diff options
Diffstat (limited to '75545-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 75545-0.txt | 4574 |
1 files changed, 4574 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/75545-0.txt b/75545-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e3e9e6a --- /dev/null +++ b/75545-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4574 @@ + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75545 *** + + + + + + THE ROMANCE OF COMETS + + +[Illustration: + + PROFESSOR E. E. BARNARD +] + + + + + The Romance of Comets + + + _By_ MARY PROCTOR, F.R.A.S., F.R.Met.S. + + (Daughter of the late Richard A. Proctor) + _Author of “Evenings with the Stars,” “Stories of Starland,” “Giant Sun + and His Family,” “Legends of the Stars,” “The Children’s Book of the + Heavens,” Etc._ + + ILLUSTRATED + +[Illustration: [Logo]] + + HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS + NEW YORK AND LONDON MCMXXVI + + + + + THE ROMANCE OF COMETS: MADE IN + THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA + COPYRIGHT, 1926, BY HARPER + AND BROTHERS PUBLISHERS + NEW YORK AND + LONDON + E-A + + + + + _Dedicated_ + + TO THE MEMORY OF + + _my kind and helpful friend_ + + PROFESSOR E. E. BARNARD + + + + + _Contents_ + + + PREFACE xi + _Chapter One_: COMETS AS PORTENTS 1 + _Chapter Two_: COMET-HUNTING AS A HOBBY 16 + _Chapter Three_: THE STORY OF DONATI’S COMET 37 + _Chapter Four_: COMETS IN DISTRESS 46 + _Chapter Five_: PHOTOGRAPHY AS APPLIED TO COMETS 67 + _Chapter Six_: RETURN OF HALLEY’S COMET IN 1910 94 + _Chapter Seven_: ORIGIN OF COMETS AND METEORS 133 + _Chapter Eight_: METEOR STREAMS 168 + _Chapter Nine_: DID LIFE FIRST COME TO THIS EARTH IN A METEOR? 196 + + + + + _Illustrations_ + + + PROFESSOR E. E. BARNARD _Frontispiece_ + _facing page_ + DAYLIGHT COMET 1910 A 8 + THE COMET-SEEKER ON THE ROOF OF THE YERKES OBSERVATORY, + AT WILLIAMS BAY, WISCONSIN 18 + COMET OF DONATI 42 + PHOTOGRAPH OF MOREHOUSE COMET, 1908 C 68 + JOHN TEBBUTT, NOTED COMET-HUNTER OF WINDSOR, N. S. W. 70 + THE GREAT DAYLIGHT COMET, SEPTEMBER, 1882 80 + PHOTOGRAPH OF A BRIGHT METEOR, BY DR. W. J. S. LOCKYER 84 + COMET 1893 IV BROOKS 92 + HALLEY’S COMET AND THE PLANET VENUS 94 + HALLEY’S COMET 110 + COMET 1861, JULY 2, AS SEEN AND DRAWN BY R. A. PROCTOR 118 + HALLEY’S COMET 124 + THE ORBIT OF HALLEY’S COMET 126 + THE SOUTHERN COMET OF JANUARY, 1887 144 + OUTH LODGE, KEITHICK, WHERE THE STRATHMORE METEORITE + FELL THROUGH THE ROOF, DECEMBER 3, 1917 200 + STRATHMORE METEORITE, ESSENDY FRAGMENT 202 + + + + + _Preface_ + + +This book contains an account of some of the quaint ideas entertained +regarding comets, meteors, and shooting stars in the days of long ago, +when they were looked upon with apprehension and fear. Their appearance +was supposed to herald coming disaster, until Science lifted the veil +which obscured their real meaning from view. As soon as it was known +that these visitants from the star-depths were composed of such airy +texture that, as Sir John Herschel once expressed it, they could be +easily packed in a portmanteau, tail and all, the fear of comets was at +an end, and their appearance is nowadays hailed with delight. + +Possibly no one appreciated this fact more strongly than the late +Professor Barnard of the Yerkes Observatory, at Williams Bay, Wisconsin; +and as Professor Frost, the director of the observatory, remarks, in a +letter granting the author a permit for the use of several photographs +of comets taken by him, “it is most appropriate that your book should be +dedicated to him, as he certainly had an ardor in observing and studying +comets that has seldom been equaled.” + +In the chapter on “Comet-hunting as a Hobby,” after describing how +popular it was some years ago, when cash prizes were offered to +successful finders, an instance is given thereof in the story related by +the late Professor E. E. Barnard, entitled “The House that was Built +with Comets.” As a matter of fact, it was built by means of financial +aid obtained in this way. Shooting stars also come in for their due +share of attention, as well as fireballs which present rather an +alarming aspect until one realizes that the sudden blaze of light +indicates their annihilation. + +The book is illustrated with prints, charts, drawings, and photographs, +and permits for their use are gratefully acknowledged to the Astronomer +Royal, in connection with photographs obtained at the Royal Observatory, +Greenwich; and to the directors of the Cape of Good Hope and +Johannesburg Observatories in Africa, and the Yerkes Observatory in U. +S. A. Also for permission kindly given by the director of Harvard +College Observatory, U. S. A., to make a copy from a drawing of Donati’s +comet, made by Professor Bond in the year 1858. + +Grateful acknowledgment is made to Mr. W. F. Denning (Bristol) for the +loan of the photograph of the Strathmore meteorite, which fell December +3, 1917, making a hole in the roof of Outh Lodge, Keithwick. + +The author is specially indebted to Mr. Denning for his kindness in +looking over the MS. of Chapter VIII, which deals with “Meteor Streams +and Shooting Stars”; and to Dr. A. C. D. Crommelin for a like favor in +connection with the chapters dealing with “Halley’s Comet as Seen in +1910,” and the “Origin of Comets and Meteors,” the most important +chapter in the book. It incorporates the views advanced by my father +some thirty-five years ago, concerning the ejection theory of comets, +stanchly advocated by Dr. Crommelin, as compared with the more modern +capture theory. The chapter is also of special interest, as, in a way, +it partly supplies the missing chapter in my father’s unfinished work, +_Old and New Astronomy_. + + MARY PROCTOR. + + + LONDON, _April, 1926_. + + + + + CHAPTER ONE + COMETS AS PORTENTS + + “Lo! from the dread immensity of Space, + Returning with accelerated pace, + The rushing comet to the sun descends: + And, as he shrinks below the shading Earth, + With awful train projected o’er the Heavens, + The guilty nations tremble.” + —THOMSON. + + +Can there be anything more awe-inspiring to the superstitious than the +stealthy approach of a comet as it wends its way among the stars, +finally blazing out with a marvelous train as it draws near to the sun +to pay homage? As a distant relative of that luminary, it comes for an +occasional visit from far-off realms, and after a brief display during +which it adorns itself with a splendor befitting the momentous occasion, +it withdraws into the obscurity from which it emerged. In these +enlightened days a comet is greeted with enthusiasm, and the camera +keeps a faithful record of its varying appearance, but in olden times it +was regarded as a portent of evil. + +Comets have sometimes been pictured as dragons, and according to Pliny +the shape of a comet indicated its character as a portent. Thus, some +were shown as arrow heads, sea monsters, swords, lances, and flames. In +A.D. 69, according to Josephus, several signs appeared in the sky +announcing the destruction of Jerusalem. + + “Amongst other warnings, a comet, one of the kind called Xiphias, + because their tails appear to represent the blade of a sword, was + seen above the city for the space of a whole year.” + +Regarding the comet of A.D. 79, it is said to have preceded the death of +the Roman Emperor Vespasian. When the physicians reproved the emperor +for continuing to live as usual, attending to the business of the state, +although attacked by a serious malady, he replied, “It is fitting that +an emperor should die standing.” Then perceiving some courtiers who were +conversing together in a low tone of voice about the comet, gazing +significantly in his direction meanwhile, he remarked: “This hairy star +does not concern me; it menaces rather the King of the Parthians, for he +is hairy and I am bald.” Feeling his end approach, he observed, “I think +that I am becoming a god.” + +Virgil compares a hero in his shining armor to a comet, and makes +another allusion to these objects at the end of the first Georgic (Bk. +I, 487–488) in the couplet thus rendered by the Rev. Canon Newbolt: + + “At no other time did more thunderbolts fall in a clear sky, nor so + often did dread comets blaze.” + +In the natural history of Pliny we find several passages relating to the +significance attached to comets by the ancients. For instance, when +referring to the comet of 48 B.C., he observes: + + “We have in the war between Cæsar and Pompey an example of the + terrible effects which follow the apparition of a comet.... That + fearful star, which overthrows the powers of the earth, showed its + terrible locks.” + +The superstitious dread in which comets were held in the Middle Ages is +exemplified in the gloomy forebodings of disaster, such as wars, +pestilence, and the death of kings, when these apparitions were seen in +the heavens. Well known is Shakespeare’s allusion to comets in Act II, +Sc. 2 of “Julius Cæsar”: + + “When beggars die, there are no comets seen; + The heavens themselves blaze forth the death of princes.” + +In “Henry VI” we find the following passage in Part I, Act I, Sc. 1: + + “Comets, importing change of times and states + Brandish your crystal tresses in the sky; + And with them scourge the bad revolting stars + That have consented unto Henry’s death.” + +The comet of A.D. 451 or A.D. 453 announced the death of Attila, and the +comet of A.D. 455 that of the Emperor Valentinian. So widely spread was +the belief in the connection between the death of the great, and these +menacing signs in the heavens, that the chroniclers of old appear to +have recorded comets which were never seen, such as the comet of A.D. +814, which was supposed to have presaged the death of Charlemagne. + +When the end of the world was expected in A.D. 1000, the most simple +phenomena assumed terrible proportions. We are told of earthquakes, and +a comet visible for nine days. + + “The heavens having opened, a kind of burning torch fell upon the + earth, leaving behind it a long train of light similar to a flash of + lightning. Such was its light that it frightened not only those who + were in the open country, but those who were within doors. As this + opening in the heavens closed imperceptibly there became visible the + figure of a dragon, whose feet were blue, and whose head seemed + continually to increase.” + +However, this was more likely the momentary appearance of a shooting +star or fireball, than the comet which the chronicler records as +remaining visible for nine days. + +A terrible picture accompanies the description, showing a meteor track +so arranged as to resemble the outline of a dragon, and lest the +resemblance might not seem convincing enough, a fearsome looking dragon +to match is set beside the celestial apparition labeled “_Serpens cum +ceruleis pedibus_.” + +Fortunately, people were too busy in those “good old times” fighting and +plundering one another to pay much heed to these omens in the sky. +Moreover, with regard to the threatened end of the world, many contented +themselves with the reflection that they could not be much worse off, +even if the world should perish at that period. Consequently, a comet +scare was averted, and we have clear evidence that, as far as the +predicted catastrophe was concerned, everything went on as usual. A.D. +1000 came and went, and still the world endured. + +Great importance has been attached to the seeming connection between +Halley’s famous comet and the portent theory, with striking events which +have occurred upon the occasion of its several returns. For instance, at +its return in A.D. 66 it was probably the sword of fire described by +Josephus as suspended over Jerusalem not long before the destruction of +that city by Titus. Its appearance in A.D. 451 coincided with the defeat +of Attila at Châlons, and it was pictured in the _Nuremberg Chronicle_ +for A.D. 684. + +It is well known in connection with the famous Bayeux tapestry into +which Queen Matilda wove the story of William the Conqueror’s defeat of +Harold on the memorable occasion of the battle of Hastings, A.D. 1066. +People are shown pointing to an object in the sky, which is labeled +_Isti Mirant Stellam_, the wonderful so-called “hairy star” which +supposedly heralded the success of the Conqueror. + +On an adjoining panel is pictured the dejected Harold about to topple +off his throne, and a solitary attendant expressing alarm at the +defeated monarch’s precarious position, but apparently offering no +assistance of value. Thus the comet on this occasion served the double +purpose, it would seem, of announcing success on the one hand and defeat +on the other. Undoubtedly it caused great alarm on account of its +brightness and rapid motion. + +In 1456 it returned at a period of great anxiety, when the Turks, having +taken possession of Constantinople three years before, now turned their +attention to Belgrade, which they were besieging. It happened that the +moon was passing through the crescent phase at the time, and Halley’s +comet presented the appearance of a sword. The crescent moon, resembling +the Turkish emblem, is said to have been considered an evil omen by the +Turks, contributing eventually to their defeat. + +Coming to our own times, it is surprising the amount of fear and +distress which was caused at the return of Halley’s comet in 1910. +Insanity and even cases of suicide followed at its approach, and there +is a well-authenticated case of an enthusiastic young lady in New +Jersey, U. S. A., who declared her intention of following the comet +wheresoever it went, but was restrained by her friends, and temporary +seclusion in an asylum, from this perilous pursuit. + +As the time drew near for the comet to pass from the morning to the +evening sky, when, according to calculations, it would cross the plane +of the earth’s orbit at a point exactly between the earth and the sun, +fresh alarm was caused lest the earth, in plunging through the débris of +the comet’s train, might come to grief in consequence. A report that we +should be asphyxiated by the poisonous gases, such as cyanogen, of which +the train was said to be partly composed, did not tend to lessen the +alarm. Cautious folk laid in a supply of bottles of oxygen to sustain +life during the fatal night, and one or two of a pessimistic turn of +mind actually forestalled the expected tragedy by committing suicide. +Yet nothing happened, for the simple reason that on the night of the +great adventure the comet obligingly spread its tail so widely apart, +that we passed unharmed between two sections thereof. + +[Illustration: + + _Drawn by M. Proctor_ + + DAYLIGHT COMET 1910 A + + As seen at Newcastletown Moor, January 28, by the author +] + +Nevertheless, despite a few tragedies consequent upon fear at the +comet’s near approach, the lurking dread of evil it might have had in +store for us was considerably less on the occasion of the return of +Halley’s comet in 1910, than was usual in the gloomy, prognosticating +period of the Middle Ages. Yet certain events occurred which made some +people wonder if there was not a kernel of truth in the so-called +portents after all. For instance, during the month of January (in the +eventful year 1910) the so-called Daylight comet—a totally unexpected +visitor to the sun’s domain—blazed out in the evening sky and the people +of Paris saw its reflection in the flood which threatened to destroy +their city. In May, while Londoners were watching for Halley’s comet, +which proved to be a very disappointing spectacle in this part of the +world, the body of King Edward the Seventh lay in state at Westminster. +“What wonder,” as Mr. Arthur R. Hinks observes in his book entitled +_Astronomy_, “that the imagination seizes upon these deplorable +coincidences and the fear of comets dies hard among us?” + +Tennyson thus refers to Halley’s comet in his poem “Harold”: + + “Lo! there once more—this is the seventh night + You grimly-glaring, treble-brandished scourge of England. + + · · · · · + + Look you, there’s a star. + + · · · · · + + It glares in heaven, it flares upon the Thames, + The people are as thick as bees below, + They hum like bees—they cannot speak—for awe, + Lord Leodwin, dost thou believe that these + Three rods of blood-red fire up yonder mean + The doom of England and the wrath of Heaven?” + +Milton in “Paradise Lost” compares Satan to a comet: + + “That fires the length of Ophiuchus huge + In the Arctic sky, and from his horrid hair + Shakes pestilence and war.” + +It has been suggested that the poet was doubtless referring to the comet +of 1618, which was held responsible for the great Thirty Years’ War. +Milton was only ten years old at the time, but the impression made on +his mind by this magnificent comet with a train 104° long (or over +twenty times the distance separating the pointers in the constellation +of the Great Bear), “may well have lasted until he wrote the above lines +as a man of fifty.”[1] + +Elsewhere, in “Paradise Lost,” Milton refers to a comet as the +brandish’d sword of God: + + “... before them blaz’d + Fierce as a Comet: which, with torrid heat, + And vapours as the Lybian air adust, + Began to parch that Temperate clime.” + +According to the translation by Longfellow, Dante in his “Paradiso,” +Canto XXIV, refers to comets as “souls beatified.” + + “Thus Beatrice: and those souls beatified + Transformed themselves to spheres on steadfast poles + Flaming intensely in the guise of Comets.” + +Turning to the _Avesta_ writings, we find that the Parsees of ancient +Persia classified comets as parihs, or fairies. _Pari_ is the Iranian +word for fairy, and is derived from the word “par,” meaning to tempt, to +enchant. The English word “fairy” also comes from a similar root, +“fier,” to enchant. + +Nevertheless, these cometary fairies are not the dainty beings of +English folk-lore, but are described in the _Avesta_ as “ill-born +fairies,” their appearance in the sky inspiring terror, since they are +supposed to bring disease, calamity, and death in their wake. In the +picturesque language of the Persian writer, “the distress of the earth +becomes as that of a sheep when a wolf falls upon it.” + +The following quaint account of the influence of a comet is given in the +_Avesta_. + + “A hairy comet appeared in the year 662, Hijri, and the increase of + the splendour of the world was in Leo. The strange thing was that it + appeared to be of the proportion of the head of a big man and + emitted steam from the front. It passed over the countries of Tibet, + Turkestan, China, Kashgar and remained visible for 85 days. In all + these countries there arose rebellions. In Khorassan calamities of + thunder and lightning and other such phenomena appeared. + + “Many years and many months had passed over this event, and then in + 803, a tailed comet appeared in the zenith of Constantinople. + Astrologers informed Timur that from what the wise and the + experienced have said, it appears that an army coming from the + direction of the east will be victorious in that country, and a + general from that country will assist him. Timur (literally: the + illuminator of the face of fortune), who was always expecting an + invasion of the country, but whose companions of poor intelligence + did not acquiesce, attended to that prediction and convinced the + great and small of his court, of the truth and insight of the + star-seers. The learned in the mysteries of the heavens are + convinced of this, that if the comet appears within the boundaries + of a country, its king dies. If it is inclined towards the boundary, + the country of the governor passes away from his hands, and plague + and disease add to the afflictions of the country.”[2] + +Some of the Pahlavi books refer to a comet as “the thievish Mushpar +provided with tails.” The comet was classified as an evil spirit in +company with planets and meteors which wandered hither and thither; +while the sun, moon, and fixed stars were considered good spirits, +because they were always to be found at appointed times in their places +in the sky. + +In the mythology of China and Japan we find that comets were supposed to +be celestial representatives of every country on the earth, and occupied +the important position of ambassadors journeying from one celestial +region to another, and giving forecasts of terrestrial events of +importance. For this reason, careful records were kept of the dates of +their appearance and the paths along which they traveled, thus enabling +astronomers of to-day to trace back the path of Halley’s comet, for +instance, to a very remote era. Whatever the motive that prompted the +accumulation of records, they have proved of the utmost value. + +Comets are called “broom stars” in China, a name derived from the form +of their tails, which have the very prosaic name of brooms (sui or +soui). A comet without a tail was referred to as merely a star, or a +guest star, from its visiting the provinces and taking up its abode in +different places, as at an inn. + + “Their home was in the vestibule of the celestial palaces; there, + under an invisible form, they awaited the order of departure,” says + Pingré, “the order sent, they became visible and commenced their + journey. If, whilst on their way they put forth a tail, the star was + said to have become a comet.” + +The above quotation, remarks the same author, explains: + + “the foolish and singular idea that the Chinese formed of the + heavens. According to them, the heavens represented a great empire, + composed of kingdoms and provinces; these provinces were the + constellations; there was decided all that would happen for good or + ill to the great terrestrial empire, that is, to China. The planets + were the administrators or superintendents of the celestial + republic, the stars were their ministers, and the comets their + couriers or messengers. The planets sent their messengers from time + to time to visit the provinces for the purpose of restoring or + maintaining order, but all that was done in the heavens above was + either the cause or the forerunner of what was to happen below.” + +The ideas of the Chinese were not more foolish than the extravagant +myths of the ancients, and of the Europeans in the Middle Ages. +Nevertheless, although comets are no longer regarded with superstitious +awe, mystery still clings to them. For those who are unaware of the fact +that astronomers can trace their paths, predict the periodic returns of +these wanderers, and even analyze the substance of which they are +composed, there are many problems concerning them still awaiting +solution. + + + + + CHAPTER TWO + COMET-HUNTING AS A HOBBY + + + “I have the greatest admiration for a man or woman who discovers a + comet, because I know of the hard and thorough work which the success + implies.” + + —W. R. BROOKS, the noted American comet-hunter. + + +To hunt for a comet in the ocean of space is as fascinating a hobby in +its way as angling for a wily fish, requiring in either case an +unlimited supply of perseverance, patience, and spare time. In place of +fishing tackle one requires a telescope with an aperture of four or six +inches, though excellent work has been accomplished with smaller +instruments. It should be erected in a position commanding a clear view +of the horizon either eastward or westward, as comets travel in the wake +of the rising or setting sun. During the daytime a glance at a map +showing the region of the sky to be examined in the evening will save an +endless waste of time, to say nothing of the disappointment when the +suspected object proves to be a nebula and not a comet. On the other +hand, fuzzy-looking objects resembling comets have been mistaken for +nebulæ when in reality they _were_ comets. For instance, in looking over +Sir William Herschel’s list of 1,000 nebulæ and clusters, presented by +him to the Royal Society in 1786, suspicion is aroused by the following +entry: “Some of the shape of a fan, resembling an electric brush, +issuing from a lucid point, others of the cometic shape, with a seeming +nucleus in the center, or like cloudy stars surrounded with a nebulous +atmosphere.” (_Philosophical Transactions_, Vol. LXXIV, p. 442.) As we +shall see later on, the descriptions tally with the appearance of comets +which have been photographed. + +Nebulæ and clusters likely to be on the list of “suspects” have been +charted in my father’s _New Star Atlas_, edition 1915, containing maps +of all the stars down to the sixth magnitude (that is, all stars which +can be seen with the naked eye), as well as the positions of nebulæ, +clusters, and fainter stars which become visible with the aid of a small +telescope. It is a compact, handy volume, serving as an excellent guide +for the amateur comet-hunter in his rambles through starland in search +of cometary prey. + +Provided with a copy of this book, and allowed the privilege of using +the Brashear (name of the maker), Comet-Seeker, which is stationed on +the main roof of the Yerkes Observatory at Williams Bay, Wisconsin, U. +S. A., the writer spent many a delightful evening during the summer of +1910, scanning the evening sky for celestial wanderers. Unable to resist +the temptation to linger by the way in admiration of double stars, +clusters, and nebulæ strewn along the highways and byways of starland, +comets missed recognition.[3] Nevertheless, the evenings spent with the +little comet-seeker were a source of unqualified delight, though no +comet hove in sight. + +The telescope of six inches aperture, easily handled, is inclosed in a +sort of cabin which rolls on wheels. This can be pushed backward a +certain distance, leaving the instrument out in the open air. +Fortunately, the width of the cabin was such that it was just possible +for the writer to catch hold of the rods on each side, drawing them +backward the distance required; while shutting it was an easier matter, +requiring as a rule a gentle push, sending the cabin back on the rollers +provided for this purpose. Before doing so, however, the telescope was +leveled and carefully wrapped up to keep it free from any moisture or +dampness which might penetrate from the outside, and anyone who has +passed a winter in Wisconsin knows something of the deep snowdrifts +which must settle several feet deep in such an exposed site as the main +roof of the Yerkes Observatory building. After the cabin has been +closed, it is hooked at the sides and remains so until the services of +the telescope within are once more required. + +[Illustration: + + THE COMET-SEEKER ON THE ROOF OF THE YERKES OBSERVATORY, AT WILLIAMS + BAY, WISCONSIN +] + +Then the cabin is reopened and the wrappings are removed from the +telescope, which is turned in the direction of a specially selected +star. This is kept in the center of the field of view, which is marked +by the intersection of two threads made from a spider’s web. As there is +no clockwork attachment, the telescope is guided by means of a small +screw like a miniature wheel or helm, enabling the observer to pilot his +or her way through the ocean of space. Then a keen search is made in the +surrounding region, and if nothing in the way of a comet “stands +revealed” to the searching eye of the telescope, another region is +explored, so that a more or less extended expanse of sky comes under +observation during the course of the evening. On one eventful occasion a +supposed comet was glimpsed and its position duly charted with regard to +neighboring stars. However, on reference to the star map the +fuzzy-looking object proved to be a nebula. Supposing by any possibility +the suspected object _had_ been a comet, this could have been proved +beyond doubt by watching it for two or three evenings in succession. The +presence of a comet can be detected as it slowly drifts against a +background composed of the stars, while the nebula is at a distance so +remote that an observer would have to watch for centuries before he +detected any perceptible motion. + +Nevertheless, there is a close resemblance between the hazy-looking +objects known as nebulæ and comets when they emerge from obscurity. For +this reason, they gave a great deal of trouble to Messier, a French +astronomer of the eighteenth century. So keen was he on capturing comets +that Louis XV nicknamed him “the Ferret of Comets.” Consequently, we can +imagine his annoyance, after discovering a supposed comet, at finding it +was merely a cloudy-looking object which he termed a nebula. He kept a +careful record of these “embarrassing objects,” so that he might not be +led astray by them again, and labeled them Messier 1, Messier 2, and +Messier 3, in the order of discovery, and these are usually briefly +recorded on star maps as M1, M2, M3, etc. In this way, Messier made a +list of forty-five nebulæ, which he entered in a catalogue published at +Paris in 1771. A century later (1871) the list had been enlarged by one +hundred and three discoveries. For the listing of these “embarrassing +objects,” as Messier termed them, we are greatly indebted, since in +recent years photography has revealed the fact that they are among the +most marvelous objects in the heavens. + +With the assistance of a small two-foot telescope of two and a half +inches aperture, magnifying five times, and with a field of view +covering four or five degrees, Messier discovered thirteen comets. His +first comet dates from 1760, and another French astronomer named Pons, +who discovered a comet in 1802, joined him in the pioneer work of making +a systematic search for comets. It is interesting to note that Pons was +a doorkeeper at the Observatory at Marseilles, and, owing to the +teaching and encouragement he received from Thulis, the director, he +achieved phenomenal success as a comet-hunter. A third name must be +added to the list of these enterprising searchers after cometary prey, +_viz._, that of Montaigne, between whom and Messier existed a keen +rivalry. The following story shows the importance attached by the latter +to each comet captured. + +It seems that on one occasion Messier, who had discovered twelve comets, +was looking for his thirteenth, when his wife was taken seriously ill +and died. While attending to her he was hindered in his search for the +comet which was found by his rival, Montaigne. When some one sympathized +with him about the loss he had sustained he said, “Alas! Montaigne has +robbed me of my thirteenth comet!” Then realizing that he should be +mourning the loss of his wife, he added the remark, “Ah! poor woman!” +but he continued grieving for his lost comet. + +Apparently Messier’s path was beset with difficulties, for in his book +entitled _Planetary Worlds_ Breen tells us that on one occasion while +Messier was walking in President Saron’s garden he was doubtless looking +up at the sky on the chance of detecting a comet, when he fell into an +icehouse, and was temporarily disabled. Later on, we are told in the +same book, the revolution deprived Messier of his little income and +every evening he was wont to repair to the house of the noted astronomer +Lalande to replenish the supply of oil for his midnight lamp. The +political storm made it necessary for him to remove to another +neighborhood, “where he no longer heard the clocks of forty-two churches +sounding the hours during the night watchings.” + +Possibly his most trying experience occurred in connection with the +expected return of Halley’s comet in 1758. It was first observed by a +farmer named Palitzsch, living at Prohlis, near Dresden, who saw it on +Christmas Day, 1758, with a telescope of eight-foot focus. He was an +amateur astronomer possessed of keen sight, and was in the habit of +searching the heavens with the naked eye, which seems to have given rise +to the statement that he found Halley’s comet with the naked eye at a +time when the professional astronomers were searching for it in vain +with their telescopes. + +Meanwhile, Messier had been carrying on a prolonged watch of the +heavens, extending over the whole of the year 1758, but he did not +actually get a view of Halley’s comet until January 21, 1759, when he +observed it regularly for three weeks. He was the first noted astronomer +to do so, but according to the account given by J. Russell Hind, in his +book on _The Comets_ (page 41): + + “Delisle, then director of the Observatory at Paris, would not allow + him to give notice to the astronomers of that city that the + long-expected body was in sight, and Messier remained the only + observer before the comet was lost in the sun’s rays. Such a + discreditable and selfish concealment of an interesting discovery is + not likely to sully again the annals of astronomy. Some members of + the French Academy looked upon Messier’s observations, when + published, as forgeries, but his name stood too high for such + imputations to last long, and the positions were soon received as + authentic, and have been of great service in correcting the orbit of + the comet at this (1835) return.” + +The name of J. R. Hind, by the way, is the only English one included in +the list of those who received a gold medal given to the discoverer of +telescopic comets by Frederick VI, King of Denmark, who instituted the +distribution of this award in the year 1835. The gold medal was also won +by an American astronomer, Maria Mitchell, who discovered a comet, +October 1, 1847, while engaged in making observations from the roof of +the Nantucket Athenæum. When eighteen years old she was appointed +librarian at the Athenæum, which position she held for twenty years. The +roof of the building was her observatory. In 1865 she became professor +of astronomy at Vassar College, a position she retained until her health +permitted her to do so no longer. + +The grant of the medal by King Frederick VI was discontinued after the +death of his successor, Christian VIII, in 1848. The Vienna Academy of +Sciences formerly gave a gold medal to the discoverer of every new +comet, but this also was discontinued in 1880. Then Mr. H. H. Warner, a +wealthy American, came to the rescue and offered a prize of two hundred +dollars for every unexpected comet found by an observer in Canada or U. +S. A., which brings us to the story told in the autobiography of the +late Professor E. E. Barnard, one of the most successful competitors. He +had nineteen comets to his credit, resulting in the erection of what he +quaintly termed “The house that was built with comets.” + + “Times were hard in the last of the ’seventies and the first of the + ’eighties, and money was scarce. It had taken all that I could save + to buy my small telescope. I had been searching for comets for + upward of a year with no success, when a prize of two hundred + dollars for the discovery of each new comet was offered (in 1880) by + the founder of the Warner Observatory through the agency of Dr. + Lewis Swift, its director. Soon after this it happened that I found + a new comet and was awarded the prize. Then came the question, ‘What + shall we do with the money?’ After due deliberation it was decided + that we [referring to Mrs. Barnard] would try to get a home of our + own with it. I had always longed for such a home where one could + plant trees and watch them grow up and call them our own. So we + bought a lot with part of the money, which was on what was + afterwards called Belmont Avenue, but which was not then even a + road. It was hard to find the lot after it was bought, for it was + out in the open common. The place was in the midst of a scattered + settlement of negro shanties, where the negroes had ‘squatted’ after + the war, though on beautiful rising ground which I had selected in + part because it gave me a clear horizon with my telescope. + + “After some saving and some borrowing, and mainly a mortgage on the + lot, we built a little frame cottage where my mother, my wife, and I + went to live. Those were happy days, though the struggle for a + livelihood was a hard one, with working from early to late for a + bare sustenance (and the hope of paying off the mortgage), and + sitting up all the rest of the twenty-four hours, hunting for + comets. + + “We could only look forward with dread to the meeting of the notes + that must come due. However, when the first note was due a faint + comet was discovered wandering along the outskirts of creation, and + the money went to meet the payments, and this continued after we had + gone to other scenes. The faithful comet, like the goose that laid + the golden egg, conveniently timed its appearance to coincide with + the advent of those dreaded notes. And thus it finally came about + that the house was built entirely of comets. This fact goes to prove + the great error of those scientific men who figure out that a comet + is but a flimsy affair after all, infinitely more rare than the + breath of the morning air, for here was a strong compact house, + albeit a small one, built entirely out of them. True, it took + several good-sized comets to do it, but it was done, nevertheless.” + +In connection with the prize offered by Dr. H. H. Warner, Professor W. +H. Brooks discovered twenty comets; Barnard, nineteen, as already +stated; Perrine, thirteen; and Swift, eleven. Awarding this prize was +given up after a while, but the idea was again revived by a wealthy +American, the late Mr. J. M. Donohoe, in the year 1890, with the result +that a bronze medal is now presented to the discoverer of any new comet, +on the report of a committee of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. +There were two awards for the year 1923. Comet A was discovered +independently by Sr. Dr. Arturo Bernard, Colmenarejo, Madrid, Spain, on +October 11, 1923; and by Alexander D. Dubiago, of Kasan, Russia, on +October 14, 1923. The medal was awarded to each of these two +discoverers. On November 10, 1923, Mr. W. Reid, of Rondebosch, South +Africa, who has been awarded several of the medals for his discoveries +of comets, added another to his list of captures. + +Regarding the ease with which comets may be discovered in the clear +skies of America, Professor H. H. Turner, in his lecture on Halley’s +comet, given before the British Association in 1908 at Dublin, referred +to a meeting which took place at Albany, New York, of the Board of +Visitors. A discussion arose as to the value of some desk work which the +director was carrying on, as compared with the discovery of a comet, +which it was suggested would surely add to the reputation of the +observatory. Professor Boss (the director) promptly remarked that +nothing was easier, if they would sanction the outlay of certain sums of +money to be used as salary for a person of average intelligence, while +devoting himself to the search. + + “The challenge was accepted on the spot,” remarked Professor Turner, + “the money subscribed, the searcher set to work, and within the + allotted time a fine comet was found. Professor Boss undoubtedly + took a certain risk in undertaking to catch a comet, just as a man + who would undertake to catch a fish within a definite time. But he + was anxious to indicate his views of the relative importance of + different kinds of work, and deserved the success he ventured to + count upon.” + +One wonders if this was the occasion referred to when it is said that +the comet-hunter, after a preliminary search for a comet, returned to +the room where the Visitors were awaiting his report, announcing that he +had discovered a comet in such and such a part of the sky. It was +immediately claimed by Professor Barnard, who was present on this +occasion, as one that had already been discovered by him last spring, or +a year or so ago, as the case might be. After this had occurred two or +three times, it is said, the comet-hunter remarked to Professor Barnard, +“Why don’t you keep your comets chained?” However, it may be as well to +take this story _cum grano salis_. + +The cloud-laden skies of England are not encouraging, as far as +comet-hunting is concerned. It may be possible, when the moon is absent, +to get a glimpse of a comet low down in the vapors after sunrise or +sunset, if the chances are favorable. Then follows a week of cloud and +misty skies during which period the comet has vanished. For this reason +the discovery of comets in England is rare, but all the more credit to +those who eventually succeed in making a capture. + +Our veteran comet-hunter is Mr. W. F. Denning, of Bristol, who has +specialized in the observation of comets and meteors. In his book on +_Telescopic Work on Starlight Evenings_ he gives an instance of two +experiences he had in the year 1881, showing how he missed one comet, +but succeeded in finding another, just before sunrise, when +comet-hunting is not nearly as attractive, one imagines, as in the +evening. + +It seems that on July 11, 1881, after a night’s observation of the +stars, Mr. Denning, just before daylight and preparatory to ceasing +work, looked in the direction of the constellation Auriga, the +Charioteer. The idea occurred to him that it might be worth while to +sweep the surrounding region with his comet eyepiece, but he hesitated, +not thinking the prospect sufficiently inviting. There is a well-known +saying that he who hesitates is lost, and on this occasion Mr. Denning +undoubtedly missed an opportunity for finding a comet. Three nights +later a bright comet in Auriga was discovered by Schaeberle, an American +astronomer at Ann Arbor, Michigan! + +That same year, on October 4, Mr. Denning had been observing the planet +Jupiter before sunrise, when once more he hesitated as to the +advisability of making an attempt at comet-seeking, but, profiting by +his former experience, he made use of the comet eyepiece with good +results. To quote his own words— + + “at almost my first sweep I alighted upon a suspicious object which + afterwards proved itself a comet of short period,” + +which means that it is a frequent visitor to the neighborhood of the +sun. These facts are encouraging, and still more so when we remember +that Kepler said, “there are as many comets in the sky as there are +fishes in the sea.” + +The first woman to discover a comet was Caroline Herschel, the sister of +the famous astronomer, Sir W. Herschel, and she had eight to her credit. +In her diary, which has been most carefully preserved by Miss Francesca +Herschel at Observatory House, Slough, there is an account of her first +discovery which occurred on August 1, 1786. During the absence of her +brother in Germany she availed herself of the opportunity to make use of +a small Newtonian telescope he had given her, in “sweeping the skies.” +Her “sweeper,” as she termed it, was of 27-inch focal length, a power of +about 20, and a field of view 2° 12′. + +Miss Herschel had been observing nebulæ when she saw what she believed +might prove to be a comet. At one o’clock on the morning of August 2 she +made the following brief note in her diary: “The object last night _is_ +a comet,” and she wrote to Dr. Blagden of the Royal Astronomical +Society, asking him to take the comet under his protection “in regard to +its right ascension and declination,” which correspond to latitude and +longitude of a place on earth. The right ascension of a heavenly body is +measured eastward along the celestial equator, from the vernal equinox +to the hour circle on which the object lies. Declination of a heavenly +body is its distance north or south of the celestial equator, measured +on a great circle passing through the pole and the celestial body. + +Caroline Herschel sent drawings she had made, showing the position of +the suspected object with regard to certain stars in the same field of +view, to Dr. Blagden. He was thus enabled to locate the comet and +confirm her observation. When this discovery of a comet was followed by +seven more, Caroline Herschel succeeded in making for herself a European +reputation for what was called “her eccentric vocation.” + +In 1828 she received the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society, +and in 1835 was elected an honorary member thereof. The personal +interest she took in her cometary captures is evidenced by a neat little +packet found among her papers after her death, containing the account of +her discoveries. It was labeled “Bills and Receipts of my Comets.” This +also has been carefully preserved by Miss Francesca Herschel (the +granddaughter of Sir William Herschel) who showed it to the writer +during the summer of 1922. + +Searching for comets is not part of the defined programs of +observatories, as it involves an immense amount of time with results +which only present themselves at intervals. However, when an amateur +succeeds in discovering a comet and has made known the fact to a +professional astronomer, the latter completes the work of computing its +orbit and other elements, which is not usually undertaken by the +discoverer, unless he has the requisite mathematical knowledge. + +Yet it is advantageous, if he possesses a ring micrometer (an instrument +used for the measurement of small angles), to learn how to make use of +it during the first few observations, which are usually made before the +comet has been seen elsewhere. These observations, if precise, will +prove of the greatest value. The news of the discovery of a comet should +be sent at the first opportunity to the director of the nearest +observatory, who will communicate with the director (Elis Stromgren) of +the Bureau Centrale Astronomique de l’Union Astronomique Internationale, +Observatoire de Copenhagen, from which center it will be sent broadcast +all over the world. The discoverer will then experience the delight of +having a comet named after him, which he can claim forthwith as his own +individual celestial treasure trove. As a matter of fact, newly +discovered comets are now usually referred to by their date and order of +discovery, as Comet 1, 1924, saving much confusion as to the name of the +actual discoverer. This was exemplified in the case of a comet found by +Pons in 1819 (III of that year), which Encke showed to be revolving in +an ellipse with a periodic time of three and one-half years. Hence its +name of Encke’s comet. It was again renamed after Winnecke, who +rediscovered it in 1858, but actually he had no more claim to the title +than Caroline Herschel, who discovered it in 1795—her seventh comet—or +Méchain by whom it had been previously seen in January, 1786. + +The majority of comets travel in an ellipse, and those of short period, +like Encke’s comet, make short journeys and may be considered frequent +visitors to the neighborhood of the sun. Others are long-period comets, +such as Donati’s (described in the following chapter), since it requires +nearly two thousand years for the round trip. Finally there is a third +class of adventurous comets which dash in from outer space, swinging +swiftly round the sun in the focus of its curve, and darting off again +with no prospect of returning, since they cannot possibly get round the +other focus. Whence they have come or whither they have gone, no man +knows! They are like the sparrow referred to in a simile used by a +courtier in the days of King Edwin, who compared its fleeting visit to +the life of a man: + + “It is as a sparrow’s flight through the hall when you are sitting + at meat in winter tide, with the warm fire lighted on the hearth, + but the icy rain storm without. The sparrow flies in at one door, + and tarries for a moment in the light and heat of the hearth fire, + and then flying forth from the other, vanishes into the wintry + darkness whence it came.” + + + + + CHAPTER THREE + THE STORY OF DONATI’S COMET + + Hast thou ne’er seen the comet’s flaming flight? + Th’ illustrious stranger, passing terror sheds + On gazing Nations, from his fiery train + Of length enormous, takes his ample round + Thro’ depths of ether; coasts unnumbered Worlds, + Of more than solar glory, doubles wide + Heaven’s mighty cape; and then revisits Earth, + From the long travel of a thousand years. + —YOUNG. “Night Thoughts.” + + +When a comet draws near to pay its respects to its ruler, the sun, it +usually assumes a splendor befitting this momentous occasion. It adorns +itself with a glittering train millions of miles in length, and composed +of myriads of particles reflecting the sun’s light. The head is often +enveloped in a multiplicity of transparent veils, through which bright +jets may be seen emanating from the star-like nucleus within. Some +comets have been seen with five or six trains, spread out like that of a +peacock, the camera revealing rapid and marvelous changes in their +appearance, during the course of a few hours. No fair débutante, about +to be presented to royalty, could vie with a comet in capriciousness +regarding her raiment, nor could she equal it in splendor, even though +she owned the mystic lamp of Aladdin. + +The brief assumption of splendor on the part of a comet is very unlike +its usual humdrum existence when it is as yet so far distant as to be +not only invisible to the comet-hunter, but beyond range of the +far-reaching eye of the telescope or the entrapping power of the camera. +Not the slightest impression is made on the photographic plate, and as +far as an observer on planet earth is concerned the comet might have +ceased to exist. It is only when it begins to draw near to the sun that +we are enabled to obtain a record of the marvelous changes produced in +its appearance, until at its nearest approach it has sometimes been +known to vibrate as though with intense excitement. For instance, in the +case of Biela’s comet, concerning which a special account is given +further on, it was apparently so overcome at its last appearance in +1846, that it split in two and literally went to pieces. + +Quite a different story is told concerning the magnificent comet which +greeted us in the summer of 1858, and was first seen at Florence on the +2d of June by Giambattista Donati, after whom it was named. At the time +it was merely a nebulous mass about one-twentieth the diameter of the +moon, and for some weeks it retained about the same brightness except +for a gradual increase in the central star-like point, the only +indication of its coming splendor. At the end of August it had increased +so rapidly in brightness that by September it was visible to the unaided +eye, resembling a hazy-looking star adorned with a small tail. + +Gradually, as it drew nearer to the sun, it increased in size and +splendor, reaching its maximum brightness in October. Its train extended +over an arc of forty degrees, or eight times the distance separating +Alpha and Beta—the so-called pointers in the constellation of Ursa +Major, the Great Bear. Its real length was then about forty-five million +miles, with a width of ten million. The nucleus varied in diameter from +five hundred miles to three thousand, or nearly half that of our planet +earth. + +The comet was kept under accurate observation for fully nine months, and +during part of that time it was visible to the naked eye. Professor G. +P. Bond, the director of the Harvard College Observatory, availed +himself of the opportunity thus presented, of making a series of +drawings of the comet which convey an excellent idea of its changing +appearance, and the delicate shadings and misty outlines of this +marvelous visitant from the star-depths. These drawings are of all the +more value, since it will be nearly two thousand years before Donati’s +comet visits these realms again. + +To go back to the earlier history of the comet, before these drawings +were made, we find that its tail was not observed telescopically until +seventy-three days after Donati’s discovery. It was seen on August 14, +1858, by astronomers at Copenhagen and Vienna, but not at Harvard until +the 20th of that month. The brilliancy of the comet was somewhat +impaired by a strong twilight and its low altitude. This may account for +the fact that it was described as ruddy in hue, and concentrated, and +having a mere suggestion of a tail. On August 23 the tail was still so +faint as to be easily overlooked in the moonlight, the record being: +“Bright, but no trace of a tail; the sky clear, but the moon nearly at +full.” On August 30, according to the record in the _Times_ (London), of +observations made by J. Russell Hind, “The comet was just perceptible to +the naked eye; its nucleus is strongly condensed and brilliant, and the +tail is thrown off in the ordinary form, without bifurcation.” + +During the month of September the tail of the comet showed a tendency to +curve, and by September 7 it was recorded as being very conspicuous to +the naked eye. September 12 it had increased wonderfully in brilliancy, +and on September 16 the first sketch was made by G. P. Bond, showing a +view of it with the naked eye. The tail was now estimated as being 7° +long, thus exceeding the distance (of 5°) separating the pointers. A +tangent to the convex edge near the nucleus prolonged would pass through +Delta in Ursa Major, and it was noticeable that this side was the +brightest in all the sketches. A narrow dark channel extending from the +nucleus up the axis of the tail was very remarkable, and its edges were +surprisingly well defined, especially very near the nucleus. In fact, +the comparatively sharp definition of the eastern edge of the tail was +in marked contrast to the softness of outline on the western side. (See +_Monthly Notices_, R. A. S., Vol. XIX, pp. 88–89.) + +By September 27 the length of the tail as observed with the naked eye +was about 9° or 10°. It was curved, convex toward the star Cor Caroli, +being much better defined on the side near the star than on the concave +side. The narrow dark stripe in the axis of the tail was still very +marked, and the outline of the tail could be traced from the nucleus +halfway to Delta in Ursa Major, and a degree or so further. It was now +strongly curved and its upper outline well defined and bright as +compared with the inner. A straight ray or secondary tail could be seen +faintly suggested on the eastern side and reaching northward from the +main tail. + +By October 3 a marvelous change had taken place in the appearance of the +comet. The train had increased in length and brightness, extending +nearly as far as Eta in Ursa Major, and the straight ray or secondary +train was still very much in evidence. It was supplemented by another +slender ray, as shown in drawings made by Professor Bond on October 4 +and 5, but it had vanished by October 6, although its position was +indicated, for that date, in the faint suggestion of a ray between the +main tail and the outer or secondary tail. The bright star to the left +of the nucleus of the comet is Arcturus (in the constellation Boötes), +over which the comet passed without perceptibly diminishing its +brightness, thus showing of what airy texture the train of a comet is +composed. Was it not Sir John Herschel who said that a comet could be +easily packed in a portmanteau, and in the recent edition of _The Vault +of Heaven_ Sir Richard Gregory gives the following unique illustration +of the insignificance of the whole mass of a comet: + +[Illustration: + + COMET OF DONATI + + Photograph taken October 10, 1858, at Harvard College Observatory +] + + “Suppose we could take a comet, head, tail and all, and put it in + one pan of a balance, and we could carve out from the air which + surrounds us an object of the same size to put in the other pan, we + should find that our aërial body weighed four or five thousand times + more than the comet. But though a comet as a whole is lighter than + air, it must not be concluded that comets consist solely of gases in + a state of extreme tenuity. The head may be, and very probably is, + composed of a large number of small but solid bodies; nevertheless, + when a comet is taken in its entirety, the mean density is extremely + low.” + +By October 10, the comet was receding from the neighborhood of Ursa +Major, drifting across the constellation of Boötes. On this date the +comet made its nearest approach to the earth. Its train now resembled +that of a widely opened fan, but its outline was already growing dim. It +showed strange alterations of dark and bright bands, resembling the +streamers which are sometimes seen to break up the continuous outline of +an auroral arch. The extreme length of the tail was nearly 64°, the +greatest extent observed during the apparition of the comet. The +secondary tail was still visible, but extremely faint. + +October 11, the dark stripe in the tail had almost vanished, the +secondary tail was no longer to be seen, and the main tail was curved +like an ostrich plume. Its length was now judged to be about 30°, and +the nucleus had somewhat diminished in brightness. By October 15 the +comet was considerably fainter and smaller, as seen with the naked eye, +and it was bent southward like a sail wafted by a celestial breeze. +After the middle of October, the comet was best seen from the southern +hemisphere, and the last glimpse obtained in the northern hemisphere was +on October 25, when it was at an altitude of 3°, the sky fortunately +being very clear. The nucleus was still bright, but the tail was only 1° +long. + +Its course was then followed by Maclear, Royal Astronomer at the Cape of +Good Hope, who reported that on December 23 the comet was merely a faint +nebulous body, about 90″ in diameter, with a slight central condensation +of light and no trace of a tail. Thus, it vanished in the remote depths +of space, in the same undecorated condition as when it first made its +eventful début to gladden the eyes of mortals on planet earth. Its visit +lasted but one hundred and seventy-seven days, from the time of its +first appearance until it took its departure along a track which will +not bring it within our ken again until nearly two thousand years have +rolled away. + +BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.—G. B. Donati, the Italian astronomer, was born at +Pisa, in 1826. At the age of twenty-six, he obtained a post in the +observatory at Florence, and there by his superior abilities, +acquirements, and unwearied application to duty soon gained a high +reputation among the men of science of his native country. He became +known to the world in 1858, by his discovery of the magnificent comet +called by his name. In 1864 he was appointed director of the observatory +in which he had worked so efficiently for twelve years. He then +undertook the arduous task of superintending the erection of a new and +more convenient observatory on the site of Arcetri, near Florence. All +difficulties were conquered, the new observatory was in working +condition, and the director had entered upon a new series of +observations when his labors were suddenly cut short by death. He died +at his home in Arcetri, September 29, 1873. + + + + + CHAPTER FOUR + COMETS IN DISTRESS + + “Thou comest whence no mortal seer can know, + Thou goest whither nothing human dreams.” + —ANON. + + +Until the photographic eyes of Science detected the peculiarities of +comets, and mathematicians calculated with unerring accuracy their +comings and goings, they were looked upon, as we have already seen, with +more or less suspicion and dread. Nowadays, we know that these “airy +nothings,” as Sir John Herschel termed them, have been unjustly +maligned. Were they given the power of speech, they could a tale unfold +of adventurous thrills and overwhelming disasters encountered during +their voyages in space, far exceeding in interest any story of +terrestrial adventure. It would take the pen of a Jules Verne and an +author gifted with his vivid imagination to describe the erratic career +of a comet. + +Take for instance the tragic fate of the headless comet of 1887, which +was described by Dr. Thomé of the Cordoba University as: + + “a beautiful object with a narrow, straight, sharply defined + graceful tail over fifty degrees long. It was shining with a soft + starry light against a dark sky, beginning apparently without a + head, and gradually widening and fading as it extended upwards.”[4] + +Now the popular idea of a well-regulated comet is a star with a tail, +but a tail without an accompanying star seems preposterous, yet a +headless comet this object remained as viewed with the naked eye. The +why and the wherefore of the tragedy is unknown, and whether it ever had +a head and what became of it remains one of the many unsolved problems +of the sky. + +Still more remarkable is the career of the famous comet of Biela, from +its first appearance as viewed by mortal eyes on March 8, 1772, until +its final disappearance, a century later, in a veritable blaze of +celestial fireworks. Its story reads like a novel, and is far more +fascinating because it is fact and not fiction. The hero is a faint, +insignificant-looking object which was discovered by Montaigne of +Limoges, already referred to as the comet-hunter who so indiscreetly +found the thirteenth comet for which his colleague Messier was +industriously searching. Little did Montaigne guess that this foggy +speck of light which was so faint that it could only be seen with the +aid of his small telescope would one day attract worldwide attention. +Its nondescript appearance, with a tail only one-eighth the diameter of +the moon, made it apparently scarcely worthy of more than passing +notice. Had Montaigne concentrated his efforts on finding out its +peculiarities and tracing its path, his name would have been forever +connected with the little wanderer, instead of being entered in the +annals of astronomy as merely the first to see it. + + +The introductory chapter in its story is connected with a letter written +by Montaigne to the director of the observatory at Paris, announcing his +discovery. This arrived in time to give the astronomers an opportunity +for seeing the comet three or four times ere it vanished on its way +outward bound. Little more was thought of the celestial visitor until it +was glimpsed again thirty-three years later, in November, 1805, by Pons, +who, as we have already seen, shared honors with Messier and Montaigne +in the “eccentric vocation” of comet-hunting. The comet remained visible +in the northern heavens for only a month, when it sank below the horizon +and was no longer visible to observers in the northern hemisphere. + +However, on this occasion the comet came very close to the earth, for we +are told that it was visible to the naked eye, even in the strong +twilight. Then it remained hidden from view until twenty years later, +when it was again rediscovered, this time by an Austrian officer named +Biela, in February, 1826. He was determined that the wily object should +not be lost sight of again, as far as its orbit was concerned, and by +means of careful observations and calculations he was enabled to +announce that it was traveling along the same route as the comet seen by +Montaigne in 1772, and that seen by Pons in 1805. Therefore, he +concluded that it was one and the same comet, and predicted its return +in 1832. + +However, when it was announced by the great French astronomer, Arago, +that the comet at this return would cross the orbit of the earth, +widespread was the consternation among those who did not know what an +orbit was. Possibly, imagining that it was something tangible, we can +picture them looking at one another in dismay, and whispering in awed +tones, “Does this mean the comet will hit the earth, and if so what will +happen to us?” A possible collision with the comet was an alarming +thought to the ignorant and superstitious, and the fear caused by +Arago’s announcement was so great that it resulted in the first of the +many comet-scares. People in dread of the threatened calamity sold their +goods and chattels, and thronged the churches as a fit preparation for +the end of the world. There they awaited the expected crash and +doubtless were surprised when nothing unusual happened. The earth still +continued to roll on its appointed path, without jolt or jar to disturb +the “even tenor of its way.” The nervous gave a sigh of relief when the +comet withdrew once more into the obscurity of space, and those who had +parted with their belongings must have felt somewhat annoyed. + +The so-called devout astrologers who had made use of Arago’s +announcement to their own advantage, when upbraided by those whom they +had warned, did a skillful kind of “hedging,” by stating that events +announced by a comet might be postponed for one or more periods of forty +years or even as many years as the comet had appeared days. +Consequently, one which had appeared for six months would not produce +any effect, evil or otherwise, for 180 years.[5] Thus these wise +soothsayers allowed a wide margin for possible results. + +To give an idea of the filmy structure of the comet, the cause of such +unnecessary alarm, it was described by Sir John Herschel, who observed +it on September 23, 1832, as a round hazy-looking object without a tail. +It was moving in the direction of a small group of faint stars, which +were undimmed when overtaken by the comet, so that it resembled a +fog-like mist sprinkled with stars, this veil of cometary matter being +estimated by Herschel as fifty thousand miles thick. Yet, only a month +later, the remote prospect of a collision with this celestial cobweb +caused a panic in Europe! + +The comet was first seen on August 23, 1832, but owing to its excessive +faintness was not generally observed till two months later, when at its +nearest to the sun. This occurred during the month of November, within +twelve hours of the time predicted by an astronomer named Santini. At +its next return, in 1839, the comet was not well placed for observation, +as it was too near the sun, and therefore lost in the glare of its +light. As computations had shown that the comet was traveling in an +orbit requiring six and two-thirds of a year, it was due to return in +1845. + +The first to bid it welcome was an astronomer at Rome named De Vico, on +November 28 of that year. Two days later it was observed by Dr. Gallé at +Berlin, but it was not generally seen until December. It appeared as a +single comet on November 28, but on December 19 it was seen distinctly +pear-shaped, and ten days later it amazed all observers by splitting in +two. This marvelous transformation was first detected by two Americans, +Mr. Herrick, then librarian at Yale College, and Mr. Francis Bradley, a +clerk in the New Haven City Bank. The two were watching the comet on +January 29, 1845, taking turns in looking through a telescope which had +been erected in the Athenæum tower. + +Suddenly one of the observers exclaimed that he could see a small comet +accompanying the larger one, and we can imagine his friend making some +remark concerning defective eyesight. However, when both saw the +duplicity of the comet, all doubts were dispersed. But what did it mean? +Had the comet a satellite, just as the earth has its accompanying moon, +or had the comet actually split in two? However, the twin comets were +seen two weeks later by Lieutenant Maury and Professor Hubbard at +Washington, D. C., and two days later it came within the ken of European +astronomers. Incidentally, three weeks before the twin comets were +observed, Mr. J. Russell Hind (England) noticed a peculiar lump near the +upper part of the nucleus of the main comet, which may be regarded as +the first symptom indicating that something was amiss. + +On January 15, Professor Challis, then director of Cambridge Observatory +(England), had his suspicions aroused when he saw the complete severance +of the little comet from the big one, and the description of his +experience is best given in a letter he wrote to the president of the +Royal Astronomical Society: + + “On the evening of January 15, when I sat down to observe it + [Biela’s comet], I said to my assistant, ‘I see _two_ comets.’ + However, on altering the focus of the eyeglass and letting in a + little illumination, the smaller of the two comets appeared to + resolve itself into a minute star, with some haze about it. I + observed the comet that evening but a short time, being in a hurry + to proceed to observations of the new planet.” + +Presumably he here refers to the search for Neptune. Alas! had he but +given his whole attention to that task, instead of dispersing his +energy—as it were—by pursuing a flimsy comet, England might have been +acknowledged as first in the actual discovery of that planet. + +Resuming his observations of the comet on January 23, Professor Challis +again saw two comets, but clouds hid them from view for the next +half-hour, and when they had cleared away he was convinced that the +comets had moved during the interval. This suspicion was afterward +confirmed, and, moreover, Professor Challis found that they had moved in +unison, retaining their relative positions meanwhile. He wondered what +could be the meaning of this strange procedure, and whether they were +two independent comets, a double comet, or that his glass was deceiving +him. + + “But I never heard of such a thing,” wrote Professor Challis. + “Kepler supposed that a certain comet separated in two, and for this + Pingré said of him, ‘_Aligreando bonus dormitat Homerus._’ I am + anxious to know whether other observers have seen the same thing.” + +In a subsequent letter he shows by his remarks that “the two comets are +not only apparently, but really near each other, and that they are +physically connected.”[6] + +The comets continued traveling along in this sociable manner for four +months, at an almost unvarying distance of about 165,000 miles, each +developing meanwhile a very bright nucleus and diminutive tail half a +degree in length, or one tenth the distance separating the pointers in +Ursa Major. Sometimes one comet would be devoid of a tail, sometimes the +other, so that one might almost imagine the tail exchanging owners, for +the comets were rarely both adorned therewith at the same time. + +During the latter part of February, Lieutenant Maury, at Washington, D. +C., saw an arc of light extending from the large comet to the small one, +forming a sort of bridge between the two, this occurring when the small +comet was at its brightest. When the large comet had regained its +superiority it threw out new rays, which gave it the appearance of +having three tails, each adjacent tail making an angle of 120 degrees +with its neighbor, one of the tails being the bridge to the new comet. +This produced the effect of an arch in the heavens, through which the +stars were seen to pass. + +One can imagine messages passing to and fro along this bridge of light +between the twin comets, and a possible farewell as they drifted further +apart. At their return in August, 1852, they were separated by about one +million five hundred thousand miles, and as so often happens in the case +of twins it was impossible to tell which was which. The comets were not +seen at their next return, in May, 1859, because they were lost in the +glare of sunlight, for the same reason that we are unable to see stars +in the daytime. + +At the next expected visit when the comets were looked for, in January, +1866, they were nowhere to be seen. What had happened in the interval no +one knows, but in 1872 the whole astronomical world was startled by a +telegram from an astronomer named Klinkerfues of Göttingen, on November +30, to Pogson, the government astronomer at Madras, which read as +follows: + + Biela touched earth on 27th, search near Theta Centauri. + +Accordingly, a search was made, with the extraordinary result that a +comet _was_ found, but not _the_ comet. Observations were obtained of it +on December 2 and 3, but bad weather and the advance of twilight made +further search impossible. When the track of the new comet, for such it +proved to be, was eventually followed, it was found to be moving along a +different route from the one previously followed by the comet of Biela. +Nevertheless, by a remarkable coincidence it happened to be passing by +or near the place where this comet was wont to wander, until he took +unto himself a companion comet, which seems to have led him astray. + +To be lost is interesting, especially for a comet, when one considers +the vast expanse of highways and byways in starland, but the climax of +the tragedy in connection with this special comet was not reached until +its orbit crossed that of the earth on November 27, 1872. On that +eventful night the sky seemed to be literally ablaze with meteors, which +fell in swarms and showers of dazzling gleams of light, the downpour +lasting from seven o’clock in the evening until one o’clock next +morning, the maximum being attained at nine o’clock. We are told that +the total number observed in England was estimated at a hundred and +sixty thousand. They all came from the same part of the sky, radiating +from a point near the beautiful double star Gamma in the constellation +of Andromeda. But what was the meaning of the display? Had it been +caused by an encounter of the earth with the scattered fragments of the +lost comet? It certainly could not have had any connection with the +comet itself, which, providing it still existed, had passed that way +three months before. It was more likely the débris of its train +scattered along its path after its breaking up in 1846. + +There seems to be no doubt of the identity of this swarm of meteors with +the comet of Biela, for on November 27, 1885, a similar encounter took +place, providing a magnificent display of meteors observed all over +Europe, just at the moment when the earth was due at a crossing in the +former path of the comet. On that same evening, a piece of meteoric iron +fell at Mazapil, in northern Mexico, during the course of the shower, +and according to Professor Young, “the coincidence may be accidental, +but is certainly interesting. Some high authorities speak confidently of +this piece of iron _as a piece of Biela’s comet itself_.” (_General +Astronomy_, C. A. Young.) + +In 1892 and 1898, when the earth again crossed the former path of the +comet, a similar display occurred, though on a minor scale, and some of +the scattered cometary fragments may still be looked for on the evenings +from November 17 to 27. They are recognizable from their slow motion, +short trains, and from the fact that they all radiate from the +second-magnitude star Gamma in Andromeda. (Incidentally, this is the +star so charmingly dealt with by Dr. Holmes, in the _Poet at the +Breakfast Table_, really the astronomer of the breakfast table, as +suggested by conversations and correspondence between my father and +Oliver Wendell Holmes.) + +The star Gamma in Andromeda is easily located, as it is almost overhead +between the dates November 17–27, at a convenient hour in the evening. +It is in a line with Epsilon, the star at the left-hand corner of the +W-shaped group in the constellation, Cassiopeia, and with Polaris, the +Pole Star. The meteors radiating from this point are variously referred +to as the Andromedæ, Andromedids, and the Bielids, on account of their +supposed connection with the Comet of Biela. As a matter of fact it +matters little what they are called, as long as we know their appearance +and when and where to look for them. They may be looked upon as +supplementary to the story of the comet, and possibly some of the +particles may eventually find a resting-place on planet earth. + +According to Dr. Crommelin of the Greenwich Observatory: + + “the career of a comet may be said to be over when its meteors have + lost all their gas, or when they have been scattered by + perturbations over so wide a space that its unity and visibility are + lost. These disrupting causes are most effective when a comet is + fairly near the sun; therefore the oftener that a comet approaches + the sun, the shorter the period of its existence as a comet. I + think, therefore, that we can ascribe the great prevalence of + long-period comets to the principle of the survival of the fittest.” + +Long-period comets are those which sometimes require hundreds of years +before they return sunward, as, for instance, Donati’s comet with its +period of about two thousand years. Others of short period, like Encke’s +comet, are regular visitors to the sun, returning after a short interval +of a few years along a well-known path. Once upon a time they may have +been long-period comets, which have had their paths restricted, owing to +the strong attractive pull of the giant planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, +and Neptune. As a result of the disturbances (or perturbations, as they +are technically called) thus caused, according to the so-called capture +theory, Jupiter has annexed fifty comets, including the Comet of Biela. +Uranus and Saturn, according to the same theory, own a limited family of +two, while Neptune has four, including Halley’s famous comet. Its least +distance from the sun is 56 million miles at its point of nearest +approach, and 3,200 million miles when at the opposite end of its orbit. +But the great majority of these strange bodies appear to travel in +parabolas, open curves leading from infinite space to and around the +sun, and thence back into the region of the fixed stars. + +There is a notable instance of a comet traveling about the sun in an +immense ellipse, but, like the moth, hovering around a flame which +finally causes its destruction, this comet returned once too often to +the neighborhood of the giant planet Jupiter, and in an encounter +between a large and a small body, the latter usually comes to grief. Its +path was curtailed at first, and subsequently it was shunted on to +another line. Jupiter, acting as pointsman on the cometary railway, is +suspected of opening the branch of the ellipse along which the comet had +formerly traveled in peace and quiet, with the result that it was +ignominiously sidetracked and sought for in vain. + +The comet was first discovered in June, 1770, by Messier, who described +it as a rather insignificant object without a tail, but resembling a +nebula with a star-like nucleus. Early in July it had greatly increased +in size, the nucleus and surrounding haze extending over a space more +than five times the diameter of the moon. At this time it came very near +the earth, remaining visible until October, when it grew small and +faint, and finally faded away. Meanwhile, astronomers did their best to +determine its path, notably Mr. Lexell, of the Academy of Sciences at +St. Petersburg. He became so interested in clearing up the past history +of this quaint little comet, that it is usually referred to as Lexell’s +comet. He came to the conclusion that the comet of 1770 required five +years and seven months for its elliptic tour, but he was such a long +time in getting at this result, that by the time he obtained it in 1778 +the comet was two years overdue. Messier made a careful search for it, +but without success. + +Lexell was of the opinion that at the end of May, 1776, the comet came +so close to Jupiter that the attractive pull of that planet was three +times greater than that of the sun. When a comet rushes around the sun +it has to go full speed ahead, so as to resist being drawn upon its +surface, but as it recedes from the danger zone it gradually slackens +its pace, with the result that by the time it is crossing the orbit +along which Jupiter travels, it is going at reduced speed. Probably +Jupiter was not far from the part of its orbit crossed by the comet in +1776, with the result that the unfortunate wanderer was exposed for a +longer period to the powerful attraction of the giant planet. This may +have caused an important change in the comet’s path, with the result +that it escaped from what has been termed the _sphere of activity_ early +in October, 1779. + +At this period, according to Lexell, the comet was moving in an ellipse +with a period of more than sixteen years, and at such a distance there +would be no hope of our seeing it again. He finally considered the comet +of 1770 as definitely lost. However, when Brooks, the famous +comet-hunter of Geneva, New York, discovered a comet in 1889, which is +known as Comet 1889 V, as it was the fifth comet discovered that year, +it was supposed to be the long-lost Lexell comet of 1770. For that +reason it is known as the Lexell-Brooks comet. + +Previous to 1886, the comet discovered in 1889 was traveling around the +sun in an immense ellipse, taking it out beyond the planet Uranus. +Around and around the sun it went, as a moth flutters around a lamp, +until in the year 1886 it came under the magic spell of Jupiter. Unable +to resist this planet’s persuasive influence, the path of the comet was +reduced to a smaller one requiring only seven years for its completion. +Apparently on this occasion the comet passed too near Jupiter for +safety, and was reduced to four fragments in consequence. When it +approached the sun in 1889, and was discovered by Brooks, it may +probably have been one of the four fragments; at any rate, this is the +opinion of Dr. Charles Lane Poor, of New York, who made a careful and +most exhaustive study of the comet and its eccentricities. It remained +visible with telescopes of ordinary power until March, 1890, after which +date it could only be seen with the great telescope at the Lick +Observatory, at Mount Hamilton, California. With this magnificent +instrument Professor Barnard followed the comet until January, 1891. + +The path of its next return was calculated so accurately that when it +was rediscovered on June 20, 1896, by Javelle, it was seen within a +distance less than one quarter the diameter of the moon from its +predicted place. By this time the comet had grown fainter, as though +enfeebled by its long wanderings and the vicissitudes of its career, and +it remained visible for only a few months, finally disappearing in +February, 1897. For a third time the comet came near enough for us to +see it, and this occurred during the summer of 1903, when it remained +visible until the following January. It was then so faint, it could only +be observed with the largest telescopes. The future of the comet seems +as likely to be as interesting as its past. + +“Unless it become wholly disintegrated by the pulling and hauling of the +sun and planets, it will be seen again in 1910, and yet again in 1917,” +wrote Dr. Poor in 1908, but as a matter of fact it was not observed on +either occasion. Dr. Poor also predicted that early in 1921 it would +again come into close approach with Jupiter, “and beyond that point its +history cannot be predicted. This collision will probably end its story +as far as the earth is concerned, for it will undoubtedly be still +further broken up, and its orbit may be so changed that it will never +afterwards be seen.” And we must leave it with this unsatisfactory +conclusion, as it did not reappear in 1921, and nothing more has been +seen or heard of this comet. By now (1925) it may be merely a derelict +in space, at the mercy of any disturbing planet it may happen to pass on +the way. + +These instances give some idea of the dangers to which comets are +subjected as they drift like frail barks on the ocean of space. Whence +they have come and whither they vanish, no one knows, but it has been +suggested that there is a home of comets. This has been described as a +shell of nebulous matter accompanying the sun and planets, though at a +distance some thousands of times greater than that of the earth from the +sun, yet much closer than the nearest star. “However, we have no direct +evidence of any such comet-dropping envelope,” according to Professor C. +A. Young. + +Yet supposing it does exist, we see in imagination baby comets cradled +therein in nebulous mist until they are able to take care of themselves. +Then they are presumably launched forth on their perilous career, as +they make their way towards their ruler, the sun, to pay their respects. +Woe betide them should they cross the path of one of the giant planets +at an inauspicious moment, or approach too near the sun, which would +prove equally disastrous. + + + + + CHAPTER FIVE + PHOTOGRAPHY AS APPLIED TO COMETS + + + “With its three eyes—the eye of keenness, the eye of patient + watchfulness, and the eye of artistic truth, photography promises to + be a Cerberus to the science of the future, whose watchfulness will + prevent the admission of error and detect truths which would otherwise + escape us.” + + —R. A. PROCTOR. + + +These words written by my father, in his book entitled _The Universe of +Suns_, shortly after the appearance of the comet of 1882, have since +been amply confirmed, not only in connection with the sun, moon, and +stars, but still more so regarding the hitherto unknown peculiarities of +comets. So far we have gained some idea of the appearance of a comet as +seen with the naked eye, or with the aid of a telescope, but it now +remains to be shown what can be accomplished by means of photography. + +Pictures of the ever-varying transformations, for instance, which took +place in the appearance of the celebrated Morehouse comet of 1908, +opened out new vistas in cometary wonders, hitherto beyond our ken. +Successive photographs taken during the course of a night, pictured for +us the unfolding of the comet’s train, its spreading outward like a +gigantic fan of gauze-like texture, and eventual closing up till it +resembled a sheaf. By means of the revelations thus made by the camera, +we became aware of the marvelous quick-change effects produced in the +appearance of this comet not only from night to night, but sometimes +during the brief interval of less than an hour. Nevertheless, as seen +with a telescope, the Morehouse comet appeared inconspicuous and was +invisible to the naked eye. + +The first attempt at taking a photograph of a comet was made by Bond at +Harvard College Observatory in 1858, in connection with the magnificent +comet of that year, but his efforts only met with partial success. The +next venture was made in 1881, by Sir William Huggins, in our country, +and Dr. Henry Draper, of New York, but entirely satisfactory photographs +of a comet were not obtained until 1882, when the great Daylight comet +became a conspicuous object in southern skies. + +This comet was first seen on September 3, by some employees of the +railroad in Auckland, New Zealand, and by other persons whose duties +required them to rise before daylight. The names of these fortunate +observers are unknown, but what a privilege to obtain the first glimpse +of the comet. + +[Illustration: + + PHOTOGRAPH OF MOREHOUSE COMET, 1908 C + + Taken on November 19, 6 h. 4 m., at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich +] + +Anyone acquainted with the clear, limpid blue of the skies at dawn in +New Zealand, and the brilliancy of the stars despite the near approach +of sunrise, may gain some idea of the vivid appearance of the little +comet in their midst as seen on this occasion. The writer, who spent a +year in New Zealand (1913–14), has vivid recollections of the beauty of +the dawn ushering in daylight during the course of her travels to and +fro, and has almost an envious feeling with regard to those fortunate +people “whose duties required them to rise before daylight,” thus +enabling them to obtain the first view of the comet. As in the case of +the brilliant star in the East, which guided the three wise men of old +to Bethlehem, doubtless they likewise “rejoiced and were exceeding +glad.” + +The news of the discovery of a comet was soon made known, for on +September 6 Dr. Gould, director of the Cordoba Observatory in South +America,[7] received information that a bright comet was visible in the +east before sunrise. His informant had seen it on the morning of +September 5, when it was described as being as bright as the planet +Venus. At Reus, near Tarragona, it was bright enough to be seen at one +time through a passing cloud when at a distance of only three times the +diameter of the sun from its edge, or “limb,” as it is technically +termed. According to the report of Dr. Gould regarding the weather +conditions prevailing at Cordoba, the morning of September 7 was cloudy +and the eastern sky overcast on every morning during a whole week. +Nevertheless, on one occasion it was thought that a part of the comet’s +tail could be seen. It was not until September 14 that conditions were +again favorable for observing the comet. + +Fortunately the link in the chain of observations was supplied by an +enthusiastic amateur astronomer, Mr. John Tebbutt, who watched the comet +from his observatory at Windsor, New South Wales. On September 8, he +received a telegram from the Government Astronomer at Melbourne, to the +effect that a large comet was reported due east at four o’clock in the +morning. Other messages were received during the day from different +parts of the colony, and from the information thus supplied Mr. Tebbutt +was enabled to observe the comet on the mornings of September 9 and 10. +By this time the nucleus of the comet was large and remarkably +brilliant, and the tail about 3° or 4° in length, not quite the distance +separating the pointers in Ursa Major. + +[Illustration: + + JOHN TEBBUTT, NOTED COMET-HUNTER OF WINDSOR, N. S. W. +] + +Mr. Tebbutt had already distinguished himself as a successful +comet-hunter, and in addition had vainly endeavored to form a society +such as existed for comet-hunting in the northern hemisphere, but his +efforts only ended in disappointment. As he wrote in his _Memoirs_, +“although several astronomers owned telescopes suitable for the work, +there was obviously a distaste for systematic observation.” He took +great pride in his miniature observatory at Windsor, actually his own +handiwork, for he was his own bricklayer, carpenter, and slater +combined. During a visit to the observatory in 1912 the writer was shown +numberless books containing the records of fifty-five observations of +the comet of 1882, extending from September 8 of that year to March 2, +1883. These observations were made by Mr. Tebbutt with his four and a +half inch equatorial, with the exception of four made with the transit +instrument in full sunlight. Moreover, Mr. Tebbutt was the first to see +the comet in full daylight with the unaided eye. + +The second series of observations of the comet in full daylight were +made at the Government Observatory, Melbourne, but it was not seen in +Europe, owing to cloudy weather, until September 17, one Sunday morning. +It happened that Dr. A. A. Common, the well-known amateur astronomer at +Ealing, had directed his telescope to the sun for the purpose of +observing sun-spots, when he had a glimpse of the comet. This was at a +quarter to eleven, at which time the comet was rapidly approaching the +sun. Unfortunately, clouds intervened, rendering further observations +for the time being impossible. + +Dr. Common sent a telegram to Dunecht (Lord Crawford’s observatory near +Aberdeen) so that the astronomers there might be on the lookout for the +comet, with the result that it was observed by them on the following +day. In England bad weather, as usual, had baffled all attempts at +seeing the comet, and the clouds seemed to be in league with the powers +of darkness in keeping it hidden from view. Those who can recall +watching in vain in England, for Halley’s comet at its return in 1910, +can fully sympathize with the disappointed watchers of the sky in 1882. +(In those days the writer was not nearly so enthusiastic as she should +have been at the brief view of the comet obtained early one chilly +morning. Admiration was slightly tinged with wonder at all the +excitement over “a small white star with a train a yard long” which +scarcely seemed worth the trouble of getting up for during the wee sma’ +hours. Nevertheless, there is comfort now in the thought, that this—her +first comet—was one long afterward to be remembered.) + +Day after day the comet grew in splendor, until by September 12 it was +almost the cause of a momentary panic on the occasion of the attack at +Tel-el-Kebir. The story is told by Colonel E. Major, somewhat as +follows, in his book entitled _Lord Wolseley_: It seems that each +morning Sir Garnet in the early dawn had reconnoitered the enemy’s +position from the high ground above their lines, and he had noticed that +their pickets only came out beyond the defenses at daybreak. He +therefore decided upon a night attack, which must be sudden and +decisive, so that the enemy might be crushed and scattered early in the +day. This would enable the cavalry to make an immediate dash for Cairo, +while the infantry occupied Zagazig. After making all arrangements, we +are told: + + “The troops set off in silence, no smoking or giving of orders aloud + being permitted. The engineers had set up directing posts as guides + in the earlier part of the march, but in the deep darkness of a + moonless night these were not easy to find. Only the North Star and + the Little Bear, shining through the drifting clouds, gave the + leaders some fixed point by which to find the way. Sir Garnet sent + his own naval aide-de-camp, Lieutenant Rawson, R. N., who was + accustomed to steer by the stars, to act as a guide with Sir Edward + Hamley’s division. Even with this help the flanks of the Highland + Brigade in the course of the night march lost their direction after + a short halt, and circled round until a crescent-like formation was + the result. + + “A second halt was necessary to remedy the confusion. Soon after, a + strange light appeared upon the horizon, and Sir Garnet feared it + was the first sign of the coming dawn. If so, the night attack had + failed. But no rising sun followed that long streak of light, and + later on they learned that a comet had been observed in the heavens + for the first time on that eve of Tel-el-Kebir.” + +On September 27, the comet was seen at Vienna, according to a telegram +received by the Astronomer Royal at Greenwich, but meanwhile it had been +observed continuously at the Cape of Good Hope Observatory since +September 8. It was seen on this date by Mr. Finlay, a member of the +observatory staff, while he was going homeward after working all night +at the dome. Happening to glance eastward, his attention was at once +attracted by the comet. Returning hastily to the observatory, he +proceeded to make the necessary measurements for recording its position +with regard to a small star in its neighborhood. One can imagine the +anxiety with which its reappearance was awaited next morning by Sir +David Gill, the director of the observatory, and by those who may have +heard the good news of a comet in the offing. + +The following morning the comet was again observed, and Sir David Gill +sent a telegram to Sir James Anderson, chairman of the Eastern Telegraph +Company: + + Kindly tell Astronomer Royal, Greenwich, that bright comet was + observed here yesterday morning by Finlay. Right ascension this + morning, nine hours, forty minutes, increasing hourly, nine minutes. + Declination one degree south, increasing half degree south daily. + +Unfortunately, the telegram failed to reach its destination, and was +doubtless delayed or mislaid in the confusion of numberless war +messages. The first news that reached Europe about the comet was +obtained by means of a telegram on September 12, from Dr. Cruls, +director of the observatory of the Emperor of Brazil. Sir David Gill was +anxious to prove Mr. Finlay’s claim to priority in discovering the +comet, but, as we have already seen, he had been forestalled by +astronomers in Australia, and some claim should be allowed for the +“early railroad workers” in Auckland, New Zealand, who were actually the +first to see the comet, though their observation thereof had no +practical value. For a while the comet was known as the Cruls comet, but +now it is generally referred to as the great comet of 1882, or the +Daylight comet. However, later on, as we have already noted, it had a +rival as a Daylight comet in 1910, when a fine comet resembling the +plume-like appearance of the comet of Donati was seen to advantage in +England. + +The great comet had another rival in popularity in the year 1882, for on +May 17, when Dr. Schuster was developing photographic plates taken +during a total eclipse of the sun which occurred on that date, he found +a miniature comet seemingly entangled in the outer rays of the corona. +This is the sun’s crown of glory which can be seen only during the time +the glare of sunlight is hidden from view by the moon coming directly +between the sun and the earth. The consequent darkness, or totality, as +it is called, can never exceed a duration of eight minutes, and on this +occasion during a still briefer interval of time the little comet was +captured by means of the camera. Thus, a permanent record was secured of +its presence near the sun, but as it had not been seen before nor was it +seen afterward, its motion must have been extremely rapid, and it may +possibly have been drawn inward and consumed by the intense solar heat. +Despite its small size and brief career, it is distinguished by the name +of Tewfik, after the then Khedive of Egypt. It has been suggested that +the comet may be kin to, or one and the same with, a comet which had its +photograph taken during the total eclipse of the sun, April 16, 1893, +having a period like that of the sun-spots, of about eleven years. + +Possibly Sir David Gill may have had the photograph of Comet Tewfik in +mind when he heard of attempts which had been made by Mr. Shoyer of Cape +Town, and Mr. Simpson of Aberdeen, to photograph the comet of 1882. The +results had been so far successful as to prove that the comet was +capable of giving a distinct impression after sufficiently long +exposure. But it was owing to the cordial and enthusiastic assistance of +Mr. Allis, photographer of Mowbray, that the first pictures of the comet +were obtained. When Mr. Allis, under the direction of Sir David Gill, +fastened a simple portrait camera upon the tube of one of the Cape +telescopes, and pointed it at the great comet, little did he dream that +the experiment would eventually lead to such great results in the +future. One can imagine the thrill of triumph as the experimenter +watched the gradual process of development on the photographic plate, +until, as if by magic, a fine comet was revealed outlined against a +starry background. Thus, three or four photographs were obtained, which +excited the greatest interest among astronomers in the northern +hemisphere. Possibilities were suggested with regard to the construction +of a self-recording photographic star chart, thus replacing the +painstaking hand-drawn star charts of the Herschels, Argelander, my +father, and other astronomers at various times engaged in such work. + +The gigantic undertaking was ultimately divided among nineteen +observatories situated in northern and southern climes, which will +eventually result in a marvelous collection of star charts. These will +include millions of stars, forming a celestial library which may be +consulted at leisure either now or a century hence when the makers +thereof may have become a mere memory. If a supplementary set is made in +the future, comparisons between the two series may result in important +information with regard to star drift. (It was by comparing star charts +thus made a century apart, that my father originated the star-drift +theory, by his observations in connection with the five stars of Ursa +Major in 1868, a theory confirmed by the spectroscopic investigations of +Dr. Huggins.) Celestial photography, owing to Dr. Gill’s suggestion with +regard to the star-gemmed photographs of the comet of 1882, may add +greatly to our knowledge in connection with such problems, the records +of the past thus becoming the star-lettered volumes for the students of +the future. Undoubtedly this achievement, the result of the photographs +taken of the great comet of 1882, ranks high among those which make +astronomy appeal so vividly to the imagination. + +Now let us see how Mr. Allis went to work in obtaining the portrait of +this memorable comet. To secure a perfect picture of its delicate +detail, an exposure of not less than half an hour was required. To +obviate the difficulty caused by the rotation of the earth, Mr. Allis +attached his camera with a rapid portrait lens and sensitive dry plate +to the declination axis of a large equatorial, and then turned both the +telescope of the equatorial and the camera in the direction of the +comet. Matters were so arranged that in whatever direction the telescope +was turned, the small camera would turn exactly with it, and thus by +means of clockwork and proper small motions for delicate adjustment, the +comet was kept accurately in the field of view during the whole time of +exposure. The camera was therefore also pointed during the whole +exposure to precisely the same point of the comet, and in this way, +after one preliminary failure, three very beautiful and quite invaluable +negatives of the comet were obtained. These three negatives will remain +of permanent value as a scientific record of one of the most glorious +comets ever seen. + +To follow the progress of the comet as it increased in splendor day by +day, let us return to the record of Dr. Gould, director of the Cordoba +Observatory. On September 16, we are told that the brightness of the +comet was such that it was visible with the finding telescope throughout +the day. The next day it was so bright that it could be easily observed +in full sunlight, and at eleven o’clock that morning the sun and the +comet were in the same field of view. Then the comet was hidden for a +while, as it passed between us and the disk of the sun. + +[Illustration: + + THE GREAT DAYLIGHT COMET, SEPTEMBER, 1882 + + Photograph taken at the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope +] + +On Monday, September 18, the brilliancy of the comet attracted popular +attention throughout the country, and the “blazing star” near the sun +was the one topic of conversation. In the small telescope it presented +the aspect of a brilliant nebulous mass, having on each side curved +appendages like horns or wings, nearly as large as the central body, and +at their base quite as brilliant, the general form of the whole +reminding one of the winged globes carved on ancient monuments. This +appearance, doubtless due to the outbreak of glowing vapors from the +nucleus, was also exhibited, although to less extent, on the following +two days, during both of which the comet remained visible to the naked +eye. + +Observations made of the comet with large telescopes showed that the +nucleus had separated into six or eight star-like knots strung like +pearls along a luminous streak some fifty thousand miles in length. The +largest of these knots was some five thousand miles in diameter, an +interesting fact as compared with the size of the earth, which is 7,925 +miles, according to the British Astronomical Association Handbook for +1925. + +A faint straight-edged beam of light, or “sheath,” accompanied the +comet, enveloping the head and projecting like a hood three or four +degrees in front. Besides this, three or four irregular shreds of +cometary matter were detected, escorting the comet, as it were, like +airplanes, at a distance of three or four degrees when first seen, but +gradually receding from it, and at the same time growing fainter. The +actual length of the comet’s train at one time exceeded one hundred +million miles, more than the distance of the sun from the earth. (If the +head of the comet had rested on the earth, and its train stretched +outward toward the sun, it would have extended seven million miles +beyond that luminary.) + +The trains of comets have been grouped under three types, _viz._, the +long straight rays as shown in the photograph of Halley’s comet, though +this was only one of the many outlines assumed; the second is the +curved, plume-like train resembling that of the comet of Donati; and +thirdly the short stubby brushes violently curved. The great Daylight +comet had a greatly curved train belonging to the second type, and it +was mainly composed of carbon compounds. The curvature of the train was +due to matter for which the repulsive force is only a fraction of the +gravitational force. The pressure of light from the sun was a most +important factor in the formation of its train. + +When the fierce pressure of the sun’s light strikes upon the particles +forming the train, it drives the particles which are of the same +relative size as the particles of light along with them, just as when +the waves of the sea break against a beach they tend to drive small +pebbles and sand upward along the beach. + + + HINTS FOR AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHERS + +To an amateur photographer who desires to obtain the picture of a comet +which may appear perchance in the near future, their capricious +appearance at unexpected periods being one of their charms, the +following hints may be most acceptable. For work of this kind an +equatorial telescope is used with a photographic lens and camera +strapped thereon. The telescope is mounted on an axis that is parallel +to the earth’s axis, and is made to rotate westward by what is called a +driving-clock just as fast as the earth turns to the east. It will +follow the motion of the sky (which apparently drifts westward), and +keep every star approximately fixed in the field of view, or on the +photographic plate in the attached camera. + +Otherwise, the stars will appear as trails of light, caused by the +rotation of the earth as it moves onward at the rate of nineteen miles a +second, which is rather disturbing to an astronomer who may be desirous +of obtaining a photograph of the stars overhead. What is he to do? Here +is our planet turning eastward and the stars apparently drifting +westward, and unless the telescope is made to keep up with the stars by +means of clockwork the results are disastrous. Consequently, the +telescope is made to follow the star, comet, or whatever the desired +celestial trophy may be, and it is kept in such a position that the +object in view is centrally placed at the intersection of two threads +obtained from a spider’s web. For this reason, spiders are treated with +due respect in observatories, and may explain the expression of dismay +the writer saw on the face of an Indian assistant at the Kodaikanal +observatory in southern India, when she nearly dispatched one of these +noxious insects, which succeeded, however, in deftly eluding +destruction. + +[Illustration: + + PHOTOGRAPH OF A BRIGHT METEOR BY DR. W. J. S. LOCKYER +] + +The star trails shown in the photograph taken by Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer +give an excellent idea of what happens to a photograph of the stars when +the clockwork is allowed to run down. In this instance the telescope, +with the accompanying camera, was stationary during the exposure of a +little over two hours, with the result that the stars photographed are +not points of light, but bright and faint lines in sections of circles, +since the telescope was pointed to the pole of the heavens. The interest +in this photograph is increased by the fact that a meteor dashed across +that part of the sky during the course of the exposure, thus resulting +in one of the finest photographs of a meteor ever obtained.[8] Had the +exposure lasted during twenty-four hours, and the photograph been taken +in Norway some time during the course of their long winter night, the +trails would have been complete circles. By this means we do not get a +picture of the stars, but simply a photograph illustrating the rotation +of the earth. To obtain a picture of the stars, therefore, an equatorial +attachment, as above described, is an absolute necessity. + +Some people have an idea that all an astronomer has to do in making +photographs of a comet, or other celestial object, is to turn the +telescope in the direction wanted, strap on the camera, wind up the +clock, and then go homeward for a good night’s rest. Unfortunately, no +driving-clock has yet been devised so perfect as to move the telescope +exactly with the stars. According to Professor E. E. Barnard, who was an +expert on such matters— + + “There is always more or less irregularity of motion, all of which + would be recorded on the plate, and the stars, instead of showing as + merely points of light, would be elongated and blurred. The fainter + ones would not show at all, because they could not be still long + enough to have their pictures taken. That is why you see in the + photograph the observer with his eye ‘glued to the telescope,’ + watching a star, a guiding star which he constantly keeps behind the + intersection of two illuminated spider threads in the eyepiece, by + the slow-motion rods which are controlled by his hands.” + +Thus, every star or comet is kept immovable on the sensitive plate, and +it paints its own portrait as long as the telescope is made to turn +westward as fast as the earth rotates eastward. That is why a driving +clock is absolutely necessary for the amateur comet photographer who is +desirous of obtaining accurate results. Many hours are required in +obtaining a successful photograph of such comets as the Morehouse comet, +the sensitive plate requiring sometimes an exposure of many hours before +it reveals satisfactory results. The observer must sit patiently hour +after hour, guiding the instrument, and the writer has some idea of what +this must mean, from a brief five minutes’ experience at Mount Wilson in +connection with the sixty-inch reflector. As a great favor she was +allowed to hold the bulb in her hand which by the slightest pressure +brought back an erring star which had attempted to stray momentarily +from the center of the field of view of the telescope. + +When one considers the hours spent by the late Professor Barnard in this +nerve-racking work, the patient endurance of the astronomers who +specialize in celestial photography becomes evident. It is an arduous +task, and one doubtless subject to many disappointments, to avoid which +Professor Barnard tried to formulate some set of rules that would be +dependent on the local time and position of the comet, but these were +finally rejected. + + “So much would depend on the purity of the atmosphere at the time, + the size and light ratio of the lens, the kind of plate used, etc., + that they would probably lead to the very errors against which we + wish to guide.” + +The position of the comet with respect to the point of sunrise or +sunset, and freedom from any form of haze in the sky, are important +factors in the exposure of comet plates. Moreover, it is necessary that +they should not be exposed too early in the evening or too late in the +morning, in either case resulting in unsatisfactory negatives. The best +of all rules is the judgment of the observer at the moment, but only +long experience will warn one by a glance at the sky when there is +danger of failure in this class of work. It is the few moments at the +beginning or end of the exposure that will injure or ruin the plate. + +With a small portrait lens (the most useful size is about six inches) +essentially everything about a comet will be shown as quickly as with a +larger one. The main advantage of the large lens would lie in its +greater scale—which of itself is of great importance. Another source of +danger is moonlight, especially in the case of a long exposure. +Nevertheless, according to Professor Barnard, important results may be +obtained in full moonlight, if the comet is not too near the moon. Much, +however, will depend upon the clearness of the atmosphere; the purer it +is the less will the moonlight affect the plate. In this case a dew-cap +helps much. On an ordinary moonlit sky an exposure of half an hour with +a quick portrait lens will not ruin a fast plate if the comet is not too +near the moon. In full moonlight, however, a longer exposure, unless +under exceptional conditions, will seriously injure or ruin the plate. +With the half-hour exposure the plate will be fogged, and of course the +best quality of negatives cannot be obtained therefrom. All plates +should be backed to prevent halation. A backing made of sugar and burnt +sienna is recommended as entirely satisfactory, and can be kept in +stock. + +The formula as supplied by the Cramer Dry Plate Company is as follows: +Cook two pounds of granulated sugar in a saucepan, without the addition +of any water, until it is nearly in the caramel or fudge stage. Then +stir in one pound of burnt sienna and cook a little longer, stirring +well. Do not let the backing get sticky, or it will be difficult to +handle and will not soften so readily when removed from the plate. +Finally add about half an ounce of alcohol to each pint as a drier. Put +away in a wide-mouthed stoppered bottle or jar. When needed for use, +dilute a little of this with water to the consistency of a thick but not +too wet paste. Apply (not wet enough to run) to the back of the plate +with a wide camel’s hair brush. It is not necessary to back heavily. A +sheet of soft paper (an old newspaper) pressed on the backed surface +will prevent injury to the plate, which should be freshly backed when +ready for use. If kept in stock a long time after being backed, an +unequal fogging is likely to occur. + +Before developing, remove the backing while it is still damp, with a +moist piece of absorbent cotton. Should a small amount remain it will +not affect the developer seriously. The plates should be carefully +dusted with a broad soft camel’s hair brush, after being put in the +plate-holder. The camera tube should be wiped out frequently with a damp +cloth to free it from dust. It should also have a tight-fitting cover at +the plate end to keep it closed when the plate-holder is not in +position. There should be four springs, one at each corner, on the back +of the plate-holders, to press the plate forward in a constant position. + +On account of its greater sensitiveness the Lumière Sigma plate is +recommended by Professor Barnard, although he draws attention to the +fact that this plate has frequently been found defective in having +small, round, transparent and opaque spots. It is also more subject to +“chemical fog” than the Cramer or Seed. Otherwise, it is a beautiful and +very rapid plate. + +When the comet is at its brightest, the Seed 27 Gilt Edge plates are +recommended on account of their general freedom from defects and finer +grain. With these few suggestions in respect to photographing comets, +made by Professor Barnard in _Popular Astronomy_, No. 170, the amateur +comet-hunter is enabled to make an attempt, at any rate, at +photographing those wonders of the heavens which have proved so +attractive on account of their varying appearance from night to night. +For those who may not have a ready access to astronomical libraries, the +above condensed account from Professor Barnard’s article on the subject +should prove invaluable. + +In an account of his life-work given by Professor Barnard during the +course of an after-dinner speech in January, 1907, at Nashville, and +entitled by him, “Some Unastronomical Experiences of a Lecturer,” he +referred to his interest in comets as follows: + + “I have always been interested in comets. These remarkable objects, + which sometimes sweep across the heavens with their wonderful trains + of light, and which in all ages have been objects of superstition + and terror, are among the most interesting in the heavens. Little by + little the mystery attached to them is being solved. This has been + done mainly through the aid of photography. Many of the physical + phenomena of the tails of comets are too faint to be seen with the + eye, although it may be aided by a powerful telescope; but the + photographic plate secures a permanent record of these in all their + complexity and beauty. These photographs show that the form and + other peculiarities of a comet’s tail are often utterly transformed + from night to night. It is therefore highly important that a + continuous series of photographs should be obtained of every active + comet that can be observed, for their phenomena are as evanescent as + smoke itself. + + “In 1892, at the Lick Observatory, I was engaged in photographing a + comet (Swift’s) then visible in the morning sky just before + daylight. Every morning’s picture increased the interest and + importance of the work. Unfortunately, I had arranged for a lecture + in the Normal School at San José for the night of May 6. I did not + want to disappoint the people, and I certainly could not let the + comet go by unphotographed. San José was nearly a mile below us in + vertical height and twenty-seven miles distant by stage road. The + only possible way for me to secure my photograph and not disappoint + my audience was to return to Mt. Hamilton that night after the + lecture. At ten o’clock I hired a horse and buggy in San José and + drove up that lonely mountain road, the journey taking five hours, + and arrived at the summit at three o’clock in the morning, in time + to make a photograph of the comet. + +[Illustration: + + COMET 1893 IV BROOKS + + Exposures of October 21, 22, and 23, showing probable encounter with + some medium which shattered the tail. Taken at Lick Observatory by + Professor E. E. Barnard +] + + “The picture that I got proved to be a very important one, as the + comet was then undergoing the most remarkable changes. I must say + that a good many thrills passed over me during that lonely mountain + ride in the dead of night—some for the chance that I might drive + over into a cañon to death, and others for the possible interruption + of my terrestrial existence through an encounter with some hungry, + roaming mountain lion. In the main, the journey was a most + impressive one. Alone in the mountains, with only the horse in front + and my friends the stars above me, I doubt if my courage had not + failed me entirely if the friendly stars had not encouraged me with + their presence.” + + + + + CHAPTER SIX + RETURN OF HALLEY’S COMET IN 1910 + + + “It would have been a gratification to know that everyone who saw this + wonderful object, did so with the same feeling of elation and + wonder—one would almost say veneration—with which the average + astronomer regarded this beautiful and mysterious object stretching + its wonderful stream of light across the sky.” + + —E. E. BARNARD. + + +While Halley’s comet, at its return in 1910, was undoubtedly a marvelous +object as seen in the clear skies of America and in southern climes, yet +it was more or less of a disappointment to watchers of the sky in +England, because the view was impaired by twilight and low altitude. Nor +did it come up to the expectations of those whose hopes had been aroused +by the fine series of ever-varying appearances, recorded by the camera +in connection with the Morehouse comet, referred to in the last chapter. +Nevertheless, according to Professor Barnard, expert in photography of +celestial objects, had it not been for the remarkable phenomena recorded +by the camera in connection with the Brooks comet of 1893 (see +photograph), and the Morehouse comet of 1908, the numerous photographs +obtained of Halley’s comet would have placed it in the first rank among +the records of these bodies. Yet while it lacked much of interest as +seen with the eye of the sensitive plate, it left a lasting impression +on the human eye, adding renewed interest to its long life history of +more than two thousand years. The train of the comet reached the +prodigious length of 140°, owing to its being so near the earth, and its +great curvature was shown by the fact that it remained visible in the +morning sky for two days after the head had become visible in the +evening sky. + +[Illustration: + + HALLEY’S COMET + + From photograph taken at Union Observatory, Johannesburg, May 5, 1910. + Exposure 60 minutes. +] + +Halley, by whose name the comet is known, was the first definitely to +establish the fact, suspected before, that certain comets are regular +visitors to the domain of the sun, returning at stated intervals. For +this reason they are termed periodic comets. After Halley had calculated +the paths of twenty-four comets, he found that three were moving in +orbits almost identical. From this he assumed that the three comets must +be one and the same, just as, when a train passes through a station at +regular stated intervals, one is led to infer that it must be the same +train. Naturally allowances must be made for delays due to fog or stormy +weather, but these factors are taken into account should the train +arrive after scheduled time. In the case of a comet it may be delayed by +means of the disturbing effects of the giant planets Jupiter, Saturn, +Uranus, and Neptune, but in Halley’s day the presence of the last two +planets in the solar system was as yet unknown (Uranus was discovered in +1781, and Neptune in 1846). Therefore the following prediction made by +Halley, when he was convinced that the paths of the comets which +appeared in 1531, 1607, and 1682 were identical, is all the more +wonderful, since only an approximate allowance had been made for these +disturbing factors. Referring to the comet of 1682, he said: “If it +should return according to our predictions about the year 1758, +impartial posterity will not refuse to acknowledge that this was first +discovered by an Englishman.” + +This was certainly the most extraordinary prediction ever made, for +cometary investigations were then in their infancy, and Halley was the +only man living who could have computed the orbit of this comet. Newton +had his doubts regarding the suggestion that a comet seen on one side of +the sun might be identical with another seen on the other side some +weeks later, but Robert Hooke, in a letter addressed to Newton in 1679, +suspected that a comet could reappear after a definite period. He +declared that, if gravity decreased according to the reciprocal of the +square of the distance, the path of a projectile would be an ellipse. + +As the year 1758 approached, one can imagine the interest aroused among +astronomers, and the calculations which were made for determining as +accurately as possible the disturbing effects of the larger planets +within the sphere of whose influence the comet might pass. It is +impossible to convey an idea of the labor involved in making the +required computations of the perturbations of this comet throughout a +period of two revolutions, or one hundred and fifty years. It is with a +feeling of pride that the author notes the important part taken in this +work by Madame Lepaute,[9] wife of one of the assistants of the great +mathematician Lalande. Her work proved of inestimable value according to +the following remarks made by her husband on the subject: + + “During six months we calculated from morning till night, sometimes + even at meals; the consequence of which was that I contracted an + illness which changed my constitution during the remainder of my + life. The assistance rendered by Madame Lepaute was such that + without her we never should have dared to undertake the enormous + labour with which it was necessary to calculate the distance of each + of the two planets, Jupiter and Saturn, from the comet, separately + for every degree, for one hundred and fifty years.” + +Amid all these difficulties, the computers toiled on, and finally, as +the time was drawing near for the return of the comet, Clairaut, who was +working in conjunction with Lalande, announced that the expected comet +would be delayed one hundred days by the influence of Saturn, and five +hundred and eighteen days by the action of Jupiter, and therefore fixed +its nearest approach to the sun for April 13th, 1759. These results were +presented to the Academy of Sciences on November 14, 1758, and as we +have already seen in an earlier chapter of this book, on December 25th +of that year the first glimpse of the long-expected wanderer was +obtained by George Palitzsch, a farmer of Saxony. His telescope was +small, his vision keen, but the enthusiasm of a devoted amateur made up +for his lack of suitable equipment. Observations were made of the comet, +and astronomers were soon able to prove that the perihelion passage +would take place on March 13, 1759, thirty-two days before the epoch +calculated by Clairaut. Such a triumphant success of the theory produced +a deep impression in the scientific world, and, as Lalande +enthusiastically remarked: + + “The universe beholds this year the most satisfactory phenomenon + ever presented to us by astronomy; an event which, unique until this + day, changes our doubts to certainty, and our hypotheses to + demonstration.... M. Clairaut asked one month’s grace for the + theory; the month’s grace was just sufficient, and the comet has + appeared after a period of 586 days longer than the previous time of + revolution, and thirty-two days before the time fixed; but what are + thirty-two days to an interval of more than 150 years, during only + one two-hundredth part of which observations were made, the comet + being out of sight all the rest of the time! What are thirty-two + days for all the other attractions of the solar system which have + not been included; for all the comets, the situations and masses of + which are unknown to us; for the resistance of the ethereal medium + which we are unable even to estimate, and for all those quantities + which of necessity have been neglected in the approximations of the + calculation?” + +Twenty-five years before the comet was again due, its expected return in +1835 began to arouse the interest of astronomers, and prizes were +offered by two academies for the most accurate forecast of its nearest +approach to the sun. The successful competitors were Baron Damoiseau and +M. Pontecoulant, and several astronomers undertook and completed the +task of computing the planetary perturbations. Although the computers, +as might be expected, differed slightly as to the time when the comet +would make its nearest approach to the sun, yet the difference was not +due to any defects in the methods of computation, but to the +imperfections of the data employed, especially with regard to the +unknown disturbing factor, the planet Neptune. + +Not only was the time for the nearest approach of the comet computed, +but its exact path among the stars was worked out with such accuracy +that directions could be given as to the precise point toward which the +telescope must be directed when the comet came within range of +observation. On August 5, 1835, when M. Dumouchel, director of the +observatory of the Roman College, turned his telescope in the direction +indicated and looked through the tube, to his great delight he saw the +comet as a faint and almost invisible stain of light on the deep blue of +the heavens. Thus did science triumph in a most remarkable manner, the +comet making its nearest approach within nine days of the predicted +time. It appeared as a nearly circular misty object near to the +predicted place, and began to develop a tail about the middle of +September, which attained a length of about twenty-four degrees, or +nearly five times the distance between the pointers, Alpha and Beta, in +the constellation of Ursa Major. To the naked eye the head of the comet +resembled a reddish star rather brighter than Antares in the +constellation of the Scorpion. Bessel compared it to a blazing coal, and +called attention to the peculiar fan-like haze of luminous matter +forming the train, which seemed to sway to and fro like a pendulum +across the radius vector, an imaginary line joining the sun and the +nucleus of the comet. This oscillation took place during a period of +four and three-fifths days. He came to the conclusion that a repulsive +force about twice as powerful as the attractive force of gravity was +responsible for the production of these remarkable effects, thus +anticipating the theory according to which the very fine particles +forming the train of a comet may be driven away from the direction of +the sun by radiation pressure. + +Meanwhile Halley’s comet was passing through a remarkable series of +transformations, first appearing as a nebula, then as a well-regulated +comet with nucleus and train, next shining as a star, and finally +dilating till it resembled a ball, then assuming paraboloidal form about +May 5, 1836, after which it vanished as if melting into adjacent space +through the excessive diffusion of its light. Moreover, it lost its tail +previous to its arrival at perihelion on November 16, nor did it begin +to recover its elongated shape until more than two months later. + +At the return of Halley’s comet in 1910 it was conjectured that it would +probably be greatly disturbed by the influence of the planet Jupiter, +and that of Uranus and the newly discovered planet Neptune. It was +therefore possible for Dr. P. H. Cowell and Dr. A. C. D. Crommelin (both +of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich) to make a prediction so exact that +the comet was found within six minutes of arc in R. A., and four minutes +in declination of its predicted place, as shown on the first photograph +obtained. This was equivalent to an angular distance in the sky less +than one quarter of the diameter of the moon. (Incidentally, a prize of +1,000 marks, which had been offered by Mr. Lindemann for the most +accurate prediction of the comet’s arrival at perihelion, was won and +divided between the two mathematicians.) De Pontecoulant had made +calculations regarding the return of the comet many years earlier which +were fairly near the truth, but one month too late. It was action of +Jupiter about the 1835 perihelion that had such an effect on the 1910 +return. The action of Jupiter at any return does not produce a notable +effect till the following return. + +One of the first photographs obtained of Halley’s comet at this return +was due to the foresight of Herr Max Wolf of the Heidelberg Observatory, +in exposing a photographic plate for several weeks beforehand, so as to +entrap the wanderer at the first opportunity. It was caught at 2 A.M. in +the morning of September 12, 1909, engraving its image on the +photographic plate, a welcome message announcing its advent to the +astronomical world. (The first photograph obtained of Halley’s comet was +taken at Helwan on August 24, but Herr Wolf was the first to identify +the comet’s image on the plate. There were also many early photographs +taken at Greenwich.) For thirty-two years it had remained beyond the +orbit of the outermost planet Neptune, then, obedient to the attractive +power of its lord and master the sun, it had started on the return trip. +Despite its enormous distance from our planet, and the fact that it was +beyond reach of telescope or camera, it was possible for mathematicians +to trace its path with unerring accuracy. It had approached the orbit of +Neptune after the year 1888, the orbit of Uranus about ten years later, +crossing that of Saturn in 1908. The following year it arrived at the +orbit of Jupiter, thus bringing it within the range of both the +photographic plate and giant telescopes. Its actual return to perihelion +in 1910 differed by two and seven-tenths days from the prediction which +can be explained only by the existence of forces which are not pure +gravitation, or the possibility of another planet beyond Neptune, as yet +undiscovered, acting as a disturbing factor. + +When the news of Herr Wolf’s success in obtaining a photograph of the +comet had been announced on September 12, it was followed on September +15 by a message from the Lick Observatory to the effect that a +photograph of the comet had been obtained by Dr. Heber D. Curtis with +the aid of the Crossley reflector. On Wednesday morning, September 15, +Professor S. W. Burnham of the Yerkes Observatory at Williams Bay, +Wisconsin, sighted Halley’s comet by means of the great refractor with +its forty-inch lens, while at the same time it was photographed with the +two-foot reflector in an adjacent dome, by Dr. Oliver J. Lee. The comet +was again detected by Professor Burnham the following morning, September +16, and it was also registered on the photographic plate by Dr. Lee. + +Then came the morning of September 17, one of the most eventful in the +life of the writer, who had arrived the previous day as the guest of the +Barnards. That night the great refractor with its forty-inch lens was in +the care of Professor Barnard, who courteously invited the writer to +come to the observatory the next morning at 3 A.M., escorted by his +niece, Miss Calvert, for the purpose of looking through the telescope +and obtaining a view of Halley’s comet. Making a first visit to the +observatory in the darkness preceding dawn was an experience in itself, +but the glimpse of the comet after its absence of seventy-five years is +one never to be forgotten, nor is it easy to describe. For the first +second or so, all seemed darkness as I gazed down the length of that +great tube (63½ feet) into the opening beyond. I saw nothing, and an +intense feeling of disappointment overwhelmed me as I realized and +stated this fact, but Professor Barnard remarked in his whimsical way: +“Surely you did not expect to see the comet with a tail?” Then he +advised me to keep on looking, and even while he spoke I saw a faint, +very misty outline. “Is it exactly in the center of the field of view?” +queried Professor Barnard when I told him that I had seen a +nebulous-looking object, and when I replied in the negative, he informed +me that that faint object I was looking at _was the comet_, which eight +months later I saw in all its splendor from the tower at the top of the +_Times_ Building in New York City. + +Meanwhile, the comet had been slowly increasing in size, and by March 4, +1910, it presented the appearance shown in a remarkable photograph +obtained at the Helwan Observatory. It was then suggestive of the +nebulous-looking objects which had been catalogued as such by Herschel +and Messier, but the latter, being more interested in comets, would soon +have recognized, by means of the method already referred to, the +difference as the comet slowly moved against the background of the +stars. This is no reflection on the marvelous sight of Herschel, but +when one reflects on the enthusiasm with which Messier hunted for +comets, we may be sure any suspicious-looking object he came across was +subjected to keen scrutiny before it was catalogued finally as one of +those “embarrassing objects” he named “nebulæ.” During the autumn of +1909 and the early part of the year 1910 the comet was photographed and +observed visually at all the great observatories. At the Royal +Observatory, Greenwich, a fine series of photographs were obtained +despite the trying climate of our country. Up on the heights, at the +Government Observatory at Kodaikanal in southern India, the progress of +the comet was recorded by telescope and camera, so that our planet might +be said on this occasion to have kept its Argus eye constantly directed +toward the celestial visitant. + +According to Professor Barnard, who made a special study of the comet, +its first appearance resembled that of a small and rather faint speck of +light, very much like a faint stellar nebula. The increase in brightness +was not very rapid, and as late as the final observations in February, +1910, before the comet passed behind the sun, it gave very little +promise of the splendid display it was destined to make later on in the +month of May. However, its reappearance from behind the sun in the +morning skies of April and May could not have been under more +unfortunate circumstances for observation at the Yerkes Observatory. +According to Professor Barnard: + + “that part of the year is always unpropitious here, and it seemed as + if everything combined, on this particular occasion, to hide from us + the growth of the comet and its approach to the earth. Forest fires + in the northern part of the State (Wisconsin) produced a densely + smoky sky, which, even when the clouds were merciful to us and would + have let us see the comet, cut off with a thick yellow veil all but + a glimpse of the bright head.” + +The comet was seen for the first time with the naked eye at the Yerkes +Observatory on April 29, the nucleus being bright and of the second +magnitude. The tail was visible for a couple of degrees, but with +field-glasses it could be traced for four or five degrees. On May 3, at +3 h. 40 m. (civil time), the comet was seen for about one minute in a +thin streak of clearer sky, but the next morning at about the same hour +it was a beautiful object with a long tail streaming upward toward the +right, as shown on the magnificent photograph obtained by Professor +Barnard. The photograph facing Chapter VI, taken at the Union +Observatory, Johannesburg, on May 5, 1910, may give some idea of what +was expected but not realized by watchers of the sky in England. + +When it was announced on April 29 that the comet had come within range +of naked-eye observations, it occurred to the writer, who was in New +York City at the time, that a desperate attempt must be made to see the +comet, despite the smoke, and electric lights turning night into day. +“When there’s a will there’s a way,” and while walking along Broadway on +the afternoon of April 30, wondering how these difficulties might be +overcome, a glance in the direction of the _Times_ Building solved the +problem. On explaining to Mr. Van Anda, the assistant editor of the +_Times_, what a very desirable spot the summit of the _Times_ Building +would be for observing the comet, a permit was obtained to be handed to +the janitor the next morning at 3 A.M. on May day. It was indeed a case +of “Call me early, mother dear,” but an alarm clock served the purpose +equally well on this momentous occasion. + +Promptly at three o’clock the permit was presented to the janitor, and +the writer, ascending in the lift, was transported to the twenty-third +story, and escorted up a spiral staircase leading to the tower. The door +was unlocked by the janitor, and the writer, stepping out on to the +parapet surrounding the tower, gazed eastward for the comet, which +failed to materialize, owing to a dense haze. Awaiting until dawn, the +idea of seeing the comet was given up, but, nothing daunted, the same +program was carried out at the same hour on May 2, and May 3, but +without avail. + +[Illustration: + + HALLEY’S COMET + + Photograph taken on May 4, 1910, by Professor E. E. Barnard at the + Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Wisconsin +] + +Then came May 4, a bitterly cold morning; but the stars shone brightly +and there was every hope of the comet being visible from the tower +heights. These hopes were confirmed, for on stepping out on to the +parapet the writer saw the comet in all its splendor. The hazy-looking +object seen on September 17, 1909, had developed into a full-grown comet +with a head shining as a star of about the second magnitude, and +surrounded by a nucleus. Extending outward like the beam of a +searchlight gleamed the tail nearly fifteen degrees in length. Calling +down to the janitor to make known the good news, the balcony was soon +filled with eager members of the _Times_ staff, who were thus enabled to +obtain a view of the comet. By means of a field-glass thoughtfully +provided by Mr. Van Anda, it was possible to see a further extension of +the train, making it in all thirty degrees in length. Spurts of light +like tiny waves seemed to flow out from the nucleus to a distance of two +or three degrees. At twenty minutes to four, the writer, on looking +downward at the horizon, was startled by what appeared to be a streak of +flame, but as it rose higher it proved to be the crescent moon, which +with the comet and the planet Venus, completed a wonderful trio. The +comet remained visible, resembling a bright star with a slender stream +of silvery mist trailing a few degrees after. By four o’clock it had +faded in the light of approaching dawn. A glance at the photograph of +Halley’s comet obtained by Professor Barnard at the Yerkes Observatory +on May 4 will give an idea of its splendor. + +For the next few mornings observations of the comet were disappointing, +owing to heavy mists in the eastern skies. The comet was almost +completely hidden from view, except on the morning of May 8, when +occasional glimpses were obtained of it through rifts in the clouds. On +May 10, the nucleus of the comet, from which extended a diminutive train +eight degrees in length and fan-like in appearance, could be seen for a +few brief moments, after which it remained hidden behind clouds until +dawn, making further observations impossible. + +It was not until the morning of Friday, May 13, that the comet once more +deigned to reveal itself to the straining eyes of the lonely watcher on +the tower. The first glimpse was obtained at ten minutes past three. The +comet then resembled a faint white streak drifting in the sky. A minute +or so later the planet Venus came into view, gaining in brilliancy as it +rose above the mists near the horizon. At twenty-five minutes past three +the train of the comet was twenty degrees in length, and by half past +three it extended to a distance of thirty-five degrees, or seven times +the distance between the pointers (Alpha and Beta in Ursa Major). It +spread out like a partly opened fan, its greatest width at the extreme +end being about five degrees or more. The nucleus shone brightly as a +star of the second magnitude, but by half past three it began to grow +less distinct, and at twenty minutes past four the comet had faded from +view on the arrival of the first few streaks of dawn. + +The comet was barely visible the next few mornings, though watched for +anxiously, since there was always the possibility that it might reveal +itself, but these hopes were not realized. A glance at the cloudy skies +on the morning of May 18 suggested the impossibility of seeing the +comet, and for the first time since the morning of May 1, the writer +missed her vigil at the tower. + +Interest was revived, however, on learning that Professor Barnard had +seen that morning + + “a narrow twilight (which later proved to be the tail of the comet) + which seemed to extend along the eastern horizon.... The head of the + comet could not be seen when it rose, with either the five-inch or + the forty-inch telescope, because of the thick sky near the + horizon.... The observations show that the tail was at least 109° + long on that date. (_Astrophysical Journal_, vol. XXXIX, no 5, pp. + 387–388, June, 1914.) + +Now despite the fact that an astronomer at Columbia University had +declared the comet would be in the evening sky, and it was useless +looking for it in the morning sky of May 19, the writer decided, +nevertheless, to watch for the comet at about the usual hour, and with +the most gratifying results. + +The parapet surrounding the tower was crowded to its utmost capacity by +a favored few on the eventful evening of May 18, awaiting they knew not +what, for a report had gone forth that we were scheduled to pass through +the train of the comet. Below us we could see comet parties in progress +on the roof gardens of some of the leading hotels. Sounds of merriment +occasionally reached us, but by half past ten we—that is, Miss L., who +had offered to share the lonely vigil with the writer until dawn—were +the only watchers on the tower. The hush of a great silence had +gradually fallen over the city, and in silence, too, we watched the +eastern sky for any further trace of the comet. + +Notes made by the writer on this occasion record 11.10, red flash +(auroral); 11.22, flash resembling an arch of glowing white surmounted +by a crest of crimson. The display occurred above a low-lying bank of +mist and rose to about five degrees above the horizon. It was not of any +considerable breadth, and resembled rather a glow of color against the +dark background of the sky than a wide band of light. The moon, which +was shining brightly, interfered seriously with the observations of +auroral displays which appeared faint in its light. About 12.15 a mist +appeared to spread over the city, and the air had become damp and +chilly. By 1.30 the mist had cleared away. At 2 o’clock a meteor flashed +across the eastern sky, downward in the direction of the star Gamma in +the constellation Pegasus. It was bluish-green in color, pear-shaped in +appearance, leaving a streak five degrees in length behind it as it +flashed to within ten degrees above the horizon. It remained visible for +about five seconds, and the display was vivid while it lasted. At 2.30 +the moon, low down in the western sky, appeared of a ruddy hue as it +“sank in a sea of gloom.” + +Turning eastward, we saw a soft glow in the sky spreading from below +Pegasus and upward as far as the stars of Cassiopeia. At 2.34 a glow of +grayish hue extended over the northeastern sky. At 2.43 a bright meteor +was seen by Miss L., but she made no note of its direction, except that +it was eastward, and a brief glimpse obtained by the writer showed its +color as bluish. + +At 2.45 streamers, which later proved to be the comet, were observed +reaching from the eastern horizon, below Gamma Pegasi, and curving +upward through Aquarius as far as Altair, and brighter in appearance +than the Milky Way. At its widest part, just beneath the first-magnitude +star Altair, the width of the band was about ten degrees, and throughout +its length it had a brilliancy equal to that of the Milky Way, near +which it terminated. The path of this band of light was very nearly that +along which the comet was last seen, and the writer was convinced that +it was the outer boundary of the tail through which the earth was +passing. Beneath this streamer, and apparently resting along the +southeastern horizon, was a secondary band resembling a haze-like misty +streamer. This was not as clearly defined as was the upper band, and, +moreover, it merged into the mists of the horizon. + +In connection with a sketch made by the writer on this occasion, and +shown to Professor Barnard, he referred to it as follows in his account +of “Visual Observations of Halley’s Comet in 1910,” published in the +_Astrophysical Journal_ for June, 1914: + + “With the exception of a sketch by Miss Mary Proctor in New York + City, and a newspaper account by Professor D. P. Todd of Amherst + (whose observation seemed to refer to May 16th), I have seen no + reference from northern observers to the second, fainter and broader + tail shown in my drawings of May 17 and 18, south of the bright beam + and separated from it by a distinct dark space, perhaps ten degrees + wide. The head of the comet was of course invisible, being below the + horizon.” + +This was all the more pleasing to the writer, as doubts had been +expressed in no uncertain terms by a well-known authority, according to +the following statement published in an afternoon paper. “Some one +thinks she saw the comet in the eastern sky, when it is really in the +west.” One can imagine the anxious time experienced while awaiting +confirmation of the observation, but it came in due course from Yerkes, +Lick, Argentine Republic, South Africa, and the writer felt rewarded for +the many dreary waits in the tower during the “wee sma’ hours” since May +1. + +On the morning of May 20, the writer again watched from the _Times_ +tower, in the hope of seeing some straggling streamers trailing along +the sky, denoting the presence of the comet. Between half past two and a +quarter past three a ghostly apparition resembling a slender band of +light was seen extending upward, though almost parallel with the +northeastern horizon. It seemed to rest on a darker band of luminous +haze beneath. Surely this was the last fragment of the train of the +comet, outlined faintly against the dark void of space. + +That same morning Professor Barnard at Yerkes detected a hazy luminous +streak about five degrees broad extending from Aquilæ to the east and +onward toward Alpha Pegasi. “This resembled the comet’s tail,” recorded +Professor Barnard, + + “but was doubtless a strip of haze. I looked at it several times, + taking it for a strip of haze, but it did not seem to move. There + were masses of moving haze overhead toward the north. To all + appearance it looked like the comet’s tail of the mornings of May 18 + and 19. I cannot be certain that it was not haze, but it was a + singular coincidence of position, appearance, etc., if it was. It + remained visible for fully fifteen or twenty minutes.” + +[Illustration: + + COMET 1861, JULY 2, AS SEEN AND DRAWN BY R. A. PROCTOR + + The tail of the comet was near the earth, which passed through it on + this occasion +] + +The train may have been fan-like, as in the case of the comet of 1861, +discovered on May 13, by Mr. John Tebbutt of Windsor, New South Wales, +already referred to in the chapter on “Comet-hunting as a Hobby.” In my +father’s book, _Mysteries of Time and Space_, he records as follows his +view of that comet in connection with the drawing here given: + + “The first recorded observations (of the comet of 1861, in Europe) + were made on the evening of June 30, nineteen days after it had + passed its point of nearest approach to the sun. I remember well + observing it on the morning of July 2, 1861. For some reason I found + it impossible to sleep that morning, and getting up about three (the + exact hour I do not remember, but it must have been very early), I + saw in the east what looked at first like the rays of an aurora + borealis. But presently I noticed that these rays proceeded (unlike + those of the aurora) from a bright center, which had been hidden by + clouds when my observations began. I used at that time to keep a + four-inch telescope, mounted on a three-legged stand, in my bedroom. + This I had quickly ready for action (noting that the object, owing + to the approach of sunrise, was getting fainter every minute), and + turning it on the comet, I drew a picture of the nucleus and coma, + so closely resembling that which appeared a week or two later in the + _Illustrated London News_, that I might have supposed my picture had + been surreptitiously sent to the office of the _Illustrated_, had I + not found it resting just where I had put it in my scientific + portfolio.” + +Returning to the discussion of Halley’s comet, it was seen on May 21, at +4.30 A.M., by Professor Evershed, (then director of the Kodaikanal +Observatory, Southern India), appearing no broader than on May 18, but +fainter. He described it as passing centrally through the square of +Pegasus, which was nearly filled with the faint light. The tail could be +traced, as before, right up to the Milky Way. The star ε Pegasi was +nearly in the center of the band of light, and the star α Aquilæ near +its southern edge. This was the last observation Professor Evershed made +before dawn. He considered it remarkable that the tail of the comet +should have remained visible in the morning sky as a narrow band of +light, nearly two days after the head of the comet had passed to the +other side of the sun. He suggested that this might be due to the fact +that the tail may have been strongly curved and very broad in the +direction of the comet’s motion, although narrow and straight in the +direction at right angles thereto. If so, the passage of the earth +through the tail, if it occurred at all, must have been delayed one or +two days and probably occupied more time than a single day. There is +some doubt whether the tail did actually touch the earth, for +observations of its position in the sky on May 11 and 15 show that its +axis was inclined very considerably northward from the direction of the +radius vector, a straight line drawn from the nucleus of the comet to +the sun of the comet. + +In the forenoon of May 19 certain peculiarities observed suggested that +our planet may have been actually immersed in the cometary débris of the +train of Halley’s comet. These consisted of a peculiar iridescence and +unnatural appearance of the clouds near the sun, and a bar of prismatic +colors on the clouds in the south. This, combined with the general +effect of the sky and clouds—for the entire sky had a most unnatural and +wild look—would have attracted marked attention at any other time than +when one was looking, as on this occasion, for something out of the +ordinary. According to the observations made by Professor Barnard at the +Yerkes Observatory, the sky had been watched carefully during the +forenoon of this date, but nothing unusual had appeared until close to +noon, when the conditions became abnormal. Later on in June, and for at +least a year afterward, slowly moving strips and masses of luminous haze +were observed in the sky, which were not confined to any one part. +Reports of like unusual phenomena were received from the Transvaal, and +from elsewhere in southern climes. + +On the evening of May 21 the comet made its first appearance in the +west, as seen by watchers on the _Times_ tower, but it failed to be very +impressive. It was to the left and a few degrees north of the star +Betelgeuse in the constellation of Orion, and it resembled a star of the +third magnitude. It was surrounded by a hazy cloud-like mist that made +it appear nearly as large as the space covered by the moon. To the left +of it, and extending outward about three or four degrees, were three or +four fan-like streamers. At 8.25 the nucleus seemed brighter and more +star-like in the center, but the streamers had faded from view and the +mist surrounding the nucleus had become hazy and ill-defined. Five +minutes later only the star-like nucleus could be seen, doubtless owing +to the combination of the glare of moonlight and the haze that reflected +the city lights below. + +On May 24 the comet appeared hovering for a brief interval over the +western horizon, resembling a faint star enveloped in mist, and adorned +with a short fan-like tail. On May 25 the comet could not be seen, owing +to the mist and a drizzling rain, but on May 26 it was visible on two +occasions for intervals of about five minutes. It then resembled a +fairly bright star of the third magnitude, surrounded by a misty halo, +but was devoid of a tail. It seemed that our chances of seeing the comet +again under favorable conditions were slight, but on the evening of May +27 we were once more regaled with a fine view, which proved to be final +as far as the writer was concerned. + +At a few minutes past eight the nucleus of the comet appeared, as usual, +hazy and ill-defined, but gradually it brightened until it equaled the +glow of the first-magnitude star Regulus, in the constellation of Leo +near by. Only a few degrees of tail were visible at first, but as the +twilight deepened into night more and more came into view. By 8.40 P.M. +it stretched outward about twenty degrees in the direction of the planet +Jupiter. The train was long and slender, and not more than five degrees +at its greatest width. By 9 o’clock it was clearly visible, a dark +streak apparently dividing it just beyond the nucleus; the edges were +more or less sharply defined for a distance of about three or four +degrees. By 10.30 the train of the comet had almost faded from view; at +10.40 it had become invisible and the nucleus was barely perceptible. +Within three minutes the nucleus was almost lost to sight in the haze +and mist near the horizon. + +Meanwhile, the moon had risen in the eastern sky, and by eleven o’clock +it was several degrees above the horizon. Its arrival on the scene was +the climax of an evening rich in glory, as far as the celestial display +was concerned. The view of the comet on this occasion was the best that +had been obtained since May 20, and settled beyond doubt the vexed +question that had arisen as to whether the comet had lost its tail or +had divided in two. Nevertheless, a glance at a photograph taken by +Professor Barnard on June 6, shows an apparently smaller comet nestling +to the left of the larger, keeping it company, as it were, in its +celestial voyage outward from the neighborhood of the sun. By this time +the comet had faded sadly, as Professor Barnard expressed it, and, +though a noticeable object, was only the ghost of its former self. + +[Illustration: + + HALLEY’S COMET + + From photograph taken by Professor E. E. Barnard, June 6, 1910, at the + Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Wisconsin +] + +Where is it now in its outward journey, at the present time of writing +(1925)? Science can answer the question as definitely as though it were +actually possessed of magic glasses, enabling it to follow the path of +the retreating comet, although it has long since passed beyond our range +of view. It is now approaching the orbit of the planet Neptune, crossing +it in 1933, and reaches its greatest distance outward from the sun in +1943, or 3,200 million miles. In 1964 it draws near to Neptune again, +and will be halfway between Neptune and Uranus in 1974, arriving at the +orbit of Saturn in 1984. Once more it will gladden the eyes of mortals +as it approaches the planet Jupiter, and draws near to pay its respects +to its mighty ruler, the sun. + +At its return in 1758 the prediction erred on the side of thirty-two +days; at the return in 1835, by a margin of only two days; and in 1910, +by the amount of two and one-half days. Perchance, ere it makes its next +appearance in 1985,[10] the presence of another planet beyond Neptune +may have been detected, explaining the disturbing factor resulting in +that small discrepancy. The astronomers at that remote date (1984) may +succeed, therefore, in making a prediction so exact that the comet may +“swim into their ken” promptly to scheduled time. Few, if any, of the +present-time readers of this book (unless it falls into the hands of a +very youthful enthusiast) will be here to welcome the comet at its next +return, and even the youthful enthusiast may have the distressing +experience of the American astronomer Dr. Lewis Swift, who saw Halley’s +comet in 1835, and was able to welcome it at its return in 1910, but, +owing to failing eyesight, was unable to see it, much to his regret. + +[Illustration: + + The orbit of Halley’s Comet, which it passes over in 75 to 77 years, + showing where the comet is to be found now, and during its course + until its next return in 1985. +] + +With regard to my first visit to the Yerkes Observatory, the following +facts regarding the great refractor may be of interest, as well as the +incident narrated to me by Miss Calvert while we were awaiting Professor +Barnard’s invitation to look for Halley’s comet, on that momentous +occasion. The story was deferred, in my account, to the final part of +this chapter, so as not to break the thread of the actual account of my +first view of the comet. Following the description of the telescope, the +story of a catastrophe which nearly ended its career is best told in +Professor Barnard’s own words, as quoted from the after-dinner speech, +in January, 1907, at Nashville, already referred to in this book. + + “The tube of this instrument is about sixty-four feet long. In the + farther end of this tube is placed the great object glass, forty + inches clear in aperture. When one is looking overhead with this + giant telescope, he must be at a point some thirty feet or more + lower than when the tube is pointed toward the horizon. To avoid the + use of a high ladder to reach the observing end of the telescope in + its various positions, the floor of the dome itself is made into a + giant elevator, sixty-five feet in diameter. The rising and lowering + of this floor—which is done by electric motors—always keeps the + observer in a convenient and safe position with reference to the + eye-end. This floor is suspended by heavy steel cables which go over + wheels at the tops of four towers attached to the inside walls of + the dome. The floor is counterpoised by heavy iron weights at the + other ends of the cables. + + “Within a little over a week after the completion of the instrument + and when we had seen through it only once or twice, the two south + cables pulled out of their sockets and the floor fell through fifty + feet to the ground and was destroyed. It was a terrible wreck. This + was on the morning of May 29, 1897, at 6.30 o’clock. Mr. Ellerman + and I had been working all night observing with the telescope. When + we quit at daylight we left the floor at its highest point for the + convenience of some workmen who were to be at work on the tube in + the morning. When the floor fell there was not a soul in the + building, and no one was injured. A couple of hours either way, and + death in all probability would have come to one or the other of us. + Only a few nights before this accident the president of the + University of Chicago and thirty or more trustees and prominent men + of the university had seen through the telescope, and the floor had + been up and down with them on it. If it had fallen then a heavy loss + of life would have been almost certain. A few days before that, Mr. + Clark, who made the great glass, had unpacked the forty-inch disks + on the floor at its highest point, and had put them in the cell + which he finally bolted to the end of the telescope. If the floor + had fallen then, the great lens would have been destroyed, with the + probability that no one would be able to make another, for Mr. Clark + died within a few days after he returned to Cambridge. It was + providential, then, that the floor fell when it did; for the fault + in the attachment of the cables made it certain that it must soon + have fallen. + + “But this is not the end of the story. When the floor fell, it + lurched against the great iron pier of the telescope and must have + given it a violent blow. There was some fear that the great glass + might have been injured by the shock. It was nearly a hundred feet + up in the air and could not be reached to see if it was unharmed. By + climbing up on the dome (which is one hundred and ten feet high) and + looking down at the glass, it was seen to be apparently uninjured. + Still, the test could only be made by examining the stars through + it, which was not possible until the floor was replaced by a new + one. Four months were occupied in taking out the wreck and putting + in the new floor. + + “There was great anxiety to see the sky through the glass, and the + first night available it was turned to the stars. To our + consternation, there was a great, long flare of light running + through every bright star we examined. This was so strong and + conspicuous that it would make the instrument utterly useless. It + looked as if the lens had been injured by the shock of the floor + against the pier. We examined it in all positions of the instrument, + but we could not get rid of the glaring defect. As I had used the + glass more than anyone else before the accident, my statement that + the defect did not then exist made the matter all the more serious. + It was with heavy hearts that we waited for day to again critically + examine the lens. The next day we all examined the great glass very + carefully, but could see nothing wrong with it. Then Professor Hale + noticed that just back of the glass in the tube was a thick mass of + spider webs stretched across the tube, all running in the same + direction. Upon comparing notes we found that the direction of the + spider webs coincided with that of the flare of light seen the night + before. It seemed that a spider had evidently got in the tube before + the object glass was put on by Clark, and had been unable to get + out; for there was no opening in the tube. During the time the tube + remained at rest, while the new floor was being put in, he had + climbed up to the great glass in the direction of the light; and + when he found his egress barred by the great window, he spun his + web, perhaps as a signal of distress, or maybe in the hope that some + unlucky fly might get in through the glass that he could not get out + of—anyway, with the result that he caused several astronomers the + most uneasy time of their lives. When these webs were swept out by + one of the astronomers climbing up in the tube with a feather + duster, it was found that night, when the stars were examined, that + the flare had vanished and the mighty glass was uninjured.” + + + + + CHAPTER SEVEN + ORIGIN OF COMETS AND METEORS + + + (THEORIES ADVANCED BY THE LATE RICHARD A. PROCTOR.) + +Among the author’s most treasured possessions is a clipping from the +Cincinnati _Daily Gazette_ for February 18, 1874, containing a report of +a lecture given by her father, on “Comets and Meteors,” from which the +following is an extract: + + “In this lecture on comets and meteors, I promised to give some + account of what is expelled from the sun when great explosions take + place. If I were to say that the comets were shot out from the sun + you might be startled, or if I asserted that they were also thrown + out of Jupiter and Saturn. But the evidence in connection therewith + is very curious. In the first place, we know that matter is shot out + from the sun, with a velocity so great as to be carried away from + him altogether and so would travel into space. That has only been + observed a few times, but the occurrence is probably very frequent. + The matter which was expelled, if it struck the earth at all, would + strike in the daytime. The side of the earth facing the sun will be + the illuminated side. The meteoric matter coming from the sun can + only strike the illuminated part, and this can only happen in the + daytime. You throw a stone at any object, and it must strike the + side of the object you aim at, that is turned toward you. Humboldt + affirmed that the largest number of meteoric masses had fallen in + the daytime. The larger aërolites have been examined and their + microscopic structure studied. Sorby of Sheffield, who examined some + of them, says they consist of a number of small globules and were + originally in a vaporous state before assuming their present + condition. Then came a chemical analysis by Professor Graham and + Chandler Roberts of London. They found in the iron of the meteoric + mass more hydrogen than iron in a natural condition. Professor + Graham said that in his opinion meteors certainly contained iron, + and that probably they had been expelled from one of the stars that + people space. He drew attention to the fact that stars contained + hydrogen in their atmosphere. These are some of the facts concerned + with the larger meteoric masses. + + “How shall we account for those meteoric streams which travel close + to the path of Jupiter? All comets of short period have paths + closely approaching some of the large planets. The comet of 1680 + went close to Jupiter, long before the explosive power of the sun + was noticed. I call them Jupiter’s family of comets. Sir John + Herschel said that it was very curious that they had that relation. + If we put forward the theory that Jupiter expelled these comets, we + have a very startling theory, but many of the theories which have + been propounded, some of the most important character and which have + been proved to be true, have been the most startling. It is said + that as Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus go along their paths, they draw + in the comets which travel close to them, and capture them. + + “I made a calculation about the November meteors to see how close + they must go to the path of Uranus in order to be captured, and + found that they must approach nearly as close as the nearest + satellite. Only those which came almost in contact with the planet + could be captured. Now, if they were shot out when Uranus was in a + sun-like condition, then it would be explained, whereas we find + great difficulty in imagining that a comet coming out of space would + be captured bodily by a planet like Uranus. Let us consider the + matter thus: if comets are expelled from a planet, they will be + carried along with the forward motion. If it could appear that some + of them went backward, then we would have no evidence of the theory + I have been advancing. If most of them travel forward, then we would + have some evidence for the theory. Now there is the curious fact + that among the comets of short period the whole of Jupiter’s family + travel forward. They do not travel in all directions of slope; all + have a very moderate slope to the paths of the planets. They do not + have the slope even of the asteroids. That is precisely what we + notice—that they travel very much with Jupiter. Taking the balance + between the two theories—that of expulsion and that of capture—it + seems to be in favor of the more startling one—that Jupiter has had + the power to expel these objects.” + +It is interesting, in connection with this extract from the report of a +lecture given by my father some fifty years ago at present time of +writing (1925), to turn to a passage in the chapter on comets, by Dr. A. +C. D. Crommelin, in the _Splendour of the Heavens_, page 414, where he +refers as follows to the capture theory: + + “The fact that the members of the Jupiter family (of comets) have + direct motion in all cases appears to give a fatal blow to the + capture theory. Practically as many comets would approach the planet + with retrograde motion as with direct; there is, indeed, the point + that those travelling in the same direction as the planet would + remain longer in its neighbourhood, and so have more time to be + perturbed, which would have some weight; but that out of some fifty + comets there is not a single retrograde one is too remarkable a fact + to pass over, and it clearly suggests that Jupiter played a + different part from that of a mere enslaver, and was concerned with + the origin of these bodies in a more intimate manner. + + “Many of the considerations I have brought forward were stated by + Mr. R. A. Proctor some fifty years ago; they have therefore been + accessible to astronomers, who nevertheless have been, as a rule, + quite unaffected by them, so that it is time to state them afresh. + The consideration that the life of a short-period comet is limited + by the rapid wastage to which it is subject by the joint action of + the sun and Jupiter was not, I think, so fully realised, when + Proctor wrote as it is now. It serves further to invalidate the + capture theory, since it prevents our assigning to these bodies such + extended lives as that theory demands.” + +According to my father’s theory, the giant planets are themselves the +parents of their comet-families, and he pictured their birth as having +occurred in a remote past, when the planets were more sun-like than they +are to-day. We have a great amount of evidence as to the energy of the +processes that are at work on Jupiter, as evidenced, for instance, by +the great Red Spot (though some have hinted at the possibility of its +being an early stage in the formation of a new satellite); Saturn, +Uranus, and Neptune also indicate vast upheavals, though distance in +their case hinders observation, and even on our own planet we have some +striking instances of the power of volcanic energy, as at the eruption +of Krakatoa in 1883. Sounds of the explosion were heard three thousand +miles away, and a huge volume of dust was blown to the highest regions +of the atmosphere, but we are entitled to expect much vaster convulsions +in Jupiter, which outweighs the earth three hundred times and is in a +much hotter state, judging by the deep envelope of vapours surrounding +it, and the rapid changes that are constantly taking place in its +appearance, on an enormous scale, as shown by the fine series of +photographs which have been obtained of the planet with the giant +telescopes. + +Writing in his magazine, _Knowledge_, for January 1, 1887, page 64, my +father states: + + “The theory of ejection was adopted as the only theory by which the + chemical, physical, and microscopic structure of meteorites of all + orders—from bolosiderites to asiderites—can be accounted for. They + were certainly once exposed to such conditions as exist only in the + interior of large orbs—suns or planets. And as certainly they have + somehow come forth from such interiors. The expulsive force shown by + observation to reside in the only sun-like body we can examine, + indicates the only way in which such expulsion can conceivably have + been effected. Hence, I infer (for my own part I feel assured of the + weight of evidence) that all orders of meteorites were expelled from + some orbs at some time when such orbs were in the sun-like stage. + Generalizing, I include in this theory all orders of meteors, and + find all their most characteristic peculiarities explained, and all + orders of meteor systems or comets, finding their several orders + thus and thus only explicable (if we include all suns now and in the + past, all planets in all solar systems, in their past sun-like + state, among the sources of meteors and comets). No other general + theory seems to me possible.” + +Again, in an article in _Knowledge_ for April, 1887, page 135, my father +makes the following statement regarding his theory concerning comets and +meteors: + + “All comets and meteors are sun-born. But it is not to our own sun, + nor to those other suns, the stars, that I attribute all comets and + meteor systems. Many millions have come doubtless from our sun + during the many millions of years he has been a sun, though few of + his cometic children are known to terrestrial astronomers. Millions + of millions have come from the many millions of suns in our galaxy + during the many millions of years of their sun-like existence. But + the giant planets were once suns,[11] and in their sun-like state, + which must have lasted millions of years, they must have ejected + their smaller comets and meteor systems which even now, after + millions of years, have paths passing near the orbits of their + parent orbs. Our earth and her fellow terrestrial planets had their + sun-like stage of life, too, and it must have been while the earth + was a sun that the meteors explained specially by Tschermak’s theory + were expelled.” + +According to his theory, Tschermak, noting the resemblance of structure +between meteorites and volcanic products, suggests that meteors of all +orders (which would include meteor streams, and therefore comets) were +shot out from the earth in the days when she was young. But though this +is better than the other theories, in at least suggesting some sort of +an origin for comets and meteors, it will not account for comets which +do not approach within many millions of miles of the earth’s orbit,[12] +and a theory which fails for some among the comets cannot be the true +general theory for meteors either. + +Mr. Sorby of Sheffield, the eminent mineralogist already referred to, +deduced from the microscopic structure of certain meteorites the +startling theory that they had once been inside the sun; for there is +evidence that their substance once existed in the form of globules of +molten metal, which aggregated with large masses, which in turn were +exposed to violent friction, indicating conflicting motions of very high +velocities. + +“Where else,” wrote Sorby, in 1864, “could such conditions exist, except +first in the interior, and afterwards in the immediate neighborhood of +our sun!” But it is absolutely certain that the theory as thus suggested +cannot possibly be true, either as a general explanation of comets and +meteors, or even as an explanation of any known meteor system or comet, +unless, perhaps, a few of the comets whose orbits pass very near the sun +were sun-born, and subsequently disturbed by planetary attractions so as +not to return to their parent orb. + +According to my father’s views on the subject: + + “A flight of meteors shot out from the sun, as Sorby suggested, + might have velocity enough to get away from him forever, in which + case we should never see a trace of it again, even though we waited + for millions of years. If, however, it could not get away, then it + must return to its starting-place—that is, back to the sun’s + globe—unless, passing near enough to one of the giant planets, it + were so far disturbed as only to return by grazing past the sun’s + surface. (The comets of 1843, 1880, and 1882, which all traveled in + paths near the sun, almost grazing his surface, may well have been + parts of a single meteor-flight shot out from his interior millions + of years ago.)” + +After the appearance of the new comet of 1887 in the southern skies, it +was found to be following along the same track as the comets of 1843, +1880, and 1882, thus confirming my father’s theory that these comets +were parts of one large comet, dissipated, doubtless, some millions of +years ago. + +These comets were so bright when near the sun that they could be seen at +noon with the naked eye. As regards the heat experienced by the comet of +1843 when near the sun, Sir John Herschel remarked: + + “Imagine a glare 25,000 times fiercer than that of an equatorial + sunshine at noonday. In such a heat there is no solid substance we + know of which would not run like water—boil—and be converted into + smoke or vapor.” + +[Illustration: + + From _Knowledge_ + + THE SOUTHERN COMET OF JANUARY, 1887 +] + +In _Knowledge_ for November 1, 1887, an account is given of the +remarkable southern comet first observed in January of that year, and as +it is the last article on this topic written by my father for his +magazine, giving a more or less detailed account of his views on the +subject, the author of this book has deemed it advisable to quote it in +full. It is of special interest, not only on account of its giving his +theories on the subject, but for the reason that it helps to supply part +of the missing chapter on “Comets and Meteors,” which he had planned for +his final but unfortunately unfinished work, _Old and New Astronomy_. +This work had been in course of preparation for thirty years, and that +the material for such a chapter was partially compiled the writer knows +from the fact that she has a keen recollection of clippings, MSS., and +notes which she saw apparently awaiting classification and arrangement, +a short while before her father’s departure from Florida, September 8, +1888. What became of them after his sudden death in New York a few days +later, it is impossible to conjecture, unless A. C. Ranyard, who +completed the book, found the chapter on comets too difficult to arrange +satisfactorily. Yet even the fragments so arduously arranged and +collected by my father would have been better than a missing chapter on +a subject in which he was so deeply interested and to which he had +devoted so much attention. + +To return to my father’s account of the comet of January, 1887: + + “The comet was first seen by a farmer and a fisherman of Blauwberg, + near Cape Town, on the night of January 18–19. The same night it was + seen at the Cordoba University by M. Thomé. On the next night Mr. + Todd discovered it independently at the Adelaide Observatory, and + watched it till the 27th. On the 22d Mr. Finlay detected the comet + and was able to watch it till the 29th. At Rio de Janeiro, Mr. Cruls + observed it from the 23d to the 25th, and at Windsor, New South + Wales, Mr. Tebbutt observed the comet on the 28th and 30th. + Moonlight interfered with further observations. + + “The comet’s appearance was remarkable. Its tail, long and straight, + extended over an arc of thirty degrees, but there was no appreciable + condensation which could be called the comet’s head. The long train + of light, described as nearly equal in brightness to the Magellanic + clouds, seemed to be simply cut off at that end where in most comets + a nucleus and coma are shown. + + “This comet has helped to throw light on one of the most perplexing + of all the puzzles which those most perplexing of all the heavenly + bodies, comets, have presented to astronomers. In the year 1668, a + comet was seen in the southern skies which attracted very little + notice at the time, and would probably have been little thought of + since had not attention been directed to it by the appearance and + behavior of certain comets seen during the last half-century. + Visible for about three weeks, and discovered after it had already + passed the point of its nearest approach to the sun, the comet of + 1668 was not observed so satisfactorily that its orbit could be + precisely determined. In fact, two entirely different orbits would + satisfy the observations fairly, though only one could be regarded + as satisfying them well. + + “This orbit, however, was so remarkable that astronomers were led to + prefer the other, less satisfactory though it was, in explaining the + observed motions of the comet. For the orbit which best explained + the comet’s movements carried the comet so close to the sun as + actually to graze his visible surface. Moreover, there was this + remarkable and, indeed, absolutely unique peculiarity about the + orbit thus assigned: the comet (whose period of revolution was to be + measured by hundreds of years) actually passed through the whole of + that part of its course during which it was north of our earth’s + orbit plane in less than two hours and a half! though this part of + its course is a half-circuit around the sun, so far as direction + (not distance of travel) is concerned. That comet, when at its + nearest to the sun, was traveling at the rate of about 330 miles per + second. It passed through regions near the sun’s surface commonly + supposed to be occupied by atmospheric matter. + + “Now, had the comet been so far checked in its swift rush through + those regions as to lose one-thousandth part of its velocity, it + would have returned in less than a year. But the way in which the + comet retreated showed that nothing of this sort was to be expected. + I am not aware, indeed, that any anticipations were ever suggested + in regard to the return of the comet of 1668 to our neighborhood. It + was not till the time of Halley’s comet, 1682, that modern astronomy + began to consider the question of the possibly periodic character of + cometic motions with attention. (For my own part, I reject as + altogether improbable the statement of Seneca that the ancient + Chaldean astronomers could calculate the return of comets. The comet + of 1680, called Newton’s, was the very first whose orbital motions + were dealt with on the principles of Newtonian astronomy, and + Halley’s was the first whose periodic character was recognized.) + + “In 1843, another comet came up from the south, and presently + returned thither. It was, indeed, only seen during its return, + having, like the comet of 1668, been discovered only a day or two + after perihelion passage. Astronomers soon began to notice a curious + resemblance between the orbits of the two comets. Remembering the + comparative roughness of the observations made in 1668, it may be + said that the two comets moved in the same orbit, so far as could be + judged from observation. The comet of 1843 came along a path + inclined at apparently the same angle to the earth’s orbit plane, + crossed that plane ascendingly at appreciably the same point, swept + round in about two hours and a half that part of its angular circuit + which lay north of the earth’s orbit plane, and, crossing that plane + descendingly at the same point as the comet of 1668, passed along + appreciably the same course towards the southern stellar regions! + The close resemblance of two paths, each so strikingly remarkable in + itself, could not well be regarded as a mere accidental coincidence. + + “However, at that time no very special attention was directed to the + resemblance between the paths of the comets of 1843 and 1668. It was + not regarded as anything very new or striking that a comet should + return after making a wide excursion round the sun; and those who + noticed that the two comets really had traversed appreciably the + same path around the immediate neighborhood of the sun, simply + concluded that the comet of 1668 had come back in 1843, after 175 + years, and not necessarily for the first time. + + “It must be noticed, however, before leaving this part of the + record, that the comet of 1843 was suspected of behaving in a rather + strange way when near the sun. For the first observation, made + rather roughly, indeed, with a sextant, by a man who had no idea of + the interest his observations might afterwards have, could not be + reconciled by mathematicians (including the well-known + mathematician, Benjamin Pierce) with the movement of the comet as + subsequently observed. It seemed as though when in the sun’s + neighborhood the comet had undergone some disturbance, possibly + internal, which had in slight degree affected its subsequent career. + + “According to some calculations the comet of 1843 seemed to have a + period of about thirty-five years, which accorded well with the idea + that it was the comet of 1668, returned after five circuits. Nor was + it deemed at all surprising that the comet, conspicuous though it + is, had not been detected in 1713, 1748, 1783, and 1818, for its + path would carry it where it would be very apt to escape notice + except in the southern hemisphere, and even there it might quite + readily be missed. The appearance of the comet of 1668 corresponded + well with that of the comet of 1843. Each was remarkable for its + long tail and for the comparative insignificance of its head. In the + northern skies, indeed, the comet of 1843 showed a very straight + tail, and it is usually depicted in that way, whereas the comet of + 1668 had a tail showing curvature. But pictures of the comet of + 1843, as seen in the southern hemisphere, show it with a curved + tail, and also the tail appeared forked toward the end, during that + part of the comet’s career. However, the best observations, and the + calculations based on them, seemed to show that the period of the + comet of 1843 could not be less than 500 years. + + “Astronomers were rather startled, therefore, when, in 1880, a comet + appeared in the southern skies which traversed appreciably the same + course as the comets of 1668 and 1843. When I was in Australia in + 1880, a few months after the great comet had passed out of view, I + met several persons who had seen both the comet of that year and the + comet of 1843. They all agreed in saying that the resemblance + between the two comets was very close. Like the comet of 1843, that + of 1880 had a singularly long tail, and both comets were remarkable + for the smallness and dimness of their heads. One observer told me + that at times the head of the comet could barely be discerned. + + “Like the comets of 1668 and 1843, the comet of 1880 grazed close + past the sun’s surface. Like them it was but about two hours and a + half north of the earth’s orbit plane. Had it only resembled the + other two in these remarkable characteristics, the coincidence would + have been remarkable. But of course the real evidence by which the + association between the comets was shown was of a more decisive + kind. It was not in general character only, but in details that the + path of the comet of 1880 resembled those on which the other two + comets had traveled. Its path had almost exactly the same slant to + the earth’s orbit plane as theirs, crossed that plane ascendingly + and descendingly at almost exactly the same points, and made its + nearest approach to the sun at very nearly the same place. + + “To the astronomer such evidence is decisive. Mr. Hind, the + superintendent of the _Nautical Almanac_, and as sound and cautious + a student of cometic astronomy as any man living, remarked, so soon + as the resemblance of these comets’ paths had been ascertained, that + if it were merely accidental the case was most unusual; nay, it + might be described as unique. And, be it noticed, he was referring + only to the resemblance between the comets of 1880 and 1843. Had he + recalled at the time the comet of 1668, and its closely similar + orbit, he would have admitted that the double coincidence could not + possibly be merely casual. + + “But this was by no means the end of the matter. Indeed, thus far, + although the circumstances were striking, there was nothing to + prevent astronomers from interpreting them as other cases of + coincident, or nearly coincident, comet paths, had been interpreted. + Hind and others, myself included, inferred that the comets of 1880, + 1843, and 1668 were simply one and the same comet, whose return in + 1880 probably followed the return in 1843 after a single revolution. + + “In 1882, however, two years and a half after the appearance of the + comet of 1880, another comet came up from the south, which followed + in the sun’s neighborhood almost the same course as the comets of + 1668, 1843, and 1880. The path it followed was not quite so close to + those followed by the other three as these had been to each other, + but yet was far too close to indicate possibly a mere casual + resemblance; on the contrary, the resemblance in regard to shape, + slope, and those peculiarities which render this family of comets + unique in the cometary system, was of the closest and most startling + kind. + + “Many will remember the startling ideas which were suggested by + Professor Piazzi Smyth respecting the portentous significance of the + comet of 1882. He regarded it as confirming the great pyramid’s + teaching (according to the views of orthodox pyramidalists) + respecting the approaching end of the Christian dispensation. It was + seen under very remarkable circumstances, blazing close by the sun, + within a fortnight or three weeks of the precise date which had been + announced as marking that critical epoch in the history of the + earth. + + “Moreover, even viewing the matter from a scientific standpoint, + Professor Smyth (who, outside his pyramidal paradoxes, is an + astronomer of well-deserved repute) could recognize sufficient + reason for regarding the comet as portentous. Many others, indeed, + both in America and in Europe, shared his opinion in this respect. A + very slight retardation of the course of the comet of 1880, during + its passage close to the surface of the sun, would have sufficed to + alter its period of revolution from the thirty-seven years assigned + on the supposition of its identity with the comet of 1843, to the + two and a half years indicated by its apparent return in 1882, and + if this had occurred in 1880, a similar interruption in 1882 would + have caused its return in less than two and a half years. + + “Thus, circling in an ever-narrowing (or rather shortening) orbit, + it would presently, within a quarter of a century or so, perhaps, + have become so far entangled among the atmospheric matter around the + sun, that it would have been unable to resist absolute absorption. + What the consequences to the solar system might have been none + ventured to suggest. Newton had expressed his belief that the effect + of such absorption would be disastrous, but the physicists of the + nineteenth century, better acquainted with the laws associating heat + and motion, were not so despondent. Only Professor Smyth seems to + have felt assured (not being despondent but confident) that the + comet portended, in a very decisive way, the beginning of the end. + + “However, we were all mistaken. The comet of 1882 retreated on such + a course, and with such variation of velocity as to show that its + real period must be measured not by months, as had been supposed, + nor even by years, but by centuries. Probably it will not return + till 600 or 700 years have passed. Had this not been proved, we + might have been not a little perplexed by the return of apparently + the same comet in this present year (1887). A comet was discovered + in the south early in January, whose course, dealt with by Professor + Kruger, one of the most zealous of our comet calculators, is found + to be partially identical with that of the four remarkable comets we + have been considering. Astronomers have not been moved by this new + visitant on the well-worn track, as we were by the arrival of the + comet of 1882, or as we should have been if either the comet of 1882 + had never been seen, or its path had not been shown to be so wide + ranging. Whatever the comet of the present year may be, it was not + the comet of 1882 returned. No one even supposes that it was the + comet of 1880, or 1843, or 1668. Nevertheless, rightly apprehended, + the appearance of a comet traveling on appreciably the same track as + those four other comets is of extreme interest, and indeed + practically decisive as to the interpretation we must place on these + repeated coincidences. + + “Observe, we are absolutely certain that the five comets are + associated together in some way; but we are as absolutely certain + that they are not one and the same comet which had traveled along + the same track and returned after a certain number of circuits. We + need not trouble ourselves with the question whether two or more of + the comets may not have been in reality one and the same body at + different returns. It suffices that they all five were not one; + since we deduce precisely the same conclusion whether we regard the + five as in reality but four or three or two. But it may be + mentioned, in passing, as appearing altogether more probable, when + all the evidence is considered, that there were no fewer than five + distinct comets, all traveling on what was practically the selfsame + track when in the neighborhood of the sun. + + “There can be but one interpretation of this remarkable fact—a fact + really proved, be it noticed (as I and others have maintained since + the retreat of the comet of 1882), independently of the evidence + supplied by the great southern comet of the present year. These + comets must all originally have been one comet, though now they are + distinct bodies. For there is no reasonable way (indeed no possible + way) of imagining the separate formation of two or more comets at + different times, which should thereafter travel in the same path. + + “No theory of the origin of comets ever suggested, none even which + can be imagined, could account for such a peculiarity. Whereas, on + the other hand, we have direct evidence showing how a comet, + originally single, may be transformed into two or more comets + traveling on the same, or nearly the same, track. + + “The comet called Biela’s, which had circuited as a single comet up + to the year 1846 (during a period of unknown duration in the + past—probably during millions of years), divided then into two, and + has since broken up into so many parts that each cometic fragment is + separately indiscernible. The two comets into which Biela’s divided, + in 1846, were watched long enough to show that, had their separate + existence continued (visibly), they would have been found, in the + fullness of time, traveling at distances very far apart, though on + nearly the same orbit. The distance between them, which in 1846 had + increased only to about a quarter of a million of miles, had in 1852 + increased to five times that space. + + “Probably a few thousand years would have sufficed to set these + comets so far apart (owing to some slight difference of velocity, + initiated at the moment of their separation) that when one would + have been at its nearest to the sun, the other would have been at + its farthest from him. If we could now discern the separate + fragments of the comet, we should doubtless recognize a process in + progress by which, in the course of many centuries, the separate + cometic bodies will be disseminated all round the common orbit. We + know, further, that already such a process has been at work on + portions removed from the comet many centuries ago, for as our earth + passes through the track of this comet she encounters millions of + meteoric bodies which are traveling in the comet’s orbit, and once + formed part of the substance of a comet doubtless much more + distinguished in appearance than Biela’s. + + “There can be little doubt that this is the true explanation of the + origin of that family of comets, five of whose members returned to + the neighborhood of the sun (possibly their parent) in the years + 1668, 1843, 1880, 1882, and 1887. But it is not merely as thus + explaining what had been a most perplexing problem that I have dealt + with the evidence supplied by the practical identity of the orbits + of these five comets. When once we recognize that this, and this + only, can be the explanation of the associated group of five comets, + we perceive that very interesting and important light has been + thrown on the subject of comets generally. + + “To begin with, what an amazing comet that must have been from which + these five, and we know not how many more, were formed by + disaggregative processes—probably by the divellent action of + repulsive forces exerted by the sun! Those who remember the comets + of 1843 and 1882 as they appeared when at their full splendor will + be able to imagine how noble an appearance a comet would present + which was formed of these combined together in one. But the comet of + 1880 was described by all who saw it in the southern hemisphere as + most remarkable in appearance, despite the faintness of its head. + The great southern comet of the present year (1887) was a striking + object in the skies, though it showed the same weakness about the + head. That of 1668 was probably as remarkable in appearance as even + the comet of 1882. A comet formed by combining all these together + would certainly surpass in magnificence all the comets ever observed + by astronomers. + + “And then, what enormous periods of time must have been required to + distribute the fragments of a single comet so widely that one would + be found returning to its perihelion more than two centuries after + another! When I spoke of one member of the Biela group being in + aphelion, when another would be in perihelion, I was speaking of a + difference of only three and one-third years in time; and even that + would require thousands of years. But the scattered cometic bodies + which returned to the sun’s neighborhood in 1668 and 1887 speak + probably of millions of years which have passed since first this + comet was formed. It would be a matter of curious inquiry to + determine what may have been the condition of our sun, what even his + volume, at that remote period in history.” + +In view of our present knowledge of the status of the sun as a +comparative dwarf in the stellar system, may it not have been a giant +star at that remote period of its existence above referred to, rivaling +in volume the giant star Betelgeuse with its diameter exceeding two +hundred million miles.[13] At that period of the evolution of the sun, +how terrific must have been the force of the upheavals which rent its +surface, flinging forth cometic material with incalculable speed, to +distances far exceeding any known in connection with the comets with +which we are familiar. + +Regarding the solar origin of comets, Dr. A. C. D. Crommelin writes as +follows in _Splendour of the Heavens_, page 407: + + “When we note that the orbit of the great comet of 1882 almost + grazes the sun’s surface, there is a natural tendency to attribute a + solar origin to it. We know from the phenomena of the solar + prominences that the sun is continually erupting torrents of matter + with very high speeds; a speed of 270 miles per second would suffice + to send the matter round the sun in a circular orbit; if it rose to + 382 miles per second the orbit would be parabolic; while for any + intermediate speed it would be elliptic. By combining the observed + speed of ascent of the prominence matter with the speed of approach + or recession that is indicated by the shift of the lines in the + spectrum, we conclude that speeds of this order are quite common, so + that no difficulty arises on that account. I feel rather more + difficulty from the consideration that the meteoric masses that + compose a comet’s head could not exist in the sun in a solid state; + the heat would suffice to vaporize them. The materials would + solidify in the cold of space, but as they would be under no + pressure, I imagine that the resulting solid particles would be + microscopically small, not of the size required to form reservoirs + for a large amount of gas. All objects ejected by the sun would move + in orbits that intersect the sun, except in so far as their orbits + are modified by planetary action. This latter might readily be large + enough to change the orbit to one just outside the sun (like those + of the sun-grazing comets of 1680, 1843, 1882, etc.). However, the + great majority of known comets have orbits whose least distance from + the sun is so large that we cannot imagine an origin for these by + simple solar eruption. + + “The question arises, Can the comets have existed for so long a + period in view of the wastage that they undergo? According to the + geologists the date of the approach of another sun to ours (as + suggested in the planetesimal hypothesis) must be put at least a + thousand million years ago; in such an interval, even the comets of + longest period would have returned thousands of times, and I gravely + doubt whether they could continue to be such compact bodies as they + appear to be; I frankly admit that I have no plausible suggestion to + offer for evading the difficulty; it is one of the numerous cases in + astronomy (the status of the spiral nebulæ is another) in which we + must be content for the present to record observed facts and + suggested interpretations, leaving full understanding to come at a + later date, if at all.” + +According to the same authority, in connection with his views on the +subject, as expressed after reading the MSS. prepared for this chapter, +he writes, as follows: + + “I have noted a paper by A. A. Newton (see _Observatory_ for 1894, + page 250), in which he says, that out of 1,000 million comets + approaching the sun, 126 comets will have periods reduced to 6 + years, 839 to 12 years, 1,701 to 18 years, and 2,670 to 24 years. + Further, of the 839 no less than 203, or a quarter of the whole, + will have retrograde orbits after perturbation. I think these + results go very strongly against the capture hypothesis. There would + only be one short-period comet in something like 2 million years; + whereas the experience of Biela’s, Brorsen’s (and perhaps also + Tempel 1 and Holmes), suggests that several of them have become + extinct in a century, so an equal number of new ones is required to + keep up the supply. It is a matter of surprise to me that the + difficulty is not more generally recognized.” + +The following brief abstract, condensed from an article written by +Professor W. W. Payne, for _Popular Astronomy_, April, 1906, page 221, +regarding “Jupiter’s Family of Comets,” with accompanying chart, may be +of interest in connection with the matter under discussion in this +chapter: + + “This notable family of comets is more and more of a wonder, the + further its study is pursued. It is remarkable on account of its + size, and—if the capture theory be correct—of the power of Jupiter + to capture comets and make them members of his family, if they, in + their wild flights through space, happen to come too near to him as + they sometimes do in certain parts of his orbital path around the + sun. But a close study of the chart showing the paths of Jupiter’s + family of comets would seem to indicate that nearly all the farthest + points of the comet’s orbits from the sun are on one side of + Jupiter’s orbit. These points are marked by short cross lines. Now + if Jupiter obtained his family by capture, why should he be more + successful on one side of the orbit than the other? + + Moreover, the motions of all these bodies about the sun, and about + Jupiter, are direct, that is, contrary to those of the hands of a + watch. Does not this fact of the comets traveling in the same + direction, point to the supposition that they were originally + ejected from the planet rather than that they were captured by + Jupiter?” + + + + + CHAPTER EIGHT + METEOR STREAMS + + + Whence come these uncounted millions of bodies, rushing through space + with inconceivable velocity? What purpose do they fulfill in the + economy of the solar system? Are they the chips in the great workshop + of Nature, the sparks which have flown from the mighty grindstone, the + shreds of clay which the giant potters, Attraction and Repulsion, have + cast aside as useless? + + —R. A. PROCTOR. + + +So far, we have traced the story of comets and meteors, and theories +concerning their origin, but there still remains the fascinating chapter +regarding those meteor streams which cross the earth’s path in uncounted +thousands and at regular intervals. For instance there are the great +November showers unsurpassed by any, except perhaps the August meteor +system. From recent investigations it has been shown that the +independent particles of which these systems are composed form part of a +great throng moving in orderly paths around the sun. They have proved +their right to a place in the “obedient family” which Copernicus +recognized as forming the solar system. In those days meteors were +regarded as a species of exhalation from the earth and consumed during +some processes of change in the upper regions of the atmosphere. Later +on, they had attained to the rank of volcanic missiles ejected from the +moon, and ascending still higher they were said to be stones falling +from the sky, not only on land, but “in the great sea, where they +remained concealed.” + +It was not until the impressive meteoric shower of 1833 that suspicions +were aroused concerning a connection between these apparently erratic +wanderers in the sky and comets. When Professors Twining and Olmsted of +New Haven, U. S. A., observed that the paths of all the meteors during +the November shower of 1833 could be traced back to what is termed a +“radiant,” and Olmsted went so far as to call the densest part of the +swarm a “comet,” these objects attained a new interest in the +astronomical world. Olmsted and Twining were the first to show that the +meteors are not terrestrial and atmospheric, but bodies truly cosmical. + +Could Kepler and Copernicus have revisited the former scene of their +labors and listened to the discussions concerning the theories advanced +in connection with comets and meteors during the latter part of the +nineteenth century, they would scarcely have recognized the scheme of +the solar system thus unfolded to their view! Not only has the claim of +meteorites to membership in that system been firmly established, but the +definite seasons for their appearance, and the well-known orbits along +which certain meteor streams travel, can now be confidently predicted by +astronomers. It is true, unfortunate circumstances may cause delay, as +in the case of the failure of the expected return of the November +meteor-shower in 1899, November 14–15, but this was undoubtedly due to +the disturbing influence of Jupiter and Saturn. + +However, there could be no delay and consequent disappointment at the +return of this meteor swarm in 1833, which was not only totally +unexpected, but furnished a scene of such splendor that words fail to +convey an idea of its impressive character. We are told, by those who +were so fortunate as to witness it, that the meteors fell as thickly as +snowflakes. My father used to relate the following story regarding one +of the planters of South Carolina who gave a most impressive account of +the consternation caused among the negroes on this occasion. To quote +the words of the planter: + + “I was suddenly awakened by the most distressing cries that ever + fell on my ears. Shrieks of horror and cries for mercy I could hear + from most of the negroes of the three plantations, amounting in all + to about six or eight hundred. While earnestly listening for the + cause, I heard a faint voice near the door calling my name. I arose + and, taking my sword, stood at the door. + + “At this moment I heard the same voice still beseeching me to rise, + assuring me that the world was on fire. I then opened the door, and + it is difficult to say which excited me the most, the awfulness of + the scene or the distressed cries of the negroes. Upward of a + hundred lay prostrate on the ground, some speechless and some giving + utterance to the bitterest cries. With hands upraised, they implored + God to save the world and them. The scene was truly awful, for never + did rain fall much thicker than the meteors fell towards the + earth—east, west, north and south, it was the same.” + +Renewed interest was taken in the subject as the year 1866 drew near, +for Professor Newton of New Haven, U. S. A., had found, after a careful +examination of records in 1864, that there had been a number of great +autumnal meteoric star-showers separated by periods of about +thirty-three years. As a result of his investigations, he predicted that +a shower would occur in 1866, and conjectured that the path along which +the meteor stream would travel might have one of five different orbits; +one with a period of thirty-three and a quarter years, two with periods +of one year plus or minus eleven days, and two with periods of half a +year plus or minus five and a half days. + +Professor John Couch Adams, with the same patience and accuracy which +had enabled him to discover the planet Neptune, concentrated all his +efforts in tracing by means of the most laborious calculations the +disturbing effects of the planets upon the November meteor stream in +connection with each of the five orbits suggested by Newton. He came to +the conclusion that the true orbit must be the largest, _viz._, the one +having a period of thirty-three and a quarter years. Accordingly, he +confirmed the prediction that the meteoric shower was due to return in +1866, and not only was that prediction confirmed, but the meteor stream +was seen again in 1867, the procession stretching out along the orbit +for such a distance that it required three years to pass a given point. + +Unfortunately, as far as Professor Newton and his fellow-countrymen in +America were concerned, they were unable to witness the wonderful +display, for on this occasion it favored our side of the world. In other +words, the encounter between the earth and the dense part of the meteor +stream which had caused such a spectacular display in 1833, preceded the +time predicted for it only by the brief interval separating the +successive passages of England and America across a given rotation +space. + + “If we imagine that from some distant orb, a being were watching the + event, knowing the nature of Newton’s prediction and uncertain as to + the result, then this being would have seen the meteor swarm rushing + onwards to the scene of encounter on the one part, and the earth + sweeping towards the same point on the other. He could see that all + over Europe and the western parts of Asia, and in a less degree over + the foreshortened Atlantic, the meteors were already falling, the + display would grow richer and richer, but after a while it would + diminish in splendor. Finally, just as America began to show on the + exposed hemisphere, the encounter would come to an end, the earth + passing onwards to the relatively barren portions lying beyond the + meteor orbit.” (R. A. Proctor, _The Orbs Around Us_, pp. 180–181.) + +Such was the occurrence which astonished the world on the nights of +November 13–14, 1866, according to Sir Robert Ball’s experience, which +he has portrayed in such vivid language in _The Story of the Heavens_: + + “The night was fine; the moon was absent. The meteors were + distinguished not only by their enormous multitude, but by their + intrinsic magnificence. I shall never forget that night. On the + memorable evening, I was engaged in my usual duty at that time of + observing nebulæ with Lord Rosse’s great reflecting telescope. I was + of course aware that a shower of meteors had been predicted, but + nothing that I had heard prepared me for the splendid spectacle so + soon to be unfolded. It was about ten o’clock at night when an + exclamation from an attendant by my side made me look up from the + telescope, just in time to see a fine meteor dash across the sky. It + was presently followed by another, and then again by others in twos + and in threes, which showed that the prediction of a great shower + was likely to be verified. + + “At this time, the Earl of Rosse (then Lord Oxmantown) joined me at + the telescope, and after a brief interval we decided to cease our + observations of the nebulæ and ascend to the top of the wall of the + great telescope, from whence a clear view of the whole hemisphere of + the heavens could be obtained. There, for the next three or four + hours, we witnessed a spectacle which can never fade from my memory. + The shooting stars gradually increased in number until sometimes + several were seen at once. Sometimes they swept over our heads, + sometimes to the right, sometimes to the left, but they all diverged + from the east. All the tracks of the meteors radiated from Leo. + + “Sometimes a meteor appeared to come almost directly towards us, and + then its path was so foreshortened that it had hardly any + appreciable length, and looked like an ordinary fixed star swelling + into brilliancy and then as rapidly vanishing. Occasionally luminous + trains would linger on for many minutes after the meteor had flashed + across, but the great majority of the trains in this shower were + evanescent. It would be impossible to say how many thousands of + meteors were seen, each one of which was bright enough to have + elicited a note of admiration on any ordinary night.” + +Soon after the remarkable display of meteors in 1866, Schiaparelli of +Milan, whose interest had been aroused by the researches of Newton and +Adams, published a paper upon the Perseids, or August meteors, in which +he drew attention to the fact that they were moving in the same path as +that of the bright comet of 1862, known as Tuttle’s comet. Shortly after +this Leverrier published his orbit of the Leonid meteors derived from +the observed position of the radiant (within the sickle-shaped group of +stars in Leo), in connection with the periodic time assigned by Adams; +and almost simultaneously, but without any idea of a connection between +them, Oppolzer published his orbit of Tempel’s comet of 1866, and the +two orbits were at once seen to be practically identical. + +Now a _single_ case of such a coincidence as that pointed out by +Schiaparelli might possibly be accidental, but hardly _two_. Then five +years later in 1872 came the meteoric shower of the Bielids, the +disintegrated particles following in the track of Biela’s comet, and +since then scores of meteor streams have been apparently detected with +“a comet annexed,” firmly establishing the theory regarding the +connection between comets and meteor streams as a well-proved fact. + +The longer a comet has been in the solar system, the more widely +scattered will be its accompanying meteor stream. According to this +theory, the Perseids which are scattered more or less uniformly along +their orbit of enormous extent ranging far beyond the orbit of the +outermost planet Neptune, are undoubtedly old inhabitants of the solar +system. The Leonids, on the contrary, are comparatively newcomers +introduced into the solar system (according to the calculations of +Leverrier, and admitting the capture theory, though the ejection theory +is far more plausible), in A.D. 126, when Tempel’s comet, of which they +formed part, passed very near Uranus. + +Since the mystery regarding these celestial wanderers has been cleared, +it might almost seem as if every comet of distinction had its own +special host of meteoric attendants following closely in its wake, their +number constantly increased by the addition of discarded fragments +forming the train of the comet at each visit paid by it to the sun. The +following is a list compiled by Mr. W. F. Denning of the chief meteoric +displays of the year. + + ══════════════╤════════════════╤═══════════╤═══════════════════════════ + _Name of │ _Date of │ _Radiant │ _Appearance of meteors_ + shower_ │ maximum_ │ point_ │ + ──────────────┼────────────────┼───────────┼─────────────────────────── + │ │ R.A. Dcl. │ + Quadrantids │January 3 │ 230° + 52°│Slowish, long paths + Lyrids │April 21 │ 270° + 33°│Swift, streaks + η Aquarids │May 2–6 │ 338° − 2°│Swift, very long paths + Draconids │June 28 │ 228° + 54°│Very slow, short paths + δ Aquarids │July 28–30 │339° − 120°│Slow, long paths + α Capricornids│July 25-August 4│ 303° − 10°│Very slow, brilliant, long + Perseids │August 11 │ 45° + 57°│Swift, streaks + Orionids │October 19 │ 92° + 15°│Swift, streaks + Leonids │November 14–15 │ 151° + 23°│Very swift, streaks + Andromedids │November 17–27 │ 25° + 44°│Very slow, short, trained + Geminids │December 11–12 │ 110° + 33°│Swift, white, short paths + ──────────────┴────────────────┴───────────┴─────────────────────────── + +The _Lyrids_ are connected with Comet 1861 I, having a period of about +415 years. + +The _Perseids_ are connected with Comet 1862 III, having a period of +about 120 years. + +The _Leonids_ are connected with Comet 1866 I, having a period of 33⅓ +years. + +The _Bielids_, or _Andromedids_, are connected with Biela’s comet, and +have a period of 6¾ years. + +We are now aware of meteor streams which at certain stated intervals, +cross the earth’s orbit. They are regular visitors for which we may +watch with every certainty that a few, if not thousands, will be +captured by too near an approach to the atmospheric net encircling our +planet. The whole of the solar domain may be alive with meteors, but by +no possibility can we become aware of their presence until they take the +fatal plunge which ultimately causes their destruction. The space +actually traversed by the earth in its journey around the sun, is but +the minutest fraction of that vast sphere over which the sun holds sway, + + “yet it has been estimated by Professor Newcomb of America, on + grounds which are perfectly reliable, that in including telescopic + meteors (that is, meteors so small as only to be visible when they + happen to pass across the field of view of a telescope), no less + than 146,000 millions of meteoric bodies fall each year upon the + earth. If one in a thousand struck a human being the inhabitants of + the earth would be decimated in a single year.” (R. A. Proctor, _The + Expanse of Heaven_, p. 164.) + +Fortunately for us, the earth is protected by the surrounding air, which +offers a most effective resistance to the swift motion of the celestial +missiles with which it is bombarded from above. The swifter their +motion, the more effective the resistance. + +When meteors are first seen they are mostly at a height of seventy +miles, vanishing at a height of about fifty miles. But the actual course +they pursue through the air is nearly always much longer, because they +do not descend vertically, but aslant. + +Mr. Denning remarks, in his account of meteors for _Splendour of the +Heavens_, “there are comparatively few astronomers, either professional +or amateur, who cultivate the meteoric branch. They evidently do not +regard it as an attractive study. In any case, it does not appeal to +them sufficiently to enlist their sympathies, and so it has been +comparatively neglected in recent years. A few ardent observers have, it +is true, continued to devote themselves to the subject,” and he cites +instances where two English ladies, Miss A. Grace Cook, director of the +Meteoric Section of the B. A. A., in 1922, and the late Mrs. Fiammetta +Wilson, endeavored to arouse more enthusiasm in this field of work by +both practical example and advice. As an instance of the splendid +enthusiasm of the latter, she has to her credit for meteoric +observations carried on during an interval of ten years, the record of +about ten thousand meteors. This is an average of a thousand a year, and +anyone who has attempted to keep a steady watch on a starlit night in +the hope of observing an evanescent meteor will realize what such a +record means. It must have required an immense amount of patience, +endurance, and untiring vigilance, for the wily meteor is so apt to take +us unawares. + +The writer has had but one experience of the kind, and it was upon the +occasion of the expected display of Leonids in 1899. The night was +extremely cold, as one might expect during the month of November, when +with two friends, Miss Harpham and Miss Tarbox, I stationed myself on +the roof of an apartment house in New York City, on November 15, at +12.55. The record of our observations, which were continued until 6.00 +A.M. at the hour of dawn, was afterward printed in _Popular Astronomy_, +Vol. IX, 1901, pp. 82–83. During that time we observed sixty-eight +meteors, of which, as the account shows, a few were intruders. + +Never was dawn so welcome to the weary observers, who were not nearly so +much chilled by the November weather, as by the disappointment at the +meager display. Possibly the bright moonlight in the earlier part of the +watch had dimmed the splendor of many of the Leonids, but where were the +tens of thousands which were said to have fallen in 1833, or even the +thousands which were observed in 1866, for not even one hundred rewarded +us for our vigil in 1899? However, we were told to watch again the +following year, when possibly we might meet with better luck, but our +record as given in _Popular Astronomy_, Vol. IX, 1901, shows that only +forty-four meteors were seen between midnight and dawn, and of these, +seven were intruders. The cause of the failure of the return of the +Leonids in 1899 was due to the fact that the planet Jupiter had so much +disturbed the orbit of the meteor group of 1866, that from calculations +made it was estimated that it would pass about two millions of miles +outside of the earth’s orbit, and thus escape collision with our +atmosphere. For this reason, few meteors were seen in 1899 and 1900, +though in 1901 and 1903 pretty brisk showers of Leonids were visible, +though they were nothing like the magnificent displays of 1799, 1833, +and 1866. A new shower derived from Pons-Winnecke’s periodical comet was +witnessed from Bristol on June 28, 1916. A very brilliant and abundant +return of this display may occur during the last week of June, 1927, +when the earth and comet will be exceedingly near each other. + +The following suggestions may be helpful to those who may feel inclined +to make a hobby of recording meteors which are far more plentiful (quite +a number making their appearance on any clear night) than comets, which +are, comparatively speaking, rare visitors. Practically no appliances of +any kind are required. The main essential is a knowledge of the various +constellations and of the stars visible to the naked eye, a knowledge +soon acquired by a study of some good atlas of the heavens, such as my +father’s _Half Hours with the Stars_. This contains twelve charts, one +for each month of the year, with accompanying letter press. + +A beginner generally finds great difficulty in locating the beginning +and ending of the course of a meteor, as these seldom occur close to any +well-known star. It will always be found useful to have a straight rod +about four feet long. This should be held up so that it seems to lie +along the path of the meteor. A rapid glance along the rod, backward and +forward, will generally be sufficient to enable one to detect some stars +within the radius of a circle. The beginning and ending of the trail of +the meteors can then be recorded, as the eye easily estimates the length +of the arc between various points of the heavens. In this way one +records the observation made—let us say, at 4.39, for November 15, 1899. +The direction followed by the meteor was from the radiant toward Castor +and Pollux, the streak remaining visible for three seconds. The meteor +was very bright, meaning that it equaled a first-magnitude star, and the +train was 5° in length. Though the color was not recorded at the time, +yet it is possible to make a very sure guess, that it was blue, the +usual color of Leonids. + +It is not advisable to look for meteors very far from the radiant, as +that is the main point from which they are seen to emanate. Therefore, +it will be sufficient to confine the attention to a region within 30° to +40° from the radiant. Meteors appearing near the radiant have short +trains, while those at a greater distance have generally longer trains. +When a meteor is observed, the time, magnitude, beginning and ending of +course, duration of flight, and any special characteristics should be +recorded as quickly as possible, using a system of abbreviations. +Possibly the writer, at the next display which is expected in 1933, may +be prepared—with the assistance of a few enthusiasts—to carry out this +elaborate program, but it is impossible for one or even three to make an +accurate record of so many happenings regarding a meteor which may have +remained on view but a second or so. + +In judging the time of flight a stop-watch is very useful, but in +the case of slow meteors it is easy to estimate the time +approximately by counting at a certain rate, say 180 to the minute. +The writer was told to recite a nursery rhyme at a certain pace, +such as hickory-dickory-dock, and note the syllable or word uttered +at disappearance of meteor, but in the case of the Leonids the word +“hickory” had scarcely been uttered before the Leonid had vanished, +so that the simpler method of counting “one, two, three,” was +adopted, proving entirely satisfactory, when we remembered to count! + +It might be a good idea, before making the observations, to mark off on +the rod, with luminous paint or radium, such as is used with watches, +3°, the distance between the three stars in the belt of Orion; 5°, the +distance between the pointers in Ursa Major; 10°, the distance from +Alpha to Delta in the same group of stars; 15° from Delta through Alpha; +and 26° from Alpha to Eta, at the extremity of the Bear’s tail, or the +Dipper handle, according to the popular nomenclature used in America, +where the seven stars of the Plough, or Charles’s Wain, are usually +referred to as the Great Dipper. + +Special attention should be given in recording very bright meteors or +fireballs. In many cases fireballs may be seen by other persons, and the +data supplied by any two observers situated at different places. Their +combined observations are sufficient to determine the real path, +radiant, etc., of the celestial object. + +We have a fine illustration of this in the drift of a meteor trail which +was observed by Mr. Denning at 7.33 P.M. on February 22, 1909, passing +in a southwest direction over the northern coast of France. The luminous +trail left in its wake persisted as a visible object for over two hours, +during which time it drifted in a northwest direction at 120 miles an +hour, under the influence of a violent wind in the upper atmosphere. As +usual on every clear starlit night there are a number of enthusiastic +observers keeping close watch of the sky, ready to trap with their +cameras any unwary meteor which may flash into view. On this occasion +there were at least 250 observers in different parts of the country +watching the phenomenon during the whole two hours the meteor trail +remained visible. + +There is a branch of the British Astronomical Association which deals +with records and observations of meteors, and it is known as the Meteor +Section. “Mr. Denning has proved a faithful friend,” as Miss A. Grace +Cook remarks in her report of the Section for 1922, “and has encouraged +the Section in every possible way.” Sometime one of the enthusiastic +observers in search of meteors may be rewarded by a discovery of larger +prey, in the form of a comet. Imagine the delight of having a comet one +could thus claim, as it were, as one’s own personal property! + +Fireballs differ vastly from shooting stars in exposing a larger surface +to the opposing atmosphere, as they make their downward plunge from +space therein. It is when they suddenly come in contact with the +particles of which the air surrounding our planet is composed, that +their presence is first made known to us. When a shooting star finally +blazes out, owing to the friction caused by the encounter, it is at a +height of from thirty to fifty-five miles above the ground. It is then +dissipated in vapor, and vanishes. No wonder these balls of fire caused +terror among the ignorant and superstitious in the days when their +meaning was unknown. In Mr. Denning’s book, _Telescopic Work for +Starlight Evenings_, page 269, there is a drawing made by J. Plant of +Salford, as an illustration, giving an excellent idea of the imposing +aspect of a fireball, seen by this observer on November 23, 1877, as it +emerged from behind a cloud. Judging from the date, it might have been +one of the Bielids, provided its radiant was in the constellation +Andromeda. It was, however, in Taurus. + +Fireballs are usually silent, but sometimes they have been known to +explode with a loud noise. The fireball which was observed (as above) in +November, 1877, is said to have “given a sound like salvos of artillery, +and doors and windows were violently shaken.” As a rule, however, there +is no audible explosion, the bright nucleus fading out until it is +reduced to a mere spark before disappearing. + +Occasionally fireballs have been known to give out three or four +brilliant flashes before fading from view. These flashes, often of +startling intensity, have been described as “coming less swiftly than +flashes of lightning.” They remind one forcibly of moonlight breaking +through the clear intervals in passing clouds. There is always something +mysterious about these luminous objects as they emerge so stealthily +from the darkness, vanishing as silently as they came. + +During the month of August fine meteoric displays may be looked for, +between the 10th and 13th of that month. They are sometimes referred to +as “the tears of St. Lawrence,” since the 10th of August is dedicated to +the memory of that saint. However, they are more generally known as the +Perseids, their radiant being in the constellation Perseus. As this +group of stars has risen tolerably high about nine o’clock in the +northeastern sky during the month of August, watching for Perseids is an +easier matter than in the case of the Leonids, which do not appear at +their best until “the wee sma’ hours.” + +The meteors belonging to the Perseid family are yellow in color, moving +at the rate of thirty-eight miles a second, as compared with the swift +onrush of the November meteors at forty-four miles a second, the latter +flashing into view with the rapidity of a skyrocket, and as swiftly +disappearing. The Bielids, on the contrary, travel with medium velocity, +their stately glide at ten miles per second, being in marked contrast to +the speed of the Perseids or Leonids. The Bielids, also called the +Andromedids, are due November 23–27, and, as already noted, may be seen +to radiate from a point near Gamma in the constellation Andromeda. In +the case of the Perseids, a few brilliant streaks often herald their +approach, usually giving promise of an especially fine display. The +August meteor showers yield the smallest shooting stars and the largest +type of fireballs. Observers startled by the sudden appearance of the +latter are rather apt to give exaggerated accounts of their appearance, +neglecting to note the direction whence they came, the time or duration +of their flight, and other necessary data, rendering the observations, +in consequence, practically useless. + +We now come to shooting stars, the kindergarten—as it were—of the +meteoric system. Weighing practically but a few ounces at the most, they +can be easily handled or put into one’s pocket without discomfort. +Analysis of those which have sunk to rest on our planet, as a result of +successfully penetrating right through the atmospheric net surrounding +our domain, has shown that they are composed of iron and many of the +chemical elements, such as sodium and carbon, which are to be found on +the earth. + +For vast periods of time they may have been pursuing a seemingly endless +voyage along the highways and byways of the solar system, wending their +way in safety amid the intricate paths traversed by the planets. They +have been traveling at a speed far exceeding that of the swiftest cannon +ball, and doubtless with an average velocity of about twenty-five miles +a second. A shooting star moving at such a rate would pass from the +earth to the moon in a couple of hours, or from London to Edinburgh in +about ten seconds. All goes well with the little traveler as long as it +keeps at a discreet distance from the aërial torpedo net surrounding our +planet, seemingly set for the purpose of entrapping such intruders. +However, should the shooting star venture too near, plunging through the +atmosphere at the pace which kills, it is bound to come to grief. +Rubbing against every particle it meets on the way, friction is caused, +resulting in the blaze of glory which makes its presence known to us, +swiftly followed by its exit when it is reduced to ashes. + +Some of the particles, if any are left (for usually they are dissipated +in vapor in the upper regions of the air), sift down upon our planet in +the form of fine dust. From the top of a high mountain Dr. Reichenbach +collected dust which had never been touched by spade or pick-ax; and in +analysis he found this dust to consist of almost identically the same +elements as those of which meteoric stones are composed—nickel, cobalt, +iron, and phosphorus. Dr. Phipson, in his interesting work on _Meteors, +Aërolites, and Shooting Stars_, remarks that + + “when a glass covered with pure glycerine is exposed to a strong + wind, late in November, it receives a number of _black angular + particles_, which can be dissolved in strong hydrochloric acid, and + produces yellow chloride of _iron_ upon the glass plate.” + +It is a strange thought that the air which sifts in through the window, +and settles on the tables and chairs, nay even the very air we breathe, +may contain particles of matter which have at one time circled in +meteoric form around the sun! + +Should this be the case, and if, as Professor Newcomb, the American +astronomer, tells us, no less than 146,000 million meteoric particles +fall on the earth during the course of a year, may we not infer that +this means an increase in its mass? In my father’s book, _The Orbs +Around Us_ (page 195), he writes: + + “If we assign a single grain as the weight of each meteor visible to + the naked eye, we deduce fifteen millions of grains as the earth’s + daily increase of weight. This is rather less than a ton. So that in + the course of about three years the earth’s weight must increase + (even on the very low value here assigned to a meteor’s weight) by a + thousand tons; and in the course of the three thousand years during + which astronomy has been a science the earth’s weight must have + increased a million tons. This is a mere trifle compared with the + earth’s own weight, which is 6,000 millions of millions of times + greater. Indeed, it may easily be shown that the actual increase of + the earth’s radius in this interval of 3,000 years, would be about + the 70,000,000th part of an inch.” + +From time immemorial legend and superstition have interwoven themselves +around these small members of the solar system as they silently and +swiftly sweep across the vault of heaven, vanishing mysteriously as +though extinguished by some invisible hand. Dante describes them: + + “As oft along the still and pure serene + At nightfall glides a sudden trail of fire, + Attracting with involuntary heed + The eye to follow it, erewhile it rest + And seems some star that shifted place in heaven.” + +For the Oriental believer, the shooting stars are the fiery darts hurled +by the angels at the evil spirits or genii when the latter are caught +eavesdropping at the gates of heaven. This legend is to be found in the +Koran, and is referred to by Moore in his “Paradise and the Peri,” in +the lines: + + “Fleeter than the starry brands + Flung at night from angel hands, + At those dark and daring sprites + Who would climb th’ empyreal heights.” + +According to a Lithuanian myth as told by Grimm in his _Deutsche +Mythologie_, the spinstress Werpega spins the thread of a child’s life +at birth, and each thread ends in a star. When death approaches, the +thread breaks and the star falls to earth, quenching its light. + +In Galicia, the province northeast of Hungary, the peasants believe that +when a star falls to earth it is at once transformed into a rarely +beautiful maiden with long, glittering, golden hair. She is supposed to +exert a magical influence on all who come in contact with her, but the +effect is evil unless certain words are uttered ere the star falls to +earth. From this superstition doubtless springs the custom of “wishing” +while a shooting star is seen gliding swiftly eastwards. The wish will +surely come true, it is said, if fully expressed before the star fades +from view. Finally, we have the fanciful idea suggested in the following +lines by Fiona Macleod: + + “A star was loosed from heaven; + All saw it fall, in wonder, + Where universe clashed universe + With solar thunder.” + + + + + CHAPTER NINE + DID LIFE FIRST COME TO THIS EARTH IN A METEOR? + + + Among the most startling suggestions recently thrown out by men of + science, not one, perhaps, has seemed more amazing to the general + public than the idea put forward by Sir William Thomson in the able + address with which he inaugurated the meeting of the British + Association (1871)—that life on the earth may have had its origin from + seeds borne to our planet by meteors, the remnants of former worlds. + + —R. A. PROCTOR. + + +The quaint suggestion thus advanced by Lord Kelvin regarding the +possibility of the first germs of life reaching our planet in the form +of “a fragment of an exploded world,” was taken seriously at the time by +some, but was undoubtedly merely a jest on the part of the able speaker. +As my father remarked in the book from which the above quotation is made +(_The Orbs Around Us_): “I can scarcely bring myself to believe that the +eminent professor was serious in urging his hypothesis of seed-bearing +meteors. Englishmen speak sometimes of the slowness with which a +Scotsman apprehends a jest; but the Scotsman may return the compliment, +so far, at least, as the southern estimate of Scottish humor is +concerned. For a true Scot makes his jest with a gravity and _aplomb_ +unequaled among Sassenach humorists. It is far from improbable that the +seriousness with which the seed-bearing meteorites have been discussed +proved infinitely amusing to the gathering of the clans in Edinburgh.” + +Nevertheless, that there were some believers who were convinced that +Lord Kelvin would not have advanced such a theory without some solid +basis for its foundation, was shown by the fact that the great Swedish +scientist, Svante Arrhenius, considered it worth while, in his book +entitled _The Life of the Universe_, to refer to the various +difficulties which have made it next to impossible to establish the +theory, which he compares (from the standpoint of arousing popular +interest) with the problem of perpetual motion. He concluded his remarks +on the subject by the statement (which has already been confirmed) that +the problem of spontaneous generation in the actual form of a meteor +will, “it is to be expected, be eliminated from the scientific program, +just as the problem of perpetual motion has been discarded.” + +Nevertheless, there is something fascinating about this myth which +appealed strongly, at the time it was advanced, to the imagination, +though it led to queries which when answered led nowhere. If the worlds +by bursting supplied space with seed-bearing meteors, how were they +themselves peopled with living beings? “This circumstance of itself +throws an air of doubt over the new hypothesis,” according to my +father’s views on the subject, “as a seriously intended account of the +origin of life on our earth.” + +It recalls the cumbersome way in which the Hindu accounted for the +support of our planet in space, supposing it rested upon the back of a +tortoise, but the Hindu student of science might well ask how is the +tortoise itself supported? Or again, supposing life-bearing meteorites +reached our planet from exploded worlds, what would be their condition +by the time they were deposited on a soil favorable for their +development? + +According to Flammarion regarding the possibility of meteoric fragments +coming to our planet from an ancient satellite of the earth which was +shattered to pieces, the germs shut up in the interior of the meteorite +would remain in a kind of lethargic sleep without losing any of their +germinative qualities during their plunge through interplanetary space. +In fact, the author lends a seductive air of plausibility to the myth, +suggesting that the fragments would reach our planet fresh and cold, to +be again rejuvenated and come to life, but even Flammarion is compelled +to acknowledge that we have found nothing to prove such a theory true. +But if this new theory should be accepted, as my father wrote in 1871, +“we have reason to regard with apprehension the too close approach of +one of these visitants; because, if one meteor supplied the seeds of the +living things now existing on the world, another may supply myriads of +seeds of undesirable living things; and perhaps the sequent struggle for +life may result in the survival of the fittest.” + +It may seem superfluous to add that, in a collision by which a world was +shivered into fragments, the seeds of life would have what may be +described as a warm time, since the collision could hardly fail to +vaporize the destroyed world. The fiery heat generated by the collision, +followed by a voyage during myriads of millions of ages through the +inconceivable cold of space, and the effect of the fierce heat which +accompanies the fall of meteoric masses upon our earth, would seem so +unfavorable to the germs of life that we may accept with confidence the +belief that all such germs had been completely destroyed before reaching +this planet. + +Arrhenius reversing the seed-bearing-meteor theory in connection with a +meteorite bringing the seeds of life to our planet, makes a neat +calculation showing the time which would be required for a tiny +particle, drawn from our planet and hurled into space, to arrive at the +surface of a planet circling around the star Alpha in the constellation +of the Centaur. It would be twenty days on its way to Mars (traveling at +the usual rate of speed assigned to meteors, _viz._, some twenty-six +miles a second.) A year would elapse before it reached the outermost +planet Neptune, which travels on the confines of the solar system, and +some nine thousand years ere it plunged through the atmosphere +surrounding a planet circling round the nearest star, and finally +crashed on its surface. Endless are the speculations which might thus be +indulged in regarding the celestial voyages of meteors through +interplanetary space, but though the misguided ones which have rashly +ventured too near our planet have been trapped in its atmosphere, +landing on its surface before suffering complete annihilation, have been +weighed, measured, and tested by chemical analysis, the past history of +their excursions into space is enshrouded in a mysterious silence as +unbroken as that of the Sphinx.[14] + +[Illustration: + + OUTH LODGE, KEITHICK, WHERE THE STRATHMORE METEORITE FELL THROUGH THE + ROOF, DECEMBER 3, 1917 + + Photograph of the lodge and Mr. and Mrs. Hill taken by H. Coates +] + +The writer at one time had a paper weight to which she attached great +value, despite the fact that it was an apparently insignificant metallic +stone weighing a few ounces, but there was a fascination in the +conjecture as to where it had come from. That was the query which could +never be answered, for all that was actually known of the past history +of this celestial visitor dated from one eventful evening when it was +seen for a few brief seconds as a momentary streak of light, revealing +the course of its descent, so that a fortunate mortal here below was +enabled to locate it after its swift plunge to earth. After it had +cooled sufficiently to bear handling, it was carefully examined and its +substance was found to be thickly interspersed with carbon particles, +revealing, like so many telltale imps, that this inert mass had once +known better days when its life was filled with activity until it took +the fatal plunge which ended so disastrously. “If you only knew what I +have seen, and where I have been during my wanderings in space,” one +could imagine the meteorite saying in reply to the numerous queries, +regarding its origin, in the mind of the writer; until this fascinating +little visitor in space vanished as mysteriously as it had come, through +too great a confidence placed in an audience in the Far West, where the +meteorite was passed round for inspection and never returned. + +However, the writer was enabled to resume her study of the subject on a +larger scale while visiting the famous Foyer collection of meteorites at +the American Museum of Natural History, New York, where the specimens +are a little too hefty for transportation. No one, for instance, would +be able to depart with the Ahnighito, the great Cape York meteorite, +which was found on the north coast of Melville Bay near Cape York, +Greenland, by Commander Robert E. Peary, in 1894, without attracting a +considerable amount of attention. It is the largest and heaviest +meteorite known, weighing over thirty-six tons. It possibly weighed more +up to the date of its fall, as the guide Tallakoteah, who enabled Peary +to discover the meteorite, informed him that up to the early part of the +nineteenth century, members of the Eskimo tribe had found it very useful +in providing them with material for knives and hatchets. + +[Illustration: + + STRATHMORE METEORITE, ESSENDY FRAGMENT + + Photograph taken December 3, 1917, by H. Coates +] + +There are really three masses, the largest already referred to being ten +feet eleven inches long, six feet nine inches high, and five feet two +inches thick. It was called Ahnighito after the name of the daughter of +the explorer. The next larger mass weighing about three tons was named +“The Woman,” because the shape suggested the idea of a woman seated on +the ground with a babe in her arms and a shawl around her shoulders. The +third and smallest mass weighing about 1,000 pounds, was called “The +Dog,” and the three meteorites were known as a group to the Eskimo under +the name of “Saviksue,” or “The Great Irons.” + +The Woman and The Dog were visited by Peary in 1894, and were obtained +the following year after much difficulty and exciting work, an incident +of which was the breaking up of the cake of ice on which The Woman had +been ferried from the shore to the ship, just as the mass was about to +be hoisted aboard. Fortunately there was enough tackle around the +meteorite to prevent its loss. In 1895 Commander Peary visited +Ahnighito, which lay on an island only four miles from the two smaller +masses, but he could do little toward its removal. The next year he made +another voyage for the purpose of getting the Great Iron, but was again +unsuccessful. This third attempt was made in 1897, when the meteorite +was brought in safety to New York in the ship _Hope_. + +In the Foyer collection is also the famous Willamette meteorite, which +weighs more than fifteen tons. Its height is over six feet, its width +four feet, and its length ten feet. It is one of the most interesting +meteoric fragments in the collection, though not the largest. +Nevertheless, its appearance tells a wondrous story of the experience it +must have had during its swift rush through the air. The deep hollows in +its surface were probably caused by friction with the particles +encountered during its swift flight through the atmosphere surrounding +our planet. This resulted in the melting of part of the metallic +substance of which it is composed, chemical analysis showing that it +contains an admixture of iron, nickel, a small amount of cobalt, and in +addition some phosphorus and sulphur. To give an idea of the depth of +the hollows, the curator of the Museum showed the writer a photograph of +two boys seated in two of the largest. + +The Willamette was discovered in the autumn of 1902, in the forest about +nineteen miles south of Portland, by a Welsh miner named Ellis Hughes. +At first he thought he had discovered an iron mine, but on digging away +the earth surrounding it, he found that it was a meteorite. + +The miner, who was well acquainted with the handling of such masses, +constructed a low wooden truck, on to which he managed to overturn the +fifteen-ton mass, and then, with no other motive power than an old horse +windlassing a rope round a capstan as a winch, which had to be moved and +reanchored as the truck with its load was drawn up to it, he and his +fifteen-year-old son, working so quietly during the winter that not even +the nearest neighbor suspected what they were doing, dragged the mass +three-quarters of a mile on to his own land. + +Apparently this mass of iron was known before the discovery above +related, as an Indian relic, revered from time immemorial by the Siwash +Indians. When the Portland Land Company, who owned the land on which the +meteorite was found, instituted legal proceedings in the matter, +claiming the right of possession, the lawyer engaged by Ellis Hughes to +plead his cause was of the opinion that the meteorite was not “real +estate,” but “discarded personal property,” belonging to whoever might +find it. In support of this statement he called a very old Siwash Indian +as a witness, who testified that the mass of iron had long been known to +members of his tribe, who attributed to it magic virtue. As a youth, he +said, he had been conducted to it by one of the medicine-men, and +informed that if arrows were dipped in the water which collected in the +hollows they would always wing their way to the heart of the game shot +at. However, the judge ruled that the meteorite went with the land, and +an order was issued giving possession thereof to the Portland Land +Company. It was purchased later on by Mrs. William E. Dodge, and +presented to the Museum of Natural History in New York City. + +Near the Willamette meteorite is one called the Canyon Diablo, famous +chiefly on account of the fact that it contains diamonds. It was found +in 1891, near Coon Butte, Arizona, in the neighborhood of the town of +Canyon Diablo. The original size of the mass is not known, but thousands +of fragments have been collected, varying in weight from a fraction of +an ounce up to 1,087 pounds. More than sixteen tons of this material are +said to have been found within a radius of two and a half miles of Coon +Butte, a conical hill rising from 130 to 160 feet above the surrounding +plain, and containing a crater-like hollow about three-quarters of a +mile in diameter and probably originally 1,460 feet deep. The appearance +of this region seems at first sight, to the casual visitor, far more +suggestive of a terrific explosion at a remote period of the past, +resulting in an upheaval causing the vast crater from which the +meteoritic-looking masses scattered over the surrounding plain had been +ejected, but Dr. Hovey is of the opinion that their presence has been +caused by the downfall of an immense meteorite from above. According to +his investigations of the scene, “there is no lava of any kind in Coon +Butte or in its immediate vicinity, such as is found in volcanic +regions.” He also asserts that the main part of the mass has not yet +been discovered, the fragments so far found being only the portions +separated from the original mass during its passage through the +atmosphere and at the time of its impact with the earth. There are two +fragments of the Canyon Diablo meteorite in the Foyer collection, and +the largest piece discovered is the one weighing 1,087 pounds, to which +reference has already been made. A slice of the meteorite, in which a +diamond was found, undoubtedly attracts the greatest amount of attention +from visitors to the museum. “Diamonds falling from the sky,” they have +been heard to remark, “then why not make a search for the missing +fragment which may be a depository of unknown wealth?” However, the +possibilities are that it has buried itself to such a depth in its crash +to earth, that a search for it would be a stupendous undertaking, with +possibly no results as far as diamonds are concerned. + +The importance attached to the discovery of diamonds in the Canyon +Diablo meteorite hinges upon the well-known fact that the diamond is the +purest carbon in nature. Charcoal is almost pure carbon, and, as +everyone knows, common charcoal is the product of combustion, the +residue from the burning of a piece of woody tissue excluded from the +air. This is the everyday teaching of chemistry in the college +laboratory. According to Dr. Hovey, regarding the fact that the Canyon +Diablo meteorite contains diamonds, “This gem-stone diamond has been +definitely proved to occur in only two meteorites, the other being a +Russian fall, although many masses are known to contain carbon in the +form of a soft, black powder.” The discovery of diamonds in Canyon +Diablo was made in 1891, by Professor G. A. Koenig of Philadelphia, and +was afterward confirmed by Dr. George F. Kunz of New York, Professor +Moissau of Paris, and other investigators. In 1905, Moissau dissolved a +fragment of Canyon Diablo weighing several pounds, and obtained not only +recognizable crystals of the diamond, but also crystals of a mineral +corresponding exactly in composition to the extremely hard artificial +silicide of carbon known as carborundum. The new mineral has been named +Moissauite, and this is the first time that it has been found in nature. + +Geology teaches us not only that charcoal and the mineral coals are +different forms of that wonderful element we call carbon, but also that +bituminous and anthracite coals are the transformed products of ancient +vegetation, through the combined agencies of heat, enormous pressure, +and the slow transmuting effect of ages. This talismanic element is ever +found associated in some form with organic substance, and organic +substance is life substance, animal as well as vegetable. + +Hence comes the all-engrossing conclusion that wherever carbon exists +there organic matter exists or has existed; and, if organic matter, then +its essential companion life! Does the meteoric fragment Canyon Diablo, +which fell from the sky upon our planet, come from a world now or at one +time the abode of life? Seemingly, we have drifted back to the original +argument, Did life first come to this earth in a meteor? and we are no +nearer a solution of the problem unless—as some one facetiously +remarked, an enterprising individual inclosed a message within a meteor +ere it took its departure for our planet from some distant world. As +Flammarion says in his book on _The Plurality of Worlds_: “The problem +remains the same. We want to know how life first appeared, and this +problem has not been advanced in the slightest degree by the theory +adopted by Lord Kelvin and Arrhenius.” But, as already stated, no one +dreamed of taking the suggestion made by Lord Kelvin, seriously. + + + THE END + +----- + +Footnote 1: + + Chambers’s _Story of the Comets_, pp. 211–212. + +Footnote 2: + + _Journal_ of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. + xxiii. Account of comets given by Mohammedan historians. + +Footnote 3: + + This disposes of the story according to which, when the reporter of a + Sydney newspaper asked the writer if she had discovered any comets, + she modestly replied, “Yes, a few.” + +Footnote 4: + + _Nature_, June 16, 1887. + +Footnote 5: + + See Flammarion’s _History of the Heavens_, p. 348. + +Footnote 6: + + _Monthly Notices_, R.A.S., vol. vii, p. 73, March, 1846. + +Footnote 7: + + See _Astronomische Nachrichten_, vol. 104, p. 129. + +Footnote 8: + + The camera with which the meteor was photographed by Dr. W. J. S. + Lockyer is placed specially for recording meteors. It is orientated to + the polar stars simply for the purpose of being able to identify the + stars to deduce the path of the meteor, should one be recorded. + Otherwise, no interest is attached to the polar star trails, as such. + +Footnote 9: + + In Rebièrés’ _Les Femmes dans la Science_ he writes as follows about + Madame Lepaute: “A little girl of six years when taunted one day by + her sister with the remark, ‘I am prettier than you,’ made the ready + rejoinder, ‘But I am wiser.’ The future career of Nicole Rêine Étable + de la Briére, afterwards wife of the famous clock-maker, Jean André + Lepaute, proved the truthfulness of her boast.” + +Footnote 10: + + Perihelion about February, 1986. The comet probably will be first seen + during the spring of 1965. + +Footnote 11: + + It is now thought that the temperature of such small bodies will never + have been high enough to call them suns. Eddington says a mass + one-eighth of that of the sun would be required for this. + +Footnote 12: + + Perturbations will make very great changes in the orbits. The + perihelion distance of Pons-Winnecke has increased twenty million + miles or more in the past sixty years. + +Footnote 13: + + Recent papers tend to the conclusion that the transformation from + giants to dwarfs is very slow. Jeans and Jeffreys both think that the + change in the sun in 1,000 million years has been slight. + +Footnote 14: + + On rare occasions meteors have fallen on houses, as in the case of the + Strathmore meteorite, photographed by H. Coates. He also took a + photograph of Outh Lodge, Keithick, on which the meteorite fell, + December 3, 1917. It made a hole in the roof of the house. The owners + thereof, Mr. and Mrs. Hill, are included in the photograph, which was + sent to the writer by Mr. W. E. Denning. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + + + + TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES + + + Page Changed from Changed to + + 137 would approach the comet with would approach the planet with + retrograde retrograde + + ● Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained. + ● Used numbers for footnotes, placing them all at the end of the last + chapter. + ● Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75545 *** |