 37, v. i
+
+  British Guns, 232, v. i
+
+  British Merchant Ships Trade with Russia During War, 186, v. i
+
+  British Methods of Warfare, 41, v. i
+
+  British Navy, Birth of, 34, v. i
+
+  British Squadron, Defeat of, 186, v. i
+
+  British Tactics, 231, v. i
+
+  Broadside Ironclads, 257, v. i
+
+  Broke, Captain, 189, v. i
+
+  Brown, Samuel, Invents a Propeller (1825), 216, v. i
+
+  Bruat, 234, v. i
+
+  Brueys, 152, v. i
+
+  Bruix, 154, v. i
+
+  Buckingham, Duke of, 65, v. i
+
+  Bullivant Torpedo Defence, 53, v. ii
+
+  Burchett, 92, v. i
+
+  Burgoyne, Alan H., 59, v. i
+
+  Burgoyne, Captain, 288, v. i
+
+  Bushnell, David, and his Submarine, 124, v. i
+
+  Busk, Hans, 237, v. i
+
+  Busses, 11, v. i
+
+  Byng, 99, v. i
+
+  Byng, Shot, 116, v. i
+
+
+  Cadiz, 171, v. i
+
+  Cadiz, Collingwood off, 175, v. i
+
+  Calais, 27, 30, 33, v. i
+
+  Colder, 172, v. i
+
+  Calcutta, Recapture of (1757), 119, v. i
+
+  Calypso, 237, v. ii
+
+  Campaign of Trafalgar (Corbett), 170, v. i
+
+  Camperdown, Battle of, 150, v. i
+
+  Canada Acquired by England, 123, v. i
+
+  Canadian Dockyards, 237, v. ii
+
+  Canadian Navy, 237, v. ii
+
+  Cannon, Early, 38, v. i
+
+  Cannon, First use of, 29, v. i
+
+  Canute, 8, v. i
+
+  Cape St. Vincent, Battle of (1759), 121, v. i
+
+  “Capital Ship” Adjusts Itself, 218, v. ii
+
+  Capital Ship, Galley Replaced by Galleon, 27, v. i
+
+  Cape La Hogue, Battle of, 90, v. i
+
+  Capraja, “Queen Charlotte” blown up off (1880), 160, v. i
+
+  “Captain,” Nelson in, 142, v. i
+
+  Carronades, 129, v. i
+
+  Carronades, Part of Armament, 201, v. i
+
+  Cartagena, Vernon Fails at, 109, v. i
+
+  Catapults, 15, 30, 38, v. i
+
+  Catherine the Great, 154, v. i
+
+  Cayenne Captured, 184, v. i
+
+  Cellular Construction, 267, v. i
+
+  Central Africa, 232, v. ii
+
+  Central Battery Ironclads, 292, v. i
+
+  Centre-line, System, 179, v. ii
+
+  Cerberus, 232, v. ii
+
+  Cette, 103, v. i
+
+  Chads, Captain and Gunnery Experiments, 220, v. i
+
+  Chads, Captain, 223, v. i
+
+  Chagres Bombarded, 109, v. i
+
+  Channel Policed, 10, v. i
+
+  Channel Protected by Merchants, 33, v. i
+
+  Chappel, Captain, 215, v. i
+
+  Charles I, 65, v. i
+
+  Charles II, 81, v. i
+
+  Charles, Prince, 73, v. i
+
+  Charring, 107, v. i
+
+  Charter of Ethelred, 8, v. i
+
+  Chartres, Duke of, 126, v. i
+
+  Chateau, Renault, 96, v. i
+
+  Chatham, Earl of, 183, v. i
+
+  Christian VII, 180, v. i
+
+  Cinque Ports, 22, 29, 35, v. i
+
+  Cinque Ports Established, 10, v. i
+
+  Civil War, 75, v. i
+
+  Claxton, Captain, 215, v. i
+
+  Clive, 119, v. i
+
+  Clothing, 65, v. i
+
+  Clydebank, 188, v. ii
+
+  Coal, Larger Store of, Affects
+
+  Construction, 263, v. i
+
+  Coal Stores, 185, v. ii
+
+  “Coastals,” 199, v. ii
+
+  “Coastal Destroyers,” 199, v. ii
+
+  Coast Defence Ironclads, 199, v. ii
+
+  Coat of Mail Idea, 249, v. i
+
+  Cockpit, Horrors of, 204, v. i
+
+  Cochrane, Lord, and Fire Ships, 183, v. i
+
+  Cochrane Opposes Vote of Thanks to Lord Gambier, 183, v. i
+
+  Code of Naval Discipline, 12, v. i
+
+  Colonials and Local Defence, 237, v. ii
+
+  Colour Experiments, 89, v. ii
+
+  Command of the Sea (First Appearance of), 75, v. i
+
+  Commerce Defence, 75, v. i
+
+  Commission, Report of (1806), 187, v. i
+
+  Compass, 12, v. i
+
+  Coles, Captain Cowper, 272, v. i
+
+  Coles, Captain, 280, v. i
+
+  Coles, 275, v. i
+
+  Coles, Captain, 284, v. i
+
+  Collingwood Incompetent, 202, v. i
+
+  Collingwood, Resignation of, 148, v. i
+
+  Colomb, Admiral, Quoted, 53, v. i
+
+  Communication Tube, First for
+
+  Conning Tower, 318, v. i
+
+  Conflict Between Steam and Gas Engines, 201, v. ii
+
+  Congreve Rocket, 236, v. i
+
+  Conning Towers in American Monitors, 272, v. i
+
+  Constantinople Bombarded, 179, v. i
+
+  Continuous Service, 251, v. ii
+
+  Contractors, Unscrupulous, 65, v. i
+
+  Contemporary Art, 195, v. i
+
+  Contraband of War, 161, v. i
+
+  Contract-Built Ships First Advocated, 280, v. i
+
+  Controller of the Navy and Constructor, Disputes Between, 258, v. i
+
+  Converted Ironclads, 257, 258, v. i
+
+  Convoys, 92, v. i
+
+  Cook, Captain, 115, v. i
+
+  Copper Bottoms, 123, v. i
+
+  Copper Bottoms, Rapid Deterioration of, 129, v. i
+
+  Copenhagen, 161, v. i
+
+  Cornwall, Captain, 108, v. i
+
+  Cornwallis off Brest, 172, v. i
+
+  Cornwallis, 139, v. i
+
+  Corsairs, 91, 102, v. i
+
+  Cost per Gun for Sailing Man-of-War, 238, v. i
+
+  Cost per Gun for Steamers, 238, v. i
+
+  Cotton, Sir Charles, 184, v. i
+
+  Crimean War, British Defects in, 237, v. i
+
+  Crimean War, the British Navy in: Little Better than a Paper Force,
+        228, v. i
+
+  Cromwell, 73, v. i
+
+  Cronstadt, 226, v. i
+
+  Cross Raiding, 75, v. i
+
+  Cruisers of the Super-Dreadnought Era, 188, v. ii
+
+  Crusaders, 10, v. i
+
+  “Conditional” Ships, 174, v. ii
+
+  Cost of Oak, 132, v. i
+
+  Cost per Gun for Early Ironclads, 238, v. i
+
+  Cumberland, Inventor of Stoving, 107, v. i
+
+  Cuniberti, 179, v. ii
+
+  Cuniberti’s Conception of All Big-Gun ships, 139, v. ii
+
+  Curtis, Captain of the Fleet, 136, v. i
+
+  Curtiss Aeroplane, 226, v. ii
+
+  Curtiss Turbines, 196, v. ii
+
+  Cutting Out Expeditions Instituted, 41, v. i
+
+
+  Daedalus, 221, v. ii
+
+  “Dandy” Captains, 195, v. i
+
+  “Dandy” Sailors, 195, v. i
+
+  Danes, 1, v. i
+
+  Danish Fleet Surrendered, 162, v. i
+
+  Danish Ships Hired, 5, v. i
+
+  Darien, 108, v. i
+
+  Dawkins, Captain, 299, v. i
+
+  Dean, Sir Anthony, 94, v. i
+
+  Dean, Sir John, 94, v. i
+
+  Decline of the Navy, 43, v. i
+
+  De Conflans, 121, v. i
+
+  Defects of the échelon System, 179, v. ii
+
+  Defects of the “Royal Sovereigns,” 69, v. ii
+
+  De la Clue, 120, v. i
+
+  Delegates of Mutineers, 147, v. i
+
+  “Democracy on the Quarter Deck,” 257, v. ii
+
+  De Pontis, 102, v. i
+
+  De Witt, 79, v. i
+
+  Deptford Yard, 107, v. i
+
+  De Ruyter, 85, v. i
+
+  D’Estaing, 126, v. i
+
+  D’Estrees, 85, v. i
+
+  Descharges, Inventor of Portholes, 38, v. i
+
+  Destroyer Attack Bound to Succeed, 195, v. ii
+
+  Destroyers in the Dreadnought Era, 199, v. ii
+
+  De Tourville, 90, v. i
+
+  Devastation idea evolved, 232, v. ii
+
+  Devonport Yard, 191, v. ii
+
+  Dibden (ref.), 34, v. i
+
+  Diesel Engine, 201, v. ii
+
+  Dirigibles, 222, v. ii
+
+  Discipline, 20, v. i; 258, v. ii
+
+  Discipline, Jervis Idea of, 141, v. i
+
+  Discipline, Lack of, in time of Charles I, 66, v. i
+
+  Disputes Between the Controller of the Navy and Constructor, 258, v. i
+
+  Doctors, Naval, 256, v. ii
+
+  Dominion of Canada, 234, v. ii
+
+  D’Orvilliers, 125, v. i
+
+  Double Bottoms, 267, v. i
+
+  Dover, 219, v. i
+
+  Downs, Battle in (1639), 76, v. i
+
+  Drake, Character of, 48, v. i
+
+  Drake, Sir Francis, 47, v. i
+
+  Drake, Methods of, 48, v. i; 259, v. ii
+
+  Dreadnought (analogy), 69, v. i
+
+  Dreadnought, first idea of, 164, v. ii
+
+  Dromons, 33, v. i
+
+  Dropping Bombs, 226, v. ii
+
+  Dry Dock, First, 35, v. i
+
+  Dubourdieu, 186, v. i
+
+  Du Casse, 97, v. i
+
+  Ducas, 234, v. i
+
+  Duchess of Bedford and Uniform, 194, v. i
+
+  Ducking, 12, v. i
+
+  Duckworth, Sir John, 179, v. i
+
+  Duguay-Trouin, 92, 177, v. i
+
+  Dumanoir, 177, v. i
+
+  Duncan, 147, v. i
+
+  Dundonald, Earl of (Cochrane), 216, v. i
+
+  Dutch Fleet Captured by Anglo-Russian Force, 159, v. i
+
+  Dutch War, First, 75, v. i
+
+  Dutch War, Second, 81, v. i
+
+  Dutch War, Third, 83, v. i
+
+
+  Eagle attacked by Submarine, 124, v. i
+
+  Earliest Advocate of the centre-line in England, Admiral Hopkins,
+        179, v. ii
+
+  Early Aerial Ideas, 218, v. ii
+
+  Early Wire Guns, 247, v. i
+
+  Economists Limit Lint and Sponges, 207, v. i
+
+  Economists on Shore, 201, v. i
+
+  Economy, 36, 114, v. i
+
+  Economy in Construction, 97, v. i
+
+  Edgar, 7, v. i
+
+  Edmund, 7, v. i
+
+  Edward I, 22, v. i
+
+  Edward II, 23, v. i
+
+  Edward III, 23, v. i
+
+  Edward IV, 33, v. i
+
+  Edward the Confessor, 8, v. i
+
+  Effects of Shell Fire, 219, v. i
+
+  Egyptian Government, 232, v. ii
+
+  Electro, 219, v. i
+
+  Elementary Quickfirers, 243, v. i
+
+  Elizabeth, 73, v. i
+
+  Elizabeth, First Acts of, 44, v. i
+
+  Elizabethan Fleet, 73, v. i
+
+  Elphinstone, Captain in Russian Navy, 154, v. i
+
+  Elswick, 227, v. i; 232, v. ii
+
+  End-on Fire, 176, v. ii
+
+  End-on Idea, 179, v. ii
+
+  End of the White Era, 116, v. ii
+
+  Engineer Agitation, 247, v. ii
+
+  Engines of “Glatton” built in Royal Dockyard, 311, v. i
+
+  England, Austria, and Sweden at war, 180, v. i
+
+  “Equal Efficiency,” 215, v. ii
+
+  Ericsson, 272, v. i
+
+  Ericsson Patents Propeller (1836), 216, v. i
+
+  Espagnols-sur-Mer, Les, 29, v. i
+
+  Ethelred’s Navy, 8, v. i
+
+  Excellence of the “Warrior” Class, 121, v. ii
+
+  Experiments, Gunnery, 219, v. i
+
+  Experiments to Improve Sailing Ships, 211, v. i
+
+  “Explosion” Vessels, 182, v. i
+
+  Eustace the Monk, 21, v. i
+
+
+  Feeding of Men During Great War, 200, v. i
+
+  Ferrol, 96, 172, v. i
+
+  Fight--Shannon (British) v. Chesapeake (U.S.), 189, v. i
+
+  Finisterre, 172, v. i
+
+  Finisterre, Rodney off, 127, v. i
+
+  Fire, Raking, 211, v. i
+
+  Fire Ships, 54, 84, 182, v. i
+
+  Fire Ships, Decline of, 131, v. i
+
+  Fireworks, Use of, 69, v. i
+
+  First English Over-Sea Voyage, 11, v. i
+
+  First of June, Battle of, 135, v. i
+
+  First Ship of Royal Navy, 35, v. i
+
+  Fisher, Admiral Lord, 247, v. ii
+
+  Flag, Neutral, 161, v. i
+
+  Fleet Decoyed Away, 172, v. i
+
+  Fleet Saved by a Military Officer, 103, v. i
+
+  Fleet of Richard I, 10, v. i
+
+  Floating Batteries, First Use of, 130, v. i
+
+  Florida Acquired by England, 123, v. i
+
+  Flotilla, 163, v. i
+
+  Flotilla Invasion, 166, v. i
+
+  Flushing Blockaded, 183, v. i
+
+  Food, 65, v. i; 254, v. ii
+
+  Forecastle, Armoured, 284, v. i
+
+  Forecastles on Turret Ships, 284, v. i
+
+  Fort, S. Phillip, 116, v. i
+
+  Frames, Trussed, Introduced, 210, v. i
+
+  France, Why Beaten in Great War, 233, v. i
+
+  France, War with, 37, 113, v. i
+
+  Frégates Blindées, 247, 250, v. i
+
+  French Fleet in Crimean War, 230, v. i
+
+  French and British Ideals, 253, v. i
+
+  French Warships, Superb Qualities of, 92, v. i
+
+  French Fleet Superior to British, 193, v. i
+
+  French Floating Batteries, 225, v. i
+
+  French Revolution, 132, v. i
+
+  Freya, Danish Frigate, Captured, 159, v. i
+
+  Frisians, 5, v. i
+
+  “Fulton” Driven by steam Paddle, 193, v. i
+
+  Future Fights, 215, v. ii
+
+
+  “Galatea” Fitted with Paddles, 213, v. i
+
+  Galleon as Dreadnought of the 14th Century, 27, v. i
+
+  Galley, Replaced as Capital Ship, 27, v. i
+
+  Gambier, Admiral, 179, v. i
+
+  Gambier, Lack of Energy of, 182, v. i
+
+  Gambier, Lord, Acquitted, 183, v. i
+
+  Gambier, Lord, Vote of Thanks to Opposed by Cochrane, 183, v. i
+
+  Gambling, Punishment for, 12, v. i
+
+  Ganteaume, 163, v. i
+
+  Ganteaume, Admiral Escapes from Rochefort, 181, v. i
+
+  Garay, Inventor of Steamship, (1543), 214, v. i
+
+  Genereux Captured by Nelson, 160, v. i
+
+  Genius of Famous Admirals, 216, v. ii
+
+  Genoa, Hotham’s Battle of, 138, v. i
+
+  Gentlemen Adventurers, 45, v. i
+
+  George I, 104, v. i
+
+  George II, 107, v. i
+
+  George II and Institution of Uniform, 194, v. i
+
+  German Seamen, 233, v. i
+
+  Germans Agitate for British Naval Efficiency, 231, v. i
+
+  Germany, 233, v. i
+
+  Germany (analogy), 65, v. i
+
+  Germany, Guns from, 43, v. i
+
+  Gibraltar, 130, 172, v. i
+
+  Gibraltar, Nelson at, 172, v. i
+
+  Glasgow, “Black Prince,” Built at, 250, v. i
+
+  Globe Circumnavigated by Drake, 45, v. i
+
+  Godwin, 9, v. i
+
+  Good Hope, Cape Dutch Squadron Captured at, 141, v. i
+
+  Graham, Sir James, 236, v. i
+
+  Grasse, De, 129, v. i
+
+  Greek Fire, 15, 243, v. i
+
+  Guadaloup Captured, 137, 185, v. i
+
+  Guarda-Costas, 108, v. i
+
+  Guerre de Course, 102, v. i
+
+  Guichen, 128, v. i
+
+  Guillaume Tell Captured, 161, v. i
+
+  Gunners, Training of, 241, v. i
+
+  Gunnery, Enemy’s Inefficiency of, 176, v. i
+
+  Gunnery Errors, 179, v. ii
+
+  Gunnery Experiments, 231, v. ii
+
+  Guns Against Aircraft, 226, v. ii
+
+  Guns, British, 232, v. i
+
+  Guns in the Reed Era, 319, v. i
+
+  Guns in Submarine, 212, v. ii
+
+  Guns of the Watts Era, 202, v. ii
+
+  Guns, Pivot, 272, v. i
+
+  Guns, Rapid Fire, Development of, 227, v. i
+
+  Guns, Turkish Monster, 179, v. i
+
+
+  Hales, Dr., Ventilation System of, 115, v. i
+
+  Hamelin, 234, v. i
+
+  Hampden, John, 73, v. i
+
+  Hanniken, 28, v. i
+
+  Hardcastle Torpedo, 204, v. ii
+
+  Hardy, Sir Charles, 127, v. i
+
+  Harvey-Nickel Armour Introduced, 99, v. ii
+
+  Hawkins, 46, v. i
+
+  Hawthorn, 188, v. ii
+
+  “Heavier than Air,” 221, v. ii
+
+  Heavy Rolling of the “Orion,” 183, v. ii
+
+  Henry II, 10, v. i
+
+  Henry III, 20, v. i
+
+  Henry IV, 30, v. i
+
+  Henry V, 33, v. i
+
+  Henry VII, 34, v. i
+
+  Henry VIII, 37, v. i
+
+  “Hermione,” Mutiny in, 145, v. i
+
+  Hickley, Captain, 299, v. i
+
+  Hire of Danish Ships, 8, v. i
+
+  Hired Ships, 28, 33, 36, v. i
+
+  Holy Land, 11, v. i
+
+  Hood, 130, 137, v. i
+
+  Hopkins, Admiral, Ideas of, 134, v. ii
+
+  Horsey, Admiral de, 322, v. i
+
+  Hoste, Captain William, 186, v. i
+
+  Hotham, 138, v. i
+
+  Howard, Sir Edward, 41, v. i
+
+  Howe, 134, v. i
+
+  Hubert de Burgh, 20, v. i
+
+  Hurrying Ships, 185, v. ii
+
+  Hyeres, Battle of, 138, v. i
+
+
+  Icarus, 218, v. ii
+
+  Imperial British Fleet, 241, v. ii
+
+  Imperial Needs, 237, v. ii
+
+  Impressment, 234, v. i
+
+  Increased Gun-Power, 203, v. ii
+
+  Increased Smashing Power of Projectiles, 175, v. ii
+
+  Indecisiveness in British Operations, 137, v. i
+
+  Indies, Spanish Wealth from, 47, v. i
+
+  Inexperienced Officers, 233, v. i
+
+  “Inflexible” at the Nore Mutiny, 147, v. i
+
+  Inman, Dr., 187, v. i
+
+  Inscription, Maritime, 233, v. i
+
+  Instructors, Spanish, in English Navy, 42, v. i
+
+  “Insular Spirit,” 5, 73, 82, v. i
+
+  Insurance, 206, v. ii
+
+  Internal Armour, 206, v. ii
+
+  Introduction of Steam, 214, v. i
+
+  Introduction of 13.5-inch Gun, 175, v. ii
+
+  Invasion, 30, 163, v. i
+
+  Invasion, Nelson’s Schemes Against, 161, v. i
+
+  Invasion of England, 47, 119, v. i
+
+  Invasion Projected by French, 91, v. i
+
+  Ironclads, Converted, 257, 263, v. i
+
+  Ironclads, The First British, 249, v. i
+
+  Ironclad Ships, 229, v. i
+
+  Iron for Shipbuilding Instead of Oak, 219, v. i
+
+  Iron-plated Ships, 237, v. i
+
+  Iron Ships Condemned (1850), 223, v. i
+
+  Iron Steamer Existed in 1821, 219, v. i
+
+  Island Empires, 6, v. i
+
+
+  Jacobite Element in the Fleet, 88, v. i
+
+  Jacobite Rising, 105, v. i
+
+  James I, 59, v. i
+
+  James II, 86, v. i
+
+  James Watt, 236, v. i
+
+  Jarrow, 232, v. i
+
+  Java, Isle of, Captured, 187, v. i
+
+  Jean Bart, 92, v. i
+
+  Jervis, Sir John, 141, v. i
+
+  Jews, 209, v. i
+
+  John, King, 16, 30, 60, v. i
+
+  Juan, Fernandez, 110, v. i
+
+  Julius Cæsar, 1, v. i
+
+  Junction of the Fleets, 98, v. i
+
+
+  “Kamptulicon,” 219, v. i
+
+  Keel-Hauling, 12, v. i
+
+  “Keeping the Air,” 227, v. ii
+
+  Keith, 154, 163, v. i
+
+  Keppel, 125, v. i
+
+  Killala Bay, French Expedition to, 151, v. i
+
+  Kinburn Bombarded, 225, 248, v. i
+
+  Kipling (ref.), 34, v. i
+
+  Kronstadt, 162, v. i
+
+  Kronstadt, Anglo-Danish Demonstration at, 107, v. i
+
+  Krupp Fire, Shell, 244, v. i
+
+
+  La Gallisonnier, 116, v. i
+
+  “Labour” and the Navy, 207, v. ii
+
+  Lagane, 204, v. ii
+
+  Laird, Messrs., of Birkenhead, 284, 288, v. i
+
+  Laird, 321, v. i; 186, v. ii
+
+  Lalande de Joinville, 234, v. i
+
+  Lancaster Guns, 227, v. i
+
+  “Lancaster,” The, at Camperdown, 150, v. i
+
+  “Landsmen,” 252, v. ii
+
+  La Rochelle, 30, v. i
+
+  La Rochelle, Expedition to, in time of Charles I, 66, v. i
+
+  “Last Word,” 258, v. i
+
+  Latouche-Treville, 169, v. i
+
+  Laughton, Professor, Quoted, 50, v. i
+
+  Laughton’s, Professor, Summary, 176, v. i
+
+  Laws of Oberon, 17, v. i
+
+  Leake, Sir John, 101, v. i
+
+  Leave, 254, v. ii
+
+  Legends of Floating Rocks, 218, v. ii
+
+  Leissegues, Vice-Admiral, 177, v. i
+
+  Louisbourg Invested (1758), 119, v. i
+
+  “Lighter than Air,” 221, v. ii
+
+  Linois, 163, v. i
+
+  Liquid Fire, Norton’s, 243, v. i
+
+  Lisbon, 102, v. i
+
+  Lissa, Battle of, 186, 300, v. i
+
+  Little Englanders, 73, v. i
+
+  Lloyd, 237, v. i
+
+  Loading, Greater Rapidity in, 231, v. i
+
+  London, Citizens of, Fit out Fleet Against Spain, 48, v. i
+
+  London, Dutch Guns heard in, 83, v. i
+
+  Longridge, C. E., 244, v. i
+
+  Lord Charles Beresford, 195, v. ii
+
+  Lord of the Sea, 22, v. i
+
+  Lorient, French Squadron, break-out of, 188, v. i
+
+  Lorient, Partial Battle of (1795), 139, v. i
+
+  Loss of the “Victoria,” 39, v. ii
+
+  Louis Napoleon, 230, v. i
+
+  Lower Deck, The, 97, v. i
+
+  Lowestoft, 207, v. ii
+
+
+  Machine of Meerlers, 90, v. i
+
+  Macintosh, 226, v. i
+
+  Maderia Captured, 180, v. i
+
+  Maintenance Allowance Increased, 182, v. i
+
+  Malaga, Battle of, 101, v. i
+
+  Mallett, 244, v. i
+
+  Malta, Russian Designs on, 159, v. i
+
+  Malta Captured, 160, v. i
+
+  Malta Starved into Surrender, 160, v. i
+
+  Marines, Objection to New Scheme, of the, 251, v. ii
+
+  Marryat, Captain, 12, 212, v. i
+
+  Martinique, 137, v. i
+
+  Masefield, John, Quoted, 204, v. i
+
+  Mastless Ships, 292, v. i
+
+  Masts, Tripod, 287, v. i
+
+  Mauritius Attacked, 185, v. i
+
+  Medal, Tempus, Charles I, 74, v. i
+
+  Medine Sidonia, 53, v. i
+
+  Mediterranean, 59, v. i
+
+  Mediterranean, English Fleet First Stationed, 91, v. i
+
+  Meerlers, Machine Ships of, 90, v. i
+
+  Meerlers “Smoak-boat,” 90, v. i
+
+  Memoirs of Torrington, 100, v. i
+
+  Men Wanting, 237, v. i
+
+  Men, Lack of Training of, 236, v. i
+
+  Messing, 254, v. ii
+
+  Messing in Tudor Times, 43, v. i
+
+  Methods of Drake, 45, v. i
+
+  Military Officer Saves Fleet, 103, v. i
+
+  Military Warfare, 7, v. i
+
+  Milne, Admiral, 288, v. i
+
+  Mines Appear, 226, v. i
+
+  Mines, Russian, 226, v. i
+
+  Minorca, Battle of, 119, v. i
+
+  Moderate Dimensions, 135, v. i
+
+  Modern Protective Decks Introduced, 85, v. ii
+
+  Modern Variant of “Case Shot,” 195, v. ii
+
+  Monk, 76, v. i
+
+  Monitor and Merrimac, Fight between, 275, v. i
+
+  Montgolfier, 221, v. ii
+
+  Motor-Destroyers, 201, v. ii
+
+  Mounting of Small Guns Between the échelon Turrets done away with,
+        175, v. ii
+
+  Murder, Punishment for, 12, v. i
+
+  Mutiny at Spithead, 145, 200, v. i
+
+  Mutiny, The Great, 255, v. ii
+
+  Muzzle Loaders, 320, v. i
+
+
+  Nachimoff, Admiral (Russian), 223, v. i
+
+  Napier, Admiral Sir Charles, K.C.B., 234, 235, v. i
+
+  Napoleon, at Toulon, 133, v. i
+
+  Napoleon, Deportation of, to Elba, 193, v. i
+
+  Napoleon, Deportation of, to St. Helena, 193, v. i
+
+  Napoleon, Emperor, 164, v. i
+
+  Napoleon, First Consul, 159, v. i
+
+  Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia, 188, v. i
+
+  Napoleon and Nelson, 169, v. i
+
+  Napoleon, Re-appearance of, 193, v. i
+
+  Napoleon, Renovates his Navy, 181, v. i
+
+  Napoleon and “Sea Power,” 163, v. i
+
+  National Interests, 206, v. ii
+
+  Naval Abuses, 65, v. i
+
+  Naval Aeroplanes, 225, v. ii
+
+  Naval Agreement with the Colonies, 237, v. ii
+
+  Naval Aviation, 222, v. ii
+
+  Naval Defence Act, 63, v. ii
+
+  Naval Defence Act Cruisers, 71, v. ii
+
+  Naval Commission, 81, v. i
+
+  Naval Regulations of John, 16, v. i
+
+  Naval Pay in Great War, 209, v. i
+
+  Naval Scare of 1887–89, 61, v. ii
+
+  Naval Punishments, 20, v. i
+
+  Naval War, The Next, 265, v. ii
+
+  Navarino, Battle of, 213, v. i
+
+  Navy of Canute, 8, v. i
+
+  Navy, Non-Existence of, in Early Times, 19, v. i
+
+  Nelson, 12, 97, 162, v. i; 260, v. ii
+
+  Nelson (analogy), 42, v. i
+
+  Nelson at Gibraltar, 172, v. i
+
+  Nelson at Toulon, 133, v. i
+
+  Nelson in the “Agamemnon,” 138, v. i
+
+  Nelson in the Mediterranean, 157, v. i
+
+  Nelson (ref.), 34, v. i
+
+  Nelson at Cadiz, 149, v. i
+
+  Nelson, First Appearance of (1780), 128, v. i
+
+  Nelson, Costume of Men, in Era of, 196, v. i
+
+  Nelson Defeated at Santa Cruz, 150, v. i
+
+  Nelson, Drawing Away of, 171, v. i
+
+  Nelson Institutes Theatricals, 200, v. i
+
+  Nelson, Last Order of, 177, v. i
+
+  Nelson’s Limitations, 169, v. i
+
+  Nelson Mortally Wounded, 176, v. i
+
+  Nelson and Mutineers, 151, v. i
+
+  Nelson’s Schemes of Invasion, 162, v. i
+
+  Neutral Flag, Property Under, 161, v. i
+
+  Neutrality, Armed, 161, v. i
+
+  New Forest, Oak Plantations, 132, v. i
+
+  New Scheme, The, 247, v. ii
+
+  Newfoundland Naval Reserve, 237, v. ii
+
+  New Zealand and the British Fleet, 234, 237, v. ii
+
+  New Zealand’s Interest in the Imperial Navy, 234, v. ii
+
+  Nore, Mutiny at, 146, v. i
+
+  Norman Invasion, 9, v. i
+
+  Normans, 21, v. i
+
+  Norris, Sir John, 105, v. i
+
+  Norton’s Liquid Fire, 243, v. i
+
+  North Foreland, Battle of, 82, v. i
+
+  Nova Scotia, 103, v. i
+
+  Nile, Battle of (analogy), 42, v. i
+
+  North and South Nigeria, 232, v. ii
+
+  “Numbers Only Can Annihilate,” 215, v. ii
+
+
+  Oak Plantations, 132, v. i
+
+  Oberon, Laws of, 17, v. i
+
+  Ocean-going Destroyers, 199, v. ii
+
+  Odessa Bombarded, 224, v. i
+
+  Odin, 216, v. i
+
+  Officering the Fleet, 115, v. i
+
+  Officers, Inexperience of, 233, v. i
+
+  Officers’ Wine for Wounded, 207, v. i
+
+  Ogle, 109, v. i
+
+  Oil Fuel, 200, v. ii
+
+  Original Conception of the Dreadnought Era, 196, v. ii
+
+  Ormonde, Duke of, 96, v. i
+
+  Ornamental Work Reduced, 97, v. i
+
+  Ostend Attacked, 82, v. i
+
+  Ostend Captured (1706), 103, v. i
+
+
+  Paddle Experiments, 212, v. i
+
+  Paddles, “Galatea” Fitted with, 213, v. i
+
+  Paddle Recognised as a Source of Danger (1825), 216, v. i
+
+  Paddle Wheels Exposed, 216, v. i
+
+  Paint on Warships, 69, v. i
+
+  Paixham, General, 223, v. i
+
+  Palmer’s, 175, v. ii
+
+  Parma, Duke of, 49, v. i
+
+  Parker, Sir Hyde, 161, v. i
+
+  Parliament Discusses French v. British Ships, 137, v. i
+
+  Parliamentarians, 74, v. i
+
+  Parson’s Turbine, 183, 196, 200, v. ii
+
+  Paul, Russia, 159, v. i
+
+  Pay (1653), 65, v. i
+
+  Pay, Modern, 257, v. ii
+
+  Payta Captured by Captain Anson, 111, v. i
+
+  Peace of Amiens, 86, v. i
+
+  Pembroke, Earl of, 29, v. i
+
+  “Penelope” Fitted with Engines, 216, v. i
+
+  Penelope Frigate attacks Guillaume Tell, 160, v. i
+
+  Pennington, Sir John, 73, v. i
+
+  Pensions for Wounds, Time of John, 17, v. i
+
+  Pepys, 79, v. i
+
+  Period of Broadside Ironclads Ends, 263, v. i
+
+  Personality, 97, v. i
+
+  Peterborough, Earl of, 103, v. i
+
+  Peter the Great, 95, v. i
+
+  Phineas Petts, 59, 69, 80, v. i
+
+  Phœnicians, 1, v. i
+
+  Pierola, 322, v. i
+
+  Pigot, Captain of “Hermione,” 151, v. i
+
+  Pigtail, Origin of, 197, v. i
+
+  Pinnaces, 41, v. i
+
+  Piracy, 43, 44, v. i
+
+  Piracy, English Acts of, 22, v. i
+
+  Pirates, 30, v. i
+
+  Pitt and Sea Power, 141, v. i
+
+  Pivot Guns, 272, v. i
+
+  Pizarro, 110, v. i
+
+  Plymouth Hoe, Drake on, 50, v. i
+
+  Plymouth, Mutiny at, 146, v. i
+
+  Plymouth Sacked, 23, v. i
+
+  Policing the Channel, 10, v. i
+
+  Politics and Admirals, 130, v. i
+
+  Pomone, French Frigate, Captured (1794), 135, v. i
+
+  Portholes, 49, v. i
+
+  Portsmouth, Review at (1512), 37, v. i
+
+  Portsmouth Sacked, 29, v. i
+
+  Portsmouth Yard, 191, v. ii
+
+  Possibility of Airships in the Future, 226, v. ii
+
+  Possibility of Dreadnoughts Considered, 145, v. ii
+
+  Present Stage of Aerial Progress, 229, v. ii
+
+  Press Gang, 199, 200, v. i
+
+  Presumed End of Ironclads, 47, v. ii
+
+  Prime Seamen, 115, 196, v. i; 251, v. ii
+
+  Prince Charles, 74, v. i
+
+  Prince of Hesse, 99, v. i
+
+  Private Ships, 36, v. i
+
+  Privateering, 43, 91, 111, v. i
+
+  Privateers Attack Henry IV, 30, v. i
+
+  Privateers, French, Activity of, 189, v. i
+
+  Private Yards, 132, v. i
+
+  Progress Nullified During the Last Twenty Years, 203, v. ii
+
+  Progressive Naval Ideas, 196, v. ii
+
+  Promotion on the Lower Deck, 252, v. ii
+
+  Protection of Boats in Action, 184, v. ii
+
+  Providence and the Armada, 53, v. i
+
+  Provisioning of Ships Under John, 17, v. i
+
+  Punishments, 12, v. i
+
+  Punishments (Modern), 259, v. ii
+
+  Pursers, 146, v. i
+
+  Pym, Captain, 185, v. i
+
+
+  Quebec, Abortive Attack on, 104, v. i
+
+  Queen Anne, 95, v. i
+
+  Queensland, 233, v. ii
+
+  Quiberon, 121, v. i
+
+  Quick Firers, Elementary, 243, v. i
+
+  Quick Lime, Use of, 21, v. i
+
+
+  Raking Fire, 211, v. i
+
+  Raleigh, Sir Walter, 60, 65, v. i
+
+  Ram Tactics, 300, v. i
+
+  Ramming, 17, v. i
+
+  Rapidity in Loading, 231, v. i
+
+  Rates in English Navy, Time of Queen Anne, 95, v. i
+
+  Rating, New, of Ships Introduced (1817), 211, v. i
+
+  “Re-construction Never Pay,” 312, v. i
+
+  Reed, Sir E. J., 257, 266, v. i
+
+  Reed, Sir E. J., Anticipates Torpedoes, 268, v. i
+
+  Reed Broadside Ships, 283, v. i
+
+  Reed Ideals in the White Era, 115, v. ii
+
+  Reed, Sir E. J., Turret Ships, 292, v. i
+
+  Regular Stores Instituted, 132, v. i
+
+  Repairs, Cost of, 132, v. i
+
+  Reserve Ships, Speedy Equipment of, 132, v. i
+
+  Restoration, The, 81, v. i
+
+  Retirement of Sir W. White, 113, v. ii
+
+  Richard I, 10, v. i
+
+  Richard II, 10, 30, v. i
+
+  Richard III, 33, 60, v. i
+
+  Right Ahead Fire, 258, v. i
+
+  Rigging, Firing at, 129, v. i
+
+  Right of Search, 159, 161, v. i
+
+  Robinson, Commander, on Causes of Mutiny, 146, v. i
+
+  Robinson, Commander, R.N., Quoted, 194, v. i
+
+  Rocket, Congreve, 236, v. i
+
+  Rodjestvensky (analogy), 53, v. i
+
+  Rodney, 127, 129, v. i
+
+  Rogerswick, Harbour of, 180, v. i
+
+  Rogues in Authority, 201, v. i
+
+  Rolling of the “Orion,” 183, v. ii
+
+  Romans in Britain, 1, v. i
+
+  Rooke, Sir George, 96, v. i
+
+  Routine, 260, v. ii
+
+  Row Boats, 222, v. ii
+
+  Royal Indian Marine, 233, v. ii
+
+  Royal Naval College Established, Portsmouth, 187, v. i
+
+  Royal Navy, Birth of, 35, v. i
+
+  Royal Ships, 35, v. i
+
+  Royal Yachts, 33, v. i
+
+  “Ruinous Competition in Naval Armaments,” 206, v. ii
+
+  Russel, 90, 91, v. i
+
+  Russell, John Scott, 237, 249, v. i
+
+  Russia, War with (1720), 106, v. i
+
+  Russian Mines, 226, v. i
+
+  Russian Navy Established by England, 95, v. i
+
+  Russo-Japanese War, 205, v. ii
+
+  Ryswick, Peace of, 92, v. i
+
+
+  Samaurez, 163, v. i
+
+  Samaurez in the Baltic, 180, v. i
+
+  San Domingo, Battle of, 178, v. i
+
+  Sandwich, Earl of, 84, v. i
+
+  Saints, Battle of the, 129, v. i
+
+  San Juan Nicaragua, Nelson at, 128, v. i
+
+  Santa Croix, Capture of, 180, v. i
+
+  Santa Cruz, Marquis of, 49, v. i
+
+  Santissima Trinidad (130), 145, v. i
+
+  Saxon Fleet, 8, v. i
+
+  Saxons, 1, v. i
+
+  Scantlings, 135, v. i
+
+  Scarcity of Oak, 132, v. i
+
+  “Scouts” Appear, 127, v. ii
+
+  “Scrapping,” 311, v. i
+
+  Scheldt, 183, v. i
+
+  School of Naval Architecture, 187, v. i
+
+  Scotts, 186, v. ii
+
+  Scott Shipbuilding and Engineering Company, 175, v. ii
+
+  Sea-Fights with the Danes, 2, v. i
+
+  Seamen, Bounty to, 234, v. i
+
+  Seamen, Foreign, 235, v. i
+
+  Seamen, German, 233, v. i
+
+  Sea-Going Masted Turret Ship, 276, v. i
+
+  Sea-Going Qualities of Barnaby Ships, 59, v. ii
+
+  Seamen, Improved, 44, v. i
+
+  Sea Kings, Elizabethan, 47, v. i
+
+  Seamanship, 114, v. i
+
+  Sea Power and Napoleon, 163, 169, v. i
+
+  Sea Regiment, The, 251, v. ii
+
+  Search, Right of, 159, 161, v. i
+
+  Sebastopol Attacked, 224, v. i
+
+  Sebastopol, Siege of, 224, v. i
+
+  Semenoff, Captain (quoted), 243, v. i
+
+  “Semi-Dreadnoughts,” 127, v. ii
+
+  Senegal Captured, 184, v. i
+
+  Senyavin in the Mediterranean, 181, v. i
+
+  Senyavin, Ships of, Restored, 186, v. i
+
+  Serpents, 15, v. i
+
+  Seymour, Sir Hamilton, 235, v. i
+
+  Shah and Huascar Action, 322, v. i
+
+  Shell Guns, Adopted, 220, v. i
+
+  Shell, Percussion, 227, v. i
+
+  Shell, Thermite, 244, v. i
+
+  Sheerness, Dutch at, 83, v. i
+
+  Ships, Engaging exactly End-on, 179, v. ii
+
+  Ships, Iron-plated, 237, v. i
+
+  Ships, Ironclad, 239, v. i
+
+  Ships of King Alfred, 5, v. i
+
+
+  _SHIPS MENTIONED BY NAME._
+
+    Aboukir, 101, v. ii
+
+    Abyssinia, 231, v. ii
+
+    Acheron class, 200, v. ii
+
+    Achilles, 257, 258, v. i
+
+    Acorn class, 200, v. ii
+
+    Active, 197, v. ii
+
+    Admiral class, 47, v. ii
+
+    Adventure, 127, v. ii
+
+    Aeolus, 72, v. ii
+
+    Africa, 108, v. ii
+
+    Agamemnon, 133, 138, v. i
+
+    Agincourt, 279, v. i
+
+    Ajax, 186, v. ii
+
+    Aki, 146, v. ii
+
+    Alarm, 76, v. ii
+
+    Albemarle, 105, v. ii
+
+    Albion, 99, v. ii
+
+    Alexandra, 277, 318, v. i
+
+    Amphitrite, 99, v. ii
+
+    Amethyst, 322, v. i
+
+    Antrim, 109, v. ii
+
+    Amokoura, 234, v. ii
+
+    Amphion, 47, 197, v. ii
+
+    Andromache, 72, v. ii
+
+    Andromeda, 99, v. ii
+
+    Anna Pink (1740), 111, v. i
+
+    Antelope, 76, v. ii
+
+    Apollo class, 72, v. ii
+
+    Aquidaban, 77, v. ii
+
+    Archer, 201, v. ii
+
+    Argonaut, 99, v. ii
+
+    Arethusa, 197, v. ii
+
+    Ariadne, 99, v. ii
+
+    Argyll, 109, v. ii
+
+    Assaye, 232, 76, v. ii
+
+    Astraeas, 76, v. ii
+
+    Atalanta, 187, v. i
+
+    Attack, 200, v. ii
+
+    Attentive, 127, v. ii
+
+    Audacious, 277, 295, v. i
+
+    Audacious (1794), 134, 295, v. i; 186, v. ii
+
+    Aurora, 197, v. ii
+
+    Australia, 174, v. ii
+
+
+    Bacchante, 101, v. ii
+
+    Badere Zaffer (Turkish), 232, v. i
+
+    Bahama (Spanish), 177, v. i
+
+    Baluch, 232, v. ii
+
+    Barfluer, 69, 70, v. ii
+
+    Beagle class, 200, v. ii
+
+    Bellerophon, 266, 279, v. i; 169, v. ii
+
+    Belleisle, 232, v. i
+
+    Bellona, 197, v. ii
+
+    Berwick, 106, v. ii
+
+    Birmingham, 197, v. ii
+
+    Black Prince, 250, v. i; 35, v. ii
+
+    Blake, 61, 63, v. ii
+
+    Blanco Encalada (Chilian), 77, v. ii
+
+    Blanche, 197, v. ii
+
+    Blenheim, 61, 63, v. ii
+
+    Blonde, 321, v. i; 197, v. ii
+
+    Boadicea, 197, v. ii
+
+    Bonaventure, 72, v. ii
+
+    Boomerang, 76, 233, v. ii
+
+    Brilliant, 72, v. ii
+
+    Britannia (1688), 87, v. i
+
+    Britannia, 108, v. ii
+
+    Brisbane, 197, v. ii
+
+    Bulwark, 102, v. ii
+
+
+    Cæsar, 87, v. ii
+
+    Caledonia, 181, 263, v. i
+
+    Calypso, 237, v. ii
+
+    Cambrian, 72, v. ii
+
+    Camperdown, 39, v. ii
+
+    Canopus, ex-Franklin (French prize), 150, v. i
+
+    Canopus, 99, 100, v. ii
+
+    Carnarvon, 109, v. ii
+
+    Captain, 283, v. i
+
+    Captain, Loss of, 291, v. i
+
+    Centurion (1740), 112, v. i
+
+    Centurion (1891), 81, v. ii
+
+    Cerebus (Australian), 292, v. i
+
+    Charybdis, 72, v. ii
+
+    Chatham, 196, v. ii
+
+    Chen Yuen (Chinese), 180, v. ii
+
+    Chicago (U.S.), 43, v. ii
+
+    Circe, 76, v. ii
+
+    Cog, Thomas, The, 28, v. i
+
+    Commonwealth, 108, v. ii
+
+    Conqueror, 59, 174, v. ii
+
+    Cornwall, 106, v. ii
+
+    Cornwallis, 105, v. ii
+
+    County class, 105, v. ii
+
+    Crescent, 71, v. ii
+
+    Cressy, 101, v. ii
+
+    Cumberland, 106, v. ii
+
+    Cyclops, 308, v. i; 242, v. ii
+
+
+    Dalhousie, 231, v. ii
+
+    Dartmouth, 234, 237, v. ii
+
+    Dauntless, 219, v. i
+
+    Defence, 257, v. i
+
+    Devastation (1870), 248, 312, v. i
+
+    Devonshires, 109, v. ii
+
+    Diadem, 99, v. ii
+
+    Diana, 212, v. i
+
+    Dominion, 108, v. ii
+
+    Donegal, 106, v. ii
+
+    Drake, 105, 106, v. ii
+
+    Dreadnought (old), 292, 317, v. i
+
+    Dreadnought (1908), 164, v. ii
+
+    Dublin, 196, v. ii
+
+    Dufferin, 231, v. ii
+
+    Duncans, 105, v. ii
+
+
+    Edgar, 71, v. ii
+
+    Elphinstone, 231, v. ii
+
+    Endymion, 71, v. ii
+
+    Entrepennant (French), 187, v. i
+
+    Erebus, 225, v. i
+
+    Essex, 106, v. ii
+
+    Etna, 225, v. i
+
+    Europa, 99, v. ii
+
+    Euryalus, 101, v. ii
+
+    Exmouth, 105, v. ii
+
+
+    Fearless, 197, v. ii
+
+    Flora, 72, v. ii
+
+    Formidable, 100, 102, v. ii
+
+    Foresight, 129, v. ii
+
+    Forth, 48, v. ii
+
+    Forward, 129, v. ii
+
+    Foudroyant, 140, 160, v. i
+
+    Franklin (French prize), 150, v. i
+
+    Fulton, 190, v. i
+
+
+    Galatea, 197, v. ii
+
+    Gayundah, 233, v. ii
+
+    Gazelle, 78, v. ii
+
+    Gibraltar, 71, v. ii
+
+    Glasgow, 196, v. ii
+
+    Glatton (1795), 140, v. i
+
+    Glatton, 308, v. i
+
+    Gleaner, 76, v. ii
+
+    Glory, 99, v. ii
+
+    Gloucester (1740), 112, v. i
+
+    Gloucester, 204, v. ii
+
+    Goliath, 99, v. ii
+
+    Good Hope, 103, v. ii
+
+    Gorgon, 308, v. i
+
+    Gossamer, 76, v. ii
+
+    Grace de Dieu, The, 38, v. i
+
+    Grafton, 71, v. ii
+
+    Great Harry, 35, 37, v. i
+
+    Ghurka, 237, v. ii
+
+
+    Hampshire, 109, v. ii
+
+    Hannibal, 87, v. ii
+
+    Hardinge, 231, v. ii
+
+    Havock, 129, v. ii
+
+    Hawke, 71, v. ii
+
+    Hebe, 76, v. ii
+
+    Hecate, 308, v. i
+
+    Hector, 257, v. i
+
+    Hela (German), 78, v. ii
+
+    Henri IV (French), 204, v. ii
+
+    Hercules, 279, 283, 288, 295, v. i; 175, v. ii
+
+    Hermione, 72, v. ii
+
+    Hero, 59, v. ii
+
+    Hibernia, 108, v. ii
+
+    Hindustan, 108, v. ii
+
+    Holland, 218, v. i
+
+    Hood, 68, v. ii
+
+    Hornet, 129, v. ii
+
+    Hotspur (British), 321, v. i
+
+    Huascar (Peruvian), 322, v. i
+
+    Hydra, 308, v. i
+
+
+    Immortalitie, 43, v. ii
+
+    Inflexible, 52, v. ii
+
+    Intrepid, 72, v. ii
+
+    Imperieuse, 43, v. ii
+
+    Iphigenia, 72, v. ii
+
+    Iron Duke, 187, v. ii
+
+    Illustrious, 87, v. ii
+
+    Implacable, 100, v. ii
+
+    Inconstant, 321, v. i
+
+    Indefatigable, 72, 100, v. ii
+
+    Independencia, 280, v. i
+
+    Invincible, 295, 319, v. i; 183, v. ii
+
+    Iphigenia, 185, v. i
+
+    Irresistible, 100, v. ii
+
+    Italia (Italian), 63, v. ii
+
+
+    Jupiter, 87, v. ii
+
+
+    Kahren, 232, v. ii
+
+    Karrahatta, 76, 233, v. ii
+
+    Katoomba, 76, 233, v. ii
+
+    Kent, 106, v. ii
+
+    King Alfred, 103, v. ii
+
+    King Edward VII class, 107, 108, 114, 233, v. ii
+
+    King George V, 186, v. ii
+
+
+    Lady Nancy (Gun raft), 272, v. i
+
+    La Forte (French), 231, v. i
+
+    La Gloire (French), 254, v. i
+
+    Lancaster, 106, v. ii
+
+    Latona, 72, v. ii
+
+    Lave La, 248, v. i
+
+    Lavinia, 232, v. i
+
+    Leander, 47, v. ii
+
+    Lepanto (Italian), 63, v. ii
+
+    Leviathan, 103, v. ii
+
+    L’Hercule (French), 231, v. i
+
+    Liberté class (French), 82, v. ii
+
+    Lion, The (1800), 160, v. i
+
+    Lively, frégate, 141, v. i
+
+    Liverpool, 196, v. ii
+
+    London, 231, v. i; 104, 107, v. ii
+
+    Lord Clyde, 263, v. i
+
+    Lord Nelson, 133, v. ii
+
+    Lord Warden (British), 288, v. i
+
+    Lorne, 212, v. i
+
+    Lynch, 78, v. ii
+
+
+    Magdala class, 232, v. ii
+
+    Magnificent, 87, 88, v. ii
+
+    Maharatta, 232, v. ii
+
+    Majestic, 236, v. i; 85, 86, v. ii
+
+    Marengo (French), 231, v. i
+
+    Marlborough, 187, v. ii
+
+    Mars, 231, v. i; 87, v. ii
+
+    Melampus, 72, v. ii
+
+    Melbourne, 234, v. ii
+
+    Melpomene, 72, v. ii
+
+    Merrimac, 190, v. i
+
+    Mersey, 48, v. ii
+
+    Meteor, 225, v. i
+
+    Mildura, 76, 233, v. ii
+
+    Minotaur, 258, 272, v. i
+
+    Monarch, 280, 283, 284, v. i; 175, v. ii
+
+    Monarch, 183, v. ii
+
+    Montagu, 105, v. ii
+
+
+    Naiad, 72, v. ii
+
+    Narcissus, 43, v. ii
+
+    Neptune (1797), 151, v. i
+
+    Newcastle, 196, v. ii
+
+    New Zealand, 107, 108, v. ii
+
+    Nile, 44, v. ii
+
+    Niobe, 99, 234, v. ii
+
+    Northbrook, 231, v. ii
+
+    Northumberland, 257, 258, v. i; 59, v. ii
+
+    Nottingham, 197, v. ii
+
+
+    Oberon, 53, v. ii
+
+    Ocean, 263, v. i; 99, v. ii
+
+    Olympic, 71, v. ii
+
+    Orion, 183, v. ii
+
+    Orlando, 48, 63, v. ii
+
+
+    Pallas class, 76, 233, v. ii
+
+    Paluma, 233, v. ii
+
+    Pandora, 76, v. ii
+
+    Pathan, 232, v. ii
+
+    Pathfinder, 127, v. ii
+
+    Pearl (1740), 112, v. i; 76, v. ii
+
+    Pelican, The, 45, v. i
+
+    Pelorus, 72, v. ii
+
+    Penelope, 279, v. i
+
+    Persian, 76, v. ii
+
+    Phaeton, 197, v. ii
+
+    Phœbe, 76, v. ii
+
+    Philomel, 76, 233, v. ii
+
+    Pique, 72, v. ii
+
+    Plassy, 76, 232, v. ii
+
+    Polyphemus, 64, v. ii
+
+    Powerful, 89, v. ii
+
+    Prince Albert, 275, v. i; 134, v. ii
+
+    Prince Consort, 261, 263, v. i
+
+    Prince George, 87, v. ii
+
+    Prince of Wales, 107, v. ii
+
+    Prince Regent, 236, v. i
+
+    Prince Royal, The, 59, v. i; 174, v. ii
+
+    Princessa (Spanish), 114, v. i
+
+    Protector, 232, v. ii
+
+    Psyche, 76, v. ii
+
+
+    Queen, 107, v. ii
+
+    Queen Charlotte, 161, v. i
+
+    Queen Mary, 186, v. ii
+
+
+    Rainbow, 72, 234, v. ii
+
+    Rajput, 232, v. ii
+
+    Raleigh, 321, v. i
+
+    Ram, The, 300, v. i
+
+    Rattler, 219, v. i
+
+    Rattlesnake class, 76, v. ii
+
+    Re d’Italia, 300, v. i
+
+    Regent, 35, v. i
+
+    Renard, 76, v. ii
+
+    Renown, 79, 81, v. ii
+
+    Republique (French), 82, v. ii
+
+    Repulse, 263, v. i
+
+    Resistance, 255, 257, v. i
+
+    Retribution, 72, v. ii
+
+    Revolutionaire (French), (1794), 134, 158, v. i
+
+    Ringarooma, 76, 233, v. ii
+
+    “River” class destroyers, 131, v. ii
+
+    Rossiya (Russian), 89, v. ii
+
+    Royal Alfred, 263, v. i
+
+    Royal Arthur, 71, v. ii
+
+    Royal George, The, 114, v. i
+
+    Royal James, The, 84, v. i
+
+    Royal Oak, 263, v. i
+
+    Royal Sovereign, 275, 284, v. i; 198, v. ii
+
+    Royal Sovereign (1657), 69, v. i
+
+    Royal Sovereign (1795), 139, v. i
+
+    Royal Sovereigns, (old), 81, v. i
+
+    Roxburgh, 109, v. ii
+
+    Rupert reconstructed, 311, v. i
+
+    Rurik (Russian), 89, v. ii
+
+    Russell, 105, v. ii
+
+
+    Salamander, 93, 76, v. ii
+
+    Sampaio, 78, v. ii
+
+    San Ildefonso (Spanish), 177, v. i
+
+    Sappho, 72, v. ii
+
+    Satsuma (Japanese), 146, v. ii
+
+    Scorpion, 287, v. i
+
+    Scylla, 72, v. ii
+
+    Sea Gull, 76, 93, v. ii
+
+    Sea-horse, 232, v. i
+
+    Sentinel, 129, v. ii
+
+    Severn, 112, v. i; 48, v. ii
+
+    Shah, 321, v. i
+
+    Sharpshooter class, 90, 93, 232, v. ii
+
+    Sheldrake, 76, 93, v. ii
+
+    Sikh, 232, v. ii
+
+    Sirius, 185, v. i
+
+    Skipjack, 76, v. ii
+
+    Skirmisher, 127, v. ii
+
+    Southampton, 196, v. ii
+
+    Sovereign, The, 37, v. i
+
+    Spanker, floating battery, 188, v. i
+
+    Spanker, 76, 93, v. ii
+
+    Spartan, 72, v. ii
+
+    Spartiate, 99, v. ii
+
+    Speedwell, 76, v. ii
+
+    Speedy, 76, 93, v. ii
+
+    St. George, 71, v. ii
+
+    Suffolk, 106, v. ii
+
+    Sultan, 304, 313, 318, v. i
+
+    Sutlej, 101, v. ii
+
+    Swift, 200, v. ii
+
+    Swiftsure, 177, 295, v. i
+
+    Sybil, 231, v. i
+
+    Sydney, 197, v. ii
+
+
+    Talbot, 89, v. ii
+
+    Tauranga, 76, 233, v. ii
+
+    Terpsichore, 72, v. ii
+
+    Terrible, 89, v. ii
+
+    Terror, 225, v. i
+
+    Thames, 48, v. ii
+
+    Thetis, 72, v. ii
+
+    Thunder, 225, v. i
+
+    Thunderer, 50, 175, v. ii
+
+    Thunderbolt, 225, v. i; 50, v. ii
+
+    Tiger, 188, v. ii
+
+    Ting Yuen (Chinese), 180, v. ii
+
+    Tonnant (French), 248, v. i
+
+    “Town” class cruisers, 197, v. ii
+
+    Trafalgar, 43, 64, v. ii
+
+    Transports, 22, v. i
+
+    “Tribals,” 199, v. ii
+
+    Tribune, 72, v. ii
+
+    Triumph, 58, 295, v. i
+
+    Trusty, 225, v. i
+
+    Tryal (1740), 111, v. i
+
+    Tsarevitch (Russian), 204, v. ii
+
+
+    Undaunted, 197, v. ii
+
+
+    Valiant, 257, v. i
+
+    Vanguard, 268, 295, v. i; 169, v. ii
+
+    Venerable, 102, v. ii
+
+    Vengeance, 99, v. ii
+
+    Vernon, 254, v. i
+
+    Victoria, 48, v. ii
+
+    Victoria (Colonial), 233, v. ii
+
+    Victorious, 189, v. i; 87, v. ii
+
+    Victory, 231, v. i
+
+    Viper, 276, v. i
+
+    Vixen, 276, v. i
+
+    Von der Tann (German), 180, v. ii
+
+
+    Wager (1740), 111, v. i
+
+    Wallaroo, 76, 233, 256, v. ii
+
+    Wampanoag (U.S.), 320, v. i; 233, v. ii
+
+    Warrior, 254, 257, 267, v. i
+
+    Warspite, 195, v. ii
+
+    Waterwitch, 276, v. i
+
+    Weymouth class, 196, v. ii
+
+    Whiting, 76, v. ii
+
+    Wizard, 76, v. ii
+
+    Wsewolod (Russian), 232, v. i
+
+
+    Yarmouth, 196, v. ii
+
+
+    Zealous, 263, v. i
+
+    Zelandia, 108, 234, v. ii
+
+
+  Ship Money, 7, 69, v. i
+
+  Ships, Short, handy, 264, v. i
+
+  Shipwrights’ Company Established, 59, v. i
+
+  Short Service System, 253, v. ii
+
+  Shovell, Sir Cloudesley, 98, v. i
+
+  Sidon, 216, v. i
+
+  Simoon, 223, v. i
+
+  Sinope, Battle of, 224, v. i
+
+  Syracuse, Neutrality of, Disregarded by Nelson, 152, v. i
+
+  Sir Charles Napier, 213, v. i
+
+  “Sirius” and “Magicienne” Aground, 185, v. i
+
+  Sir W. White’s Views on the “Sovereigns,” 65, v. ii
+
+  “Slop Chest,” 195, v. i
+
+  Sluys, 24, v. i
+
+  Small Cruisers and First Cost, 75, v. ii
+
+  Small German Protected Cruisers, 197, v. ii
+
+  Smith, Sir Sidney, 180, v. i
+
+  “Smoak-Boat” of Meerlers, 90, v. i
+
+  Sole Bay, Battle of, 85, v. i
+
+  Solid Bulkhead, 204, v. ii
+
+  Suffren, 129, v. i
+
+  Southampton Sacked, 23, v. i
+
+  South Australia, 232, v. ii
+
+  Southsea Beach, 175, v. i
+
+  Sovereignty of the British Seas, 10, 16, v. i
+
+  Sovereignty of the Seas upheld by Cromwell, 75, v. i
+
+  Spain, First War with, 28, v. i
+
+  Spain, Operations against, 45, v. i
+
+  Spanish Instructors in English Navy, 43, v. i
+
+  Spanish Wars (Succession), 95, v. i
+
+  Spanish Treasure Ship Captured by Captain Anson, 111, v. i
+
+  Spanish Treasure Ships, 158, v. i
+
+  Specialisation in Elizabethan Times, 46, v. i
+
+  Speed in the “Drake” class, 103, v. ii
+
+  “Spit and Polish,” 242, v. ii
+
+  Spithead Mutiny, 146, 202, v. i
+
+  Spragge, 85, v. i
+
+  St. Andre, Jean Bon, 134, v. i
+
+  St. Bride’s Day Massacre, 8, v. i
+
+  St. Lucia Captured (1794), 137, v. i
+
+  St. Malo, 90, 119, v. i
+
+  St. Thomas Captured, 180, v. i
+
+  St. Vincent, 145, v. i
+
+  St. Vincent, Cape, Battle of, 145, v. i
+
+  Steam Ships Anticipated, 212, v. i
+
+  Steam Tugs added to Navy, 213, v. i
+
+  Steam Vessel, The First, 215, v. i
+
+  Steam Vessels, Auxiliary, 219, v. i
+
+  Steam Warships, 215, v. i
+
+  Steering Gear Unprotected, 257, v. i
+
+  Sterns made Circular, 211, v. i
+
+  Stewart Kings and the Navy, 87, v. i
+
+  Stones from Aloft, 27, v. i
+
+  Stores regularly Instituted, 132, v. i
+
+  Stour, Battle of, 2, v. i
+
+  Stoving, 107, v. i
+
+  Strachan, Rear Admiral Sir E., 177, 183, v. i
+
+  Sub-divisions, 271, v. i
+
+  Submarine, Americans refuse to officially sanction, 190, v. i
+
+  Submarine Battleship may appear, 215, v. ii
+
+  Submarine, First, 59, v. i
+
+  Submarine, First appearance of, 190, v. i
+
+  Submarine, First use of, in War, 125, v. i
+
+  Submarine, The, 228, v. i; 208, v. ii
+
+  Submarines, a Danger to Big Ships, 194, v. ii
+
+  Submarines and Harbour Defence, 208, v. ii
+
+  Succession, War of the Spanish, 95, v. i
+
+  Super-Dreadnoughts, 175, v. ii
+
+  Super-heated Steam, 201, v. ii
+
+  Superior Artillery, 231, v. i
+
+  Supply of Oak, 132, v. i
+
+  Surgeons, 207, v. i; 257, v. ii
+
+  Sveaborg, 235, v. i
+
+  Swain, King of Denmark, 8, v. i
+
+  Sweden becomes French Ally, 186, v. i
+
+  Sweden, War with (1715), 105, v. i
+
+  Sweden, Peace with, Declared (1812), 188, v. i
+
+  Swedish Fleet, 162, v. i
+
+  Sweeps superseded by Paddles, 213, v. i
+
+
+  Tactics, 60, v. i
+
+  Tactics at Trafalgar, 176, v. i
+
+  Tactics, Early, 28, v. i
+
+  Tactics, English, 230, v. i
+
+  Tactics, First appearance of, 21, v. i
+
+  Tagus Blockaded, 181, v. i
+
+  “Tailoring,” 260, v. ii
+
+  Tarpaulin Seamen, 115, v. i
+
+  Tegethoff at Lissa (analogy), 100, v. i
+
+  Tercera, Battle of, 48, v. i
+
+  Teignmouth Attacked, 89, v. i
+
+  Texel, 84, v. i
+
+  Thames Iron Works, Blackwall, 250, v. i
+
+  Thames, Project to Block, 84, v. i
+
+  The Australian Navy, 237, v. ii
+
+  The “Battle of the Boilers,” 93, v. ii
+
+  The Cape, 176, v. i
+
+  The Coming of the Torpedo, 51, v. ii
+
+  The “Dreadnought” Commenced, 149, v. ii
+
+  The Duties of Naval Airships, 227, v. ii
+
+  The Earliest Naval Manœuvres, 54, v. ii
+
+  The “Échelon” System Resurrected, 179, v. ii
+
+  The First British Ironclads, 249, v. i
+
+  Theft, Punishment for, 12, v. i
+
+  The Future of Submarines, 215, v. ii
+
+  “The Offensive,” 321, v. i
+
+  The Origin of “Dreadnoughts,” 137, v. ii
+
+  The Periscope, 208, v. ii
+
+  “The Torpedo Boat, the Answer to the Torpedo Boat,” 212, v. ii
+
+  “The Trafalgar of the Air,” 228, v. ii
+
+  Thermite Shell, 244, v. i
+
+  “Theseus,” Nelson’s Ship at Santa Croix, 150, v. i
+
+  “Thieving Pursers,” 201, v. i
+
+  Thompson, Messrs, of Clydebank, 304, v. i
+
+  Thornycroft, 201, v. ii
+
+  Three Days’ Battle, 76, v. i
+
+  Three-Masters, 11, v. i
+
+  Thurot, 121, v. i
+
+  Ticklers, 253, v. ii
+
+  Tiddy, Mr. David, 299, v. i
+
+  Tilset, Peace of, 180, v. i
+
+  Timber, Boiling, 107, v. i
+
+  Timber, Supply of, 132, v. i
+
+  Tiptoft, Sir Robert, 22, v. i
+
+  Torpedo (analogy), 41, v. i
+
+  Torpedo Boat, 120, v. i; 199, v. ii
+
+  Torpedoes anticipated by Reed, 268, v. i
+
+  Torpedo, First use of, from Big Ship in Action, 322, v. i
+
+  Torpedo Gun-Boats, 77, v. ii
+
+  Torpedo, The, 228, v. i
+
+  Torpedoes, 322, v. i
+
+  Torpedo Progress, 203, v. ii
+
+  Torrington, 88, v. i
+
+  Toulon, 163, 171, v. i
+
+  Toulon Abandoned, 133, v. i
+
+  Toulon, Attack on Defeated (1707), 103, v. i
+
+  Toulon, Royalists at, 133, v. i
+
+  Toulouse, Comte de, 98, v. i
+
+  Trafalgar, Battle of, 232, v. i
+
+  Trafalgar, First Battle deliberately fought under White Ensign, 210,
+        v. i
+
+  Trafalgar, Losses to the Allied Fleets at, 177, v. i
+
+  Trafalgar Made a Certainty, 166, v. i
+
+  Trafalgar, Tactics at, 175, v. i
+
+  Training, Lack of, 233, v. i
+
+  Training of Gunners, 241, v. i
+
+  Treadwell, Professor Daniel, 244, v. i
+
+  Treasure Ships Captured (Spanish), 158, v. i
+
+  “Trident,” First Iron Warship, 219, v. i
+
+  Trinidad, 214, v. i
+
+  Tripod Masts, 287, v. i; 175, 186, v. ii
+
+  Troubridge, 152, v. i
+
+  Trousers, Ample, 196, v. i
+
+  Tsushima, 244, v. i
+
+  Tudor Navy, 35, v. i
+
+  Tumble Home Sides, 41, v. i
+
+  Turbines Introduced for Big Ships, 155, v. ii
+
+  Turning Circles, 272, v. i
+
+  Turkish Monster Guns, 179, v. i
+
+  Turret Craze, 275, v. i
+
+  Turret on Rollers, 275, v. i
+
+  Turret Ships, Idea of, 275, v. i
+
+  Turret Ship, Sea-Going Masted, 276, v. i
+
+  Turret Ship Controversy, 292, v. i
+
+  Turret Ships, Panic About, 292, v. i
+
+  Twelve-Inch “A,” 175, v. ii
+
+  Two-Power Standard, 96, 131, v. i
+
+
+  Under-Water Protection, 204, v. ii
+
+  Uniform, Anson’s Use of, 113, v. i
+
+  Uniform, 25, v. ii
+
+  Uniform Badge of Pressed Men and Jail Birds, 195, v. i
+
+  Uniform, Description of First, 194, v. i
+
+  Uniform, First Use of, for Officers, 194, v. i
+
+  Union Flag Altered, 209, v. i
+
+  Union Jack, 209, v. i
+
+  United Provinces, 63, v. i
+
+  Unprotected Steering Gear, 257, v. i
+
+  Unscrupulous Contractors, 65, v. i
+
+  Ushant, 125, v. i
+
+  U.S. Monitors, 285, v. i
+
+
+  Vaisseaux Blindées, 248, v. i
+
+  Van Drebel, 59, v. i
+
+  “Vanguard,” The, Nelson in, 152, v. i
+
+  Van Tromp, 76, 84, v. i
+
+  Venetian Frigates Captured, 187, v. i
+
+  “Vengeur” Sunk (1795), 136, v. i
+
+  Ventilation, 115, v. i
+
+  Ventilation, Artificial, 225, v. i
+
+  Vernon, Admiral, 108, 109, v. i
+
+  Versailles, Treaty of, 130, v. i
+
+  Vickers, Lts., 192, v. ii
+
+  Villaret-Joyeuse, 134, 139, v. i
+
+  Villeneuve, 233, v. i
+
+  Villeneuve Appointed, 169, v. i
+
+  Villeneuve Gets Out of Toulon, 171, v. i
+
+  Villeneuve Returns to Toulon, 172, v. i
+
+  Victualling, 146, v. i
+
+
+  Walpole, 107, v. i
+
+  War, Contraband of, 161, v. i
+
+  “War Scare” with Germany in 1911, 185, v. ii
+
+  Wars of the Roses, 33, v. i
+
+  Warwick, Earl of, 33, v. i; 198, v. ii
+
+  Warry (Early Idea of Quick Firer), 242, v. i
+
+  Walcheren Expedition, 183, v. i
+
+  Watts, Isaac, Sir, 254, 258, v. i
+
+  Waterloo, Battle of, 193, v. i
+
+  Weather Gauge, 21, v. i
+
+  Western Australia, 232, v. ii
+
+  West Indies, 171, 177, v. i
+
+  Whitehead, 204, v. ii
+
+  White, of Cowes, 232, v. ii
+
+  Whitworth, Works of, 239, v. i
+
+  Who First Adopted Cuniberti Ideas?, 159, v. ii
+
+  Why France was Beaten, 233, v. i
+
+  Willaumez, Leaves Brest, 182, v. i
+
+  Willaumez, Rear Admiral, 177, v. i
+
+  Willaumez Blockaded in Basque Roads, 182, v. i
+
+  Will Dreadnoughts Die Out?, 195, v. ii
+
+  William of Orange, 88, v. i
+
+  William the Conqueror, 10, v. i
+
+  Wire Guns, Early, 247, v. i
+
+  Wolfe, 122, v. i
+
+  Wood-Copper Sheathing Re-introduced, 295, v. i
+
+  Woolwich, 183, v. i
+
+  World Circumnavigated by Drake, 45, v. i
+
+
+  Yarmouth Ships, 22, v. i
+
+  Yarrow Boilers, 97, 196, v. ii
+
+  York, New, 237, v. i
+
+
+  Zarate, Don Francisco de, 46, v. i
+
+  Zeppelin Type (Dirigible), 227, v. ii
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Notes
+
+
+Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a
+predominant preference was found in the original book; otherwise they
+were not changed.
+
+Omitted and incorrect accent marks have not been remedied.
+
+Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced quotation
+marks were remedied when the change was obvious, and otherwise left
+unbalanced.
+
+Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs
+and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook that support
+hyperlinks, the page references in the List of Illustrations lead to
+the corresponding illustrations.
+
+Footnotes, originally at the bottoms of the pages that referenced them,
+have been collected, sequentially renumbered, and placed at the end of
+the book.
+
+The index for both volumes was printed at the end of the second volume.
+The Transcriber has copied that index to the first volume.
+
+Many alphebetization errors in the index were remedied, but some may
+remain. Page references in the index were checked automatically, but
+some may be incorrect.
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75616 ***
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+</head>
+
+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75616 ***</div>
+
+<div class="transnote section">
+<p class="center larger">Transcriber’s Notes</p>
+
+<p>This is Volume I of a two-volume set. Volume II is available at
+Project Gutenberg: <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/75617">
+https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/75617</a>. Index references to pages
+within that volume are double-underlined here.</p>
+
+<p>Larger versions of most illustrations may be seen by right-clicking them
+and selecting an option to view them separately, or by double-tapping and/or
+stretching them.</p>
+
+<p class="covernote">New original cover art included with this eBook is granted
+to the public domain. It uses the original cover with title and author text
+added by the Transcriber.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Transcribers_Notes">Additional notes</a> will be found near the end of this ebook.</p>
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+<h1>THE BRITISH BATTLE FLEET</h1>
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="section">
+<figure id="i_1" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;">
+  <img src="images/i_001.jpg" width="2439" height="1634" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">SUBMARINES IN THE CHANNEL.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter section center wspace">
+<p class="xxlarge red bold">
+THE<br>
+BRITISH BATTLE<br>
+FLEET</p>
+
+<p class="p1 larger"><span class="gesperrt1">ITS INCEPTION AND GROWTH</span><br>
+THROUGHOUT THE CENTURIES<br>
+TO THE PRESENT DAY</p>
+
+<p class="p2"><span class="xsmall">BY</span><br>
+<span class="larger red">FRED T. JANE</span></p>
+
+<p class="xsmall">AUTHOR OF “FIGHTING SHIPS,” “ALL THE WORLD’S AIRCRAFT,”<br>
+“HERESIES OF SEA POWER,” ETC., ETC.</p>
+
+<p class="p4 small"><span class="smcap">With Illustrations in Colour<br>
+from original water-colour drawings by</span></p>
+
+<p class="larger red">W.&nbsp;L. WYLLIE, R.A.</p>
+
+<p class="p0"><span class="smcap small">And Numerous Plans and Photographs</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="p2"><span class="smcap">Vol. I.</span></p>
+
+<p class="p2"><span class="bold">London</span><br>
+<span class="larger bold red">The Library Press, Limited</span><br>
+<span class="bold">26 Portugal St., W.C.</span><br>
+<span class="smaller">1915</span>
+</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter section center vspace">
+<p>
+TO THOSE<br>
+WHO IN ALL AGES BUILT THE SHIPS OF<br>
+THE BRITISH NAVY<br>
+AND TO THE UNKNOWN MEN<br>
+WHO HAVE WORKED THOSE SHIPS<br>
+AND SO MADE POSSIBLE THE<br>
+FAME OF MANY ADMIRALS.
+</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+<div>                                                                                                                                                                                                                           </div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter section">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">This</span> book is not intended to be a “history” of the
+British Navy in the generally accepted sense of
+the term. For this reason small space is devoted to
+various strategical and tactical matters of the past which
+generally bulk largely in more regular “naval histories”—of
+which a sufficiency already exist.</p>
+
+<p>In such histories primary interest naturally attaches
+to what the admirals did with the ships provided for them.
+Here I have sought rather to deal with how the ships
+came to be provided, and how they were developed from
+the crude warships of the past to the intricate and complicated
+machines of to-day; and the strictly “history”
+part of the book is compressed with that idea principally
+in view. The “live end” of naval construction is
+necessarily that which directly or indirectly concerns the
+ships of our own time. The warships of the past are
+of special interest in so far as they were steps to the
+warships of to-day; but, outside that, practical interest
+seems confined to what led to these “steps” being
+what they were.</p>
+
+<p>Thus regarded, Trafalgar becomes of somewhat
+secondary interest as regards the tremendous strategical
+questions involved, but of profound importance by reason
+of the side-issue that the <i>Victory’s</i> forward bulkhead<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span>
+was so slightly built that she sustained an immense
+number of casualties which would never have occurred
+had she been designed for the particular purpose that
+Nelson used her for at Trafalgar. The tactics of Trafalgar
+have merely a literary and sentimental interest
+now, and even the strategies which led to the battle
+are probably of little utility to the strategists of our
+own times. But the <i>Victory’s</i> thin forward bulkhead
+profoundly affected, and to some extent still affects,
+modern British naval construction. Trafalgar, of course,
+sanctified for many a year “end-on approach,” and so
+eventually concentrated special attention on bulkheads.
+But previous to Trafalgar, the return of the <i>Victory</i>
+after it for refit, and Seppings’ inspection of her, the
+subject of end-on protection had been ignored. The
+cogitations of Seppings helped to make what would have
+very much influenced history had any similar battle
+occurred in the years that followed his constructional
+innovations.</p>
+
+<p>Again, at an earlier period much naval history turned
+upon the ventilation of bilges. Improvements in this
+respect (devised by men never heard of to-day) enabled
+British ships to keep the seas without their crews being
+totally disabled by diseases which often overmastered
+their foes. The skill of the admirals, the courage of the
+crews, both form more exciting reading. Yet there is
+every indication to prove that this commonplace matter
+of bilges was the secret of victory more than once!</p>
+
+<p>Coming back to more recent times, the loss of the
+<i>Vanguard</i>, which cost no lives, involved greater subsequent
+constructional problems than did the infinitely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">ix</span>
+more terrible loss of the <i>Captain</i> a few years before.
+Who shall say on how many seeming constructional
+failures of the past, successes of the yet unborn future
+may not rest?</p>
+
+<p>A number of other things might be cited, but these
+suffice to indicate the particular perspective of this book,
+and to show why, if regarded as an orthodox “history”
+of the British Navy, it is occasionally in seemingly distorted
+perspective.</p>
+
+<p>To say that in the scheme of this book the ship-builder
+is put in the limelight instead of the ship-user,
+would in no way be precisely correct, though as a vague
+generalisation it may serve well enough. In exact fact
+each, of course, is and ever has been dependent on the
+other. Nelson himself was curtailed by the limitations
+of the tools provided for him. Had he had the same
+problems one or two hundred years before he would
+have been still more limited. Had he had them fifty
+or a hundred years later—who shall say?</p>
+
+<p>With Seppings’ improvements, Trafalgar would have
+been a well-nigh bloodless victory for the British Fleet.
+It took Trafalgar, however, to inspire and teach Seppings.
+Of every great sea-fight something of the same kind may
+be said. The lead had to be given.</p>
+
+<p>Yet those who best laboured to remove the worst
+disabilities of “the means” of Blake, contributed in that
+measure to Nelson’s successes years and years later on.
+Their efforts may surely be deemed worthy of record,
+for all that between the unknown designer of the <i>Great
+Harry</i> in the sixteenth century and the designers of
+Super-Dreadnoughts of to-day there may have been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">x</span>
+lapses and defects in details. There was never a lapse
+on account of which the user was unable to defeat any
+hostile user with whom he came into conflict. The
+“means” provided served. The creators of warships
+consistently improved their creations: but they were not
+improved without care and thought on the part of those
+who produced them.</p>
+
+<p>To those who provided the means and to the rank
+and file it fell that many an admiral was able to do
+what he did. These admirals “made history.” But ever
+there were “those others” who made that “history
+making” possible, and who so made it also.</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with the warships of other eras, I have
+been fortunate in securing the co-operation of Mr. W.&nbsp;L.
+Wyllie, R.A., who has translated into vivid pictorial
+obviousness a number of details which old prints of an
+architectural nature entirely fail to convey. With a
+view to uniformity, this scheme, though reinforced by
+diagrams and photographs, has been carried right into
+our own times.</p>
+
+<p>Some things which I might have written I have on
+that account left unrecorded. There are some things that
+cold print and the English language cannot describe.
+These things must be sought for in Mr. Wyllie’s pictures.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, I would leave the dedication page to
+explain the rest of what I have striven for in this book.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+F.&nbsp;T.&nbsp;J.
+</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter section">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">xi</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE_TO_NEW_EDITION">PREFACE TO NEW EDITION</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">This</span> book was originally written three years ago.
+Since it was first published the greatest war ever
+known has broken out. To meet that circumstance this
+particular edition has been revised and brought to date
+in order to present to the reader the exact state of our
+Navy when the fighting began.</p>
+
+<p>Modern naval warfare differs much from the warfare
+of the past; at any rate from the warfare of the Nelson
+era. But if men and <i lang="fr">matériel</i> have altered, the general
+principles of naval war have remained unchanged.
+Indeed, there is some reason to believe that the wheel of
+fortune has brought us back to some similitude of those
+early days when to kill the enemy was the sole idea that
+obtained, when there were no “rules of civilised war,”
+when it was simply kill and go on killing.</p>
+
+<p>To these principles Germany has reverted. The
+early history of the British Navy indicates that we were
+able to render a good account of ourselves under such
+conditions. For that matter we made our Navy under
+such training. It is hard to imagine that by adopting
+old time methods the Germans will take from us the Sea
+Empire which we thus earned in the past.</p>
+
+<p class="right b0">
+F.&nbsp;T.&nbsp;J.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p0 in0"><i>18th June, 1915.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">xiii</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table id="toc">
+<tr class="xsmall">
+  <td class="tdr">CHAPTER</td>
+  <td class="tdl"></td>
+  <td class="tdr">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">I.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">THE BIRTH OF BRITISH NAVAL POWER</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">II.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">THE NORMAN AND PLANTAGENET ERAS</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_10">10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">III.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">THE TUDOR PERIOD AND BIRTH OF A REGULAR NAVY</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_35">35</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">IV.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">THE PERIOD OF THE DUTCH WARS</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_59">59</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">V.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">THE EARLY FRENCH WARS</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_88">88</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">VI.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">THE GREAT FRENCH WAR</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_133">133</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">VII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">FROM THE PEACE OF AMIENS TO THE FINAL FALL OF NAPOLEON</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_165">165</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">VIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">GENERAL MATTERS IN THE PERIOD OF THE FRENCH WARS</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_194">194</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">IX.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">THE BIRTH OF MODERN WARSHIP IDEAS</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">X.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">THE COMING OF THE IRONCLAD</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_229">229</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr top">XI.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">THE REED ERA</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#toclink_264">264</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">xv</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+</div>
+
+<table id="loi">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2"><span class="small">IN COLOUR</span><br><br>
+FROM PICTURES BY W.&nbsp;L. WYLLIE, R.A.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="xsmall">
+  <td class="tdl"></td>
+  <td class="tdr">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl" colspan="2">SUBMARINES IN THE CHANNEL
+    <i class="in4"><a href="#i_1">Frontispiece</a></i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">WARSHIP OF THE TIME OF KING ALFRED</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_3">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">RICHARD I. IN ACTION WITH THE SARACEN SHIP</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_13">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">BATTLE OF SLUYS</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_25">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">PORTSMOUTH HARBOUR, 1912</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_31">31</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">THE “GRACE DE DIEU,” 1515</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_39">39</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">THE SPANISH ARMADA, 1588</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_51">51</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">THE END OF A “GENTLEMAN ADVENTURER”</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_55">55</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">BLAKE AND TROMP—PERIOD OF THE DUTCH WARS</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_77">77</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">BATTLESHIPS OF THE WHITE ERA AT SEA</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_117">117</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">THE “FOUDROYANT,” ONE OF NELSON’S OLD SHIPS</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_143">143</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">BATTLE OF TRAFALGAR, 1805</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_173">173</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">THE END OF AN OLD WARSHIP</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_191">191</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">A TRAFALGAR ANNIVERSARY</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_205">205</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">THE OLD “INVINCIBLE,” 1872</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_293">293</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">xvi</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">SHIP PHOTOGRAPHS</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">“SALAMANDER,” PADDLE WARSHIP</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_217">217</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">OLD SCREW WOODEN LINE-OF-BATTLESHIP “LONDON”</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_221">221</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">“WARRIOR”</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_251">251</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">“ACHILLES” (WITH FOUR MASTS)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_259">259</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">“MINOTAUR” (AS A FIVE-MASTER)</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_261">261</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">“BELLEROPHON”</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_269">269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">“ROYAL SOVEREIGN”</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_273">273</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">“WATERWITCH”</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_277">277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">“CAPTAIN”</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_289">289</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">“VANGUARD”</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_297">297</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">“HOTSPUR” AS ORIGINALLY COMPLETED</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_309">309</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">“DEVASTATION” AS ORIGINALLY COMPLETED</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_313">313</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">PORTRAITS</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">PHINEAS PETT</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_67">67</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">SIR ANTHONY DEANE</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_93">93</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">GENERAL BENTHAM</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_155">155</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">JOHN SCOTT RUSSELL</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_245">245</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">SIR E.&nbsp;J. REED</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_265">265</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc chap" colspan="2">PLANS, DIAGRAMS, ETC.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">PHINEAS PETT’S “ROYAL SOVEREIGN”</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_71">71</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">POSITIONS OF THE FLEETS AT THE OUTBREAK OF WAR</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_167">167</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">EARLY BROADSIDE IRONCLADS</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_255">255</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">REED ERA BROADSIDE SHIPS</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_281">281</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">REED ERA TURRET SHIPS</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_285">285</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">RAMS OF THE REED ERA</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_301">301</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">BREASTWORK MONITORS</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_305">305</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_BRITISH_BATTLE_FLEET"><span class="larger">THE BRITISH BATTLE FLEET.</span></h2>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="I"><span id="toclink_1"></span>I.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE BIRTH OF BRITISH NAVAL POWER.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> birth of British naval power is involved in
+considerable obscurity and a good deal of legend.
+The Phœnicians and the Romans have both been
+credited with introducing nautical ideas to these islands,
+but of the Phœnicians there is nothing but legend so far as
+any “British Navy” is concerned. That the Phœnicians
+voyaged here we know well enough, and a “British fleet”
+of the B.C. era <em>may</em> have existed, a fleet due to possible
+Phœnicians who, having visited these shores, remained in
+the land. Equally well it may be mythical.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever share the ancient Britons may have
+had in the supposed commercial relations with Gaul,
+it is clear that no fleet as we understand a fleet existed
+in the days of Julius Cæsar. Later, while England
+was a Roman province, Roman fleets occasionally
+fought upon British waters against pirates and in
+connection with Roman revolutions, but they were
+ships of the ruling power.</p>
+
+<p>Roman power passed away. Saxons invaded and
+remained; but having landed they became people of
+the land—not of the sea. Danes and other seafarers
+pilaged English shores much as they listed till Alfred
+the Great came to the throne.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span></p>
+
+<p>Alfred has been called the “Father and Founder
+of the British Fleet.” It is customary and dramatic
+to suppose that Alfred was seized with the whole
+modern theory of “Sea Power” as a sudden inspiration—that
+“he recognised that invaders could only be
+kept off by defeating them on the sea.”</p>
+
+<p>This is infinitely more pretty than accurate. To
+begin with, even at the beginning of the present
+Twentieth Century it was officially put on record that
+“while the British fleet could prevent invasion, <em>it
+could not guarantee immunity from small raids</em> on our
+great length of coast line.” In Alfred’s day, one
+mile was more than what twenty are now; messages
+took as many days to deliver as they now do minutes,
+and the “raid” was the only kind of over-sea war
+to be waged. It is altogether chimerical to imagine
+that Alfred “thought things out” on the lines of a
+modern naval theorist.</p>
+
+<p>In actual fact,<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> what happened was that Alfred
+engaged in a naval fight in the year 875, somewhere
+on the South Coast. There is little or no evidence to
+show where, though near Wareham is the most likely
+locality.</p>
+
+<p>In 877 something perhaps happened to the Danes
+at Swanage, but the account in Asser is an interpolated
+one, and even so suggests shipwreck rather than a
+battle.</p>
+
+<p>In 882 (possibly 881) two Danish ships sank: “the
+rest” (number not recorded) surrendered later on.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_3" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;">
+  <img src="images/i_003.jpg" width="1640" height="2556" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">WARSHIP OF THE TIME OF KING ALFRED.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In 884 occurred the battle of the Stour. Here
+the Saxon fleet secured a preliminary success, in which
+thirteen Danish ships were captured. This may or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span>
+may not have been part of an ambush—at any rate
+the final result was the annihilation of King Alfred’s
+fleet.</p>
+
+<p>In 896 occurred the alleged naval reform so often
+alluded to as the “birth of the British Navy”—those
+ships supposed to have been designed by Alfred, which
+according to Asser<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> were “full nigh twice as long as
+the others ... shapen neither like Frisian nor the
+Danish, but so as it seemed to him that they would be
+most efficient.”</p>
+
+<p>Around these “early Dreadnoughts” much has
+been weaved, but there is no evidence acceptable to the
+best modern historians that Alfred really built any
+such ships—they tend to reject the entire theory.</p>
+
+<p>The actual facts of that “naval battle of the
+Solent” in 897 from which the history of our navy
+is popularly alleged to date, appear to be as follows:</p>
+
+<p>There were nine of King Alfred’s ships, manned
+by Frisian pirates, who were practically Danes. These
+nine encountered three Danish vessels in a land-locked
+harbour—probably Brading—and all of them ran
+aground, the Danish ships being in the middle between
+two Saxon divisions. A land fight ensued, till, the
+tide rising, the Danish ships, which were of lighter
+draught than the Saxon vessels, floated. The Danes
+then sailed away, but in doing so two of them were
+wrecked.</p>
+
+<p>All the rest of the story seems to be purely
+legendary. Our real “island story”—as events during
+the next few hundred years following Alfred clearly
+indicate—is not that of a people born to the sea; but
+the story of a people forced thereto by circumstances
+and the need of self-preservation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span></p>
+
+<p>It is a very unromantic beginning. There is a
+strange analogy between it and the beginning in later
+days of the Sea Power of the other “Island Empire”—Japan.
+Japan to-day seeks—as we for centuries
+have sought—for an historical sequence of the “sea
+spirit” and all such things as an ideal islander should
+possess. Neither we nor they have ever understood or
+ever properly realised that it was the Continentals who
+long ago first saw that it was necessary to command
+the sea to attack the islanders. The more obvious
+contrary has always been assumed. It has never
+been held, or even suggested, that the Little Englander
+protesting against “bloated naval armaments,” so far
+from being a modern anachronism, an ultra-Radical
+or Socialist exotic, may really claim to be the true
+exponent of “the spirit of the Islanders” for all time.
+That is one reason why (excluding the mythical Minos
+of Crete) only two island-groups have ever loomed big
+in the world’s history.</p>
+
+<p>When Wilhelm II of Germany said: “<i>Unsere
+Zukunft liegt auf dem Wasser</i>,” he uttered a far more
+profound truth than has ever been fully realised. Fleets
+came into being to attack Islanders with.</p>
+
+<p>The Islanders saw the sea primarily as a protection
+existing between them and the enemy. To the
+Continental the sea was a road to, or obstacle between
+him and the enemy, only if the enemy filled it with
+ships. The Islanders have ever tended to trust to the
+existence of the sea itself as a defence, except in so far
+as they have been taught otherwise by individuals who
+realised the value of shipping. Those millions of British
+citizens who to-day are more or less torpid on the
+subject of naval defence are every whit as normal as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span>
+those Germans who, in season and out, preach naval
+expansion.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation of all this is probably to be found
+in the fact that the earliest warfare known either to
+Continentals or to Islanders was <em>military warfare</em>. The
+ship as at first employed was used entirely as a means
+of transport for reaching the enemy—first, presumably,
+against outlying islands near the coast, later for more
+over-sea expeditions.</p>
+
+<p>Ideas of attack are earlier than ideas of defence,
+and the primary idea of defence went no further than
+the passive defensive. King Alfred, merely in realising
+the offensive defensive, did a far greater thing than any
+of the legendary exploits associated with his history.
+The idea was submerged many a time in the years
+that followed, but from time to time it appeared and
+found its ultimate fruition in the Royal Navy.</p>
+
+<p>Yet still, the wonder is not that only two Island
+Empires have ever come into existence, but that any
+should have come into existence at all. The real
+history of King Alfred’s times is that the Continental
+Danes did much as they listed against the insular
+Saxons of England, till the need was demonstrated for
+an endeavour to meet the enemy on his own element.</p>
+
+<p>In the subsequent reigns of Athelstan and Edmund,
+some naval expeditions took place. Under Edgar, the
+fleet reached its largest. Although the reputed number
+of 3,600 vessels is, of course, an exaggerated one, there
+was enough naval power at that time to secure peace.</p>
+
+<p>This “navy” had, however, a very transient existence,
+because in the reign of Ethelred, who succeeded to
+the throne, it had practically ceased to exist, and an
+attempt was made to revive it. This attempt was so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span>
+little successful that Danish ships had to be hired for
+naval purposes.</p>
+
+<p>A charter of the time of Ethelred II exists which
+is considered by many to be the origin of that Ship
+Money which, hundreds of years later, was to cause so
+much trouble to England. Under this, the maintenance
+of the Navy was made a State charge on landowners,
+the whole of whom were assessed at the rate of producing
+one galley for every three hundred and ten hides of
+land that they possessed.</p>
+
+<p>This view is disputed by some historians, who
+maintain that the charter is possibly a forgery, and that
+it is not very clear in any case. However, it does not
+appear to have produced any useful naval power.</p>
+
+<p>That naval power was insufficient is abundantly clear
+from the ever increasing number of Danish settlements.
+In the St. Bride’s Day massacre, which was an attempt
+to kill off the leading Danes amongst the recent arrivals,
+further trouble arose; and in the year 1013, Swain, King
+of Denmark, made a large invasion of England, and in
+the year 1017, his son Canute ascended to the throne.</p>
+
+<p>Under Canute, the need of a navy to protect the
+coast against Danish raids passed away. The bulk of
+the Danish ships were sent back to Denmark, forty
+vessels only being retained.</p>
+
+<p>Once or twice during the reign of Canute successful
+naval expeditions were undertaken, but at the time of
+the King’s death the regular fleet consisted of only
+sixteen ships. Five years later, an establishment was
+fixed at thirty-two, and remained more or less at about
+that figure, till, in the reign of Edward the Confessor
+trouble was caused by Earl Godwin, who had created
+a species of fleet of his own. With a view to suppressing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span>
+these a number of King’s ships were fitted out; but
+as the King and Godwin came to terms the fleet was not
+made use of.</p>
+
+<p>Close following upon this came the Norman invasion,
+which of all the foolhardy enterprises ever embarked
+on by man was theoretically one of the most foolish.
+William’s intentions were perfectly well known. A
+certain “English fleet” existed, and there was nothing
+to prevent its expansion into a force easily able to
+annihilate the heterogeneous Norman flotilla.</p>
+
+<p>How many ships and men William actually got
+together is a matter upon which the old chroniclers
+vary considerably. But he is supposed to have had
+with him some 696 ships<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a>; and since his largest ships
+were not over twenty tons and most of them a great
+deal smaller, it is clear that they must have been crowded
+to excess and in poor condition to give battle against
+anything of the nature of a determined attack from an
+organised fleet.</p>
+
+<p>No English fleet put in appearance, however.
+Harold had collected a large fleet at Sandwich, but
+after a while, for some unknown reason, it was dispersed,
+probably owing to the lateness of the season. The
+strength of the fleet collected, or why it was dispersed,
+are, however, immaterial issues; the fact of importance
+is that the fleet was “inadequate” because it failed to
+prevent the invasion. A neglected fleet entailed the
+destruction of the Saxon dominion.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="II"><span id="toclink_10"></span>II.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE NORMAN AND PLANTAGENET ERAS.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">William</span> the Conqueror’s first act on landing was
+to burn all his ships—a proceeding useful enough
+in the way of preventing any of his followers
+retiring with their spoils, but inconvenient to him shortly
+after he became King of England. Fleets from Denmark
+and Norway raided the coasts, and, though the raiders
+were easily defeated on shore, the pressure from them
+was sufficient to cause William to set about recreating
+a navy, of which he made some use in the year 1071.
+In 1078 the Cinque Ports were established, five ports
+being granted certain rights in return for policing the
+Channel and supplying ships to the King as required.
+But the amount of naval power maintained was very
+small, both in the reign of William the First and his
+successors.</p>
+
+<p>Not until the reign of Henry II was any appreciable
+attention paid to nautical matters. Larger ships than
+heretofore were built, as we assume from records of the
+loss of one alleged to carry 300 men. It was Henry II
+who first claimed the “Sovereignty of the British Seas”
+and enacted the Assize of Arms whereby no ship or
+timber for shipbuilding might be sold out of England.</p>
+
+<p>When Richard I came to the throne in 1189, fired
+with ambition to proceed to the Crusades, he ordered
+all ports in his dominions to supply him with ships<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span>
+in proportion to their population. The majority of
+these ships came, however, from Acquitaine. The fleet
+thus collected is said to have consisted of nine large
+ships, 150 small vessels, thirty galleys, and a number
+of transports. The large ships, which have also been
+given as thirteen in number, were known at the time
+as “busses.” They appear to have been three-masters.
+The fleet sailed in eight divisions. This expedition to
+the Holy Land was the first important over-sea voyage
+ever participated in by English ships, the greatest
+distance heretofore traversed having been to Norway
+in the time of Canute. This making of a voyage into
+the unknown was, however, not quite so difficult as it
+might at first sight be supposed to be, because there
+is no doubt whatever that the compass was by then
+well-known and used. Records from 1150 and onwards
+exist which describe the compass of that period. A
+contemporary chronicler<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> wrote of <span class="locked">it:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“This [polar] star does not move. They [the seamen] have an
+art which cannot deceive, by virtue of the <em>manite</em>, an ill brownish
+stone to which iron spontaneously adheres. They search for the
+right point, and when they have touched a needle on it, and fixed
+it to a bit of straw, they lay it on water, and the straw keeps it
+afloat. Then the point infallibly turns towards the star; and when
+the night is dark and gloomy, and neither star nor moon is visible,
+they set a light beside the needle, and they can be assured that the
+star is opposite to the point, and thereby the mariner is directed
+in his course. This is an art which cannot deceive.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The compass would seem to have existed, so far
+as northern nations were concerned, about the time of
+William the Conqueror. Not till early in the Fourteenth
+Century did it assume the form in which we now know
+it, but its actual antiquity is considerably more.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span></p>
+
+<p>In connection with this expedition to the Holy
+Land, Richard issued a Code of Naval Discipline, which
+has been described as the germ of our Articles of War.
+Under this Code if a man killed another on board ship,
+he was to be tied to the corpse and thrown into the sea.
+If the murder took place on shore, he was to be buried
+alive with the corpse. The penalty for drawing a knife
+on another man, or drawing blood from him in any
+manner was the loss of a hand. For “striking another,”
+the offender was plunged three times into the sea. For
+reviling or insulting another man, compensation of an
+ounce of silver to the aggrieved one was awarded. The
+punishment for theft was to shave the head of the
+thief, pour boiling pitch upon it and then feather him.
+This was done as a mark of recognition. The subsequent
+punishment was to maroon a man upon the first land
+touched. Severe penalties were imposed on the mariners
+and servants for gambling.</p>
+
+<p>Of these punishments the two most interesting are
+those for theft and the punishment of “ducking.”
+This last was presumably keel-hauling, a punishment
+which survived well into the Nelson era. It is to be
+found described in the pages of Marryat. It consisted
+in drawing the offender by ropes underneath the bottom
+of the ship. As his body was thus scraped along the
+ship’s hull, the punishment was at all times severe;
+but in later days, as ships grew larger and of deeper
+draught, it became infinitely more cruel and heavy than
+in the days when it was first instituted.</p>
+
+<p>The severe penalty for theft is to be noted on
+account of the fact that, even in the early times, theft,
+as now, was and is recognised as a far more serious
+offence on ship board than it is on shore—the reason
+being the greater facilities that a ship affords for
+theft.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum hide" id="Page_14">14</span></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span></p>
+
+<figure id="i_13" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;">
+  <img src="images/i_013.jpg" width="2441" height="1535" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">RICHARD <span class="allsmcap">1ST</span> IN ACTION WITH THE SARACEN SHIP.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>On his way to the Holy Land, Richard had a dispute
+at Sicily with the King of France, out of which he
+increased his fleet somewhat. Leaving Sicily, somewhere
+between Cyprus and Acre he encountered a very
+large Saracen ship, of the battle with which very
+picturesque and highly coloured accounts exist. There
+is no doubt that the ship was something a great deal
+larger than anything the English had ever seen heretofore,
+although the crew of 1,500 men with which
+she is credited by the chroniclers is undoubtedly an
+exaggeration.</p>
+
+<p>The ship carried an armament of Greek fire and
+“serpents.” The exact composition of Greek fire is
+unknown. It was invented by the Byzantines, who by
+means of it succeeded in keeping their enemies at bay for
+a very long time. It was a mixture of chemicals which,
+upon being squirted at the enemy from tubes, took
+fire, and could only be put out by sand or vinegar.
+“Serpents” were apparently some variation of Greek
+fire of a minor order, discharged by catapults.</p>
+
+<p>In the first part of the attack the English fleet
+was able to make no impression upon the enemy, as
+her high sides and the Greek fire rendered boarding
+impossible. Not until King Richard had exhilarated
+his fleet by informing them that if the galley escaped
+they “should be crucified or put to extreme torture,”
+was any progress made. After that, according to the
+contemporary account, some of the English jumped
+overboard and succeeded in fastening ropes to the
+rudder of the Saracen ship, “steering her as they
+pleased.” They then obtained a footing on board, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span>
+were subsequently driven back. As a last resource
+King Richard formed his galleys into line and rammed
+the ship, which afterwards sank.</p>
+
+<p>The relation of Richard’s successor, King John, to
+the British Navy, is one of some peculiar interest.
+More than any king before him he appears to have
+appreciated the importance of naval power, and naval
+matters received more attention than heretofore. In
+the days of King John the crews of ships appropriated
+for the King’s service were properly provisioned with
+wine and food, and there are also records of pensions
+for wounds, one of the earliest being that of Alan le
+Walleis, who received a pension of sixpence a day for
+the loss of his hand.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a></p>
+
+<p>King John is popularly credited with having made
+the first claim to the “Sovereignty of the Seas” and
+of having enacted that all foreign vessels upon sighting
+an English one were to strike their flags to her, and
+that if they did not that it was lawful to destroy them.
+The authenticity of this is, however, very doubtful;
+and it is more probable that, on account of various
+naval regulations which first appeared in the reign of
+King John, this particular regulation was fathered upon
+him at a later date with the view to giving it an historical
+precedent.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of King John the “Laws of Oleron”
+seem to have first appeared, but it is not at all clear
+that they had any specific connection with England.
+They appear rather to have been of a general European
+nature. The gist of the forty-seven articles
+of the “Laws of Oleron,” of which the precise
+date of promulgation cannot be ascertained, is
+as <span class="locked">follows:—<a id="FNanchor_5a" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“By the first article, if a vessel arrived at Bordeaux, Rouen,
+or any other similar place, and was there freighted for Scotland, or
+any other foreign country, and was in want of stores or provisions,
+the master was not permitted to sell the vessel, but he might with
+the advice of his crew raise money by pledging any part of her
+tackle or furniture.</p>
+
+<p>“If a vessel was wind or weather bound, the master, when a
+change occurred, was to consult his crew, saying to them, “Gentlemen,
+what think you of this wind?” and to be guided by the majority
+whether he should put to sea. If he did not do this, and any
+misfortune happened, he was to make good the damage.</p>
+
+<p>“If a seaman sustained any hurt through drunkenness or
+quarrelling, the master was not bound to provide for his cure,
+but might turn him out of his ship; if, however, the injury occurred
+in the service of his ship, he was to be cured at the cost of the said
+ship. A sick sailor was to be sent on shore, and a lodging, candles,
+and one of the ship’s boys, or a nurse provided for him, with the
+same allowance of provisions as he would have received on board.
+In case of danger in a storm, the master might, with the consent
+of the merchants on board, lighten the ship by throwing part of
+the cargo overboard; and if they did not consent, or objected to
+his doing so, he was not to risk the vessel but to act as he thought
+proper; on their arrival in port, he and the third part of the crew
+were to make oath that it was done for the preservation of the vessel;
+and the loss was to be borne equally by the merchants. A similar
+proceeding was to be adopted before the mast or cables were cut
+away.</p>
+
+<p>“Before goods were shipped the master was to satisfy the
+merchants of the strength of his ropes and slings; but if he did
+not do so, or they requested him to repair them and a cask were
+stove, the master was to make it good.</p>
+
+<p>“In cases of difference between a master and one of his crew,
+the man was to be denied his mess allowance thrice, before he was
+turned out of the ship, or discharged; and if the man offered
+reasonable satisfaction in the presence of the crew, and the master
+persisted in discharging him, the sailor might follow the ship to her
+place of destination, and demand the same wages as if he had not
+been sent ashore.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span></p>
+
+<p>“In case of a collision by a ship undersail running on board one
+at anchor, owing to bad steering, if the former were damaged, the
+cost was to be equally divided; the master and crew of the latter
+making oath that the collision was accidental. The reason for this
+law was, it is said, ‘that an old decayed vessel might not purposely
+be put in the way of a better.’ It was specially provided that all
+anchors ought to be indicated by buoys or ‘anchor-marks.’</p>
+
+<p>“Mariners of Brittany were entitled only to one meal a day,
+because they had beverage going and coming; but those of
+Normandy were to have two meals, because they had only water
+as the ship’s allowance. As soon as the ship arrived in a wine
+country, the master was, however, to procure them wine.</p>
+
+<p>“Several regulations occur respecting the seamen’s wages, which
+show that they were sometimes paid by a share of the freight. On
+arriving at Bordeaux or any other place, two of the crew might go
+on shore and take with them one meal of such victuals as were on
+board, and a proportion of bread, but no drink; and they were to
+return in sufficient time to prevent their master losing the tide.
+If a pilot from ignorance or otherwise failed to conduct a ship in
+safety, and the merchants sustained any damage, he was to make full
+satisfaction if he had the means to; if not, he was to lose his head;
+and, if the master or any one of the mariners cut off his head, they
+were not bound to answer for it; but, before they had recourse to
+so strong a measure, ‘they must be sure he had not wherewith to
+make satisfaction.’</p>
+
+<p>“Two articles of the code prove, that from an ‘accursed custom’
+in some places, by which the third or fourth part of ships that were
+lost belonged to the lord of the place—the pilots, to ingratiate
+themselves with these nobles, ‘like faithless and treacherous
+villains,’ purposely ran the vessel on the rocks. It was therefore
+enacted that the said lords, and all others assisting in plundering
+the wreck, shall be accursed and excommunicated, and punished as
+robbers and thieves; that ‘all false and treacherous pilots should
+suffer a most rigorous and merciless death,’ and be suspended to
+high gibbets near the spot, which gibbets were to remain as an
+example in succeeding ages. The barbarous lords were to be tied
+to a post in the middle of their own houses, and, being set on fire
+at the four corners, all were to be burned together; the walls<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span>
+demolished, its site converted into a marketplace for the sale only
+of hogs and swine, and all their goods to be confiscated to the use
+of the aggrieved parties.</p>
+
+<p>“Such of the cargoes as floated ashore were to be taken care of for
+a year or more; and, if not then claimed, they were to be sold by the
+lord, and the proceeds distributed among the poor, in marriage portions
+to poor maids and other charitable uses. If, as often happened,
+‘people more barbarous, cruel, and inhuman than mad dogs,’
+murdered shipwrecked persons, they were to be plunged into the sea
+till they were half-dead, and then drawn out and stoned to death.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Those laws, unconnected though they appear to be
+with strictly naval matters, are none the less of extreme
+interest as indicating the establishment of “customs of
+the sea,” and the consequent segregation of a “sailor
+class.” It has ever to be kept very clearly in mind
+that there was no such thing as a “Navy” as we
+understand it in these days. When ships were required
+for war purposes they were hired, just as waggons may
+be hired by the Army to-day; nor did the mariners count
+for much more than horses. The “Laws of Oleron,”
+however, gave them a certain general status which they
+had not possessed before; and the regulations of John
+as to providing for those engaged upon the King’s
+service—though they in no way constituted a Royal
+Navy—played their part many years later in making
+a Royal Navy possible, or, perhaps, it may be said,
+“necessary.” Necessity has ever been the principal
+driving force in the naval history of England.</p>
+
+<p>To resume. The limitations of the powers of the
+master (<i>i.e.</i> captain) in these “Laws of Oleron” deserve
+special attention. “Gentlemen, what think you of this
+wind?” from the captain to his crew would be considered
+“democracy” carried to extreme and extravagant
+limits in the present day; in the days when it was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span>
+promulgated as “the rule” it was surely stranger still!
+Little wonder that seamen at an early stage segregated
+from the ordinary body of citizens and became, as
+described by Clarendon in his “History of the Rebellion”
+a few hundred years later, when he <span class="locked">wrote:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The seamen are a nation by themselves, a humorous and
+fantastic people, fierce and rude and resolute in whatsoever they
+resolve or are inclined to, but unsteady and inconstant in pursuing it,
+and jealous of those to-morrow by whom they are governed to-day.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To this, to the earlier things that produced it,
+those who will may trace the extreme rigour of naval
+discipline and naval punishments, as compared with
+contemporaneous shore punishments at any given time,
+and the extraordinary difference at present existing
+between the American and European navies. The
+difference is usually explained on the circumstance that
+“Europe is Europe, and America, America.” But
+“differences” having their origin in the “Laws of
+Oleron” may play a greater part than is generally
+allowed.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1213 saw the Battle of Damme. This
+was the first real naval battle between the French and
+English. The King of France had collected a fleet of
+some “seventeen hundred ships” for the invasion of
+England, but having been forbidden to do so by the
+Pope’s Legate, he decided to use his force against
+Flanders. This Armada was surprised and totally
+destroyed by King John’s fleet.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of John the nautical element in
+England declared for Henry III, son of John, and
+against Prince Louis of France, who had been invited
+to the throne of England by the barons. Out of this
+came the battle of Sandwich, 1217, where Hubert de<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span>
+Burgh put into practice, though in different form,
+those principles first said to have been evolved by
+Alfred the Great—namely, to attack with an assured
+and complete superiority.</p>
+
+<p>Every English ship took on board a large quantity
+of quick-lime and sailed to meet the French, who were
+commanded by Eustace the Monk. De Burgh manœuvred
+for the weather gauge. Having gained it,
+the English ships came down upon the French with
+the wind, the quick-lime blowing before them, and
+so secured a complete victory over the tortured and
+blinded French. This is the first recorded instance
+of anything that may be described as “tactics” in
+Northern waters.</p>
+
+<p>The long reign of Henry III saw little of interest
+in connection with nautical matters. But towards the
+end of Henry’s reign a private quarrel between English
+and Norman ships, both seeking fresh water off the
+Coast of Bayonne, had momentous consequences. The
+Normans, incensed over the quarrel, captured a couple
+of English ships and hanged the crew on the yards
+interspersed with an equal number of dead dogs.
+Some English retaliated in a similar fashion on such
+Normans as they could lay hands on, and, retaliation
+succeeding retaliation, it came about that in the reign
+of Edward I, though England and France were still
+nominally at peace, the entire mercantile fleets of both
+were engaged in hanging each other, over what was
+originally a private quarrel as to who should be first
+to draw water at a well.</p>
+
+<p>Ultimately the decision appears to have been come
+by “to fight it out.” Irish and Dutch ships assisted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span>
+the English. Flemish and Genoese ships assisted the
+Normans and French. The English to the number of
+60 were under Sir Robert Tiptoft. The number of the
+enemy is placed at 200, though it was probably considerably
+less. In the battle that ensued the Norman
+and French fleets were annihilated.</p>
+
+<p>This battle, even more than others of the period,
+cannot be considered as one of the battles of “the
+British fleet.” It is merely a conflict between one
+clique of pirates and traders against another clique.
+But it is important on account of the light that it sheds
+on a good deal of subsequent history; for the fashion
+thus started lasted in one way and another for two or
+three hundred years.</p>
+
+<p>Nor were these disputes always international. Four
+years later than the fight recorded above, in 1297, the
+King wished to invade Flanders with an army of 50,000
+men. The Cinque Ports being unable to supply the
+requisite number of ships to transport this army,
+requisitions were also made at Yarmouth. Bad blood
+soon arose between the two divisions, with the result
+that they attacked each other. Thirty of the Yarmouth
+ships with their crews were destroyed and the expedition
+greatly hampered thereby.</p>
+
+<p>Two events of importance in British naval history
+happened in the reign of Edward I. The first of these,
+which took place about the year 1300, arose out of acts
+of piracy on foreigners, to which English ships were
+greatly addicted at that time. In an appeal made to
+Edward by those Continentals who had suffered most
+from these depredations, the King was addressed as “Lord
+of the Sea.” This was a definite recognition of that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span>
+sea claim first formulated by Henry II and which was
+afterwards to lead to so much fighting and bloodshed.</p>
+
+<p>The second event was the granting of the first
+recorded “Letters of Marque” in the year 1295. These
+were granted to a French merchant who had been taking
+a cargo of fruit from Spain to England and had been
+robbed by the Portuguese. He was granted a five year
+license to attack the Portuguese in order to recoup
+his loss.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of Edward II the only naval event of
+interest is, that when the Queen came from abroad and
+joined those who were fighting against the King, the
+nautical element sided with her.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of Edward III saw some stirring phases
+in English history. With a view to carrying on his
+war against France, Edward bestowed considerable
+attention on naval matters, and in the year 1338, he
+got together a fleet stated to have consisted of 500
+vessels. These were used as transports to convey the
+Army to France, and are estimated to have carried on
+the average about eighty men each.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the French had also got together a
+fleet of about equal size, and no sooner had the English
+expedition reached the shores of France than the whole
+of the south coast of England was subjected to a series
+of French raids. Southampton, Plymouth and the
+Cinque Ports were sacked and burned with practical
+impunity. These raids continued during 1338 and 1339;
+the bulk of the English fleet still lying idle on transport
+service at Edward’s base in Flanders. A certain number
+of ships had been sent back, but most of these had
+been as hastily sent on to Scotland, where their services<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span>
+had been urgently needed. Matters in the Channel
+culminated with the capture of the two largest English
+ships of the time. A fleet of small vessels hastily fitted
+out at the Cinque Ports succeeded in destroying Boulogne
+and a number of ships that lay there, but generally
+speaking the French had matters very much their own
+way on the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of 1339, Edward and his expedition
+returned to England to refit, with a view to preparing
+for a fresh invasion of France during the following
+summer.</p>
+
+<p>As Edward was about to embark, he learned that
+the French King had got together an enormous fleet
+at Sluys. After collecting some additional vessels,
+bringing the total number of ships up to 250 or thereabouts,
+Edward took command and sailed for Sluys,
+at which port he found the French fleet. He localised
+the French on Friday, July 3rd, but it was not until
+the next day that the battle took place.</p>
+
+<p>The recorded number of the enemy in all these
+early sea fights requires to be accepted with caution.
+For what it is worth the number of French ships has
+been given at 400 vessels, each carrying 100 men. The
+French, as on a later occasion they did on the Nile,
+lay on the defensive at the mouth of the harbour, the
+ships being lashed together by cables. Their boats, filled
+with stones, had been hoisted to the mast-heads. In
+the van of their fleet lay the <i>Christopher</i>, <i>Edward</i>, and
+various other “King’s ships,” which they captured in
+the previous year.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_25" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;">
+  <img src="images/i_025.jpg" width="2435" height="1411" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">BATTLE OF SLUYS—1340.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The English took the offensive, and in doing so
+manœuvred to have the sun behind them. Then, with
+their leading ships crowded with archers they bore<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span>
+down upon the main French division and grappled with
+them. The battle, which lasted right throughout the
+night, was fought with unexampled fury, and for a
+long time remained undecisive, considerable havoc
+being wrought by the French with the then novel idea
+of dropping large stones from aloft. The combatants,
+however, were so mixed up that it is doubtful whether
+the French did not kill as many of their own number
+as of the enemy; whereas, on the other side, the use
+of English archers who were noted marksmen told
+only against those at whom the arrows were directed.
+Furthermore, the English had the tactical advantage
+of throwing the whole of their force on a portion of
+the enemy, whom they ultimately totally destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>This Battle of Sluys took place in 1340. In 1346,
+after various truces, the English again attacked France
+in force, and the result was the Battle of Cressy. A
+side issue of this was the historic siege of Calais, which
+held out for about twelve months. 738 ships and
+14,956 men are said to have been employed in the
+sea blockade.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this time the principal English ship had
+been a galley, <i>i.e.</i>, essentially a row boat. About the
+year 1350 the galley began to disappear as a capital
+ship, and the galleon, with sail as its main motive power,
+took its place. Also a new enemy appeared; for at
+that time England first came into serious conflict with
+Spain.</p>
+
+<p>To a certain extent the galleon was to the fleets
+of the Mid-Fourteenth Century much what the ironclad
+was to the last quarter of the Nineteenth Century,
+or “Dreadnoughts” at the end of the first decade of
+the Twentieth Century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span></p>
+
+<p>The introduction of this type of vessel came about
+as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p>
+
+<p>A fleet of Castillian galleons, bound for Flanders,
+whiled away the monotony of its trip by acts of piracy
+against all English ships that it met. It reached Sluys
+without interference. Here it loaded up with rich cargoes
+and prepared to return to Spain. The English meanwhile
+collected a fleet to intercept it, this fleet being
+in command of King Edward himself, who selected the
+“cog <i>Thomas</i>” as his flagship.</p>
+
+<p>The English tactics would seem to have been
+carefully thought out beforehand. The Castillian ships
+were known to be of relatively vast size and more or
+less unassailable except by boarding. The result was
+that when at length they appeared, the English charged
+their ships into them, sinking most of their own ships
+in the impact, sprang aboard and carried the enemy
+by boarding. The leading figure on the English side
+was a German body-servant of the name of Hannekin,
+who distinguished himself just at the crisis of the
+battle by leaping on board a Castillian ship and cutting
+the halyards. Otherwise the result of the battle might
+have been different, because the Castillians, when
+about half only of the English ships were grappled
+with them, hoisted their sails, with the object of
+sailing away and destroying the enemy in detail.
+Hannekin’s perception of this intention frustrated the
+attempt.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of the galleons (or carracks as they
+were then called), must have been rendered obvious in
+this battle of “Les Espagnols-sur-Mer,” as immediately
+afterwards ships on the models of those captured began
+to be hired for English purposes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span></p>
+
+<p>Concurrent, however, with this building of a larger
+type of ship, a decline of naval power began; and ten
+years later, English shipping was in such a parlous
+state that orders were issued to the effect that should
+any of the Cinque Ports be attacked from the sea, any
+ships there were to be hauled up on land, as far away
+from the water as possible, in order to preserve them.</p>
+
+<p>In the French War of 1369, almost the first act
+of the French fleet was to sack and burn Portsmouth
+without encountering any naval opposition.</p>
+
+<p>In 1372 some sort of English fleet was collected,
+and under the Earl of Pembroke sent to relieve La
+Rochelle, which was then besieged by the French and
+Spanish. The Spanish ships of that period had improved
+on those of twenty years before, to the extent that
+(according to Froissart), some carried guns. In any
+case they proved completely superior to the English,
+whose entire fleet was captured or sunk.</p>
+
+<p>This remarkable and startling difference is only to
+be accounted for by the difference in the naval policy
+of the two periods. In the early years of Edward III’s
+reign, when a fleet was required it was in an efficient
+state, and when it encountered the enemy, it was used
+by those who had obviously thought out the best means
+of making the most of the material available. In the
+latter stage, there was neither efficiency nor purpose.
+The result was annihilation.</p>
+
+<p>How far the introduction of cannon on shipboard
+contributed to this result it is difficult to say exactly.
+In so far as it may have, the blame rests with the
+English, who were perfectly familiar with cannon at
+that time. If, therefore, the very crude stone-throwing
+cannon of those days had any particular advantages<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span>
+over the stone-throwing catapults previously employed,
+failure to fit them is merely a further proof of the
+inefficiency of those responsible for naval matters in
+the closing years of Edward III’s reign. Probably, however,
+the cannon contributed little to the result of
+La Rochelle, for, like all battles of the era, it was a
+matter of boarding—of “land fighting on the water.”</p>
+
+<p>The reign of Richard II saw England practically
+without any naval power at all. The French and
+Spaniards raided the Channel without interference worth
+mention. Once or twice retaliatory private expeditions
+were made upon the French coast; but speaking
+generally the French and Spaniards had matters entirely
+their own way, and the latter penetrated the Thames
+so far as Gravesend.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1380, an English army was sent over
+to France, but this, as Calais was British, was a simple
+operation, and although two years later ships were
+collected for naval purposes, English sea impotence
+remained as conspicuous as ever. In 1385, when a
+French armada was collected at Sluys for the avowed
+purpose of invading England on a large scale, no attempt
+whatever seems to have been made to meet this with
+another fleet. Fortunately for England, delays of one
+kind and another led to the French scheme of invasion
+being abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>Under Henry IV, matters remained much the same,
+until in the summer of 1407, off the coast of Essex,
+the King, who was voyaging with five ships, was attacked
+by French privateers, which succeeded in capturing all
+except the Royal vessel.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_31" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;">
+  <img src="images/i_031.jpg" width="2442" height="1623" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">PORTSMOUTH HARBOUR—1912.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This led to the organisation of a “fleet” and a
+successful campaign against the privateers. The necessity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span>
+of Sea Power began to be realised again, and this so
+far bore fruit that in the reign of Henry V no less
+than 1,500 ships were (it is said) collected in the Solent,
+for an invasion of France. But since some of these
+were hired from the Dutch and as every English vessel
+of over twenty tons was requisitioned by the King,
+the large number got together does not necessarily
+indicate the existence of any very great amount of
+naval power. This fleet, however, indicated a revival
+of sea usage.</p>
+
+<p>In 1417, large ships known as “Dromons” were
+built at Southampton, and bought for the Crown, but
+these were more of the nature of “Royal Yachts” than
+warships. The principal British naval base at and
+about this period was at Calais, of which, at the time of
+the War of the Roses, the Earl of Warwick was the
+governor.</p>
+
+<p>The first act of the Regency of Henry VI was to
+sell by auction such ships as had been bought for the
+Crown under Henry V. The duty of keeping the Channel
+free from pirates was handed over to London merchants,
+who were paid a lump sum to do this, but did not do
+it at all effectively.</p>
+
+<p>Edward IV made some use of a Fleet to secure his
+accession, or later restoration. Richard III would seem
+to have realised the utility of a Fleet, and during his
+short reign he did his best to begin a revival of “the
+Navy” by buying some ships, which, however, he hired
+out to merchants for trade purposes; and so, at the
+critical moment, he had apparently nothing available
+to meet the mild over-sea expedition of Henry of
+Richmond. So—right up to <em>comparatively</em> recent times—there
+was never any Royal Navy in the proper meaning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span>
+of the word, nor even any organised attempt to create
+an equivalent, except on the part of those two Kings
+who we are always told were the worst Kings England
+ever had—John and Richard III. Outside these two,
+there is not the remotest evidence that anyone ever
+dreamed of “naval power,” “sea power,” or anything
+of the sort, till Henry VII became King of England,
+and founded the British Navy on the entirely unromantic
+principle that it was a financial economy.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the real and prosaic birth of the British
+Navy in relatively recent times. It was made equally
+prosaic in 1910 by Lord Charles Beresford, when he
+said, “Battleships are cheaper than war.”</p>
+
+<p>There is actually no poetry about the British Navy.
+There never has been—it will be all the better for us if
+there never is. It is merely a business-like institution
+founded to secure these islands from foreign invasion.
+Dibden in his own day, Kipling in ours, have done their
+best to put in the poetry. It has been pretty and nice
+and splendid. But over and above it all I put the
+words of a stoker whose name I never knew, “It’s just
+this—do your blanky job!”</p>
+
+<p>That is the real British Navy. Henry VII did not
+create this watchword, nor anyone else, except perhaps
+Nelson.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="III"><span id="toclink_35"></span>III.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE TUDOR PERIOD AND BIRTH OF A REGULAR NAVY.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">That</span> Henry VII assimilated the lesson of the utility
+of naval power is abundantly clear. Henry VII it
+was who first established a regular navy as we now
+understand it. Previous to his reign, ships were requisitioned
+as required for war purposes, and, the war being
+over, reverted to the mercantile service. The liability of
+the Cinque Ports to provide ships when called upon
+constituted a species of navy, and certain ships were
+specially held as “Royal ships” for use as required,
+but under Henry ships primarily designed for fighting
+purposes appeared. The first of these ships was a
+vessel generally spoken of as the “<i>Great Harry</i>,” though
+her real name seems to have been <i>The Regent</i>, built in
+1485. Incidentally this ship remained afloat till 1553,
+when she was burned by accident. She has been called
+“the first ship of the Royal Navy”; and though her
+right to the honour has been contested, she appears
+fully entitled to it. The real founder of the Navy as
+we understand a navy to-day was Henry VII.</p>
+
+<p>Another important event of this reign is that during
+it the first dry dock was built at Portsmouth. Up till
+then there had been no facilities for the underwater
+repair of ships other than the primitive method of
+running them on to the mud and working on them at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span>
+low tide. While ships were small this was not a matter
+of much moment, but directly larger vessels began to
+be built, it meant that efficient overhauls were extremely
+difficult, if not impossible.</p>
+
+<p>Yet another step that had far reaching results was
+the granting of a bounty to all who built ships of over
+120 tons. This bounty, which was “per ton” and on a
+sliding scale, made the building of large private ships
+more profitable and less risky than it had been before,
+and so assisted in the creation of an important auxiliary
+navy as complement to the Royal Navy.</p>
+
+<p>The bounty system did more, however, than encourage
+the building of large private ships. The loose
+method of computing tonnage already referred to,
+became more elastic still when a bounty was at stake;
+and even looser when questions of the ship being hired
+per ton for State purposes was at issue. Henry VII,
+who was nothing if not economical, felt the pinch;
+the more so, as just about this time Continentals with
+ships for hire became alarmingly scarce. Something
+very like a “corner in ships” was created by English
+merchants.</p>
+
+<p>Henry VII was thus, by circumstances beyond his
+own control, forced into creating a permanent navy
+in self defence. He died with a “navy” of eighteen
+ships, of which, however, only two were genuinely
+entitled to be called “H.M.S.” He had to hire the
+others!</p>
+
+<p>This foundation of the “regular navy” is not at
+all romantic. But it is how a regular navy came to
+be founded—by force of circumstances. Henry VII,
+“founder of the Royal Navy,” undoubtedly realized
+clearer than any of his predecessors for many a hundred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span>
+years the meaning of naval power. But—his passion
+for economy and the advantage taken by such of his
+subjects as had ships available when hired ships were
+scarce, had probably a deal more to do with the
+institution of a regular navy than any preconceived
+ideas. In two words—“Circumstances compelled.”
+And that is how things stood when Henry VIII came
+to the throne.</p>
+
+<p>The nominal permanent naval power established by
+Henry VII consisted of fifty-seven ships, and the crew
+of each was twenty-one men and a boy, so that the
+<i>Great Harry</i>, which must have required a considerably
+larger crew, would seem to have been an experimental
+vessel. The actual force, however, was but two fighting
+ships proper.</p>
+
+<p>Under Henry VIII, however, the policy of monster
+ships was vigorously upheld, and one large ship built in
+the early years of his reign—the <i>Sovereign</i>—was reputed
+to be “the largest ship in Europe.” In 1512 the King
+reviewed at Portsmouth “twenty-five ships of great
+burthen,” which had been collected in view of hostilities
+with France. These ships having been joined by others,
+and amounting to a fleet of forty-four sail, encountered
+a French fleet of thirty-nine somewhere off the coast
+of Brittany.</p>
+
+<p>This particular battle is mainly noteworthy owing
+to the fact that the two flagships grappled, and while
+in this position one of them caught fire. The flames
+being communicated to the other, both blew up. This
+catastrophe so appalled the two sides that they abandoned
+the battle by mutual consent; from which it is to
+be presumed that the nautical mind of the day had,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span>
+till then, little realised that risks were run by carrying
+explosives.</p>
+
+<p>The English, however, were less impressed by the
+catastrophe than the enemy, since next day they rallied
+and captured or sank most of the still panic-stricken
+French ships.</p>
+
+<p>Henry replaced the lost flagship by a still larger ship,
+the <i>Grace de Dieu</i>, a two-decker with the lofty poop and
+forecastle of the period. She was about 1,000 tons.
+Tonnage, however, was so loosely calculated in those
+days that measurements are excessively approximate.</p>
+
+<p>When first cannon were introduced, they were (as
+previously remarked) merely a substitute for the old-fashioned
+catapults, and discharged stones for some
+time till more suitable projectiles were evolved. Like
+the catapults they were placed on the poop or forecastle,
+as portholes had not then been introduced. These
+were invented by a Frenchman, one Descharges, of
+Brest. By means of portholes it was possible to
+mount guns on the main deck and so increase their
+numbers.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_39" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;">
+  <img src="images/i_039.jpg" width="2432" height="1640" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">THE “GRACE DE DIEU” 1515.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Although the earliest portholes were merely small
+circular holes which did not allow of any training, and
+though the idea of them was probably directly derived
+from the loopholes in castle walls, the influence of the
+porthole on naval architecture was soon very great
+indeed. By means of this device a new relation
+between size and power was established, hence the
+“big displacements” which began to appear at this
+time. The hole for a gun muzzle to protrude through,
+quickly became an aperture allowing of training the
+gun on any ordinary bearing in English built ships.
+The English (for a very long time it was English only)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span>
+realisation of the possibilities of the porthole in Henry
+VIII’s reign contributed very materially to the defeat
+of the Spanish Armada some decades later. Indeed,
+it is no exaggeration to say that the porthole was to
+that era what the torpedo has been in the present one.
+Introduced about 1875 as a trivial alternative to the
+gun, in less than forty years the torpedo came to
+challenge the gun in range to an extent that as early
+as 1905 or thereabouts began profoundly to affect all
+previous ideas of naval tactics, and that by 1915 has
+changed them altogether!</p>
+
+<p>Another great change of these Henry VIII days
+was in the form of the ships.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> At this era they began
+to be built with “tumble-home” sides, instead of sides
+slanting outwards upwards, and inwards downwards as
+heretofore. With the coming of the porthole came the
+decline of the cross-bow as a naval arm. In the pre-porthole
+days every record speaks of “showers of
+arrows,” and the gun appears to have been a species of
+accessory. In the early years of the Sixteenth Century
+it became the main armament, and so remained unchallenged
+till the present century and the coming of
+the long-range torpedo.</p>
+
+<p>Henry VIII’s reign is also remarkable for the
+first institution of those “cutting out” expeditions
+which were afterwards to become such a particular
+feature of British methods of warfare. This first
+attempt happened in the year 1513, when Sir Edward
+Howard, finding the French fleet lying in Brest Harbour
+refusing to come out, “collected boats and barges”
+and attacked them with those craft. The attempt was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span>
+not successful, but it profoundly affected subsequent
+naval history.</p>
+
+<p>Therefrom the French were impressed with the idea
+that if a fleet lay in a harbour awaiting attack it
+acquired an advantage thereby. The idea became
+rooted in the French mind that to make the enemy
+attack under the most disadvantageous circumstances
+was the most wise of policies. That “the defensive
+is compelled to await attack, compelled to allow the
+enemy choice of the moment” was overlooked!</p>
+
+<p>From this time onward England was gradually
+trained by France into the role of the attacker, and
+the French more and more sank into the defensive
+attitude. Many an English life was sacrificed between
+the “discovery of the attack” in the days of Henry
+VIII, and its triumphant apotheosis when centuries
+later Nelson won the Battle of the Nile; but the
+instincts born in Henry’s reign, on the one hand to
+fight with any advantage that the defensive might offer,
+on the other hand to attack regardless of these advantages,
+are probably the real key to the secret of later
+victories.</p>
+
+<p>The Royal ships at this period were manned by
+voluntary enlistment, supplemented by the press-gang
+as vacancies might dictate. The pay of the mariner
+was five shillings a month; but petty officers, gunners
+and the like received additional pickings out of what
+was known as “dead pay.” By this system the names
+of dead men, or occasionally purely fancy names, were
+on the ship’s books, and the money drawn for these
+was distributed in a fixed ratio. The most interesting
+feature of Henry VII and Henry VIII’s navies is the
+presence in them of a number of Spaniards, who presumably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span>
+acted as instructors. These received normal
+pay of seven shillings a month plus “dead pay.”</p>
+
+<p>The messing of the crews was by no means indifferent.
+It was as follows per <span class="locked">man:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday: ¾ lb. beef and ½ lb.
+bacon.</p>
+
+<p>Monday, Wednesday, Saturday: Four herrings and
+two pounds of cheese.</p>
+
+<p>Friday: To every mess of four men, half a cod,
+ten herrings, one pound of butter and one
+pound of cheese.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There was also a daily allowance of one pound of bread
+or biscuit. The liquid allowance was either beer, or a
+species of grog consisting of one part of sack to two of
+water. Taking into account the value of money in
+those days and the scale of living on shore at the time,
+the conditions of naval life were by no means bad,
+though complaints of the low pay were plentiful enough.
+Probably, few received the full measure of what on
+paper they were entitled to.</p>
+
+<p>Henry VIII died early in 1547. In the subsequent
+reigns of Edward VI and Mary, the Navy declined, and
+little use was made of it except for some raiding
+expeditions.</p>
+
+<p>When Elizabeth came to the throne the regular
+fleet had dwindled to very small proportions, and, war
+being in progress, general permission was given for
+privateering as the only means of injuring the enemy.
+It presently degenerated into piracy and finally had to
+be put down by the Royal ships.</p>
+
+<p>No sooner, however, was the war over than the Queen
+ordered a special survey to be made of the Navy.
+New ships were laid down and arsenals established for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span>
+the supply of guns and gunpowder, which up to that
+time had been imported from Germany. Full advantage
+was taken of the privateering spirit, the erstwhile
+pirates being encouraged to undertake distant voyages.
+In many of these enterprises the Queen herself had a
+personal financial interest. She thus freed the country
+from various turbulent spirits who were inconvenient
+at home, and at one and the same time increased her
+own resources by doing so.</p>
+
+<p>There is every reason to believe that this action
+of Elizabeth’s was part of a well-designed and carefully
+thought out policy. The type of ship suitable for
+distant voyages and enterprises was naturally bound to
+become superior to that which was merely evolved
+from home service. The type of seamen thus bred was
+also necessarily bound to be better than the home-made
+article. Elizabeth can hardly have failed to realise
+these points also.</p>
+
+<p>To the <em>personnel</em> of the regular Navy considerable
+attention was also given. Pay was raised to 6/8 per
+month for the seamen, and 5/- a month with 4/- a month
+for clothing for soldiers afloat. Messing was also increased
+to a daily ration of one pound of biscuit, a gallon
+of beer, with two pounds of beef per man four days out
+of the seven, and a proportionate amount of fish on the
+other three days. Subsequently, and just previous to
+the Armada, the pay of seamen rose to 10/- a month,
+with a view to inducing the better men not to desert.</p>
+
+<p>The regular navy was thus by no means badly
+provided for as things went in those days; while service
+with “gentlemen adventurers” offered attractions to a
+very considerable potential reserve, and so England
+contained a large population which, from one cause<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span>
+and another, was available for sea service. To these
+circumstances was it due that the Spanish Armada,
+when it came, never had the remotest possibility of
+success. It was doomed to destruction the day that
+Elizabeth first gave favour to the “gentlemen
+adventurers.”</p>
+
+<p>Of these adventurers the greatest of all was Francis
+Drake, who in 1577 made his first long voyage with five
+ships to the Pacific Ocean. Drake, alone, in the <i>Pelican</i>,
+succeeded in reaching the Pacific and carrying out his
+scheme of operations, which—not to put too fine a point
+on it—consisted of acts of piracy pure and simple
+against the Spaniards. He returned to England after
+an absence of nearly three years, during which he
+circumnavigated the globe.</p>
+
+<p>There is little doubt that Drake in this voyage,
+and others like him in similar expeditions, learned a
+great deal about the disadvantages of small size in
+ships. Drake, however, learned another thing also.
+Up to this day the crew of a ship had consisted of
+the captain and a certain military element; also the
+master, who was responsible for a certain number of
+“mariners.” The former were concerned entirely with
+fighting the ship—the latter entirely with manœuvring it.</p>
+
+<p>This system of specialisation, awkward as it appears
+thus baldly stated, may have worked well enough in
+ordinary practice. It did not differ materially from the
+differentiation between deck hands and the engineering
+departments, which to a greater or less extent is very
+marked in every navy of the present day.</p>
+
+<p>Drake, however, started out with none too many
+men, and it was not long before he lost some of those
+he had and found himself short-handed. His solution of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span>
+the difficulty is in his famous phrase, “I would have the
+gentlemen haul with the mariners.” How far this was a
+matter of expediency, how far the revelation of a new
+policy, is a matter of opinion. It must certainly have
+been outside the purview of Elizabeth. But out of it
+gradually came that every English sailor knew how to
+fight his ship and how to sail her too, and this amounted
+to doubling the efficiency of the crew of any ship at one
+stroke.</p>
+
+<p>Of Drake himself, the following contemporary pen-picture,
+from a letter written by one of his Spanish victims,
+Don Franciso de Zarate,<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> explains almost <span class="locked">everything:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“He received me favourably, and took me to his room, where
+he made me seated and said to me: ‘I am a friend to those who
+speak the truth, that is what will have the most weight with me.
+What silver or gold does this ship bring?’</p>
+
+<p>“... We spoke together a great while, until the dinner-hour.
+He told me to sit beside him and treated me from his dishes, bidding
+me have no fear, for my life and goods were safe; for which I kissed
+his hands.</p>
+
+<p>“This English General is a cousin of John Hawkins; he is the
+same who, about five years ago, took the port of Nombre de Dios;
+he is called Francis Drake; a man of some five and thirty years,
+small of stature and red-bearded, one of the greatest sailors on the
+sea, both from skill and power of commanding. His ship carried
+about 400 tons, is swift of sail, and of a hundred men, all skilled and
+in their prime, and all as much experienced in warfare as if they
+were old soldiers of Italy. Each one, in particular, <em>takes great pains
+to keep his arms clean</em>;<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> he treats them with affection, and they treat
+him with respect. I endeavoured to find out whether the General
+was liked, and everyone told me he was adored.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Less favourable pictures of Drake have been penned,
+and there is no doubt that some of his virtues have
+been greatly exaggerated. At the present day there is
+perhaps too great a tendency to reverse the process.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span>
+Stripped of romance, many of his actions were petty,
+while those of some of his fellow adventurers merit a
+harsher name. Hawkins, for instance, was hand-in-glove
+with Spanish smugglers and a slave trader.
+Many of the victories of the Elizabethan “Sea-Kings”
+were really trifling little affairs, magnified into an
+importance which they never possessed.</p>
+
+<p>But, when all is said and done, it is in these men
+that we find the birth of a sea spirit which still lingers
+on, despite that other insular spirit previously referred
+to—the natural tendency of islanders to regard the
+water itself as a bulwark, instead of the medium on
+which to meet and defeat the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>The Spanish, already considerably incensed by the
+piratical acts of the English “gentlemen adventurers,”
+presently found a further cause of grievance in the
+assistance rendered by Elizabeth to their revolting
+provinces in the Netherlands. Drake had not returned
+many years from his famous voyage when it became
+abundantly clear that the Spaniards no longer intended
+quietly to suffer from English interference.</p>
+
+<p>Spain at that time was regarded as the premier
+naval power of Europe. Her superiority was more
+mythical than actual, for reasons which will later on be
+referred to: however, her commercial oversea activities
+were very great. The wealth which she wrung from
+the Indies—though probably infinitely less than its
+supposed value—was sufficient to enable her to equip
+considerable naval forces, certainly larger ones numerically
+than any which England alone was able to bring
+against them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span></p>
+
+<p>Knowledge of the fact that Spain was preparing the
+Armada for an attack on England, led to the sailing
+of Drake in April, 1587, with a fleet consisting of four
+large and twenty-six smaller ships, for the hire of which
+the citizens of London were nominally or actually
+responsible. His real instructions are not known, but
+there is little question that, as in all similar expeditions,
+he started out knowing that his success would be
+approved of, although in the event of any ill-success
+or awkward questions, he would be publicly disavowed.</p>
+
+<p>Reaching Cadiz, he destroyed 100 store ships which
+he found there; and then proceeding to the Tagus,
+offered battle to the Spanish war fleet. The Spanish
+admiral, however, declined to come out—a fact which
+of itself altogether discredits the popular idea about the
+vast all-powerful ships of Spain, and the little English
+ships, which, in the Armada days, could have done
+nothing against them but for a convenient tempest.
+On account of this expedition of Drake’s, the sailing
+of the Armada was put off for a year. So far as
+stopping the enterprise was concerned, Drake’s expedition
+was a failure. Armada preparations still went on.</p>
+
+<p>It is by no means to be supposed that the Armada
+in its conception was the foolhardy enterprise that on
+the face of things it looks to have been. The idea of
+it was first mooted by the Duke of Alva so long ago
+as 1569. In 1583 it became a settled project in the
+able hands of the Marquis of Santa Cruz, who alone
+among the Spaniards was not more or less afraid of
+the English. In the battle of Tercera in 1583, certain
+ships, which if not English were at any rate supposed
+to be, had shown the white feather. Santa Cruz assumed
+therefrom that the English were easily to be overwhelmed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span>
+by a sufficiently superior force, and he designed a scheme
+whereby he would use 556 ships and an army of 94,222
+men.</p>
+
+<p>Philip of Spain had other ideas. Having a large
+army under the Duke of Parma in the Netherlands,
+he proposed that this force should be transported thence
+to England in flat-bottomed boats, while Santa Cruz
+should take with him merely enough ships to hold the
+Channel, and prevent any interference by the English
+ships with the invasion.</p>
+
+<p>Before the delayed Armada could sail Santa Cruz
+died; and despite his own protestations Medina Sidonia
+was appointed in Santa Cruz’s place to carry out an
+expedition in which he had little faith or confidence.
+His total force at the outset consisted of 130 ships and
+30,493 men. Of these ships not more than sixty-two
+at the outside were warships, and some of these did
+not carry more than half-a-dozen guns.</p>
+
+<p>The main English fighting force consisted of forty-nine
+warships, some of which were little inferior to the
+Spanish in tonnage, though all were much smaller to
+the eye, as they were built with a lower freeboard and
+without the vast superstructures with which the
+Spaniards were encumbered. As auxiliaries, the
+English had a very considerable force of small ships;
+also the Dutch fleet in alliance with them.</p>
+
+<p>The guns of the English ships were, generally
+speaking, heavier, all their gunners were well trained,
+and their portholes especially designed to give a considerable
+arc of fire, whereas the Spanish had very
+indifferent gunners and narrow portholes. The Spaniards
+themselves thoroughly recognised their inferiority in
+the matter of gunnery, and the specific instructions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span>
+of their admiral were that he was to negative this
+inferiority by engaging at close quarters, and trust to
+destroying the enemy by small-arm fire from his lofty
+superstructures.</p>
+
+<p>The small portholes of the Spanish ships, which
+permitted neither of training, nor elevation, nor
+depression, are not altogether to be put down to
+stupidity or neglect of progress, for all that they were
+mainly the result of ultra-conservatism. The gun—as
+Professor Laughton has made clear—was regarded in
+Spain as a somewhat dishonourable weapon. Ideals
+of “cold steel” held the field. Portholes were kept
+very small, so that enemies relying on musketry should
+not be able to get the advantage that large portholes
+might supply. To close with the enemy and carry by
+boarding was the be-all and end-all of Spanish ideas
+of naval warfare. When able to employ their own
+tactics they were formidable opponents, though to the
+English tactics merely so many helpless haystacks.</p>
+
+<p>On shore, in England, the coming of the Armada
+provoked a good deal of panic; though the army
+which Elizabeth raised and reviewed at Tilbury was
+probably got together more with a view to allaying
+this panic than from any expectations that it would
+be actually required. The views of the British seamen
+on the matter were entirely summed up in Drake’s
+famous jest on Plymouth Hoe, that there was plenty
+of time to finish the game of bowls and settle the
+Spaniards afterwards!</p>
+
+<figure id="i_51" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;">
+  <img src="images/i_051.jpg" width="2440" height="1634" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">THE SPANISH ARMADA—1588.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Yet this very confidence might have led to the
+undoing of the English. The researches of Professor
+Laughton have made it abundantly clear that had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span>
+Medina Sidonia followed the majority opinion of a
+council of war held off the Lizard, he could and would
+have attacked the English fleet in Plymouth Sound
+with every prospect of destroying it, because there, and
+there only, did opportunity offer them that prospect of
+a close action upon which their sole chance of success
+depended. Admiral Colomb has elaborated the point
+still further, with a quotation from Monson to the
+effect that had the Armada had a pilot able to recognise
+the Lizard, which the Spaniards mistook for Ramehead,
+they might have surprised the English fleet at Plymouth.
+This incident covers the whole of what Providence
+or luck really did for England against the Spanish.</p>
+
+<p>To a certain extent a parallel of our own day
+exists. When Rodjestvensky with the Baltic fleet
+reached Far Eastern waters, there came a day when
+his cruisers discovered the entire Japanese fleet lying
+in Formosan waters. The Russian admiral ignored
+them and went on towards Vladivostok. The parallel
+ends here because the “Japanese fleet” was merely a
+collection of dummies intended to mislead him.<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a></p>
+
+<p>The first engagement with the Spanish Armada
+took place on Sunday, June 21st. It was more in the
+nature of a skirmish than anything else. The Spaniards
+made several vain and entirely ineffectual attempts to
+close with the swifter and handier English vessels.
+They took care, however, to preserve their formation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span>
+and so to that extent defeated the English tactics,
+which were to destroy in detail what could not be
+destroyed without heavy loss in the mass. So the
+Spaniards reached Calais on the 27th with a loss of
+only three large ships.</p>
+
+<p>They there discovered that Parma’s flat-bottomed
+boats were all blockaded by the Dutch, and that any
+invasion of England was therefore entirely out of the
+question. It must have been perfectly obvious to the
+most sanguine of them by this that they could not
+force action with the swifter English ships, while they
+could not relieve the blockaded boats without being
+attacked at the outset. In a word, the Armada was
+an obvious failure.</p>
+
+<p>On the night of the 28th, fire ships were sent into
+the Spanish fleet by the English. This, though the
+damage done was small, brought the Spanish to sea,
+and the next morning they were attacked off Gravelines
+by the English. The battle was hardly of the nature
+of a fleet action, so much as well-designed tactical
+operations intended to keep the enemy on the move.
+It resulted in the Spaniards losing only seven ships in
+a whole day’s fighting. The only really serious loss
+that the Spaniards sustained was that they were driven
+into the North Sea, with no prospect of returning home
+except by way of the North of Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>Followed for awhile and harried by a portion of the
+English fleet, which fell upon and destroyed stragglers,
+the Spaniards were driven into what to most of them
+were unknown waters and uncharted seas. To the
+last the retreating fleet maintained a show of order.
+Fifty-three ships succeeded in returning to Spain.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span></p>
+
+<figure id="i_55" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;">
+  <img src="images/i_055.jpg" width="2435" height="1635" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">THE END OF A “GENTLEMAN-ADVENTURER.”—THE “REVENGE.”—CAPTURED BY SPANIARDS, 1591.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span></p>
+
+<p>Stripped of romance this is the real prosaic history
+of the defeat of the Spanish Armada. The wonder is
+not that so few Spanish ships returned, but that so
+many did! The loss in Spanish warships proper appears
+to have been little over a dozen all told, and of these
+not more than three at the outside can be attributed
+to “the winds.”</p>
+
+<p>Havoc was undoubtedly wrought, but the “galleons”
+which “perished by scores” on the Scotch and Irish
+coasts were mainly the auxiliaries, transports, and small
+fry; the battle fleet proper kept together all the time,
+and with a couple of exceptions the ships reached home
+together as a fleet.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a></p>
+
+<p>At no time in the advance of the Spanish—probably
+at no time in the retreat either—could the English
+have engaged close action with any certainty of success.
+Victory was attributable solely and entirely to the
+evolution of a type of ship, fast, speedy and handy,
+able to hit hard, and which had been more or less
+specially designed with an eye to offering a very small
+target to the clumsily designed Spanish style of gun
+mounting.</p>
+
+<p>It was “history repeating itself” in another way.
+As Alfred overcame the Danes by evolving something
+superior to the Danish galleys; so, in Elizabethan days,
+there was evolved a type of warship meet for the
+occasion.</p>
+
+<p>From the defeat of the Armada and onwards,
+English naval operations were mainly confined to raiding
+expeditions against the Spanish coast, with a view
+to checking the collection of any further Armadas.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span>
+These operations were chiefly carried out by the “gentlemen
+adventurers”; but the real Navy itself was
+maintained and added to, and at the death of Elizabeth
+in 1603, it consisted of forty-two ships, of which the
+68-gun <i>Triumph</i> of 1,000 tons was the largest. This
+Navy was relied upon as the premier arm in case of
+any serious trouble.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="IV"><span id="toclink_59"></span>IV.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE PERIOD OF THE DUTCH WARS.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">With</span> the accession of James I peace with Spain
+came about, but the Dutch being ignored in the
+transaction, out of this there arose that ill-feeling
+and rivalry which was later on to culminate in the
+Dutch wars.</p>
+
+<p>In James I’s reign no naval operations of great
+importance took place, but considerable interest attaches
+to the despatch of eighteen ships (of which six were
+“King’s Ships”), to Algiers in 1520. This was the first
+appearance of an English squadron in the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>Under James I the numerical force of the Navy
+declined somewhat. The art of shipbuilding, however,
+made considerable advance.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> A Shipwrights’ Company
+was established in 1656, and Phineas Pett, as its first
+master, built and designed a 1,400 ton ship named the
+<i>Prince Royal</i>. Pett introduced a variety of novelties into
+his designs, and the <i>Prince Royal</i> and her successors
+were esteemed superior to anything set afloat elsewhere
+at the time.</p>
+
+<p>Here it is desirable to turn aside for a moment
+in order to realise the influences at work behind Phineas
+Pett. It has ever been the peculiar fortune of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span>
+Royal Navy—and for that matter of the inchoate
+“Navy” which preceded its establishment—to have
+had men capable of “looking ahead” and forcing the
+pace in such a way that new conditions were prepared
+for when they arrived.</p>
+
+<p>Of such a nature, each in his own way, were
+King Alfred, King John, Richard III, and Henry VII, but
+greater than any of these was Sir Walter Raleigh,
+whose visions in the days of Elizabeth and James I
+ran so clearly and so far that even now we cannot
+be said to have left him behind where “principles”
+are concerned. Drake was the national hero of
+Elizabethan days, but in utility to the future, Raleigh
+was a greater than he, albeit his best service was of
+the “armchair” kind.</p>
+
+<p>The following extracts from Raleigh’s writings,
+except for geographical and political differences, stand
+as true to-day as when he wrote them about 300 years
+ago. The idea of a main fleet, backed up by smaller
+vessels, the idea of meeting the enemy on the water and
+so forth, are commonplaces now, but in Raleigh’s time
+they were quite otherwise. The italicised portions in
+particular indicate quite clearly in Elizabethan words
+the naval policy of to-day.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Another benefit which we received by this preparation was,
+that <em>our men were now taught suddenly to arm, every man knowing his
+command, and how to be commanded</em>, which before they were ignorant
+of; and who knows not that sudden and false alarms in any army
+are sometimes necessary? To say the truth, the expedition which
+was then used in drawing together so great an army by land, and
+rigging so great and royal a navy to sea, in so little a space of
+time, was so admirable in other countries, that they received a
+terror by it; and many that came from beyond the seas said
+<i>the Queen was never more dreaded abroad for anything she ever did</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span></p>
+
+<p>“Frenchmen that came aboard our ships did wonder (as at a
+thing incredible) that Her Majesty had rigged, victualled, and
+furnished her royal ships to sea in twelve days’ time; and Spain,
+as an enemy, had reason to fear and grieve to see this sudden
+preparation.</p>
+
+<p>“It is not the meanest mischief we shall do to the King of
+Spain, if we thus war upon him, to force him to keep his shores
+still armed and guarded, to the infinite vexation, charge and
+discontent of his subjects; for no time or place can secure them so
+long as they see or know us to be upon that coast.</p>
+
+<p>“The sequel of all these actions being duly considered, we may
+be confident that <i>whilst we busy the Spaniard at home, they dare not
+think of invading England or Ireland</i>; for by their absence their fleet
+from the Indies may be endangered<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> and in their attempts they
+have as little hope of prevailing.</p>
+
+<p>“Surely I hold that the <em>best way is to keep our enemies from
+treading upon our ground: wherein, if we fail, then</em> must we seek to
+make him wish that he had stayed at his own home. In such a case,
+if it should happen, our judgments are to weigh many particular
+circumstances, that belong not to this discourse. But making the
+question general, <i>the position, whether England, without that it is unable
+to do so</i>: and, therefore, I think it most dangerous to make the
+adventure. For the encouragements of a first victory to an enemy,
+and the discouragement of being beaten to the invaded, may draw
+after it a most perilous consequence.</p>
+
+<p>“Great difference, I know there is, and diverse consideration to
+be had, between such a country as France is, strengthened with
+many fortified places, and this of ours, where our ramparts are but
+the bodies of men. But I say that an army to be transported over
+sea, and to be landed again in an enemy’s country, and the place
+left to the choice of the invader <i>cannot be resisted on the coast of
+England without a fleet to impeach it; no, nor on the coast of France, or
+any other country, except every creek, port, or sandy bay had a powerful
+army in each of them to make opposition.... For there is no man
+ignorant that ships, without putting themselves out of breath, will easily
+outrun the soldiers that coast them</i>.<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span></p>
+
+<p>“Whosoever were the inventors, we find that every age hath
+added somewhat to ships, and to all things else. And in mine own
+time the shape of our English ships hath been greatly bettered. It
+is not long since the striking of the topmast (a wonderful ease to
+great ships, both at sea and in harbour) hath been devised, together
+with the chain pump, which takes up twice as much water as the
+ordinary did. We have lately added the Bonnet and the Drabler.
+To the courses we have devised studding-sails, topgallant-masts,
+spritsails, topsails. The weighing of anchors by the capstone is also
+new. We have fallen into consideration of the lengths of cable, and
+by it we resist the malice of the greatest winds that can blow.
+Witness our small Millbroke men of Cornwall, that ride it out at
+anchor half seas over between England and Ireland, all the winter
+quarter. And witness the Hollanders that were wont to ride before
+Dunkirk with the wind at north-west, making a lee-shoar in all
+weathers. For true it is, that the length of the cable is the life of
+the ship, riding at length, is not able to stretch it; and nothing
+breaks that is not stretched in extremity. We carry our ordnance
+better than we were wont, because our nether over-loops are raised
+commonly from the water, to wit, between the lower part of
+the sea.</p>
+
+<p>“In King Henry VIII time, and in his presence at Portsmouth,
+the Mary Rose, by a little sway of the ship in tacking about, her
+ports being within sixteen inches of the water, was overset and lost.</p>
+
+<p>“We have also raised our second decks, and given more vent
+thereby to our ordnance lying on our nether-loop. We have added
+cross pillars<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> in our royal ships to strengthen them, which be
+fastened from the keels on to the beam of the second deck to keep
+them from setting or from giving way in all distresses.</p>
+
+<p>“We have given longer floors to our ships than in elder times,
+and better bearing under water, whereby they never fall into the
+sea after the head and shake the whole body, nor sink astern, nor
+stoop upon a wind, by which the breaking loose of our ordnance,
+or of the not use of them, with many other discommodities are
+avoided.</p>
+
+<p>“And, to say the truth, a miserable shame and dishonour it were
+for our shipwrights if they did not exceed all others in the setting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span>
+up of our Royal ships, <em>the errors of other nations being far more excusable
+than ours</em>. For the Kings of England have for many years <i>being at
+the charge to build and furnish a navy of powerful ships for their own
+defence, and for the wars only. Whereas the</i> French, the Spaniards, the
+Portuguese, and the Hollanders (till of late) <i>have had no proper fleet
+belonging to their Princes or States.</i> Only the Venetians for a long
+time have maintained their arsenal of gallies. And the Kings of
+Denmark and Sweden have had good ships for these last fifty years.</p>
+
+<p>“I say that the aforenamed Kings, especially the Spaniards and
+Portugals, have ships of great bulk, but fitter for the merchant than
+for the man-of-war, for burthen than for <em>battle</em>. But as Popelimire
+well observeth, ‘the forces of Princes by sea are marques de
+grandeur d’estate—marks of the greatness of an estate—for <em>whosoever
+commands the sea, commands the trade; whosoever commands the trade
+of the world commands the riches of the world, and consequently the
+world itself</em>.’</p>
+
+<p>“Yet, can I not deny but that the Spaniards, being afraid of
+their Indian fleets, have built some few very good ships; <em>but he hath
+no ships in garrison</em>, as His Majesty hath; and to say the truth, no
+sure place to keep them in, but in all invasions he is driven to take up
+of all nations which come into his ports for trade....</p>
+
+<div class="tb">* * * * *</div>
+
+<p>“But there’s no estate grown in haste but that of the United
+Provinces, and especially in their sea forces, and by a contrary way
+to that of Spain and France; the latter by invasion, the former by
+oppression. For I myself may remember <i>when one ship of Her
+Majesty’s would have made forty Hollanders strike sail and come to an
+anchor</i>. They did not then dispute de Mari Libero, but readily
+acknowledged the English to be Domini Maria Britannici. That we
+are less powerful than we were, I do hardly believe it; for, although
+we have not at this time 135 ships belonging to the subject of 500
+tons each ship, as it is said we had in the twenty-fourth year of
+Queen Elizabeth; at which time also, upon a general view and
+muster, there were found in England of able men fit to bear arms,
+1,172,000, yet are our merchant ships now far more warlike and better
+appointed than they were, and the Navy royal double as strong as
+it then was. For these were the ships of Her Majesty’s Navy at
+that time:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>  1. The Triumph</li>
+<li>  2. The Elizabeth Jonas</li>
+<li>  3. The White Bear</li>
+<li>  4. The Philip and Mary</li>
+<li>  5. The Bonadventure</li>
+<li>  6. The Golden Lyon</li>
+<li>  7. The Victory</li>
+<li>  8. The Revenge</li>
+<li>  9. The Hope</li>
+<li>10. The Mary Rose</li>
+<li>11. The Dreadnought</li>
+<li>12. The Minion</li>
+<li>13. The Swiftsure</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="in0">to which there have been <span class="locked">added:—</span></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>14. The Antilope</li>
+<li>15. The Foresight</li>
+<li>16. The Swallow</li>
+<li>17. The Handmaid</li>
+<li>18. The Jennett</li>
+<li>19. The Bark of Ballein</li>
+<li>20. The Ayde</li>
+<li>21. The Achates</li>
+<li>22. The Falcon</li>
+<li>23. The Tyger</li>
+<li>24. The Bull</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>“We have not, therefore, less force than we had, the fashion, and
+furnishing of our ships considered, for there are in England at this
+time 400 sail or merchants, and fit for the wars, which the Spaniards
+would call galleons; to which we may add 200 sail of crumsters,
+or hoyes of Newcastle, which, each of them, will bear six Demi-culverins
+and four Sakers, needing no other addition of building
+than a slight spar deck fore and aft, as the seamen call it, which is
+a slight deck throughout....</p>
+
+<p>“I say, then, if a vanguard be ordained of those hoyes, who will
+easily recover the wind of any other sort of ships, with a battle of
+400 other warlike ships, and a rear of thirty of His Majesty’s ships
+to sustain, relieve, and countenance the rest (if God beat them not)
+I know not what strength can be gathered in all Europe to beat
+them. And if it be objected that the States can furnish a far
+greater number, I answer that His Majesty’s forty ships, added to
+the 600 beforenamed, are of incomparable greater force than all that
+Holland and Zealand can furnish for the wars. As also, that a
+greater number would breed the same confusion that was found in
+Xerxes’ land army of 1,700,000 soldiers; <em>for there is a certain proportion,
+both by sea and land, beyond which the excess brings nothing
+but disorder and amazement</em>.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>I have quoted from Raleigh at considerable length—a
+length which may seem to some out of all proportion
+to the general historical scheme of this work. But of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span>
+the three possible “founders of the British Navy,”
+King Alfred by legend, King Henry VII by force of
+circumstances, and Sir Walter Raleigh, Knight, by his
+realisation of certain eternal verities of naval warfare,
+the palm goes best to Raleigh, to whose precepts it
+was mainly due that England did not succumb to
+Holland in the days of the Dutch wars. Compared to
+the struggle with the Dutch, neither the Spanish wars,
+which preceded them, nor the great French wars which
+followed, were of any like importance as regarded the
+relative risks and dangers. And the interest is the
+greater in that where the United Provinces were, about
+and just after Raleigh’s time, Germany stands towards
+the British Navy to-day.</p>
+
+<p>In 1618 the Duke of Buckingham was appointed
+Lord High Admiral and continued in that position after
+the accession of Charles I. Of the incapacity of the Duke
+much has been written, but whatever may be said in
+connection with various unsuccessful oversea enterprises,
+for which he was officially responsible, naval shipbuilding
+under his régime made very considerable progress.</p>
+
+<p>Things were quite otherwise, however, with the
+<em>personnel</em>. Abuses of every sort and kind crept in unchecked,
+and the men were the first to feel the pinch.
+The unscrupulous contractor appeared, and with him
+the era of offal foods and all kinds of similar abuses,
+of which many have lasted well into our own time,
+and some exist still. The money allotted for the men
+of the fleet became the prey of every human vulture,
+the officers, as a rule, being privy thereunto. Besides
+food, clothing also fell into the hands of contractors
+who supplied shoddy at ridiculously high prices, with
+the commission to officers stopped out of the men’s pay.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span></p>
+
+<p>Pay, nominally, rose a good deal, and in 1653
+reached twenty-four shillings a month for the seaman,
+but the figures (approximately equal in purchasing
+value to the pay of to-day) convey nothing. The men
+were half-starved, or worse, on uneatable food, and
+their clothing was such that they went about in rags
+and died like rats in their misery.</p>
+
+<p>The first naval event in Charles I’s reign is mainly
+of interest because of the peculiar personal circumstances
+that attended it. One King’s ship and six
+hired ships were despatched, nominally to assist the
+French against the Genoese. On arriving at Dieppe,
+however, the English officers and men discovered that
+they were really to be used against the revolted French
+Protestants of La Rochelle. This being against their
+taste, they returned to the Downs and reported themselves
+to the King. They were ordered to sail again
+for La Rochelle. One captain, however, point blank
+refused to do so. The other ships went, but the officers
+and men, with a single exception, having handed their
+ships over to the French, returned to England.</p>
+
+<p>Little or nothing seems to have been done in the
+way of punishment to the mutineers (possibly on account
+of public opinion). But the incident sheds an interesting
+sidelight on the state of the Navy at the time. It is
+hardly to be conceived that the Army at the same
+period could have acted in similar fashion with equal
+impunity.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_67" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img src="images/i_067.jpg" width="1544" height="1793" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p>PHINEAS PETT, 1570–1647.</p>
+
+<p>From the contemporary portrait by William Dobson in the National Portrait Gallery.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The history of the British Navy of this period
+is the history of a navy lacking in discipline, and its
+officers divided against each other. Such expeditions
+as were undertaken against France and Spain signally
+failed. It is usual to attribute these failures to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span>
+mal-administration of the Duke of Buckingham, an
+unpopular figure. But whether this is just or not is
+another matter. The entire Navy was rotten to the
+core in its <em>personnel</em>. But Buckingham’s share in it
+would seem to have been inability to understand rather
+than direct carelessness.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Duke’s régime the building of efficient
+warships continued to progress. The “ship money,”
+which was to cause so much trouble inland later, is
+outside the scope of this work, save in so far as its
+direct naval aspect is concerned. This, of course, was
+the principle that inland places benefited from sea
+defence quite as much as seaside districts. A great
+deal of the money was undoubtedly spent on shipbuilding;
+indeed, some of the trouble lay over alleged
+(and seemingly obvious) excessive expenditure on the
+“Dreadnought” of the period, Phineas Pett’s <i>Royal
+Sovereign</i>, a ship altogether superior to anything before
+built in England, and the first three-decker ever constructed
+in this country. She was laid down in 1635
+and launched in 1657. An immense amount of gilding
+and carving about her irritated the economically minded,
+but it is questionable whether the objections were well
+informed.</p>
+
+<p>Just about this time elaborate ornamentations of
+warships was the “vogue,” and it carried moral effect
+accordingly. What to the uninitiated landsmen merely
+spelt “waste of money on unnecessary display” spelt
+something else to those who went across the seas.
+Even in our own present utilitarian days a fresh coat
+of paint to a warship has been found to have a political
+value; and fireworks and illuminations (seemingly pure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span>
+waste of money) have played their share in helping to
+preserve the peace.</p>
+
+<p>John Hampden, according to his lights, was a
+patriot, and according to the purely political questions
+with which he was concerned he may also have been;
+but on the naval issue of Ship Money he was little more
+or less than the First Little Englander, and hampered by
+just that same inability to see beyond his nose which
+characterised the modern Little Englander who protested
+against “bloated naval expenditure.” The intentions
+were excellent—the intelligence circumscribed.</p>
+
+<p>A contemporary account of the <i>Royal Sovereign</i> is
+as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Her length by the keele is 128 foote or thereabout, within
+some few inches; her mayne breadth or wideness from side to side,
+48 foote; her utmost length from the fore-end to the stern, <i lang="la">a prova
+ad pupin</i>, 232 foote. Shee is in height, from the bottom of her
+keele to the top of her lanthorne, 76 foote; she beareth five
+lanthornes, the biggest of which will hold ten persons to stand
+upright, and without shouldering or pressing one on the other.</p>
+
+<p>“Shee hath three flush deckes and a forecastle, an halfe decke, a
+quarter-decke, and a round house. Her lower tyre hath thirty ports,
+which are to be furnished with demi-cannon and whole cannon,
+throughout being able to beare them; her middle tyre hath also
+thirty ports for demi-culverin and whole culverin; her third tyre
+hath twentie sixe ports for other ordnance; her forecastle hath
+twelve ports, and her halfe decke hath fourteen ports; she hath
+thirteene or fourteene ports more within board for murdering-pieces,
+besides a great many loope-holes out of the cabins for musket shot.
+Shee carrieth, moreover, ten pieces of chase ordnance in her right
+forward, and ten right off, according to lande service in the front
+and the reare. Shee carrieth eleven anchores, one of them weighing
+foure thousand foure hundred pounds; and according to these are
+her cables, mastes, sayles, cordage.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="i_71" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;">
+  <img src="images/i_071.jpg" width="2454" height="1638" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<p class="right"><i>Ex. Fincham.</i></p>
+
+<p>THE <i>ROYAL SOVEREIGN</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The dotted lines represent a ship of the time of 1850.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It remains to add that the ship was extraordinarily
+well built. She fought many a battle and survived some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span>
+fifty years, and then only perished because, when laid up
+for refit in 1696, she was accidentally burned. And about
+sixty-three years ago (1852) naval architects still alluded
+to her with respect, nor did their designs differ from her
+very materially.</p>
+
+<p>Wherever and however Charles I and the Duke of
+Buckingham failed, their shipbuilding policy cannot but
+command both respect and admiration. It is the curious
+irony of fate that—excepting King Alfred, and also
+Queen Elizabeth—it is the Sovereigns of England with
+black marks against them who ever did most for the
+Navy or understood its importance. And understanding
+what the Navy meant, generally secured these marks at
+the hands of some quite well meaning but intellectually
+circumscribed prototype or successor of John Hampden,
+to whom “meeting the enemy on the water” was an
+entirely indigestible theory, and a waste of money into
+the bargain. There is no question whatever that to them
+the sea appeared a natural rampart and ships upon it
+pure superfluity, save in so far as inconvenience to the
+shore counties might result. Later on, Cromwell, of
+course, acted on a different principle—but Cromwell
+was an Imperialist. Hampden was merely the “Insular
+Spirit” personified.</p>
+
+<p>In 1639, a naval incident occurred which goes to
+discredit the popular idea of the impotence of the British
+Navy under Charles I, whatever its internal condition.
+Naval operations were in progress between Holland and
+France on the one side, and Spain on the other. The
+British fleet was fitted out under Sir John Pennington
+(that same Pennington who had commanded the squadron
+which refused to attack La Rochelle) with orders to
+maintain British neutrality.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span></p>
+
+<p>The Spanish fleet took refuge from the Dutch in
+the Downs, whereupon Pennington informed the rival
+admirals that he should attack whichever of them
+violated the neutrality of an English harbour. The
+Spanish having fired upon the Dutch, the Dutch Admiral
+Van Tromp applied to Pennington for permission to
+attack the Downs. This was given, and the bulk of
+the Spanish fleet destroyed. The incident suggests that
+the English fleet was recognised as a neutral able to
+enforce its orders against all and sundry.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with this, it is interesting to record
+the existence of a naval medal of the period, bearing
+the motto: “<i>Nec meta mihi quae terminus orbi</i>”—a free
+translation of which would be, “Nothing limits me but
+the size of the World.” However short practice may
+have fallen, Charles and his advisers had undoubtedly
+grasped the theory of “Sea Power.”</p>
+
+<h3><i>THE CIVIL WAR.</i></h3>
+
+<p>When the Civil war began in 1642, the regular fleet
+consisted of forty-two ships. It was seized by the
+Parliamentarians and put under the Earl of Warwick,
+who held command for six years. With his fleet he
+very effectually patrolled the Channel, rendering abortive
+all over-sea attempts to assist the King with arms and
+ammunition.</p>
+
+<p>On Warwick being superseded in 1648, the fleet
+mutinied, and seventeen ships sailed for Holland to join
+Prince Charles; but upon Warwick being reinstated
+the bulk of the fleet returned to its allegiance to the
+Parliamentarians. That the Parliamentarians were fully
+alive to the importance of naval power is evidenced by
+the fact that they seized every opportunity to lay down
+new ships; and “Parliament” once in power made it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span>
+very clear indeed that the Sovereignty of the Seas
+would be upheld at all costs.</p>
+
+<h3 id="fdw"><i>THE FIRST DUTCH WAR.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Some forty years before, Sir Walter Raleigh, discussing
+the rise of the Dutch United Provinces, remarked:
+“But be their estate what it will, let them not deceive
+themselves in believing that they can make themselves
+masters of the sea.” He advised the Dutch to remember
+that their inward and outward passages were through
+British seas. There were but two courses open to the
+Dutch: amity with England or destruction of English
+naval power.</p>
+
+<p>Since both nations had large commercial fleets,
+rivalries were inevitable; and for some long while
+previous to 1652, both sides were ready enough for a
+quarrel. Minor acts of hostility occurred. The Dutch
+failed to pay the annual tax for fishing in British waters.
+In May, 1652, a Dutch squadron refused to pay respect
+to the English flag. It was fired on accordingly, and
+after some negotiations, war was declared two months
+later.</p>
+
+<p>The war is interesting because it saw an end to
+the old ideas of cross-raiding with ships regarded
+primarily as transports in connection with raids or to
+cover such. In this war fighting on the sea for the
+command of the sea first made a distinct appearance.
+Its birth was necessarily obscure and involved, both
+sides having the primary idea of attacking the commerce
+of the enemy and defending their own, rather than
+of attacking the enemy’s fleet. The earlier battles
+which took place were brought about by the defence
+of merchant fleets.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span></p>
+
+<p>None of the battles of 1652 were conclusive, and
+though marked with extraordinary determination on
+both sides the damage done was, relatively speaking,
+small. The general advantage for the year rested
+slightly with the Dutch, mainly owing to Tromp’s
+victory over Blake, who was found in considerably
+inferior force in the Downs.</p>
+
+<p>In February of the following year Tromp, with a
+fleet of seventy warships and a convoy of 250 merchant
+ships, some of which were armed, met Blake with sixty-six
+sail in the famous Three Days’ Battle.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of this fight the Dutch lost at least
+eight warships, and a number of merchant-men variously
+estimated at from twenty-four to forty. The English
+admitted to the loss of only one ship. At the end
+of the third day, however, Blake drew off, and the
+Dutch admiral got what was left of his convoy into
+harbour.</p>
+
+<p>Oliver Cromwell being now in full power, naval
+preparations were pressed forward with unexampled
+vigour, and on June 2nd an English fleet of ninety-five
+sail under Monk and Deane met Van Tromp and forced
+him to retreat. Reinforced by Blake with eighteen
+more ships the English fleet renewed the battle,
+ultimately driving Van Tromp into harbour with the
+loss of several ships.</p>
+
+<p>On the 29th July the Dutch ran the blockade
+and came out. On the 31st a battle began in which
+Van Tromp was killed, and the Dutch with the loss
+of many ships driven into the Texel.</p>
+
+<p>The English fleet, though it lost few ships, appears
+to have been badly mauled in this final battle, on
+account of which the Dutch claimed a victory.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span></p>
+
+<figure id="i_77" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;">
+  <img src="images/i_077.jpg" width="2447" height="1466" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">BLAKE AND TROMP. PERIOD OF THE DUTCH WARS.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span></p>
+
+<p>In the following month the Dutch fleet again came
+out, and under De Witt took one convoy to the Sound
+and brought another back without interference. Just
+afterwards, however, their fleet was so severely injured
+by a tremendous three days’ gale that further naval
+operations were out of the question. Overtures for
+peace were therefore made, and concluded.</p>
+
+<p>The types of English warships in this first Dutch
+war are given in Pepys’ Miscellany as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p>
+
+<table id="t79" class="tbdr">
+<tr class="thead">
+  <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Rate.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Name.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Length<br>of Keel.<br>ft.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Breadth.<br><br>ft. in.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Depth.<br><br>ft. in.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Burthen<br>Tons.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Highest No. of</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="theadsub">
+  <td class="tdc">Men.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Guns.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">First</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Sovereign</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">127</td>
+  <td class="tdc">46 6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">19 4</td>
+  <td class="tdc fsr1">1141</td>
+  <td class="tdc">600</td>
+  <td class="tdc fsr1">100</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Second</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Fairfax</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">116</td>
+  <td class="tdc">34 9</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1p">17 4½</td>
+  <td class="tdc">745</td>
+  <td class="tdc">260</td>
+  <td class="tdc">52</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Third</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Worcester</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">112</td>
+  <td class="tdc">32 8</td>
+  <td class="tdc">16 4</td>
+  <td class="tdc">661</td>
+  <td class="tdc">180</td>
+  <td class="tdc">46</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Fourth</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Ruby</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1p">105½</td>
+  <td class="tdc">31 6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">15 9</td>
+  <td class="tdc">556</td>
+  <td class="tdc">150</td>
+  <td class="tdc">40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Fifth</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Nightingale</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">88</td>
+  <td class="tdc">25 4</td>
+  <td class="tdc">12 8</td>
+  <td class="tdc">300</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">90</td>
+  <td class="tdc">24</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="tlast">
+  <td class="tdl">Sixth</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Greyhound</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">60</td>
+  <td class="tdc">20 3</td>
+  <td class="tdc">10 0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">120</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">80</td>
+  <td class="tdc">18</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The principal Dutch vessels were conspicuously
+inferior to the best of these English ones, and the war
+may be said to have been considerably decided by ship
+superiority. In the peace that followed—which was
+really very little better than an armed truce—the Dutch
+set themselves to build warships more on English lines.
+And, as we shall presently see, they evolved from the
+war,<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> future strategies based on its lessons.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span></p>
+
+<p>Considering the number of battles and the desperate
+nature of them, it is perhaps curious to note the
+relatively small amount of damage done. With the
+advent of the porthole and the consequent multiplication
+of guns a hundred and fifty years before, it had
+seemed that any naval engagement must result in swift
+mutual destruction. Much the same kind of idea
+obtained as when at the end of 1910 a squadron of
+Dreadnoughts almost instantly obliterated a target five
+miles off. But as in the Armada fights, so in this First
+Dutch War, an immense amount of fighting was done
+with comparatively, and relatively to what might have
+been anticipated, small harm on either side.</p>
+
+<p>This result is partly to be attributed to the fact that
+defence increased with offence. The warship proper
+was designed to stand hammering, and every increase in
+size, involving increased gun-carrying capacity, involved
+also increased strength of construction. Something may
+also be put down to the very inferior artillery then in
+use, and the great deal of boarding which took place.</p>
+
+<p>There is some reason to believe that Cromwell, with
+his complete recognition of the advantages of naval
+power, with his assiduous energy in the creation of a
+strong fleet, recognised—as perhaps both Buckingham
+and Phineas Pett had done before—the advantages of
+the “big ship.” Yet under his rule no appreciable
+advance in size took place. Nor, for that matter, did
+it take place any time within a hundred and fifty years
+later on.</p>
+
+<p>The reason is interesting. It was purely a matter
+of trees. The length of a ship was circumscribed by the
+height of trees; other dimensions by similar hard facts.
+The beam was dependent on the ship’s length; while<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span>
+the draught was governed by the harbours and docking
+facilities. It is doubtful whether any man ever sought
+to solve the problem of an invincible navy with more
+energy than Oliver Cromwell; yet under his rule nothing
+in the way of improvement was evolved at all comparable
+with the step taken with the <i>Royal Sovereign</i> under
+the weaker Charles Stuart—Buckingham régime. The
+limitations of the tree proved the limitations of the ship.</p>
+
+<p>When Cromwell died, his record was left in numbers.
+The Navy at his death consisted of 157 ships. His
+architectural improvements were but a new form of
+bottoms.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a></p>
+
+<p>Oliver Cromwell had not been long dead when the
+Navy—then under Monk—decided to restore the
+Monarchy. It sailed to Holland, embarked Charles II
+and James, Duke of York, and established Charles on
+the throne without opposition. Monk is popularly
+regarded as a political time-server. But in his change
+of sides he made one very important stipulation: that
+Charles was to pledge himself to the upkeep of the fleet.
+The fleet accomplished the Restoration. The bulk of
+evidence is that it did so with little regard for any issue
+other than the naval one.</p>
+
+<h3><i>THE SECOND DUTCH WAR.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The second Dutch War broke out in 1665. As usual
+a state of unofficial war had preceded it. Both sides,
+having thought over the first war, had come to the
+conclusion that protecting their own merchant ships and
+attacking those of the enemy at one and the same time
+was an impossible proposition.</p>
+
+<p>Both officially ordered their merchant ships to keep
+inside harbour; but in both nations there were traders<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span>
+who took their own risks at sea and found warships
+handy to protect them. None the less, this war is of
+much importance as the first in which the command of
+the sea, fleet against fleet, received general recognition.</p>
+
+<p>The battles themselves of this war are of little
+interest. They were marked by that same equality of
+courage and determination which was an outstanding
+feature of the First War. Slight early English successes
+led to little but attacks on merchant shipping; then the
+Great Plague paralysed English efforts. The Dutch
+got to the mouth of the Thames, but a sudden sickness
+among their crews scared them off after a sixteen days’
+blockade.</p>
+
+<p>Following this the French took side with the Dutch;
+but inconclusive fighting still resulted, till the Dutch,
+imagining that they had done better than they really
+had, found themselves engaged in the battle of the
+North Foreland.</p>
+
+<p>Defeated in this they retired to Ostend, and the
+English scored on their trade by landing operations and
+harbour attacks, the result of which Admiral Colomb
+has estimated as proportionately equivalent to sixty-six
+million pounds’ worth of damage at the present day!
+But it was conceded on the English side (<i lang="la">vide</i> Pepys)
+that it was mainly a matter of luck that this immense
+blow was struck.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after this event, the Insular spirit asserted
+itself with what in these days is known as “Economy
+and Efficiency.” The Duke of York (afterwards
+James II) opposed it, but it was generally carried that
+the Dutch were defeated, and that a few economical
+fortifications would save the country against any further
+Dutch danger. No one having knowledge of the Dutch<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span>
+agreed. Indeed, the situation was precisely the same
+as when a few years ago the British Government cut
+down the Naval Programme. Charles II, peace talk
+being in the air, cut down expenses probably for his own
+ends; British Governments of the 1906–1907 era cut
+down with a view to expending the saving on “social
+reforms.” But the practical results were identical. The
+Dutch in their era did what the Germans did in our
+own—met the decrease by an increase. They omitted
+to consider the ethics involved; they looked merely after
+their own ends. The result was a great Dutch attack
+on the Thames, which, though not so serious as the
+similar previous English attack on them, produced an
+enormous amount of mischief.</p>
+
+<p>That the Dutch did not bombard London itself
+was purely a matter of contrary winds and luck. They
+did destroy numerous new warships on the river,
+and Sheerness fell entirely into their hands. “Dutch
+guns were heard in London”—to quote the popular
+histories. Actually luck favoured the English, and
+diplomacy secured a peace which the reduced fleet could
+never have achieved. The pen, for the moment, proved
+mightier than the sword. England obtained thereby a
+peace favourable to her, while the Dutch secured a
+breathing space to enable them to prepare for the Third
+Dutch War, which, had the Second been carried to its
+end against them, would never have occurred.</p>
+
+<h3><i>THE THIRD DUTCH WAR.</i></h3>
+
+<p>This War also began in the usual way—irregular
+attacks on commerce, without any declaration of war, and
+in March, 1672, an English Squadron wrecked havoc on
+the Dutch Indiamen. As in the Second War, the Dutch
+after this prohibited their merchant ships from proceeding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span>
+to sea. No such prohibition took effect in England,
+where the merchant navy rapidly increased.</p>
+
+<p>In the Second War the French were the allies of the
+Dutch. In the Third, they joined in with the English.
+In both cases their underlying political motive appears
+to have been to egg Great Britain and the Dutch on to
+mutual destruction. The assistance actually obtained by
+the Dutch from the French in the Second War was a
+minus quantity, and though in the Third, French ships
+actually joined the English fleet, the advantage therefrom
+ended there.</p>
+
+<p>The allied fleet, under the command of the Duke of
+York, consisted of sixty-five English and thirty-six French
+warships, twenty-two fire ships, and a number of small
+craft. This fleet lay at Sole Bay (Southwold on the
+Suffolk coast). Here they were surprised by De Ruyter
+with ninety-one men of war, forty-four fire ships, and a
+number of small craft.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Royal James</i>, flagship of the Earl of Sandwich,
+who commanded one of the two divisions of the English
+Fleet, was attacked and destroyed by fire-ships, and the
+Earl was drowned in attempting to escape. The French
+Squadron under D’Estrées fell back and took little
+part in the fight. None the less, however, victory rested
+with the English, and the Dutch retreated to their own
+coasts, and were blockaded in the Texel. On shore the
+Dutch were badly pressed by the French armies, their
+naval energies being restricted accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>With the approach of winter, the Allied fleet was
+broken up and returned to its harbours. In the early
+part of the following year, the Dutch conceived the
+project of blocking the English fleet in the Thames, and
+prepared eight ships full of stones with that object in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span>
+view. This appears to have been the first instance of a
+device similar to that more recently unsuccessfully
+undertaken by the Americans, at Santiago de Cuba, in
+the Spanish-American War, and by the Japanese, at
+Port Arthur, in the Russo-Japanese War. The Dutch
+attack was never actually made; presumably circumstances
+did not admit of it. In the view of Admiral
+Colomb, it was frustrated by the English fleet putting to
+sea at an earlier date than had been expected.</p>
+
+<p>The Allied fleet formed a junction off Rye, in
+May. It consisted altogether of eighty-four men-of-war,
+twenty-six fire-ships and auxiliaries. The English
+divisions were commanded by Prince Rupert and
+Spragge. The third division was under D’Estrées as
+before, but in order to avoid a repetition of what had
+happened at Sole Bay, the French ships were distributed
+in all three divisions of the fleet, instead of in a single
+division as they previously had been.</p>
+
+<p>Having embarked a number of troops, the Allies
+sailed for Zealand, and found the Dutch fleet concentrating
+at the mouth of the Scheldt. It consisted of
+about seventy men-of-war, under De Ruyter, Tromp and
+Bankert. For some days, owing to fog and bad weather,
+no fighting was possible; but on the 28th of May, the
+Dutch weighed anchor and a battle of the usual sort
+took place, both sides claiming victory. The loss of
+life in the Allied fleet, crowded as it was with troops,
+was very heavy, and no attempt was made to follow
+up the Dutch, who had retired inside the mouth of the
+river.</p>
+
+<p>On the 4th of June, the Dutch fleet again came out.
+The English retired before it. An entirely inconclusive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span>
+action eventually resulted, after which each fleet returned
+to harbour.</p>
+
+<p>Having embarked a number of fresh troops at
+Sheerness, the Allies again put to sea and appeared on
+the Dutch coast. No landing was, however, attempted;
+and on the 10th of August the final battle took place.
+The French fleet on this occasion was allowed to act by
+itself, and, as before, drew off and left the English to
+shift for themselves. Spragge, having had two flagships
+disabled, was drowned in moving to a third, and victory,
+such as it was, went to the Dutch. No further battles
+took place, and in 1664 peace was concluded.</p>
+
+<p>The net result of these three wars was in favour of
+the English, but mainly on the trade issue.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the First, the Dutch had by far
+the larger merchant shipping. At the end of the Third,
+the proportion was reversed.</p>
+
+<p>Although tactics, as we understand them, cannot be
+said to have been employed, certain definite war lessons
+were undoubtedly learned. It came to be thoroughly
+believed that the principal use of a fleet was to attack
+the fleet of the enemy; and on that account these wars
+are an important feature of English naval history.</p>
+
+<p>Following the conclusion of peace, the English
+Navy was entirely neglected, and the condition of the
+ships became so bad that in 1679 a Commission was
+appointed and thirty new ships were laid down. But
+the majority of these ships, having been launched, were
+allowed to decay; Charles II’s early interest in the
+fleet having become a dead letter in his later years.</p>
+
+<p>When James II came to the throne in 1685, he
+appointed another Special Commission, and the repair of
+the Navy was systematically undertaken. The <em>personnel</em>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span>
+however, was neglected. It remained in a very dissatisfied
+state, and tacitly agreed to his deposition.</p>
+
+<p>At the abdication of James II, in December, 1688,
+the Navy consisted of 173 ships, manned by 42,003 men,
+and carrying 6,930 guns. Of these ships, nine were first-rate,
+11 second, 39 third, 41 fourth, 3 fifth, and 6 sixth.
+There were 26 fire-ships and 39 small craft. The best of
+the first-rates in those days was the <i>Britannia</i>. She was
+of 1,739 tons, carried 100 guns and a crew of 780 men.
+Her length was 146 feet, her beam 47 feet 4 inches, and
+her draught 20 feet. The second-rate ships were 90 gun-vessels,
+third-rate 70 guns, and fourth-rate 54.</p>
+
+<p>During James II’s reign, bomb vessels were first
+introduced and regular establishments of stores were
+instituted. It is somewhat difficult to assess how far
+naval progress was actually indebted to this, the first
+King of England who was a naval officer, and how far
+to the efforts of a determined few who realised the
+absolute importance of naval power. Probably of
+James I, as of all the Stuarts,<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> it may be said that
+they realised the principle, but required pressing to act
+upon it. To thus acting may be traced the unpopularity
+of at least some of the Stuarts—there are practically no
+signs that the nation generally understood the importance
+of a powerful Navy. All the indications are in a contrary
+direction.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="V"><span id="toclink_88"></span>V.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE EARLY FRENCH WARS.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> accession of William of Orange and the French
+support of James soon brought about a war.
+Early in 1689 James invaded Ireland with French
+ships and men. He did sufficiently well there for a
+considerable English army to be employed against him,
+and in the summer of 1690, William himself went over
+to take command, leaving Queen Mary as Regent with
+little save the militia as military defence and a more or
+less unprepared fleet.</p>
+
+<p>A Jacobite rising in England was planned. In
+conjunction with it the French proposed to hold the
+Channel in superior force to cover the landing of troops
+in England, and then, by a blockade in the Irish Channel,
+prevent the return of King William and his army. The
+attitude of the English fleet was uncertain—a strong
+Jacobite element being in it—and the scheme was
+generally a very promising one for the French.</p>
+
+<p>A personal appeal from Queen Mary is said to have
+secured the allegiance of the English fleet: but in
+everything else the subsequent French failure was due
+only to luck and the wisdom of the British Admiral,
+Lord Torrington.</p>
+
+<p>It was more or less realised that the French would
+concentrate at Brest. Squadrons were sent out to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span>
+interfere with this, but convoys and the like bulked
+largely in their orders. There is not the remotest
+indication that the Home Government appreciated the
+danger, which ended in Torrington finding himself
+opposed by a greatly superior French fleet, which he was
+ordered to fight at all costs.</p>
+
+<p>Therefrom ensued the battle of Beachy Head, a
+defeat and a “strategical retirement to the rear” for
+which Torrington was subsequently court-martialled and
+acquitted. He alone appears to have realised that his
+defeat would have meant the success of the French plans,
+while so long as he could avoid action the threat of his
+existence must interfere with invasion.</p>
+
+<p>The French movements throughout were somewhat
+obscure. On the 25th June, according to Torrington,
+they might have attacked him but did not do so. When
+the battle took place on the 30th, it was Torrington who
+attacked. In the subsequent retreat, the French pursued
+for four days, but did so in line of battle and without much
+energy. They captured or destroyed five disabled ships,
+but of real following up of the victory there was none.</p>
+
+<p>The Anglo-Dutch fleet took shelter at the Nore; but
+the French drew off at Dover, and sailing west attacked
+Teignmouth and then returned to Brest. Their failure
+to follow up and destroy Torrington has never been
+satisfactorily explained.</p>
+
+<p>The panic which they had created in England bore
+early fruit. Thirty new ships were laid down. Of these
+seventeen were eighty-gun ships of 1000 tons, three were
+1050 tons but carried seventy guns only, the remaining
+ten, sixty-gun ships of 900 tons.</p>
+
+<p>In 1692 another Jacobite rising was planned, and a
+French army collected to assist it. Taught by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span>
+experience of Beachy Head the Anglo-Dutch fleet
+concentrated early. It consisted of no less than
+ninety-eight ships of the line,<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> besides frigates and
+auxiliaries, the whole being under command of Russell.
+A descent upon St. Malo was the principal objective
+contemplated.</p>
+
+<p>Neither side appears to have had much conception
+of the intentions of the other. De Tourville, with a fleet
+of only fifty ships of the line, is supposed to have sailed
+under the impression that the Dutch had not joined up
+with the English.</p>
+
+<p>In the fog of early morning on May 19th, he
+blundered into the entire Anglo-Dutch fleet off Cape La
+Hogue, and sustained a crushing defeat. At least twenty-one
+French ships of the line were lost in the battle itself
+or destroyed in the harbours they had escaped into.</p>
+
+<p>Following upon this victory came a lull in operations.
+It would seem to have been the English idea that the
+French fleet, having been beaten and dispersed, all that
+remained to do was to get ready to defeat the new fleet
+that France was preparing, and so the year 1693 passed
+uneventfully, except that damage was done to trade on
+either side.</p>
+
+<p>In July, 1694, the Allies made a move, bombarding
+Dieppe and Havre from a squadron of bombs which had
+been specially prepared. In September, Dunkirk received
+attention from a new war device called “smoak-boats”<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a>
+the invention of one Meerlers, which did not inconvenience
+anyone very much. Meerlers also had “machine ships,”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span>
+which likewise did no harm. These appear to have been
+an elementary idea on large scale of the modern torpedo—improved
+fire-ships.</p>
+
+<p>A fleet was generally busy defending trade in the
+Mediterranean, where for the first time it was permanently
+stationed. Nothing in the way of fleet action was
+attempted by the French, and the next few years were
+spent in privateering on their part, and bombardments
+of ports which sheltered privateers on the part of the
+Allies.</p>
+
+<p>English naval estimates in 1695 amounted to
+£2,382,172, and the House of Lords, in an address to the
+King, advocated an increase of the fleet on the grounds
+that it was essential to the nation that its fleets should
+always be superior to any possible enemy. A French
+invasion was projected in the winter months; but
+abandoned on the appearance of a fleet under Russell.</p>
+
+<p>There is no question that in this war the French did
+more mischief with their privateers than with their fleet.
+English trade suffered very heavily; and there were
+continual complaints about the inability of the fleet to
+suppress the corsairs, a Parliamentary enquiry being
+eventually made into the matter.</p>
+
+<p>The French privateers—“corsairs” is the more
+correct term—were in substance a species of naval
+militia, of a quite different status from English privateers
+sailing under letters of marque. They hailed principally
+from St. Malo; trading in peace time and preying on
+commerce in time of war. There were special regulations
+under which they were governed. The owner had to
+deposit a sum of about £600 with the Admiralty as
+security. He had to pay ten per cent. of the profits to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span>
+the Admiralty and five per cent. to the Church. Two-thirds
+of the balance was his profit, the remaining third
+went to the crew. Often enough the privateer was a
+royal ship, let out for the purpose, and in the years
+following the battle of Cape La Hogue, most of the
+French frigates were on this service, with naval officers
+and men on board very often.</p>
+
+<p>The privateers carried few guns, their object being
+to capture prizes, not to sink them. They sailed mostly
+in small squadrons, so making a considerable number of
+guns, and were rarely particular about using false colours.
+It was therefore comparatively easy for them successfully
+to attack weak convoys: some dealing with the warships
+and others making prizes; and the inefficiency laid to
+the blame of the English fleet in trade protection at that
+period was, in some measure, at any rate, due to a failure
+to appreciate the enormous difficulties. Duguay-Trouin
+himself records using the English flag to approach an
+English warship, and firing on her under these colours.</p>
+
+<p>The unhandy warships of those days, faced with
+light enemies, which they could never overhaul, had a
+tremendous task set them. That the Navy of William III
+era successfully defended anything against men like
+Duguay-Trouin and Jean Bart, is of far more moment
+and more to be wondered at than any failures. In this
+particular war the fast lightly-armed corsair reached its
+apotheosis at the hands of veritable experts to a degree
+impossible to-day, or for that matter, ever hereafter,
+unless aircraft prove able to act as “privateers” of the
+future—a role which, to date, has been entirely forgotten
+in all discussions as to the value of aircraft.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span></p>
+
+<figure id="i_93" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img src="images/i_093.jpg" width="1239" height="1634" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">ANTHONY DEANE.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In 1697, the peace of Ryswick was signed. According
+to Burchett, the net result of the war was the loss of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span>
+fifty English warships and fifty-nine French ones. The
+historians generally indicate that the French were worn
+out with the struggle; but on the whole the English
+seem to have been well out of the war also.</p>
+
+<p>It was about this time that Peter the Great appeared
+in England, and engaged John Deane, brother of the
+famous naval architect, Sir Anthony, to go back to
+Russia with him to establish a navy. This is the first
+instance of the foundation or reorganisation of a foreign
+navy by this country. The experiment was by no means
+very successful; the bulk of the English naval officers
+taken over by Peter being men who, for various reasons,
+had been dismissed from the Royal Navy. Some proved
+incompetent, and all of them were quarrelsome.</p>
+
+<h3><i>WAR OF THE SUCCESSION.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The war of the Spanish Succession synchronised
+with the accession of Queen Anne, in 1702. In the
+interval following the peace of Ryswick the French
+fleet had had considerable attention paid to it. The
+principal innovation consisted in increasing the size
+without (as hitherto) increasing the armament in ratio.
+The French three-deckers were now built of 2,000 tons
+instead of 1,500 as formerly. The superior sailing
+qualities, ever a feature of French ships, were still
+further enhanced.</p>
+
+<p>In England, though shipbuilding had also been
+vigorously pursued, improvements commensurate with
+those of France were not made. English ships of the
+period were, generally speaking, overgunned.</p>
+
+<p>At the outbreak of the war of the Succession, the
+fleet consisted of seven first-rate, fourteen second-rate,
+forty-five third, sixty-three fourth, thirty-six fifth,
+twenty-nine sixth, eight fire ships, thirteen bombs, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span>
+ten yachts—a total tonnage of 158,992; an increase of
+about a third in thirteen years. The first-rates were
+a new type of ship; the second-rates consisted of
+the old type first and second rates—the three deckers
+of ninety guns and special service eighty-gun two
+deckers. The third-rates were the staple battle type—two
+deckers of seventy guns on home service and
+mounting sixty-two guns when sent abroad. The
+fourth-rates carried nominally fifty guns and forty-four
+on foreign service.</p>
+
+<p>One third of the naval power of Europe was
+English; France and Holland between them made up
+another third, the balance being represented by the rest
+of the Powers.<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> Though the phrase, “Two Power
+Standard,” was then unknown, the fleet, representing as
+it did the result of agitations in Parliament and elsewhere
+for suitable naval power, was clearly based on a
+similar general idea, and the Two Power Standard theory
+may be dated from the time of William of Orange.</p>
+
+<p>The general idea of the campaign on the English
+side was combined naval and military attack on Ferrol—the
+fleet, consisting of fifty English and Dutch ships of
+the line and some frigates and transports to the number
+of 110, being under Sir George Rooke. The military
+element amounted to 12,000 troops under the Duke of
+Ormonde. Nothing came of the attempt owing to
+internal dissentions; and the expedition was on its way
+back when news was received of Chateau-Renault with
+a French-Spanish fleet of twenty-one warships at Vigo.
+A combined attack was delivered and the entire hostile
+fleet was sunk or captured without much loss, and a
+valuable convoy captured also.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span></p>
+
+<p>In this year there also happened the greatest
+disgrace that ever befell the Royal Navy. Admiral
+Benbow, who had risen from the “Lower Deck,” was
+detached with six ships of the line to the West Indies,
+where he met a French squadron of five, under du-Casse.
+Two of his captains refused to engage the enemy
+altogether, and the others, save one, did so but half-heartedly.
+Benbow was mortally wounded and a French
+victory gained. On their return to England two of the
+captains were executed “for cowardice,” but timidity
+had actually nothing whatever to do with the business.
+It was purely and entirely an act of personal hostility.
+It is generally put down to Benbow’s lowly origin;
+but officers of the Benbow class were so plentiful,
+and Benbow had so long been in important positions
+afloat,<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> that the “obvious reason” played but a minor
+part. Benbow’s great defect was a lack of that
+“personality” of which in later years Nelson was the
+prime exponent. Coupled with this was the state of
+much of the Navy generally owing to Jacobite intrigues
+with those who were unable to forget their old allegiance
+to the Stuarts.</p>
+
+<p>In 1703 very special orders were issued as to cutting
+down expenditure on non-essentials in ship construction.
+In this year the ornamental work so conspicuous in ships
+of the Stuart era was reduced almost to extinction.</p>
+
+<p>The naval events were inconsiderable. A few French
+prizes were made, and it was found from these that
+the French theory of increasing dimensions without
+increasing the armament had reached such a stage that
+fifty-gun French ships were larger than sixty-gun English<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span>
+ones,<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> but it was not for some years that practical
+attention was directed to the point.</p>
+
+<p>In 1704 there took place another of the combined
+naval and military operations peculiar to this war. This
+was to Lisbon and in connection with the Austrian
+Archduke Charles. It is mainly of interest because it
+led to the more or less accidental capture of Gibraltar,
+and in that it otherwise had much to do with the
+prevention of a junction of the French Brest and Toulon
+fleets which was destined to loom so largely in future
+history that to this day “junctions” remain a principal
+“idea” for naval manœuvres.</p>
+
+<p>Sir George Rooke, who commanded the main fleet,
+had with him forty-eight ships of the line and details;
+Sir Cloudesley Shovell was in the channel with some
+twenty-two more.</p>
+
+<p>The Brest fleet sailed for Toulon under the Count
+de Toulouse. They were chased without effect by
+Rooke, till near Toulon, when on the evening of May
+29th, he gave up the pursuit as too risky, and returned
+to Lagos, where Shovell joined him on June 16th.</p>
+
+<p>The combined English fleet being now assumed
+superior to the combined French fleet, attacks on Cadiz
+and Barcelona were contemplated, but as insufficient
+troops were available it was decided to attack Gibraltar
+instead. The motive for doing so does not appear to
+have been anything greater than that the King of
+Portugal and the Archduke Charles were worrying the fleet
+to “do something.” Gibraltar was suggested and settled
+on, apparently, as being as suitable as any other place.</p>
+
+<p>Gibraltar lies at the end of a narrow peninsula. On
+this peninsula, on July 21st, 1,800 marines from the fleet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span>
+landed under the Prince of Hesse. As they carried only
+eighteen rounds per man, the presumption is obvious
+that either little opposition was expected or else that
+the attack was merely delivered to satisfy those who had
+urged that something should be done. The former is
+generally assumed to be the case, but the latter is by
+no means improbable. In any case, the marines met
+with little opposition and demanded the surrender of the
+fortress, while some of the English ships, under Byng,
+were warped into bombarding positions under a mild
+fire from the forts. This occupied a whole day.</p>
+
+<p>Early on the 23rd, fire was opened on both sides,
+and the inhabitants of the town fled to a chapel on the
+hill. The bombardment continued till noon, when the
+“cease fire” was ordered, so that results might be
+ascertained. It was found that some of the batteries
+were disabled, and it was then decided to land in the
+boats and capture them.</p>
+
+<p>On the cessation of fire, the inhabitants, mostly
+women and priests, who had fled out of the town, began
+to come back. Sir Cloudesley Shovell (who was on board
+Byng’s flagship) ordered a gun to be fired across these;
+whereupon they all ran back to the chapel in which they
+had been sheltered. This gun was taken by the fleet
+generally to be a signal to re-open the bombardment.
+Under cover of this firing, the landing party got ashore,
+and had things much their own way till about a hundred
+of them were killed or wounded by the blowing up of
+the Castle.</p>
+
+<p>At this they began to retreat, but reinforcements
+arriving, they retrieved the position and captured other
+works without difficulty, establishing themselves between
+the town and the chapel where the women had taken<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span>
+refuge. Giving this as his reason, the Governor
+capitulated next day. His entire garrison, according to
+Torrington’s Memoirs, consisted of but eighty men.
+The Anglo-Dutch force lost three officers and fifty-seven
+men killed, eight officers and 207 men wounded.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the capture of Gibraltar, “the impregnable.”
+At Toulon, a large French fleet was getting ready for
+sea—a fleet quite large enough to have done to the
+English what Teggethoff, in 1866, did to the bombarding
+Italians at Lissa.</p>
+
+<p>There seems little doubt that Rooke under-estimated
+his fleet. On the other hand, as he had look-outs, and
+the wind was not in the enemy’s favour, the risks he
+actually ran were trifling compared to those taken by
+Persano. From which many lessons have been deduced
+and morals drawn.</p>
+
+<p>In actual fact, however, it is greatly to be doubted
+whether either commander thought round the matter at
+all. The “science” of naval warfare is a thing of quite
+modern origin, and the strategies displayed by most
+admirals in the past—if studied with an unbiassed mind—are
+just as likely to be luck as forethought. Analogous
+to this is Ruskin on the artist Turner. Turner painted
+wonderful pictures: Ruskin found wonderful meanings
+in them. These “meanings” were, however, more news
+to Turner than to anyone else!</p>
+
+<p>On August 10th, the French fleet, reported as
+sixty-six sail, was sighted thirty miles off by a look-out
+ship. Rooke’s fleet at that time was short of five Dutch
+ships which he had sent away, twelve other ships were
+watering at Tetuan—miles away from him—and all the
+marines of the fleet were on shore at Gibraltar as garrison.
+The light craft were sent into Gibraltar to bring back<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span>
+half the marines as quickly as possible, while the main
+fleet retreated to pick up the Tetuan division, and later
+got its marines on board.</p>
+
+<p>The French, meanwhile, either ignorant of the state
+of affairs, or else from general incompetence, made no
+attack at the time, and it was not till the 13th that
+battle was joined by the English bearing down on them.
+The resulting engagement was indecisive, and the fleets
+withdrew to repair damages. The French, however,
+declined to renew action, eventually retreated to Toulon,
+and never attempted a fleet action again during the war.</p>
+
+<p>Rooke’s fleet consisted of fifty-three ships of the line.
+The French had fifty-two, of which they lost five.</p>
+
+<p>Following the battle of Malaga, the marines were
+landed again at Gibraltar, together with some gunners
+and forty-eight guns. The fleet then returned to England,
+leaving at Lisbon a dozen ships under Sir John Leake—the
+only ships which, after survey, were considered not
+to be in urgent need of refit at home. This squadron
+was subsequently reinforced by eight ships of the line.</p>
+
+<p>The French and Spaniards presently invested
+Gibraltar by land and sea. In the first attempt the
+blockading fleet was short of supplies and had to retire to
+Cadiz. Leake arrived, but finding nothing there returned
+to the Tagus.</p>
+
+<p>The French then sent a light squadron to assist the
+siege, and the whole of those were surprised and captured
+by Leake, on October 29th, 1704. There is reason to
+believe that this action saved the fortress, as a grand
+assault was on the <em>tapis</em>.</p>
+
+<p>Leake remained at Gibraltar three months, during
+which time stores and some 2,000 troops were brought
+in from England; then, the garrison being now in no<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span>
+straits, the English ships withdrew in January, 1705, to
+Lisbon to refit, leaving the land investment to proceed.
+In March, a squadron of fourteen French ships of the
+line appeared off Gibraltar, but owing to a gale only
+five got into the harbour. Here they were presently
+surprised and captured by the English. The remaining
+ships fled to Toulon and the siege was then raised—having
+lasted five months.</p>
+
+<p>From these operations it is abundantly clear that
+the English had by now realised that Gibraltar was
+perfectly safe so long as its sea communications were
+kept open. De Pointis, the French Admiral, realised the
+same thing, and in the whole of the naval operations he
+appears to have been obeying, under protest, orders
+from the French Government, which at no time appears
+to have realised the futility of such operations in face
+of a superior Anglo-Dutch fleet.</p>
+
+<p>Following the abandonment of the siege of Gibraltar,
+the French became very active with their corsairs,
+inflicting heavy losses on English trade. On the ultimate
+inutility of this <i lang="fr">guerre de course</i> much has been written;
+but perhaps hardly proper attention has been bestowed
+on the other side of the question. The French had
+small stomach for anything of the nature of a fleet action,
+and there is little or no reason to suppose that had they
+concentrated on line operations any success would have
+attended their efforts. Their <em>personnel</em> was generally
+inferior. Their <em>materiel</em> on the other hand was superior,
+and the problem really before them surely was, not
+which method, “grand battle” or <i lang="fr">guerre de course</i>, was
+better, but how best to inflict damage with the
+means available. And here the <i lang="fr">guerre de course</i> held
+obvious promise.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span></p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1705, a combined land and sea
+attack was delivered on Barcelona, the Earl of Peterborough
+being in supreme command of both forces. The
+town surrendered on October 3rd. The history of
+Gibraltar was then repeated. The fleet withdrew, leaving
+Leake with a few ships to watch. The enemy then
+invested the place, which was relieved just in time by
+Leake so heavily reinforced that the French squadron
+made no attempt to fight him. A variety of other towns
+was then captured by combined attacks, also the
+Balearic Islands, except Minorca.</p>
+
+<p>In 1706, combined operations on the north of
+France were arranged for, but ultimately abandoned
+owing to the weather. Ostend was captured in this year;
+but a combined attack on Toulon, in 1707, signally failed.</p>
+
+<p>In 1708, the French attempted combined operations
+on Scotland and reached the Firth of Forth with twenty
+sail, but an English squadron under Byng arriving they
+sailed away again at once. The superior mobility of the
+French was evidenced by the fact that Byng’s pursuit
+resulted in nothing but the capture of an ex-English
+ship which could not keep up with her French-built
+consorts. The Anglo-Dutch combined operations of
+the year resulted in the capture of Minorca. Minor
+operations took place in the West Indies.</p>
+
+<p>1709 passed mostly in the relief of places which
+had been acquired and were now besieged. In 1710, the
+French became more active, capturing one or two
+English warships and making a combined attempt
+against Sardinia. This last was frustrated by Sir John
+Norris. An English attempt on Cette in the same year
+proved a failure; but conspicuous success attended
+similar operations in Nova Scotia.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span></p>
+
+<p>In the following years the principal of such
+operations as took place were on the American coast.
+Of these, the chief was an abortive attack on Quebec,
+mainly remarkable for an extraordinary escape of the
+entire English fleet one night in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
+A military officer, one Captain Goddard, insisted that he
+saw breakers ahead. As no one would credit him he
+finally dragged the Admiral out of bed and up on deck,
+by which time the fleet was close on to the breakers. As
+things were, seven transports were wrecked and nearly a
+thousand soldiers drowned. The warships very narrowly
+escaped.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a></p>
+
+<p>This disaster led to the abandonment of the
+expedition. Peace was declared in 1713. The English
+loss in the war was thirty-eight ships, mounting 1,596
+guns; the French lost fifty-two ships, mounting 3,094
+guns.<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> A very large number of English ships became
+unserviceable during the war, because, despite the fact
+that many new ships were built and that the bulk of
+the ships lost by the French entered the English service,
+the entire navy diminished by twenty-five vessels.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the ships were in poor condition, and in the
+early years of George I’s reign, large sums had to be
+expended on refits. Foul bilge water was the main cause
+of internal decay, and in 1715 organised steps were
+taken for the ventilation of the bilges. A certain
+increase in size for ships of all classes was also ordered,
+those of 100 guns being increased by 319 tons, and the
+eighty-gun ships by sixty-seven tons. This increase,
+however, by no means brought the tonnage to gun ratio<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span>
+down to the French limits, nor were the improvements
+in underwater form of much serious moment. The
+French maintained a superiority in this respect which
+they held till the present century. To-day, of course,
+the situation is completely reversed, and for any given
+horse-power any British ship is appreciably faster than
+a French one.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a></p>
+
+<p>Some special attention was also devoted to the
+preparation of timber for immediate use in shipbuilding.
+This subject was first drawn attention to in 1694, and
+the net result of the enquiries in 1715 did not really go
+much further. It was not till eleven years later that the
+problem was seriously grappled with.</p>
+
+<p>In 1715, an English fleet under Norris was in the
+Baltic, acting against Sweden and allied with the
+Russians and Danes, Peter the Great himself being in
+chief command. Nothing of moment happened. These
+operations extended to 1719, when sides were changed.</p>
+
+<p>In 1718, Spain, which had recently made some considerable
+efforts towards the creation of naval power,
+used her power for an attack on Sicily. Admiral Byng
+arriving with a superior English fleet, attacked and
+destroyed the greater part of the Spanish squadron in
+the Battle of Cape Passaro. No state of war existed.
+The Spaniards had attacked an English ally, and this
+was Byng’s only excuse for action. A few months later
+war was formally declared against Spain, and early in
+1719 a curious replica of the Armada took place. Forty
+Spanish transports, escorted by merely five warships,
+sailed from Cadiz for the coast of Scotland; the idea
+being that the 5,000 troops which they carried should
+co-operate in a Jacobite rising. This “Armada” was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span>
+dispersed by a severe gale off Cape Finisterre, and only
+a small fraction of it reached the coast of Ross, where a
+landing, easily defeated by the military, was made. It
+is noteworthy that no fleet met the expedition, and it
+was not till a month after its dispersal in a gale that
+Norris sailed to look for it.</p>
+
+<p>The remainder of this particular war, which lasted
+only three years, was devoted to the re-conquest of
+Sicily and the capture of Vigo. Peace was concluded in
+1721. In the course of this war the usual combined
+attack was made upon Gibraltar in 1720; but the arrival
+of an English fleet easily relieved the garrison.</p>
+
+<p>At and about this time the Russian fleet, hitherto
+allies, became the enemy, and early in 1720 Admiral
+Norris was despatched to assist the Swedes against them.
+He appears to have done very little save squabble with
+the Swedish admiral as to precedence. In any case the
+Russians did much as they listed against the Swedish
+coast till Sweden had to sue for peace, and Russia
+became the predominant Baltic naval power. Her
+position as such was the more extraordinary in that the
+Russian fleet was technically very incompetent. The
+situation was mainly brought about by the personal
+genius of Peter the Great. His ships were generally the
+speedier, and he issued the strictest orders that no enemy
+was to be engaged unless at least one-third inferior in
+power. In the presence of an enemy the Swedes considered
+nothing,<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> the English comparatively little. The
+brain of Peter, was, therefore, an easy match for them,
+despite the technical inferiority of his <em>personnel</em>. This
+campaign is a most striking illustration of Alexander the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span>
+Great’s maxim “that an army of sheep led by a lion is
+better than an army of lions led by a sheep.”</p>
+
+<p>In 1726, an Anglo-Danish naval demonstration
+against Russia took place at Kronstadt, but nothing came
+of the incident, which was repeated equally ineffectually in
+the following year, when larger preparations were made.</p>
+
+<p>In 1726, the preservation of ships’ timbers came once
+more on the <em>tapis</em>, when the results of some experiments,
+commenced six years before, were inspected. Up to
+about 1720, woods were prepared for use by a system
+known as “charring.” This consisted in building a fire
+one side of the plank and keeping the other side wet till
+the required condition was produced. One, Cumberland,
+invented a system known as “stoving.” By this, the
+wood was put into wet sand and then subjected to heat
+till the juices were extracted and the wood in suitable
+condition. A ship was planked with both systems,
+side by side, and on these being examined in 1726, it
+was found that while the “stoved” planks were in good
+condition the “charred” ones were already rotten.</p>
+
+<p>A grateful country vaguely presented Cumberland
+with one tenth of whatever might be the saving which
+his system would produce. Cumberland, however, was
+equally vague, since he could supply no data as to the
+amount of heat or time of subjection, and experiments
+had to be carried out in the Yards in order to ascertain this.
+The authorities were apparently still ascertaining when
+one Boswell, of Deptford Yard, in 1736, hit upon using
+steam, and his system became at once general—though
+a few years later it was replaced by boiling the timber.</p>
+
+<p>When George II came to the throne the country
+was at peace, but this peace was mainly and entirely
+secured by the policy of Walpole, who kept the Navy on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span>
+a war footing. Feeling against Spain ran so high on
+account of the action of the <i>Guarda-Costas</i> in searching
+English ships in the West Indies, that Walpole’s hands
+were forced in 1739. In the House of Commons, Captain
+Vernon announced that with six ships he could capture
+Porto Bello. Promoted to Rear Admiral, he essayed the
+task, and accomplished it, by coming into close range
+and landing under cover of a bombardment. His loss
+was trifling—nineteen killed and wounded, all told. The
+garrison turned out to have been only 300 strong, of
+whom forty surrendered. The rest had either been killed
+or had fled. It is to be observed that no state of war
+existed at the time.</p>
+
+<p>War with Spain was declared in October, 1739. The
+English fleet in commission consisted of thirty-eight
+ships of the line, and there was a reserve of twenty-four
+ready for immediate service. There were also thirty-six
+minor vessels in commission and eight in reserve.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting circumstance of this war was the
+whole-world scale on which naval operations were
+planned. In substance the scheme was as follows:—Admiral
+Vernon was to attack the east coast of Darien.
+Captain Cornwall was to round the Horn, attack the
+west coast of Darien and then go to the Philippines, where
+he was to meet Captain Anson, who was to voyage thither
+via the Cape of Good Hope. The scheme was not carried
+out in its entirety, as the Cape of Good Hope expedition
+never sailed, Anson being substituted for Cornwall.</p>
+
+<p>Vernon, having been reinforced with a number of
+bombs and fire-ships, proceeded, in March, 1740, to
+attack Cartagena, which he bombarded for four days
+without much material result. Then he proceeded to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span>
+Chagres, which, after a two days’ bombardment, surrendered
+to him. A considerable Spanish squadron being
+reported on its way out, and a French fleet (suspected of
+hostile designs) also sailing, Vernon withdrew to Jamaica,
+where he lay till reinforced by twenty ships under Ogle.</p>
+
+<p>Ogle performed his voyage without adventure,
+except that six of his ships encountered a French squadron
+and fought it for some little time under the impression
+that a state of war existed. The error being discovered,
+the squadrons parted with mutual apologies.<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a></p>
+
+<p>Ogle arrived in January, 1741. After a short refit
+the fleet sailed to look for the French and observe them.
+They presently learned that the French, short of men and
+provisions, had gone back to Europe. Upon receipt of
+this news it was decided to attack Cartagena.</p>
+
+<p>Vernon had with him twenty-nine ships of the line,
+twenty-two lesser craft and a number of transports,
+carrying 12,000 troops. The seamen and marines of the
+fleet totalled 15,000. For a time some success was met
+with, but divided councils, mutual recrimination between
+Navy and Army, sickness in the troops, all did their
+share, and eventually the attack was abandoned.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a></p>
+
+<p>Attacks on other places led to no happier results,
+and while efforts were thus being frittered away in
+the West Indies, the commerce was suffering badly.
+Petitions from the commercial world to Parliament were
+of almost daily occurrence. Vernon requested to be
+recalled, and eventually was superseded, but his
+successor fared no better than he.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, we must turn aside for a moment to
+consider the operations of Anson. The following items<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span>
+in connection therewith are summarised from Barrow’s
+<i>Voyages and Discoveries</i>, published in 1765.</p>
+
+<p>On arriving at Madeira, Anson, who had left England
+on the 13th of September, 1740, learned of a Spanish
+squadron, under Pizarro, lying in wait for him. This
+squadron, attempting to round the Horn ahead of Anson,
+encountered a furious gale, and was eventually driven
+back to Buenos Ayres, with only three ships left, and
+these reduced to the utmost extremities. A second
+attempt to round the Horn fared no better, and eventually
+Pizarro returned to Spain in his own ship, manned
+chiefly by English prisoners and some pressed Indians.
+These latter mutinied, but not being joined by the
+English prisoners, as they had hoped, were defeated.</p>
+
+<p>Anson left Madeira on November 3rd, 1740, and
+shortly afterwards his crews fell sick, through lack of
+air, the ships being too deep for the lower ports to be
+opened. Anson had several ventilating holes cut. Then
+fever came, carrying off many. Just before Christmas he
+arrived at St. Catherine’s, Brazil, but his hopes of
+recruiting his men’s health were abortive. His own
+flagship, the <i>Centurion</i>, lost twenty-eight men dead and
+had ninety-six others on the sick list.</p>
+
+<p>On January 18th, 1741, Anson sailed for the Horn.
+A gale scattered his squadron, one ship being separated
+for a month; eventually, however, all rejoined. There
+followed three months’ tempests rounding the Horn.
+Scurvy appeared, and the ships got separated again.
+Finally, on June 9th, the <i>Centurion</i> alone reached
+Juan Fernandez, short of water and only about ten
+men fit for duty in a watch.</p>
+
+<p>A few days later the <i>Tryal</i> appeared at the island,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span>
+her captain, lieutenant and three men being all who were
+available for service. A third ship, the <i>Gloucester</i>,
+appeared on June 21st, but so short-handed was she
+that, though assistance was sent her, it took her an
+entire fortnight to make harbour! On August 16th, the
+victualler ship, <i>Anna Pink</i>, arrived, all her crew in good
+condition, she having put into some harbour en route.
+Of the other three ships, two (the <i>Severn</i> and <i>Pearl</i>),
+failed to round the Horn and returned to Brazil; the
+third, the <i>Wager</i>, was wrecked.</p>
+
+<p>In September, a sail was sighted. The <i>Centurion</i>
+put to sea and found her to be a Spanish merchant ship.
+From the prisoners it was learned that a Spanish
+squadron from Chili had been on the look out for Anson,
+that a ship had been lying off Juan Fernandez till just
+before his arrival, but that assuming him lost they had
+now all gone back to Valparaiso.</p>
+
+<p>Thereafter several prizes were taken, one being fitted
+out to replace the <i>Tryal</i>, which was abandoned. The
+<i>Anna Pink</i> had also had to be abandoned as useless.</p>
+
+<p>Now began the most extraordinary part of the
+enterprise. Treasure ships were captured, thirty-eight
+men landed, held up and captured Payta, a good half of
+these attired in feminine costume, which they found in
+houses wherein they had sought substitutes for their
+rags—only one man drunk in all the sack of the town—the
+terror of prisoners, who, when released, refused to
+accept liberty till they had thanked Anson for his
+courtesy—Anson’s insistence on treasure being divided
+equally between those who attacked and those who kept
+ship, while giving his own share to the attackers—the
+night chase of a supposed galleon which turned out to
+be but a fire on shore—the fearful sufferings of boats’<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span>
+crews sent out to look for the treasure ship<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a>—the release
+of prisoners, and the Spanish reply thereto by the
+despatch of luxuries to the English—the final loss of the
+<i>Gloucester</i>, worn out by keeping the sea—the arrival at
+Guam of the <i>Centurion</i> with only seventy-one men
+capable of “standing at a gun” under even any
+emergencies—these things belong to special histories.
+Here it suffices to give but a general outline, of which
+the first event is that having reached Macao and refitted,
+Anson went into the Pacific again, and, having given his
+men considerable training in marksmanship and gun-handling,
+finally intercepted and captured the Spanish
+treasure ship that he sought.</p>
+
+<p>On his subsequent return to China with his prize,
+the experiences of “Mr. Anson” (as he is generally called
+throughout the history from which I quote) were mainly
+of a personal nature. Visited by a mandarin who
+showed a liking for wine, Anson had to plead illness and
+delegate his duties of glass for glass to the most robust
+officer he had. He provisioned by weight with ducks
+(found to be filled with stones to make them heavier)
+and pigs filled with water. Ultimately he had to go up
+to Canton with (so far as I can ascertain) the first
+instance of a crew in regular uniform. To quote from
+the entertaining contemporary <span class="locked">narrative:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Towards the end of September, the commodore finding that
+he was deceived by those who had contracted to supply him with
+sea provisions; and that the viceroy had not, according to his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span>
+promise, invited him to an interview, found it impossible to surmount
+the difficulty he was under, without going to Canton and visiting the
+viceroy. He, therefore, prepared for this expedition: the boat’s crew
+were clothed, in a uniform dress, resembling that of the water-men of
+the Thames. There were in number eighteen, and a coxswain; they
+had scarlet jackets, and blue silk waistcoats, the whole trimmed with
+silver buttons, and had also silver badges on their jackets and caps.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Leaving Macao, the <i>Centurion</i> reached the Cape of
+Good Hope on the 11th of March, 1744. From here,
+signing on forty Dutchmen, Anson proceeded home.</p>
+
+<p>So ended the most prodigious oversea combined
+enterprise ever before attempted. Anson was not the
+first to circumnavigate the world, but few had done so
+before him, and on that account the real purpose of
+his expedition has been generally overlooked in the
+circumnavigation feat.</p>
+
+<p>As ever in British naval history luck was with him;
+but something more than “luck” must have been in an
+enterprise where Pizarro, sent to intercept him, gave up,
+while Anson fought through the perils of Cape Horn,
+with his sickly crews and crazy ships.</p>
+
+<p>To resume the general history of the war. In
+October, 1742, the <i>Victory</i> (100) was lost, presumably
+on the Caskets, though her actual fate was never
+ascertained. France had now entered into the war; her
+fleet consisted of forty-five ships of the line; the
+corresponding English fleet totalling ninety ships of the
+line.</p>
+
+<p>In 1742, Ogle succeeded Vernon in the West Indies,
+and a series of small bombardments resulted, usually
+without success.</p>
+
+<p>Formal hostilities with France (delayed as was the
+custom of the time) were declared in 1744, and outlying<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span>
+possessions changed hands. Anson, in command of the
+Channel Fleet in 1747, defeated and captured the Brest
+fleet, and some minor actions took place, mostly in
+connection with convoys. The war ended in 1748; its
+net naval results being as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p>
+
+<table id="t114">
+<tr class="lrpad">
+  <td class="tdl"></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">English.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Spanish.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">French.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Warships lost or captured</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs2">49</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs2">24</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs2">56</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Merchant ships captured</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3,238</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1,249</td>
+  <td class="tdc">2,185</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The economy order referred to on a previous page
+was possibly in part responsible for the bad showing
+made by the English as warships in this war. In any
+case the standardisation of classes had disappeared, and
+no two ships were of the same dimensions. Many ships
+were found so weak at sea that they had to be shored
+up between decks,<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> and of all the complaint was
+continual that they were very “crank” and unable to
+open their lee ports in weather in which foreign ships
+could do so. The seamanship, however, was of a high
+order compared to that of either the French or
+Spaniards; possibly the very badness of the English
+ships helped to make the seamanship what it was.</p>
+
+<p>After the war many constructional improvements
+were suggested and some few of them carried into
+practice. Among the prizes of the war was a Spanish
+ship, the <i>Princessa</i> of seventy guns, which attracted
+general admiration. In 1746, a glorified copy of her, the
+<i>Royal George</i>, was laid down.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> At and about this time
+an era of slow shipbuilding set in; for example, this
+<i>Royal George</i> was ten years on the stocks. The slow
+building was part and parcel of the naval policy of the
+period, and in no way to be connected with what any
+such tardiness would mean to-day.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span></p>
+
+<p>A ship on the stocks was more easily preserved
+from decay than one in the water. With precisely the
+same idea the authorities at the end of the war disbanded
+the bulk of the <em>personnel</em>. Upon a war appearing
+likely, the press-gang was always available to supplement
+any deficiency in the rank and file not filled by allowing
+jail-birds to volunteer.</p>
+
+<p>Officering the fleet was a less easy matter. The
+choice lay between retired officers more or less rusty,
+and the best of the “prime seamen,” who had been afloat
+in such warships as were retained in commission. The
+Admiralty selected its officers from both indiscriminately.
+There is this much, but no more, warrant for the idea
+that in the old days the sailor from forward could rise
+to the highest ranks, while to-day he cannot do so.
+The fact is correct enough, but the circumstance had
+nothing to do with inducements and encouragements.
+Once on the quarter deck the tarpaulin seaman, if he
+had it in him, might win his way to high rank and fame,
+as did Benbow, Sir John Balchen, Captain Cook, and
+several others. But he obtained his footing on entirely
+utilitarian grounds which passed away when a more
+regular system of <em>personnel</em> came into custom.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1753, a Dr. Hales was instrumental in
+one of the greatest improvements ever effected in the
+navy. To him was due the adoption of a system of
+ventilation with wind-mills and air pumps. The
+immediate result was a very great reduction in the
+sickness and death-rate on shipboard, the Earl of
+Halifax placing it on record that for twelve men who
+died in non-ventilated ships, only one succumbed in the
+ventilated vessels.</p>
+
+<p>Early in 1755, a war with France became probable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span>
+on account of hostile preparations made in North
+America. As a matter of precaution a French squadron
+on its way out was attacked and two ships captured.
+Something like three hundred French merchant ships
+were also taken during the year. War, however, was not
+declared on either side!</p>
+
+<p>Early in 1756, news was received of French designs
+on Minorca, a considerable expedition collecting at
+Toulon. After some delay, Byng left England with ten
+ships of the line, picked up three more at Gibraltar, and
+sailed to relieve Minorca, where Fort St. Philip was
+closely invested by 15,000 troops. Supporting these last
+was a French squadron of twelve ships of the line,
+under La Gallisonniére.</p>
+
+<p>On Byng arriving, La Gallisonniére embarked 450
+men from the attacking force to reinforce his crews,
+and on May 20th ensued the battle of Minorca, which
+resulted in the defeat and retreat of Byng.<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> Ten days
+later the British force in the island surrendered.</p>
+
+<p>Byng was subsequently court-martialled and shot at
+Portsmouth for having failed to do his utmost to destroy
+the French fleet. His ships were indifferently manned
+and in none too good condition. He encountered a
+better man than himself, and there is no reason to
+suppose that had he resumed action, anything but his
+total defeat would have resulted. At the same time, the
+execution of Byng, <i lang="fr">pour encourager les autres</i>, probably
+bore utilitarian fruit in the years that were to follow.
+The execution has since been condemned as little better
+than a revengeful judicial murder; but a realisation of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span>
+the circumstances of the times suggests that other
+motives than punishment of an individual were
+paramount.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_117" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;">
+  <img src="images/i_117.jpg" width="2444" height="1942" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">BATTLESHIPS OF THE WHITE ERA AT SEA.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>War was formally declared shortly after the fall of
+Minorca. No events of much moment marked the rest
+of the year 1756, but early in the following year,
+Calcutta, which had fallen to the natives, was recaptured
+by Clive, assisted by a naval force.</p>
+
+<p>In 1758, the Navy consisted of 156 of the line and
+164 lesser vessels. The <em>personnel</em> was 60,000.</p>
+
+<p>The situation at this time was that in North
+America the French colonies were being hotly pressed,
+Louisbourg being invested. The French had a species
+of double plan—to relieve Louisbourg directly, and also
+the usual invasion of England.</p>
+
+<p>The relief of Louisbourg came to nought; a Toulon
+squadron which came out being driven back by Osborne,
+while Hawke destroyed the convoys in the Basque Roads.
+Louisbourg finally fell, four ships of the line that were
+lying there being burned, and one other captured,
+together with some smaller craft.</p>
+
+<p>Nearer home, combined naval and military attacks
+were pressed upon the French coast, Anson wrecking
+havoc on St. Malo, while Howe destroyed practically
+everything at Cherbourg.</p>
+
+<p>The invasion of England project remained, however.
+In 1759, the French had somewhere about twenty ships
+of the line, under De Conflans, at Brest, twelve at
+Toulon, under De la Clue, five with a fleet of transports
+at Quiberon, five frigates at Dunkirk with transports,
+a division of small craft and flat-bottomed boats at
+Havre, and a squadron of nine ships of the line with
+auxiliaries in the West Indies.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span></p>
+
+<p>These were watched or blockaded by superior British
+squadrons in every case—the maintenance of blockades
+being mainly possible owing to the improved ventilation
+of the ships. Provisions were still bad and scurvy
+plentiful, but the blockade maintained was better and
+closer than anything that the French can have anticipated.
+This war, indeed, saw the birth of scientific
+blockade in place of the somewhat haphazard methods
+which had previously existed. In part, it arose from a
+better perception of naval warfare, the study of history
+and the growth of definite objectives. But since side
+by side with these improvements tactical ideas were
+nearly non-existent and ships in fighting kept a line of
+the barrack-ground type regardless of all circumstances,<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a>
+improvements in naval architecture may claim at least
+as big a part as the wit of man. Ideas of blockading
+and watching were as old as the Peloponnesian War,
+but means to carry them into effect had hitherto been
+sadly lacking.</p>
+
+<p>To resume, the French fleets being cornered by
+superior forces, had no option but to wait for lucky
+opportunity to effect the usual attempted junctions.
+This opportunity was long in coming, and meanwhile
+Rodney made an attack on the invading flotilla at Havre,
+bombarded it for fifty-two hours, and utterly destroyed
+the flat-bottomed boats which had been collected.</p>
+
+<p>In July, 1759, Boscawen, having run short of water
+and provisions, had to withdraw from Toulon to
+Gibraltar, where he began to refit his ships, and De la
+Clue, learning of this, came out of Toulon in August,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span>
+slipping through the straits at midnight, with the English
+fleet in pursuit shortly afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>De la Clue had intended to rendezvous at Cadiz, but
+having altered his mind, made the almost inevitable
+failure of getting all his ships to comprehend it.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> So it
+came about that daylight found him near Cape St.
+Vincent, with only six sail, and eight of Boscawen’s ships
+(which he at first took to be his own stragglers) coming
+up. In the action that followed, three of the French
+ships were captured, two burned and one escaped.
+The stragglers of the French fleet got into Cadiz as
+originally directed, and a few months later escaped back
+to Toulon.</p>
+
+<p>Thurot, with a small squadron, slipped out from
+Dunkirk, in October, merely to intern himself in a
+Swedish harbour.</p>
+
+<p>Hawke continued his blockade of Brest, being now
+and then driven off by gales, and during one of these
+absences, Bempart, with his nine West Indian ships, got
+into Brest. The Brest fleet was apparently very short-handed,
+or else the West Indian squadron in a very bad
+way; in any case the crews of the latter were distributed
+among the former, and De Conflans sailed with only
+twenty-one ships on November 14th.</p>
+
+<p>The expeditionary force which he proposed to
+convoy lay at Quiberon, which place owing to weather he
+did not make till the 20th. There he sighted and gave
+chase to the blockading English frigates, and in doing so
+met Hawke’s fleet of twenty-three ships of the line.</p>
+
+<p>In the battle of Quiberon which followed, the French
+lost six ships of the line. Eleven, by throwing their guns
+overboard, escaped into shallow water, the remainder<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span>
+reached safety at Rochefort. Two English ships ran
+aground, otherwise little damage was sustained.<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a></p>
+
+<p>Out of these happenings the French fleet—which, in
+this year alone, lost thirty-one ships of the line—ceased
+to have any importance; while to the general naval
+activity of the English must be attributed the capture of
+Quebec, by Wolfe.</p>
+
+<p>In 1760, the British ships of the line had sunk to
+120 in number, though the <em>personnel</em> rose to 73,000.
+Naval operations were mainly confined to the relief of
+Quebec and the consequent capture of the whole of
+Canada, and the suppression of privateering—over a
+hundred French corsairs being captured in 1760 alone.</p>
+
+<p>The results of privateering have been put at 2,500
+English merchant vessels being captured in the four
+years ending 1760; the French merchant-ship loss being
+little more than one-third. In 1761, when French naval
+power had practically ceased to exist, 812 English
+merchant ships were captured. It must, however, be
+borne in mind that every year saw great increases in
+English shipping. Heavy as the numerical losses were,
+they did not exceed ten per cent., and the bulk of vessels
+captured were coasters.</p>
+
+<p>French mercantile losses were considerably smaller,
+but simply for the reason that France had fewer and
+fewer ships to lose, for her trade was being swept from
+the sea. English trade on the other hand grew and
+multiplied exceedingly. It may even be argued that so
+far from really injuring our trade, the <i lang="fr">guerre de course</i> in
+this war actually fostered it by the enhanced profits
+which safe arrival entailed, this attracting the speculative.
+But for the speculative the loss of larger vessels would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span>
+have been smaller than it was. These were they, who,
+on a convoy nearing home waters, sailed on ahead,
+chancing attack in the hopes of the greatly increased
+profits to be made by early arrivals. Ships which
+obeyed the orders of the escorting warships were very
+rarely captured.</p>
+
+<p>The following years saw the capture of Pondicherry,
+Dominica, a successful attack on Belle Isle and also a
+general loss of French colonial possessions. To quote
+Mahan, “At the end of seven years the Kingdom of
+Great Britain has become the British Empire.”</p>
+
+<p>In 1762, Spain declared war. She had a fleet
+consisting nominally of eighty-nine sail, but joined in
+far too late to be of any assistance to France. No
+naval battle of importance took place.</p>
+
+<p>Peace was signed early in 1763. By it England
+secured Canada from France, and Spain lost Florida.</p>
+
+<p>During this war the usual complaints about ships’
+bottoms were made, especially from the West Indian
+Station; and in October, 1761, the Admiralty ordered
+a frigate to be sheathed with thin sheets of copper as an
+experiment. This was at first found extremely successful,
+but after the lapse of a few years it was noted that
+chemical action had set up between the copper and the
+iron bolts at the ships’ bottom—most of these bolts
+being rusted away.</p>
+
+<p>Experiments were, however, continued, since, though
+the life of a copper bottom was but three to four years,
+its general advantages were very great. Ultimately iron
+bolts were abandoned in favour of copper ones. The
+cost of this came to £2,272 for a ship of the first-rate,
+and was only relatively satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>Ever since the Treaty of Paris in 1763, friction had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span>
+been growing between the Home Country and the North
+American Colonies. The causes which led to it concern
+the British Navy only in so far as it was used for the
+harsh enforcement of the regulations entailed by the
+Treaty in question—regulations which bore heavily on
+the Colonists. The rest of the story is merely the tale
+of political incapacity at home.</p>
+
+<p>The American Colonists, in addition to a few fast
+sailing frigates which they handled with unexpected
+aptitude, possessed a so very considerable mercantile
+fleet that it was estimated that 18,000 of their seamen
+had served in the English ships in the late war with
+France. Consequently, the Colonists were in a position
+to fit our privateers, and with these, in the first eight years
+of the war, they captured nearly 1,000 English merchant
+ships. Their own losses were, however, greater, and it is
+probable that despite all the military blunders which
+characterised English conduct of the war, the Colonists
+would eventually have been worn down but for the active
+intervention of France in 1778, and Spain a little later.</p>
+
+<p>As regards naval operations against the Americans
+themselves, these were mainly in the nature of sea
+transport. Where they were otherwise, they were of an
+inglorious nature, owing to the total inability of the
+Home Government to appreciate the position. The naval
+story of the war is, in the main, the story of frigates
+attempting difficult channels, and going aground in the
+attempt. It is of interest mainly because in 1776 one
+David Bushnell made the first submarine ever actually
+used in war, and attempted to torpedo the English flagship,
+<i>Eagle</i> (64). He reached his quarry unsuspected,
+but the difficulties of attaching his “infernal machine”
+were such that he had to rise to the surface for air and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span>
+abandon the enterprise. His subsequent fate was
+undramatic—he and his boat were captured at sea on
+board a merchant ship, which was carrying him elsewhere
+for further operations.</p>
+
+<p>France, which had been rendering considerable
+secret assistance to the revolted Colonists, had, ever
+since the Treaty of Paris, been steadily building up her
+Navy, till she had eighty ships of the line and 67,000
+men. The efficiency of the <em>personnel</em> had been increased
+by the enrolment of a special corps of gunners, who
+practiced weekly. Efforts—which, however, were only
+moderately successful—had also been made to break
+down the serious class rivalries between those officers
+who were of the <i lang="fr">noblesse</i> and those who were tarpaulin
+seamen. But the majority of officers were skilled
+tactically, and special orders were issued that to seek
+out and attack the enemy was an objective.<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> Here,
+again, another weak point existed: d’Orvilliers, who
+commanded the main fleet, also received orders to be
+cautious—orders very similar in tenor to those by which
+his predecessors in previous wars were hampered.</p>
+
+<p>The fleet of Great Britain, spread over many quarters
+of the world, including ships being fitted, consisted of
+about 150 ships of the line, besides auxiliaries; but the
+actual available force of Home water fleet with which
+Keppel sailed just before the opening of the war was
+twenty ships only!</p>
+
+<p>Capturing two French frigates and learning from
+them that thirty-two ships were at Brest, Keppel got
+reinforcements of ten ships, and on the 27th of July,
+1778, met d’Orvilliers, also with thirty ships, off Ushant.
+The battle lasted three hours, when the fleets drew<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span>
+apart without any material result having been achieved.
+The tactical ability lay with the French, and but for
+the inefficiency of the leader of one French division, the
+Duc de Chartres (the future “Phillipe Egalité”), would
+have done so still more. Yet, though Keppel had
+obviously done his best, public opinion in England
+had expected a great naval victory, and Keppel was
+the subject of a most violent controversy, which soon
+developed on political lines.</p>
+
+<p>At and about the time of the battle of Ushant,
+D’Estaing, with twelve ships of the line and five frigates,
+reached the Delaware. The English fleet under Howe,
+which consisted of only nine inferior ships of the line,
+took refuge inside Sandy Hook. D’Estaing came outside
+and remained ten days in July, but then sailed away.</p>
+
+<p>His failure to operate has been put down to the
+advice of pilots, but more probably, as pointed out by
+Admiral Mahan, he had secret instructions not to assist
+the Colonists too actively. The destruction of Hood’s
+fleet would have meant the capture of New York,
+peace between England and America, and a considerable
+force released for operations against France. Most of
+the subsequent movements of the year seem to have
+been coloured by a similar policy. In 1779, the West
+Indian islands of St. Vincent and Grenada fell into
+the hands of the French. Subsequently D’Estaing
+returned to the North American Coast, but no important
+operations took place there. Finally he returned with
+some ships to France, sending the others to the West
+Indies.</p>
+
+<p>Spain declared war against England in 1780. Her
+fleet then consisted of nearly sixty ships of the line,
+which—like the French—were in a more efficient state<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span>
+than in previous wars. Her prime object was the
+recovery of Gibraltar.</p>
+
+<p>A combined Franco-Spanish fleet of sixty-four ships
+of the line appeared in the Channel, causing an immense
+panic in England. The only available English fleet consisted
+of thirty-seven sail of the line, under Sir Charles
+Hardy, and this wandered away to the westward, leaving
+the Channel quite open to the allies, who, however, also
+wandered about without accomplishing anything. As
+usual with allies, there were divided councils, and in
+addition the French fleet, having had to wait long for
+the unwilling Spaniards, was badly incapacitated from
+sickness. Thus, and thus only, is their failure to invade
+to be explained: they had 40,000 men ready to be
+transported over, also a naval force ample to defeat
+any available English fleet, and able to cover landing
+operations as well.</p>
+
+<p>When the war first began, there was in France an
+English admiral—that same Rodney who had destroyed
+the invading flotilla at Havre in the previous war—who
+by reason of his debts was unable to return to his own
+country. In private life he was a merry old soul of
+sixty or so, and at a dinner one night boasted that if he
+could pay his debts and go back to England, he would
+get a command and easily smash the French fleet.
+Hearing this, a French nobleman promptly paid his
+debts for him, and sarcastically told Rodney to go back
+and prove his words.</p>
+
+<p>Rodney, who had the reputation of being an able
+officer, but nothing more, got home in 1779. In 1780,
+having secured a command for the West Indies, he left
+Portsmouth with twenty sail of the line and a convoy
+for the relief of Gibraltar. Off Finisterre, he captured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span>
+a Spanish convoy carrying provisions to the besiegers.
+Off Cape St. Vincent he fell in with eleven Spanish ships
+and attacked them at night, in a gale, blowing up one,
+and capturing six. Thence he proceeded to Gibraltar,
+relieved it from all immediate danger, Minorca also; and
+then sailed for the West Indies. Here, on April 17th,
+some three weeks after arrival, he met the French under
+Guichen, and made the first attempt at that “breaking
+the line” associated with his name. The attempt was
+not a success, as his orders were misunderstood by
+several of his own captains and his intentions realised
+and foiled by his opponents.<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a></p>
+
+<p>This action was indecisive; as also were two more
+that followed.</p>
+
+<p>In this year (1780), Captain Horatio Nelson, then only
+twenty-two years old, made his first appearance in the
+<i>Hinchinbrook</i> (28), in an attack on San Juan, Nicaragua.
+He succeeded, after terrible loss of <em>personnel</em> from disease.</p>
+
+<p>A Spanish squadron then joined the French, but
+an epidemic—that most fruitful of all sources for the
+upsetting of naval plans—overtook it. The Spaniards
+were incapacitated and the French returned home.
+Rodney went to New York, where his operations delayed
+the cause of the Colonists; then returning to the West
+Indies, operated against the Dutch, who had by now
+joined the French and Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>The general position of Great Britain, in 1781 and
+1782, was well nigh desperate. Gibraltar was only held
+by a remarkable combination of luck and resolution.
+To quote Mahan, “England stood everywhere on the
+defensive.” She fought with her back to the wall. In the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span>
+East Indies, Suffren kept the French flag flying: and things
+were generally at a very low ebb, when in 1782 Rodney
+“broke the line” in the victory of the Battle of the Saints.</p>
+
+<p>On April 9th, the fleets had come into contact
+without much result on either side. On the 12th, De
+Grasse, being then in some disorder, with thirty-four
+ships, encountered the English with thirty-six in good
+order. Rodney and Hood broke the line in two places.
+Admiral Mahan has been at pains to show us that this
+result was much a matter of luck and change of wind,
+and that the victory was by no means followed up as it
+might have been. One French ship was sunk and five
+were taken, including De Grasse himself, whose losses in
+his flagship, the <i>Ville de Paris</i>, were greater than those
+in the entire English fleet.</p>
+
+<p>To the nation at this juncture, however, anything
+savouring of victory was a thing to be made the utmost
+of, and Rodney has probably received more than his
+meed of merit over what was mainly a matter of luck.</p>
+
+<p>Two features of special interest in connection with
+this battle are that, though up to it, British ships had
+recently, owing to coppering, proved better sailers than
+the French; in the sequel to this fight, the French proved
+equal to sail away. The rapid deterioration of coppering,
+already mentioned, may account for some of this, but in
+this battle there is also reason to believe that the French
+fleet instituted firing at the rigging. Contemporary
+statements exist as to the French having made a
+wonderful number of holes in English hulls without much
+material result, but these may be dismissed as pardonable
+temporary bluster. More germane is the fact that
+the English ships were supplied with carronades<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a>—harmless<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span>
+at long range and deadly at short—for which
+reason the French tried to keep them at a distance, so
+that altogether superior efficiency with men and weapons
+would seem to have played a greater part than any
+tactical genius on the part of Rodney, in whom a dogged
+insistence to get at the enemy was ever the main
+characteristic rather than “thinking things out.” The
+Mahan estimate of him sorts better with known facts
+than the estimate of his accomplishment at the time.</p>
+
+<p>As regards Rodney himself, it is interesting to record
+that Navy and Party were so synonymous at the time
+that he, being a strong Tory, had already been superseded
+by political influence when he won the battle that
+broke French power in the West Indies. It lies to the
+credit of the Whigs that both he and Hood, his second
+in command, received peerages; but the most difficult
+thing of all to understand to-day is, that in a life and
+death struggle such as this war was, the personal political
+element should have managed to find expression.</p>
+
+<p>In 1782, Gibraltar, which had been twice relieved,
+was once more in grievous straits. The French had
+evolved floating batteries for the attack, similar in
+principle to those which, some seventy years later, were
+to figure so prominently in the Crimea.</p>
+
+<p>Being merely armoured with heavy wood planks,
+however, they were easily set on fire with red-hot shot,
+and the great bombardment failed long before the
+relieving force, under Howe, arrived. The garrison,
+however, were in great straits for supplies, and their real
+relief was Howe’s fleet, which the combined Franco-Spanish
+squadrons did not dare to attack.</p>
+
+<p>The Treaty of Versailles, in 1783, followed soon
+afterwards. By it the United States of America were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span>
+recognised, Minorca was given up, but most of the
+captured West Indian islands restored to Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>Just before the close of the war, the relative naval
+strengths were assessed as follows:—<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a></p>
+
+<table id="t131" class="tbdr">
+<tr class="thead">
+  <td class="tdc">Description<br>of Vessels.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Great<br>Britain.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">France.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Spain.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Holland.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Ships of the Line</td>
+  <td class="tdc">105</td>
+  <td class="tdc">89</td>
+  <td class="tdc">53</td>
+  <td class="tdc">32</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Fifty-gun Ships</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">13</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">7</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">3</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Large Frigates</td>
+  <td class="tdc">63</td>
+  <td class="tdc">49</td>
+  <td class="tdc">12</td>
+  <td class="tdl" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 2em;">{</span>28</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Small Frigates</td>
+  <td class="tdc">69</td>
+  <td class="tdc">54</td>
+  <td class="tdc">36</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Sloops</td>
+  <td class="tdc fsr1">217</td>
+  <td class="tdc">86</td>
+  <td class="tdc">31</td>
+  <td class="tdc">13</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Cutters</td>
+  <td class="tdc">43</td>
+  <td class="tdc">22</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">0</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Armed Ships</td>
+  <td class="tdc">24</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">0</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">0</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Bombs</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">7</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">5</td>
+  <td class="tdc">14</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Fire-Ships</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">9</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">7</td>
+  <td class="tdc">11</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">6</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Yachts</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1 bb">5</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1 bb">0</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1 bb">0</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1 bb">0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="tlast">
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap in2">Total</span></td>
+  <td class="tdc fsr1">555</td>
+  <td class="tdc fsr1">319</td>
+  <td class="tdc fsr1">160</td>
+  <td class="tdc">79</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In this list it is interesting to note the British
+inability to maintain even a Two-Power Standard in
+ships of the line, whereas in sloops and such like, an
+enormous preponderance prevailed. For the suppression
+of privateering on the coastal trade, these small craft
+proved very useful. Also worthy of note is the decline
+of the fire-ship as a naval arm.<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a></p>
+
+<p>The figures as a whole suggest with much clarity
+that had the Allies been able to act together, Great
+Britain would never have emerged from the war so well
+as she did.</p>
+
+<p>The ten years’ peace that followed was little more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span>
+than a breathing space. War was constantly apprehended,
+and known improvement in French ships were
+such that they had to be carefully watched. The frigates
+built in England were made longer than before, with a
+view to keeping pace with French sailing qualities.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable interest was taken in how far the
+country was self-supporting in the matter of timber for
+shipbuilding, a certain reliance on foreign supplies having
+previously existed. At, and about 1775, the cost of
+shipbuilding for the East India Company had exactly
+doubled in a few years. The home supply trouble arose,
+partly from the increased size of shipping, partly from
+the tendency of owners to fell trees as early as possible.
+Out of which special oak plantations were set up in the
+New Forest and elsewhere, though oak happened to cease
+to be of value for shipbuilding long before they had
+grown large enough for the larger timbers.</p>
+
+<p>The question of repairs also came in for consideration,
+an average of twenty-five years’ repair totalling the cost
+of a new ship. At and about this time also, the building
+of ships by contract in peace time was first recommended
+on the grounds that thus the private yards would be
+better available in case of war.</p>
+
+<p>Regular stores for ships in the dockyards were also
+instituted, with a view to the speedy equipment of ships
+in reserve.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> It was mainly owing to this last provision,
+introduced by Lord Barham in 1783, that, though when
+the war of the French Revolution broke out in 1793 but
+twelve ships of the line and thirty lesser vessels were in
+commission, a few months later seventy-one ships of the
+line and 104 smaller craft were in service. The number
+of men voted in 1793 was 45,000.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="VI"><span id="toclink_133"></span>VI.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE GREAT FRENCH WAR.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> first incident of the war was connected with
+Toulon, which was partly Royalist and partly
+Republican. The story in full is to be found most
+dramatically rendered in <i>Ships and Men</i>, by David
+Hannay. Here it suffices to say that the Royalists
+and Moderates having coalesced at the eleventh hour,
+surrendered the town to Admiral Hood; that the British
+Government repudiated Hood’s arrangements, and that
+eventually in December, 1793, he was compelled to
+evacuate the place after doing such damage as he could
+and bringing away with him a few ships of the French
+navy.<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> The incident little concerns our naval history,
+the Navy being but a pawn in the political game of the
+moment. Indeed, it is mostly of some naval interest
+only because two figures, destined to bulk largely in
+future history, loomed up in it—Captain Horatio Nelson,
+of the <i>Agamemnon</i>, who laughed when the Spanish fleet
+excused its inaction by saying that it had been six weeks
+at sea and was disabled accordingly; and Napoleon, who,
+as much as anyone, served to hurry the English out.</p>
+
+<p>Early in 1794 the British fleet had ninety-five ships
+of the line in commission, besides 194 lesser vessels. The
+<em>personnel</em> amounted to 85,000.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span></p>
+
+<p>The centre of interest was the French Brest fleet.
+Under Villaret-Joyeuse, a captain of the old Navy, made
+Admiral by the Terrorists, whose cause he had espoused,
+this fleet was by no means inefficient, like the undisciplined
+Toulon fleet had been. It carried on board
+the flagship Jean Bon St. André, the deputy of the State,
+who, whatever his faults, realised the meaning of
+“efficiency.” The bulk of the crew were men who had
+done well in America. Howe, on the other hand,
+commanded a somewhat raw fleet, hastily brought up
+to strength and still by no means “shaken down.”</p>
+
+<p>Howe’s orders were threefold—to convoy a British
+merchant fleet; to destroy the French fleet; and to
+intercept a convoy of French grain coming from America.</p>
+
+<p>From the 5th to the 28th May, Howe was keeping
+an eye on Brest and looking for the French convoy, the
+interception of which was more important than anything
+else, as France was dependent on these grain ships for
+the means to live.</p>
+
+<p>On the 28th, the French fleet was sighted a long
+way out in the Atlantic. Villaret-Joyeuse, who was out
+to protect the grain convoy at all costs, drew still
+further out to sea, Howe following in pursuit.<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> Towards
+evening, the last French ship <i>Revolutionnaire</i> (100), was
+come up with and engaged by six British (seventy-four’s),
+of which one, the <i>Audacious</i>, was badly crippled. The
+<i>Revolutionnaire</i> herself was dismasted, but was towed
+away by a frigate in the night.</p>
+
+<p>This particular incident is one of the most
+prominent examples of the power of the “monster” ship<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span>
+as compared with the “moderate dimension” ship<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a> of
+the period. The six did not attack her simultaneously,
+and some were never closely engaged. She was magnificently
+fought also; but even when these elements are
+subtracted, the fact of the extraordinary resisting power
+exhibited remains. As only the <i>Audacious</i>, which
+attacked last, did much harm to the Frenchman, the
+explanation in this particular case probably lies in the
+stouter scantlings required for a ship of 110 guns,
+compared to smaller ships.</p>
+
+<p>On the following day the action was renewed.
+Villaret-Joyeuse allowed his tail ships to drop into range
+of the leading British vessels with a view to crippling
+them. Howe cut the line, but being somewhat outmanœuvred
+by the French admiral, obtained no special
+advantage therefrom. Some of the French ships were,
+however, disabled, and had to be towed in the general
+action that was to follow later.</p>
+
+<p>Two days’ fog now interrupted operations, but on
+Sunday, June 1st, battle was joined. The opposing fleets
+then consisted as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p>
+
+<table id="t135">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">British.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">French.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">3</span> of 100 guns.</td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">1</span> of 120 guns.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">4</span> of <span class="fs1">98</span> guns.</td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">2</span> of 100 guns.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">2</span> of <span class="fs1">80</span> guns.</td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">4</span> of <span class="fs1">80</span> guns.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">16</span> of <span class="fs1">74</span> guns.</td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">19</span> of <span class="fs1">74</span> guns.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">25</span></td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">26</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>This gives 2,036 British to 2,066 French guns, but
+as, at least, one Frenchman was considerably disabled,
+there was probably a slight British superiority.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span></p>
+
+<p>Howe, more or less, arranged his heavy ships to
+correspond with the heavy ships of the enemy, and
+having hove-to half-an-hour for breakfast, flung the old
+fighting instructions<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> to the winds and bore right down
+into the enemy. In the <em>melee</em> that ensued, some of the
+English failed to close, and seven of the French drifted
+to leeward out of action.</p>
+
+<p>Of the French fleet, two eighty-gun and four
+seventy-four’s were badly mauled and eventually struck,
+while a seventh French ship, the <i>Vengeur</i> (seventy-four)
+was sunk.<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> Four were badly disabled, but drifted
+to leeward out of the fight. On the British side a
+number of ships were badly damaged.</p>
+
+<p>The fleets, having drawn apart, Villaret-Joyeuse
+succeeded in getting a portion of his fleet into some sort
+of order again, and threatened the disabled English ships.
+Howe protected these, but did not renew action; and
+the French, with the disabled ships in tow, made off.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the battle of “the glorious First of June.”
+Howe has been greatly blamed since then for not having
+followed up his victory, but there are not wanting indications
+that the caution of Curtis, his captain of the fleet, who
+pleaded with Howe not to re-engage lest the advantage
+gained should be lost, was justified. Villaret-Joyeuse, the
+captain, hastily placed in command of a large fleet, was
+one of the most, if not the most, capable admirals France
+ever had against us. How badly all the French ships had
+suffered we now know, but the means of telling it were
+absent then. The all-important question of intercepting
+the grain convoy was also possibly present in Howe’s mind.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span></p>
+
+<p>Be that as it may, the convoy was not intercepted.
+It reached France in safety, and all question of starving
+the Revolution into surrender was at an end. On that
+account the battle was reckoned as a victory by the
+French as well as in England.<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a></p>
+
+<p>Other naval events of this year (1794) were the capture
+of Corsica, by Hood; and in the West Indies, the capture
+of Martinique and St. Lucia. Guadaloupe was also taken,
+but quickly re-captured. Among the prizes of the year
+was the French forty-gun frigate <i>Pomone</i>, which proved
+infinitely faster than anything in the English fleet. This led
+to much discussion in the House of Commons. A considerable
+party denied that any such superiority existed; others
+alleged that even if so, British ships were better and more
+strongly built. Others again attributed the circumstance
+to the heavy premiums awarded by the French Government
+to constructors who produced swift sailing ships.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing of much moment came out of the discussion.
+Orders were issued that ships were to be built a little
+longer in future, and with the lower deck ports less near
+the water than heretofore, but the general tendency to
+over-gun ships in relation to their size still remained.</p>
+
+<p>For the year 1795, the <em>personnel</em> of the fleet was
+increased to 100,000, and provision was made for a very
+considerable increase of small craft. The Dutch declared
+war in January, but the year was not marked by any
+operations of much moment so far as they were concerned.</p>
+
+<p>The principal theatres of naval operations were in
+the Mediterranean and the Channel. This year is marked
+by a curious indecisiveness, which had much to do with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span>
+the formation of Nelson’s (who was serving in the Mediterranean
+as captain of the <i>Agamemnon</i>, sixty-four),
+subsequent character as an admiral.</p>
+
+<p>The British fleet consisted of fifteen ships of the line,
+under Hotham. The French had got together fifteen sail
+at Toulon. These made for Corsica, in March, and on the
+way captured one of Hotham’s ships, the <i>Berwick</i>. With
+the remainder, Hotham put to sea, and on the 12th, off
+Genoa, he was sighted by the French. His fleet was in considerable
+disorder, and in the view of Professor Laughton,
+the incapacity of the French alone averted a disaster. In
+the desultory operations of the next two days, two prizes
+were taken and two English ships crippled. Nelson, who
+was mainly responsible for the prizes, urged Hotham to
+pursue and destroy the enemy, but the admiral refused.<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a></p>
+
+<p>In July, Nelson, who was on detached service, was
+met and chased back to Genoa by the whole French
+fleet, which, however, drew off when Hotham’s fleet was
+sighted. Hotham, with a greatly superior fleet, came
+out, and eventually found the enemy off Hyeres. Chase
+was ordered and one French ship overhauled and
+captured; then, on the grounds that the shore was
+too near, Hotham hauled off.</p>
+
+<p>These operations (or lack of them) on the part of
+Hotham, are important beyond most. In the view of
+Professor Laughton,<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a> Hotham’s indecision was mainly
+responsible for the rise and grandeur of Napoleon’s
+career. Vigorous action on his part would have written<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span>
+differently the history of the world. As like as not, in
+addition to no Napoleon, there would also have been no
+Nelson, to go down as the leading figure in British naval
+history. The survival of the French fleet rendered possible
+that invasion of Italy which “made” Napoleon, and those
+sea battles which made Nelson our most famous admiral.</p>
+
+<p>Villaret-Joyeuse (who had commanded the French
+fleet in the battle of the First of June) displayed considerable
+activity in 1795, capturing a frigate and a
+good many merchant ships. The weather, however, was
+against him, and he lost five ships of the line wrecked.
+He, notwithstanding, kept the sea with twelve ships of
+the line, and with these met Cornwallis with five, off
+Brest, on June 16th. Cornwallis retired, but was overhauled
+the next day, and his tail ship the <i>Mars</i>,
+(seventy-four) badly damaged, the French, as usual,
+firing at the rigging. Cornwallis, in the <i>Royal Sovereign</i>,
+(100) fell back to support the <i>Mars</i>, but was well on the
+way to be defeated when he adopted the clever ruse of
+sending away a frigate to signal to him that the Channel
+fleet was coming up. The code used was one known to
+have been captured by the French, and they, reading the
+signals, hastily abandoned the pursuit and made off.</p>
+
+<p>Three days later, Villaret-Joyeuse did actually
+encounter the Channel fleet, under Hood (now Lord
+Bridport). He made off south, chased by Bridport, who
+had fourteen ships, mostly three-deckers, of which the
+French had but one. After a four days’ chase, Bridport
+came up with the tail of the enemy, off Lorient. A
+partial action ensued, in which three French ships were
+captured, after which Bridport withdrew. He gave as
+his reason the nearness to the French shore—exactly the
+reason that Hotham gave for neglecting a possible<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span>
+victory. In both cases, the reason was rather trivial.
+The practical assign it to the old age of the admirals
+concerned. To the imaginative, these two almost incomprehensible
+failures to take advantage of circumstances
+gave some colour to Napoleon’s theory of “his destiny.”</p>
+
+<p>In this year, a number of East Indiamen were
+purchased for naval use. One of these, the <i>Glatton</i>,
+(fifty-six) was experimentally armed with sixty-eight
+pounder carronades on her lower deck, and forty-two
+pounders on the upper. On her way to join her
+squadron, she was attacked by six French frigates, of
+which one was a fifty-gun, and two were of thirty-six.
+She easily defeated the lot—another instance of the
+“big ship’s” advantage in minor combats. Despite
+this instance of what might be done, the heavy gun idea
+made no headway, and the <i>Glatton</i> remained a unique
+curiosity, till many years later the Americans adopted it
+to our great disadvantage.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of 1795 (December) Hotham was
+replaced in the Mediterranean by Sir John Jervis—an
+admiral of unique personality, who left upon the Navy a
+mark that easily endures to this day. Somewhat hyperbolically
+it has been said of him that he was the saviour
+of the Navy in his own day, and the main element
+towards its disruption in these times!</p>
+
+<p>Jervis had made his mark in the War of American
+Independence, as captain of the <i>Foudroyant</i>. Discipline
+was his passion; and by means of it, he had made an
+easy capture of a French ship. Thereafter, he became
+a unique blend of martinet and genius.</p>
+
+<p>He was the first openly to re-affirm Sir Walter
+Raleigh’s theory, quoted in an earlier chapter, that
+fortifications were useless against invasion, and that only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span>
+on the water could an enemy be met successfully,
+combatting Pitt himself on this point. When the Great
+War broke out, his first employment was in the West
+Indies, where he achieved St. Lucia, Martinique and
+Guadaloupe. He went to the Mediterranean, at a time
+when France was numerically superior to us in the
+Channel, and when Spain was daily expected to declare
+war. The fleet to which he went was like all others,
+tending to a mutinous spirit, and finally he had to go out
+in the frigate <i>Lively</i>. In those days, for an admiral to
+take passage in anything less than a ship of the line was
+considered a most undignified thing. It rankled so with
+Jervis that he never forgot it, and years after harped upon
+it as a grievance. Of such character was the man who
+took command in the Mediterranean at the end of 1795.</p>
+
+<p>In 1796, the <em>personnel</em> of the Navy was increased to
+110,000. Jervis, in the Mediterranean, did little beyond
+blockading Toulon, and training his fleet on his own
+ideas. Spain declared war in October; but her intentions
+being known beforehand, Corsica was evacuated, and at
+the end of the year the Mediterranean was abandoned
+also, Jervis with his entire fleet lying under the guns of
+Gibraltar. Nothing else was possible.</p>
+
+<p>Elsewhere invasion ideas were uppermost in France,
+and 18,000 troops, convoyed by seventeen ships of the
+line and thirteen frigates, sailed from Brest for Bantry
+Bay, at the end of the year. Only eight ships of the line
+reached there; a gale dispersed the transports and
+nothing happened in the way of invasion. The only
+other event of the year was the capture of a Dutch
+squadron at the Cape of Good Hope. Matters generally
+were, however, so bad, that attempts were made to
+secure terms of peace from France. These attempts failed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span></p>
+
+<p>The year 1792 saw 108 ships of the line and 293
+lesser vessels in commission. Something like sixty ships
+of the line were building or ordered, also 168 lesser craft.
+The first incident was the Battle of Cape St. Vincent
+(14th February, 1797). The Spaniards, having come
+out of Cartagena, were making for Cadiz, when sighted
+by Jervis.</p>
+
+<p>The rival fleets <span class="locked">were:—</span></p>
+
+<table id="t142">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">British.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Spanish.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">2</span> of 100 guns.</td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">1</span> of 130 guns.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">3</span> of <span class="fs1">98</span> guns.</td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">6</span> of 112 guns.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">1</span> of <span class="fs1">90</span> guns.</td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">2</span> of <span class="fs1">80</span> guns.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">8</span> of <span class="fs1">74</span> guns.</td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">18</span> of <span class="fs1">74</span> guns.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="bb fs1">1</span> of <span class="fs1">64</span> guns.</td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">27</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">15</span></td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The battle is mainly of interest on account of Nelson’s
+part in it. The Spaniards were sailing in no order
+whatever, the bulk of them being in one irregular mass,
+the remainder in another. Jervis, in line ahead,
+proposed to pass between the two divisions, and destroy
+the larger before the smaller could beat up to assist
+them. The Spaniards, however inefficient they may have
+been in other ways, saw through this manœuvre, and
+their main body was preparing to join up astern of the
+British, when Nelson, in the <i>Captain</i>, flung himself across
+them and captured two ships by falling foul of them and
+boarding. Three other ships were captured, the rest
+escaped. In this battle, as in those of the year before,
+the same caution about following up the victory was
+observed, and the age of the admiral concerned has
+again been produced as the reason. But the thoughtful—taking
+the previous career of most of those concerned
+into consideration—may suspect the existence of some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span>
+special secret orders about taking no risks, as yet unearthed
+by any historian. The only really workable
+alternative is Napoleon’s “destiny” theory already
+alluded to. Of the two, the secret order hypothesis is
+the more practical. Into the whole of these victories not
+properly followed up, it is also possible, though hardly
+probable, that the mutinous state of the <em>personnel</em> entered.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_143" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;">
+  <img src="images/i_143.jpg" width="1644" height="2443" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">THE “FOUDROYANT” ONE OF NELSON’S OLD SHIPS.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the battle of Cape St. Vincent, the Spaniards
+had an enormous four-decker, the <i>Santissima Trinidad</i>,
+of 130 guns. She was the first ship engaged by Nelson,
+and was hammered by most of the others closely engaged
+as well, but her size and power saved her from the fate
+of the rest of the ships that were with her.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult even now to assess the exact situation
+of the mutineers of 1797. The organised self-restraint
+of the Spithead Mutiny is hard to understand, when we
+remember the heterogeneous origin of the crews. “Jail
+or Navy” was an every-day offer to prisoners. Longshoremen,
+riff-raff, pressed landsmen, thieves, murderers,
+smugglers, and a few degraded officers, were the raw
+material of which the crews were composed. They were
+stiffened with a proportion of professional seamen, and
+it is these that must have leavened the mass, and kept
+the jail-bird element in check.</p>
+
+<p>Pay was bad, ship life close akin to prison life,
+discipline and punishments alike brutal, and the food
+disgracefully bad. It was this last that brought about
+the mutiny. There is an old saying to the effect that
+you may ill-treat a sailor as you will, but if you ill-feed
+him, trouble may be looked for! One or two isolated
+mutinies, like that of the <i>Hermione</i>, were due to a
+captain’s brutality; but mainly and mostly bad food
+and mutiny were closely linked.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span></p>
+
+<p>Commander Robinson<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a> draws attention to the fact
+that the pursers themselves were hardly the unscrupulous
+rascals they were supposed to be on shore, and that the
+system and regulations of victualling were recognised by
+the seamen as at the bottom of the mischief.</p>
+
+<p>The same authority quotes a <span class="locked">contemporary:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container">
+<div class="poetry">
+  <div class="stanza">
+    <div class="verse indentq">“The reason unto you I now will relate:</div>
+    <div class="verse indent0">We resolved to refuse the purser’s short weight;</div>
+    <div class="verse indent0">Our humble petition to Lord Howe we sent,</div>
+    <div class="verse indent0">That he to the Admiralty write to present</div>
+    <div class="verse indent0">Our provisions and wages that they might augment.”</div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Discontent had, of course, long been brewing, but
+the Admiralty seems to have been without any suspicions.
+They dismissed the petition as being in no way representative;
+later, having received reports to the contrary,
+ordered Lord Bridport’s fleet at Spithead to proceed to
+sea. On April 15th, when the signal to weigh anchor
+was made, the crews of every ship manned the rigging
+and cheered. No violence was offered to any officer;
+the men simply refused to work. Each ship supplied a
+couple of delegates to explain matters, and after an
+enquiry, their demands were granted and a free pardon
+given. Delays, however, ensued, and on May 7th, the
+fleet again refused to put to sea.</p>
+
+<p>On this occasion, the officers were disarmed, confined
+to their cabins, and kept there, till a few days later a
+general pardon was proclaimed, when this mutiny ended.
+A similar mutiny at Plymouth was equally mild.</p>
+
+<p>Of a very different character was the mutiny at the
+Nore, which broke out on May 13th, under the leadership
+of the notorious Richard Parker. Parker was a
+man of considerable parts, said to have been an ex-officer
+dismissed the service with disgrace, and to have entered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span>
+as a seaman. He possessed undoubted ability and
+considerable ambition. He very clearly aimed at
+something more than the redress of grievances, since his
+first act was to put a rope round his own neck by
+instigating the crew of the <i>Inflexible</i> to fire into a sister
+ship, on board which a court-martial was being held.
+Subsequently, delegates were sent to the Admiralty with
+extravagant claims, which—as Parker may have anticipated—were
+ignored.</p>
+
+<p>Eleven ships of Admiral Duncan’s fleet (then blockading
+the Texel) had joined Parker by the first of June.
+Duncan was left with but two ships in face of the enemy.
+By showing himself much and making imaginary signals
+Duncan managed to conceal the facts from the Dutch:
+but he had considerable trouble to keep his two ships
+from joining the mutineers now blockading the Thames.</p>
+
+<p>There is reason to believe that Parker was in touch
+with the Revolutionists in France and the dissatisfied
+Irish, but the bulk of the mutineers were altogether
+uninfluenced by political ideas. The mutiny began to
+waver. The ships at other home ports were unsympathetic,
+and Parker and his friends found men cooling
+off. In order to keep things together it was their custom
+to row round the fleet<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> and inspect ships suspected of
+being “cool,”—the side being piped for them. In one
+case, however, the boatswain’s mate refused to do so,
+and flung his call at their heads. On coming on board,
+they sentenced him to thirty-six lashes for “mutinous
+conduct!” On June 10th, despite this disciplinary
+system, two of the mutineer ships sailed away under fire
+from the others, and on the 14th, Parker’s own ship<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span>
+surrendered and handed him over to the authorities.
+He was hanged on June 29th.</p>
+
+<p>In the Mediterranean fleet, mutiny broke out in two
+ships off Cadiz, but Jervis (now Earl St. Vincent), compelled
+the mutineers to hang their own ringleaders. In
+connection with this, Nelson, who was now rear admiral
+commanding the inshore squadron, wrote to St. <span class="locked">Vincent—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“I congratulate you on the finish, as it ought, of the St.
+George’s business, and I (if I may be permitted to say so) very much
+approve of its being so speedily carried into execution, even although
+it is Sunday. The particular situation of the service requires
+extraordinary measures. I hope this will end all the disorders in
+our fleet: had there been the same determined spirit at home, I do
+not believe it would have been half so bad.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is noteworthy that in Nelson’s own ship there
+was no trouble whatever. The ship had had a reputation
+for insubordination, but shortly after Nelson joined her,
+a paper intimating that no mutiny need be feared was
+dropped on the quarter-deck. Nelson brought with him
+a reputation for taking a personal interest in his men.
+Then, as now, hard work and a dog’s life were not
+objected to, provided the personal equation were present.</p>
+
+<p>St. Vincent proceeded to stamp out the embers
+of mutiny in his own fashion. He set himself to invest
+his rank with every circumstance of pomp, awe and
+ceremony. Every morning he appeared on the quarter
+deck in full dress uniform, paraded the Marines, and had
+“God save the King” played with all hats off. His
+regulations were catholic enough to embrace lieutenants’
+shoe-laces. In all the pomp that he created the
+mutinous spirit was smothered.</p>
+
+<p>To him is due the vast abyss between the quarter-deck
+and lower-deck which marks the Navy of to-day.
+Whether this, advantageous as it was a hundred odd<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span>
+years ago, is equally advantageous now, is another
+matter. It makes a barrier altogether different from that
+existing between officer and man in the Army—it is
+something closely akin to the racial differences mark in
+India; and this sorts ill with the democratic ideas of
+to-day, when class distinction is quite a different matter
+from what it was a hundred years ago.</p>
+
+<p>There are still possible two views of the question.
+One is embodied in a letter I received some few years
+ago from a man from the lower-deck. He wrote, “When
+I was a boy in a training ship, my captain seemed to
+me something as far away and above me as God himself,
+and the impression thus created I have carried with me
+towards all officers ever since. Though in private life I
+might meet his brother with feeling of perfect equality,
+I could never be other than ill at ease meeting an officer
+in the same conditions.”</p>
+
+<p>Here, at any rate, is the psychology of what St.
+Vincent aimed at. To-day, however, one is far more
+likely to hear about “the side of officers,” or that
+“officers, when cadets, are taught to regard the men
+with contempt!” The conditions are such, that despite
+mixed cricket and football teams, mutual sympathy
+between officers and men is well nigh impossible.</p>
+
+<p>Of “the great God Routine” which St. Vincent set
+up, it is beyond question that it is to-day an irritating
+superfluity to both officers and men alike.</p>
+
+<p>To resume. As the Spaniards obstinately refused to
+come out from Cadiz, St. Vincent sent Nelson in to
+bombard them with mortar boats; but this attempt to
+force them out did not succeed. Following upon this,
+Nelson, with three seventy-four’s, one fifty, three frigates
+and a cutter, was despatched to Santa Cruz. On the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span>
+night of July 24th, he led a boat attack in person. Most
+of the boats missed the Mole and were stove in. Such
+as reached the Mole were met by a withering fire.
+Nelson was struck on the right elbow by a grape shot,
+and taken back to the <i>Theseus</i>, where his arm was
+amputated. Troubridge took command of the 300 odd
+men who had got ashore, and being surrounded by the
+Spanish, made terms, whereby the Spaniards found
+boats for his party to return to their ships. The
+squadron rejoined St. Vincent, and Nelson sailed for
+England to recover.</p>
+
+<p>The blockade of the Texel had been vigorously
+maintained till October, when Duncan returned to
+Spithead to refit. He had no sooner done so than the
+Dutch, under De Winter, came out—presumably with a
+view to reaching Brest. Duncan’s frigates, however,
+promptly reported them, and sailing at once he met
+them off Camperdown, on October 11th.</p>
+
+<p>The rival fleets <span class="locked">were:—</span></p>
+
+<table id="t150">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">British.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Dutch.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">7</span> of 74 guns.</td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">4</span> of 74 guns.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">7</span> of 64 guns.</td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">7</span> of 64 guns.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1 bb">2</span> of 50 guns.</td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1 bb">4</span> of 50 guns.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">16</span></td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">15</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Duncan’s original plan was the old fashioned ship-to-ship
+system, but in the actual event, the Dutch line
+was broken. One of the Dutch fifty-gun ships fell back
+to avoid the <i>Lancaster</i> (sixty-four), five others for some
+reason or other following her; the remaining nine fought
+desperately, till further resistance was impossible.</p>
+
+<p>The prizes were:—two seventy-four’s, five sixty-four’s,
+two fifties, and a couple of frigates. Both the
+captured fifties were lost; the other ships were with great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span>
+difficulty got to England. All were found to have been
+damaged beyond repair, and some of Duncan’s ships
+were in little better condition. His losses in <em>personnel</em>
+were over 1,000 in killed and wounded. His crews, it
+is interesting to note, consisted mostly of Parker’s
+erstwhile mutineers.</p>
+
+<p>During 1797, a few frigates only were lost. These
+included the <i>Hermione</i>, whose crew mutinied and handed
+her over to the enemy. The brutality of her captain,
+Pigot, whose idea of efficiency was to flog the last two
+men down from aloft, was the cause of this particular
+outbreak.<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1797, a large ninety-eight gun ship, the <i>Neptune</i>,
+was added to the Navy, also a seventy-four and a sixty-four.
+Private yards launched no less than forty-six
+frigates and smaller craft, and the total number of warships
+built, building and projected, was 696.<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a></p>
+
+<p>For the year 1798, the <em>personnel</em> voted was 100,000
+seamen and 20,000 marines; and the total Naval
+Estimates amounted to £13,449,388.</p>
+
+<p>In France, Buonaparte was forging to the front, and
+he threw himself into those schemes for the invasion of
+England which so appealed to the French mind and so
+terrified the British public. Ireland was selected as the
+most suitable spot, and two expeditions were prepared,
+one at Rochefort, the other at Brest. Of these, one,
+the Rochefort expedition, materialised in August, reached
+Killala Bay, in Ireland, and soon afterwards had to
+surrender to the English Army. The Brest expedition,
+escorted by a line of battle ship and a number of frigates,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span>
+was more or less annihilated by Admiral Warren, on
+October 12th.</p>
+
+<p>As already stated, the Mediterranean had become
+a species of Franco-Spanish lake. St. Vincent was
+outside Gibraltar, and he was still there when Nelson, in
+the <i>Vanguard</i>, arrived to join him as rear-admiral, at the
+end of April.</p>
+
+<p>Nelson, with a small squadron, was at once despatched
+to discover what the French were doing at
+Toulon. Rumours of all kinds were current. He found
+fifteen ships of the line and a great many transports,
+news of which he sent to the Admiral. On the top of
+this came a gale, which dismasted the <i>Vanguard</i>. She
+was, however, towed into San Pietro, Sardinia, and
+hastily re-fitted, and four days later the ships were off
+Toulon again, only to find that the French had sailed.</p>
+
+<p>Reinforced by ten sail of the line, under Troubridge,
+Nelson now sailed in search of the French fleet. Reaching
+Alexandria and finding nothing known there of the
+French, he worked back to Syracuse, where he revictualled
+in cheerful disregard of the neutrality remonstrances
+of the Governor. Thence he returned eastward,
+and having received information of where the French
+had last been seen, eventually found them anchored in
+Aboukir Bay, where he attacked them on the evening of
+August 1st, 1798.</p>
+
+<p>The rival fleets <span class="locked">were:—</span></p>
+
+<table id="t152">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">British.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">French.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">13 of 74 guns.</td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1">1</span> of 120 guns.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1 bb">1</span> of 50 guns.</td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="fs1 bb">9</span> of <span class="fs1">74</span> guns.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">14</span></td>
+  <td class="tdc spacer"> </td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="bb">10</span>, also 4 Frigates.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The French, under Brueys, were drawn across the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span>
+Bay in a “defensive position.” They were in no way a
+very efficient force, some of the ships being old and
+short of guns, all of them rather short-handed, and even
+so, manned with many new-raised raw men. On the
+other hand, they were so sure of the safety of their
+position that their inshore guns were not cleared for
+action. By all the naval theory of the day this idea of
+impregnability was justified.</p>
+
+<p>The battle itself was simple enough. Nelson came
+down with the wind on the French van, approximately
+putting two of his ships one on either side of each of the
+Frenchmen, and so on, the rear being unable to beat up
+to support them. The result was the practical annihilation
+of the French fleet. Of the thirteen ships of the
+line, only two escaped in company with two frigates.</p>
+
+<p>So complete a naval victory had never before been
+known. In all the battles of the previous two or three
+hundred years, the percentage of losses to the vanquished
+had been small. The battle of the Nile, therefore,
+received an attention perhaps beyond its intrinsic worth.
+As Nelson wrote to Howe:—“By attacking the enemy’s
+van and centre, the wind blowing directly along their
+line, I was enabled to throw what force I pleased on a
+few ships.” The real point of interest is not the result,
+which was foregone, but Nelson’s ability to see his
+opportunity and to make the utmost of it. Therein lay
+his superlative greatness.</p>
+
+<p>Of the prizes, three were found to be new and good
+ships. One of them, the <i>Franklin</i>, was renamed <i>Canopus</i>,
+and as late as 1850 was still on the effective list of the
+British Navy.</p>
+
+<p>The defeat of the French at the Nile had far reaching
+effects. Russia, Austria, Turkey, Naples and Portugal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span>
+formed with England a great anti-French Alliance. A
+large Russian fleet appeared in the Mediterranean, but
+accomplished no services there. It was under suspicion
+of having private designs on Malta rather than of assisting
+the Alliance.</p>
+
+<p>From 1762 onward, when Catherine the Great came
+to the throne of Russia, an enormous number of retired
+or unemployed English officers took service in the Russian
+Navy. To one of these, Captain Elphinstone (who
+subsequently re-entered the British service), has been
+traced the origin of the idea upon which Nelson acted in
+the battle of the Nile. To another, General Bentham,
+originally a shipwright, who returned to the British service
+in 1795, was due a revolution in dockyard management.
+To him was due the introduction of machinery into
+dockyards: a matter needing much diplomacy and
+caution, as popular feeling against machinery then ran
+high. However, by 1798, Bentham had steam engines
+installed in the dockyards. He also commenced the first
+caisson known in England, using it for the great basin
+at Portsmouth Yard. In the face of considerable
+opposition he also introduced deep docks, basins and
+jetties at Portsmouth, for the speedy fitting out of ships.</p>
+
+<p>In 1799, the <em>personnel</em> was settled at 120,000, and
+the Naval Estimates were £13,654,000.</p>
+
+<p>In April of this year, the French, under Bruix,
+with twenty-five ships of the line, came out of Brest,
+which was being cruised off by Bridport with sixteen sail.
+Having warned Keith, who was blockading Cadiz, and
+St. Vincent, who lay at Gibraltar, Bridport fell back on
+Bantry Bay, where he was reinforced with ten ships.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_155" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img src="images/i_155.jpg" width="1239" height="1535" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">GENERAL BENTHAM.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Bruix ran down south, his orders being to join the
+Spaniards in Cadiz, but the weather was unfavourable and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span>
+his crews so illtrained<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> that he made no attempt to attack
+Keith’s squadron, but ran on into the Mediterranean.
+Keith himself joined St. Vincent at Gibraltar.</p>
+
+<p>On May 11th, St. Vincent arrived at Minorca with
+twenty sail. Nelson, with sixteen ships (of which four
+were Portuguese) was scattered over the Mediterranean,
+his base being at Palermo. On the 13th, Bruix reached
+Toulon, and a week later seventeen Spaniards from
+Cadiz reached Cartagena.</p>
+
+<p>To prevent these joining up with Bruix, St. Vincent
+lay between the two bases: but the risk that either fleet
+might suddenly fall on Nelson was such, that he sent four
+of his ships to him. He was, however, presently reinforced
+with five ships, bringing his net total to twenty-one.</p>
+
+<p>St. Vincent’s health having now given out, he handed
+the fleet over to Lord Keith, who learned that Bruix,
+with twenty-two sail, had left Toulon on the 27th May;
+but for some reason or other made for that place. Bruix
+reached the Spaniards at Cartagena, without interference,
+on June 23rd, and so had thirty-nine ships to oppose
+the British twenty-one. These, falling back upon
+Minorca, were there reinforced by ten ships from home,
+thus bringing the total up to thirty-one.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, Bruix putting to sea again at once, made
+for Cadiz, which he reached on July 12th, and leaving
+again on the 21st, made for Brest; Keith, some two
+weeks behind him, in pursuit.</p>
+
+<p>The net result of Bruix’s cruise was that the French
+fleet at Brest rose to the enormous total of ninety
+warships, collected to cover an invasion of England.
+As, however, Napoleon, who was to command, did<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span>
+not reach France until October, nothing was done in
+1799, thus allowing ample time for the concentration of
+English ships. Had the Brest Armada struck at once,
+matters for England had been none too rosy, since the
+only force guarding the Channel was Bridport’s fleet of
+twenty-six sail, at Bantry.</p>
+
+<p>August saw 20,000 Russians landed at the Helder
+from British transports. These captured the Texel
+fortifications, inside of which lay what was left of the
+Dutch fleet. The Dutch admiral declined to surrender,
+but his crews refused to fight, and eventually the ships
+were handed over without firing a shot. The ships were
+found to be antiquated in design and badly built, and
+were never of any use to the English Navy.</p>
+
+<p>In the latter part of this year, two Spanish frigates
+were captured by four English. These ships were
+bringing home the year’s South American treasure.
+The prize money divided among the four captains
+amounted to £160,000.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-one vessels were lost during the year. Only
+three of them, however, were lost by capture, and of
+these the largest was a ten-gun brig!</p>
+
+<p>The prizes of the year consisted of eight French
+frigates, five Spanish frigates and twenty-four Dutch
+ships. In this year also the very fast French privateer,
+<i>Bordelais</i>, was taken, being chased and overhauled by the
+<i>Revolutionnaire</i>, an ex-French frigate, and the only
+frigate in the Navy at this time able to catch up with
+French ones.</p>
+
+<p>The <em>personnel</em> granted for the year 1800, was 110,000,
+with an additional 10,000 for March and April only.
+The ships in commission were 100 ships of the line,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span>
+seventeen small two-deckers and 351 frigates and lesser
+craft.</p>
+
+<p>No naval fighting of much importance took place,
+but the year was otherwise very momentous. Napoleon,
+who had made himself First Consul, was busy reorganising
+the French Navy, and one of his first acts
+was to offer terms of peace. These, however, were
+refused by the British Government.</p>
+
+<p>On July 25th, the Danish frigate, <i>Freya</i>, out with a
+convoy, was met by some British ships. She refused to
+allow “the right of search.” Firing followed, and the
+<i>Freya</i> was captured. An embassy, to explain matters to
+the Danes, went, accompanied by a fleet of nine ships of
+the line, five frigates and four bombs, under Admiral
+Dickson.</p>
+
+<p>This action—the intentions of which were obvious—aroused
+the resentment of the Russian Emperor Paul.
+Nelson’s suspicion that the Russians wished to capture
+Malta for themselves, have already been alluded to.
+These intentions came to light now; for Paul, having
+got himself declared Grand Master of the Knights of
+St. John of Malta, seized some 300 British merchant
+ships in Russian ports, and said that he would not let
+them go till Malta (which was then besieged and about
+to fall to the British) was given up to him.</p>
+
+<p>The British Government ignored the Malta claim,
+and many of the British merchant ships equally ignored
+the Russian orders about remaining in harbour. Quite
+a number sailed away; the rest, however, were seized
+and burned, by Paul’s orders. To reinforce himself
+against very probable reprisals, Paul—presumably influenced
+by Napoleon—formed the “Armed Neutrality.”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span>
+Russia and Sweden signed on December 16th, and on the
+19th, Denmark and Prussia.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, Malta, which had been blockaded and
+besieged by the British ever since the battle of the Nile,
+was in grievous straits. In February, 1800, the <i>Genereux</i>,
+seventy-four (one of the two ships of the line which
+escaped from the Nile), left Toulon, with some frigates,
+intent on relief. She was, however, intercepted and
+captured by Nelson.</p>
+
+<p>In March, the <i>Guillaume Tell</i>, the other survivor of
+the Nile, which had been lying at Malta, attempted on
+the night of the 30th to run the blockade to procure
+help. In doing so, she encountered the British frigate
+<i>Penelope</i>, which chased her, attacking her rigging. The
+firing brought up two ships of the line, <i>Foudroyant</i> and
+<i>Lion</i>, but the Frenchman made such a defence that both
+these were disabled before she was reduced to submission,
+and it was to the <i>Penelope</i> frigate that she ultimately
+struck. This particular fight is generally reckoned as
+the finest defence ever made by a French ship.</p>
+
+<p>Malta was eventually starved into surrender, and
+the final capitulation took place on the 5th September,
+1800, after a siege of practically two years.</p>
+
+<p>The capture of Malta was perhaps one of the finest
+exhibitions of “Admiralty” in the whole war. No
+waste of life in assaults took place: the fortress was
+systematically starved into surrender by the judicious
+use of Sea Power to prevent any relief.</p>
+
+<p>In this year (1800), several ships were lost, the
+principal being the <i>Queen Charlotte</i> (100), which was
+accidentally burned and blown up off Capraja, on the
+17th of March. The majority of her crew perished with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span>
+her. Eighteen other ships were wrecked, while two (a
+twenty gun and a fourteen) mutinied and joined the
+enemy. These were the only British ships that actually
+changed hands. Captures amounted to fourteen ships
+of from eighty to twenty-eight guns, and a large number
+of privateers and small craft.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1801 saw the Estimates at £16,577,000.
+The <em>personnel</em> voted was 120,000 for the first quarter of
+the year, after which it was to rise to 135,000, with a
+view to dealing with the Armed Neutrality. The number
+of ships in commission was substantially the same as in
+the previous year.</p>
+
+<p>The avowed objects of the Armed Neutrality were to
+resist “the right of search,” to secure any property
+under a neutral flag, that a blockade to be binding must
+be maintained by an adequate force, and that contraband
+of war must be clearly defined beforehand. In substance,
+they amounted to the free importation into France of
+those naval stores of which she stood most in need.
+Wisely enough the British Government decided to break
+up the coalition by diplomacy, if possible, and failing
+that, by force. Incidentally, it may be noted that the
+Tsar, who was at the head of the coalition, was more or
+less a madman, in possession of a very considerable fleet.</p>
+
+<p>In March, 1801, a fleet of twenty ships of the line
+and a large number of auxiliaries, under Sir Hyde Parker,
+with Nelson as second in command, sailed for the Baltic.
+On arrival at Copenhagen, the Danes were found to
+be moored in a strong position under cover of shore
+batteries. The attack was confided to Nelson with
+twelve ships, which fared badly enough for Parker after
+the battle had lasted three hours to make a signal to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span>
+withdraw.<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> Nelson, however, disregarded this, and
+continued till the Danish fire began to slacken an hour
+later. But as the Danes continually reinforced their
+disabled ships from the shore, and fired into those which
+had surrendered, the slaughter promised to go on
+indefinitely. Things being thus, Nelson, under a flag of
+truce, threatened to set fire to the damaged ships and
+leave their crews to their fate unless firing ceased. It
+has been alleged that this was a clever piece of bluff in
+order to extricate his ships from an awkward position:
+but all the evidence goes to show that he was fully in a
+position to carry out his threat, while as he made no
+attempt to move during the negotiations the bluff story
+is absurd. It appears to have been an act of humanity,
+pure and simple.</p>
+
+<p>Ultimately, the bulk of the Danish fleet was
+surrendered, and a fourteen weeks’ armistice arranged,
+Nelson explaining that he required this amount of time
+to destroy the Russian fleet!</p>
+
+<p>Subsequently the Swedish fleet was dealt with, but
+it took refuge under fortifications. About the same time
+news came that the mad Tsar had been assassinated, and
+that his successor had no wish to continue hostilities.</p>
+
+<p>Nelson (now Commander-in-Chief) appeared off
+Kronstadt, under the guns of which the Russians had
+taken shelter in May. Negotiations followed,<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> and
+ultimately Russia was granted the right to trade with
+belligerents—probably a diplomatic concession in order
+to detach her sympathy from France.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span></p>
+
+<p>In the meantime, Napoleon’s invasion schemes were
+shaping. To this day it is unknown whether he was
+serious or not at this, or for that matter, any other
+period. That he intended his preparations to be taken
+seriously (as they were by all save Nelson) is clear enough.
+It is further clear from his vast preparations that he
+would have used his flotilla had the chance occurred;
+but the mere fact that he never attempted actual
+invasion is of itself sufficient answer to all the homilies
+that have been written about Napoleon’s inability to
+understand “Sea Power.”</p>
+
+<p>The army at Boulogne, the flat-bottomed boats, all
+served to keep England in a panic, and that was worth
+much. He had experience to guide him. Past experience
+was an English attack on the flotilla like that of Rodney
+many years before. In August, 1801, such an attack
+came, Nelson directing it. It was found fully prepared
+for and defeated with ease.</p>
+
+<p>In the Mediterranean, Ganteaume, who had left
+Brest with seven ships of the line convoying 5,000 troops,
+reached Alexandria, but before he could disembark his
+soldiers, Keith appeared, and he hurried back to Toulon.</p>
+
+<p>Linois left Toulon with a small squadron, and was
+driven into Algeciras, where he beat off Samaurez and a
+considerably more powerful squadron. Retreating from
+this, Samaurez fell in with a Spanish squadron, the ships
+of which, in the confusion of a night action, attacked each
+other, with the result that the two best ships were
+destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>In October, 1801, the preliminaries of the Peace of
+Amiens were signed and hostilities ceased.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span></p>
+
+<p>The total losses to the enemy in the war are given as
+follows by <span class="locked">Campbell:—</span></p>
+
+<table id="t164">
+<tr class="lrpad">
+  <td class="tdl"></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">French.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Dutch.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Spanish.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Total.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Ships of the line</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">45</td>
+  <td class="tdc">25</td>
+  <td class="tdc">11</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">81</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Fifties</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs2">2</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">1</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">0</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs2">3</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Frigates</td>
+  <td class="tdc">133</td>
+  <td class="tdc">31</td>
+  <td class="tdc">20</td>
+  <td class="tdc">184</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Sloops, etc.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">161</td>
+  <td class="tdc">32</td>
+  <td class="tdc">55</td>
+  <td class="tdc"><span class="bb">248</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"></td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Total</span></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><span class="bb">516</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The corresponding British loss was only twenty-one
+ships of <em>all classes</em>, and of these only two ships of the
+line were captured. The bulk of British losses was
+accounted for by wrecks.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="VII"><span id="toclink_165"></span>VII.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">FROM THE PEACE OF AMIENS TO THE FINAL FALL OF NAPOLEON.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">With</span> the Peace of Amiens the usual reduction of
+the Navy took place. The 104 ships of the line
+in commission the year before sank to thirty-two
+in 1802. The <em>personnel</em> fell to 50,000.</p>
+
+<p>It may here be remarked that of the ships put out of
+commission a great number were unfit for further service:
+111 ships of various classes being in so bad a way that
+they were sold or broken up. Many others were cut down
+to serve in inferior rates.</p>
+
+<p>Early in 1803 it became abundantly clear that
+Napoleon was preparing for a new war, and in May, war
+was declared on him by the British Government. It is
+of interest to note that Napoleon, in dismissing the
+British Ambassador, said to him that he “intended to
+invade England,” adding that he considered it might
+be “a very risky undertaking.” At the time war was
+declared Napoleon was not quite ready, and never
+regained the ground thus lost.</p>
+
+<p>Little or nothing happened to show that a great
+naval struggle was in progress. The French ships lay
+secure in harbour; the British tossed outside in ceaseless
+blockade work. But these months of seeming inaction
+settled the fate of France. The French crews, never
+very efficient, grew less and less so in harbour, while<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span>
+every day outside hardened the British and added to
+their efficiency. Seeing that the British <em>personnel</em>, which
+was but 50,000 at the early part of the year, was
+suddenly expanded to 100,000 in June, the advantages
+of this shaking down of raw crews were obvious enough.
+When eventually battle was joined, the difference between
+the English and the French <em>personnel</em> was such that for
+every round got off by the latter, any British ship could
+fire <em>three</em>! Victory was won long before a single battle
+shot had been fired. Trafalgar was made a certainty by
+the great blockades.</p>
+
+<p>When war broke out the general disposition of the
+hostile squadrons was as follows:—(the figures in brackets
+representing frigates and small <span class="locked">craft)—</span></p>
+
+<table id="t166">
+<tr class="lrpad2">
+  <td class="tdl"></td>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">British.</span></td>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">French.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"></td>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Outside.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Inside.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Toulon</td>
+  <td class="tdc">14</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(32)</td>
+  <td class="tdc">10</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(6)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Ferrol</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">7</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">(4)</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">5</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(2)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Rochefort</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">5</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">(2)</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">4</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(7)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Brest</td>
+  <td class="tdc">20</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(11)</td>
+  <td class="tdc">18</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(7)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Texel to Dunkirk</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">9</td>
+  <td class="tdc">(21)</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">5</td>
+  <td class="tdc fsr1">(11)</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The invasion flotilla was distributed about Boulogne
+to the tune of 1,450 of the flotilla, 120 brigs and a few
+frigates. In the Texel district were 645 more of the
+flotilla.</p>
+
+<p>Reserve squadrons were stationed in home waters
+ample to deal with the small craft defending flotillas.</p>
+
+<p>So passed away the year 1803. Both sides reinforced
+their squadrons as rapidly as new ships could be
+produced. Beyond this nothing happened.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_167" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28em;">
+  <img src="images/i_167.jpg" width="1730" height="2388" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">POSITIONS OF THE SHIPS OF THE LINE AT THE OUTBREAK OF WAR.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The year 1804 opened with the same lack of result.
+Napoleon made himself Emperor in May, and to some
+extent weakened his squadrons by the removal from
+them of officers suspected of Republican views. In July,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span>
+however, things were nearing completion, and Latouche
+Treville was put in supreme command of the whole
+expedition against England. He received explicit orders
+to evade Nelson (who watched Toulon) and to rendezvous
+at Brest for invasion purposes. He died, however, in
+August<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> and the plans fell through.</p>
+
+<p>After some delay, Villeneuve was appointed in his
+place; but instead of the invasion idea there came plans
+of oversea enterprises, possibly designed with a view to
+drawing all British forces of the moment away from the
+Channel, thus leaving things clear for an invasion. But
+again there comes the doubt whether Napoleon ever
+expected this to succeed, whether he really thought of
+much else than keeping England perturbed and busy
+while he matured plans for other parts of Europe, and
+whether he did not realise that “Sea Power” had its
+limitations as well as its advantages, and never really
+sought anything further than to cause Britain to spend
+so much in naval defence that she had little left to
+subsidise his Continental foes with. Better than most men
+he was able to estimate Nelson’s limitations. He clearly
+estimated fully enough that Nelson was no particularly
+brilliant strategist, and that he was more likely to
+forecast correctly what Nelson would do, than was Nelson
+to divine his purpose. He under-estimated indeed what
+Nelson really did mean,—the particular genius which
+made Nelson invincible as a leader of men, how Nelson
+was a tactician able to gauge exactly the competence of
+the enemy and to win victory by doing seemingly foolish
+things accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>At least, it would appear that there Napoleon erred.
+But there is no judging Napoleon—the strangest mixture<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span>
+of genius and charlatan that the world has ever seen or
+is ever likely to. It is even unsafe to say that Napoleon
+did not foresee Trafalgar; unsafe to believe that, in his
+view, French fleets had no purpose other than to keep the
+English occupied. Napoleon is ever the one man in
+history that no one can ever surely know, whether we
+take him as the biggest liar who ever lived, or as the
+greatest genius the world has ever known.</p>
+
+<p>In January, 1804, the British Fleet in commission
+consisted of seventy-five ships of the line, with forty
+others in reserve; 281 lesser craft were in commission
+and a few in reserve.</p>
+
+<p>The intentions of Spain had long been mistrusted
+in England. As a precaution, the Spanish treasure fleet
+was attacked without warning, and over a million
+pounds’ worth of booty secured. Spain, thereupon,
+made her intentions clear, and declared war. A few
+lesser ships changed hands during the year; but even
+the minor happenings were of small account.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1805, the number of British ships built,
+building and ordered, stood at 181 ships of the line, and
+532 lesser vessels besides troop-ships, store-ships and
+harbour vessels. The <em>personnel</em> was 120,000 and the
+Naval Estimates £15,035,630.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon’s “Army of Invasion” now amounted to
+a nominal 150,000 men<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> in the Boulogne district alone,
+men all trained in embarking and disembarking. The
+famous “Let me be master of the Channel but for six
+hours” had been uttered.<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> If ever invasion were
+seriously contemplated it was so in this year 1805.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span></p>
+
+<p>There followed those well-known operations—the
+“drawing away of Nelson,” of which so much had been
+written.</p>
+
+<p>In substance, Napoleon quite understood the
+situation so far as Nelson was concerned. He understood
+that Nelson’s fleet did not watch Toulon closely.
+He understood that if Villeneuve came out from Toulon
+when Nelson was not close by, Nelson would blindly
+seek him, probably in the wrong direction.</p>
+
+<p>In this, and up to a certain point beyond, Napoleon
+was entirely correct. But he made one error. He
+regarded Nelson as a fool. In estimating Nelson to be
+easily outwitted he was not perhaps far wrong; but
+beyond that, he failed to understand the man with
+whom he had to deal.</p>
+
+<p>It was these qualities of Nelson that rendered any
+invasion hopeless. Nelson had seen enough to know that
+the fighting value of the enemy was small, and that for
+him to attack at all costs and all hazards meant no
+hazard to the result. With one single idea, to find the
+enemy and destroy him, he was just the one enemy for
+whom Napoleon’s genius had no answering move.</p>
+
+<p>Villeneuve got out of Toulon on January 20th. He
+cruised about, Nelson cruising elsewhere looking for him.
+Eventually, Villeneuve, damaged by a gale, returned to
+Toulon, whence he presently emerged again on March
+29th, and sailed for the West Indies. Ten days after he
+had done so, Nelson learned that the French had passed
+Gibraltar on April 8th; but delayed by contrary winds
+and lack of information, the British fleet was a long way
+behind. As for Villeneuve, he picked up six Spaniards
+at Cadiz, and went to the West Indies with seventeen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span>
+ships of the line. Nelson followed far behind with ten.
+He pressed on so hard, however, that he reached
+Barbadoes on June 4th, the same day that Villeneuve, not
+so very far away, left Martinique, where he had been lying.</p>
+
+<p>Therefrom, Nelson sailed south to Trinidad, off which
+he arrived at the same time as Villeneuve, sailing north,
+came off Antigua.</p>
+
+<p>On June 11th, Villeneuve (whose crews were already
+sick) set out to return to Europe. Two days later,
+Nelson, who had gone north again, followed suit.</p>
+
+<p>These hole and corner movements, impossible to-day,
+are not of much interest, save in so far as they indicate
+the certainty of information in these days and the
+uncertainty in those.</p>
+
+<p>The “decoyed away fleet” idea has nothing in it,
+because in any such scheme Villeneuve could surely either
+have doubled back when half-way, or in any case would
+not have remained in the West Indies.</p>
+
+<p>Nelson sent ahead fast frigates, with information
+that Villeneuve was returning; consequently arrangements
+for his reception were made. Off Finisterre,
+Villeneuve encountered Calder, and an indecisive action
+resulted. Two Spanish ships were captured. The
+following day, Villeneuve attempted to attack, but wind
+and weather prevented. On the third day the wind
+shifted, but Calder failed to attack. For this he was
+subsequently court-martialled and severely reprimanded.</p>
+
+<p>Nelson, meanwhile, touched Gibraltar,<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> then proceeded
+north to join Cornwallis off Brest, and thence
+to England in his flagship <i>Victory</i>. Villeneuve, having
+picked up a few more ships at Ferrol, making his total<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span>
+force twenty-nine sail, put into Cadiz,<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> off which Collingwood
+maintained a weary blockade of him.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_173" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;">
+  <img src="images/i_173.jpg" width="2450" height="1377" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">BATTLE OF TRAFALGAR. 1805.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Early in September, news reached England that
+Villeneuve was at Cadiz, and Nelson left Southsea Beach
+on September 14th, sailing next day.</p>
+
+<p>Collingwood, off Cadiz, had been reinforced up to
+twenty-four sail. A martinet officer of the old type, it
+is likely enough that had Villeneuve come out, he might
+have done something against the worn-out blockaders.
+The arrival of Nelson, on September 28th, changed all
+this. Collingwood’s red tape restrictions were countermanded,
+and the spirit of the entire fleet changed
+accordingly. As usual, Nelson spared no effort to keep
+the men fit and healthy.</p>
+
+<p>On the 19th October, Villeneuve came out—driven
+thereto by threats from Napoleon. As Napoleon had
+broken up his Boulogne camp on August 26th and by
+now had the greater part of that army in Germany, his
+forcing Villeneuve to sea is one of those mysteries which
+can never be fathomed. He acted in the teeth of naval
+advice, and there are few more pathetic pictures in history
+than the disgraced Villeneuve putting to sea to known
+certain defeat, endeavouring to fire his men with hope.<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a></p>
+
+<p>On the 20th October, the Franco-Spanish fleet was
+at sea with thirty-three ships of the line, the British
+consisting of twenty-seven. Nelson let the enemy get
+clear of the land, and then on October 21st, attacked
+them off Trafalgar.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span></p>
+
+<p>Of this battle so much has been written that any
+detailed description here is superfluous. To this day,
+the historians dispute as to what the exact tactics were,
+and it is doubtful whether anything will ever get beyond
+Professor Laughton’s summary in his <i>Nelson</i>. Here the
+most emphasis is laid on the fact that in his memorandum
+of October 9th, Nelson expected to handle forty ships
+against a still larger hostile force. All these matters are,
+however, but for the academicians. The main facts are
+that Nelson correctly gauged the inability and gunnery
+inefficiency of the enemy and sailed down on them in
+two lines ahead, they lying in line abreast—a position
+which, had they been able to shoot well, promised them
+victory better than any other.</p>
+
+<p>As an exhibition of tactics, Trafalgar was not even
+original—Rodney in the past had done something very
+similar. On no principle of “theory” was Nelson right.
+Simply and solely his genius lay in ability to calculate
+the human element, to lay his plans accordingly, and to
+achieve certain victory on that!</p>
+
+<p>Villeneuve did all that was possible; and several of
+the French ships fought with remarkable courage. But
+nothing could avail them against Nelson’s understanding
+that it was quite safe to take this risk of sailing end-on
+into them and then overwhelming a part of them with
+superior numbers.</p>
+
+<p>After some four hours’ fighting, eighteen of the
+enemy, including Villeneuve’s flagship, the <i>Bucentaure</i>,
+were captured, and the rest drew off.</p>
+
+<p>Nelson himself, within about twenty minutes of
+falling foul of the enemy, was mortally wounded by a
+musket shot from the tops of the <i>Redoubtable</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span></p>
+
+<p>The losses to the allied Franco-Spanish fleet at
+Trafalgar in killed and wounded were extraordinarily
+heavy, averaging something like 300 or more per ship.
+In one, the casualties amounted to five in every six.
+This enormous loss was due to the raking broadsides of
+the English vessels, which wrought terrible destruction.</p>
+
+<p>Nelson’s last order had been to anchor. Collingwood,
+on whom the command now devolved, saw no object in
+this; to which is generally attributed the fact that most
+of the prizes were lost in a gale that followed the battle.
+Some were wrecked, some re-captured by the enemy
+off Cadiz, some destroyed to prevent re-capture. All
+told, only four of the eighteen prizes ever reached
+Gibraltar. These were the <i>Swiftsure</i> (an ex-British ship),
+and three of the Spaniards, <i>Bahama</i>, <i>San Ildefonso</i>, and
+<i>San Juan Nepomuceno</i>. All were old and worthless.</p>
+
+<p>From the battle, Dumanoir had escaped with four
+French ships. With these he made for the Mediterranean,
+but being intercepted by Sir R. Strachan, was compelled
+to surrender his damaged ships after a short action.
+One of the captured ships, the <i>Duguay Trouin</i>, was
+renamed <i>Implacable</i>, and till quite recently was a
+training ship at Devonport.</p>
+
+<p>Although some considerable Franco-Spanish naval
+force still existed, it was now so scattered in different
+parts, and so blockaded, that danger from it was no
+longer to be apprehended. In December, however, two
+divisions of the Brest fleet, the first consisting of five
+ships of the line and three other vessels, under Vice-Admiral
+Leissegues, and the second of six ships of the line
+and four other vessels, under Rear-Admiral Willaumez,
+evaded the blockade. They were destined for the West
+Indies and the Cape respectively. On February 6th,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span>
+1806, off San Domingo, Leissegues was met by Sir John
+Duckworth, and seven ships. Three of the French were
+captured and two others were run ashore and destroyed.
+Willaumez eventually reached the West Indies also, but
+did not accomplish anything of moment, and having lost
+four ships, finally returned to France.</p>
+
+<p>In 1806, the British <em>personnel</em> was 120,000. Estimates
+£18,864,341. Fleet 551 ships, of which 104 were of the
+line. This year was mainly remarkable for the extraordinary
+inaction displayed by the French, who lay
+sheltered in creeks and inlets along the coast. However,
+some of their frigates were captured by boat attack.</p>
+
+<p>For 1807, the <em>personnel</em> was 120,000, afterwards
+increased to 130,000. Estimates £17,400,000. Seven
+hundred and six ships in service, 104 of them being of
+the line.</p>
+
+<p>In this year a special system of education for shipwright
+apprentices and the establishment of a school of
+naval architecture was recommended. It was not,
+however, until some years later that anything was
+actually done in this direction, the old haphazard system
+of construction being still followed.</p>
+
+<p>In this same year the “18-gun brig-sloop” appeared,
+no less than twenty-five being ordered. These vessels
+were of about 380 tons, and carried sixteen thirty-two-pounder
+carronades and two long six-pounders. They
+were found to be extremely useful vessels. During this
+year the Turkish and Italian Navies were suspected of
+being likely to pass into the hands of France. Sir John
+Duckworth was, therefore, sent to Turkey with orders to
+force the Dardanelles and demand the surrender of the
+Turkish fleet to the British. Failing this he was to
+capture or destroy it and to bombard Constantinople.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span></p>
+
+<p>On the 19th of February, the fleet ran through
+the unprepared Dardanelles without much injury.
+It was fired on by a small Turkish squadron, most
+of the ships of which were destroyed. The neighbourhood
+of Constantinople was reached; but the
+Turks refused to agree to what was demanded and
+busied themselves with strengthening the fortifications
+of the Dardanelles.</p>
+
+<p>On the 1st of March, Duckworth, having done
+nothing, save realise his awkward situation, came down
+through the Dardanelles, running the gauntlet of guns
+which threw stones weighing nearly half-a-ton, some
+considerable damage being done to such ships as were
+hit. These guns were, in some cases, holes bored in the
+rocks filled with powder and stones; others were genuine
+“monster guns.”</p>
+
+<p>Operations against Copenhagen, under Admiral
+Gambier, were opened on a considerably larger scale.
+He had under him eighteen ships of the line, forty lesser
+vessels and nearly 400 transports. This fleet arrived
+early in August, and demanded the surrender of the
+Danish Navy until such time as peace should come about,
+when it would be returned to its original owners. This
+being refused, troops were landed, and on the 1st of
+September, Copenhagen was bombarded and presently
+surrendered. Fifteen ships of the line and ten other
+vessels were given up, and one ship, which tried to
+escape, was captured. Three ships of the line were found
+building; two of these were taken to pieces and carried
+away; the third, being more nearly completed, was
+destroyed. All the naval stores were also brought away
+from the dockyard, necessitating the employment of no
+less than ninety-two of the transports.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span></p>
+
+<p>Only five of the prizes were considered worthy of
+taking into the British service. Of these, one was the
+<i>Christian VII</i> (eighty), of 2,131 tons. This ship was so
+good that four copies of her were built for the British
+Navy.</p>
+
+<p>In the winter of this year, Sir Sydney Smith, with
+nine ships of the line, blockaded the Tagus and demanded
+the surrender of the Portuguese fleet, or else the
+retirement to South America of the Prince Regent, who
+naturally enough (and as had been expected) accepted
+the latter condition and went to South America with the
+bulk of his fleet. During the year, Curacoa was surprised
+and captured from the Dutch; St. Thomas and Santa
+Croix were taken from the Danes. The French being
+now in possession of Portugal, Madeira was also taken
+possession of by the British.</p>
+
+<p>Losses to the extent of thirty-nine British ships
+were sustained during this year, mostly by wreck; one
+sloop, two brigs and six cutters being the only ships
+captured by the enemy. At the end of 1807, Russia,
+which had hitherto been an ally, declared war, owing to
+the peace of Tilset. England, Austria and Sweden were
+thus at war with the rest of the continent.</p>
+
+<p>Russia had eleven ships of the line under Senyavin
+in the Mediterranean. Senyavin made a bolt for the
+Baltic with most of them, but having got as far as the
+Tagus found himself blockaded by Sir Sidney Smith.</p>
+
+<p>A squadron was sent under Samaurez to the Baltic
+in June to co-operate with the Swedes against the
+Russians who were in Rogerswick harbour. An attempt
+was made to destroy the entire Russian fleet, but owing
+to a strong boom the operation failed. The blockade<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span>
+was continued for two months, after which the British
+fleet retired.</p>
+
+<p>For 1808, the <em>personnel</em> was 130,000. Estimates,
+£18,087,500. Ships of the Navy, 842; of which 189 were
+of the line. Of these, seventy-six were 74-gun ships.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon had been steadily renovating his Navy
+ever since Trafalgar, and it now consisted of over sixty
+ships of the line, besides at least twenty others completing.</p>
+
+<p>A certain increase of naval activity consequently
+ensued, and early in the year Admiral Ganteaume, with
+five ships of the line, escaped from Rochefort in a gale
+during the absence of the blockading fleet and succeeded
+in reaching Toulon. Here he was joined by five more
+ships of the line and some frigates and transports. He
+sailed again and effected the relief of Corfu and thence
+returned to Toulon.</p>
+
+<p>In August, the Russian Admiral, Senyavin, who all
+this time had been blockaded in the Tagus, offered to
+surrender his ships to the British on condition that they
+should be given back after the war and that he and his
+men should be free to return to Russia. These terms
+were agreed to.</p>
+
+<p>This year saw the launch of the <i>Caledonia</i> of 120
+guns, the largest ship yet built in England. She was of
+2,616 tons. An interesting item in connection with this
+ship is that she was designed and ordered to be laid
+down as long ago as 1794, but steps to build her were
+not taken until eighteen years later.</p>
+
+<p>For 1809, the <em>personnel</em> was 130,000. Estimates,
+£19,578,467. Ships of the Navy, 728; of which 113
+were of the line. In this year the maintenance allowance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span>
+of the British fleet, which had been £3 15s. 0d. per man
+per month, was increased to £4 16s. 0d.</p>
+
+<p>In February, owing to a gale, the British fleet
+blockading Brest had to withdraw; and Willaumez
+came out with the object of collecting a few ships at
+Rochefort and Lorient, and then sailing to relieve
+Martinique. He was, however, found and blockaded in
+the Basque roads, and attack on him by fire-ships was
+suggested.</p>
+
+<p>In April, Lord Cochrane was sent out with a squadron
+to attack by fire-ships. Three of these were the special
+invention of Cochrane. The hold of each was filled with
+powder casks and sand, covered in with big booms and
+topped with hand grenades and rockets.</p>
+
+<p>On the 11th, Cochrane, leading the expedition with
+one of his “explosion vessels,” went in to attack; to
+discover that the enemy had anticipated things and
+built a boom. This, however, was struck by Cochrane’s
+vessel, which was then blown up, shattering the boom to
+pieces. The rest of the fire-ships came down through the
+gap, but were badly handled in the majority of cases,
+and no French ships were fallen on board of. The
+“explosion vessels” had, however, created such a panic
+that the French ships cut their cables and drifted ashore,
+except one ship, which was grappled with, but succeeded
+in disengaging.</p>
+
+<p>When day broke, the French ships were seen to be
+mostly ashore, and Cochrane urged immediate attack.
+Gambier, however, displayed considerable lack of energy,
+consequent on which many of the French got off. Three
+ships were, however, captured and destroyed, and two
+others were destroyed by the French themselves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span></p>
+
+<p>Cochrane thought that it should have been possible
+to destroy the whole fleet, and made use of his being a
+Member of Parliament publicly to oppose the vote of
+thanks to Lord Gambier. Gambier then demanded a
+court-martial, which was undoubtedly “packed.” He
+was acquitted; and Cochrane, one of the most brilliant
+officers of the Navy of that day, was compelled to leave
+the Service. Until his re-instatement, many years afterwards,
+he spent his career in the service of the revolting
+Spanish colonies in South America.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon had long been fortifying and improving
+the Scheldt, and in 1809 the decision to destroy it was
+come to. The expedition, which left England on the
+28th July, consisted of thirty-seven ships of the line,
+thirty-nine frigates or intermediates, fifty-four sloops or
+brigs, together with 400 transports, carrying 39,000
+troops, under the Earl of Chatham. The fleet was
+commanded by Rear-Admiral Sir Richard Strachan.</p>
+
+<p>The object of the expedition was to destroy all ships
+there and demolish the dockyard and fortifications.
+But, owing to delays, the French had ample warning of
+the impending attack, and put all their ships up the river
+out of reach. It was also found impracticable to attack
+the dockyard or Antwerp. Flushing was therefore
+blockaded, and surrendered on the 15th August. One
+thirty-eight gun frigate was captured, and a frigate and
+a brig building in the dockyard were burned, while the
+timbers of a seventy-four gun ship that was building
+were carried away to Woolwich, and a ship, afterwards
+named the <i>Chatham</i>, built from them.</p>
+
+<p>Walcheren was also captured. Twelve thousand
+troops were left garrisoning Walcheren. Of these, nearly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span>
+half died of disease in the swamps, after which the place
+was evacuated.</p>
+
+<p>In October, a French squadron with transports
+slipped out of Toulon during the absence of Collingwood,
+who was blockading the port with fifteen ships of the line
+and a number of smaller vessels. On the evening of
+October 24th, three French ships of the line and a frigate
+were sighted and chased. On the following morning two
+of the ships of the line were driven ashore, where their
+crew set fire to them and abandoned them; the other
+ship of the line and the frigate managed to get into
+Cette, whence they subsequently got safely back to Toulon.
+Of the convoy, the transports and the smaller vessels,
+which had made up the rest of the French squadron, some
+were captured, the others ran into Spanish harbours and
+took shelter under the fortifications. Eleven of these had
+taken shelter at Rosas, and were cut out by boat attack.</p>
+
+<p>The remaining naval operations of the year were the
+capture of Senegal, Cayenne, and French Guiana.</p>
+
+<p>In the Baltic, the Russian fleet was blockaded. One
+or two boat actions were the only incidents of the year.</p>
+
+<p>For the year 1810, the <em>personnel</em> rose to 145,000,
+and the total estimates amounted to £18,975,120. The
+number of ships in commission were 108 ships of the line
+and 556 lesser vessels.</p>
+
+<p>In the Mediterranean, Collingwood resigned his
+command on account of ill-health, and died on his way
+back to England. He was succeeded by Sir Charles
+Cotton. There were no incidents of moment, for though
+the French had been busily building ships inside Toulon,
+the only use made of these was one or two small sorties
+when the blockading force happened to be weak.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span></p>
+
+<p>In the Channel, French frigates and large privateers
+were very active. Of the privateers, several were
+captured or destroyed, but the frigates held their own.</p>
+
+<p>Abroad, Guadaloupe was captured by a combined
+naval and military attack in a series of operations in the
+Antilles.</p>
+
+<p>In July, the Isle of Bourbon was captured, and
+following this an attack was then made on Mauritius,
+which was the head-quarters of a considerable French
+privateer fleet. The first attack was delivered by
+Captain Pym on Grand Port. He had with him four
+frigates. Two French frigates and two smaller vessels
+lay inside.</p>
+
+<p>On August 22nd, the first attempt was made, but
+owing to Captain Pym’s ship, the <i>Sirius</i>, getting aground,
+it was delayed until next day. In the next day’s attempt,
+both the <i>Sirius</i> and <i>Magicienne</i> ran aground, almost
+out of range. The other two ships, <i>Iphigenia</i> and
+<i>Nereide</i>, got in and drove the French ships ashore.
+Firing from them, however, still continued, and ultimately
+the <i>Nereide</i> had to surrender. The two British ships
+which had run ashore were blown up by orders of
+Captain Pym. The <i>Iphigenia</i> succeeded in getting out
+of the harbour with the crews of these two ships, but
+while warping out was surprised and also captured by
+another French squadron. The entire attack proved a
+failure. The incident is mainly of interest as being the
+only instance in the war in which a British squadron
+sustained defeat.</p>
+
+<p>Following upon this, a more serious attack was made
+on Mauritius; 10,000 troops were embarked, accompanied
+by one ship of the line and twelve frigates. A landing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span>
+was effected at the end of November, and the island
+subsequently surrendered.</p>
+
+<p>In the Baltic, Sweden, which had hitherto been a
+British ally, joined the French side. The Russian fleet
+was still blockaded by Admiral Samaurez, but as the
+Tsar was known to be wavering in his allegiance to
+Napoleon, no actual hostilities took place against him,
+and during the greater part of the year British merchant
+ships freely traded with Russian ports.</p>
+
+<p>When peace was declared between England and
+Russia, the ships of Senyavin which had been captured
+in the Tagus were restored, but they contributed nothing
+to naval history. During the year, five frigates were
+captured from the French and two British frigates were
+captured by the enemy. British losses of the year included
+one ship of the line and seven frigates wrecked or blown
+up to prevent capture, as well as some smaller vessels.</p>
+
+<p>For the year 1811, the <em>personnel</em> remained at 145,000.
+The Estimates were £19,822,000, and the number of
+ships in commission were 107 of the line, and 513 of
+inferior rates.</p>
+
+<p>A considerable blockading squadron was still maintained
+off Toulon, but the French ships there, though
+they occasionally came out into the Road, were extremely
+careful to avoid any engagement.</p>
+
+<p>On March 13th, a small battle, which took place off
+Lissa between six French frigates, accompanied by five
+smaller vessels, under Dubourdieu, and a British squadron
+consisting of three frigates and a twenty-two gun ship,
+commanded by Captain William Hoste, indicates very
+clearly the inferiority to which the French fleet had
+fallen. One French ship was driven ashore and two
+others surrendered.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span></p>
+
+<p>This sort of thing was in no way unique, and a single
+ship action of the same year is an even more startling
+example. The British sloop <i>Atlanta</i> (eighteen) met and
+engaged the <i>Entrepennant</i> (thirty-two). After an engagement
+lasting two-and-a-half hours the French frigate
+struck, having lost thirty men killed and wounded, the
+total loss to the British ship being only five men wounded.</p>
+
+<p>In this year the island of Java was captured from
+the Dutch, and there were a number of small actions in
+the Channel, mostly the attacks of praames on small
+British ships. The total loss to the enemy consisted of
+three French frigates captured, two French frigates
+destroyed and one wrecked. Two Venetian frigates were
+also captured. The losses to the British Navy during the
+same period were much more heavy: three ships of the
+line, five frigates and an eighteen-gun brig-sloop were
+wrecked. Three small ships were captured and various
+other small vessels became unserviceable, the total loss in
+these amounting to fifty-one.</p>
+
+<p>In January, 1811, the report of the Commission of
+1806 was first brought into operation by the introduction
+of apprentices to be trained at the Royal Naval College,
+at Portsmouth. This was known as the School of Naval
+Architecture, and was the first genuine attempt at
+introducing science into naval construction. Students
+were given three days technical work a week and three
+days theoretical in mathematics and theory, under
+Dr. Inman. From the School of Naval Architecture the
+students were sent to the Navy Office, and also to the
+various dockyards, for the study of routine. Unfortunately,
+however, the experiment was received with disfavour
+by many of the old-type of dockyard officer, with the
+result that most of the students were either not proficient<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span>
+or else became disgusted and found employment
+elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>For the year 1812, the <em>personnel</em> still remained at
+145,000. The Estimates were £19,305,759. Ships in
+commission amounted to 102 ships of the line and 482
+lesser vessels, with a certain number of ships in reserve.
+At and about this period various experimental ships
+were built, of which the most interesting was the floating
+battery <i>Spanker</i>. She was of somewhat amateur construction;
+intended to carry guns of the largest size and
+mortars for bombardment and harbour defence. The
+main deck had an over-hang fitted with scuttles, down
+through which guns could be fired. The idea of this was,
+that supposing she were attacked by boats, these would
+go under the over-hang and very easily be destroyed.
+In practice, however, there was so much miscalculation
+that the over-hang was only a few inches above the
+water-line. The ship was also found to be so unmanageable
+that she was very shortly relegated to
+harbour service.</p>
+
+<p>The blockades of Toulon and the Scheldt were
+continued, but nothing of much naval interest took place.
+A small French squadron broke out of Lorient, but after
+cruising about for three weeks and making a few prizes,
+returned to Brest and was blockaded there.</p>
+
+<p>In the Baltic, peace was made with Sweden, and
+war definitely broke out between France and Russia,
+this being the war which culminated in Napoleon’s
+disastrous invasion of Russia.</p>
+
+<p>In the Channel and in the Mediterranean a number
+of single ship actions took place, and one ship, the <i>Rivoli</i>
+(seventy-four), built at Venice for the French Navy, was
+captured. This particular ship held out for 4½ hours, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span>
+at the time of her surrender had only two guns left
+available and fifty per cent. of her crew were out of
+action. She was captured by the <i>Victorious</i> (seventy-four).</p>
+
+<p>The most important naval event of the year was the
+American declaration of war against England. The war
+had been prepared for some time, and the American
+Navy, such as there was of it, was in a very efficient and
+up-to-date state. It contained no ships of the line, but
+a number of very heavily-armed frigates, manned by
+well-trained crews. In the single ship actions that
+ensued the Americans were almost invariably victorious.</p>
+
+<p>For the year 1813, the <em>personnel</em> was 14,000; the
+Estimates £20,096,709. Ships in commission, 102 of the
+line and 468 inferior vessels. The problem of meeting
+the American frigates was very seriously considered
+and a certain number of large ships were razeed with
+a view to meeting the American frigates on more even
+terms.</p>
+
+<p>The most famous event of the year was the fight
+between the <i>Shannon</i> (British) and the <i>Chesapeake</i>
+(American). The former was rated at thirty-eight, but
+actually carried fifty-two guns. The latter was rated at
+thirty-six, but carried fifty. She had done well, but at
+the time of the fight had just been re-commissioned with
+a new crew, of whom a number were British deserters
+and some forty were Portuguese. The <i>Shannon</i>, on the
+other hand, had been in commission for some years;
+and Captain Broke had assiduously trained his men in
+gunnery, having anticipated the “dotter” of to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Being in this state of efficiency he came off Boston
+and sent in a challenge to the captain of the <i>Chesapeake</i>.
+Whether the challenge was actually received or not, the
+<i>Chesapeake</i> came out accompanied by yachts crowded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span>
+with sightseers and a cargo of handcuffs for the anticipated
+British prisoners.</p>
+
+<p>Firing was not opened until the two frigates were
+only fifty yards apart. It lasted only about ten minutes,
+when the <i>Chesapeake</i> being almost blown to pieces, the
+<i>Shannon</i> fell aboard her and carried her by boarding in
+another five.</p>
+
+<p>The rest of the war with America, which lasted well
+on into 1815, is of no great naval interest except for the
+side issues involved. In a series of actions, the American
+big gun theory was triumphantly demonstrated, and
+more than once small British squadrons were wiped out.
+No material result, however, followed in consequence.
+On the other hand, Washington was attacked in 1814,
+and the public buildings burned, again without much
+material result. The real interest of the war lies in side
+issues.</p>
+
+<p>The submarine appeared in this war, but the
+American authorities refused to give it any official
+sanction, and attempts made against British ships were
+by private individuals who had ignored the express
+orders of the American authorities. None of the
+experimenters were successful, but this was mainly a
+matter of luck.</p>
+
+<p>A matter of greater interest was the construction of
+an American war vessel, the <i>Fulton</i>. The <i>Fulton</i>—which
+was driven by a steam paddle in the centre of the vessel,
+and was armoured with wood so thick that none of the
+shot of the period could get through it, was armed with
+two 100-pounder guns on pivot mountings and carried
+a ram shaped bow—can undeniably lay claim to being
+the precursor of the <i>Monitor</i> or <i>Merrimac</i>, and also to
+being the first steam warship. She took too long to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span>
+complete, however, to take any part in the war; but had
+the war continued, few British ships could have survived
+her attacks, presuming her to have been seaworthy.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_191" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;">
+  <img src="images/i_191.jpg" width="2454" height="1644" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">THE END OF AN OLD WARSHIP.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>To resume: 1813 as regards the French was not
+productive of much in the way of naval operations.
+The French had by now built so many new ships at
+Toulon that they were actually superior to the blockading
+British squadron. But they made no attempt to use
+this superiority, and nothing resulted except a few small
+skirmishes. A few insignificant captures were made on
+the British side.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the year 1814, there were
+ninety-nine ships of the line in commission and 495 lesser
+vessels. The <em>personnel</em> amounted to 140,000, and the
+estimates £19,312,000.</p>
+
+<p>A number of single ship actions took place between
+frigates, and in most of these a considerable improvement
+in French efficiency was noted. Nothing, however, was
+done with the larger ships, and the war ultimately ended
+with the deportation of Napoleon to Elba.</p>
+
+<p>No sooner was peace declared than the fleet was
+greatly reduced and a large number of ships sold or
+broken up. Nineteen ships of the line and ninety-three
+other vessels were thus disposed of. The <em>personnel</em> for
+the year 1815 was reduced to 70,000 for the first three
+months and 90,000 for the remainder of the year. The
+estimates stood at £17,032,700, of which £2,000,000
+was for the payment of debts.</p>
+
+<p>The re-appearance of Napoleon and the events
+which culminated in the battle of Waterloo did not lead
+to any naval operations, and with the final deportation
+of Napoleon to St. Helena, a further reduction of the
+fleet took place. The estimates sank to £10,114,345, and
+considerable reductions of officers and men were made.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="VIII"><span id="toclink_194"></span>VIII.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">GENERAL MATTERS IN THE PERIOD OF THE FRENCH WARS.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">Naval</span> uniform, as we understand it, first came into
+use for officers in the days of George II,<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> who so
+admired a blue and white costume of the Duchess
+of Bedford that he decided then and there to dress his
+naval officers in similar fashion. No very precise
+regulations were, however, followed, and for many years
+uniform was more or less optional or at the fancy of
+the captain.</p>
+
+<p>The first uniform consisted of a blue coat, with white
+cuffs and gold buttons. The waistcoat, breeches, and
+stockings were white. The hat was the ordinary three-cornered
+black hat of the period with some gold lace
+about it and a cockade. Other officers wore uniforms
+which were slight variants upon this: while as special
+distinguishing marks only the captain (if over three
+years’ seniority) wore epaulettes upon both shoulders.
+A lieutenant wore one only.</p>
+
+<p>From time to time the uniform was altered slightly,
+mostly as regards the cuffs and lapels; but enormous
+latitude was allowed, and some officers even dressed as
+seamen.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span></p>
+
+<p>There was no general uniform whatever for the men;
+though circumstances led to the bulk of the men in any
+one ship being dressed more or less alike.</p>
+
+<p>This was the result of the “slop chest.” This was
+introduced about the year 1650, and amounted to nothing
+more than a species of ready-made tailor ship at which
+men at their own expense could obtain articles of clothing.
+Later on it became compulsory for newly-joined men,
+whose clothes were defective, to purchase clothing on
+joining, to the tune of two months’ pay.</p>
+
+<p>These articles being supplied to a ship wholesale,
+were naturally all alike, and so the men of one ship would
+all be more or less uniformly attired. Men of another ship
+might be dressed quite differently, though also more or
+less like each other. But any idea of uniform as
+“uniform,” right up to Trafalgar, was entirely confined
+to one or two dandy captains, and they mainly only
+considered their own boat’s crews.<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> Some fearful and
+wonderful costumes of this kind are recorded.</p>
+
+<p>Uniform wearing of the “slop chest” variety was,
+however, always regarded as the badge of the pressed man
+and jail bird. The “prime seaman” who joined decently
+clad was allowed to wear his own clothes, and these were
+decided by fashion. There were dudes in the Navy in
+those days, and contemporary art records a good deal of
+variety. In our own day, when exactitude is at a
+premium, it has erred badly enough to depict bluejackets
+with moustachios.<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> In the old days it was probably
+even more careless still. Consequently everything as to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span>
+the costume of men in the Nelson era required to be
+accepted with caution. It is, however, clear from the
+more reliable literary and descriptive sources that the
+dandy sailor existed very freely. The “prime seaman”
+loved to hall-mark himself by his costume.</p>
+
+<p>On board ship in dirty weather he wore anything and
+his best when coming up for punishment.<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> In a general
+way fashion always worked from the officers’ uniform,
+with fancy additions. A natty blue jacket was the
+essential feature, with as many brass buttons as the owner
+could afford. A red or yellow waistcoat seems to have
+been <i lang="fr">a la mode</i>. Trousers, preferably of white duck, but
+sometimes of blue, were also “the fancy.” Sometimes
+these were striped. In all cases they were ample, free,
+and flowing, as they are at the present day. Convenience
+of tucking up on wet decks is the usual explanation;
+but there is good reason to believe that idle fashion of
+the Nelson days had just as much or more to do with the
+modern bluejacket’s trousers.</p>
+
+<p>The quaint little top hat of the midshipman was
+generally worn by the Lower Deck dandy. A pig tail
+was also a <i lang="la">sine qua non</i> during the period of the Second
+Great War.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the pigtail is wrapped in some mystery.
+It has been variously ascribed to copying the French
+Navy<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a> and to imitating the Marines, who wore wonderfully
+greased pigtails at this period.</p>
+
+<p>To complete the rig the seamen used to decorate
+themselves with coloured ribbons let into their clothes.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span>
+They lived a hard life, and much has been written upon
+the subject. But the evidence generally tends to prove
+that the “prime seaman” as a rule had a far better time
+than those who (failing to recognise that conditions
+have altered to-day) appear to realise.<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> The lack of
+liberty, entailed by the presence of so many men who
+would assuredly desert on half a chance, was so general
+and so long-standing that it is doubtful whether it was
+felt to any really great extent. Customs cover most
+things.</p>
+
+<p>To our modern ideas the punishments afloat were
+horribly brutal; but here again it is necessary to
+remember the difference in era. Floggings and kindred
+punishments were plentiful enough ashore; and there is
+a good deal of evidence to indicate that they were taken
+as “all in the day’s work afloat.” The victim was usually
+“doped” by his messmates, who saved up part of their
+rum tots for the purpose, and the horrors of the cat have
+undoubtedly been somewhat exaggerated. It was undeniably
+brutal and cruel; but, to select a homely
+simile, so were dental methods a few years ago. Our
+fathers submitted to things in this direction which none
+of us would, or, for that matter, could stand nowadays.
+The bulk of contemporary evidence is that the (to our
+eyes) brutal punishments of the Navy of a hundred odd
+years ago were never regarded as serious grievances by
+those who stood to undergo them.</p>
+
+<p>The actual grievances revolved entirely around the
+administration of undeserved punishments. A certain
+number of captains misused their powers and prerogatives,
+but only a small percentage did so. At no time does the
+average captain appear to have been a brutal bully.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span>
+This is, however, to be qualified by the midshipmen, of
+whom a certain number deliberately bullied men into
+doing things for which they got brutally punished
+afterwards. But outside this the conditions were by no
+means so horrible as generally depicted. The real
+sufferers were the pressed landsmen, who certainly
+learned to be seamen in a very hard school.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary, however, even here to remember the
+times and the conditions. This view is borne out by the
+Great Mutiny. The mutineers, even at the Nore, never
+demanded the abolition of the cat. When trouble was
+connected with it in any way, it was over its unreasonable
+use, as, for instance, in the insensate flogging of the last
+two men off the rigging, which led to the Mutiny in the
+<i>Hermione</i>. This—which entailed punishing the smartest
+men since these had furthest to go—goaded the “prime
+seamen” to desperation and sympathy with the landsmen
+element afloat, which was ever in a semi-mutinous
+condition. It is impossible to hold that Captain Pigot
+of the <i>Hermione</i> did not deserve his fate. But Pigots
+were comparatively rare, and captains like Nelson by no
+means scarce. Nelson had no hesitation in flogging men,
+but he flogged justly, and no troubles ever occurred in
+any ship commanded by him. For that matter it was
+characteristic of the time that a captain might be a
+Tartar, and yet be quite popular with his crew so long
+as he was just. The “prime seamen” who formed the
+nucleus of the ship’s company realised the necessity of
+severe measures and strict discipline in order to tame
+the human ullage which made up the rest of the crew.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection it is interesting to note that
+towards the end of the period there began to creep in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span>
+the commencement of a later classification of ratings not
+liable to corporal punishment.</p>
+
+<p>Had life afloat in the days of the Great War been
+quite as terrible as it is often depicted as having been,
+the volunteer element of trained seamen could hardly
+have existed, nor could the glamour of the sea have
+brought so many raw volunteers as it did. When a ship
+was commissioned, the first step was advertising for men.
+The advertisements were specious and alluring enough;
+but the captain’s character generally had most influence
+on the response; and all the essential seamen element,
+unless they had spent all their money, were pretty wary
+as to who they shipped with.</p>
+
+<p>To be sure it did not take the seaman long to lose his
+money. On a ship paying off he received a considerable
+accumulated sum, and every kind of shark and harpy was
+on the lookout to relieve him of it. He got gloriously
+drunk and so remained while the money lasted, and in
+this condition the press-gang often got him.</p>
+
+<p>The press-gang was a legalised form of naval
+conscription. In theory any seafaring man who could
+be laid hands on might be taken; in practice all was
+fish that came to the press-gang’s net.</p>
+
+<p>The press-gang, armed with cudgels and cutlasses,
+used to operate at night, generally in the naval towns,<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a>
+but at times also further afield. It laid hands upon all
+and sundry, hitting them over the head if they resisted.</p>
+
+<p>A cargo secured, the men were taken on board and
+kept between decks under an armed guard pending
+examination by the captain and surgeon. Certain people,
+such as apprentices or some merchant seamen, were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span>
+exempt and had to be liberated. Badly diseased men
+were also let loose again. Verminous and dirty folk were
+scrubbed with a brutality which created subsequent
+cleanly habits. Their clothes were either fumigated or
+else thrown away altogether, and fresh clothing supplied
+from the “slop chest” at so much off their pay.</p>
+
+<p>If within a fortnight the pressed man cared to call
+himself a volunteer he received a bounty; but, whether
+he volunteered<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> or not, once aboard the ship there he
+remained till death or the paying off of the ship years
+later. It was this confinement to the ship which led to
+so much agitation, and was made one of the principal
+grievances of the mutineers at Spithead.</p>
+
+<p>On the side of the authorities it has to be remembered
+that had any man been allowed ashore he would certainly
+never have been seen again, at any rate, so long as he
+had any money. In most fleets also, an attempt at a
+substitute was made by allowing ship to ship visiting.
+Such visits invariably resulted in drunken bouts and subsequent
+floggings. Nelson went further—he instituted
+theatricals on shipboard. It is generally clear that—very
+crudely, of course—the authorities were not blind to the
+desirability of relieving the tedium of imprisonment on
+board ship.</p>
+
+<p>The feeding of the men in the days of the Great War
+is generally considered to have been villainous. It was
+one of the causes of the Mutiny; but there is some reason
+to believe that it was not invariably bad. Rodney’s
+fleet is said to have been excellently provisioned, and
+much of what has been written about “thieving pursers”
+in the past is now known to be mythical. It was a
+classical legend that the purser stole and swindled with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span>
+bad food. He might do so, and many did. But all did
+not, either from honesty or because they did not get the
+chance. Under Nelson or Rodney an unscrupulous
+purser stood to have a very bad time indeed, and there
+were others very keenly alive to the fact that good feeding
+and efficiency went hand in hand. The bad food at the
+time of the mutinies seem to have been a feature of that
+particular time, and even so due rather to mismanagement
+than much else. For the rest, the real culprits were
+economists on shore, who had no connection whatever
+with the Fleet, and were merely interested in husbanding
+the financial resources of the country.</p>
+
+<p>The provisions as made were almost uniformly good,
+and the stories of unscrupulous contractors who, in league
+with the pursers, foisted inferior food on the Fleet, may
+mostly be dismissed. Such cases occurred now and again,
+but comparatively rarely. “Rogues in authority” were
+mainly mythical. There are yarns by the score. There
+are corresponding yarns to-day, quite as plentiful, which
+the careless historian of the future will no doubt swallow.
+For example, at the present day it is an article of faith
+with every bluejacket that the first lieutenant pockets odd
+sixpences out of the canteen, and nothing ever can or
+ever will remove the impression.</p>
+
+<p>It is absolutely absurd; but within the last ten
+years I have had it chapter and verse all about the
+peculation of 1s. 4d. by a first lieutenant whose private
+income ran well into five figures! It is a sea-legend so
+hoary that bluejackets honour it, no matter how
+ridiculously improbable. The purser of the days of the
+Great War was not perhaps entirely clean handed, but
+as Commander Robinson has pointed out,<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> even at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span>
+Spithead Mutiny, when the provision question was very
+much to the fore, the mutineers did not complain of the
+purser, but of the system and regulations. It was
+people on shore, not the man afloat, who, when it came
+to the point, mixed up the instrument with the handlers
+thereof.</p>
+
+<p>The Spithead trouble, which was purely naval (the
+Nore Mutiny was more or less political) arose entirely, so
+far as food was concerned, out of the economists already
+referred to. Vast stores of provisions had been accumulated,
+and many were going bad. Pursers received very
+strict orders to use up the old “likely to decay soon”
+before touching the new. The result was the issue of
+decayed pork, stinking cheese, and mildewed biscuits to
+an unprecedented degree. A badness that had hitherto
+been more or less occasional chanced just about the
+Mutiny period to be general.</p>
+
+<p>The men were by no means starved or badly fed,
+presuming the food to be good. The usual scale was
+somewhat as follows:—A daily issue of a pound of biscuit
+and a gallon of beer or else pint of wine; and when
+these were exhausted, one gill of Navy rum diluted with
+three of water twice a day. On Tuesdays and Saturdays
+an issue of 2lbs. of beef was made; on Sundays and
+Thursdays 1lb. of pork. Over the week the issue of
+other articles was 2lbs. pease, 1½lbs. oatmeal, 6ozs. of
+butter, an equal amount of sugar, and 12ozs. of cheese
+and half-a-pint of vinegar nominally per man; but
+actually every four men took the provisions of six. Nine
+pounds of meat a week could hardly be called starvation
+fare even to-day, and in those times it was an extraordinarily
+liberal diet for men who at home would not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span>
+have had anything like it.<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a> Except in cases with
+admirals like Collingwood (who in the matter of understanding
+the ratio of health to efficiency was about the
+most incompetent admiral the British Navy ever had), it
+was generally seen to that, whenever possible, fresh
+provisions could be purchased from traders who regularly
+visited blockading fleets.</p>
+
+<p>Furthermore, rations were normally varied so far as
+circumstances would permit, and when possible fresh beef
+and mutton were substituted for the salt meat allowance.
+Nelson went to almost extravagant lengths in these
+directions; but the majority of other officers were not
+far behind. Whatever hell the Lower Deck of the Fleet
+entailed, the blame in hardly any case lay with the
+officers, executive or otherwise, but entirely with civilian
+officials and Members of Parliament with ideas of their
+own about economy. All the reliable evidence is to the
+effect that the responsible authorities desired their
+fighting men to live (relatively speaking) like fighting
+cocks, that the difference between the ideal and the real
+was due to civilian influence, and that even so it was
+only really thoroughly bad just before the Great Mutiny.
+Had it been a regular thing the Mutinies would probably
+never have happened, the men would have been too used
+to the conditions to find in them a special cause of
+complaint.</p>
+
+<p>The whole trouble in messing in the old days arose
+out of quality, not quantity. The beef and pork were
+almost invariably bad, owing to the system of using up
+the old provisions first, with a view to economy. Every
+ship carried tons of good provisions going bad, while<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span>
+those already bad and decayed were being consumed.
+Consequently the men starved in the midst of relative
+plenty.</p>
+
+<p>It remains to add that the officers fared little
+better.<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> On the whole, taking their general shore food
+into consideration, it may be argued that they fared
+worse. As a rule, they had to eat what the men ate,
+a fact too often forgotten by those who believe that the
+officers of those days generally peculated on provisions
+for the men.</p>
+
+<p>Both aft and forward there was one consolation.
+Liquor was plentiful enough for anyone who wanted to
+be half seas over by eventime. So was the hard life
+lived, with an occasional battle to break the monotony.</p>
+
+<p>To both officers and men battle seems to have been
+the “beano” of to-day. Conditions on board were not
+rosy enough to make life worth clinging to, while battle
+meant a good time afterwards to those who got through
+unscathed. There was only one terror—being wounded.
+The horrors of the cockpit are beyond exaggeration.
+The surgeons did their best. They were poorly paid
+men<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> and expected to find their own instruments: only if
+they could not did they borrow tools from the carpenter.<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a></p>
+
+<figure id="i_205" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;">
+  <img src="images/i_205.jpg" width="2445" height="1639" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">A TRAFALGAR ANNIVERSARY.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>They heated their instruments before use so as
+to lessen the shock of amputation; they doped their
+patients with wine or spirit so far as might be. They<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span>
+took all as they came in turn, whether officer or man.
+If anyone seemed too badly wounded to be worth
+attention they had him taken above and thrown
+overboard. If, at a hasty glance, taking off an arm or
+a leg, or both, seemed likely to promise a cure, they gave
+the wounded man a tot of rum and a bit of leather to
+chew, and set to work! The wounded who survived
+were treated with a humanity which makes the “more
+humanity to the wounded” of the Spithead mutineers a
+little difficult to understand at first sight. They were
+fed on delicacies; and anything out of the ordinary on
+the wardroom table was always sent to them. They
+also got all the officers’ wine.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, time in the sick bay was deducted
+from their pay,<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> and they were liable to all kinds
+of infectious diseases caught from the last patient.</p>
+
+<p>To satisfy the demands of the economists, lint was
+forbidden and sponges restricted, so that a single sponge
+might have to serve for a dozen wounded men. Blood-poisoning
+was thus indiscriminately spread, and a
+wounded man thus infected with the worst form of it,
+was mulcted in his pay for medicines required. When
+the Spithead mutineers demanded “more humanity to
+the wounded” those were the things that probably
+they had in mind. It has further to be remembered that
+a man wounded too badly to be of any further use afloat
+was flung ashore without pension or mercy. The
+surgeons were fully as humane as their brethren ashore,
+possibly much more so, from the mere fact that any
+community of men flung together to sink or swim together
+compels common sympathies. To the men the purser<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span>
+was classically a thief, the surgeon a callous brute, the
+officers generally brutes of another kind. This cheap
+view of the situation has been perpetuated <i lang="la">ad lib</i>. But
+all the best evidence is to the effect that, as a rule, and
+save in exceptional cases, most of those on board a warship
+pulled together, and that all strove to make the best
+of things. Things to be made the best of were few,
+no doubt, and the grumblers and growlers are the folk
+who have left most records. Allowing for the different
+era, similar growls can be found to-day. To-day the
+contented man says nothing; the discontented says a
+little, and outside sympathisers say a great deal. The
+truth probably lies with the actually discontented’s
+version somewhat discounted. In the days of the Great
+War, the same fact probably obtained. Unquestionably
+the seaman proper loved the sea and his duty, despite all
+hardships and drawbacks. To this fact is to be attributed
+the easy victories of the Great Wars, and, relatively to
+corresponding shore life, sea life afloat can hardly have
+been quite so black as most people delight to paint it.<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a></p>
+
+<p>The pay of the Navy of the period remains to be
+mentioned. It ran as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Captain—6s. to 25s. a day, according to the ship, plus
+a variety of allowances.</li>
+<li>Midshipmen—£2 to £2 15s. 6d. a month.</li>
+<li>Surgeons—11s. to 18s. a day, with half-pay when
+unemployed.</li>
+<li>Assistant-Surgeons—4s. and 5s., with half-pay when
+unemployed.</li>
+<li>Chaplains—about 8s. 6d. a day, with allowances.</li>
+<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span></li>
+<li>Schoolmasters—£2 to £2 8s. a month, with bounties.</li>
+<li>Boatswains—£3 to £4 16s. a month.</li>
+<li>Boatswain’s Mate—£2 5s. 6d. a month.</li>
+<li>Gunner—£1 16s. to £2 2s. a month.</li>
+<li>Carpenter—£3 to £5 16s. a month, according to the ship.</li>
+<li>Quartermaster—£2 5s. 6d. a month.</li>
+<li>Sailmaker—£2 5s. 6d. a month.</li>
+<li>Sailmaker’s Assistant—£1 18s. 6d. a month.</li>
+<li>Master-at-Arms—£2 0s. 6d. to £2 15s. 6d. a month.</li>
+<li>Ship’s Corporals—£2 2s. 6d. a month.</li>
+<li>Cook—11s. 8d. a month and pickings.</li>
+<li>Able Seaman—11s. a month (33s. a month after 1797).</li>
+<li>Ordinary Seaman—9s. a month (25s. 6d. a month after 1797).</li>
+<li>Landsman—7s. 6d. a month (23s. a month after 1797).</li>
+<li>Ship’s Boy—13s. to 13s. 6d. a month.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>As a rule the men received their pay in a lump when
+the ship paid off. Hence those extraordinary scenes of
+dissipation with which the story books have made us
+sufficiently familiar. Jews<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> and women soon fleeced the
+Tar, who was generally too drunk to know what he was
+doing, there being dozens of willing hands ready to see
+to it that he was well plied with liquor.</p>
+
+<h3><i>FLAGS.</i></h3>
+
+<p>In the year 1800 the Union flag was altered to its
+present form by the incorporation of the red cross of St.
+Patrick. This flag, the Union Jack, was used for flying
+on the bowsprit,<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> and at the main masthead by an
+Admiral of the Fleet. To hoist it correctly, <i>i.e.</i>, right<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span>
+side up, was a special point of importance in the Fleet
+of Nelson’s day, and many a foreigner seeking to use
+British colours got bowled out from hoisting the flag
+incorrectly, <i>i.e.</i>, without the greater width of white being
+uppermost in the inner canton nearest the staff. To this
+day many people on shore do the same.</p>
+
+<p>The ensign was coloured according as to whether the
+Admiral was “of the white,” “blue,” or “red.” It was
+flown, as till quite recently, from the mizzen peak.</p>
+
+<p>For battle purposes this variety ensign died out after
+Trafalgar, where, in order to avoid confusion, Nelson
+ordered all ships to fly the white ensign—he himself
+being a Vice-Admiral of the white, while Collingwood was
+Vice-Admiral of the blue. Trafalgar was thus the first
+battle to be fought deliberately under the white ensign.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="IX"><span id="toclink_211"></span>IX.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE BIRTH OF MODERN WARSHIP IDEAS.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">In</span> 1816 took place the bombardment of Algiers,
+whereby 1,200 Europeans who were in slavery
+were released. None of these, however, proved
+to be British subjects. A noticeable feature of the
+bombardment was the heavy damage done by the large
+ships engaged.</p>
+
+<p>For the year 1817 the <em>personnel</em> stood at 21,000 only.
+Ships in commission were fourteen of the line and 100
+lesser craft. Two hundred and sixty-three (of which
+eighty-four were of the line) were laid up “in ordinary”
+and the remaining ships were condemned.</p>
+
+<p>In this year a new rating of ships was introduced.
+Up till now the carronades had not been included in the
+armament of ships. Under the new rating they were
+included, and so the thirty-eight gun ship actually
+carrying fifty-two guns appeared for the first time with
+her proper armament.</p>
+
+<p>Although the Navy was so reduced, considerable
+attention was paid to shipbuilding and improvement of
+construction. Trussed frames were introduced, and a
+variety of other inventions which had long been in use
+in France. Much attention was paid to the strong
+construction of the bow, with a view to resisting raking
+fire.<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a> Sterns were also made circular to enable more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span>
+guns to bear aft. A curious objection to this was made
+on the grounds that in time of war it was the enemy
+who would be in retreat and most in need of stern fire,
+and that by the introduction of this into the British
+Navy the enemy would copy and so have the advantage
+of being better able to defend himself than heretofore!
+It was, however, pointed out that perhaps war vessels
+propelled by steam might be met with in blockades, and
+that it would be extremely important to sail away from
+these and be able to destroy them while so doing!</p>
+
+<p>The years 1818 and 1819 passed uneventfully. The
+<em>personnel</em> was 20,000, and the estimates averaged
+between six and seven million pounds. They remained
+at about this figure for several years, and beyond some
+slight operations in Burmah, in 1824, the British Navy
+performed no war services till the year 1827. In the
+Burmese operations, the <i>Diana</i>, a small steam paddle
+vessel took part. It is also of some interest to record
+that Captain Marryat, the naval novelist, commanded
+the <i>Lorne</i> (twenty) in these operations.</p>
+
+<p>In 1827, the combined fleets of England, France
+and Russia met those of the Turks and Egyptians at
+Navarino, in connection with the war between Turkey
+and Greece. The allied fleet consisted as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p>
+
+<table id="t212">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl mid" rowspan="3">BRITISH</td>
+  <td class="tdc large3" rowspan="3">{</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Three ships of the line.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Four frigates.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Several other vessels.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl mid" rowspan="3">FRENCH</td>
+  <td class="tdc large3" rowspan="3">{</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Three ships of the line.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Two lesser vessels.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Two schooners.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl mid" rowspan="2">RUSSIAN</td>
+  <td class="tdc large2" rowspan="2">{</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Four ships of the line.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Four frigates.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The combined Turko-Egyptian fleet consisted of
+three ships of the line, fifteen large frigates, eighteen
+corvettes, and a number of gunboats, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span></p>
+
+<p>The Turkish fleet was anchored in the harbour. The
+combined fleet sailed into the harbour and anchored to
+leeward of the Turks. These fired upon some English
+boats and a general action ensued, in which the greater
+part of the Turko-Egyptian fleet was destroyed with the
+loss of somewhere about 4,000 men. The Allies lost 650,
+and the principal English ships were so damaged that
+they had to be sent home for repairs.</p>
+
+<p>At and about this time, and right on for some years,
+an enormous number of experiments were carried out
+between ship and ship with a view to improving the
+sailing qualities, and side by side with this, the question
+of propulsion other than by sail was first seriously
+considered. A certain number of small steam tugs had
+been added to the Navy, there being no less than twenty-two
+such built in the reign of George IV. Of these the
+largest was built in 1835. Very little reliance was placed
+on steam at first for any possibilities outside towing and
+harbour work, and a great deal of energy was expended
+in devices to enable ships to be moved by manual labour.
+In place of the “sweeps” of ancient history, paddles were
+fitted, and in 1829 the <i>Galatea</i> (forty-two) frigate was
+thus moved at a speed of three knots in a dead calm.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Galatea</i> was commanded by Captain, afterwards
+Admiral Sir Charles, Napier, who so long ago as 1819
+had been concerned in financing an unsuccessful attempt
+to run iron steamers on the Seine. The first ship in
+which hand paddles were tried was the <i>Active</i>, frigate.
+No success was met with, but Napier evolved a different
+system for the <i>Galatea</i>. Those of the <i>Active</i> were worked
+by the capstan; Napier installed a series of winches
+along each side of the main deck. It took about two-thirds
+of the ship’s company to work them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span></p>
+
+<p>The earliest known use of steam was as long ago as
+in the year 1543. The account of it was in the original
+records which had been preserved in the Royal Archives
+of Simancas, among the State Papers of the city of
+Catalonia, and those of the Naval Secretary of War, in
+the year 1543, and was extracted on the 27th August, 1825,
+by the keeper, who signed his name “Tomas Gonzalez.”</p>
+
+<p>The inventor, a naval officer named Garay, never
+revealed the secret of his invention, but mention is made
+of a “cauldron of boiling water” and “wheels of
+complicated movement on each side of the vessel.” He
+succeeded in obtaining a speed of “two leagues in three
+hours,” also “at least a league an hour” with his device,
+fitted to a 200-ton vessel named <i>Trinidad</i>.<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a> Honours
+were bestowed on Garay, but the monarch who had
+patronised him, being busy with other matters, did not
+follow up the invention. Otherwise much naval history
+might have been different from what it is.</p>
+
+<p>In 1736, Jonathan Hulls took out a patent in
+England for a stern wheel. It should be remembered
+that at this time the question of means of propulsion
+other than by sail was eagerly considered, and that
+paddles came to be tried in the place of oars, with a view
+to more continuity of action. Steam ideas somewhat
+trended to the idea of sucking water in forward and
+ejecting it aft. The screw propeller also was known
+certainly at as early a date as the paddle.</p>
+
+<p>In 1789, a sixty-feet boat was driven for nearly seven
+miles an hour with a twelve horse-power engine, but
+for a very long time nothing was expected except canal
+work and towing. Even as steam progressed, it did so
+in the merchant service first.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span></p>
+
+<p>By the year 1818, however, the Americans had built
+a sea-going steamer, <i>Savannah</i>, which crossed the Atlantic
+to Russia. On her return voyage the United States was
+reached twenty-five days after leaving Norway.</p>
+
+<p>In England, in the year 1821, a steam mail service,
+between Holyhead and Dublin, was established, and in
+1823 a steam mail service between England and India
+was seriously asked for, and in 1829 the subject again
+came upon the <em>tapis</em>.</p>
+
+<p>In 1839, the steam liner <i>Great Britain</i>, was laid down.
+She was 322 feet long overall and a beam of fifty-one
+feet, and a displacement of 2,984 tons, with 1,000
+horse-power. It was originally intended to make her a
+paddle-vessel. Instead of that, however, she was made a
+screw-steamer, and made her first trip in December, 1844,
+when she succeeded in exceeding her anticipated speed.</p>
+
+<p>This serious attention to steam in the mercantile
+marine naturally attracted considerable interest in
+the Navy, the more so as two naval officers, Captains
+Chappel and Claxton, were the principal promoters of
+the mercantile enterprises. It was, however, generally
+pointed out that useful as steam might be for such
+purposes, it was unsuitable for warships proper, on
+account of the liability of the machinery to damage, and
+the practical impossibility of combining paddles with
+sailing. It was laid down that the first essential of a
+warship was to be able to sail, that if steam power
+could be usefully applied as an auxiliary it might be
+“desirable.”</p>
+
+<p>After considerable experiments and investigations,
+it was found possible to place the machinery under the
+water-line, but the paddle-wheels were still exposed, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span>
+the armament space available was so slight that steam
+did not gain much favour.</p>
+
+<p>The first steam vessel actually brought into the
+British service was the <i>Monkey</i>, built about the year 1821.
+She was bought into the service and used as a tug.</p>
+
+<p>In the following year, the <i>Comet</i> was specially built
+for the packet service,<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> but none of these were steam
+warships.</p>
+
+<p>In 1843, the success of the <i>Great Britain</i> influenced
+the Admiralty, and the <i>Penelope</i> (forty-six) was cut
+apart and lengthened by sixty-five feet, and had engines
+of 650 horse-power fitted to her.</p>
+
+<p>In 1844, the Earl of Dundonald (Cochrane) submitted
+plans to the Admiralty for a steamer of 760 tons, called
+the <i>Janus</i>. This vessel was built with an engine of his
+own design, but as this was a failure, ordinary engines
+were fitted.</p>
+
+<p>In all these steamers the gun-fire was chiefly end-on,
+but in 1845 the <i>Odin</i> and the <i>Sidon</i>, especially designed
+for broadside fire, were put in hand.</p>
+
+<p>So long ago as the year 1825, the paddle was
+recognised as a source of danger for warships, and in
+that year a two-blade propeller, designed by Commander
+Samuel Brown, was accepted.</p>
+
+<p>In 1836, Ericsson (subsequently to be of <i>Monitor</i>
+fame) patented some propellers in England, but as he
+met with very little sympathy from the authorities, he
+retired to America. The main objections to the propeller
+appears not to have been due to any lack of appreciation
+so much as opposition from those who had invested
+heavily in paddle-propulsion plant.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span></p>
+
+<figure id="i_217" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 42em;">
+  <img src="images/i_217.jpg" width="2657" height="1304" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><i>SALAMANDER</i> PADDLE WARSHIP.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum hide" id="Page_218">218</span></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span></p>
+
+<p>In 1842, however, the Admiralty seriously took the
+question up. The <i>Rattler</i>, of 777 tons, and 200-horse-power,
+was lashed stern-to-stern with the paddle-yacht
+<i>Electro</i> of the same displacement and horse-power. Both
+ships were driven away from each other at full speed,
+and the <i>Rattler</i> succeeded in towing the <i>Electro</i> after her.
+After this, in 1844, a screw frigate, the <i>Dauntless</i>, was
+ordered to be constructed; but as late as the year 1850,
+steam was merely regarded as an auxiliary, and received
+little or no consideration outside that.</p>
+
+<p>The use of iron instead of oak as a material for
+shipbuilding was first seriously considered about the year
+1800. In 1821, an iron steamer was in existence, and
+in 1839 the <i>Dover</i> was ordered to be built for Government
+service as a steam packet. In 1841, the <i>Mohawk</i> was
+ordered by the Admiralty for service on Lake Huron, but
+the first iron warship for the Royal Navy proper was the
+<i>Trident</i>, of 1850 tons and 300 horse-power, built at
+Blackwall, by Admiralty orders, in 1843.</p>
+
+<p>Iron, as a material for warship construction, was
+looked on with considerable suspicion, both in England
+and in France. Experiments were conducted at Woolwich
+with some plates rivetted together like the sides of an
+iron ship, these plates being lined inside with cork and
+india-rubber (the first idea of a cofferdam). It was
+expected that this preparation, which was known as
+“kamptulicon,” would close up after shot had passed
+through and prevent ingress of water. This was found
+to be quite correct, but the egress of shot on the other
+side had quite the opposite result. The plates were
+sometimes packed with wood and sometimes cased with
+it, but the general result of the experiments was held<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span>
+prejudicial to the use of iron, which was supposed to
+splinter unduly compared to wood.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of deciding whether warships should
+be built of iron or wood was accentuated by the necessity
+of replacing those heavy warships which had been
+converted to auxiliary steam vessels. All such proved to
+be cramped in stowage and bad sea boats.</p>
+
+<p>So long ago as 1822 shell-guns had been adopted.
+Consequently, in the experiments as regards iron, shell-fire
+had to be taken into consideration.</p>
+
+<p>In 1842, experiments were made with iron plates
+three-eighths of an inch thick, rivetted together to make
+a total thickness of six inches. It was, however, reported
+that at 400 yards these were not proof against eight-inch
+guns or heavy thirty-two pounders. These matters were
+taken into consideration by Captain Chads, whose official
+report was as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The shot going through the exposed or near side generally
+makes a clean smooth hole of its own size, which might be readily
+stopped; and even where it strikes a rib it has much the same
+effect; but on the opposite side all the mischief occurs; the shot
+meets with so little resistance that it must inevitably go through
+the vessel, and should it strike on a rib on the opposite side the
+effect is terrific, tearing off the iron sheets to a very considerable
+extent; and even those shot that go clean through the fracture being
+on the off side, the rough edges are outside the vessel, precluding
+the possibility almost of stopping them.</p>
+
+<p>“As it is most probable that steam vessels will engage directly
+end-on I have thought it desirable to try to-day what the effect of
+shot would be on this vessel<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> so placed, and it has been such as
+might be expected, each shot cutting aways the ribs, and tearing
+the iron plates away sufficient to sink the vessel in an instant.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="i_221" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;">
+  <img src="images/i_221.jpg" width="2439" height="1656" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p>THE <i>LONDON</i>—TWO DECKER WOODEN CONVERTED SCREW SHIP OF THE LINE.</p>
+
+<p>Designed by Sir William Symonds. Launched 1840. Damaged at the bombardment of Fort Constantine, Sevastopol, 1854. Turned into
+hulk at Zanzibar, 1874.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In 1849 an official report stated <span class="locked">that:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Shot of every description in passing through iron makes such
+large holes that the material is improper for the bottom of ships.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span></p>
+
+<p>“Iron and oak of equal weight offering equal resistance to shot,
+iron for the topsides affords better protection for the men than oak,
+as the splinters from it are not so destructive.</p>
+
+<p>“Iron offering no lodgment for shells in passing through the side,
+if made with single plates it will be free from the destructive effects
+that would occur by a shell exploding in a side of timber.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Certain modifications were then introduced and
+tried in the year 1850, and Captain Chad’s report was
+<span class="locked">that:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“With high charges the splinters from the shot were as numerous
+and as severe as before, with the addition in this, and in the former
+case, of the evils that other vessels are subject to, that of the
+splinters from the timber.</p>
+
+<p>“From these circumstances I am confirmed in the opinion that
+iron cannot be beneficially employed as a material for the construction
+of vessels of war.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As a result of this report, seventeen iron ships which
+were building, the largest being the <i>Simoon</i>, of nearly
+2,000 tons, were condemned; and it was definitely
+decided that ships must be built of wood, and that iron
+in any form was disadvantageous.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of the shell were fully understood,
+and at least half of the guns of the ships of the line of
+the period were sixty-five cwt. shell guns. Experiments
+had fully taught what shell-fire might be expected to
+accomplish. General Paixham, the inventor of the
+shell gun, had long ago stated that armour was the only
+antidote to shell, and the fact that armour up to six
+inches had been experimented with indicates that this
+also was understood. Between the appreciation of the
+fact and acting upon it, there was, however, a decided
+gulf. In the British Navy, as in others also, the natural
+conservatism of the sea held its usual sway.</p>
+
+<p>Matters were at about this stage when, in the year
+1853, the Russian Admiral Nachimoff, with a fleet consisting
+of six ships of the line, entered the harbour of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span>
+Sinope, on the 30th November, 1853, and absolutely
+annihilated, by shell fire, a Turkish squadron of seven
+frigates which were lying there. The damage wrought
+by this shell-fire was terrific. “For God’s sake keep out
+the shells!” is generally believed to have been the cry of
+most naval officers about that period, though there is
+some lack of evidence as to whether this demand was
+ever actually made, except by the Press. The terrible
+effect of shell-fire was, however, obvious enough; but as
+stated above it was really well-known before the war test
+that so impressed the world.</p>
+
+<p>When the Crimean War broke out in 1854, the
+British <em>personnel</em> stood at 45,500, and the Estimates
+were £7,197,804. On the 28th March, war was formally
+declared. Naval operations in the Crimean war were
+almost entirely of secondary note. Some frigates
+bombarded Odessa, in April, and a certain amount of
+damage was done along the Caucasian coast.</p>
+
+<p>In September, the British fleet, consisting of ten ships
+of the line, two frigates and thirteen armed steamers,
+convoyed an enormous fleet of Turkish and French warships
+crammed with troops for an attack on Sebastopol.
+The Russian fleet lay inside that harbour and made no
+attempt whatever to destroy the invading flotilla, though
+it might easily have done considerable mischief, if not
+more. Instead of that, the ships were sunk at the
+entrance of the harbour, and the siege of Sebastopol
+presently commenced. On October 17th, the Allied fleet
+attempted to bombard Fort Constantine, but the ships
+were soon defeated by the shore defences and many of
+them badly injured.</p>
+
+<p>The French, who had formed somewhat more favourable
+opinions of iron armour than we had, had, after<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span>
+Sinope, already commenced the construction of five
+floating batteries which were to carry armour. They
+were wooden ships of 1,400 tons displacement, with four-inch
+armour over their hulls. They carried eighteen
+fifty-pounder guns and a crew of 320. As originally
+designed they were intended to sail, although they were
+fitted with slight auxiliary steam power. When completed
+they were found unable to sail, so pole masts were
+fitted to them. Artificial ventilation was also supplied
+and their funnels were made telescopic. The designs of
+these vessels were sent to the British Admiralty, who,
+after considerable delay, built four copies, the <i>Glatton</i>,
+<i>Meteor</i>, <i>Thunder</i>, and <i>Trusty</i>. These, however, were not
+completed in time to take any part in the war.</p>
+
+<p>So soon as the French armoured batteries were ready
+they were sent out to the Crimea, where they joined a
+large fleet which had been prepared to attack Kinburn,
+which was bombarded in October, 1855. In a very short
+while the forts were totally destroyed, and with very
+small loss to the armoured batteries. The effect created
+by this was so great that four more armoured batteries
+were ordered in England, the <i>Etna</i>, <i>Erebus</i>, <i>Terror</i>, and
+<i>Thunderbolt</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the Baltic, to which a British fleet, under
+Admiral Napier, had been sent, the Russians kept
+behind the fortifications at Kronstadt, and nothing was
+accomplished beyond the bombardment of Sveaborg,
+and the destruction of the town and dockyard. Some
+small bombardments also took place in the White Sea
+and on the Siberian coast, where Petropavlovsk was
+attacked and the attack was defeated, and such other
+actions as took place were generally unsuccessful. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span>
+had become abundantly clear that against fortifications
+wooden ships had very small chance of success.</p>
+
+<p>Incidental items of naval interest are that in this
+particular war Captain Cowper Coles mounted a sixty-eight-pounder
+gun upon a raft named the <i>Lady Nancy</i>.
+This attracted so much attention from the small target,
+light draft and steady platform, that Coles was sent
+home to develop his ideas. In this war, also, mines
+appeared, the Russians dropping a good many off
+Kronstadt. Those used by the Russians were filled
+with seventy pounds of powder, and exploded on contact
+by the familiar means of a glass tube of sulphuric acid
+being broken and the acid falling into chlorate of potash.</p>
+
+<p>No material damage was done to ships by this means,
+but a considerable number of those who had picked them
+up and investigated them were injured.</p>
+
+<p>The ingenuity and new means of offence were,
+however, by no means confined to the Russians, for a
+Mr. Macintosh, after the failure of the first bombardment
+of Sebastopol, evolved a system of attacking fortifications
+with a long hose supported by floats, through which
+naptha was to be pumped. Being set alight with some
+potassium, the fort attacked would be immediately
+smoked out.</p>
+
+<p>Experiments at Portsmouth having proved that this
+system was “simple, certain and cheap,” Mr. Macintosh
+proceeded to the Crimea with his invention at his own
+expense. He was eventually given £1000 towards his
+expenses, but no attempt was made to employ the system.
+It is by no means clear how the necessary potassium was
+to be got into the water at the requisite spot.</p>
+
+<p>The same war also produced the fire-shell of the
+British Captain Norton. This appears to have been a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span>
+resurrection of the old idea of Greek fire. It could be
+used from a rifle or from a shell-gun, and like the previous
+invention “rendered war impossible,” and again like the
+previous invention does not appear to have ever
+materialised into practice.</p>
+
+<p>On the practical side more results were achieved.
+The Lancaster gun which fired an oval shot was actually
+used with success in the war. From it the rifled gun
+presently emerged. There also emerged the then
+amateur invention of one Warry, who invented a new
+type of gun capable of firing sixteen to eighteen rounds
+per minute. The idea of wire wound guns was also
+apparent, and Mr. Armstrong<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> (as he then was),
+suggested the idea of percussion shell. It is interesting
+to note that these last were received with extreme
+dissatisfaction in the Navy on the grounds that they
+might go off at the wrong time.</p>
+
+<p>Of the Crimean War, however, it may be said that
+though it was not noted for naval actions, it was probably
+the most important war in its indirect results on the Navy
+that ever took place. It brought in the armoured ship,
+the rifled gun, and what was ultimately to develop into
+the torpedo. It saw the crude birth of “blockade
+mines” and rapid fire guns; everyone of them inventions
+that, judging by the slow progress of steam, would—failing
+war to necessitate swift development—have been
+still in the experimental stage even to-day.</p>
+
+<p>In our own times war having ever been a nearer
+possibility than in the 1850 era, peace progress has
+always been more rapid, and no invention of practical
+value ever failed to secure full tests. Yet there were not
+wanting those who prophesied that the Dreadnoughts<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span>
+of to-day merely reproduced in another form the 120
+screw ships of the line of sixty years ago; and that the
+next great naval war might well bring about changes
+every whit as drastic as any that the Crimean War
+caused to come into being.</p>
+
+<p>The torpedo had become fully as great a menace
+to the modern ship of the line as the shell gun was to the
+big ship of 1853. The submarine was an infinitely greater
+menace to it than the crude Russian mines of the Crimean
+War ever were. Endless potentialities resided in aircraft.</p>
+
+<p>Wherefrom it was well argued that out of the
+next great naval war (despite whatever lesser wars in
+between may have taught), the battleship was likely to
+be profoundly modified.</p>
+
+<p>That it will be swept out of existence was improbable.
+The whole lesson of history is that the “capital ship”
+will ever adjust itself to the needs of the hour. It has
+always been the essential rallying point of lesser craft—the
+mobile base to meet the mobile base of the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, it is beyond question that at the time
+of the Crimean War the British Navy from one cause
+and another was little better than a paper force. It is
+plain enough that little remained of the fleet of the
+Nelson era. The fleet “worried through,” but very
+clearly it had reached the end of its tether.</p>
+
+<p>The reason why will be found in the next chapter.</p>
+
+<div class="tb">* * * * *</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>The above paragraphs were originally written in 1912. Since then
+much has happened. In this edition they have only been revised to the
+extent of substituting the past for the present tense. Nothing has
+occurred to alter what then was the obvious.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="X"><span id="toclink_229"></span>X.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE COMING OF THE IRONCLAD.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">The</span> period immediately following the Crimean War
+saw a gradual change in the relations between
+England and France. In 1858 a panic similar to
+those with which later years have familiarised us began
+to arise, and in December, 1858, and January, 1859, a
+committee sat under the Administration of Lord Derby
+“to consider the very serious increase which had taken
+place of late years in the Navy Estimates, while it
+represented that the naval force of the country was far
+inferior to what it ought to be with reference to that of
+other Powers, and especially France, and that increased
+efforts and increased expenditure were imperatively called
+for to place it on a proper footing.”</p>
+
+<p>This committee found that whereas in 1850 there
+were eighty-six British ships of the line to forty-five
+French ones, this ratio had altogether ceased to exist;
+and that both Powers had now twenty-nine screw ships
+of the line. Any other large ships had ceased to count.</p>
+
+<p>In 1859 there also appeared the famous “Leipsic
+Article,” commenting on the decline of the British Fleet
+and the rise of the French. Certain extracts from this,
+though dealing with the past for the most part, are here
+given <i lang="fr">en bloc</i>, for they indicate very clearly the circumstances
+in which, <i>under pressure from German influences,
+the modern British Navy came to be founded</i>. It is, to say<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span>
+the least of it, questionable whether but for this Teutonic
+agitation public opinion in England would ever have been
+aroused from its lethargy in time. This epoch-making
+article appeared in the <i>Conversations Lexicon</i>, of Leipsic.</p>
+
+<p>After some prelude the article referred to the appearance
+of the French Fleet in the Crimean <span class="locked">War:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The late war in the East (Crimean) first opened the eyes of
+Englishmen to the true position of affairs, and it was not without
+some sensation of alarm that they gazed at this vision of the
+unveiled reality. Here and there, indeed, an allusion, having some
+foundation in fact, had been heard, during the Presidency of Louis
+Napoleon, and had drawn attention to the menaced possibility of
+an invasion of the British Isles; but such notions were soon overwhelmed
+by the derision with which they were jeeringly greeted by
+the national pride.</p>
+
+<p>“Those expressions of contempt were, however, not doomed to
+be silenced in their turn by the sudden apparition in the autumn of
+1854 of thirty-eight French ships of the line and sixty-six frigates
+and corvettes, fully manned and ready for immediate action. During
+the three preceding years Louis Napoleon had built twenty-four
+line-of-battle ships, and in the course of the year 1854 alone thirteen
+men-of-war were launched, nine of which were ships of the line. In
+addition to these, the keels of fifty-two more, comprising three ships
+of the line and six frigates, were immediately laid down. The
+English had thus the mortification to be obliged not only to cede to
+their allies the principal position in the camp, but also reluctantly to
+acknowledge their equality on that element whereon they had hoped
+to reign supreme....</p>
+
+<div class="tb">* * * * *</div>
+
+<p>“If we carried our investigation no further than this we
+should naturally conclude that, with such a numerical superiority,
+sufficient in itself to form a very respectable armament for a second-rate
+power, England has very little to fear from the marine of
+France. We must not forget, however, that quality as well as
+numbers must be considered in estimating the strength of a Fleet.
+When we take this element into our calculations, we shall find the
+balance very soon turned in favour of France. We perceive, then,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span>
+that while the English list comprises every individual sail the
+country possesses, whether fit for commission or altogether antiquated
+and past service (and some, like the <i>Victory</i>, built towards the close
+of the last or the beginning of this century), the French Navy, as
+we have observed, scarcely contains a single ship built prior to
+the year 1840; so that nearly all are less than twenty years old.
+This is a fact of the greatest importance, and indicates an immense
+preponderance in favour of France. Though many of England’s
+oldest craft figure in the ‘Navy List’ as seaworthy and fit for active
+service, we have no less an authority than that of Sir Charles Napier
+(in his Letter to the First Lord of the Admiralty in 1849) that some
+are mere lumber, and many others cannot be reckoned upon to add
+any appreciable strength to a Fleet in case of need. Independently,
+too, of the introduction of the screw, such fundamental changes have
+been introduced, within the last fifty years, both into the principles
+of naval architecture and of gunnery, that a modern 120-gun ship,
+built with due regard to recent improvements, and carrying guns of
+the calibre now in ordinary use, would in a very short space of time
+put <em>ten</em> ships like the <i>Victory</i> <i lang="fr">hors de combat</i>, with, at the same time,
+little chance of injury to herself.</p>
+
+<p>“It is time, however, to turn our attention to another important
+part of the <em>material</em>, namely, artillery. Under this head we purpose
+designating, not only to the number of guns and their calibre, but
+also the mode in which they are served, for in actual warfare this, of
+course, is a primary consideration. If we take the received history
+of naval warfare for the basis of our investigation, we cannot fail to
+remark one notable circumstance in favour of the English, which
+can only be ascribed to their superiority in the use of this arm. That
+circumstance is the important and uniform advantage they have had
+in the fewer number of casualties they have sustained as compared
+with other nations with whom they may have chanced to have been
+engaged. To prove that our assertions are not made at random,
+we subjoin some statistics in support of this position. In April,
+1798, then, the English ship <i>Mars</i> took the French <i>L’Hercule</i>; the
+former had ninety killed and wounded, the latter 290. In the
+preceding February there had been an engagement between the
+English <i>Sybil</i> and French <i>La Forte</i>, in which the killed and wounded
+of the former numbered twenty-one, and those of the latter 143. In
+March, 1806, the English ship <i>London</i> took the French <i>Marengo</i>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span>
+the English with a loss of thirty-two, the latter of 145 men. On
+the 4th November, 1805, two English ships of the line engaged four
+French vessels, and the respective losses were, again, 135 and 730.
+On the 14th February, 1797, in an action between the Fleets of
+England and Spain, the English lost 300 and the Spaniards 800.
+On the 11th of October of the same year, in the engagement off
+Camperdown between the English and Dutch, the respective losses
+were 825 and 1,160. On the 5th July, 1808, the English frigate
+<i>Seahorse</i> took the Turkish frigate <i>Badere Zuffer</i>, and of the Turks
+there fell 370 against fifteen English. Finally, in the same year the
+Russian ship of the line <i>Wsewolod</i> was taken by two English ships of
+the line, with a loss to the latter of 303, and to the former of only
+sixty-two.</p>
+
+<p>“This contrast, so favourable to England, has been constantly
+maintained, and can only be attributable to her superior artillery.
+Her seamen not only aimed with greater precision, and fired more
+steadily than those of the French and of other nations, but they had
+the reputation of loading with far greater rapidity. It was remarked,
+in 1805, that the English could fire a round with ball every minute,
+whereas it took the French gunners three minutes to perform the
+same operation. Then, again, the English tactics were superior.
+It was the universal practice of the French to seek to dismast an
+adversary; they consequently aimed high, while the English
+invariably concentrated their fire upon the hulls of their adversaries;
+and clearly the broadside of a vessel presents a much better
+mark to aim at than the mere masts and rigging. British guns were
+also usually of higher calibre, for though they bore the same
+denomination, they were in reality much heavier. Thus, the English
+<i>Lavinia</i>, though nominally a frigate of forty guns, actually carried
+fifty; and thirty-six and 38-gun frigates nearly always carried
+forty-four and forty-six. The English ship <i>Belleisle</i>, at Trafalgar,
+though said to be a seventy-four, carried ninety pieces of ordnance,
+while the Spanish ship she engaged, though called eighty-four had,
+in fact, only seventy-eight guns. From this disparity in the number
+and calibre of their guns, as well as in the mode in which they were
+served, it resulted that France and her allies lost eighty-five ships
+of the line and 180 frigates, while her antagonist only suffered to the
+extent of thirteen ships of the line and eighty-three frigates.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span></p>
+
+<p>“It was not until the close of the war that France became fully
+aware to what an extent her inferiority in the above respects had
+contributed to her reverses; otherwise the unfortunate Admiral
+Villeneuve would not invariably have ascribed his mishaps to the
+inexperience of his officers and men, and to the incomplete and
+inferior equipment of his vessels. The truth was, that not only was
+the artillery, as we have shown, inferior, but the whole system in
+vogue at that period on board French ships was antiquated, having
+continued without reform or improvement for two hundred years;
+it was deficient, too, in enforcing subordination, that most essential
+condition of the power and efficiency of a ship of war.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The French <i lang="fr">inscription maritime</i> is then dealt with at
+great length, after which occur the following passages,
+even more interesting perhaps to-day than when they
+were <span class="locked">written:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“In considering, then, what perfect seamanship really is, we
+must first adopt a correct standard by which to estimate it. The
+English sailor has been so long assumed as the perfect type of the
+<i lang="la">genus</i> seaman, that the world has nearly acquiesced in that view, and
+<i>even we in Germany have been accustomed to rank our crews below the
+English, though it is an unfair estimate</i>. <i>There are no better sailors
+in the world than the German seamen, and there is no foreign nation
+that would assert the contrary.</i><a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a> On the other hand, it has also been
+the fashion universally to abuse French seamanship, and to speak of
+her sailors as below criticism. None proclaimed this opinion more
+loudly than the English; but in doing so they recurred to the men
+they had beaten under the Revolution and Bonaparte. The Crimean
+War, however, opened their eyes, and taught them that the French
+sailors of to-day were no longer the men of 1806, and that, to say the
+least, they are in no respect inferior to the British. England had for
+years been compelled to keep up a large effective force always ready
+for action, in consequence of the nature of her dependencies, which,
+as they consist of remote colonies across distant seas, required such
+a provision for their protection. This gave her an immeasurable
+superiority in days gone by. But since France in 1840 discovered her
+deficiency, it has been supplied by the maintenance of a permanent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span>
+<i>experimental Fleet</i>, which, under the command of such Admirals as
+Lalande de Joinville, Ducas, Hamelin, and Bruat, has been the
+nursery of the present most effective body of officers and men;
+which, since 1853, have not ceased to humble the boasted superiority
+of England, besides causing her many anxious misgivings.</p>
+
+<p>“Anyone who had the opportunity of viewing the two Fleets
+together in the Black Sea or the Baltic, and was in a position to
+draw a comparison, could not fail to be convinced that everything
+connected with manœuvring, evolutions, and gunnery was, beyond
+comparison, more smartly, quickly, and exactly executed by the
+French than by the English, and <i>must have observed the brilliant
+prestige which had so long surrounded England’s tars pale sensibly
+beside the rising glories of her rival</i>.”<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>That this was not merely captious criticism is borne
+out by the following extracts from “The Life and
+Correspondence of Admiral Sir Charles Napier, <span class="locked">K.C.B.”:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“We have great reason to be afraid of France, because she
+possesses a large disposable army, and our arsenals are comparatively
+undefended—London entirely so—and we have no sufficient naval
+force at home. Of ships (with the exception of steamers) we have
+enough; but what is the use of them without men? They are only
+barracks, and are of no more use for defence than if we were to build
+batteries all over the country, without soldiers to put into them.</p>
+
+<div class="tb">* * * * *</div>
+
+<p>“Such were our inadequate resources for defence, had the
+Russians been able to get out of the Baltic, and make an attempt
+on our unprotected shores.</p>
+
+<div class="tb">* * * * *</div>
+
+<p>“The great difficulty consisted in the manning of such a fleet.
+Impressment was no longer to be thought of; but, strange to say,
+the Bill which had passed through Parliament, empowering, in case
+of war, the grant of an ample bounty to seamen, was not acted upon,
+and consequently most of the ships were very inefficiently manned—some
+of them chiefly with the landsmen of the lowest class. Nothing
+had been done towards the training of the men, and no provision was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span>
+even made to clothe them in a manner required by the climate to
+which they were about to be sent....</p>
+
+<p>“Our Ambassador likewise warned the British Government
+that the Navy of Russia could not with safety be under-estimated,
+and, moreover, the Russian gunners were all well trained, while those
+of the British Squadron were <em>most deficient in this respect</em>. The
+object of the Russians, in wishing to get their best ships to Sveaborg,
+was the impression that Cronstadt would be first attacked; in
+which case, calculating on the strength of the forts to repel an
+assault, <em>they would have fresh ships wherewith to assail our disabled
+and weakened fleet, should they be obliged to retreat</em>.<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> Sir Hamilton
+Seymour warned our Government of the great number of gunboats
+the Russians could bring out, eighty of which were to be manned by
+Finns, fifty men to each boat....</p>
+
+<div class="tb">* * * * *</div>
+
+<p>“Such,” says the author of the biography, “were the reasons,
+no doubt powerful enough, for hurrying off, even without pilots, the
+ill-appointed and under-manned squadron placed under Sir Charles
+Napier’s command, at this inclement season of the year, when the
+periodical gales of the vernal equinox might be daily expected. The
+squadron, on leaving Spithead, consisted of four sail-of-the-line, four
+blockships, four frigates, and four steamers (not a single gunboat);
+and with this force, hastily got together, for the most part manned
+with the refuse of London and other towns, destitute of even clothing,
+their best seamen consisting of dockyard riggers and a few coastguard
+men—and without the latter, it has been alleged, the squadron could
+not have put to sea—with this inefficient force did Sir Charles
+Napier leave our shores, to offer battle to the Russian Fleet, consisting
+of seven-and-twenty well-trained and well-appointed ships of the
+line, eight or ten frigates, seven corvettes and brigs, and nine
+steamers, besides small craft and flotillas of gunboats, supposed in
+the aggregate to number one hundred and eighty....</p>
+
+<div class="tb">* * * * *</div>
+
+<p>“It is, probably, an unprecedented event in the annals of war,
+or, at least, in those of our history, that a fleet should be sent out, on
+a most momentous service so ill-manned that the Commander was
+directed to endeavour to ‘pick up,’ if possible, foreign seamen in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span>
+foreign ports, and so ill-provided with munitions of war, that he was
+restricted in the use of what he most required, in order to render his
+inexperienced crews as efficient as possible. It is equally worthy of
+record that the Board of Admiralty, throughout the whole campaign,
+never supplied the Fleet with a single Congreve rocket, although it
+was no secret that great numbers had been made in London for the
+Russians, to whom they were of far less use than to the British
+Fleet, which could not well undertake any bombardment without
+them. The Board of Admiralty must have been perfectly aware of
+the conditions, in these respects, of that Fleet on whose efficiency
+so much depended, and from which so much was expected, for,
+in a letter to Sir Charles Napier, from a member of that Board, I
+find it recorded as his opinion, that the Emperor of Russia ought
+either to burn his Fleet, or try his strength with the British Squadron
+whilst he mustered double their numbers, and whilst our crews were
+‘so miserably raw!’ Yet this inefficiency was fully and frankly
+admitted by Sir James Graham, from whom infrequent instructions
+arrived to supply the deficiency of good men by picking up foreign
+sailors in the Baltic. The anxiety of the First Lord upon this point
+was excessive. He was continually inquiring whether the Admiral
+had been able to ‘<i>pick up any Swedes or Norwegians</i>, who were good
+sailors and quite trustworthy.’ He was told to ‘enter them
+quietly.’ If he could not get Swedes and Norwegians, ‘even Danes
+would strengthen him, for they were hardy seamen and brave.
+There was, it is true, a difficulty with their Governments, but if the
+men enlisted freely, and came over to the Fleet, the First Lord did
+not see why the Admiral should be over-nice, and refuse good seamen
+without much inquiry as to the place from whence they came.’</p>
+
+<p>“Admiral Berkeley, moreover, instructed the Admiral to the
+same effect. ‘Have any of your ships tried for men in a Norwegian
+port? <i>It is said that you might have any number of good seamen from
+that country.</i>’ On the 18th of March the Admiral had been apprised
+that the <i>James Watt</i>, the <i>Prince Regent</i> and <i>Majestic</i> would now
+join him; ‘<em>but men are wanting</em>, and it is impossible to say how long
+it will be before they are completed.’ On the 4th of April Admiral
+Berkeley stated: ‘Notwithstanding the number of landsmen
+entered, we are come nearly to a dead standstill as to seamen; and
+after the <i>James Watt</i> and <i>Prince Regent</i> reach you, I do not know<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span>
+when we shall be able to send you a further reinforcement, <em>for want
+of men</em>! <i>Something must be done, and done speedily, or there will be
+a breakdown in our present rickety system.</i>’”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The German article produced a great stir in
+England. This was followed up by the publication in
+1859 of <i>The Navies of the World</i>, by Hans Busk, M.A.,
+of Trinity College, Cambridge, who, while nominally
+casting cold water on the “Leipsic Article,” added fuel
+to the fire. This writer was one of the first to concentrate
+attention upon the fact that the French were building
+“iron-plated ships.”</p>
+
+<p>From this scarce and remarkably interesting work I
+quote the <span class="locked">following:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The determination of the French Government to build a
+number of iron or steel-cased ships imperatively obliges us to follow
+their example. The original idea of plating ships in this way, so
+as to render them shot-proof, is due, not, as is generally supposed in
+this country, to the present Emperor, but to a Captain in the French
+Navy, who, about a quarter of a century since, suggested that all
+wooden vessels should be sheathed with composite slabs of iron of
+fourteen or fifteen centimetres in thickness; that is to say, with
+stout plates of wrought-iron having blocks of cast metal between.
+A similar suggestion was made among others by General Paixhans;
+but one of the first to reduce it to practice was Mr. Stevens, of New
+York, the well-known steamship builder, who about ten years ago
+communicated to Mr. Scott Russell the results of a long series of
+experiments, instituted by the American Government, for the purpose
+of testing the power of plates of iron and steel to resist cannon-shot.
+Mr. Lloyd, of the Admiralty, proposed the adoption of plates 4ins.
+in thickness, instead of a number of thinner sheets, as recommended
+by the Emperor. The English and French floating batteries were,
+as is well known, protected upon Mr. Lloyd’s plan. From trials
+recently made, however, it has been pretty well ascertained that
+this iron planking, on whatever principle applied, will only repel
+hollow shot or shells; heavy solid projectiles of wrought iron, or
+those faced with steel, having been found, on repeated trials, to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">238</span>
+perforate the thickest covering which has ever been adopted, and
+that, too, even at considerable ranges.</p>
+
+<p>“Mr. Reed,<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> already alluded to, proposes to protect only the
+midship portion of the ship, and to separate it from the parts fore
+and aft by strong watertight compartments, so that, however much
+the extremities might suffer, the ship would still be safe and the
+crew below protected; but, as he himself admits, there would
+obviously be no defence against raking shot.</p>
+
+<p>“The French vessels last alluded to, follow the lines and
+dimensions of the <i>Napoleon</i> (one of the best, if not the finest ship in
+their Navy); but they will only carry thirty or thirty-six guns, and
+the metal sheathing will be from ten to eleven centimetres (about
+4¼ins.) in thickness. Two similar ships are to be commenced here
+forthwith; and as the First Lord of the Admiralty has prophetically
+warned us that they will be the most expensive ships ever constructed
+in this country, it is earnestly to be hoped that they may be found
+proportionately valuable, should their powers ever come to be
+tested; they will each cost from £126,000 to £130,000, or £4,200 per
+gun; the ordinary expense of a sailing man-of-war being about
+£1,000, and of a steamer from £1,800 to £2,000 per gun.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>After this follow various statistics of the French
+Fleet of no particular interest here except for the
+following <span class="locked">passage:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Irrespective of the above are the four <i lang="fr">frégates blindées</i>, or iron-plated
+frigates, two of which are now in an advanced state at Toulon.</p>
+
+<p>“These ships are to be substituted for line-of-battle ships;
+their timbers are of the scantling of three-deckers; they will be
+provided with thirty-six heavy guns, twenty-four of them rifled,
+and 50-pounders, calculated to throw an eighty pound percussion
+shell. Such is the opinion of French naval officers respecting the
+tremendous power of these ships, that they fully anticipate the
+complete abolition, within ten or a dozen years, of all line-of-battle
+ships.”<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Here it is desirable to leave ships for a moment
+and deal with the corresponding stage of gunnery, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span>
+began to take on its modern form contemporaneously
+with the ironclad ship. In 1858–9 began that contest
+between the gun and armour, which can hardly be said
+to be ended even in our own day, for improved kinds
+of armour are still being sought and experimented
+with. To quote the work of Hans Busk and its contemporary
+<span class="locked">summary:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“A number of guns, cast at Woolwich, were sent to Mr. Whitworth’s
+works at Manchester to be bored and rifled. In April, 1856,
+trial was made with a brass 24-pounder of the construction above
+described. The projectiles employed on that occasion varied from
+two to six diameters in length, and a very rapid rotary motion was
+communicated to them. The gun itself weighed 13cwt.; the bore,
+instead of being of a calibre fitted to receive a spherical 24-pound
+shot, was only of sufficient capacity to admit one of 9 pounds.
+The hexagonal bore measured 4ins. in diameter, and was rather
+more than 54ins. long. It was entirely finished by machinery, and
+the projectiles were fitted with mathematical precision, the spiral in
+both cases being formed with absolute accuracy. The gun, externally,
+had only the dimensions of a 24-pound howitzer, but it projected
+missiles of 24 pounds, 32 pounds, and 48 pounds each, the additional
+weight having been obtained by increased length. Upon this new
+system, then, it will be seen that guns capable, under the old plan,
+of supporting the strain of a 24-pound ball, may be made with ease
+to throw a 48-pound shot; the reduction of the calibre allowing of
+a sufficient thickness of metal being left to ensure safety. The
+32-pound and 48-pound projectiles used in the above experiments
+were respectively 11¾ins. and 16½ins. in length. They were pointed
+at the foremost extremity, being shaped and rounded somewhat
+like the smaller end of an egg. At the base they were flat, and
+slightly hollowed towards the centre. The gun was mounted for
+the occasion upon an ordinary artillery carriage, which shows no
+symptoms of having been strained, nor of being in any way injured
+by the concussions to which it had been subjected.</p>
+
+<div class="tb">* * * * *</div>
+
+<p>“Subsequently, some further experiments were made with the
+same gun with reduced elevation, when the projectiles, striking the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">240</span>
+ground at comparatively short distances, rebounded again and
+again till their momentum was expended. The first shot thus fired
+weighed 32 pounds, the charge of powder being only 3 ounces, and
+the gun having an elevation of 2 degrees. The projectile made its
+first graze at a distance of 92 yards, furrowing the ground for about
+7ft., and leaving distinct indications of its rotary axial motion. It
+rose again to an elevation of about 6ft., grazing, after a further
+flight of 64 yds. The third graze (owing probably to the hard nature
+of the soil at the point struck) was at a distance of 70yds. further;
+after which it traversed some ploughed land, grazing several times,
+coming finally to rest after having accomplished altogether a distance
+of 492yds.</p>
+
+<p>“The second shot also weighed 32 pounds; the charge, as
+before, consisted of 3 ounces of powder; but this time the elevation
+given to the gun was 3 degrees. The projectile first grazed the ground
+at a point 108yds. from the muzzle; the second graze was 126yds.
+further; but happening to touch the lower bar of an iron fence—a
+circumstance which appeared to affect its flight—it dropped
+finally after having accomplished 490yds. Some further experiments
+were then made with shot weighing 48 pounds each.</p>
+
+<p>“These very reduced charges rendered it necessary to make
+use of wooden wads to fill the cavities in the base of the projectiles.
+This had a tendency to reduce very much the power of the gun.</p>
+
+<p>“A further trial with the hexagonal gun was made at Liverpool
+on the 7th of May. Several shots, varying from 24 to 48 pounds in
+weight, were fired. The first, weighing 24 pounds, with a charge
+of 11 pounds of powder, attained a distance of 2,800 yards, the
+elevation given having been 8 degrees. These experiments could
+hardly be said to have exhibited the <em>maximum</em> capacity of the gun,
+having been interrupted by the rapid rising of the tide. The average
+range of several 48-pound shots was 3,000 yards, but there is little
+doubt that a much greater distance will be achieved when Mr.
+Whitworth has perfected some guns he is now constructing.</p>
+
+<p>“A good deal of attention having previously been drawn to
+the subject of Armstrong’s gun, respecting which few particulars
+had been allowed to transpire, on the 4th of March last the Secretary-at-War
+made an official statement to the House, and gave some
+details as to its alleged capabilities. Without describing its construction,
+he stated that one piece, throwing a projectile of 18<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span>
+pounds, weighed but one-third as much as the ordinary gun of that
+calibre. With a charge of 5 pounds of powder, a 32-pounder attained
+a range of 5¼ miles; at 3,000 yards its accuracy, as compared with
+that of a common gun, was stated to be in the proportion of 7 to 1.
+At 1,000 yards it had struck the target 57 times successively, and
+after 13,000 rounds the gun showed symptoms of deterioration.
+In conclusion, it was said that the destructive effects occasioned
+by this new ordnance exceeded anything that had been previously
+witnessed, and that in all probability it was destined to effect a
+complete revolution in warfare.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Armstrong’s own statement <span class="locked">was:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Schemers whose invention merely figure upon paper, have
+little idea of the difficulties that are encountered by those who carry
+inventions into practice. For my part, I had my full share of such
+difficulties, and it took me nearly three years of continual application
+to surmount them.... Early last year a committee was
+appointed to investigate the whole subject of rifled cannon. They
+consisted of officers of great experience in gunnery; and after having
+given much time for a period of five months to the guns, projectiles,
+and fuses which I submitted to them, they returned a unanimous
+verdict in favour of my system. With respect to the precision and
+range which have been attained with these guns, I may observe that
+at a distance of 600 yards an object no larger than the muzzle of an
+enemy’s gun may be struck at almost every shot. At 3,000 yards a
+target of 9ft. square, which at that distance looks like a mere speck,
+has on a calm day been struck five times in ten shots. A ship would
+afford a target large enough to be hit at much longer distances, and
+shells may be thrown into a town or fortress at a range of more than
+five miles. But to do justice to the weapon when used at long
+distances, it will be necessary that gunners should undergo a more
+scientific training than at present; and I believe that both the
+naval and military departments of Government will take the
+necessary measures to afford proper instruction, both to officers and
+men. It is an interesting question to consider what would be the
+effect of the general introduction of these weapons upon the various
+conditions of warfare. In the case of ships opposed to ships in the
+open sea, it appears to me that they would simply destroy each other,
+if both were made of timber. The day has gone by for putting men<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span>
+in armour. Fortunately, however, no nation can play at that game
+like England; for we have boundless resources, both in the production
+and application of iron, which must be the material for the armour.
+In the case of a battery against a ship, the advantage would be greatly
+in favour of the battery, because it would have a steady platform for
+its guns, and would be made of a less vulnerable material, supposing
+the ship to be made of timber. But, on the other hand, in bombarding
+fortresses, arsenals, or dockyards, when the object to be struck
+is very extended, ships would be enabled to operate from a great
+distance, where they could bid defiance to land defences.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>After some observations, the author <span class="locked">continued:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Notwithstanding the high estimation in which Sir William
+Armstrong’s guns are held, and deservedly so from their great
+intrinsic merit, they have certainly in Mr. Warry’s great invention
+a rival that may eventually be found to eclipse them.</p>
+
+<p>“The Armstrong gun cannot be fired oftener than three times
+a minute, and the bore, it is said, has to be constantly sluiced with
+water; whereas Warry’s admits, as has been affirmed, of being
+discharged 16 or 18 times a minute, or 1,000 an hour, without
+difficulty, though of course not without heating, as some reporters
+have misrepresented. Guns of the former description are expensive,
+and must be made expressly by means of special machinery. Mr.
+Warry, on the other hand, asserts that he can convert every existing
+gun into a breech-loader upon his principle, and at a moderate
+outlay: an advantage of the greatest moment at the present time.</p>
+
+<p>“This gun is fired by means of a lock. On one side of the breech
+there is a lever, so contrived that by one motion of the hand it is
+made to cock the hammer and to open the chamber. A second
+movement closes the charger again, pierces or cuts the cartridge,
+places a cap on the nipple, and fires the gun almost simultaneously.</p>
+
+<p>“With a due supply of ammunition, therefore, a destructive
+torrent of shot and shell may be maintained <i lang="la">ad libitum</i>. It is not
+difficult to form a conception of the havoc even one such gun would
+occasion if brought to bear upon the head of an advancing column.</p>
+
+<p>“The inventor has, besides, made application for a patent for
+a new coating he has devised for all kinds of projectiles, in lieu of
+any leaden or metallic covering, which has been found very objectionable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span>
+in actual practice. The new coating, it is said, reduces the
+‘fouling’ to a minimum.</p>
+
+<p>“But we cannot turn even from this very brief consideration
+of the improvements in modern cannon without offering a few
+observations relative to an invention of a different kind, but one
+that may possibly prove of greater moment than either of the guns
+that have been described. This is the composition known as
+‘Norton’s liquid fire.’ In the terrific character of its effect it rivals
+all that has been recorded of the old Greek fire; at the same time
+it is perfectly manageable, and may be projected from an
+Enfield rifle, from a field-piece, or from heavier ordnance. The
+composition Captain Norton uses consists of a chemical combination
+of sulphur, carbon, and phosphorus. He merely encloses this in a
+metal or even in a wooden shell, and its effect upon striking the
+side or sails of a ship, a wooden building, or indeed any object at
+all combustible, is to cause its instant ignition. This ‘liquid fire’
+has apparently the property of penetrating or of saturating any
+substance against which it may be projected, and such is its affinity
+for oxygen that it even decomposes water and combines with its
+component oxygen. Water, consequently, has no power to quench
+it, and if burning canvas, set on fire in this way, be trodden under
+foot and apparently extinguished it soon bursts again into flames.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is not uninteresting to reflect that although
+Norton’s liquid fire came to nothing, yet the present
+century has already seen three variations on the idea.</p>
+
+<p>The first instance is the type of big shell used by the
+Japanese at Tsushima. Little is known as to their
+exact composition, but they were undoubtedly extremely
+inflammable. Captain Semenoff in “The Battle of
+Tsushima” thus describes <span class="locked">them:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The Japanese had apparently succeeded in realising what the
+Americans had endeavoured to attain in inventing their ‘Vesuvium.’</p>
+
+<p>“In addition to this there was the unusual high temperature
+and liquid flame of the explosion, which seemed to spread over
+everything. I actually watched a steel plate catch fire from a burst.
+Of course, the steel did not burn, but the paint on it did. Such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span>
+almost non-combustible materials as hammocks, and rows of boxes,
+drenched with water, flared up in a moment. At times it was
+impossible to see anything with glasses, owing to everything being
+so distorted with the quivering, heated air.</p>
+
+<div class="tb">* * * * *</div>
+
+<p>“According to thoroughly trustworthy reports, the Japanese
+in the battle of Tsushima were the first to employ a new kind of
+explosive in their shells, the secret of which they bought during the
+war from the inventor, a colonel in one of the South American
+Republics. It was said that these shells could only be used in guns
+of large calibre in the armoured squadrons, and that is how those
+of our ships engaged with Admiral Kataoka’s squadron did not
+suffer the same amount of damage, or have so many fires, as the
+ships engaged with the battleships and armoured cruisers.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The second instance is the Krupp fire shell designed
+for use against dirigible balloons. The third is the
+“Thermite shell,” which, early in 1912, was proposed
+for adoption in France. It was calculated that one
+12-inch <span class="allsmcap">A.P.</span> shell exploding would melt half a ton of
+steel.</p>
+
+<p>The following passage from Hans Busk is of
+<span class="locked">interest:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“In 1855 Mr. Longridge, C.E., proposed to construct cannon
+of tubes covered with wire wound round them so tightly as almost
+entirely to relieve the inside from strain. On the 25th of June of
+the same year Mr. Mallet read a paper advocating the construction
+of cannon of successive layers of cylinders, so put together that all
+should be equally strained when the gun is fired; thus the inside
+would not be subject to fracture, while the outside would be useless
+as in a cast mass. His method of effecting this was, as is well known,
+to have each cylinder slightly too small to go over the one under it
+till expanded by heat, so that when cool it compresses the interior
+and is slightly strained itself. Thirty-six-inch mortars have been
+made on the principle, and if they have failed with 40lbs. of powder,
+cast-iron must have failed still less. In 1856 Professor Daniel
+Treadwell, Vice-President of the American Academy, read a paper to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span>
+that body recommending the same principle of construction; and
+Captain Blakely has himself for some years been endeavouring to
+urge its adoption by argument and direct experiments. In December,
+1857, some trials were made with guns constructed by that officer;
+and the result of a comparative trial of a 9-pounder with a cast-iron
+service gun of similar size and weight gave results proving the
+soundness of his views; for Captain Blakely’s gun bore about double
+the amount of firing the service gun did, and being then uninjured,
+was loaded to the muzzle, and was thus fired 158 times before it
+burst.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="i_245" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img src="images/i_245.jpg" width="1233" height="1673" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">JOHN SCOTT RUSSELL.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>From these contemporary extracts it will be seen
+that by 1859 the germ of nearly every modern idea in
+connection with gunnery existed, and has since developed
+somewhat on “trial and error” lines for at any rate the
+greater part of the intervening period.</p>
+
+<p>The contemporary situation as regards defence is
+also best summed up from the authority from whom the
+above gunnery extracts are <span class="locked">taken:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The result of numerous trials appeared to convince those best
+competent to judge of such matters that iron plates, or, rather, slabs,
+eleven centimetres (about 4½ins.) in thickness, would offer adequate
+protection to a ship from the effects of hollow shot. Acting upon this
+impression, four floating batteries, resembling in most respects those
+constructed here, were ordered to be built, and notwithstanding the
+enormous difficulties connected with such an undertaking, these four
+vessels were turned out, complete in all respects, in ten months—an
+astonishing instance of the resources of French dockyards and the
+ability of French engineers.</p>
+
+<p>“From this event may be dated the commencement of a new
+epoch in naval tactics. The next problem was to determine whether
+a form better adapted for progression than that of these batteries
+could not be given to vessels sheathed in a similar manner. Hence
+originated the iron-plated frigates (<i lang="fr">frégates blindées</i>). The intention
+of their designer is, that they should have a speed and an armament
+at least equal to that of the swiftest existing frigates, but their
+colossal weight, and consequently their great draught of water, must<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">248</span>
+almost preclude the fulfilment of this expectation. Should they
+prove successful, a number of larger ships of the same kind are to be
+commenced forthwith. It is difficult to understand how, in the case
+of these ships being found to answer, it will be possible for us to avert
+a real “reconstruction” of our Navy, or, how any other nation,
+aiming to rank as a maritime Power, can avoid the adoption of a
+similar course. In fact, the necessity has been appreciated, and we
+are already at work. But a good deal has to be accomplished ere the
+use of such vessels become universal. If these iron-plated vessels
+do resist shell, it seems certain, as has been already stated, that solid
+shot will either perforate at short ranges any thickness of metal that
+has yet been tried, or will so indent the sheathing at longer distances
+that the internal lining and rib-work of oak will be riven, shattered,
+loosened, or crushed to an extent that would almost as speedily put
+the ship <i lang="fr">hors de combat</i> as if she had but been built after the old
+fashion, much, as in days gone by, upon the introduction of gunpowder
+into warfare, the use of armour was found rather to aggravate,
+than to ward off, the injuries inflicted by gunshot. It was the
+result of the operations against Kinburn that more particularly gave
+rise to the high opinion at present entertained in favour of these
+<i lang="fr">vaisseaux blindées</i>. Unwieldy and cumbersome as they appeared,
+they were certainly a great improvement upon the floating batteries
+used by the French and Spanish against Gibraltar in 1782. Those
+were merely enormous hulks, destitute of masts, sails, or rigging;
+their sides were composed of solid carpentry, 6ft. 6ins. in thickness,
+and they carried from nine to twenty-four guns. When in action,
+streams of water were made to flow constantly over their decks and
+sides, but notwithstanding every precaution, such an overwhelming
+storm of shell and red-hot shot was poured upon them by the English
+garrison that they were all speedily burnt. Not so the <i>Devastation</i>,
+<i>La Lave</i>, and <i>La Tonnante</i> before the Russian fortress above
+mentioned, on the memorable 14th October, 1855. At 9 p.m. they
+opened fire, and in an hour and twenty-five minutes the enemy was
+silenced, nearly all the gunners being killed, their pieces dismounted,
+and all the ramparts themselves being for the most part demolished.
+To accomplish this destruction in so short a space of time, the three
+batteries, each carrying eighteen fifty pounders (supported, of course,
+by the fire of the English vessels), advanced in very shallow water<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span>
+within 800 yards of the walls, receiving themselves very little
+damage in comparison with the immense havoc they occasioned.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>From the above extract it is clear that the “impenetrable
+coat of mail” idea, popularly supposed to
+have led to the introduction of ironclads, never existed
+to any appreciable extent. Indeed, when the Committee,
+alluded to on an earlier page, concluded its
+labours in 1859, it merely recommended the conversion
+of nineteen more sailing ships into steamers. It was
+Sir John Pakington who decided to lay down a couple
+of “armoured steam frigates,” and to build them of
+iron instead of wood.</p>
+
+<p>The French <i lang="fr">frégates blindées</i> were wooden ships,
+armoured. John Scott Russell is said to have been
+Pakington’s chief adviser in this matter of building
+iron armoured ships and disregarding all the laborious
+conclusions of Captain Chads against iron hulls.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the general recommendations of the
+committee already referred to, these had resulted in
+1861 in there being no less than sixty-seven wooden
+unarmoured ships of the line building or converting into
+“screw ships.”</p>
+
+<p>The two iron-plated steam frigates were decided on
+without any popular enthusiasm concerning them. Now
+and again retired Admirals paid surreptitious visits to
+the French “<i lang="fr">blindées</i>” and returned with alarming
+reports; but, with the possible exception of flying
+machines, no epoch-making thing ever came in quite
+so quietly as the ironclad. The wildest dreamer saw
+nothing in it beyond a variation on existing types. The
+ironclad was something which, by carrying a great deal
+of weight, could keep out shell; beyond that no one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span>
+seems to have had any particular ideals whatever, except
+perhaps Sir Edward Reed.</p>
+
+<p>Early in 1859 designs for a type of ship to “answer”
+the French <i lang="fr">frégates blindées</i> were called for, and fourteen
+private firms submitted designs. All, however, were
+discarded.</p>
+
+<p>Details of the designs submitted were as <span class="locked">follows:<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a>—</span></p>
+
+<table id="t250" class="tbdr">
+<tr class="thead">
+  <td class="tdc">Designer.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Length.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Breadth</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Displ’m’t.<br>Tons.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Speed.<br>Knots.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Wt. of<br>Armour<br>Displ.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Wt. of<br>Hull<br>Displ.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">I.H.P.<br>of<br> Eng.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Laird</td>
+  <td class="tdc">400.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">60.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">9779</td>
+  <td class="tdc">13½</td>
+  <td class="tdc">.11</td>
+  <td class="tdc">.51</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3250</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Thames Co.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">430.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">60.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc fsr1">11180</td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc">.10</td>
+  <td class="tdc">.58</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Mare</td>
+  <td class="tdc">380.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">57.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">7341</td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc">.13</td>
+  <td class="tdc">.46</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Scott Russell</td>
+  <td class="tdc">385.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">58.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">7256</td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc">.18</td>
+  <td class="tdc">.38</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Napier</td>
+  <td class="tdc">365.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">56.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">8000</td>
+  <td class="tdc">13½</td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc">4120</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Westwood &amp; Baillie</td>
+  <td class="tdc">360.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">55.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">7600</td>
+  <td class="tdc">13½</td>
+  <td class="tdc">.16</td>
+  <td class="tdc">.36</td>
+  <td class="tdc">4000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Samuda</td>
+  <td class="tdc">382.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">55.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">8084</td>
+  <td class="tdc">13½</td>
+  <td class="tdc">.16</td>
+  <td class="tdc">.57</td>
+  <td class="tdc">2500</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Palmer</td>
+  <td class="tdc">340.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">58.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">7690</td>
+  <td class="tdc">13½</td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc">4500</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Abethell</td>
+  <td class="tdc">336.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">57.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">7668</td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc">2500</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Henwood</td>
+  <td class="tdc">372.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">52.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">6507</td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc">.18</td>
+  <td class="tdc">.40</td>
+  <td class="tdc">2500</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Peake</td>
+  <td class="tdc">354.9</td>
+  <td class="tdc">56.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">7000</td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc">.14</td>
+  <td class="tdc">.46</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Chatfield</td>
+  <td class="tdc">343.6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">59.6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">7791</td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc">.14</td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Lang</td>
+  <td class="tdc">400.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">55.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">8511</td>
+  <td class="tdc fsr1p">15</td>
+  <td class="tdc">.14</td>
+  <td class="tdc">.53</td>
+  <td class="tdc">2500</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Cradock</td>
+  <td class="tdc">360.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">57.6</td>
+  <td class="tdc">7724</td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc">.20</td>
+  <td class="tdc">.42</td>
+  <td class="tdc">2500</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="tlast">
+  <td class="tdl">Admiralty Office</td>
+  <td class="tdc">380.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">58.0</td>
+  <td class="tdc">8625</td>
+  <td class="tdc fsr1p">14</td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Abethell and Peake designs were wooden
+hulled, all the others iron ships.</p>
+
+<p>The two ships, <i>Warrior</i> and <i>Black Prince</i>, as actually
+laid down, differed from the Admiralty design in certain
+details. The beam was increased slightly, and the
+displacement rose from 8625 to 9210.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Warrior</i> was laid down on the 25th May, 1859,
+at the Thames Ironworks, Blackwall; the <i>Black Prince</i>
+a little later at Glasgow.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_251" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;">
+  <img src="images/i_251.jpg" width="2429" height="1260" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">THE <i>WARRIOR</i>, AS COMPLETED, 1861.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In substances they were ordinary “wooden frigates,”
+built of iron instead of wood, with armour to protect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span>
+most (but not all) of the guns. This was done by a patch
+of armour amidships, covering about 60% of the side.
+It was deemed advisable to protect the engines; otherwise
+as like as not the armour would have been over
+the battery only. Waterline protection was entirely
+unrealised, the steering gear of the <i>Warrior</i> being at
+the mercy of the first lucky shot.</p>
+
+<p>This, as Sir N. Barnaby has pointed out, was due
+to accepting existing <span class="locked">conditions:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The tiller was necessarily above the water-line and was outside
+of the cover of the armour. The wooden line-of-battle ships, with
+which the designers of these first iron-cased ships were familiar, had
+required no special water-line protection, and when wheel ropes or
+tiller were shot away the ship did not cease to be able to fight. The
+line-of-battle ships, which they knew so well, had a lower, or gun
+deck about four feet above the water-line, and an orlop deck about
+three feet below the water-line. Between these two decks the ship’s
+sides were stouter than in any other part, and shot did not easily
+perforate them. When a shot did enter there, between wind and
+water, as it was called, ample provision was made to prevent the
+serious admission of water.</p>
+
+<p>“In this between-deck space the sides of the ship were kept free
+from all erections or obstructions. The ‘wing passages’ on the
+orlop were clear, from end to end of the ship, and they were patrolled
+by the carpenter’s crew, who were provided with shot plugs of wood
+and oakum and sail cloth with which to close any shot holes. As
+against disabled steering gear there were spare tillers and tiller ropes,
+and only injury to the rudder head itself was serious.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is easy to-day to indicate where the old-time
+designers erred; and later on they realised and repaired
+their error with commendable promptitude. The really
+interesting point is that British designers evolved the
+ideal thing for the day, while the French evolved the
+idea of the ideal thing for the to-morrow. Unhappily
+for the latter, their evolution was unable to survive its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span>
+birth till the day of its utility. <i>La Gloire</i>, the first
+French ironclad, was broken up more years ago than
+any can remember; the <i>Warrior</i> and the <i>Black Prince</i>,
+though long ago reduced to hulk service,<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> still float as
+sound as when in 1861 the <i>Warrior</i> first took the water.
+To the French belongs the honour of realising what
+armour protection might mean; but to England goes the
+credit of reducing the idea to practical application.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Warrior</i> was designed by Messrs. Scott Russell
+and Isaac Watts, the Chief Constructor. Her length
+between perpendiculars was 380 feet. She carried
+originally a uniform armament of forty-eight 68-pounders
+smooth bores, weighing 95cwt. each. These fired shell
+and cast-iron spherical shot. The guns were carried as
+follows:—Main deck, thirty-eight, of which twelve were
+not protected by armour. On the upper-deck, ten, also
+unprotected.</p>
+
+<p>This armament was subsequently changed to two
+110-pounder rifled Armstrongs on pivot mountings, and
+four 40-pounders on the upper-deck; while the main-deck
+battery was reduced to thirty-four guns. At a later
+date it was again altered to four 8-inch 9-ton M.L.R.,
+and twenty-eight 7-inch 6½-ton M.L.R.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to her armour the <i>Warrior</i> was divided
+into 92 watertight compartments, fore and aft. She
+had a double bottom amidships, considerably subdivided
+(fifty-seven of the compartments), but no double
+bottom in the modern sense.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum hide" id="Page_255">255</span></p>
+
+<p>The <i>Warrior’s</i> engines, by Penn, were horizontal
+single expansion. On trial they developed 5,267 I.H.P.,
+and the then excellent speed of 14.079 knots.<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> Her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span>
+six hours’ sea speed trial resulted in a mean 5,092 H.P.
+and 13.936 knots.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_255" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;">
+  <img src="images/i_255.jpg" width="1656" height="2666" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <p>FRENCH LA GLOIRE<br>
+    WARRIOR &amp; BLACK PRINCE<br>
+    HECTOR<br>
+    ACHILLES<br>
+    MINOTAUR<br>
+    NORTHUMBERLAND</p>
+    <p class="larger">EARLY BRITISH BROADSIDE IRONCLADS</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Save for her unprotected steering gear, the <i>Warrior</i>
+may be described as a brilliant success for her era. She
+was launched on December 29th, 1860, and completed in
+the following year. The <i>Black Prince</i> was completed in
+1862.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Warrior</i> and <i>Black Prince</i>, under a system
+which long endured in the British Navy, were followed
+by a certain number of diminutives, of which the first
+were the <i>Defence</i> and <i>Resistance</i>, of 6,150 tons, with
+speeds of just under 12 knots, and an armament of
+16 guns. The armour was the same, but the battery
+protection was extended fore and aft, so that all guns
+were inside it. These ships were completed in 1862.</p>
+
+<p>Three more ships were projected, of which the
+<i>Hector</i> and <i>Valiant</i>, completed in 1864 and 1865, were of
+precisely the same type as the <i>Resistance</i>, but displaced
+6,710 tons, with about a knot more speed, and carried
+a couple of extra guns.</p>
+
+<p>A third ship, originally intended to have been of
+the same class, was the <i>Achilles</i>, but, mainly owing to
+the influence of Mr. Reed (of whom more anon), who
+pointed out the danger of unprotected steering gear, her
+design was altered and a complete belt of 4½-inch armour
+given to her instead of a partial one.</p>
+
+<p>Those changes in the design, together with an
+increased horse-power which produced on trial 14.32
+knots, advanced the displacement of the <i>Achilles</i> to
+9,820 tons, while the armament was brought up to
+fourteen 12-ton guns and two 6½-ton. The weight of
+armour was 1,200 tons.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span></p>
+
+<p>The <i>Achilles</i>, like many another ship that was to
+follow her, was the “last word” of her own day. No
+expense was spared in seeking to secure a maximum of
+efficiency in her. As originally completed she was a
+ship-rigged vessel, but with a view to improving her
+sailing efficiency, this was subsequently altered to a
+four-masted rig, which proved so little successful that
+eventually she reverted to three masts again.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime the authorities were so pleased
+with the <i>Achilles</i> that three improved editions of her
+were designed. They were not completed until a new
+type of ship, which was completed before they were,
+replaced them; but chronologically they followed close
+upon the <i>Achilles</i>. They were laid down in 1861, and
+designed by Isaac Watts. They were named <i>Agincourt</i>,
+<i>Minotaur</i>, and <i>Northumberland</i>. They differed in minor
+details, but in substance were all about 1,000 tons more
+than the <i>Achilles</i>, and their increased displacement
+mostly went in one inch extra armour protection (5½-inch
+against 4½-inch).</p>
+
+<p>As originally designed they were intended to mount
+seven 12-ton and twenty 9-ton guns, but at a very early
+date the first two were given a uniform armament of
+seventeen 12-ton. A small portion of this armament
+of the upper deck was provided with armoured protection
+for right-ahead fire.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_259" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;">
+  <img src="images/i_259.jpg" width="2435" height="1419" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p>THE <i>ACHILLES</i> AS A FOUR-MASTER.</p>
+
+<p>Photographed about 1866.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In appearance they were magnificent ships, fitted
+with five masts. Being 400 feet between perpendiculars
+they were the largest ships of their time, and at sea
+always proved very steady under both sail and steam.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum hide" id="Page_261">261</span></p>
+
+<p>These ships were the subject of violent disputes
+between the Controller of the Navy and their constructor.
+The Controller insisted that they were extravagantly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span>
+large ships, as compared to French ships. The constructor
+insisted that it was essential that for any given power and
+protection a British ship must be larger than a foreign
+one, because of her more extended probable duties, and
+the consequent necessity of a larger coal supply.<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a></p>
+
+<figure id="i_261" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;">
+  <img src="images/i_261.jpg" width="2427" height="1381" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">THE <i>MINOTAUR</i>, 1867, ORIGINAL RIG.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>At and about this period there were a number of
+wooden ships-of-the-line building, which had been laid
+down from the year 1859 onwards. Following the
+French fashion, they were converted into ironclads.
+These ships, displacing from 6,100 to 6,830 tons, were
+the <i>Repulse</i>, <i>Royal Alfred</i>, <i>Zealous</i> (laid down 1859),
+<i>Caledonia</i>, <i>Ocean</i>, <i>Prince Consort</i>, <i>Royal Oak</i> (1860).<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a></p>
+
+<p>The upper-decks of these ships were removed, and
+they were fitted with side armour, which was 4½ inches in
+the earliest to be treated, and 5½ inches in the latest.
+All of them carried sixteen 9-ton guns and four 6½-ton,
+with provision for ahead fire.</p>
+
+<p>The experiment, though useful as a temporary
+expedient, was very expensive, and several of the ships
+had to be lengthened before anything could be done to
+them. None of them were very successful, and most of
+them disappeared from the Navy List at an early date.</p>
+
+<p>This ends the period of “broadside ironclads”;
+of the best of which it may be said that they were
+nothing but efforts to adapt new ideals to old methods.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="XI"><span id="toclink_264"></span>XI.<br>
+
+<span class="subhead">THE REED ERA.</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap1">In</span> 1862 Mr. (afterwards Sir) E.&nbsp;J. Reed, was appointed
+Chief Constructor, and proceeded at once to produce
+the type of ship chiefly associated with his name.
+His ideals ran in the direction of short, handy ships of
+medium size, as heavily armed as possible, and with a
+good turn of speed. His arguments in favour of these
+ideals he afterwards described as <span class="locked">follows:—<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The merits of ironclad ships do not consist in carrying a large
+proportion of weights to engine-power, or having a high speed in
+proportion to that power; but rather in possessing great powers
+of offence and defence, being comparatively short, cheap, and
+handy, and steaming at a high speed, not in the most economical
+way possible, but by means of a moderate increase of power on
+account of the moderate proportions adopted in order to decrease
+the weight and cost, and to increase the handiness.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Generally speaking, his views were very revolutionary.
+The greatness of Sir E.&nbsp;J. Reed lay in the fact
+that he was the first man to conceive of the ironclad as
+a separate and distinct entity. Previously to him the
+ironclad was merely an ordinary steamer with some
+armour plating on her.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span></p>
+
+<figure id="i_265" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 22em;">
+  <img src="images/i_265.jpg" width="1383" height="1830" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption"><p>SIR E.&nbsp;J. REED.</p>
+
+<p>From a portrait made when he was Chief Constructor of the British Navy</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>His first ship was the <i>Bellerophon</i>, of 7,550 tons
+displacement. She embodied distinct novelties in the
+construction of her hull, described by her designer in the
+following <span class="locked">passages:—<a id="FNanchor_95a" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The <i>Warrior</i> and the earlier ironclads are constructed with
+deep frames, or girders, running in a longitudinal direction through
+the greater part of the length of the ship, combined with numerous
+strong transverse frames, formed of plates and angle-irons, crossing
+them at right angles. In fact, up to the height of the armour the
+ship’s framing very closely resembles in its character that of the
+platform or roadway of a common girder bridge, in which the
+principal or longitudinal strength is contributed by the continuous
+girders that stretch from pier to pier, and the transverse framing
+consists of short girders fitted between and fastened to the continuous
+girders. If we conceive such a platform to be curved transversely
+to a ship-shape form, and the under side to be covered with iron
+plating, we have a very fair idea of the construction of the lower
+part of the <i>Warrior</i>. If, instead of this arrangement, we conceive
+the continuous longitudinal girders to be considerably deepened,
+and the transverse girders to be replaced by so-called ‘bracket-frames,’
+and then, after curving this to a ship-form, add iron-plating
+on both the upper and the under sides, we have a correspondingly
+good idea of the construction of the lower part of the <i>Bellerophon</i>.
+The <i>Bellerophon’s</i> construction is, therefore, identical in character
+with the cellular system carried out in the Menai and other tubular
+bridges, which system has been proved by the most elaborate and
+careful experiments to be that which best combines lightness and
+strength in wrought-iron structures of tubular cross-section. The
+<i>Warrior’s</i> system, wanting, as it does, an inner skin of iron—except
+in a few places, such as under the engines and boilers—is not in
+accordance with the cellular system, and is inferior to it in strength.
+As regards safety, also, no comparison can be made between the
+system of the <i>Warrior</i> and that of the <i>Bellerophon</i>. If the bottom
+plating is penetrated, in most places the water must enter the
+<i>Warrior’s</i> hold, and she must depend for safety entirely on the
+efficiency of her watertight bulkheads. If the <i>Bellerophon’s</i> bottom
+is broken through, no danger of this kind is run. The water cannot
+enter the hold until the inner bottom is broken through, and this
+inner bottom is not likely to be damaged by an ordinary accident,
+seeing that it is two or three feet distant from the outer bottom.
+Should some exceptional accident occur by which the inner bottom
+is penetrated, the <i>Bellerophon</i> would still have her watertight
+bulkheads to depend on, being, in fact, under these circumstances<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span>
+in a position similar to that occupied by the <i>Warrior</i> whenever her
+bottom plating is broken through; while an accident which would
+prove fatal to the <i>Warrior</i> might leave the <i>Bellerophon</i> free from
+danger so long as the inner bottom remained intact.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As to be related later, the <i>Vanguard</i> disaster tended
+to contravert this optimism—but of that further on.
+The point of present interest is the recognition and
+establishment of a principle which, however commonplace
+to-day, was in those days a complete novelty and
+a special feature of the iron ship as a peculiar war entity.</p>
+
+<p>Equally of interest, in some ways more so, are the
+following anticipations of torpedo possibilities. The
+torpedo is such a familiar thing to-day that it is hard
+to throw ourselves back into the point of view necessary
+to appreciate the prophetic instincts of the man who
+created the first vessels which can really be called
+“battleships.”</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“It may be proper in this connection to draw attention to the
+fact that the probable employment of torpedoes in a future naval
+war has not been lost sight of in carrying out these structural
+improvements. Up to the present time torpedoes have been used
+almost solely for coast and harbour defence, and have, under those
+circumstances, proved most destructive, as a glance through the
+reports of the operations of the Federal Fleet at Charleston and
+other Confederate ports will show. It is still doubtful, however,
+whether these formidable engines of war can be supplied with
+anything like the same efficiency at sea under the vastly different
+conditions which they will there have to encounter. The Americans
+have, it is true, proposed to fit torpedo-booms to their unarmoured
+ocean-cruisers, such as the <i>Wampanoag</i>, and a naval war would
+doubtless at once bring similar schemes into prominence. Nothing
+less than actual warfare can be expected to set the question at rest;
+but whatever the result of such a test may be, it is obviously a
+proper policy of construction to provide as much as possible against
+the dangers of torpedoes; and it must be freely admitted that the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span>
+strongest ironclad yet designed, although practically impenetrable
+by the heaviest guns yet constructed, would be very liable to damage
+from the explosion of a submerged torpedo. No ship’s bottom
+can, in fact, be made strong enough to resist the shock of such an
+explosion; and the question consequently arises: How best can the
+structure be made to give safety against a mode of attack which
+cannot fail to cause a more or less extensive fracture of the ship’s
+bottom, even if it does no more serious damage? In our recent
+ships, as I have said, attempts have been made to give a practical
+answer to this question. Seeing that the bottom must inevitably be
+broken through by the explosion of a torpedo which exerts its full
+force upon the ship, it obviously becomes necessary to provide, as
+far as possible, against the danger resulting from a great in-flow of
+water. This is the leading idea which has been kept in view in
+arranging the structural details of our ships to meet this danger,
+and the reader cannot fail to perceive that the double bottom and
+watertight subdivisions described above are as available against
+injury from torpedoes as they are against the injuries resulting
+from striking the ground.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="i_269" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;">
+  <img src="images/i_269.jpg" width="2442" height="1543" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">THE <i>BELLEROPHON</i>, COMPLETED 1866.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Details of the <i>Bellerophon</i> were as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Displacement—7,550 tons.</li>
+<li>Length—300 ft. between perpendiculars.</li>
+<li>Beam—56ft. 1in.</li>
+<li>H.P.—6,520.</li>
+<li>Mean Draught—26ft. 7ins.</li>
+<li>Guns—Ten 12-ton M.L.R., five 6½-ton M.L.R.
+(changed in 1890 to ten 8-in. 14-ton B.L.R.,
+four 6-in., six 4-in. ditto.)</li>
+<li>Armour (iron)—Belt 6in., Battery 6in., Bulkhead
+5in., Conning tower 8in.</li>
+<li>Speed—14.17 knots.</li>
+<li>Coal—650 tons.</li>
+<li>Launched—1865; completed, 1866.</li>
+<li>Cost—Hull and machinery—£322,701.</li>
+<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span></li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>The 12-ton guns were on the main deck, the 6½-ton
+on the upper deck, two of them being in an armoured bow
+battery. The <i>Bellerophon</i>, completed in 1866, was ship
+rigged, and carried the then novel feature of an armoured
+conning tower, abaft the mainmast.<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> She proved
+extremely handy, her turning circle being 559yds. as
+against 939yds. for the <i>Minotaur</i> and 1,050yds. for the
+<i>Warrior</i>. A balanced rudder, introduced in her for the
+first time, helped this result to some extent; but the
+well thought-out design of this, the first real “battleship,”
+was the main cause.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Bellerophon</i> was followed by a series of
+“improved <i>Bellerophons</i>,” which will be dealt with later.
+First, however, it is necessary to revert to the coming of
+the turret-ship.</p>
+
+<p>So long ago as the Crimean War Captain Cowper-Coles
+had introduced the <i>Lady Nancy</i>, “gun-raft,”
+previously mentioned in connection with that war. In
+the year 1860 his plans had matured sufficiently for him
+to make public the designs of a proposed turret ship,
+with no less than nine turrets in the centre line, each
+carrying two guns which were to recoil up a slope and
+return automatically to position.</p>
+
+<p>There has been much discussion in the past as to
+whether Coles or Ericsson, the designer of the <i>Monitor</i>,
+first hit upon the turret-ship idea. As a matter of fact
+neither of them invented it, as the idea was first propounded
+in the 16th century, and “pivot guns” had
+long existed. In so far as adapting the idea to modern
+uses is concerned, Ericsson was first in the field, but his
+turret revolved on a spindle. The merit of the Cowper-Coles
+design was that he evolved the idea of mounting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span>
+the turret on a series of rollers, thus making it of real
+practical utility.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_273" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;">
+  <img src="images/i_273.jpg" width="2411" height="1552" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">THE <i>ROYAL SOVEREIGN</i>, 1864.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Coles’ ideal turret ship was not received officially
+with any great show of enthusiasm; as a matter of fact it
+was an impracticable sort of ship. The famous fight
+between the <i>Monitor</i> and the <i>Merrimac</i>, early in 1862, in
+the American Civil War, was, however, followed by a
+perfect “turret craze.” Turret ships were popularly
+acclaimed as essential to the preservation of British
+naval power. The idea of a sea-going ship without sail
+power was unthinkable; but the turret ships for coast
+defence purposes were demanded with such insistence
+that in 1862 Captain Coles, now more or less a popular
+hero, was put to supervise the reconstruction of the old
+steam wooden line-of-battleship <i>Royal Sovereign</i> into a
+turret ironclad.</p>
+
+<p>This ship was originally a three-decker. Coles cut
+her down to the lower deck, leaving a freeboard of ten
+feet. The sides were covered with 4½-inch iron armour.
+Four turrets were mounted on Coles’ roller system, the
+forward turret carrying two and the other three one 12½-ton
+guns. These turrets were generally five inches thick,
+but at the portholes were increased up to ten inches.
+They were rotated by hand power. There was one
+funnel, in front of which a thinly armoured conning
+tower was placed. Three pole masts were fitted. This
+ship was completed in 1864, and was fairly successful on
+trials. The cost of conversion was very heavy, and
+being wooden-hulled her weight-carrying ratio was small,
+1837 tons to 3,243 tons, weight of hull.</p>
+
+<p>Coles was at no time satisfied with this old three-decker
+an a proper test of his ideas, and his agitation
+was so far successful that the <i>Prince Albert</i> was presently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span>
+built to his design. She was an iron turret-ship,
+generally resembling the <i>Royal Sovereign</i>, though carrying
+only one gun in each turret.</p>
+
+<p>Particulars of her <span class="locked">are:—</span></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Displacement—3,880 tons.</li>
+<li>Length—240ft. p.p.</li>
+<li>Beam—48ft. 1in.</li>
+<li>H.P.—2,130.</li>
+<li>Mean Draught—20ft. 4ins.</li>
+<li>Speed—11.65 knots.</li>
+<li>Coal—230 tons.</li>
+<li>Guns—Four 9-in. 12-ton M.L.R.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>To the same era belong three armoured gunboats—<i>Viper</i>,
+<i>Vixen</i>, and <i>Waterwitch</i>—of about 1,230 tons each,
+armed with a couple of 6½-ton M.L.R. guns, armour
+4½ins. The <i>Waterwitch</i>, which was slightly the heavier,
+was fitted with a species of turbine, sucking water in
+ahead and ejecting it astern (a very old idea revived).
+This was moderately successful, as the trial speeds of the
+three <span class="locked">were:—</span></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><i>Viper</i>—8.89 knots.</li>
+<li><i>Vixen</i>—9.59 knots.</li>
+<li><i>Waterwitch</i>—9.24 knots.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>In the <i>Vixen</i> twin screws were for the first time
+tried.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Prince Albert</i> was completed in 1866, the same
+year as the <i>Bellerophon</i>. Long before she was completed,
+Coles was agitating for the application of his principles
+to a sea-going masted ship.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span></p>
+
+<figure id="i_277" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;">
+  <img src="images/i_277.jpg" width="2436" height="1509" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">THE <i>WATERWITCH</i>, COMPLETED 1867.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Sir E.&nbsp;J. Reed has left it on record that his attitude
+in the matter was that of an interested observer. He was
+at no time blind to the advantages that the turret system
+conferred; but, unlike the Coles’ party, he was equally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span>
+observant of its disadvantages. At a very early date he
+threw cold water on the masted turret-ship idea, and
+insisted that for a sea-going turret-ship to become
+practicable she must be mastless. He further pointed out
+that for a given weight eight guns could be mounted
+broadside fashion for four carried in turrets.</p>
+
+<p>He developed his own ideas in the <i>Hercules</i>, laid down
+in 1866. The <i>Hercules</i>, except that recessed ports were
+introduced to supply something like end-on fire to the
+battery, was an amplified <i>Bellerophon</i>. Particulars of the
+<i>Hercules</i> (which was always a very successful ship) <span class="locked">are:—</span></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Displacement—8,680 tons.</li>
+<li>Length—325ft.</li>
+<li>Beam—59ft. ½in.</li>
+<li>Mean Draught—26ft. 6ins.</li>
+<li>H.P.—6,750.</li>
+<li>Guns—Eight 18-ton M.L.R., two 12½-ton M.L.R., four 6½-ton M.L.R.</li>
+<li>Armour (iron)—9in. 6in. Belt and Battery.</li>
+<li>Speed—14.00 kts. (14.69 on the measured mile trials).</li>
+<li>Coal—610 tons.</li>
+<li>Cost—Hull and machinery, £361,134.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>The <i>Hercules</i> was completed in 1868, contemporaneously
+with the completion of the <i>Agincourt</i> and
+<i>Northumberland</i>, which were very slowly finished.</p>
+
+<p>At and about the same time the <i>Penelope</i> was built.
+She was designed for light draught and river service, her
+maximum draught being kept down to 17½ft. She
+carried eight 9-ton guns and had a 6-inch belt. Sir E.
+J. Reed being absent from office, his chief assistant,
+afterwards Sir N. Barnaby, was mainly responsible for
+this ship. She was given twin screws.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span></p>
+
+<p>Captain Coles meanwhile continued to demand
+turret-ships, and in 1865 submitted a design for a sea-going
+turret-ship, which was referred to a Committee of
+Naval Officers. They declined to approve the design,
+but expressed much interest in the principle involved,
+and recommended that an Admiralty design on similar
+principles should be worked out, and a ship built to it.
+This eventuated in the <i>Monarch</i>, which in substance was
+an ordinary ironclad of less freeboard than usual (14ft.)
+with two turrets on the upper deck, carrying each a pair
+of the heaviest guns then in existence (25 tons).</p>
+
+<figure id="i_281" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 28em;">
+  <img src="images/i_281.jpg" width="1789" height="2451" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+  <p>BELLEROPHON.<br>
+  HERCULES.<br>
+  AUDACIOUS.<br>
+  SULTAN.<br>
+  ALEXANDRA.</p>
+  <p class="larger">BROADSIDE AND CENTRAL BATTERY SHIPS OF THE REED ERA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It is difficult to ascertain what part (if any) Sir
+E.&nbsp;J. Reed had in the design of the <i>Monarch</i>. At a later
+date in the work already referred to (1869) he criticised
+her severely enough.<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“I have already intimated that the enlarged adoption of the
+turret system has usually been associated in my mind with those
+classes of vessels in which masts and sails are not required. It is
+well known that others have taken a wider view of its applicability,
+and have contended that it is, and has all along been, perfectly well
+adapted for rigged vessels. I have never considered it wholly
+inapplicable to such vessels: on the contrary, I have myself projected
+designs of sea-going and rigged turret-ships, which I believe to be
+safe, commodious, and susceptible of perfect handling under canvas.
+But most assuredly the building of such vessels was urged by many
+persons long before satisfactory methods of designing them had
+been devised; and my clear and strong conviction at the moment
+of writing these lines (March 31, 1869) is that no satisfactorily
+designed turret-ship with rigging has yet been built, or even laid
+down.</p>
+
+<p>“The most cursory consideration of the subject will, I think,
+result in the feeling that the middle of the upper deck of a full-rigged<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span><span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span>
+ship is not a very eligible position for fighting large guns.
+Anyone who has stood upon the deck of a frigate, amid the maze
+of ropes of all kinds and sizes that surrounds him, must feel that to
+bring even guns of moderate size away from the port holes, to
+place them in the midst of these ropes, and discharge them there,
+is utterly out of the question; and the impracticability of that
+mode of proceeding must increase in proportion as the size and
+power of the guns are increased. But as a central position, or a
+nearly central position, is requisite for the turret, this difficulty
+has had to be met by many devices, some of them tending to reduce
+the number of the ropes, and others to get them stopped short above
+the guns. In the former category come tripod masts; in the latter,
+flying-decks over the turrets; the former have proved successful
+in getting rid of shrouds, but they interfere seriously with the fire
+of the turret guns, and are exposed to the danger of being shot
+away by them in the smoke of action; the latter are under trial,
+but however successful they may prove in some respects, they will
+be very inferior in point of comfort and convenience to the upper
+decks of broadside frigates. In the case of the <i>Monarch</i>, which has
+a lofty upper deck, neither a tripod system nor a flying deck for
+working the ropes upon has been adopted. A light flying deck to
+receive a portion of the boats, and to afford a passage for the officers
+above the turrets, has been fitted; but the ropes will be worked
+upon the upper deck over which the turrets have to fire, and consequently
+a thousand contrivances have had to be made for keeping
+both the standing and running rigging tolerably clear of the guns.
+It seems to me out of the question to suppose that such an arrangement
+can ever become general in the British Navy, especially when
+one contrasts the <i>Monarch</i> with the <i>Hercules</i> as a rigged man-of-war.
+Nor is the matter at all improved, in my opinion, in the case of
+the <i>Captain</i> and other rigged turret-ships in which the ropes have
+to be worked upon bridges or flying-decks poised in the air above
+the turrets. Such bridges or decks, even if they withstand for long
+the repeated fire of the ship’s own guns, must of necessity be
+mounted upon a few supports only; and I am apprehensive that
+in action an enemy’s fire would bring down parts, at least, of these
+cumbrous structures, with their bitts, blocks, ropes, and the thousand
+and one other fittings with which a rigged ship’s deck is encumbered,
+with what result I need not predict.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span></p>
+
+<p>“It is well known that both in the <i>Captain</i> and in the <i>Monarch</i>
+the turrets have been deprived of their primary and supreme
+advantage, that of providing an all-round fire for the guns, and
+more especially a head fire. This deprivation is consequent upon
+the adoption of forecastles, which are intended to keep the ships
+dry in steaming against a head sea, and to enable the head-sails to
+be worked. When it first became known that the <i>Monarch</i> was
+designed with a forecastle (by order of the then Board of Admiralty)
+there were not wanting persons who considered the plan extremely
+objectionable, and who took it for granted that as a turret-ship the
+new vessel would be fatally defective. The design of the <i>Captain</i>
+shortly afterwards, under the direction of Captain Coles, with a
+similar but much larger forecastle, was an admission, however, that
+the Board of Admiralty did not stand alone in the belief that this
+feature was a necessity, however objectionable. Both these ships,
+therefore, are without a right-ahead fire from the turrets, the
+<i>Monarch</i> having this deficiency partly compensated by two forecastle
+(6½-ton) guns protected with armour, while the <i>Captain</i> has
+no protected head-fire at all, but merely one gun (6½-ton) standing
+exposed on the top of the forecastle.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Time has shown that he was quite correct in his
+views; but in 1866 and the years that followed he was
+regarded as unduly conservative and non-progressive.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span></p>
+
+<figure id="i_285" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;">
+  <img src="images/i_285.jpg" width="1637" height="2636" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <p>ROYAL SOVEREIGN.<br>
+    TYPICAL U.S. MONITOR.<br>
+    SCORPION.<br>
+    CAPTAIN.<br>
+    MONARCH.<br>
+    REED IDEAL OF A MASTED TURRET SHIP.</p>
+    <p class="larger">TURRET-SHIPS OF THE REED ERA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Captain Coles objected to the <i>Monarch</i> altogether.
+He insisted with vehemence that she did not in the least
+express his ideas. She had a high forecastle, also a
+poop; these features depriving her of end-on fire, except
+in so far as a couple of 6½-ton guns in an armoured
+forecastle supplied the deficiency. The Admiralty
+replied that a forecastle was essential for sea-worthiness;
+but Coles was so insistent that eventually he was allowed
+to design a sea-going turret-ship on his own ideas, in
+conjunction with Messrs. Laird, of Birkenhead, who had
+already had considerable experience in producing masted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span>
+turret-ships.<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> Coles was given a free hand. As a naval
+officer his form of turret displays the practical mind;
+as a ship designer he was simply the raw amateur. The
+<i>Captain</i>, which he produced, accentuated every fault of
+the <i>Monarch</i>, except in the purely technical matter of
+rigging being in the way of the guns. Coles got over this
+by fitting tripod masts (which Laird’s had evolved before
+him<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a>); but for the light flying bridges of the <i>Monarch</i>
+he substituted a very considerable superstructure erection.
+For the <i>Monarch’s</i> armoured two-gun forecastle, which
+he had so violently condemned, he substituted a much
+larger unarmoured, one-gun structure. Owing to an
+error in design, his intended 8-ft. freeboard was actually
+only 6ft., and his ideal ship resulted in nothing but a
+<i>Monarch</i> of less gun power, and of 8ft. less freeboard.
+Her fate is dealt with later. Details of the two ships
+<span class="locked">are:—</span></p>
+
+<table id="t287" class="tbdr">
+<tr class="thead">
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><i>Captain.</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><i>Monarch.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Displacement</td>
+  <td class="tdl">6900 tons.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">8320 tons.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Length (<i>p.p.</i>)</td>
+  <td class="tdl">320 feet.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">330 feet.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Beam</td>
+  <td class="tdl">53 feet.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">57½ feet.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Draught</td>
+  <td class="tdl">25ft. 9½in. (<i>mean</i>).</td>
+  <td class="tdl">26ft. 7in. (<i>max.</i>)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Guns</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Four 25 ton M.L.R., two 6½ ton, do.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Four 25 ton M.L.R., three 6½ ton, do.<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Coal</td>
+  <td class="tdl">500 tons.<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a></td>
+  <td class="tdl">630 tons.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Speed</td>
+  <td class="tdl">14.25 kts. (twin screws).</td>
+  <td class="tdl">14.94 (single screw).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Waterline Belt</td>
+  <td class="tdl">8.6 inches.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">7.6 inches.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Turrets</td>
+  <td class="tdl">13.8 inches.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">10.8 inches.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="tlast">
+  <td class="tdl">Completed</td>
+  <td class="tdl">1869.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">1869.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It has been said that Captain Coles was tied down
+by Admiralty ideas that a sea-going ship must have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span>
+auxiliary sail power. All the evidence is, however, to
+the effect that not only did he recognise this limitation
+from the first, but that he concurred with it and believed
+his design to fill the conditions best. It failed to do so,
+the <i>Monarch</i> under all conditions doing far better than
+the <i>Captain</i> on trial (except occasionally under sail).</p>
+
+<p>Sir E.&nbsp;J. Reed’s objections to the <i>Captain</i> design
+have already been mentioned. He was not the only
+critic, since Laird’s, of Birkenhead, who built the ship,
+were so suspicious of the design that they requested the
+Admiralty to submit her to severe tests for stability.</p>
+
+<p>The ship, however, came through these tests very
+well, and the public were more convinced than ever that
+she was the finest warship ever built. One or two naval
+officers who had criticised her also modified their opinions
+after she had done a couple of very successful cruises
+across the Bay of Biscay. Her crew had the utmost
+confidence in her. She was commanded by Captain
+Burgoyne, and Captain Coles was also on board her
+when she made her third cruise in September, 1871.</p>
+
+<p>On the 6th September she was off Cape Finisterre in
+company with the Channel Fleet, consisting of the <i>Lord
+Warden</i>, <i>Minotaur</i>, <i>Agincourt</i>, <i>Northumberland</i>, <i>Monarch</i>,
+<i>Hercules</i>, <i>Bellerophon</i>, and the unarmoured ships <i>Inconstant</i>
+and <i>Bristol</i>. Admiral Milne came on board her
+from the <i>Lord Warden</i>, and drew attention to the fact
+that she was rolling a great deal,<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a> but nobody on board
+the <i>Captain</i> agreed with him that this was dangerous.
+During the night a heavy gale suddenly arose, and
+in the morning the <i>Captain</i> was missing. Eighteen
+survivors reached the land with the story of what had
+happened.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span></p>
+
+<figure id="i_289" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 32em;">
+  <img src="images/i_289.jpg" width="2044" height="1149" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">THE <i>CAPTAIN</i>.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span></p>
+
+<p>From this it appears that about midnight the ship
+was under her topsails, double reefed. She had steam up,
+but was not using her screw. The ship gave a heavy
+lurch, righted herself, and the captain gave the order,
+“Let go the topsail halyards,” and immediately afterwards,
+“Let go fore and main topsail sheets.” The ship,
+however, continued to heel, and “18 degrees” was
+called out. This increased until 28 degrees was arrived
+at. With the ship lying over on her side some of the
+crew succeeded in walking over her bottom, and these
+were practically the only survivors. Immediately afterwards
+the ship went down stern first. There were at
+this time some five and twenty survivors, including
+Captain Burgoyne and Mr. May, the gunner. Some of
+these were in the launch, others clinging to the pinnace,
+which was floating bottom upwards. Captain Burgoyne
+was amongst those who were clinging to the pinnace,
+and that was the last seen of him. A few of the men in
+the pinnace succeeded in jumping into the launch and
+so escaped. The rest were never seen again.</p>
+
+<p>The subsequent court-martial placed it on record
+that “the <i>Captain</i> was built in deference to public
+opinion and in opposition to the views and opinions of
+the Controller of the Navy and his Department.” The
+instability of the ship and the incompetence of Captain
+Coles to design her were emphasised.</p>
+
+<p>After the loss of the <i>Captain</i> considerable panic on
+the subject of turret-ships arose. The <i>Monarch</i> was
+submitted to a number of tests which, however, generally
+proved satisfactory, and there was never anything to be
+said against her except that the forecastle and the poop
+necessitated by her being a rigged ship, negatived one of
+the principal advantages of the turret system.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span></p>
+
+<p>To the loss of the <i>Captain</i> is to be traced some of
+the extraordinary opposition which the <i>Devastation</i> idea
+subsequently encountered.</p>
+
+<p>The various writings of Sir E.&nbsp;J. Reed make it
+abundantly clear that just as in the <i>Bellerophon</i> he had
+realised that an ironclad battleship must be something
+more than an old-type vessel with some armour on her,
+so he realised from the first that the ordinary sea-going
+warship with turrets on deck, instead of guns in the
+battery, was no true solution of the turret problem.
+There is ample evidence that he studied the monitors of
+the American Civil War with a balanced intelligence far
+ahead of his day, taking into consideration every <i lang="la">pro</i> and
+<i lang="la">con</i> with absolute impartiality, and applying the knowledge
+thus gained to the different conditions required for
+the British Fleet. It is no exaggeration to say that
+he was the only man who really kept his head while the
+turret-ship controversy reigned; the one man who
+thought while others argued.</p>
+
+<p>He swiftly recognised the tremendous limitations of
+the American low-freeboard monitors, and at an early
+date evolved his own idea of the “breastwork monitor,”
+which began with the Australian <i>Cerberus</i>, and ended with
+the predecessor of the present <i>Dreadnought</i>. The ships
+of this type varied considerably from each other in detail;
+but the general principle of all was identical. All,
+whether coast-defence or sea-going, were “mastless”;
+all, while of low freeboard fore and aft, carried their
+turrets fairly high up on a heavily armed redoubt amidships.
+Side by side with them he developed the central
+battery ironclads of this particular era. He ceased to
+be Chief Constructor before either type reached its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span>
+apotheosis; but all may be deemed lineal descendants of
+his original creations.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_293" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;">
+  <img src="images/i_293.jpg" width="2427" height="1634" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">THE OLD “INVINCIBLE.” 1872.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>First, however, it is desirable to revert to the Reed
+broadside and central battery-ships.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Audacious</i> class, which followed closely upon
+the <i>Hercules</i>, and were contemporary in the matter of
+design, were avowedly “second-class ships,” intended
+for service in distant seas. The ships of this class, of
+which the first was completed in 1869 and the last
+in 1873, were the <i>Audacious</i>, <i>Invincible</i>, <i>Iron Duke</i>,
+<i>Vanguard</i>, <i>Swiftsure</i>, and <i>Triumph</i>. As the sketch plan
+illustrations indicate, the main deck battery in them
+was more centralised than in the <i>Hercules</i>, while instead
+of the bow battery they carried on their upper decks four
+6½-ton guns capable of firing directly ahead or astern.</p>
+
+<p>Excluding the converted ships, the <i>Audacious</i> was
+the eleventh British ironclad to be designed in point of
+date of laying down, but in the matter of design she
+followed directly on the eighth ship—<i>Hercules</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Her weights, as compared with the <i>Bellerophon</i>,
+<span class="locked">were:—</span></p>
+
+<table id="t295" class="tbdr">
+<tr class="thead">
+  <td class="tdc"> Name.</td>
+  <td class="tdc"> Weight of hull.</td>
+  <td class="tdc"> Weight carried.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Bellerophon</i></td>
+  <td class="tdl">3652 tons.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">3798 tons.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="tlast">
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Audacious</i></td>
+  <td class="tdl">2675 tons.</td>
+  <td class="tdl">3234 tons.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In some of these ships the principle of wood-copper
+sheathing was re-introduced; the iron ships having
+been found to foul their hulls more quickly than wooden
+hulled ships. The <i>Swiftsure</i> and <i>Triumph</i> (the two
+latest) were the ones so treated. Sir E.&nbsp;J. Reed was not
+responsible for the experiment, which was entirely an
+Admiralty one. It proved successful enough, the loss
+of speed being trifling.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span></p>
+
+<p>Details of the <i>Audacious</i> class:—<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Displacement—6,010.</li>
+<li>Length—280ft.</li>
+<li>Beam—54ft.</li>
+<li>H.P.—4,830.</li>
+<li>Mean Draught—23ft. 8ins.</li>
+<li>Guns—Ten 12-ton M.L.R.</li>
+<li>Coal—500 tons.</li>
+<li>Belt Armour—8ins. to 6ins.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<table id="t296" class="tbdr">
+<tr class="thead">
+  <td class="tdl"></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><i>Audacious</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><i>Iron Duke</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><i>Invincible</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><i>Vanguard</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><i>Swiftsure</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc"><i>Triumph</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Speed</td>
+  <td class="tdc">13.2</td>
+  <td class="tdc">13.64</td>
+  <td class="tdc">14.09</td>
+  <td class="tdc">13.64</td>
+  <td class="tdc">13.75</td>
+  <td class="tdc">13.75</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Builder of Ship</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Glasgow</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Pembroke</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Glasgow</td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc">Jarrow</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Jarrow</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Builder of Machin’y</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Ravenhill</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Ravenhill</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Napier</td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc">Maudslay</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Maudslay</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Launched</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1869</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1870</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1869</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1869</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1870</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1870</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Completed</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1869</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1871</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1870</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1871</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1872</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1873</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="tlast">
+  <td class="tdl">Cost—Hull &amp; Machin’y</td>
+  <td class="tdc">£246,482</td>
+  <td class="tdc">£196,479</td>
+  <td class="tdc">£239,441</td>
+  <td class="tdc"></td>
+  <td class="tdc">£257,081</td>
+  <td class="tdc">£258,322</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The sheathing increased the displacement of the two
+latest ships by about 900 tons in the <i>Swiftsure</i>, and some
+600 tons in the <i>Triumph</i>. These two were single-screw
+ships only, whereas all the others were twin-screw.</p>
+
+<p>In September, 1875, the <i>Vanguard</i> was rammed and
+sunk by the <i>Iron Duke</i>.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_297" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 38em;">
+  <img src="images/i_297.jpg" width="2427" height="1486" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">THE <i>VANGUARD</i>, COMPLETED 1874.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The finding of the Court Martial was as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“The court having heard the evidence which had been adduced
+in this inquiry and trial, is of opinion that the loss of Her Majesty’s
+ship <i>Vanguard</i> was occasioned by Her Majesty’s ship <i>Iron Duke</i>
+coming into collision with her off the Kisbank, the Irish Channel,
+at about 12-50 on the 1st September, from the effects of which she
+foundered; that such collision was caused—First, by the high rate
+of speed at which the squadron, of which these vessels formed a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span>
+part, was proceeding whilst in a fog; secondly, by Captain Dawkins,
+when leader of his division, leaving the deck of the ship before the
+evolution which was being performed was completed, as there were
+indications of foggy weather at the time; thirdly, by the unnecessary
+reduction of speed of H.M.S. <i>Vanguard</i> without a signal from the
+vice-admiral in command of the squadron, and without H.M.S.
+<i>Vanguard</i> making the proper signals to the <i>Iron Duke</i>; fourthly,
+by the increase of speed of H.M.S. <i>Iron Duke</i> during a dense fog,
+the speed being already high; fifthly, by H.M.S. <i>Iron Duke</i>
+improperly shearing out of the line; sixthly, for want of any fog
+signals on the part of H.M.S. <i>Iron Duke</i>.</p>
+
+<p>“The court is further of opinion that the cause of the loss of
+H.M.S. <i>Vanguard</i> by foundering was a breach being made in her side
+by the prow of H.M.S. <i>Iron Duke</i> in the neighbourhood of the most
+important transverse bulkhead—namely, that between the engine
+and boiler rooms, causing a great rush of water into the engine-room,
+shaft-alley, and stoke-hole, extinguishing the fires in a few minutes,
+the water eventually finding its way into the provision room flat,
+and provision rooms through imperfectly fastened watertight doors,
+and owing to leakage of 99 bulkhead. The court is of opinion that
+the foundering of H.M.S. <i>Vanguard</i> might have been delayed, if not
+averted, by Captain Dawkins giving instructions for immediate
+action being taken to get all available pumps worked, instead of
+employing his crew in hoisting out boats, and if Captain Dawkins,
+Commander Tandy, Navigating-Lieutenant Thomas, and Mr. David
+Tiddy, carpenter, had shown more resource and energy in endeavouring
+to stop the breach from the outside by means at their command,
+such as hammocks and sails—and the court is of opinion that Captain
+Dawkins should have ordered Captain Hickley, of H.M.S. <i>Iron Duke</i>,
+to tow H.M.S. <i>Vanguard</i> into shallow water. The court is of opinion
+that blame is imputable to Captain Dawkins for exhibiting want of
+judgment and for neglect of duty in handling his ship, and that he
+showed a want of resource, promptitude, and decision in the means
+be adopted for saving H.M.S. <i>Vanguard</i> after the collision. The
+court is further of opinion that blame is imputable to Navigating-Lieutenant
+Thomas for neglect of duty in not pointing out to his
+captain that there was shallower water within a short distance, and
+in not having offered any suggestion as to the stopping of the leak
+on the outside. The court is further of opinion that Commander<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span>
+Tandy showed great want of energy as second in command under
+the circumstances. The court is further of opinion that Mr. Brown,
+the chief engineer, showed want of promptitude in not applying the
+means at his command to relieve the ship of water. The court is
+further of opinion that blame is imputable to Mr. David Tiddy, of
+H.M.S. <i>Vanguard</i>, for not offering any suggestions to his captain
+as to the most efficient mode of stopping the leak, and for not taking
+immediate steps for sounding the compartments and reporting from
+time to time the progress of the water. The court adjudges Captain
+Richard Dawkins to be severely reprimanded and dismissed from
+H.M.S. <i>Vanguard</i> and he is hereby severely reprimanded and so
+sentenced accordingly. The court adjudges Commander Lashwood
+Goldie Tandy and Navigating-Lieutenant James Cambridge Thomas
+to be severely reprimanded, and they hereby are severely reprimanded
+accordingly. The court imputes no blame to the other officers and
+ship’s company of H.M.S. <i>Vanguard</i> in reference to the loss of the
+ship, and they are hereby acquitted accordingly.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<figure id="i_301" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 26em;">
+  <img src="images/i_301.jpg" width="1661" height="2649" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <p>HOTSPUR<br>
+    <span class="smcap">French Ram</span> TAUREAU (1865)<br>
+    GLATTON<br>
+    RUPERT</p>
+    <p class="larger">RAMS OF THE REED ERA.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This disaster drew attention to the ram, the more
+so when it became known that the <i>Iron Duke</i> was
+uninjured. Ram tactics had, of course, been heard of
+before, and had been discussed at great length by Sir
+Edward Reed in 1868. At that date, although one or
+two special ram-ships had been built, Sir E.&nbsp;J. Reed had
+expressed a certain amount of scepticism as to whether
+the ram could be successfully used in connection with a
+ship in motion, and pointed out that in the historical
+instance of the <i>Re d’Italia</i> at the battle of Lissa, the ship
+was stationary. He further had written:—<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“Even if the side were thus broken through, any one of our
+iron-built ships would most probably remain afloat, although her
+efficiency would be considerably impaired, the water which would
+enter being confined to the watertight compartment of the hold,
+enclosed by bulkheads crossing the ship at a moderate distance
+before and abaft the part broken through. In fact, under these
+circumstances the ship struck would be in exactly the same condition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span>
+as an ordinary iron ship which by any accident has had the bottom
+plating broken, and one of the hold-compartments filled with water,
+so that we have good reason to believe that her safety need not be
+despaired of, unless, by the blow being delivered at, or very near,
+a bulkhead, more than one compartment should be injured and
+filled. All iron ships can thus be protected to some extent against
+being sunk by a single blow of a ram, and our own vessels have the
+further and important protection of the watertight wings just
+described; but wood ships are not similarly safe. One hole in the
+side of the <i>Re d’Italia</i> sufficed to sink her; but this would scarcely
+have been possible in an iron ship with properly arranged watertight
+compartments. The French, in their latest ironclads, have become
+alive to this danger, and have fitted transverse iron bulkheads
+in the holds of wood-built ships in order to add to their safety.
+No doubt this is an improvement, but our experience with wood
+ships leads us to have grave doubts whether these bulkheads can be
+made efficient watertight divisions in the hold, on account of the
+working that is sure to take place in a wood hull. This fact adds
+another to the arguments previously advanced in favour of iron
+hulls for armoured ships; for it appears that an iron-built ship,
+constructed on the system of our recent ironclads, is comparatively
+safe against destruction by a ram, unless she is repeatedly attacked
+when in a disabled state, while a wood-built ship may, and most
+likely will, be totally lost in consequence of one well-delivered
+heavy blow.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is in strange contrast to the fate of the <i>Vanguard</i>,
+but the finding of the court-martial indicates
+that the precautions taken were hardly such as were
+contemplated by the ship’s designer! Furthermore, she
+appears to have been struck immediately on one of the
+watertight bulkheads, and so, instead of being left with
+seven of her eight compartments unfilled, she had only
+six unfilled. The shock, also, was such that most of the
+other bulkheads started leaking; and in addition to this
+the double bottom is said to have been filled with bricks<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span>
+and cement,<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> and so less operative than it might otherwise
+have been, since any shock on the outer bottom
+would thus be immediately communicated to the inner
+one.</p>
+
+<p>The actual successor of the <i>Hercules</i>, in the matter
+of first-class ships, was the <i>Sultan</i>. She differed from
+the <i>Hercules</i> merely in a somewhat increased draught
+and displacement, and increased provision for end-on
+bow fire—four 12½-ton guns able to fire ahead being
+substituted for the one smaller gun in the <i>Hercules</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This end-on fire was given because ram-tactics were
+then coming greatly into favour. Particulars of the
+<i>Sultan</i>,<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> which was the last of the central battery ironclads
+to be designed and built by Sir E.&nbsp;J. Reed, are as
+<span class="locked">follows:—</span></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Displacement—9,290 tons.</li>
+<li>Length—325ft.</li>
+<li>Beam—59ft. ½-in.</li>
+<li>H.P.—7,720.</li>
+<li>Mean Draught—26ft. 5ins.</li>
+<li>Guns—Eight 18-ton M.L.R., four 12½-ton M.L.R.</li>
+<li>Coal—810 tons.</li>
+<li>Armour (iron)—9ins., 8ins., and 6ins.</li>
+<li>Speed—14.13 knots (single screw).</li>
+<li>Builder of Ship—Chatham.</li>
+<li>Builder of Machinery—Penn.</li>
+<li>Cost—Hull and machinery, £357,415.</li>
+<li>Launched—1870; completed for sea in 1871.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span></p>
+
+<figure id="i_305" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 27em;">
+  <img src="images/i_305.jpg" width="1665" height="2690" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+    <p>CERBERUS.<br>
+    DEVASTATION.<br>
+    FURY.<br>
+    DREADNOUGHT.</p>
+    <p class="larger">BREASTWORK MONITORS.</p>
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span></p>
+
+<p>Sir E.&nbsp;J. Reed’s “breastwork monitors” have
+already been referred to. They were received with little
+enthusiasm by the Admiralty, and the first of them were
+merely Colonial coast defence vessels. These <span class="locked">were:—</span></p>
+
+<table id="t307" class="tbdr">
+<tr class="thead">
+  <td class="tdc">Name.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Displ’m’t. Tons.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Speed. Knots.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Armour. Inches.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Turret Armour.</td>
+  <td class="tdc">Completed.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Cerberus</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">3480</td>
+  <td class="tdc">9.75</td>
+  <td class="tdc">8</td>
+  <td class="tdc">10</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1870</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Abyssinia</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">2900</td>
+  <td class="tdc">9.59</td>
+  <td class="tdc">7</td>
+  <td class="tdc">10</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1870</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="tlast">
+  <td class="tdl"><i>Magdala</i></td>
+  <td class="tdc">3340</td>
+  <td class="tdc fsr1">10.67</td>
+  <td class="tdc">8</td>
+  <td class="tdc">10</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1870</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In general design all were identical, a redoubt amidships
+carrying two centre line turrets and a small oval
+superstructure between. Twin screws were employed.</p>
+
+<p>The belief in the ram already alluded to had by now
+attained such proportions that a ship specially designed
+for ramming was called for, and the <i>Hotspur</i> was the
+result. Nothing written by Sir E.&nbsp;J. Reed (and he wrote
+a great deal) indicates that he was in sympathy with her
+design, though nominally responsible. The <i>Hotspur</i> was
+not even a turret-ship. She carried a fixed armoured
+structure of considerable size,<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a> inside of which a single
+25-ton gun revolved, firing through the most convenient
+of several ports. She was fitted with two masts with
+fore and aft sails. Particulars of her <span class="locked">were:—</span></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Displacement—4,010 tons.</li>
+<li>Length—235ft.</li>
+<li>Beam—50ft.</li>
+<li>H.P.—3,060.</li>
+<li>Mean Draught—21ft. 10ins.</li>
+<li>Guns—One 25-ton M.L.R., two 6½-ton.</li>
+<li>Belt Armour—11in. to 8in.; complete belt.</li>
+<li>Turret Armour—10in.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span></li>
+<li>Coal—300 tons.</li>
+<li>Speed—12.8 knots (twin-screw).</li>
+<li>Builder—Napier, Glasgow.</li>
+<li>Launched—1870; completed, 1871.</li>
+<li>Cost—Hull and machinery, £171,528.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>She was built solely and simply as an “answer” to
+a series of “rams” projected for the French Navy,
+apparently more with an Admiralty idea of not being
+caught napping “in case,” than from any belief in her
+efficacy.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_309" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 42em;">
+  <img src="images/i_309.jpg" width="2649" height="1424" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">THE <i>HOTSPUR</i>, AS ORIGINALLY COMPLETED, 1871.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Sir E.&nbsp;J. Reed’s ideas in the matter of turret-ships
+now found expression in four ships of the <i>Cerberus</i> type
+enlarged. These were the <i>Cyclops</i>, <i>Gorgon</i>, <i>Hecate</i>, and
+<i>Hydra</i>. Like their prototype, they were of the breastwork
+type, and differed only in having an inch more belt
+armour and a displacement of 3,560 tons. Differing from
+them, and perhaps more on Reed lines, was the <i>Glatton</i>.
+Her special feature was the introduction of water to
+reduce her freeboard in action. She had a single turret
+only, but her belt was 12ins. thick, and she represented
+the, then, “last word” in coast defence ships, so far as
+the British Navy was concerned. Details of her are as
+<span class="locked">follows:—</span></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Displacement—4,910 tons.</li>
+<li>Length—245ft.</li>
+<li>Beam—54ft.</li>
+<li>H.P.—2,870.</li>
+<li>Mean Draught—19ft. 5ins.</li>
+<li>Guns—Two 25-ton M.L.R.</li>
+<li>Armour (iron)—12-10in. Belt Turret, 14in.</li>
+<li>Coal—540 tons.</li>
+<li>Speed—12.11 knots (twin screw).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span></li>
+<li>Builder of Ship—Chatham Dockyard.</li>
+<li>Builder of Machinery—Laird.</li>
+<li>Floated out of Dock—1871; completed, 1871.</li>
+<li>Cost—Hull and Machinery, £219,529.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>The last ship of this group was the ram <i>Rupert</i>, of
+5,440 tons, laid down at Chatham, in 1870. She was,
+in substance, merely an enlarged <i>Hotspur</i>, carrying two
+18-ton guns in a single revolving turret forward and two
+64-pounders behind the bulwarks aft. Her armour was
+slightly inferior to the <i>Glatton’s</i>: her speed considerably
+higher—14 knots being aimed at, though it was never
+reached. She was one of the very few ships which had
+their engines built in a Royal Dockyard, hers being
+constructed at Portsmouth Yard.</p>
+
+<p>About the year 1890, when re-construction was very
+much to the fore, the <i>Rupert</i> was re-constructed. She
+was given a couple of 10in. breech-loaders instead of her
+old 10in. M.L., a military-top, and a few other improvements.
+The net result of this re-construction was that
+when, after it, she first proceeded to coal she began to
+submerge herself almost at once. Her torpedo tubes
+were awash before she had received her normal quota of
+coal, and she was, generally, the most futile example of
+re-construction ever experienced.</p>
+
+<p>The failure was such that thereafter no further
+attempt to modernise old ships was ever made; instead,
+a policy of “scrapping” all such was introduced. This
+is probably the best service that the <i>Rupert</i> ever rendered
+to the Navy. She demonstrated for all time that—so
+far as the British Navy was concerned—modernising was
+a hopeless task. It took France and Germany many
+years to learn a similar lesson. To-day, it is generally
+recognised that, as a ship is completed, she represents<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span>
+the best that can be got out of her; and that any
+attempt to improve her in any one direction merely
+spells reduced efficiency in some other. Hence the
+apparently early scrapping of many ships of later date
+and the present day proverb, “Re-construction never
+pays.”</p>
+
+<p>The whole of the series, however, can only be
+regarded as improvements on the old <i>Prince Albert</i> idea.
+Sir E.&nbsp;J. Reed’s real answer to the <i>Captain</i> was the
+<i>Devastation</i>, designed in 1868, but not completed till
+1873; at which date he had left the Admiralty. The
+<i>Devastation</i> and the <i>Thunderer</i> (completed four years later
+than her sister) cost Sir E.&nbsp;J. Reed his position. In them
+he introduced all his ideas as to what the sea-going
+turret-ship should be. He carried the Admiralty with
+him; but before ever the <i>Devastation</i> was set afloat, it
+was “proved” to the satisfaction of the general public
+that she was an “egregious failure.” The date of her
+design is about 1868, though, as mentioned above, she
+was not completed till 1873. The <i>Dreadnought</i> of more
+or less these times was nothing in the way of novelty
+compared to the <i>Devastation</i> of the later sixties.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum hide" id="Page_313">313</span></p>
+
+<p>Details of the <i>Devastation</i> (laid down Nov., 1869),
+<span class="locked">were:—</span></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Displacement—9,330 tons.</li>
+<li>Length—385ft.</li>
+<li>Beam—62ft. 3ins.</li>
+<li>Mean Draught—25ft. 6ins.</li>
+<li>H.&nbsp;P.—6,650.</li>
+<li>Guns—Four 35-ton M.L.R.<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a></li>
+<li>Belt Armour—12in. and 10in. (iron).</li>
+<li>Turret Armour—14in. (iron).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span></li>
+<li>Coal—1,800 tons.</li>
+<li>Speed—13.84 knots (twin-screw).</li>
+<li>Where Built—Portsmouth Dockyard.</li>
+<li>Builder of Machinery—Humphrys.</li>
+<li>Launched—1871; completed, 1873.</li>
+<li>Cost—Hull and Machinery, £353,848.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>On her trials the <i>Devastation</i> proved completely
+successful. An interesting and little known item in
+connection with her is that as designed she was to carry
+two signal masts,<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> one forward of the turrets, one aft.
+For these, on completion, a single mast on the superstructure
+was substituted.</p>
+
+<figure id="i_313" class="figcenter" style="max-width: 39em;">
+  <img src="images/i_313.jpg" width="2450" height="1533" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">THE <i>DEVASTATION</i>, AS COMPLETED, 1873.
+  </figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>How the <i>Devastation</i>, even after successful completion,
+was received by the public can be gleaned
+from the following extracts from the contemporary
+press:—<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p>“It is a weakness with the officers and men of any of Her
+Majesty’s ships to ‘crack up’ the vessels to which they belong, and
+it is rarely that a bluejacket growls openly against his ship. The
+warm confidence expressed in the ill-fated <i>Captain</i> by her unfortunate
+crew is well remembered, and is sufficient to prove that even the
+first of this necessarily uncomfortable class of monitors was not met
+by the seamen of the Fleet in any complaining spirit, but that they
+submitted to the discomforts imposed upon them with characteristic
+cheerfulness. When, therefore, an unmistakable feeling of dissatisfaction
+prevails throughout a ship, and no hesitation is shown
+in expressing it, we may be certain that there is some valid reason
+for so unusual an occurrence. We hesitated to give currency to
+reports which reached us during the cruise of the <i>Devastation</i>
+around the coast with the Channel Squadron, as we had good
+reason to believe that it was the intention of the Admiralty to
+pay her off, and berth her in Portsmouth harbour as a tender to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span>
+the <i>Excellent</i>, the advantage of so doing being that a very large
+number of men passing through the School of Gunnery would thus
+be enabled to become acquainted with the latest improvements in
+the turret system.... But since the arrival at the Admiralty
+of Rear-Admiral Hornby, late in command of the Channel Squadron,
+who certainly should be able to form a correct estimate of the
+<i>Devastation’s</i> fitness in every respect for sea service, it has been
+determined that she shall be ordered to Gibraltar, there probably
+to remain during the coming winter as a kind of ‘guardo.’ A cruise
+across the bay in the month of November is not looked forward to
+by the present crew, who have had a little experience both of being
+stifled by being battened down and of being nearly blown out of
+their hammocks when efforts at ventilation are made by opening
+every hatch. Her qualities as a sea-boat have been fairly tested,
+and the present notion of filling her up with stores for six months’
+further service, and then stowing her away at Gibraltar, leads to
+the conclusion that on this point at least the value of the counsel
+of the First Lord’s new Naval adviser is not altogether apparent.</p>
+
+<p>“... It is needless to comment on the facts. They speak
+for themselves. The condensers will be repaired, no doubt, and
+strengthened and modified; but no engineer can guarantee that they
+will not fail again, or, if they turn out a permanent job, that the
+cylinders will not split, or some other of the mishaps to which
+marine engines in the Navy are subject may not happen. If the
+failure takes place in the day of battle it will constitute little short
+of a national calamity. Even as it is, it must be looked on as a most
+fortunate circumstance that the sea was perfectly smooth and the
+vessel near a port. Had the breakdown occurred during the six
+hours’ run of the ship—which was to have been made on Wednesday—and
+in a stiff breeze blowing on a lee shore, the ship might have
+been lost before an effort could have been made to save her. Very
+important improvements in marine engines of large size must be
+made before we can reconcile ourselves to the adoption of mastless
+sea-going monitors.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>With such labour and travail was the modern
+British battleship born! Public opinion decidedly
+modified naval construction—leading, as it did, to a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span>
+considerable delay with the <i>Thunderer</i>,<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">111</a> the re-designing
+of the <i>Fury</i>, and the building of some old-type ships
+which else had probably never been constructed.</p>
+
+<p>As already mentioned, Sir E.&nbsp;J. Reed left the
+Admiralty before the <i>Devastation</i> was completed. None
+the less the ships which immediately followed were in
+all essential particulars “Reed Ships,” and so are
+included in this chapter.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Devastation</i>, owing to the Committee on Designs,
+received certain minor modifications before completion.
+These mainly concerned the hatches. Her sister ship,
+the <i>Thunderer</i>, built at Pembroke and engined by
+Humphrys, was held back, pending the <i>Devastation’s</i>
+trials, and not completed till 1877.</p>
+
+<p>Save that in one turret she carried a couple of 38
+ton (12.5-inch) instead of 35 ton (12-inch) guns, she was
+a replica of the <i>Devastation</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A third ship of the same type, named the <i>Fury</i>,
+was in hand, but criticisms of the <i>Devastation</i> caused
+her to be re-designed, and she was eventually completed
+as the <i>Dreadnought</i>. In her the very low freeboard
+forward and aft of the <i>Devastation</i> type was done away with
+and freeboard maintained at a uniform medium height.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Devastation</i> and <i>Thunderer</i> had their armour-plates
+amidships pierced with square portholes. These
+with some reason were attacked as likely to weaken the
+armour very considerably, and the <i>Dreadnought</i> was
+built entirely wall-sided and so depended on artificial
+ventilation, known in the Navy in those days as “potted
+air,” even more than her predecessors.</p>
+
+<p>Particulars of the <span class="locked"><i>Dreadnought</i>:—</span></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Displacement—10,820 tons.</li>
+<li>Length—320ft.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span></li>
+<li>Beam—63ft. 10in.</li>
+<li>Draught—26ft. 9in.</li>
+<li>Armament—Four 38-ton M.L.R., two 14in. torpedo tubes.</li>
+<li>Armour (iron)—Belt 14-11in., Bulkheads 13in., Turrets 14in.</li>
+<li>H.P.—8,210 = 12.40 knots.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>In the original design of the <i>Fury</i> provision was
+made for a conning tower with a heavily-armoured
+communication tube. She proved a very successful
+ship. No sisters were ordered, probably because the
+Admiralty wished to see how she did before committing
+themselves to the type. Ere she was finished a
+different fashion in warships had set in. The cost of the
+<i>Dreadnought</i> was about £600,000.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Alexandra</i> was designed long after Reed had
+left the Admiralty. That famous constructor had nothing
+whatever to do with her. None the less she was the
+apotheosis of his box-battery ironclad ideas and for that
+reason is included in his era. She was simply an
+“improved <i>Sultan</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>Particulars of <span class="locked">her:—</span></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Displacement—9,490 tons.</li>
+<li>Length (between perpendiculars)—325ft.</li>
+<li>Beam—63⅔ft.</li>
+<li>Draught—26½ft.</li>
+<li>Armament—Four 25-ton M.L., ten 18-ton M.L.,
+four above-water torpedo dischargers (14in.)</li>
+<li>Armour (iron)—12-6in. belt, flat deck on top of
+it. Bulkheads 8-5in. Battery 12-6in.</li>
+<li>Horse-power—9,810 = 15 knots.</li>
+<li>Coal—680 tons = 2,700 knots at 10 knots (nominal).</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>She was built at Chatham Dockyard; engined by
+Humphrys; completed for sea, 1877.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span></p>
+
+<p>Four of the 18-ton guns were carried in an upper
+deck battery, and had end-on training. The other guns
+were carried in the main-deck battery, which was some
+10ft. high. The 25-ton guns had a right-ahead training.</p>
+
+<p>After completion she served as Mediterranean flagship,
+though at the bombardment of Alexandria the flag
+was transferred to the <i>Invincible</i>, which, being of lighter
+draught, was able to enter the inner harbour. At a later
+date (about 1890) she was “partially reconstructed.”
+For her original barque rig a three-masted military rig
+was substituted, and six 4-inch Q.F. were mounted on top
+of her upper deck battery. She has been described as the
+apotheosis of Reed broadside ideas, and a very apotheosis
+she was. No broadside or central battery ironclad of
+the British or any other Navy ever equalled her, and she
+dropped out of the first rank only because the big gun
+rendered broadside ships entirely obsolete.</p>
+
+<h3><i>GUNS IN THE ERA.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The principal guns (all M.L.R.) in the Reed Era
+were as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p>
+
+<table id="t319" class="tbdr">
+<tr class="thead">
+  <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Weight in tons.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Bore in inches.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Length in Calibres.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Weight of Projectile lbs.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Muzzle Velocity. f.s.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" rowspan="2">Muzzle Energy. f.t.</td>
+  <td class="tdc" colspan="2">Penet’n Iron at</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="theadsub">
+  <td class="tdc">yds. 2000</td>
+  <td class="tdc">yds. 1000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc">38</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1p">12.5</td>
+  <td class="tdc">16</td>
+  <td class="tdc">810</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1575</td>
+  <td class="tdc">13,930   </td>
+  <td class="tdc">16</td>
+  <td class="tdc">18</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc">35</td>
+  <td class="tdc">12</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1p">13½</td>
+  <td class="tdc">707</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1390</td>
+  <td class="tdc">9470</td>
+  <td class="tdc">13</td>
+  <td class="tdc">15</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc">25</td>
+  <td class="tdc">12</td>
+  <td class="tdc">12</td>
+  <td class="tdc">609</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1288</td>
+  <td class="tdc">7006</td>
+  <td class="tdc">11</td>
+  <td class="tdc">12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc">25</td>
+  <td class="tdc">11</td>
+  <td class="tdc">12</td>
+  <td class="tdc">544</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1314</td>
+  <td class="tdc">6560</td>
+  <td class="tdc">13</td>
+  <td class="tdc">14</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc">18</td>
+  <td class="tdc">10</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1p">14½</td>
+  <td class="tdc">406</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1370</td>
+  <td class="tdc">5360</td>
+  <td class="tdc">10</td>
+  <td class="tdc">12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc fs1p">12½</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">9</td>
+  <td class="tdc">14</td>
+  <td class="tdc">253</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1440</td>
+  <td class="tdc">3695</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">9</td>
+  <td class="tdc">10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">9</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">8</td>
+  <td class="tdc">15</td>
+  <td class="tdc">174</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1384</td>
+  <td class="tdc">2391</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">7</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class="tlast">
+  <td class="tdc fs2p">6½</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">7</td>
+  <td class="tdc">16</td>
+  <td class="tdc">112</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1325</td>
+  <td class="tdc">1400</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">6</td>
+  <td class="tdc fs1">7</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span></p>
+
+<p>In the early part of the period Armstrong breech-loaders
+up to 120 pounders had been in use, but the
+elementary breech blocks were so unsatisfactory that
+the Navy quickly discarded them, and adhered to
+muzzle-loaders long after all other Powers had given
+them up.</p>
+
+<p>The big muzzle loaders tabulated were of a very
+elementary type also. They were made by shrinking
+red hot wrought-iron collars over a steel tube; and it
+was never quite certain how far the interior would be
+affected. The projectiles never fitted accurately, with
+the result that there was considerable leakage of gas and
+very erratic firing. The rifling consisted of five or six
+grooves into which studs in the projectile fitted.</p>
+
+<p>In 1872 some experiments were carried out, the
+<i>Hotspur</i> firing at the <i>Glatton’s</i> turret at a range of 200
+yards. The first shot missed altogether, the other two
+struck the turret, but not at the point aimed at. The
+turret was not appreciably damaged, though theoretically
+it should have been completely penetrated. This
+eventually led to the invention of an improved gas
+check—reference to which will be found at the end of
+the Barnaby Era.</p>
+
+<h3><i>UNARMOURED SHIPS OF THE ERA.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Contemporaneously with the <i>Hercules</i> the <i>Inconstant</i>
+was designed. She was inspired by the United States
+<i>Wampanoag</i>, a type of large, fast, unprotected, heavily-gunned
+frigate, to which the Americans had always been
+partial. The <i>Wampanoag</i>, as a matter of fact, never
+reached expectations, whereas the <i>Inconstant</i> was a
+decided success so far as she went. She marked, so far
+as the British Navy was concerned, the first appearance
+of the theory that speed and gun power—in other words,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span>
+“the offensive”—might be developed advantageously,
+at the cost of defensive arrangements, a theory which
+still survives in the “battle-cruisers” of to-day, though
+of course in a very modified form. None the less, the
+<i>Inconstant</i> represents the germ idea of our present
+battle-cruisers, and is supremely important on that
+account.</p>
+
+<p>Particulars of the <i>Inconstant</i> <span class="locked">were:—</span></p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Displacement—5,780 tons.</li>
+<li>Length (between perpendiculars)—337⅓ ft.</li>
+<li>Beam—50¼ft.</li>
+<li>Draught (mean)—25½ft.</li>
+<li>Guns—Ten 12½ ton M.L.R., six 6½ ton M.L.R.</li>
+<li>H.P.—7,360 = 16 knots (trial 16.2).</li>
+<li>Speed—Sixteen knots (trial 16.2).</li>
+<li>Built at Pembroke Dockyard. Completed for
+sea 1868 at a cost of £213,324. She had an
+iron hull, wood-sheathed and coppered. A
+coal supply of 750 tons gave a nominal radius
+of 2780 miles. She was ship-rigged and sailed
+well.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>She was followed by a couple of variants on her,
+the <i>Raleigh</i> and <i>Shah</i>, the former 5,200 tons and the
+latter 6,250 tons.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Shah</i> was originally named the <i>Blonde</i>, but
+rechristened out of compliment to the Shah of Persia,
+who was visiting England at the time of her launch.</p>
+
+<p>At a later stage in her career (1877) the <i>Shah</i>, then
+flagship on the S.W. Coast of America, fought a much-criticised
+action with the Peruvian turret-ship <i>Huascar</i>,
+a Laird-built monitor, carrying a couple of 12½ ton guns,
+launched in 1865, and generally of the same type (though
+smaller) as the British <i>Hotspur</i> and <i>Rupert</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span></p>
+
+<p>The <i>Huascar</i> had been seized by the Revolutionists
+and practically turned into a pirate ship. In attacking
+her the British Admiral de Horsey gave hostages to
+fortune, seeing that it was an axiom of those days that
+an unarmoured ship was helpless against an ironclad
+monitor. He had, however, no alternative.</p>
+
+<p>As things turned out, the <i>Huascar</i> never succeeded
+in hitting either the <i>Shah</i>, or the <i>Amethyst</i> which accompanied
+her, while the British flagship, having a speed
+advantage, the efforts of the <i>Huascar</i> to ram her were
+futile. The <i>Huascar</i> was hit about thirty times, and one
+man was killed on board her, but the damage done to the
+turret-ship was practically nil. The engagement is of
+further special interest as for the first time a torpedo was
+used from a big ship in action. The range, however, was
+too great and no hit was secured.</p>
+
+<p>During the night following the action an attempt
+was made to torpedo the <i>Huascar</i> from the <i>Shah’s</i> steam
+pinnace, but the enemy could not be found. Yet it is
+probable that the knowledge of the <i>Shah’s</i> torpedoes was
+the reason why Pierola surrendered the <i>Huascar</i> next
+morning to the Peruvian fleet.</p>
+
+<p>It must have been abundantly clear to him that he
+had next to nothing to fear from the British gun-fire,
+while a single water-line hit from him would probably
+have put the <i>Shah</i> entirely at his mercy, save in so far
+as her torpedoes might make attempts to ram fatal to
+him.</p>
+
+<p class="p2 center wspace">END OF VOL. I.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="A_SHORT_GLOSSARY_OF_COMMON_NAVAL_TERMS">A SHORT GLOSSARY OF COMMON NAVAL TERMS.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>ABAFT.</b>—Behind or towards the
+stern of the vessel. Thus one would
+say that the aftermost turret guns in
+any ship are “abaft” the mainmast.</p>
+
+<p><b>ABEAM.</b>—On the side of a vessel
+amidships. To say an object is abeam
+(or on the beam) means that its
+bearing by compass is at right angles
+to the vessel’s course.</p>
+
+<p><b><a id="ADMIRALTY"></a>ADMIRALTY, BOARD OF.</b>—That
+department of State which is responsible
+for the proper constitution,
+maintenance, disposition, and direction
+of the Fleet in its material and personal
+elements, executing the duties formerly
+charged upon the Lord High Admiral;
+it is presided over by the First Lord (a
+Cabinet Minister) and consists of Naval
+Officers—the Sea Lords—and Civil
+Officials.</p>
+
+<p><b>AHEAD.</b>—In advance—an object
+is said to be ahead of the ship when its
+compass bearing is nearly the same as
+the vessel’s course.</p>
+
+<p><b>AHEAD FIRE.</b>—The discharge of
+guns along the line of the keel directly
+ahead of the vessel.</p>
+
+<p><b>AMIDSHIPS.</b>—Generally speaking,
+in the middle portion of a vessel.
+The point of intersection of two lines—one
+drawn from stem to stern, the
+other across the beam (or widest part)—is
+the actual “midships.”</p>
+
+<p><b>ANCHOR.</b>—A ship carries several
+distinct kinds of anchor: the bowers,
+which are always used for anchoring
+or mooring the ship; the sheet anchor,
+as an auxiliary to the bowers; the
+stream and kedge anchors, which can
+be used for special purposes.</p>
+
+<p><b>ANTI-TORPEDO ARMAMENT.</b>—Those
+guns in a ship which are
+specially mounted for repelling attack
+by torpedo craft.</p>
+
+<p><b>ARC OF FIRE.</b>—That sector of a
+circle through which a gun can be
+moved or trained for effective practice.</p>
+
+<p><b>ARMAMENT.</b>—The weapons of
+offence with which a ship is armed,
+including guns and torpedo tubes.</p>
+
+<p><b>ARMOUR.</b>—Any effective covering
+which protects a ship. The following
+specify a few main features of armour
+<span class="locked">protection:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot hang2">
+
+<p>1. <b>Armour Belt.</b>—The vertical
+belt of armour which forms
+the citadel or fortress of a
+ship, and may extend right
+forward to the bows and
+right aft the stern.</p>
+
+<p>2. <b>Side Armour.</b>—Vertical armour
+placed on the exterior of a
+ship, being both the belt
+and additional thereto.</p>
+
+<p>3. <b><a id="Armoured_Deck"></a>Armoured Deck.</b>—A curved
+steel deck protecting the
+engine room and other
+vital portions of a ship
+inside the citadel. A ship
+may have as many as three
+armoured decks.</p>
+
+<p>4. <b>Armour Backing.</b>—A thick
+layer of teak which acts as
+a cushion behind the
+armour and to which it is
+secured.</p>
+
+<p>5. <b>Bulkhead Armour.</b>—Vertical
+armour in the interior of
+the ship, placed across it
+from side to side.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>ASTERN.</b>—The opposite to ahead.</p>
+
+<p><b>ASTERN FIRE.</b>—The discharge of
+guns along the line of the keel directly
+astern of a vessel.</p>
+
+<p><b>ATHWARTSHIPS.</b>—At right angles
+to the keel.</p>
+
+<p><b>AUXILIARY.</b>—A ship—not necessarily
+a fighting ship—which forms a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span>
+component part of a Fleet. These
+include Repair vessels, Hospital ships,
+Depôt, Submarine and Destroyer
+Mother-ships, Colliers, etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>AUXILIARY ENGINES.</b>—The machinery
+employed for boat-hoisting,
+pumping, electric lighting, refrigerating,
+ventilating, and other purposes on
+board ships.</p>
+
+<p><b>BACKSTAYS.</b>—Ropes stretched from
+a mast or topmast head to the sides of
+a vessel—some way abaft the mast—to
+give support to the mast and
+prevent it going forward.</p>
+
+<p><b>BALLAST.</b>—Weighty material
+placed in the bottom of a ship to give
+her “stiffness”; that is, to increase
+her tendency to return to the upright
+position when inclined or heeled over
+by the force of the wind or other
+cause.</p>
+
+<p><b>BALLISTICS.</b>—That branch of
+science particularly devoted to the
+theory of gunnery.</p>
+
+<p><b><a id="BARBETTE"></a>BARBETTE.</b>—The steel platform
+or mounting on which a power-worked
+gun rests and within which it revolves.</p>
+
+<p><b>BARGE.</b>—A general term given to
+flat-bottomed boats. The <i>Admiral’s</i>
+(or <i>Captain’s</i>) Barge is usually a
+special steamboat belonging to a
+warship reserved for the use of the
+Admiral or Captain.</p>
+
+<p><b>BATTEN.</b>—Long strips of wood
+used for various purposes.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot hang2">
+
+<p><b>To batten down.</b>—To cover up and
+fix down, usually spoken of
+hatches when they are covered
+over in rough weather.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BATTERY.</b>—That portion of a
+ship’s armament inside the citadel.
+The entire armament is frequently
+spoken of as a “battery.”</p>
+
+<p><b><a id="BATTLE-CRUISER"></a>BATTLE CRUISER.</b>—A vessel combining
+the speed and other essential
+qualities of a cruiser with an armament
+and protection sufficient to enable her
+to take her place in the fighting-line
+beside the battleships.</p>
+
+<p><b>BATTLE PRACTICE.</b>—An annual
+practice carried out in the Navy, to
+test the battle or fighting efficiency of
+the component parts of a ship’s
+armament.</p>
+
+<p><b>BATTLESHIP.</b>—A ship specially
+designed to take and give the hard
+knocks of a Fleet action.</p>
+
+<p><b>BEAK.</b>—The extreme fore part of a
+vessel.</p>
+
+<p><b>BEAM.</b>—The widest measurement
+across a ship.</p>
+
+<p><b>BEARINGS.</b>—This word properly
+belongs to the art of navigation, in
+which it signifies the direction (by
+compass) in which an object is seen.</p>
+
+<p><b>BEFORE.</b>—Forward or in front of;
+the opposite to abaft.</p>
+
+<p><b>BERTHON BOAT.</b>—A collapsible
+boat used in destroyers and small
+craft.</p>
+
+<p><b>BETWEEN DECKS.</b>—In a vessel of
+more than one deck, to be between the
+upper and the lower.</p>
+
+<p><b>BINNACLE.</b>—The fixed case and
+stand in which the compass in any
+vessel is placed.</p>
+
+<p><b>BLOCKADE.</b>—So to besiege a port
+that no communication can take place
+from seaward.</p>
+
+<p><b>BLUE PETER.</b>—A square blue flag
+with a square white centre, hoisted to
+denote that a vessel is about to sail
+and that all persons concerned must
+repair on board immediately (the letter
+“P” in the international flag signal
+code.)</p>
+
+<p><b>BOOM.</b>—A boom is a pole extending
+outboard—i.e., away from the sides of
+a vessel.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot hang2">
+
+<p><b>Lower and Quarter Booms.</b>—Booms,
+conveniently placed, to
+which boats can make fast.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BORE.</b>—The interior diameter of a
+gun at the muzzle; also the name
+given to the interior of a gun. Also
+a word used to express a sudden rise
+of the tide in certain estuaries as in the
+Severn.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot hang2">
+
+<p><b>To bore.</b>—When down by the
+head a ship is said to “bore.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>BOTTOMRY.</b>—The hull of a ship
+pledged as security for a loan.</p>
+
+<p><b>BOWS.</b>—A term indicating those
+portions of a vessel immediately on
+either side of her stem (q.v.). Differentiated
+in association with the terms
+“Port” or “Starboard.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span></p>
+
+<p><b>BOWSPRIT.</b>—A pole of “sprit”
+projecting forward from the stem of
+the ship.</p>
+
+<p><b>BOX THE COMPASS.</b>—To name the
+points of the compass in regular order,
+i.e., in the direction taken by the hands
+of the clock.</p>
+
+<p><b>BREAKWATER.</b>—An artificial wall
+or bank, set up either outside a harbour
+or along the coast, to break the violence
+of the sea and so create a smooth
+shelter.</p>
+
+<p><b>BREECH.</b>—The end of the gun into
+which the projectile and cartridge are
+inserted when loading.</p>
+
+<p><b>BREECH-BLOCK.</b>—A heavy steel
+block which seals the breech when the
+gun is loaded.</p>
+
+<p><b><a id="BREECH-LOADER"></a>BREECH-LOADER</b> (<b>B.L.</b>)—Formerly
+a gun which was loaded at the
+breech end as opposed to a muzzle-loader.
+Now used to denote a gun
+the cartridge of which is not contained
+in a metal cylinder.</p>
+
+<p><b>BROADSIDE.</b>—The number of guns
+which can be brought to bear on one
+side of, or the total weight of metal
+which can be fired at once from either
+side of a ship.</p>
+
+<p><b>BULKHEAD.</b>—A structure, transverse
+or longitudinal, dividing the
+interior of a ship into compartments.</p>
+
+<p><b>BURDEN.</b>—The capacity of a vessel,
+as 100 tons burden, etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>BURGEE.</b>—Properly a flag ending
+in a swallow-tail. Yacht clubs’
+burgees are frequently “pennants”
+which are flags ending in a point.</p>
+
+<p><b>CADET, NAVAL.</b>—A youth who is
+under training to become a commissioned
+officer in the Navy.</p>
+
+<p><b>CAISSON.</b>—A hollow, watertight
+vessel which can be raised or sunk by
+compressed air or water, and which is
+used when building foundations under
+water; or, specifically a lock gate
+used for closing the entrance to dry
+docks.</p>
+
+<p><b>CAISSON DISEASE.</b>—A disease to
+which divers are subject.</p>
+
+<p><b>CALIBRE.</b>—The calibre of a gun is
+the diameter of the bore (q.v.). This
+diameter is used as a unit of measurement.
+Thus, a 50-calibre 12-in. gun
+is a 12-in. gun which is 50 ft. long, etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>CAMEL.</b>—A hollow tank or vessel
+filled with water and placed under the
+hull of a stranded ship. When well
+secured, the water it contains is
+pumped out, and the buoyancy thus
+created helps to lift the ship to
+which it is attached.</p>
+
+<p><b>CAPITAL-SHIP.</b>—A general term
+for all warships of such high standard
+in fighting capacity as would enable
+them to take part in a Fleet action.</p>
+
+<p><b>CAREEN.</b>—To heel a ship or make
+her lie over on one side.</p>
+
+<p><b>CASEMATE.</b>—An armoured gun-emplacement
+in the side of a ship.</p>
+
+<p><b>CATAMARAN.</b>—Properly a species
+of sailing craft used in the Indies.
+The heavy wooden rafts which are
+used to protect the ship’s side when
+she is lying alongside a dockyard wall.</p>
+
+<p><b>CAULKING.</b>—The operation performed
+in making the sides or wooden
+decks of a ship watertight.</p>
+
+<p><b>CLASS.</b>—A ship is said to belong to
+a certain “class” when there are
+others identical in appearance or
+design.</p>
+
+<p><b>CLEARING.</b>—The passing of a vessel
+through the Customs after she has
+visited a foreign port.</p>
+
+<p><b>COAMING.</b>—A raised edge of iron
+or wood placed round a hatchway to
+prevent water from washing below.</p>
+
+<p><b>COASTAL-DESTROYER.</b>—A large
+torpedo-boat not considered sufficiently
+strong structurally to do more than
+coastal work.</p>
+
+<p><b>COASTGUARD.</b>—A semi-naval organisation
+of seamen, mostly living
+along the shores of the United Kingdom
+intended originally for the prevention
+of smuggling, but now converted into
+a force for the defence of the coast or
+to assist wrecks.</p>
+
+<p><b>COMMISSION.</b>-A ship is said to be
+commissioned when she is manned for
+service in the fleet.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot hang2">
+
+<p>A <b>commission</b>, the length of time
+the crew remain in a ship; the
+order by which a person becomes
+an officer.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span></p>
+
+<p><b>COMMODORE.</b>—A Naval Captain
+specially appointed to take command
+as such of a squadron of war vessels,
+or perform some special duty not
+assigned to an officer of flag rank.</p>
+
+<p><b>COMPLEMENT.</b>—The total number
+of officers and men forming the crew
+of a ship.</p>
+
+<p><b>COMPOSITE BATTERY.</b>—A battery
+consisting of more than one type of gun.</p>
+
+<p><b>CON.</b>—To direct the steering of a
+vessel.</p>
+
+<p><b>CONNING-TOWER.</b>—An armoured
+compartment in a ship from which she
+can be steered, or the gun-fire in an
+action controlled if necessary. A ship
+may have more than one conning-tower.</p>
+
+<p><b>CONTINUOUS VOYAGE, DOCTRINE
+OF.</b>—The doctrine or principle which
+enables contraband of war to be
+captured when consigned to a neutral
+port, but intended for a belligerent.</p>
+
+<p><b>CONTRABAND.</b>—Munitions of war
+or other goods which are prohibited
+entry into a belligerent State.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot hang2">
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Absolute Contraband, material
+which is always contraband.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Conditional Contraband, material
+which may be declared
+contraband.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>CONTROL STATION.</b>—A platform
+whence range-finding instruments are
+managed, or from which the gunnery
+officers of a ship control gun-fire in an
+action.</p>
+
+<p><b>CONVERSION OF MERCHANTMEN.</b> The
+right or practice of converting
+merchant vessels into warships on the
+high seas or in neutral ports.</p>
+
+<p><b>CONVOY.</b>—A number of merchant
+steamers crossing the ocean under the
+protection of warships.</p>
+
+<p><b>CORDITE.</b>—The explosive used in
+guns for discharging projectiles.</p>
+
+<p><b>COUNTER.</b>—That portion of a vessel
+which overhangs the keel towards the
+stern (q.v.).</p>
+
+<p><b>COUNTER MINING.</b>—To lay out and
+explode mines in the vicinity of hostile
+ones, in order to destroy them by
+percussion.</p>
+
+<p><b>CRANK.</b>—A vessel is said to be
+crank when she lists over easily.</p>
+
+<p><b>CRUISER.</b>—A warship of high speed,
+usually employed in scouting, commerce
+protection, and special service.
+They fall into various <span class="locked">categories:—</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot hang2">
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Armoured Cruiser, a vessel
+having vertical external
+armour. See also “<a href="#BATTLE-CRUISER">Battle-Cruiser</a>.”</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Light Cruiser, a vessel with
+deck protection only; or,
+if armoured, of but small
+size and with a thin belt.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Unprotected Cruiser, a cruising
+vessel having no
+armour; included in the
+Light Cruiser class.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>CRUISING SPEED.</b>—The most economical
+speed from the point of view of
+fuel consumption at which a ship can
+travel.</p>
+
+<p><b>DEMURRAGE.</b>—Compensation paid
+to the owner of a vessel when she has
+been detained longer than her time for
+unloading.</p>
+
+<p><b>DERELICT.</b>—A ship whose crew
+have abandoned her when at sea.</p>
+
+<p><b><a id="DESTROYER"></a>DESTROYER.</b>—A large type of
+torpedo-boat originally intended to
+destroy such craft by gun-fire—now,
+with submarines, the chief medium for
+torpedo-attack.</p>
+
+<p><b>DEVIATION OF THE COMPASS.</b>—The
+amount of the variation of a ship’s
+compass from the true magnetic
+meridian, caused by the proximity
+of iron.</p>
+
+<p><b>DIRECTOR TOWER.</b>—An armoured
+compartment in a ship whence torpedoes
+are fired.</p>
+
+<p><b>DISPLACEMENT.</b>—The weight of
+water a ship displaces when floating.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot hang2">
+
+<p><b>Normal Displacement.</b>—The weight
+of water a ship displaces when
+she has her normal amount of
+stores, etc., on board.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>DOCK.</b>—A place in which a ship may
+be placed for repair or loading and
+unloading. See “<a href="#FLOATING_DOCK">Floating Dock</a>” and
+“<a href="#GRAVING_DOCK">Graving Dock</a>.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span></p>
+
+<p><b>DOCKYARD.</b>—The works, etc., where
+ships are built or repairs can be carried
+out. In the Government dockyards
+ships are commissioned and supplied
+with stores, ammunition, coal, etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>DRAUGHT.</b>—The vertical distance
+between the lowest portion of the keel
+and the water line.</p>
+
+<p>“<b>DREADNOUGHT.</b>”—Battleships
+and cruisers evoked by H.M.S. <b>Dreadnought</b>,
+which was the first ship to be
+armed with one type of big gun.
+“A.B.G. ships”—All-big-gun-ships.</p>
+
+<p><b>“DREADNOUGHT” CRUISERS.</b>—Cruisers
+derived from the principle of
+design of H.M.S. <i>Dreadnought</i>, now
+called Battle Cruisers (q.v.).</p>
+
+<p><b>ECHELON.</b>—Guns are said to be
+mounted <b>en echelon</b> when they are not
+mounted symmetrically but are placed
+diagonally athwart-ship.</p>
+
+<p><b>ENGINES.</b>—The reciprocating, turbine,
+or internal-combustion machinery
+for propelling vessels.</p>
+
+<p><b>ENSIGN.</b>—(Usually pronounced
+“ens’n.”) The flag carried by a ship
+as the insignia of her nationality or the
+nature of her duties.</p>
+
+<p><b>ESTIMATES.</b>—The annual estimate
+or expenditure on the Royal Navy for
+its administration, personnel, and for
+the upkeep or building of new vessels.</p>
+
+<p><b>FIRST LORD OF THE ADMIRALTY</b>—The
+Cabinet Minister who presides over
+the Board of Admiralty. See
+“<a href="#ADMIRALTY">Admiralty</a>.”</p>
+
+<p><b>FIRST SEA LORD.</b>—The Senior
+<b>Naval Officer</b> serving on the Board of
+Admiralty.</p>
+
+<p><b>FLARE.</b>—The over-hang of the upper
+part of a ship’s sides beneath the
+forecastle. The peculiar outward and
+upward curve in the form of a vessel’s
+bow. When it hangs over she is said
+to have a “Flaring Bow.”</p>
+
+<p><b>FLEET.</b>—A number of vessels in
+company, be they war or other vessels.</p>
+
+<p><b>FLEET IN BEING.</b>—An inferior
+naval force, capable of action and
+influencing or impeding the operations
+of an enemy.</p>
+
+<p><b>FLEET RESERVE.</b>—Short-service
+men who have left continuous service,
+but are liable to be called upon in case
+of war.</p>
+
+<p><b>FLEET-UNIT.</b>—A vessel fit to form
+a unit in a fleet.</p>
+
+<p><b><a id="FLOATING_DOCK"></a>FLOATING DOCK.</b>—An oblong
+floating structure in which a ship may
+be placed, and out of which the water
+may be pumped, bringing her above
+water-level, so that the bottom of the
+ship can be repaired, etc.; they have
+usually no motive power.</p>
+
+<p><b>FLOTTENVEREIN.</b>—The German
+Navy League.</p>
+
+<p><b>FLUSH DECK.</b>—A deck having
+neither raised nor sunken part, so that
+it runs continuously from stem to stern.</p>
+
+<p><b>FORE AND AFT.</b>—In the direction
+of a line drawn from stem to stern of a
+vessel—at right angles to athwartships.</p>
+
+<p><b>FORWARD.</b>—In front of—the forepart,
+in the vicinity of the bows of a
+vessel.</p>
+
+<p><b><a id="GRAVING_DOCK"></a>GRAVING DOCK.</b>—A dock excavated
+out of the land into which entry
+is made from seaward.</p>
+
+<p><b>GUN.</b>—A weapon used for firing shot
+or shell. See “<a href="#BREECH-LOADER">Breech-loader</a>” and
+“<a href="#QF_GUN">Q.F. Gun</a>.”</p>
+
+<p><b>GUNBOAT.</b>—A small type of slow
+cruiser armed with light guns, specially
+adapted for harbour or river service.</p>
+
+<p><b>GUN-COTTON.</b>—A high explosive
+used in torpedoes and submarine mines,
+etc.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot hang2">
+
+<p><b>Wet Gun-Cotton.</b>—Gun-Cotton
+with a certain percentage of
+moisture in it; it is useless as
+an explosive unless dry gun-cotton
+is present to detonate it.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>GUNLAYER.</b>—A man specially
+qualified to train (lay) and fire a gun.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot hang2">
+
+<p><b>Gunlayers’ Test.</b>—An annual
+practice carried out in every
+ship to test the efficiency of the
+gun-layers individually.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>GUN-POWER.</b>—The fighting efficiency
+of a ship expressed in the total
+weight of metal capable of being
+discharged in a single broadside or a
+specified period of time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span></p>
+
+<p><b>HALYARD.</b>—A rope with which a
+sail, flag, or yard is hoisted.</p>
+
+<p><b>HARVEYISED.</b>—Armour made by
+the “Harvey” process. Now obsolete.</p>
+
+<p><b>HATCH, HATCHWAY.</b>—An opening
+in the deck of a ship through which
+persons or cargo may descend or be
+lowered.</p>
+
+<p><b>HEAVY GUN.</b>—Any gun greater
+than and including a 4-in. Q.F. or B.L.</p>
+
+<p><b>HOG.</b>—When a vessel has a tendency
+to droop at her ends she is said to hog.</p>
+
+<p><b>HORNPIPE.</b>—The dance once popular
+among the sailors of the British
+Navy and still sometimes performed
+at festive times.</p>
+
+<p><b>HOSPITAL SHIP.</b>—An auxiliary
+vessel specially designed for the
+reception of sick and wounded men;
+by nature of her duties and under
+rules of International Law she is
+immune from attack.</p>
+
+<p><b>HULL.</b>—The body, framework, and
+plating of a vessel.</p>
+
+<p><b>HURRICANE DECK.</b>—In large
+steamships a light upper deck extending
+across the vessel amidships.</p>
+
+<p><b>HYDRO-AEROPLANE.</b>—A seaplane.
+(q.v.)</p>
+
+<p><b>HYDROPLANE.</b>—A type of boat
+the flattened keel of which is so
+constructed that, after a certain speed
+has been attained, the hull rises in the
+water and skims lightly over the surface,
+thus driving forward <em>above</em> rather than
+<em>through</em> the water. The hydroplane
+<b>cannot</b> rise into the air and fly.</p>
+
+<p><b>IDLERS.</b>—Those, being liable to
+constant duty by day, who are not
+required to keep the night watches,
+such as carpenters, sail-makers, etc.,
+also called “Daymen.”</p>
+
+<p><b>JACK-STAFF.</b>—A flagpole for flying
+the Union Jack, invariably at the bows
+of the ship.</p>
+
+<p><b>KEEL.</b>—That portion of a ship
+running fore and aft in the middle of
+a ship’s bottom.</p>
+
+<p><b>KEEL-PLATE.</b>—The lowest plate of
+all in the keel; this plate is the first
+to be laid down when building is
+commenced.</p>
+
+<p><b>KNOT.</b>—The unit of speed for ships.
+A ship is said to be going <b>x</b> knots, when
+she is going <b>x</b> sea (or nautical) miles
+in one hour. One sea mile = 6,080 ft.</p>
+
+<p class="in0">N.B.—The word <b>knot</b> should never be
+used to indicate distance.</p>
+
+<p><b>KRUPP STEEL.</b>—Steel hardened by
+a special process discovered and
+applied at Essen.</p>
+
+<p><b>LABOUR.</b>—When a vessel pitches
+or strains in a heavy sea she is said to
+“labour.”</p>
+
+<p><b>LANDLOCKED.</b>—Sheltered on all
+sides by the land.</p>
+
+<p><b>LARBOARD.</b>—The old term for
+port. (q.v.)</p>
+
+<p><b>LATITUDE.</b>—Distance north or
+south of the equator, expressed in
+degrees.</p>
+
+<p><b>LAUNCH.</b>—To place a ship in the
+water for the first time.</p>
+
+<p><b>LAY DOWN.</b>—To commence building
+a ship.</p>
+
+<p><b>LEE.</b>—Or Leeward (pronounced
+Loo’ard). The side of a vessel opposite
+to that upon which the wind blows.</p>
+
+<p><b>LIGHTER.</b>—A powerful hull or
+barge with a flat bottom, used for
+transporting heavy goods, such as
+coal, ammunition, etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>LIST.</b>—A vessel is said to have a list
+if she heeled temporarily or permanently
+to one side.</p>
+
+<p><b>LOG.</b>—The instrument used to
+measure a vessel’s speed through the
+water. Also the ship’s daily journal.</p>
+
+<p><b>LONGITUDE.</b>—Distance east or
+west of a first meridian, expressed in
+degrees.</p>
+
+<p><b>MAGAZINE.</b>—The place on board
+ship or on shore where ammunition is
+stored.</p>
+
+<p><b>MAN.</b>—To place the right complement
+of men in a ship or boat to work her.</p>
+
+<p><b>MARINE.</b>—A soldier specially
+trained for sea service. “Soldier and
+sailor too.”</p>
+
+<p><b>MAST.</b>—The tall structure in a ship
+formerly for the carrying of sail, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span>
+now carrying control stations, fighting
+tops, and wireless telegraphy apparatus.</p>
+
+<p><b>MASTER.</b>—The Captain of a
+merchant vessel who holds a master’s
+or extra master’s certificate.</p>
+
+<p><b>MINE.</b>—A weapon of war which is
+placed in the sea by the enemy, and
+explodes on a ship striking it; or can
+be fired from the shore or ship by
+means of an electric current.</p>
+
+<p><b>MINEFIELD.</b>—A space near a
+harbour specially devoted to mining
+operations.</p>
+
+<p><b>MINE-LAYER.</b>—A ship specially
+fitted to lay mines out.</p>
+
+<p><b>MINE-SWEEPER.</b>—A ship whose
+duty it is to discover and destroy the
+enemy’s mines in order to leave a clear
+passage for friendly craft.</p>
+
+<p><b>MOLE.</b>—A stone break-water or
+sea-wall.</p>
+
+<p><b>MOOR.</b>—To anchor a ship with two
+anchors.</p>
+
+<p><b>MOTHER-SHIP.</b>—A depot ship for
+torpedo craft, submarines, etc.,
+victualling and issuing stores to the
+crews of the vessels under her command
+controlled by her officers.</p>
+
+<p><b>MUZZLE ENERGY.</b>—The force
+which is propelling the projectile when
+it leaves the gun.</p>
+
+<p><b>MUZZLE VELOCITY.</b>—The speed
+at which a projectile is travelling when
+it leaves the gun.</p>
+
+<p><b>NAUTICAL MILE.</b>—One sixtieth of
+a degree of latitude. It varies from
+6,046 ft. at the equator to 6,092 ft. in
+lat. 60° N. or S. The nautical mile
+for speed trials, generally called the
+Admiralty Measured Mile, = 6,080 ft.,
+1.151 statute miles, 1,833 metres.</p>
+
+<p><b>NAVIGATION.</b>—That branch of
+science which teaches the sailor to
+conduct his ship from place to place.</p>
+
+<p><b>NAVY LEAGUE, THE.</b>—A strictly
+non-party organisation formed in
+January, 1895, with Admiral of the
+Fleet, Sir G. Phipps Hornby, G.C.B.,
+etc., as its first President, for the
+purpose of urging upon the Government
+and the electorate the paramount
+importance of a supreme Fleet as the
+best guarantee of peace.</p>
+
+<p>Its agencies are employed in all parts
+of the Empire spreading information
+on matters affecting the Royal Navy.</p>
+
+<p><b>NUCLEUS CREW.</b>—The essential
+part of a crew of a ship such as the
+gun-layers, petty officers, etc. Some
+ships are manned by nucleus crews
+only, being completed to full strength
+in case of mobilisation. Such ships
+are sometimes colloquially known as
+“Nucoloid.”</p>
+
+<p><b>OAKUM.</b>—The substance to which
+old ropes are reduced when unpicked.</p>
+
+<p><b>OCEAN GOING DESTROYER.</b>—A
+large type of torpedo boat destroyer,
+specially designed for service in any
+wind or weather.</p>
+
+<p><b>ORDNANCE.</b>—A general term
+applied to guns collectively, and to
+the Department concerned with them.</p>
+
+<p><b>ORLOP DECK.</b>—The lowest deck
+in the ship.</p>
+
+<p><b>PAY OFF.</b>—To end a “Commission.”</p>
+
+<p><b>PENDANT OR PENNANT.</b>—A long,
+pointed flag.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot hang2">
+
+<p><b>Paying-off Pennant.</b>—A long
+streamer hoisted at the mainmast
+of a war vessel to denote
+she is “paying off.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>POOP.</b>—An extra deck on the after
+part of a vessel.</p>
+
+<p><b>PORT.</b>—The left-hand side of the
+ship as you stand looking forward.</p>
+
+<p><b>PRIMARY (or main) ARMAMENT.</b>—The
+largest guns mounted in a ship.</p>
+
+<p><b>PRIZE.</b>—In war time, any vessel
+taken at sea from an enemy.</p>
+
+<p><b>PROJECTED.</b>—A ship is said to be
+“projected” before keel plate is
+actually laid.</p>
+
+<p><b>PROTECTIVE DECK.</b>—See “<a href="#Armoured_Deck">Armoured
+Deck</a>.”</p>
+
+<p><b>PROW.</b>—The beak or pointed cutwater
+of a ship.</p>
+
+<p><b><a id="QF_GUN"></a>Q.F. GUN.</b>—Quick-firing gun. A
+gun the cartridge of which is contained
+in a metal cylinder, as opposed to the
+B.L. gun.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span></p>
+
+<p><b>QUARTERS.</b>—A term indicating
+those portions of a vessel immediately
+on either side of her stern (q.v.).
+Differentiated in association with the
+terms “Port” or “Starboard.”
+“Quarters” also designates the living
+space for the personnel and the
+stations of the crew when in action.</p>
+
+<p><b>RAKE.</b>—The inclination of the mast
+(or funnels) from the perpendicular;
+the “rake” is very nearly always in
+a direction aft, but when the mast
+slants forward it is said to have a
+“Forward rake.”</p>
+
+<p><b>RAKISH.</b>—Having a smart or fast
+appearance. (Applied to ships.)</p>
+
+<p><b>RANGE.</b>—The distance in yards of the
+object fired at. The extreme range is
+the longest distance to which a projectile
+can be fired by any particular gun.</p>
+
+<p><b>RANGE-FINDER.</b>—An instrument
+used for determining ranges.</p>
+
+<p><b>RATE.</b>—The classification of a vessel
+for certain purposes.</p>
+
+<p><b>RATLINES.</b>—Small lines crossing
+the shrouds of a ship and thus forming
+ladders.</p>
+
+<p><b>REFIT.</b>—To place a ship in dockyard
+hands for overhauling her machinery,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>REPAIR SHOP.</b>—A Fleet auxiliary
+(q.v.) which is fitted with a foundry,
+etc. on board, and can carry out minor
+repair work.</p>
+
+<p><b>RIBS.</b>—The timbers which form the
+skeleton of a ship or boat.</p>
+
+<p><b>RICOCHET.</b>—A leap or bound such
+as a flat piece of stone makes when
+thrown obliquely along the surface of
+the water. Generally spoken of with
+reference to projectiles. A “<em>ricochet
+hit</em>” is made when a projectile hits
+the enemy or target after it has first
+struck the water.</p>
+
+<p><b>RIG.</b>—The rig of a vessel is the
+manner in which her masts and sails
+are fitted to her hull.</p>
+
+<p><b>RIGGING.</b>—The system of ropes in
+a vessel whereby the masts are
+supported and the sails hoisted.
+There are two kinds of rigging, viz.,
+standing rigging and running rigging,
+the latter term including all movable
+ropes.</p>
+
+<p><b>ROLL.</b>—The oscillation of a vessel
+in a heavy sea.</p>
+
+<p><b>SAG.</b>—A drooping or depression. A
+ship is said to sag when her centre
+tends to droop below the line joining
+her stem and stern; the opposite to
+hogging.</p>
+
+<p><b>SALVO.</b>—A discharge of fire from
+several guns simultaneously.</p>
+
+<p><b>SCOUT.</b>—A light, swift, protected
+cruiser specially adapted for scouting
+work.</p>
+
+<p><b>SCREENING CRUISERS.</b>—Cruisers
+separated from the battle fleet to
+deceive the enemy as to the Fleet’s
+position.</p>
+
+<p><b>SEAPLANE.</b>—The official naval
+designation of the Hydro-aeroplane
+which is a man-carrying apparatus
+equally capable of flight in the air and
+navigation on water. Also called
+Navyplane, Waterplane, Flying-Boat,
+Airboat.</p>
+
+<p><b>SEARCH, RIGHT OF.</b>—The right
+to search neutral vessels for the
+discovery of contraband.</p>
+
+<p><b>SECONDARY ARMAMENT.</b>—The
+guns which support the primary
+armament.</p>
+
+<p><b>SHEET.</b>—The rope attached to a
+sail so that it can be “worked” as
+occasion demands.</p>
+
+<p><b>SHROUDS.</b>—Strong ropes (generally
+wire) which support the mast laterally.</p>
+
+<p><b>SLIP.</b>—The wooden “way” on
+which a ship is built.</p>
+
+<p><b>SPEED TRIALS.</b>—Trials carried out
+periodically to test a vessel’s speed.</p>
+
+<p><b>SQUADRON.</b>—A number of ships
+under command of a single officer.</p>
+
+<p><b>STANCHION.</b>—An upright post
+supporting the deck above in a ship.</p>
+
+<p><b>STARBOARD.</b>—The right-hand side
+of the ship as you stand looking
+forward.</p>
+
+<p><b>STAYS.</b>—Strong ropes supporting
+spars and masts in a ship.</p>
+
+<p><b>STEM.</b>—The “nose” or “cutwater”
+of any ship.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span></p>
+
+<p><b>STERN.</b>—The aftermost part of a
+vessel.</p>
+
+<p><b>STRAKE.</b>—A line of planking extending
+the length of a vessel.</p>
+
+<p><b>STRATEGY.</b>—The disposition and
+handling of Squadrons or Fleets to
+dominate the forces of an enemy or
+control the time or place of an
+engagement. The broad disposition
+of naval forces.</p>
+
+<p><b>SUBMARINE.</b>—A war-vessel the
+chief work of which is to operate below
+the surface.</p>
+
+<p><b>SUBMERGED SPEED.</b>—The speed
+at which a submersible or submarine
+can travel under water.</p>
+
+<p><b>SUBMERSIBLE.</b>—A vessel which
+can be made to dive but which
+generally navigates on the surface.</p>
+
+<p><b>SUPERIMPOSED BARBETTES.</b>—Barbettes
+or turrets mounted behind
+and above other barbettes or turrets
+so that the guns in the first are enabled
+to fire over those in the second.</p>
+
+<p><b>SURFACE SPEED.</b>—The speed at
+which a submersible or submarine can
+travel when navigating on the surface.</p>
+
+<p><b>TACTICS.</b>—The handling and conduct
+of ships or squadrons in actual
+contact with an antagonist, or exercises
+for training for such engagements.</p>
+
+<p><b>TENDER.</b>—A vessel attached to
+a parent ship.</p>
+
+<p><b>TOP.</b>—A position or platform on
+the mast of a vessel. A fighting top
+in a top armed with light guns.</p>
+
+<p><b>TOPHAMPER.</b>—The upper works
+of the ship, such as masts, funnels,
+bridges, cowls, etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>TORPEDO.</b>—An engine of war which
+is discharged from a tube (submerged
+or above water) and which travels
+under water; it is loaded with a
+charge of gun-cotton which explodes
+on impact.</p>
+
+<p><b>TORPEDO-BOAT.</b>—A vessel specially
+designed for attack on larger ships
+by means of torpedoes.</p>
+
+<p><b>TORPEDO BOAT DESTROYER</b>
+(<b>T.B.D.</b>)—See “<a href="#DESTROYER">Destroyer</a>.”</p>
+
+<p><b>TORPEDO-NET.</b>—A steel wire net
+which is thrown over the side of a ship
+and held extended by means of booms;
+it hangs down about 20 to 30 ft. below
+the surface, and acts as a defence
+against torpedoes.</p>
+
+<p><b>TORPEDO TUBE.</b>—A tube from
+which torpedoes are ejected either by
+means of a small charge of gunpowder
+or compressed air.</p>
+
+<p><b>TRAJECTORY.</b>—The line of flight
+of a projectile after leaving the gun.</p>
+
+<p><b>TROUGH.</b>—The hollow between two
+waves.</p>
+
+<p><b>TRUCK.</b>—The cap at the head of
+the mast or a flagstaff. It generally
+contains one or more holes for the
+reception of signal halyards.</p>
+
+<p><b>TURRET.</b>—The revolving armoured
+structure in which big guns are
+mounted, including the turn-table,
+ammunition hoists, etc. See
+“<a href="#BARBETTE">Barbette</a>.”</p>
+
+<p><b>TWO-KEELS-TO-ONE-STANDARD.</b>
+The standard under which the British
+Fleet should be maintained at a
+strength, as against the next strongest
+Power, of two completed capital-ships
+to one.</p>
+
+<p><b>TWO-POWER STANDARD.</b>—The
+standard which indicated that the
+British Fleet was equal in strength to
+the fleets of the two next strongest
+Powers. This standard has been
+abandoned.</p>
+
+<p><b>WAIST.</b>—That portion of a ship on
+the upper deck between the forecastle
+and quarter deck.</p>
+
+<p><b>WATER-TUBE BOILER.</b>—A boiler
+in which the water is contained in
+tubes round which the hot gases
+circulate.</p>
+
+<p><b>WAY (Momentum).</b>—It is important
+to note the difference between this
+and the term “<em>weigh</em>,” the two being
+very often confounded. A vessel in
+motion is said to have “way” on her;
+and when she ceases to move to have
+“no way.” But a vessel under weigh
+in one not at anchor or secured to the
+shore.</p>
+
+<p><b>WEATHER-SIDE.</b>—The side on
+which the wind blows.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span></p>
+
+<p><b>WEEPING (or Sweating).</b>—Drops of
+water oozing through the sides of a
+vessel or caused by condensation on
+the surface of the beams, etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>WEIGH.</b>—To lift the anchor from
+the ground.</p>
+
+<p><b>WIRE-WOUND.</b>—All big British
+guns are made by winding miles of
+steel wire or ribbon round a tube over
+which the exterior tubes are afterwards
+shrunk.</p>
+
+<p><b>YARD.</b>—A spar suspended to a mast
+for the purpose of hoisting or extending
+a sail, or to which signal halyards can
+be taken.</p>
+
+<p class="p2 center smaller">
+From “The Navy League Annual,” by the courtesy of<br>
+Alan H. Burgoyne, Esq., M.P.
+</p>
+
+<p class="p4 center smaller bt b2">Netherwood, Dalton &amp; Co., Rashcliffe, Huddersfield.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter footnotes">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</h2>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">1</a> All statements as to King Alfred’s navy are taken directly from the
+Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Asser, and Florence of Worcester.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">2</a> An interpolated passage</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">3</a> Wace.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">4</a> Guyot de Provins <i>ex</i> Nicholas.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">5</a> <i>ex</i> Nicolas.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">6</a> Henry VIII introduced a new form of warship in the “pinnaces,” which
+were, to a certain extent, analogous to the torpedo craft of to-day.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">7</a> Records of the Drake family.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">8</a> The italics are mine.—F.T.J.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">9</a> So far as I am aware nothing about this appears in any official account.
+I have no Japanese confirmation, but accounts gleaned at the time from the
+Russian auxiliaries—who, being foreigners had no object in lying—make it
+perfectly clear to my mind that the Russian admirals believed that the
+Japanese were astern of them till they met them at Tsushima. It is the only
+logical explanation of why Rodjestvensky essayed the narrow passage with
+his best ships, when he could equally well have gone round Japan with them
+unopposed, and so secured at Vladivostok that refit of which he was so much
+in need.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">10</a> It was badly weather-beaten, of course, and in sore straits on account of
+its lengthy voyage.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">11</a> In 1620 the first submarine appeared. It was invented by a Dutch
+physician, C. Van Drebel; and James I went for a lengthy underwater trip
+in a larger replica.—See <i>Submarine Navigation</i>, by Alan H. Burgoyne.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">12</a> In this connection, <i>see</i> <a href="#fdw">The First Dutch War</a>, a few pages further on.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">13</a> It is interesting to note that this particular argument, seemingly rather
+hyperbolical to-day on account of railways, is so <em>only if the hostile ships can be
+kept under observation</em>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">14</a> This practice appears to have been allowed to die out. At any rate it
+was re-introduced in the time of Queen Anne.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">15</a> Admiral Colomb (<i>Naval Warfare</i>) traced the Dutch defeat—or perhaps
+one should write, “lack of advantage”—mainly to the fact that the Dutch
+had a larger mercantile marine to protect, and merely mentions incidentally
+the constant complaints of Van Tromp and others to the inferiority of Dutch
+warships compared to English ones. But since so many of the Dutch
+merchantmen carried very fair armaments, and as “tactics” played no part
+in this war, I prefer to accept the explanation of the Dutch Admirals, none
+of whom assigned failures to the more obvious excuse of being hampered by
+convoys. Dutch contemporary accounts of this and following wars appear
+generally to be nearer the actual truth than English ones.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">16</a> Churnock, <i>ex</i> Fincham.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">17</a> Charles II always had an eye for and interest in improvements in
+detail, and himself invented new forms of hull, which, however, did not come
+up to his expectations. Both he and James wore devoted to yachting
+and steered their own boats.</p>
+
+<p>A singular defect of all the Stuarts in naval matters was their inability to
+appreciate the importance of the human as well as the material element. In
+the Cromwell régime, all the old abuses in connection with food, clothing and
+delayed pay, wore done away with; to re-appear, however, almost as bad as
+ever soon after the Restoration.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">18</a></p>
+
+<p class="center b0"><span class="smcap">English.</span></p>
+
+<table id="tfn18a" class="notp">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Ships</td>
+  <td class="tdr">62</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Men</td>
+  <td class="tdr">27,725</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Guns</td>
+  <td class="tdr">4,500</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Frigates, etc.</td>
+  <td class="tdr">23</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center b0"><span class="smcap">Dutch.</span></p>
+
+<table id="tfn18b" class="notp">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Ships</td>
+  <td class="tdr">36</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Men</td>
+  <td class="tdr">12,950</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Guns</td>
+  <td class="tdr">2,494</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Frigates, etc.</td>
+  <td class="tdr">14</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">19</a> See Crimean War in a later chapter for a revival of this.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">20</a> Fincham.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">21</a> He was Master of the fleet at Beachy Head and also at Cape La Hogue.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">22</a> The <i>Pembroke</i> (sixty-four) captured by the French in 1710, in this war,
+had her armament reduced to fifty guns by them.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">23</a> This extraordinary story of a soldier saving the fleet is made all the
+stranger by the fact that Sir Hovenden Walker, the Admiral, was a teetotaller
+and a vegetarian, an almost unheard of thing in those days.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">24</a> Fincham.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">25</a> See later references to Sir William White and Sir Philip Watts.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">26</a> Their recklessness was such that Peter had to give orders that no Swedish
+ship was to be boarded unless the superior officers were killed. Swedish
+captains, attacked by superior forces, made a regular practice of allowing
+themselves to be boarded and then blowing up their ships!</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">27</a> Colomb.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">28</a> For a very full and detailed account see Chapter XV. of Colomb’s
+<i>Naval Warfare</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">29</a> The treasure ship was well armed and did not hesitate to engage him.
+Anson’s success was in some considerable measure attributable to the fact that
+not having enough men for the broadside firing of the period, he ordered
+independent firing. It was the Spanish custom to lie down as the enemy fired
+a broadside, then jump up and fire back. Anson’s independent firing caused
+much unexpected slaughter on them. This rule of “broadsides” compares
+interestingly with the salvo firing of the present day.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">30</a> See earlier reference to the same thing in Raleigh’s time.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">31</a> Is the well-known <i>Royal George</i>, which capsized at Spithead, in 1782.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">32</a> Admiral Mahan (<i>Influence of Sea Power upon History</i>, p. 286) shows how
+Byng’s dread of anything unconventional in the way of tactics led to the
+action being indecisive.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">33</a> Time after time, hostile ships, having had enough of it, passed away
+ahead and escaped, because to have pressed them would have “disorganised
+the line.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">34</a> Our own naval manœuvres in recent years have seen more than one
+disaster from the change of a rendezvous.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">35</a> While this battle of Quiberon was in progress, people in England were
+burning Hawke in effigy for having allowed the French fleet to escape!</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">36</a> This appears to be the solitary instance in French history in which a use
+of the fleet on English lines was ever contemplated.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">37</a> Admiral Mahan (<i>Influence of Sea Power upon History</i>) has quoted at
+length (p. 380) from French authorities to show that only the action of the
+captain of the <i>Destin</i> (74), in hurrying to block the gap, prevented Rodney
+from getting through the line on this occasion.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">38</a> I draw this from Mahan (<i>Influence of Sea Power upon History</i>) (page 494).
+Fincham specifically mentions (p. 107) the introduction of carronades <em>ten</em>
+years later.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">39</a> Fincham <i>ex</i> Campbell.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">40</a> The fire-ship grew to be less and less of a menace owing to the improved
+handiness of warships.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">41</a> Here again see Raleigh on Elizabethan Customs.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">42</a> By the burning of the bulk of the ships in Toulon, the French Toulon
+fleet was rendered non-existent; but the state of affairs with that fleet was
+such that its fighting value had long been a cypher.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">43</a> In order to bring the enemy to action, Howe formed a detached squadron
+of his faster ships. Hannay (<i>Ships and Men</i>) extols him because, in this and
+certain other movements in the battle, he reverted to the tactics of Monk and
+other Commonwealth admirals, and threw aside the conventional practice of
+his own day.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">44</a> For two opposite views of this particular incident, see Admiral Mahan’s
+<i>Influence of Sea Power on the French Revolution</i>, and Chapter X. of Brassey,
+1894.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">45</a> The preservation of an orderly line throughout the battle.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">46</a> The story of this ship going down firing, her crew crying <i>Vive la
+Republique</i>, is pure fiction. She surrendered after a very gallant fight, and
+sank with an English flag flying.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">47</a> Seeing that, had Howe sunk the grain convoy and then been totally
+destroyed himself, the Revolution would still have come to nothing from
+starvation, this French view of the matter is intelligible enough and also very
+reasonable.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">48</a> It was in connection with this engagement that Nelson wrote, “Had I
+commanded our fleet on the 14th, either the whole of the French fleet would
+have graced my triumph, or I should have been in a confounded scrape.”
+Also, commenting on Hotham’s, “We must be contented, we have done very
+well”—“Now, had we taken ten sail and allowed the eleventh to escape,
+when it had been possible to have got at her, I could never have called it well
+done.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">49</a> <i>Nelson</i>, by J.&nbsp;K. Laughton.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">50</a> <i>The British Tar in Fact and Fiction.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">51</a> The title of “delegates” seems quaintly enough to have led Parker and
+his friends into trouble. The men got hold of the word as “<em>delicates</em>,” and
+interpreted it more or less literally as a claim to superiority.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">52</a> For a very interesting detailed account, see <i>Ships and Men</i>, by David
+Hannay.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">53</a> Fincham.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">54</a> Troude.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">55</a> He, at the same time, sent a private message to Nelson that if he wished
+to continue, he was at liberty to do so. The telescope to his blind eye was
+merely a little jest on Nelson’s part, and in no way disobedience of orders.
+Parker’s whole object in making the signal to withdraw was to intimate to
+Nelson that if he deemed himself defeated, he (Parker) would accept
+responsibility.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">56</a> Paul had just been murdered, and Alexander changed his policy.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">57</a> Compare with the similar delay of the Spanish Armada.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">58</a> Actually never exceeded 93,000.—<i>Campaign of Trafalgar.</i>—Corbett.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">59</a> Six was sometimes twelve, sometimes longer periods still. The most
+reasonable explanation is that Napoleon’s <em>real</em> intentions were to use the
+army to invade England, if luck and chance threw the opportunity in his
+way; but otherwise to use it only as a threat.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">60</a> It was here that he recorded in his diary that he went on shore on
+July 20th—the first time for close on two years!</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">61</a> His orders were to go to Brest; but having been frightened by some
+purely mythical news of a British fleet of twenty-five sail (sent him <i lang="la">via</i> a
+neutral ship), he went to Cadiz. As, had he got to Brest, he would have
+found Cornwallis with thirty-five ships of the line, this piece of precaution
+(which incidentally led to Trafalgar) saved him for a while.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">62</a> Rodjestvensky, seeking to inspire the Baltic fleet on its way to Tsushima,
+is a close modern parallel.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">63</a> <i>The British Tar in Fact and Fiction</i>, Commander Robinson, R.N.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">64</a> <i>Vide</i> Anson’s boat’s crew in his trip up to Canton. Some captains
+spent a good deal of money in providing white shirts for their boat’s crews.
+Others indulged in purely fanciful attires.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">65</a> A year or two ago a famous Royal Academy picture showed a fleet of
+Dreadnoughts cruising at sea with the steam trial water tanks on board!</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">66</a> To wear the smartest possible clothes on coming up for punishment was
+invariable routine. It was hoped that a smart appearance would mitigate
+the captain’s wrath.—<i>Vide</i>, <i>Sea Life in Nelson’s Time</i>, John Masefield.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">67</a> To this day the British bluejacket calls himself a “matlo”—a corruption
+of the French matelot; so this pigtail introduction theory may be correct
+enough.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">68</a> See Food, a page or so further on.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">69</a> The curious, who wander into the by-lanes off Queen Street, Portsea,
+will still find heavy iron gates in places. Inside these gates those anxious
+to escape the press-gangs used to take refuge.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">70</a> The “bounty” offered, however, was a decided inducement. Cases of
+bounties as high as £70 can be found.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">71</a> <i>The British Tar in Fact and Fiction.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">72</a> There are West Country villages to-day in which, to my own knowledge,
+one pound of meat a week is an outside estimate of what is eaten per head.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">73</a> There were those who accepted weevils in ship’s biscuits as mites in
+Gorgonzola cheese are accepted to-day! Unpalatable as ship’s biscuit is,
+there is a certain acquired taste about it. In the later nineties I have
+frequently seen it handed round as a species of dessert in the wardroom,
+every senior officer taking some and enjoying it. In the 1890 manœuvres
+the wardroom officers of “C fleet” did three weeks on “ships” only, in
+quite a casual way, though the quality even then left something to be desired.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">74</a> They began at 4s. a day, working up to 11s. a day after six years, and
+18s. a day at twenty years’ service, which few ever reached.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">75</a> For extremely detailed accounts of surgery in action see <i>Sea Life in
+Nelson’s Times</i>, John Masefield.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">76</a> A form of this rule exists to-day. A man wounded in action is not now
+mulcted; but a man who tumbles down a hatchway and breaks his leg has to
+suffer “hospital stoppages,” and “pay for his own cure,” to a certain extent.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">77</a> Commander Robinson, R.N., in <i>The British Tar in Fact and Fiction</i>,
+seems to have got nearer the true picture than those who have painted
+things in darker and more lurid colours. He is practically the only writer
+upon the subject who has realised that many old yarns are capable of being
+discounted.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">78</a> It is only fair to the Hebrew race to say that “Jew” was a generic
+term for a special type of person who grew rich on advancing money to
+sailors and selling them shoddy articles at ridiculously enhanced prices.
+Quite a large number of them were not of the Jewish race.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">79</a> To-day this is flown at the bow only when a ship is at anchor.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">80</a> At Trafalgar, the <i>Victory</i>, as she bore down, suffered heavily from the
+shot that penetrated her thin forward bulkhead.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">81</a> <i>Ex</i> Fincham, where the report is given in full.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">82</a> The mail packet service was under the Admiralty in those days.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">83</a> The seventy-three ton iron steamboat <i>Ruby</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">84</a> The Lord Armstrong, founder of Elswick, etc.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">85</a> The italics are mine.—F.T.J.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">86</a> My italics. In the Germany of to-day (May, 1915), exactly the same
+style of argument is being advanced.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">87</a> c.f. the Dardanelles in May, 1915.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">88</a> Subsequently Sir E.&nbsp;J. Reed, Chief Constructor.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">89</a> c.f. Views expressed about Dreadnoughts, for another reason in the
+present year (1915).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">90</a> From <i>Naval Development of the Century</i>, by Sir N. Barnaby, K.C.B.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">91</a> The <i>Warrior</i> now forms part of the <i>Vernon</i> Establishment at
+Portsmouth.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">92</a> <i>Our Ironclad Ships</i>, by (Sir) E.&nbsp;J. Reed. Sir N. Barnaby in <i>Naval
+Development of the Century</i> gives 5,470 = 14.36 knots.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">93</a> Apparently the first instance of the putting forward of a principle which
+later on profoundly affected construction.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">94</a> In 1863, three ironclads, the <i>Lord Clyde</i> and <i>Lord Warden</i>, of 7,840 tons,
+and a small ship, the <i>Pallas</i>, 3,660 tons, were constructed with wooden hulls,
+in order to use up the stores of timber which had been accumulated.—See
+p. 70, <i>Our Ironclad Ships</i>, by Sir E.&nbsp;J. Reed.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">95</a> <i>Our Ironclad Ships</i>, by Sir E.&nbsp;J. Reed.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">96</a> The American monitors all had conning towers; but British masted
+battleships were without them.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">97</a> At a subsequent date, after he had left the Admiralty, he designed the
+<i>Independencia</i> for Brazil. This ship, afterwards bought into the British
+Navy as the <i>Neptune</i>, was simply an enlarged <i>Monarch</i>. Probably, however,
+the general features of the ship were specified by the Brazilians.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">98</a> The <i>Scorpion</i> and <i>Wivern</i>, built for the Confederate States and bought
+in 1865. The Peruvian <i>Huascar</i> also ante-dated the <i>Captain</i> in design. All
+of these were low freeboard ships. Coles had something to do with the
+designs of all.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">99</a> All the above ships had one or more tripod masts.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="label">100</a> For two of these, 12½ ton M.L.R. were afterwards substituted.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="label">101</a> Coles had projected 1,000 tons; but 500 was all that she could take.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="label">102</a> She was then rolling from 12½ to 14 degrees.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="label">103</a> The <i>Audacious</i> herself was “modernised” in the later eighties. Her
+sailing rig was removed and a “military rig” substituted. Some minor
+changes in her lesser guns were also made.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="label">104</a> <i>Our Ironclad Ships</i>, by Sir E.&nbsp;J. Reed.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="label">105</a> <i>Ironclads in Action</i>, by H.&nbsp;W. Wilson.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="label">106</a> The <i>Sultan</i> was built as a ship-rigged ship. In 1894–96 she was “reconstructed,”
+two military masts being substituted for her original rig. She
+was also re-engined and re-boilered by Messrs. Thompson, of Clydebank.
+Beyond going out for the naval manœuvres one year she did not, however,
+perform any service in her altered condition, and is now used as a hulk.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="label">107</a> Later on this was removed and an ordinary revolving turret, carrying
+<em>two</em> 25 ton guns, substituted.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="label">108</a> About the year 1890–2 <i>Devastation</i> and <i>Thunderer</i> were re-boilered and
+re-armed with 10-inch B.L.R.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="label">109</a> c.f. Frontispiece to <i>Our Ironclad Ships</i>, E.&nbsp;J. Reed.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="label">110</a> <i>Naval and Military Gazette.</i></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="label">111</a> She was about nine years from laying down to completion!</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Index">Index.</h2>
+
+<div class="index">
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="ifrst">Aboukir, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_152">152</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Abuses, Naval, <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Acquitaine, <a class="v1" href="#Page_11">11</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Admiral Bacon’s Theory, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Admiral Hopkins—Earliest Advocate of Centre-Line in England, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aerial Bombs First Provided Against, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_173">173</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aerial Dreadnoughts, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_171">171</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aerial Experiments in Austria, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_228">228</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aerial Guns, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aeroplanes for Naval Purposes, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Agreement with the Colonies, Naval, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aircraft, Possibilities of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_95">95</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aircraft, Potentialities in, <a class="v1" href="#Page_228">228</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexander, <a class="v1" href="#Page_162">162</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alexandria, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alfred the Great, <a class="v1" href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_14">14</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alfred, King, <a class="v1" href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_73">73</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Algiers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_59">59</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">All-Big-Gun Ship Arguments, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_143">143</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alterations to “Lion,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alternative “Dreadnought” Ideal, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_165">165</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alva, Duke of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_48">48</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">American Colonies Revolution, <a class="v1" href="#Page_124">124</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">American Frigates, <a class="v1" href="#Page_189">189</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Americanising of British Naval Designs, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_176">176</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">American Monitors and Conning Towers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_272">272</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">American Monitors, limitations of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_292">292</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">American Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_189">189</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">American War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_189">189</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Amiens, Peace of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Anson, Commodore, <a class="v1" href="#Page_109">109</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Answer” British, to frégates blindées, <a class="v1" href="#Page_249">249</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antigua, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Antwerp, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Appreciation of Barnaby, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_49">49</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Arch Duke Charles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_98">98</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Archers, English, <a class="v1" href="#Page_27">27</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Armada, Defeat of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_57">57</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Armada, Delayed, <a class="v1" href="#Page_48">48</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Armada, Force of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_49">49</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Armada, Indifferent Gunnery of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_50">50</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Armada, Real History of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_57">57</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Armament, Ratio of Size, <a class="v1" href="#Page_95">95</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Armed Neutrality, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Armour, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Armoured Cruisers Re-appear, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Armour Experiments at Woolwich, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Armoured Forecastles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_284">284</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Armoured Scouts, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Armstrong and Percussion Shell, <a class="v1" href="#Page_227">227</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Army of Invasion,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_170">170</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Articles of War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_11">11</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Artificial Ventilation, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Armstrong, Guns of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_241">241</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Artillery, Superior, <a class="v1" href="#Page_229">229</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Assize of Arms, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Athelston, <a class="v1" href="#Page_7">7</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Australia, Navy of, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Auxiliary Navies, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Battle of Trafalgar, <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Belle Island Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_122">122</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Berwick Captured by French (1795), <a class="v1" href="#Page_138">138</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blockade, Scientific, First Instituted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_120">120</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Blockade Work, <a class="v1" href="#Page_165">165</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bomb Dropping, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_228">228</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bombs from Airships, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_228">228</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bomb Vessels Introduced, <a class="v1" href="#Page_87">87</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bonaparte (see <a href="#Napoleon">Napoleon</a>), <a class="v1" href="#Page_230">230</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bordelais Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_158">158</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boscawen, <a class="v1" href="#Page_120">120</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boswell, Invention of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_107">107</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bounty, <a class="v1" href="#Page_200">200</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bounty, Given by Henry VII, <a class="v1" href="#Page_36">36</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bounty to Seamen, <a class="v1" href="#Page_234">234</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bourbon, Isle of, Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_185">185</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Box-Battery Ironclads, <a class="v1" href="#Page_318">318</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brading, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_5">5</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Breaking the Line, First Attempt at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_128">128</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Breaking the Line by Rodney, <a class="v1" href="#Page_129">129</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Breastwork Monitors, <a class="v1" href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_308">308</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Breech Blocks, Elementary, <a class="v1" href="#Page_320">320</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Breechloaders, Armstrongs, <a class="v1" href="#Page_320">320</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brest, <a class="v1" href="#Page_157">157</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brest, Cornwallis off, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bridport, <a class="v1" href="#Page_139">139</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brig Sloop of 18 Guns, <a class="v1" href="#Page_178">178</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">British Battle Fleet, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">British Defects in the Crimean War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_234">234</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">British Empire, an English-Speaking Confederation, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">British Flag, <a class="v1" href="#Page_75">75</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">British and French Ideals, <a class="v1" href="#Page_249">249</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">British v. French Ships Discussed in Parliament, <a class="v1" href="#Page_37">37</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">British Guns, <a class="v1" href="#Page_232">232</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">British Merchant Ships Trade with Russia During War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_186">186</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">British Methods of Warfare, <a class="v1" href="#Page_41">41</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">British Navy, Birth of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_34">34</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">British Squadron, Defeat of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_186">186</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">British Tactics, <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Broadside Ironclads, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Broke, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_189">189</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brown, Samuel, Invents a Propeller (1825), <a class="v1" href="#Page_216">216</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bruat, <a class="v1" href="#Page_234">234</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brueys, <a class="v1" href="#Page_152">152</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bruix, <a class="v1" href="#Page_154">154</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buckingham, Duke of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bullivant Torpedo Defence, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burchett, <a class="v1" href="#Page_92">92</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burgoyne, Alan H., <a class="v1" href="#Page_59">59</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Burgoyne, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_288">288</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bushnell, David, and his Submarine, <a class="v1" href="#Page_124">124</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Busk, Hans, <a class="v1" href="#Page_237">237</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Busses, <a class="v1" href="#Page_11">11</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Byng, <a class="v1" href="#Page_99">99</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Byng, Shot, <a class="v1" href="#Page_116">116</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Cadiz, <a class="v1" href="#Page_171">171</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cadiz, Collingwood off, <a class="v1" href="#Page_175">175</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Calais, <a class="v1" href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colder, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Calcutta, Recapture of (1757), <a class="v1" href="#Page_119">119</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Calypso, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Campaign of Trafalgar (Corbett), <a class="v1" href="#Page_170">170</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Camperdown, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_150">150</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Canada Acquired by England, <a class="v1" href="#Page_123">123</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Canadian Dockyards, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Canadian Navy, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cannon, Early, <a class="v1" href="#Page_38">38</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cannon, First use of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_29">29</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Canute, <a class="v1" href="#Page_8">8</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cape St. Vincent, Battle of (1759), <a class="v1" href="#Page_121">121</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Capital Ship” Adjusts Itself, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Capital Ship, Galley Replaced by Galleon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_27">27</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cape La Hogue, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_90">90</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Capraja, “Queen Charlotte” blown up off (1880), <a class="v1" href="#Page_160">160</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Captain,” Nelson in, <a class="v1" href="#Page_142">142</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carronades, <a class="v1" href="#Page_129">129</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Carronades, Part of Armament, <a class="v1" href="#Page_201">201</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cartagena, Vernon Fails at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_109">109</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Catapults, <a class="v1" href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_38">38</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Catherine the Great, <a class="v1" href="#Page_154">154</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cayenne Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_184">184</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cellular Construction, <a class="v1" href="#Page_267">267</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Central Africa, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Central Battery Ironclads, <a class="v1" href="#Page_292">292</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Centre-line, System, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cerberus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cette, <a class="v1" href="#Page_103">103</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chads, Captain and Gunnery Experiments, <a class="v1" href="#Page_220">220</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chads, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_223">223</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chagres Bombarded, <a class="v1" href="#Page_109">109</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Channel Policed, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Channel Protected by Merchants, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chappel, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_215">215</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charles I, <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charles II, <a class="v1" href="#Page_81">81</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charles, Prince, <a class="v1" href="#Page_73">73</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charring, <a class="v1" href="#Page_107">107</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Charter of Ethelred, <a class="v1" href="#Page_8">8</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chartres, Duke of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_126">126</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chateau, Renault, <a class="v1" href="#Page_96">96</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chatham, Earl of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Christian VII, <a class="v1" href="#Page_180">180</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cinque Ports, <a class="v1" href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_35">35</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cinque Ports Established, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Civil War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_75">75</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Claxton, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_215">215</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clive, <a class="v1" href="#Page_119">119</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clothing, <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clydebank, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coal, Larger Store of, Affects</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Construction, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coal Stores, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Coastals,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Coastal Destroyers,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coast Defence Ironclads, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coat of Mail Idea, <a class="v1" href="#Page_249">249</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cockpit, Horrors of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_204">204</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cochrane, Lord, and Fire Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cochrane Opposes Vote of Thanks to Lord Gambier, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Code of Naval Discipline, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colonials and Local Defence, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colour Experiments, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Command of the Sea (First Appearance of), <a class="v1" href="#Page_75">75</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Commerce Defence, <a class="v1" href="#Page_75">75</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Commission, Report of (1806), <a class="v1" href="#Page_187">187</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Compass, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coles, Captain Cowper, <a class="v1" href="#Page_272">272</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coles, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_280">280</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_275">275</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Coles, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_284">284</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Collingwood Incompetent, <a class="v1" href="#Page_202">202</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Collingwood, Resignation of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_148">148</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Colomb, Admiral, Quoted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_53">53</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Communication Tube, First for</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Conning Tower, <a class="v1" href="#Page_318">318</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Conflict Between Steam and Gas Engines, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congreve Rocket, <a class="v1" href="#Page_236">236</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Conning Towers in American Monitors, <a class="v1" href="#Page_272">272</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Constantinople Bombarded, <a class="v1" href="#Page_179">179</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Continuous Service, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_251">251</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Contractors, Unscrupulous, <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Contemporary Art, <a class="v1" href="#Page_195">195</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Contraband of War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Contract-Built Ships First Advocated, <a class="v1" href="#Page_280">280</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Controller of the Navy and Constructor, Disputes Between, <a class="v1" href="#Page_258">258</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Converted Ironclads, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_258">258</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Convoys, <a class="v1" href="#Page_92">92</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cook, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_115">115</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Copper Bottoms, <a class="v1" href="#Page_123">123</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Copper Bottoms, Rapid Deterioration of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_129">129</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Copenhagen, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cornwall, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_108">108</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cornwallis off Brest, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cornwallis, <a class="v1" href="#Page_139">139</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Corsairs, <a class="v1" href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_102">102</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cost per Gun for Sailing Man-of-War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_238">238</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cost per Gun for Steamers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_238">238</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cotton, Sir Charles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_184">184</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crimean War, British Defects in, <a class="v1" href="#Page_237">237</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crimean War, the British Navy in: Little Better than a Paper Force, <a class="v1" href="#Page_228">228</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cromwell, <a class="v1" href="#Page_73">73</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cronstadt, <a class="v1" href="#Page_226">226</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cross Raiding, <a class="v1" href="#Page_75">75</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cruisers of the Super-Dreadnought Era, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crusaders, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Conditional” Ships, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cost of Oak, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cost per Gun for Early Ironclads, <a class="v1" href="#Page_238">238</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cumberland, Inventor of Stoving, <a class="v1" href="#Page_107">107</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cuniberti, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cuniberti’s Conception of All Big-Gun ships, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_139">139</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Curtis, Captain of the Fleet, <a class="v1" href="#Page_136">136</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Curtiss Aeroplane, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Curtiss Turbines, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cutting Out Expeditions Instituted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_41">41</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Daedalus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_221">221</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Dandy” Captains, <a class="v1" href="#Page_195">195</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Dandy” Sailors, <a class="v1" href="#Page_195">195</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Danes, <a class="v1" href="#Page_1">1</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Danish Fleet Surrendered, <a class="v1" href="#Page_162">162</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Danish Ships Hired, <a class="v1" href="#Page_5">5</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Darien, <a class="v1" href="#Page_108">108</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dawkins, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_299">299</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dean, Sir Anthony, <a class="v1" href="#Page_94">94</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dean, Sir John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_94">94</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Decline of the Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_43">43</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">De Conflans, <a class="v1" href="#Page_121">121</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Defects of the échelon System, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Defects of the “Royal Sovereigns,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">De la Clue, <a class="v1" href="#Page_120">120</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Delegates of Mutineers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_147">147</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Democracy on the Quarter Deck,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_257">257</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">De Pontis, <a class="v1" href="#Page_102">102</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">De Witt, <a class="v1" href="#Page_79">79</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Deptford Yard, <a class="v1" href="#Page_107">107</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">De Ruyter, <a class="v1" href="#Page_85">85</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">D’Estaing, <a class="v1" href="#Page_126">126</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">D’Estrees, <a class="v1" href="#Page_85">85</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Descharges, Inventor of Portholes, <a class="v1" href="#Page_38">38</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Destroyer Attack Bound to Succeed, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Destroyers in the Dreadnought Era, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">De Tourville, <a class="v1" href="#Page_90">90</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Devastation idea evolved, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Devonport Yard, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dibden (ref.), <a class="v1" href="#Page_34">34</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Diesel Engine, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dirigibles, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_222">222</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Discipline, <a class="v1" href="#Page_20">20</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_258">258</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Discipline, Jervis Idea of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_141">141</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Discipline, Lack of, in time of Charles I, <a class="v1" href="#Page_66">66</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Disputes Between the Controller of the Navy and Constructor, <a class="v1" href="#Page_258">258</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Doctors, Naval, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_256">256</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dominion of Canada, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">D’Orvilliers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_125">125</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Double Bottoms, <a class="v1" href="#Page_267">267</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dover, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Downs, Battle in (1639), <a class="v1" href="#Page_76">76</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Drake, Character of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_48">48</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Drake, Sir Francis, <a class="v1" href="#Page_47">47</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Drake, Methods of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_48">48</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dreadnought (analogy), <a class="v1" href="#Page_69">69</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dreadnought, first idea of, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_164">164</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dromons, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dropping Bombs, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dry Dock, First, <a class="v1" href="#Page_35">35</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dubourdieu, <a class="v1" href="#Page_186">186</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Du Casse, <a class="v1" href="#Page_97">97</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ducas, <a class="v1" href="#Page_234">234</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duchess of Bedford and Uniform, <a class="v1" href="#Page_194">194</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ducking, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duckworth, Sir John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_179">179</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duguay-Trouin, <a class="v1" href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dumanoir, <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Duncan, <a class="v1" href="#Page_147">147</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dundonald, Earl of (Cochrane), <a class="v1" href="#Page_216">216</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dutch Fleet Captured by Anglo-Russian Force, <a class="v1" href="#Page_159">159</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dutch War, First, <a class="v1" href="#Page_75">75</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dutch War, Second, <a class="v1" href="#Page_81">81</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dutch War, Third, <a class="v1" href="#Page_83">83</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Eagle attacked by Submarine, <a class="v1" href="#Page_124">124</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Earliest Advocate of the centre-line in England, Admiral Hopkins, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Early Aerial Ideas, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Early Wire Guns, <a class="v1" href="#Page_247">247</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Economists Limit Lint and Sponges, <a class="v1" href="#Page_207">207</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Economists on Shore, <a class="v1" href="#Page_201">201</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Economy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_114">114</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Economy in Construction, <a class="v1" href="#Page_97">97</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edgar, <a class="v1" href="#Page_7">7</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edmund, <a class="v1" href="#Page_7">7</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edward I, <a class="v1" href="#Page_22">22</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edward II, <a class="v1" href="#Page_23">23</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edward III, <a class="v1" href="#Page_23">23</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edward IV, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Edward the Confessor, <a class="v1" href="#Page_8">8</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Effects of Shell Fire, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Egyptian Government, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Electro, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elementary Quickfirers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_243">243</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elizabeth, <a class="v1" href="#Page_73">73</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elizabeth, First Acts of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_44">44</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elizabethan Fleet, <a class="v1" href="#Page_73">73</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elphinstone, Captain in Russian Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_154">154</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Elswick, <a class="v1" href="#Page_227">227</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">End-on Fire, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_176">176</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">End-on Idea, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">End of the White Era, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_116">116</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Engineer Agitation, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Engines of “Glatton” built in Royal Dockyard, <a class="v1" href="#Page_311">311</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">England, Austria, and Sweden at war, <a class="v1" href="#Page_180">180</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Equal Efficiency,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ericsson, <a class="v1" href="#Page_272">272</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ericsson Patents Propeller (1836), <a class="v1" href="#Page_216">216</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Espagnols-sur-Mer, Les, <a class="v1" href="#Page_29">29</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ethelred’s Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_8">8</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Excellence of the “Warrior” Class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_121">121</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Experiments, Gunnery, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Experiments to Improve Sailing Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_211">211</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Explosion” Vessels, <a class="v1" href="#Page_182">182</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Eustace the Monk, <a class="v1" href="#Page_21">21</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Feeding of Men During Great War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_200">200</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ferrol, <a class="v1" href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fight—Shannon (British) v. Chesapeake (U.S.), <a class="v1" href="#Page_189">189</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Finisterre, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Finisterre, Rodney off, <a class="v1" href="#Page_127">127</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fire, Raking, <a class="v1" href="#Page_211">211</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fire Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_182">182</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fire Ships, Decline of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_131">131</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fireworks, Use of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_69">69</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">First English Over-Sea Voyage, <a class="v1" href="#Page_11">11</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">First of June, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_135">135</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">First Ship of Royal Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_35">35</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fisher, Admiral Lord, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flag, Neutral, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fleet Decoyed Away, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fleet Saved by a Military Officer, <a class="v1" href="#Page_103">103</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fleet of Richard I, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Floating Batteries, First Use of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_130">130</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Florida Acquired by England, <a class="v1" href="#Page_123">123</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flotilla, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flotilla Invasion, <a class="v1" href="#Page_166">166</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Flushing Blockaded, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Food, <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Forecastle, Armoured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_284">284</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Forecastles on Turret Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_284">284</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fort, S. Phillip, <a class="v1" href="#Page_116">116</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frames, Trussed, Introduced, <a class="v1" href="#Page_210">210</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">France, Why Beaten in Great War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">France, War with, <a class="v1" href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_113">113</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frégates Blindées, <a class="v1" href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_250">250</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">French Fleet in Crimean War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_230">230</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">French and British Ideals, <a class="v1" href="#Page_253">253</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">French Warships, Superb Qualities of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_92">92</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">French Fleet Superior to British, <a class="v1" href="#Page_193">193</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">French Floating Batteries, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">French Revolution, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Freya, Danish Frigate, Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_159">159</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Frisians, <a class="v1" href="#Page_5">5</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Fulton” Driven by steam Paddle, <a class="v1" href="#Page_193">193</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Future Fights, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">“Galatea” Fitted with Paddles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_213">213</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Galleon as Dreadnought of the 14th Century, <a class="v1" href="#Page_27">27</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Galley, Replaced as Capital Ship, <a class="v1" href="#Page_27">27</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gambier, Admiral, <a class="v1" href="#Page_179">179</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gambier, Lack of Energy of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_182">182</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gambier, Lord, Acquitted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gambier, Lord, Vote of Thanks to Opposed by Cochrane, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gambling, Punishment for, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ganteaume, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ganteaume, Admiral Escapes from Rochefort, <a class="v1" href="#Page_181">181</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Garay, Inventor of Steamship, (1543), <a class="v1" href="#Page_214">214</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Genereux Captured by Nelson, <a class="v1" href="#Page_160">160</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Genius of Famous Admirals, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_216">216</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Genoa, Hotham’s Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_138">138</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gentlemen Adventurers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_45">45</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">George I, <a class="v1" href="#Page_104">104</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">George II, <a class="v1" href="#Page_107">107</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">George II and Institution of Uniform, <a class="v1" href="#Page_194">194</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">German Seamen, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Germans Agitate for British Naval Efficiency, <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Germany, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Germany (analogy), <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Germany, Guns from, <a class="v1" href="#Page_43">43</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gibraltar, <a class="v1" href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gibraltar, Nelson at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Glasgow, “Black Prince,” Built at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_250">250</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Globe Circumnavigated by Drake, <a class="v1" href="#Page_45">45</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Godwin, <a class="v1" href="#Page_9">9</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Good Hope, Cape Dutch Squadron Captured at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_141">141</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Graham, Sir James, <a class="v1" href="#Page_236">236</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grasse, De, <a class="v1" href="#Page_129">129</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Greek Fire, <a class="v1" href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_243">243</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guadaloup Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_185">185</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guarda-Costas, <a class="v1" href="#Page_108">108</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guerre de Course, <a class="v1" href="#Page_102">102</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guichen, <a class="v1" href="#Page_128">128</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guillaume Tell Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gunners, Training of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_241">241</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gunnery, Enemy’s Inefficiency of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_176">176</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gunnery Errors, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gunnery Experiments, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guns Against Aircraft, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guns, British, <a class="v1" href="#Page_232">232</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guns in the Reed Era, <a class="v1" href="#Page_319">319</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guns in Submarine, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guns of the Watts Era, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_202">202</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guns, Pivot, <a class="v1" href="#Page_272">272</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guns, Rapid Fire, Development of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_227">227</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Guns, Turkish Monster, <a class="v1" href="#Page_179">179</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Hales, Dr., Ventilation System of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_115">115</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hamelin, <a class="v1" href="#Page_234">234</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hampden, John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_73">73</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hanniken, <a class="v1" href="#Page_28">28</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hardcastle Torpedo, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hardy, Sir Charles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_127">127</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Harvey-Nickel Armour Introduced, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hawkins, <a class="v1" href="#Page_46">46</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hawthorn, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Heavier than Air,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_221">221</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Heavy Rolling of the “Orion,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Henry II, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Henry III, <a class="v1" href="#Page_20">20</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Henry IV, <a class="v1" href="#Page_30">30</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Henry V, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Henry VII, <a class="v1" href="#Page_34">34</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Henry VIII, <a class="v1" href="#Page_37">37</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Hermione,” Mutiny in, <a class="v1" href="#Page_145">145</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hickley, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_299">299</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hire of Danish Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_8">8</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hired Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_36">36</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Holy Land, <a class="v1" href="#Page_11">11</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hood, <a class="v1" href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_137">137</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hopkins, Admiral, Ideas of, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Horsey, Admiral de, <a class="v1" href="#Page_322">322</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hoste, Captain William, <a class="v1" href="#Page_186">186</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hotham, <a class="v1" href="#Page_138">138</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Howard, Sir Edward, <a class="v1" href="#Page_41">41</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Howe, <a class="v1" href="#Page_134">134</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hubert de Burgh, <a class="v1" href="#Page_20">20</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hurrying Ships, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hyeres, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_138">138</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Icarus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Imperial British Fleet, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_241">241</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Imperial Needs, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Impressment, <a class="v1" href="#Page_234">234</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Increased Gun-Power, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Increased Smashing Power of Projectiles, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Indecisiveness in British Operations, <a class="v1" href="#Page_137">137</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Indies, Spanish Wealth from, <a class="v1" href="#Page_47">47</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Inexperienced Officers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Inflexible” at the Nore Mutiny, <a class="v1" href="#Page_147">147</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Inman, Dr., <a class="v1" href="#Page_187">187</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Inscription, Maritime, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Instructors, Spanish, in English Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_42">42</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Insular Spirit,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_82">82</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Insurance, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Internal Armour, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Introduction of Steam, <a class="v1" href="#Page_214">214</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Introduction of 13.5-inch Gun, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Invasion, <a class="v1" href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Invasion, Nelson’s Schemes Against, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Invasion of England, <a class="v1" href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_119">119</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Invasion Projected by French, <a class="v1" href="#Page_91">91</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ironclads, Converted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ironclads, The First British, <a class="v1" href="#Page_249">249</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ironclad Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_229">229</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iron for Shipbuilding Instead of Oak, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iron-plated Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_237">237</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iron Ships Condemned (1850), <a class="v1" href="#Page_223">223</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iron Steamer Existed in 1821, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Island Empires, <a class="v1" href="#Page_6">6</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Jacobite Element in the Fleet, <a class="v1" href="#Page_88">88</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jacobite Rising, <a class="v1" href="#Page_105">105</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">James I, <a class="v1" href="#Page_59">59</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">James II, <a class="v1" href="#Page_86">86</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">James Watt, <a class="v1" href="#Page_236">236</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jarrow, <a class="v1" href="#Page_232">232</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Java, Isle of, Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_187">187</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jean Bart, <a class="v1" href="#Page_92">92</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jervis, Sir John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_141">141</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jews, <a class="v1" href="#Page_209">209</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">John, King, <a class="v1" href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_60">60</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Juan, Fernandez, <a class="v1" href="#Page_110">110</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Julius Cæsar, <a class="v1" href="#Page_1">1</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Junction of the Fleets, <a class="v1" href="#Page_98">98</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">“Kamptulicon,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Keel-Hauling, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Keeping the Air,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Keith, <a class="v1" href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Keppel, <a class="v1" href="#Page_125">125</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Killala Bay, French Expedition to, <a class="v1" href="#Page_151">151</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kinburn Bombarded, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_248">248</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kipling (ref.), <a class="v1" href="#Page_34">34</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kronstadt, <a class="v1" href="#Page_162">162</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Kronstadt, Anglo-Danish Demonstration at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_107">107</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Krupp Fire, Shell, <a class="v1" href="#Page_244">244</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">La Gallisonnier, <a class="v1" href="#Page_116">116</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Labour” and the Navy, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lagane, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Laird, Messrs., of Birkenhead, <a class="v1" href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_288">288</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Laird, <a class="v1" href="#Page_321">321</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lalande de Joinville, <a class="v1" href="#Page_234">234</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lancaster Guns, <a class="v1" href="#Page_227">227</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Lancaster,” The, at Camperdown, <a class="v1" href="#Page_150">150</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Landsmen,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">La Rochelle, <a class="v1" href="#Page_30">30</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">La Rochelle, Expedition to, in time of Charles I, <a class="v1" href="#Page_66">66</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Last Word,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_258">258</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Latouche-Treville, <a class="v1" href="#Page_169">169</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Laughton, Professor, Quoted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_50">50</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Laughton’s, Professor, Summary, <a class="v1" href="#Page_176">176</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Laws of Oberon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_17">17</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leake, Sir John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_101">101</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leave, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Legends of Floating Rocks, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_218">218</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leissegues, Vice-Admiral, <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Louisbourg Invested (1758), <a class="v1" href="#Page_119">119</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Lighter than Air,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_221">221</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Linois, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Liquid Fire, Norton’s, <a class="v1" href="#Page_243">243</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lisbon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_102">102</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lissa, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_300">300</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Little Englanders, <a class="v1" href="#Page_73">73</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lloyd, <a class="v1" href="#Page_237">237</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Loading, Greater Rapidity in, <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">London, Citizens of, Fit out Fleet Against Spain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_48">48</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">London, Dutch Guns heard in, <a class="v1" href="#Page_83">83</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Longridge, C.&nbsp;
+ E., <a class="v1" href="#Page_244">244</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lord Charles Beresford, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lord of the Sea, <a class="v1" href="#Page_22">22</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lorient, French Squadron, break-out of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_188">188</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lorient, Partial Battle of (1795), <a class="v1" href="#Page_139">139</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Loss of the “Victoria,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Louis Napoleon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_230">230</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lower Deck, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_97">97</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lowestoft, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_207">207</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Machine of Meerlers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_90">90</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Macintosh, <a class="v1" href="#Page_226">226</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maderia Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_180">180</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maintenance Allowance Increased, <a class="v1" href="#Page_182">182</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Malaga, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_101">101</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mallett, <a class="v1" href="#Page_244">244</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Malta, Russian Designs on, <a class="v1" href="#Page_159">159</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Malta Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_160">160</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Malta Starved into Surrender, <a class="v1" href="#Page_160">160</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marines, Objection to New Scheme, of the, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_251">251</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marryat, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_212">212</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Martinique, <a class="v1" href="#Page_137">137</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Masefield, John, Quoted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_204">204</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mastless Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_292">292</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Masts, Tripod, <a class="v1" href="#Page_287">287</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mauritius Attacked, <a class="v1" href="#Page_185">185</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Medal, Tempus, Charles I, <a class="v1" href="#Page_74">74</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Medine Sidonia, <a class="v1" href="#Page_53">53</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mediterranean, <a class="v1" href="#Page_59">59</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mediterranean, English Fleet First Stationed, <a class="v1" href="#Page_91">91</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Meerlers, Machine Ships of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_90">90</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Meerlers “Smoak-boat,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_90">90</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Memoirs of Torrington, <a class="v1" href="#Page_100">100</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Men Wanting, <a class="v1" href="#Page_237">237</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Men, Lack of Training of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_236">236</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Messing, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_254">254</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Messing in Tudor Times, <a class="v1" href="#Page_43">43</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Methods of Drake, <a class="v1" href="#Page_45">45</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Military Officer Saves Fleet, <a class="v1" href="#Page_103">103</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Military Warfare, <a class="v1" href="#Page_7">7</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Milne, Admiral, <a class="v1" href="#Page_288">288</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mines Appear, <a class="v1" href="#Page_226">226</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mines, Russian, <a class="v1" href="#Page_226">226</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Minorca, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_119">119</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Moderate Dimensions, <a class="v1" href="#Page_135">135</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Modern Protective Decks Introduced, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_85">85</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Modern Variant of “Case Shot,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Monk, <a class="v1" href="#Page_76">76</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Monitor and Merrimac, Fight between, <a class="v1" href="#Page_275">275</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Montgolfier, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_221">221</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Motor-Destroyers, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mounting of Small Guns Between the échelon Turrets done away with, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Murder, Punishment for, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mutiny at Spithead, <a class="v1" href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_200">200</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mutiny, The Great, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_255">255</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Muzzle Loaders, <a class="v1" href="#Page_320">320</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Nachimoff, Admiral (Russian), <a class="v1" href="#Page_223">223</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napier, Admiral Sir Charles, K.C.B., <a class="v1" href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_235">235</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Napoleon"></a>Napoleon, at Toulon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_133">133</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napoleon, Deportation of, to Elba, <a class="v1" href="#Page_193">193</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napoleon, Deportation of, to St. Helena, <a class="v1" href="#Page_193">193</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napoleon, Emperor, <a class="v1" href="#Page_164">164</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napoleon, First Consul, <a class="v1" href="#Page_159">159</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia, <a class="v1" href="#Page_188">188</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napoleon and Nelson, <a class="v1" href="#Page_169">169</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napoleon, Re-appearance of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_193">193</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napoleon, Renovates his Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_181">181</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Napoleon and “Sea Power,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">National Interests, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Naval Abuses, <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Naval Aeroplanes, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_225">225</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Naval Agreement with the Colonies, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Naval Aviation, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_222">222</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Naval Defence Act, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Naval Defence Act Cruisers, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Naval Commission, <a class="v1" href="#Page_81">81</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Naval Regulations of John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_16">16</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Naval Pay in Great War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_209">209</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Naval Scare of 1887–89, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Naval Punishments, <a class="v1" href="#Page_20">20</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Naval War, The Next, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_265">265</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Navarino, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_213">213</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Navy of Canute, <a class="v1" href="#Page_8">8</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Navy, Non-Existence of, in Early Times, <a class="v1" href="#Page_19">19</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nelson, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_162">162</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nelson (analogy), <a class="v1" href="#Page_42">42</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nelson at Gibraltar, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nelson at Toulon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_133">133</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nelson in the “Agamemnon,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_138">138</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nelson in the Mediterranean, <a class="v1" href="#Page_157">157</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nelson (ref.), <a class="v1" href="#Page_34">34</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nelson at Cadiz, <a class="v1" href="#Page_149">149</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nelson, First Appearance of (1780), <a class="v1" href="#Page_128">128</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nelson, Costume of Men, in Era of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_196">196</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nelson Defeated at Santa Cruz, <a class="v1" href="#Page_150">150</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nelson, Drawing Away of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_171">171</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nelson Institutes Theatricals, <a class="v1" href="#Page_200">200</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nelson, Last Order of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nelson’s Limitations, <a class="v1" href="#Page_169">169</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nelson Mortally Wounded, <a class="v1" href="#Page_176">176</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nelson and Mutineers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_151">151</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nelson’s Schemes of Invasion, <a class="v1" href="#Page_162">162</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Neutral Flag, Property Under, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Neutrality, Armed, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">New Forest, Oak Plantations, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">New Scheme, The, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_247">247</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Newfoundland Naval Reserve, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">New Zealand and the British Fleet, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">New Zealand’s Interest in the Imperial Navy, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nore, Mutiny at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_146">146</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Norman Invasion, <a class="v1" href="#Page_9">9</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Normans, <a class="v1" href="#Page_21">21</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Norris, Sir John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_105">105</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Norton’s Liquid Fire, <a class="v1" href="#Page_243">243</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">North Foreland, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_82">82</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nova Scotia, <a class="v1" href="#Page_103">103</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nile, Battle of (analogy), <a class="v1" href="#Page_42">42</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">North and South Nigeria, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Numbers Only Can Annihilate,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Oak Plantations, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oberon, Laws of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_17">17</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ocean-going Destroyers, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Odessa Bombarded, <a class="v1" href="#Page_224">224</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Odin, <a class="v1" href="#Page_216">216</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Officering the Fleet, <a class="v1" href="#Page_115">115</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Officers, Inexperience of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Officers’ Wine for Wounded, <a class="v1" href="#Page_207">207</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ogle, <a class="v1" href="#Page_109">109</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oil Fuel, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Original Conception of the Dreadnought Era, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ormonde, Duke of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_96">96</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ornamental Work Reduced, <a class="v1" href="#Page_97">97</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ostend Attacked, <a class="v1" href="#Page_82">82</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ostend Captured (1706), <a class="v1" href="#Page_103">103</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Paddle Experiments, <a class="v1" href="#Page_212">212</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paddles, “Galatea” Fitted with, <a class="v1" href="#Page_213">213</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paddle Recognised as a Source of Danger (1825), <a class="v1" href="#Page_216">216</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paddle Wheels Exposed, <a class="v1" href="#Page_216">216</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paint on Warships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_69">69</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paixham, General, <a class="v1" href="#Page_223">223</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Palmer’s, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Parma, Duke of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_49">49</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Parker, Sir Hyde, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Parliament Discusses French v. British Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_137">137</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Parliamentarians, <a class="v1" href="#Page_74">74</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Parson’s Turbine, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Paul, Russia, <a class="v1" href="#Page_159">159</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pay (1653), <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pay, Modern, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_257">257</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Payta Captured by Captain Anson, <a class="v1" href="#Page_111">111</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peace of Amiens, <a class="v1" href="#Page_86">86</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pembroke, Earl of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_29">29</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Penelope” Fitted with Engines, <a class="v1" href="#Page_216">216</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Penelope Frigate attacks Guillaume Tell, <a class="v1" href="#Page_160">160</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pennington, Sir John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_73">73</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pensions for Wounds, Time of John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_17">17</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pepys, <a class="v1" href="#Page_79">79</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Period of Broadside Ironclads Ends, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Personality, <a class="v1" href="#Page_97">97</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peterborough, Earl of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_103">103</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peter the Great, <a class="v1" href="#Page_95">95</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phineas Petts, <a class="v1" href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_80">80</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Phœnicians, <a class="v1" href="#Page_1">1</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pierola, <a class="v1" href="#Page_322">322</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pigot, Captain of “Hermione,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_151">151</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pigtail, Origin of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_197">197</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pinnaces, <a class="v1" href="#Page_41">41</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Piracy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_44">44</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Piracy, English Acts of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_22">22</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pirates, <a class="v1" href="#Page_30">30</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pitt and Sea Power, <a class="v1" href="#Page_141">141</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pivot Guns, <a class="v1" href="#Page_272">272</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pizarro, <a class="v1" href="#Page_110">110</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plymouth Hoe, Drake on, <a class="v1" href="#Page_50">50</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plymouth, Mutiny at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_146">146</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plymouth Sacked, <a class="v1" href="#Page_23">23</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Policing the Channel, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Politics and Admirals, <a class="v1" href="#Page_130">130</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pomone, French Frigate, Captured (1794), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_135">135</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Portholes, <a class="v1" href="#Page_49">49</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Portsmouth, Review at (1512), <a class="v1" href="#Page_37">37</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Portsmouth Sacked, <a class="v1" href="#Page_29">29</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Portsmouth Yard, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_191">191</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Possibility of Airships in the Future, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_226">226</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Possibility of Dreadnoughts Considered, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_145">145</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Present Stage of Aerial Progress, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_229">229</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Press Gang, <a class="v1" href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_200">200</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Presumed End of Ironclads, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prime Seamen, <a class="v1" href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_196">196</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_251">251</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prince Charles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_74">74</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Prince of Hesse, <a class="v1" href="#Page_99">99</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Private Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_36">36</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Privateering, <a class="v1" href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_111">111</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Privateers Attack Henry IV, <a class="v1" href="#Page_30">30</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Privateers, French, Activity of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_189">189</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Private Yards, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Progress Nullified During the Last Twenty Years, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Progressive Naval Ideas, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Promotion on the Lower Deck, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_252">252</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Protection of Boats in Action, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_184">184</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Providence and the Armada, <a class="v1" href="#Page_53">53</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Provisioning of Ships Under John, <a class="v1" href="#Page_17">17</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Punishments, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Punishments (Modern), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_259">259</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pursers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_146">146</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pym, Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_185">185</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Quebec, Abortive Attack on, <a class="v1" href="#Page_104">104</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Queen Anne, <a class="v1" href="#Page_95">95</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Queensland, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Quiberon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_121">121</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Quick Firers, Elementary, <a class="v1" href="#Page_243">243</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Quick Lime, Use of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_21">21</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Raking Fire, <a class="v1" href="#Page_211">211</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Raleigh, Sir Walter, <a class="v1" href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ram Tactics, <a class="v1" href="#Page_300">300</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ramming, <a class="v1" href="#Page_17">17</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rapidity in Loading, <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rates in English Navy, Time of Queen Anne, <a class="v1" href="#Page_95">95</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rating, New, of Ships Introduced (1817), <a class="v1" href="#Page_211">211</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Re-construction Never Pay,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_312">312</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reed, Sir E.&nbsp;
+ J., <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_266">266</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reed, Sir E.&nbsp;
+ J., Anticipates Torpedoes, <a class="v1" href="#Page_268">268</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reed Broadside Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_283">283</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reed Ideals in the White Era, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_115">115</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reed, Sir E.&nbsp;
+ J., Turret Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_292">292</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Regular Stores Instituted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Repairs, Cost of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Reserve Ships, Speedy Equipment of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Restoration, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_81">81</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Retirement of Sir W. White, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_113">113</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Richard I, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Richard II, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_30">30</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Richard III, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_60">60</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Right Ahead Fire, <a class="v1" href="#Page_258">258</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rigging, Firing at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_129">129</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Right of Search, <a class="v1" href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Robinson, Commander, on Causes of Mutiny, <a class="v1" href="#Page_146">146</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Robinson, Commander, R.N., Quoted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_194">194</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rocket, Congreve, <a class="v1" href="#Page_236">236</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rodjestvensky (analogy), <a class="v1" href="#Page_53">53</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rodney, <a class="v1" href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_129">129</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rogerswick, Harbour of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_180">180</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rogues in Authority, <a class="v1" href="#Page_201">201</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rolling of the “Orion,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Romans in Britain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_1">1</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rooke, Sir George, <a class="v1" href="#Page_96">96</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Routine, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Row Boats, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_222">222</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Royal Indian Marine, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Royal Naval College Established, Portsmouth, <a class="v1" href="#Page_187">187</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Royal Navy, Birth of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_35">35</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Royal Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_35">35</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Royal Yachts, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Ruinous Competition in Naval Armaments,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_206">206</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Russel, <a class="v1" href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_91">91</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Russell, John Scott, <a class="v1" href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_249">249</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Russia, War with (1720), <a class="v1" href="#Page_106">106</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Russian Mines, <a class="v1" href="#Page_226">226</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Russian Navy Established by England, <a class="v1" href="#Page_95">95</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Russo-Japanese War, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_205">205</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ryswick, Peace of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_92">92</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Samaurez, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Samaurez in the Baltic, <a class="v1" href="#Page_180">180</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">San Domingo, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_178">178</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sandwich, Earl of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_84">84</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saints, Battle of the, <a class="v1" href="#Page_129">129</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">San Juan Nicaragua, Nelson at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_128">128</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Santa Croix, Capture of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_180">180</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Santa Cruz, Marquis of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_49">49</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Santissima Trinidad (130), <a class="v1" href="#Page_145">145</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saxon Fleet, <a class="v1" href="#Page_8">8</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saxons, <a class="v1" href="#Page_1">1</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scantlings, <a class="v1" href="#Page_135">135</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scarcity of Oak, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Scouts” Appear, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Scrapping,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_311">311</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scheldt, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">School of Naval Architecture, <a class="v1" href="#Page_187">187</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scotts, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scott Shipbuilding and Engineering Company, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sea-Fights with the Danes, <a class="v1" href="#Page_2">2</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seamen, Bounty to, <a class="v1" href="#Page_234">234</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seamen, Foreign, <a class="v1" href="#Page_235">235</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seamen, German, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sea-Going Masted Turret Ship, <a class="v1" href="#Page_276">276</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sea-Going Qualities of Barnaby Ships, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seamen, Improved, <a class="v1" href="#Page_44">44</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sea Kings, Elizabethan, <a class="v1" href="#Page_47">47</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seamanship, <a class="v1" href="#Page_114">114</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sea Power and Napoleon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_169">169</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sea Regiment, The, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_251">251</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Search, Right of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sebastopol Attacked, <a class="v1" href="#Page_224">224</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sebastopol, Siege of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_224">224</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Semenoff, Captain (quoted), <a class="v1" href="#Page_243">243</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Semi-Dreadnoughts,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Senegal Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_184">184</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Senyavin in the Mediterranean, <a class="v1" href="#Page_181">181</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Senyavin, Ships of, Restored, <a class="v1" href="#Page_186">186</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Serpents, <a class="v1" href="#Page_15">15</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Seymour, Sir Hamilton, <a class="v1" href="#Page_235">235</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shah and Huascar Action, <a class="v1" href="#Page_322">322</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shell Guns, Adopted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_220">220</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shell, Percussion, <a class="v1" href="#Page_227">227</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shell, Thermite, <a class="v1" href="#Page_244">244</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sheerness, Dutch at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_83">83</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ships, Engaging exactly End-on, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ships, Iron-plated, <a class="v1" href="#Page_237">237</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ships, Ironclad, <a class="v1" href="#Page_239">239</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ships of King Alfred, <a class="v1" href="#Page_5">5</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst"><i>SHIPS MENTIONED BY NAME.</i></li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Aboukir, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Abyssinia, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Acheron class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Achilles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_258">258</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Acorn class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Active, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Admiral class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Adventure, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Aeolus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Africa, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Agamemnon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_138">138</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Agincourt, <a class="v1" href="#Page_279">279</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Ajax, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Aki, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_146">146</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Alarm, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Albemarle, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Albion, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Alexandra, <a class="v1" href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_318">318</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Amphitrite, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Amethyst, <a class="v1" href="#Page_322">322</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Antrim, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Amokoura, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Amphion, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Andromache, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Andromeda, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Anna Pink (1740), <a class="v1" href="#Page_111">111</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Antelope, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Apollo class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Aquidaban, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Archer, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Argonaut, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Arethusa, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Ariadne, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Argyll, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Assaye, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Astraeas, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Atalanta, <a class="v1" href="#Page_187">187</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Attack, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Attentive, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Audacious, <a class="v1" href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_295">295</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Audacious (1794), <a class="v1" href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_295">295</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Aurora, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Australia, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Bacchante, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Badere Zaffer (Turkish), <a class="v1" href="#Page_232">232</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1"> Bahama (Spanish), <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Baluch, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Barfluer, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_69">69</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_70">70</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Beagle class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Bellerophon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_279">279</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_169">169</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Belleisle, <a class="v1" href="#Page_232">232</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Bellona, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Berwick, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Birmingham, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Black Prince, <a class="v1" href="#Page_250">250</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_35">35</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Blake, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Blanco Encalada (Chilian), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Blanche, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Blenheim, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_61">61</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Blonde, <a class="v1" href="#Page_321">321</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Boadicea, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Bonaventure, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Boomerang, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Brilliant, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Britannia (1688), <a class="v1" href="#Page_87">87</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Britannia, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Brisbane, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Bulwark, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Cæsar, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Caledonia, <a class="v1" href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Calypso, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Cambrian, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Camperdown, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_39">39</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Canopus, ex-Franklin (French prize), <a class="v1" href="#Page_150">150</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Canopus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Carnarvon, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Captain, <a class="v1" href="#Page_283">283</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Captain, Loss of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_291">291</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Centurion (1740), <a class="v1" href="#Page_112">112</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Centurion (1891), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Cerebus (Australian), <a class="v1" href="#Page_292">292</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Charybdis, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Chatham, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Chen Yuen (Chinese), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Chicago (U.S.), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Circe, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Cog, Thomas, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_28">28</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Commonwealth, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Conqueror, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Cornwall, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Cornwallis, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">County class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Crescent, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Cressy, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Cumberland, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Cyclops, <a class="v1" href="#Page_308">308</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Dalhousie, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Dartmouth, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Dauntless, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Defence, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Devastation (1870), <a class="v1" href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_312">312</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Devonshires, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Diadem, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Diana, <a class="v1" href="#Page_212">212</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Dominion, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Donegal, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Drake, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Dreadnought (old), <a class="v1" href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_317">317</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Dreadnought (1908), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_164">164</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Dublin, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Dufferin, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Duncans, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Edgar, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Elphinstone, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Endymion, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Entrepennant (French), <a class="v1" href="#Page_187">187</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Erebus, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Essex, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Etna, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Europa, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Euryalus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">  Exmouth, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Fearless, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Flora, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Formidable, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Foresight, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Forth, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Forward, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Foudroyant, <a class="v1" href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_160">160</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Franklin (French prize), <a class="v1" href="#Page_150">150</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Fulton, <a class="v1" href="#Page_190">190</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Galatea, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Gayundah, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Gazelle, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Gibraltar, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Glasgow, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Glatton (1795), <a class="v1" href="#Page_140">140</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Glatton, <a class="v1" href="#Page_308">308</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Gleaner, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Glory, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Gloucester (1740), <a class="v1" href="#Page_112">112</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Gloucester, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Goliath, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Good Hope, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Gorgon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_308">308</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Gossamer, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Grace de Dieu, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_38">38</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Grafton, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Great Harry, <a class="v1" href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_37">37</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Ghurka, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Hampshire, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Hannibal, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Hardinge, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Havock, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Hawke, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Hebe, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Hecate, <a class="v1" href="#Page_308">308</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Hector, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Hela (German), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Henri IV (French), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Hercules, <a class="v1" href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_295">295</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Hermione, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Hero, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Hibernia, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Hindustan, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Holland, <a class="v1" href="#Page_218">218</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Hood, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_68">68</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Hornet, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Hotspur (British), <a class="v1" href="#Page_321">321</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Huascar (Peruvian), <a class="v1" href="#Page_322">322</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Hydra, <a class="v1" href="#Page_308">308</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Immortalitie, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Inflexible, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_52">52</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Intrepid, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Imperieuse, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Iphigenia, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Iron Duke, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_187">187</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Illustrious, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Implacable, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Inconstant, <a class="v1" href="#Page_321">321</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Indefatigable, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Independencia, <a class="v1" href="#Page_280">280</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Invincible, <a class="v1" href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_319">319</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Iphigenia, <a class="v1" href="#Page_185">185</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Irresistible, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_100">100</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Italia (Italian), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Jupiter, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Kahren, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Karrahatta, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Katoomba, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Kent, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">King Alfred, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">King Edward VII class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_114">114</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">King George V, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Lady Nancy (Gun raft), <a class="v1" href="#Page_272">272</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">La Forte (French), <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">La Gloire (French), <a class="v1" href="#Page_254">254</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Lancaster, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Latona, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">  Lave La, <a class="v1" href="#Page_248">248</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Lavinia, <a class="v1" href="#Page_232">232</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Leander, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_47">47</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Lepanto (Italian), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Leviathan, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">L’Hercule (French), <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Liberté class (French), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Lion, The (1800), <a class="v1" href="#Page_160">160</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Lively, frégate, <a class="v1" href="#Page_141">141</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Liverpool, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">London, <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_104">104</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Lord Clyde, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Lord Nelson, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_133">133</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Lord Warden (British), <a class="v1" href="#Page_288">288</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Lorne, <a class="v1" href="#Page_212">212</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Lynch, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Magdala class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Magnificent, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_88">88</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Maharatta, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Majestic, <a class="v1" href="#Page_236">236</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_85">85</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_86">86</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Marengo (French), <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Marlborough, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_187">187</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Mars, <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Melampus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Melbourne, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Melpomene, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Merrimac, <a class="v1" href="#Page_190">190</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Mersey, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Meteor, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Mildura, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Minotaur, <a class="v1" href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_272">272</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Monarch, <a class="v1" href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_284">284</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Monarch, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Montagu, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Naiad, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Narcissus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Neptune (1797), <a class="v1" href="#Page_151">151</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Newcastle, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">New Zealand, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Nile, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_44">44</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Niobe, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Northbrook, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_231">231</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Northumberland, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_258">258</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_59">59</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Nottingham, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Oberon, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_53">53</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Ocean, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Olympic, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Orion, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_183">183</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Orlando, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_63">63</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Pallas class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Paluma, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Pandora, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Pathan, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Pathfinder, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Pearl (1740), <a class="v1" href="#Page_112">112</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Pelican, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_45">45</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Pelorus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Penelope, <a class="v1" href="#Page_279">279</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Persian, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Phaeton, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Phœbe, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Philomel, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Pique, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Plassy, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Polyphemus, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_64">64</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Powerful, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Prince Albert, <a class="v1" href="#Page_275">275</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_134">134</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Prince Consort, <a class="v1" href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Prince George, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Prince of Wales, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Prince Regent, <a class="v1" href="#Page_236">236</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Prince Royal, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_59">59</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_174">174</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Princessa (Spanish), <a class="v1" href="#Page_114">114</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Protector, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Psyche, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Queen, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_107">107</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">  Queen Charlotte, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Queen Mary, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Rainbow, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Rajput, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Raleigh, <a class="v1" href="#Page_321">321</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Ram, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_300">300</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Rattler, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Rattlesnake class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Re d’Italia, <a class="v1" href="#Page_300">300</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Regent, <a class="v1" href="#Page_35">35</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Renard, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Renown, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_79">79</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_81">81</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Republique (French), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_82">82</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Repulse, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Resistance, <a class="v1" href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Retribution, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Revolutionaire (French), (1794), <a class="v1" href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_158">158</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Ringarooma, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">“River” class destroyers, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_131">131</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Rossiya (Russian), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Royal Alfred, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Royal Arthur, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Royal George, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_114">114</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Royal James, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_84">84</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Royal Oak, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Royal Sovereign, <a class="v1" href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_284">284</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Royal Sovereign (1657), <a class="v1" href="#Page_69">69</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Royal Sovereign (1795), <a class="v1" href="#Page_139">139</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Royal Sovereigns, (old), <a class="v1" href="#Page_81">81</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Roxburgh, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_109">109</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Rupert reconstructed, <a class="v1" href="#Page_311">311</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Rurik (Russian), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Russell, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_105">105</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Salamander, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Sampaio, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_78">78</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">San Ildefonso (Spanish), <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Sappho, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Satsuma (Japanese), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_146">146</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Scorpion, <a class="v1" href="#Page_287">287</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Scylla, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Sea Gull, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Sea-horse, <a class="v1" href="#Page_232">232</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Sentinel, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_129">129</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Severn, <a class="v1" href="#Page_112">112</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Shah, <a class="v1" href="#Page_321">321</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Sharpshooter class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_90">90</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Sheldrake, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Sikh, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Sirius, <a class="v1" href="#Page_185">185</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Skipjack, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Skirmisher, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_127">127</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Southampton, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Sovereign, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_37">37</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Spanker, floating battery, <a class="v1" href="#Page_188">188</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Spanker, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Spartan, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Spartiate, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Speedwell, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Speedy, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">St. George, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_71">71</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Suffolk, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_106">106</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Sultan, <a class="v1" href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_318">318</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Sutlej, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_101">101</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Swift, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_200">200</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Swiftsure, <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_295">295</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Sybil, <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Sydney, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Talbot, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Tauranga, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Terpsichore, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Terrible, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_89">89</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Terror, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Thames, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Thetis, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Thunder, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">  Thunderer, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Thunderbolt, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_50">50</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Tiger, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_188">188</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Ting Yuen (Chinese), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Tonnant (French), <a class="v1" href="#Page_248">248</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">“Town” class cruisers, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Trafalgar, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_43">43</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_64">64</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Transports, <a class="v1" href="#Page_22">22</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">“Tribals,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Tribune, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_72">72</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Triumph, <a class="v1" href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_295">295</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Trusty, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Tryal (1740), <a class="v1" href="#Page_111">111</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Tsarevitch (Russian), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Undaunted, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Valiant, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Vanguard, <a class="v1" href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_295">295</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_169">169</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Venerable, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_102">102</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Vengeance, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_99">99</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Vernon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_254">254</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Victoria, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_48">48</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Victoria (Colonial), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Victorious, <a class="v1" href="#Page_189">189</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_87">87</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Victory, <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Viper, <a class="v1" href="#Page_276">276</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Vixen, <a class="v1" href="#Page_276">276</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Von der Tann (German), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_180">180</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Wager (1740), <a class="v1" href="#Page_111">111</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Wallaroo, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_256">256</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Wampanoag (U.S.), <a class="v1" href="#Page_320">320</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_233">233</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Warrior, <a class="v1" href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_267">267</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Warspite, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Waterwitch, <a class="v1" href="#Page_276">276</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Weymouth class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Whiting, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Wizard, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_76">76</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Wsewolod (Russian), <a class="v1" href="#Page_232">232</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Yarmouth, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="isub1 tpad">Zealous, <a class="v1" href="#Page_263">263</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="isub1">Zelandia, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_108">108</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_234">234</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Ship Money, <a class="v1" href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_69">69</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ships, Short, handy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_264">264</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shipwrights’ Company Established, <a class="v1" href="#Page_59">59</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Short Service System, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shovell, Sir Cloudesley, <a class="v1" href="#Page_98">98</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sidon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_216">216</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Simoon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_223">223</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sinope, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_224">224</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Syracuse, Neutrality of, Disregarded by Nelson, <a class="v1" href="#Page_152">152</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sir Charles Napier, <a class="v1" href="#Page_213">213</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Sirius” and “Magicienne” Aground, <a class="v1" href="#Page_185">185</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sir W. White’s Views on the “Sovereigns,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_65">65</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Slop Chest,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_195">195</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sluys, <a class="v1" href="#Page_24">24</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Small Cruisers and First Cost, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_75">75</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Small German Protected Cruisers, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_197">197</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Smith, Sir Sidney, <a class="v1" href="#Page_180">180</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Smoak-Boat” of Meerlers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_90">90</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sole Bay, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_85">85</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Solid Bulkhead, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Suffren, <a class="v1" href="#Page_129">129</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Southampton Sacked, <a class="v1" href="#Page_23">23</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">South Australia, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Southsea Beach, <a class="v1" href="#Page_175">175</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sovereignty of the British Seas, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_16">16</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sovereignty of the Seas upheld by Cromwell, <a class="v1" href="#Page_75">75</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spain, First War with, <a class="v1" href="#Page_28">28</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spain, Operations against, <a class="v1" href="#Page_45">45</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spanish Instructors in English Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_43">43</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spanish Wars (Succession), <a class="v1" href="#Page_95">95</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spanish Treasure Ship Captured by Captain Anson, <a class="v1" href="#Page_111">111</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spanish Treasure Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_158">158</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Specialisation in Elizabethan Times, <a class="v1" href="#Page_46">46</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Speed in the “Drake” class, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_103">103</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Spit and Polish,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_242">242</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spithead Mutiny, <a class="v1" href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_202">202</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spragge, <a class="v1" href="#Page_85">85</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Andre, Jean Bon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_134">134</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Bride’s Day Massacre, <a class="v1" href="#Page_8">8</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Lucia Captured (1794), <a class="v1" href="#Page_137">137</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Malo, <a class="v1" href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_119">119</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Thomas Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_180">180</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Vincent, <a class="v1" href="#Page_145">145</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">St. Vincent, Cape, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_145">145</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Steam Ships Anticipated, <a class="v1" href="#Page_212">212</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Steam Tugs added to Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_213">213</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Steam Vessel, The First, <a class="v1" href="#Page_215">215</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Steam Vessels, Auxiliary, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Steam Warships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_215">215</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Steering Gear Unprotected, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sterns made Circular, <a class="v1" href="#Page_211">211</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stewart Kings and the Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_87">87</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stones from Aloft, <a class="v1" href="#Page_27">27</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stores regularly Instituted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stour, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_2">2</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stoving, <a class="v1" href="#Page_107">107</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Strachan, Rear Admiral Sir E., <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sub-divisions, <a class="v1" href="#Page_271">271</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Submarine, Americans refuse to officially sanction, <a class="v1" href="#Page_190">190</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Submarine Battleship may appear, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Submarine, First, <a class="v1" href="#Page_59">59</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Submarine, First appearance of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_190">190</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Submarine, First use of, in War, <a class="v1" href="#Page_125">125</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Submarine, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_228">228</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Submarines, a Danger to Big Ships, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_194">194</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Submarines and Harbour Defence, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Succession, War of the Spanish, <a class="v1" href="#Page_95">95</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Super-Dreadnoughts, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Super-heated Steam, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Superior Artillery, <a class="v1" href="#Page_231">231</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Supply of Oak, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Surgeons, <a class="v1" href="#Page_207">207</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_257">257</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sveaborg, <a class="v1" href="#Page_235">235</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Swain, King of Denmark, <a class="v1" href="#Page_8">8</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sweden becomes French Ally, <a class="v1" href="#Page_186">186</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sweden, War with (1715), <a class="v1" href="#Page_105">105</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sweden, Peace with, Declared (1812), <a class="v1" href="#Page_188">188</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Swedish Fleet, <a class="v1" href="#Page_162">162</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sweeps superseded by Paddles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_213">213</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Tactics, <a class="v1" href="#Page_60">60</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tactics at Trafalgar, <a class="v1" href="#Page_176">176</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tactics, Early, <a class="v1" href="#Page_28">28</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tactics, English, <a class="v1" href="#Page_230">230</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tactics, First appearance of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_21">21</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tagus Blockaded, <a class="v1" href="#Page_181">181</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Tailoring,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_260">260</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tarpaulin Seamen, <a class="v1" href="#Page_115">115</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tegethoff at Lissa (analogy), <a class="v1" href="#Page_100">100</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tercera, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_48">48</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Teignmouth Attacked, <a class="v1" href="#Page_89">89</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Texel, <a class="v1" href="#Page_84">84</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thames Iron Works, Blackwall, <a class="v1" href="#Page_250">250</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thames, Project to Block, <a class="v1" href="#Page_84">84</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">The Australian Navy, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_237">237</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">The “Battle of the Boilers,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_93">93</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">The Cape, <a class="v1" href="#Page_176">176</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">The Coming of the Torpedo, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_51">51</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">The “Dreadnought” Commenced, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_149">149</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">The Duties of Naval Airships, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">The Earliest Naval Manœuvres, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_54">54</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">The “Échelon” System Resurrected, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_179">179</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">The First British Ironclads, <a class="v1" href="#Page_249">249</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Theft, Punishment for, <a class="v1" href="#Page_12">12</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">The Future of Submarines, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_215">215</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“The Offensive,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_321">321</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">The Origin of “Dreadnoughts,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_137">137</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">The Periscope, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_208">208</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“The Torpedo Boat, the Answer to the Torpedo Boat,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_212">212</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“The Trafalgar of the Air,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_228">228</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thermite Shell, <a class="v1" href="#Page_244">244</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Theseus,” Nelson’s Ship at Santa Croix, <a class="v1" href="#Page_150">150</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Thieving Pursers,” <a class="v1" href="#Page_201">201</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thompson, Messrs, of Clydebank, <a class="v1" href="#Page_304">304</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thornycroft, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_201">201</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Three Days’ Battle, <a class="v1" href="#Page_76">76</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Three-Masters, <a class="v1" href="#Page_11">11</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Thurot, <a class="v1" href="#Page_121">121</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ticklers, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_253">253</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tiddy, Mr. David, <a class="v1" href="#Page_299">299</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tilset, Peace of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_180">180</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Timber, Boiling, <a class="v1" href="#Page_107">107</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Timber, Supply of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_132">132</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tiptoft, Sir Robert, <a class="v1" href="#Page_22">22</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torpedo (analogy), <a class="v1" href="#Page_41">41</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torpedo Boat, <a class="v1" href="#Page_120">120</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_199">199</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torpedoes anticipated by Reed, <a class="v1" href="#Page_268">268</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torpedo, First use of, from Big Ship in Action, <a class="v1" href="#Page_322">322</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torpedo Gun-Boats, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_77">77</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torpedo, The, <a class="v1" href="#Page_228">228</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torpedoes, <a class="v1" href="#Page_322">322</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torpedo Progress, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_203">203</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Torrington, <a class="v1" href="#Page_88">88</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Toulon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_171">171</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Toulon Abandoned, <a class="v1" href="#Page_133">133</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Toulon, Attack on Defeated (1707), <a class="v1" href="#Page_103">103</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Toulon, Royalists at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_133">133</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Toulouse, Comte de, <a class="v1" href="#Page_98">98</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trafalgar, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_232">232</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trafalgar, First Battle deliberately fought under White Ensign, <a class="v1" href="#Page_210">210</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trafalgar, Losses to the Allied Fleets at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trafalgar Made a Certainty, <a class="v1" href="#Page_166">166</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trafalgar, Tactics at, <a class="v1" href="#Page_175">175</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Training, Lack of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Training of Gunners, <a class="v1" href="#Page_241">241</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Treadwell, Professor Daniel, <a class="v1" href="#Page_244">244</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Treasure Ships Captured (Spanish), <a class="v1" href="#Page_158">158</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Trident,” First Iron Warship, <a class="v1" href="#Page_219">219</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trinidad, <a class="v1" href="#Page_214">214</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tripod Masts, <a class="v1" href="#Page_287">287</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_186">186</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Troubridge, <a class="v1" href="#Page_152">152</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trousers, Ample, <a class="v1" href="#Page_196">196</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tsushima, <a class="v1" href="#Page_244">244</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tudor Navy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_35">35</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tumble Home Sides, <a class="v1" href="#Page_41">41</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turbines Introduced for Big Ships, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_155">155</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turning Circles, <a class="v1" href="#Page_272">272</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turkish Monster Guns, <a class="v1" href="#Page_179">179</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turret Craze, <a class="v1" href="#Page_275">275</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turret on Rollers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_275">275</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turret Ships, Idea of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_275">275</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turret Ship, Sea-Going Masted, <a class="v1" href="#Page_276">276</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turret Ship Controversy, <a class="v1" href="#Page_292">292</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turret Ships, Panic About, <a class="v1" href="#Page_292">292</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Twelve-Inch “A,” <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_175">175</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Two-Power Standard, <a class="v1" href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_131">131</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Under-Water Protection, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Uniform, Anson’s Use of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_113">113</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Uniform, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_25">25</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Uniform Badge of Pressed Men and Jail Birds, <a class="v1" href="#Page_195">195</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Uniform, Description of First, <a class="v1" href="#Page_194">194</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Uniform, First Use of, for Officers, <a class="v1" href="#Page_194">194</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Union Flag Altered, <a class="v1" href="#Page_209">209</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Union Jack, <a class="v1" href="#Page_209">209</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">United Provinces, <a class="v1" href="#Page_63">63</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Unprotected Steering Gear, <a class="v1" href="#Page_257">257</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Unscrupulous Contractors, <a class="v1" href="#Page_65">65</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ushant, <a class="v1" href="#Page_125">125</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">U.S. Monitors, <a class="v1" href="#Page_285">285</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Vaisseaux Blindées, <a class="v1" href="#Page_248">248</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Drebel, <a class="v1" href="#Page_59">59</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Vanguard,” The, Nelson in, <a class="v1" href="#Page_152">152</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Van Tromp, <a class="v1" href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_84">84</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Venetian Frigates Captured, <a class="v1" href="#Page_187">187</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Vengeur” Sunk (1795), <a class="v1" href="#Page_136">136</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ventilation, <a class="v1" href="#Page_115">115</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ventilation, Artificial, <a class="v1" href="#Page_225">225</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vernon, Admiral, <a class="v1" href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_109">109</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Versailles, Treaty of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_130">130</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vickers, Lts., <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_192">192</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Villaret-Joyeuse, <a class="v1" href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_139">139</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Villeneuve, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Villeneuve Appointed, <a class="v1" href="#Page_169">169</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Villeneuve Gets Out of Toulon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_171">171</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Villeneuve Returns to Toulon, <a class="v1" href="#Page_172">172</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Victualling, <a class="v1" href="#Page_146">146</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Walpole, <a class="v1" href="#Page_107">107</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">War, Contraband of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_161">161</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">“War Scare” with Germany in 1911, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_185">185</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wars of the Roses, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Warwick, Earl of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_33">33</a>, v. i;
+  <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_198">198</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Warry (Early Idea of Quick Firer), <a class="v1" href="#Page_242">242</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Walcheren Expedition, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Watts, Isaac, Sir, <a class="v1" href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_258">258</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Waterloo, Battle of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_193">193</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Weather Gauge, <a class="v1" href="#Page_21">21</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Western Australia, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">West Indies, <a class="v1" href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Whitehead, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_204">204</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">White, of Cowes, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_232">232</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Whitworth, Works of, <a class="v1" href="#Page_239">239</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Who First Adopted Cuniberti Ideas?, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_159">159</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Why France was Beaten, <a class="v1" href="#Page_233">233</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Willaumez, Leaves Brest, <a class="v1" href="#Page_182">182</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Willaumez, Rear Admiral, <a class="v1" href="#Page_177">177</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Willaumez Blockaded in Basque Roads, <a class="v1" href="#Page_182">182</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Will Dreadnoughts Die Out?, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_195">195</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">William of Orange, <a class="v1" href="#Page_88">88</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">William the Conqueror, <a class="v1" href="#Page_10">10</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wire Guns, Early, <a class="v1" href="#Page_247">247</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wolfe, <a class="v1" href="#Page_122">122</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wood-Copper Sheathing Re-introduced, <a class="v1" href="#Page_295">295</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Woolwich, <a class="v1" href="#Page_183">183</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">World Circumnavigated by Drake, <a class="v1" href="#Page_45">45</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Yarmouth Ships, <a class="v1" href="#Page_22">22</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Yarrow Boilers, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_97">97</a>, <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_196">196</a>, v. ii</li>
+
+<li class="indx">York, New, <a class="v1" href="#Page_237">237</a>, v. i</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Zarate, Don Francisco de, <a class="v1" href="#Page_46">46</a>, v. i</li>
+
+<li class="indx">Zeppelin Type (Dirigible), <a class="v2" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/75617/75617-h/75617-h.htm#Page_227">227</a>, v. ii</li>
+</ul>
+</div></div>
+
+
+
+<div class="chapter section transnote">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2>
+
+<p>Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made
+consistent when a predominant preference was found
+in the original book; otherwise they were not changed.</p>
+
+<p>Omitted and incorrect accent marks have not been
+remedied.</p>
+
+<p>Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced
+quotation marks were remedied when the change was
+obvious, and otherwise left unbalanced.</p>
+
+<p>Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned
+between paragraphs and outside quotations. In versions
+of this eBook that support hyperlinks, the page
+references in the List of Illustrations lead to the
+corresponding illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>Footnotes, originally at the bottoms of the pages that referenced them,
+have been collected, sequentially renumbered, and placed at the end of
+the book.
+</p>
+
+<p>In the original two-volume set, the index for both volumes was
+printed at the end of the second volume. The Transcriber has copied
+that index to the first volume. In versions of this ebook that support
+hyperlinks, both copies of the index link to pages in both volumes, by
+referencing the Project Gutenberg copy of the other volume. Those links
+to the other volume are double-underlined, and generally will work only
+within a Browser.</p>
+
+<p>Many alphebetization errors in the index were
+remedied, but some may remain. Page references in
+the index were checked automatically, but some may
+be incorrect.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75616 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
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diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #75616 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/75616)