diff options
Diffstat (limited to '75391-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 75391-0.txt | 2640 |
1 files changed, 2640 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/75391-0.txt b/75391-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e367e14 --- /dev/null +++ b/75391-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2640 @@ + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75391 *** + + + + + +OCELLUS LUCANUS + +ON THE NATURE OF THE UNIVERSE; + +_&c. &c. &c._ + + + + + OCELLUS LUCANUS + ON THE NATURE OF THE UNIVERSE. + + TAURUS, THE PLATONIC PHILOSOPHER, + ON THE ETERNITY OF THE WORLD. + + JULIUS FIRMICUS MATERNUS + OF THE THEMA MUNDI; + IN WHICH THE POSITIONS OF THE STARS AT THE + COMMENCEMENT OF THE SEVERAL MUNDANE + PERIODS IS GIVEN. + + SELECT THEOREMS + ON THE PERPETUITY OF TIME, BY PROCLUS. + + TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINALS BY + THOMAS TAYLOR. + + Αρχα και αιτια και κανων εντι τας ανθρωπινας ευδαιμοσυνας α τω + θειων και τιμιωτατων επιγνωσις. + + _i. e._ The knowledge of divine and the most honourable things, + is the principle and cause and rule of human felicity.—ARCHYTAS. + + LONDON: + PRINTED FOR THE TRANSLATOR; AND SOLD BY JOHN BOHN, + HENRIETTA-STREET; HENRY BOHN, YORK-STREET; + AND THOMAS RODD, GREAT NEWPORT-STREET. + MDCCCXXXI. + + PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, + RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +The Tracts contained in this small volume will, I trust, be perused with +considerable interest by every English reader who is a lover of ancient +lore; and whatever innovations may have been made in the philosophical +theories of the ancients by the accumulated experiments of the moderns, +yet the scientific deductions of the former will, I am persuaded, +ultimately predominate over the futile and ever-varying conclusions of +the latter. For science, truly so called, is, as Aristotle accurately +defines it to be, the knowledge of things eternal, and which have a +necessary existence. Hence it has for its basis _universals_, and not +_particulars_; since the former are _definite_, _immutable_, and _real_; +but the latter are _indefinite_, are so incessantly changing, that they +are not for a moment the same, and are so destitute of reality, that, +in the language of the great Plotinus, they may be said to be “shadows +falling upon shadow[1], like images in water, or in a mirror, or a dream.” + +With respect to Ocellus Lucanus, the author of the first of these Tracts, +though it is unknown at what _precise_ period he lived, yet as Archytas, +in his epistle to Plato (apud Diog. Laert. viii. 80.), says “that he +conversed with the descendants of Ocellus, and received from them the +treatises of this philosopher On Laws, On Government, Piety, and the +Generation of the Universe[2],” “we cannot be a great way off the truth,” +as my worthy and very intelligent friend Mr. J. J. Welsh, in a letter +to me, observes, “if we say that he lived about the time Pythagoras +first opened his school in Italy, B.C. 500; which would give him for +contemporaries in the _political_ world, Phalaris, Pisistratus, Crœsus, +Polycrates, and Tarquin the Proud; and in the _philosophical_ world, the +seven sages of Greece, Heraclitus of Ephesus, Democritus of Abdera, &c. +&c.” + +All that is extant of his works is the treatise On the Universe[3], and +a Fragment preserved by Stobæus of his treatise On Laws. And in such +estimation was the former of these works held by Plato and Aristotle, +that the latter, as Syrianus observes (in Aristot. Metaphys.), “has +nearly taken the whole of his two books on Generation and Corruption from +this work;” and that the former anxiously desired to see it, is evident +from his Epistle to Archytas, of which the following is a translation: + + “Plato to Archytas the Tarentine, prosperity. + + “It is wonderful with what pleasure we received the + Commentaries which came from you, and how very much we were + delighted with the genius of their author. To us, indeed, he + appeared to be a man worthy of his ancient progenitors. For + these men are said to have been _ten thousand_[4] in number; + and, according to report, were the best of all those Trojans + that migrated under Laomedon. + + “With respect to the Commentaries by me about which you write, + they are not yet finished. However, such as they are, I have + sent them to you. As to guardianship, we both accord in our + sentiments, so that in this particular there is no need of + exhortation.” + + “In the Preface to the Marquis d’Argens’ French translation of + this Tract, he says: ‘I have often thought that it would be + much more advantageous to read what some of the Greek authors + have said of the philosophy of the ancients, in order to obtain + a knowledge of it, than to consult modern writers, who, though + they may perhaps write well, are in general too prolix[5].’ + + “In 1762 the Marquis d’Argens published Ocellus Lucanus, and + afterwards Timæus Locrus, both writers, who according to + Chalmers’ Biography had been neglected by universal consent. To + show, however, the glaring absurdity and outrageous injustice + of what Chalmers says of this Tract of Ocellus, it is necessary + to observe, that independently of the approbation of this + work by those two great luminaries of philosophy, Plato and + Aristotle, an enumeration of the various editions of it will + be sufficient. Ocellus was first printed in Greek at Paris + 1539, and afterwards with a Latin version by Chretien 1541; by + Bosch 1554 and 1556; by Nogarola, Ven. 1559; by Commelin 1596; + at Heidelberg 1598; Bologna, 1646, and revised by Vizanius + 1661; and lastly, by Gale, Cambridge, 1671. Here are ten + editions, the last of which is only 49 years prior to the year + 1700; so that the universal consent had not yet been given to + neglect this work. Let us see when it could have taken place + afterwards. D’Argens’ translation appeared in 1762. A new + French translation by the Abbé Batteux was printed in 1768; + and he made it without knowing of the other. D’Argens’ version + was reprinted in 1794; and an amended Greek and Latin text by + Rudolph was printed at Leipsic in 1801; so that there are in + all fourteen known editions, of which Gale’s is the best. This + book has certainly been read in Greek, Latin, and French, and + it most certainly will be read in English, if any competent + translator will favour us with a good version. + + “In addition to the testimonies of Plato and Aristotle in + favour of this work, Philo, the platonizing Jew, says: ‘Some + are of opinion, that it was not Aristotle, but certain + Pythagoreans, who first maintained the eternity of the world; + but I have seen a treatise of Ocellus, in which he says, the + world was not generated, and is imperishable, and indeed he + proves it by most exquisite reasoning. Censorinus also, De Die + natali, cap. ii. says, ‘that the opinion that the human race is + perpetual, has for its authors Pythagoras the Samian, Ocellus + Lucanus, and Archytas of Tarentum.’ He is likewise mentioned by + Jamblichus in his Life of Pythagoras; by Syrianus in Aristot. + Metaphys.; by Proclus in his Commentary on the Timæus of Plato, + who, as we have shown in the Notes on Ocellus, demonstrates + that he was wrong in ascribing two powers only instead of three + to each of the elements; and in the last place, this Tract + is cited by Stobæus in Ecl. Phys. lib. i. c. 24: all which + testimonies clearly prove that Chalmers is a man who cannot say + with Socrates (in Plat. Gorg.) that he has bid farewell to the + honours of the multitude, and has his eye solely directed to + truth[6].” + +To the treatise of Ocellus I have subjoined a translation of a Fragment +of Taurus, a Platonic philosopher, On the Eternity of the World[7]; and +also a translation of the Mundi Thema, or _Geniture of the World_, from +the celebrated astrological work of Julius Firmicus Maternus, because it +not only admits with Ocellus the perpetuity of the universe, but unfolds +the position of the stars at the commencement of each of the periods +comprehended in the greater mundane apocatastasis, which consists of +300,000 years; the first period after a deluge and conflagration, being, +as it were, a reproduction of the world. + +I have likewise annexed a translation of select theorems from the +2nd Book of Proclus on Motion, in which the perpetuity of time, and +of the bodies which are naturally moved with a circular motion, is +incontrovertibly proved, and is demonstrated by what Plato calls +“_geometrical necessities_” (γεωμετρικαις αναγκαις). + +In the last place, I have added copious Notes to these treatises, in +order that nothing might be wanting to render the meaning of them +perspicuous to the unprejudiced and intelligent reader. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] viz. falling on _matter_, or the general receptacle of all sensible +forms. See my Translation of the admirable treatise of Plotinus “On the +Impassivity of Incorporeal Natures.” + +[2] Περι νομου, περι βασιλειας και ὁσιοτητος, και της του παντος γενεσεως. + +[3] It is rightly observed by Fabricius, “that this work of Ocellus was +originally written in the Doric dialect, but was afterwards translated by +some grammarian into the common dialect, in order that it might be more +easily understood by the reader.”—Vid. Biblioth. Græc. tom. i. p. 510. + +[4] In all the editions of Plato, μυριοι, conformably to the above +translation; but from Diogenes Laertius, who, in his Life of Archytas, +gives this epistle of Plato, it appears that the true reading is Μυραιοι, +i. e. Myrenees, so called from Myra, a city of Lycia in Asia Minor, +(see Pliny, v. 27. Strabo xiv. 666.) This 12th epistle of Plato, though +ascribed by Thrasyllus and Diogenes Laertius to Plato, yet is marked in +the Greek manuscripts of it as spurious. + +[5] Of the Philosophy of Pythagoras, Plato and Aristotle, very few of +the moderns have any accurate knowledge, and therefore on this subject +they may be prolix, but they cannot write well. See this largely and +incontrovertibly proved in the Third and Fourth Books of my Dissertation +on the Philosophy of Aristotle. + +[6] For nearly the whole of what is contained in the above three +paragraphs, I am indebted to my excellent friend Mr. J. B. Inglis, who +has also read Ocellus with great attention, and made Notes upon it; +another proof that the work is not neglected. + +[7] This Taurus flourished under Marcus Antoninus, and the original of +the above-mentioned Fragment is only to be found in the treatise of +Philoponus against Proclus, “On the Eternity of the World.” + + + + +OCELLUS LUCANUS ON THE UNIVERSE. + + +CHAP. I. + +Ocellus Lucanus has written what follows concerning the Nature of the +Universe; having learnt some things through clear arguments from Nature +herself, _but others from opinion, in conjunction with reason_[8], it +being his intention [in this work] to derive what is probable from +intellectual perception. + +It appears, therefore, to me, that the Universe is indestructible and +unbegotten, since it always was, and always will be; for if it had a +temporal beginning, it would not have always existed: thus, therefore, +the universe is unbegotten and indestructible; for if some one should +opine that it was once generated, he would not be able to find anything +into which it can be corrupted and dissolved, since that from which it +was generated would be the first part of the universe; and again, that +into which it would be dissolved would be the last part of it. + +But if the universe was generated, it was generated together with all +things; and if it should be corrupted, it would be corrupted together +with all things. This, however, is impossible[9]. The universe, +therefore, is without a beginning, and without an end; nor is it possible +that it can have any other mode of subsistence. + +To which may be added, that everything which has received a beginning +of generation, and which ought also to participate of dissolution, +receives two mutations; one of which, indeed, proceeds from the less +to the greater, and from the worse to the better; and that from which +it begins to change is denominated generation, but that at which it at +length arrives, is called acme. The other mutation, however, proceeds +from the greater to the less, and from the better to the worse: but the +termination of this mutation is denominated corruption and dissolution. + +If, therefore, the whole and the universe were generated, and are +corruptible, they must, when generated, have been changed from the less +to the greater, and from the worse to the better; but when corrupted, +they must be changed from the greater to the less, and from the better to +the worse. Hence, if the world was generated, it would receive increase, +and would arrive at its acme; and again, it would afterwards receive +decrease and an end. For every nature which has a progression, possesses +three boundaries and two intervals. The three boundaries, therefore, are +generation, acme, and end; but the intervals are, the progression from +generation to acme, and from acme to the end. + +The whole, however, and the universe, affords, as from itself, no +indication of a thing of this kind; for neither do we perceive it rising +into existence, or becoming to be, nor changing to the better and the +greater, nor becoming at a certain time worse or less; but it always +continues to subsist in the same and a similar manner, and is itself +perpetually equal and similar to itself. + +Of the truth of this, the orders of things, their symmetry, figurations, +positions, intervals, powers, swiftness and slowness with respect to each +other; and, besides these, their numbers and temporal periods, are clear +signs and indications. For all such things as these receive mutation and +diminution, conformably to the course of a generated nature: for things +that are greater and better acquire acme through power, but those that +are less and worse are corrupted through imbecility of nature. + +I denominate, however, the whole and the universe, the whole world; for, +in consequence of being adorned with all things, it has obtained this +appellation; since it is from itself a consummate and perfect system of +the nature of all things; for there is nothing external to the universe, +since whatever exists is contained in the universe, and the universe +subsists together with this, comprehending in itself all things, some as +parts, but others as supervenient. + +Those things, therefore, which are comprehended in the world, have a +congruity with the world; but the world has no concinnity with anything +else, but is itself co-harmonized with itself. For all other things have +not a consummate or self-perfect subsistence, but require congruity with +things external to themselves. Thus animals require a conjunction with +air for the purpose of respiration, but sight with light, in order to +see; and the other senses with something else, in order to perceive their +peculiar sensible object. A conjunction with the earth also is necessary +to the germination of plants. The sun and moon, the planets, and the +fixed stars, have likewise a coalescence with the world, as being parts +of its common arrangement. The world, however, has not a conjunction with +anything else than itself. + +Further still[10], what has been said will be easily known to be true +from the following considerations. Fire, which imparts heat to another +thing, is itself from itself hot; and honey, which is sweet to the taste, +is itself from itself sweet. The principles likewise of demonstrations, +which are indicative of things unapparent, are themselves from themselves +manifest and known. Thus, also, that which becomes to other things the +cause of self-perfection, is itself from itself perfect; and that which +becomes to other things the cause of preservation and permanency, +is itself from itself preserved and permanent. That, likewise, which +becomes to other things the cause of concinnity, is itself from itself +co-harmonized; but the world is to other things the cause of their +existence, preservation, and self-perfection. The world, therefore, is +from itself perpetual and self-perfect, has an everlasting duration, and +on this very account becomes the cause of the permanency of the whole of +things. + +In short, if the universe should be dissolved, it would either be +dissolved into that which has an existence, or into nonentity. But it is +impossible that it should be dissolved into that which exists, for there +will not be a corruption of the universe if it should be dissolved into +that which has a being; for being is either the universe, or a certain +part of the universe. Nor can it be dissolved into nonentity, since it +is impossible for being either to be produced from non-beings, or to be +dissolved into nonentity. The universe, therefore, is incorruptible, and +can never be destroyed. + +If, nevertheless, some one should think that it may be corrupted, it +must either be corrupted from something external to, or contained in +the universe, but it cannot be corrupted by anything external to it; +for there is not anything external to the universe, since all other +things are comprehended in the universe, and the world is _the whole_ +and _the all_. Nor can it be corrupted by the things which it contains, +for in this case it will be requisite that these should be greater and +more powerful than the universe. This, however, is not true[11], for all +things are led and governed by the universe, and conformably to this +are preserved and co-adapted, and possess life and soul. But if the +universe can neither be corrupted by anything external to it, nor by +anything contained within it, the world must therefore be incorruptible +and indestructible; for we consider the world to be the same with the +universe[12]. + +Further still, the whole of nature surveyed through the whole of itself, +will be found to derive continuity from the first and most honourable +of bodies, attenuating this continuity proportionally, introducing it +to everything mortal, and receiving the progression of its peculiar +subsistence; for the first [and most honourable] bodies in the +universe, revolve according to the same, and after a similar manner. +The progression, however, of the whole of nature, is not successive and +continued, nor yet local, but subsists according to mutation. + +Fire, indeed, when it is congregated into one thing, generates air, but +air generates water, and water earth. From earth, also, there is the +same circuit of mutation, as far as to fire, from whence it began to +be changed. But fruits, and most plants that derive their origin from +a root, receive the beginning of their generation from seeds. When, +however, they bear fruit and arrive at maturity, again they are resolved +into seed, nature producing a complete circulation from the same to the +same. + +But men and other animals, in a subordinate degree, change the universal +boundary of nature; for in these there is no periodical return to the +first age, nor is there an antiperistasis of mutation into each other, +as there is in fire and air, water and earth; but the mutations of their +ages being accomplished in a four-fold circle[13], they are dissolved, +and again return to existence; these, therefore, are the signs and +indications that the universe, which comprehends [all things], will +always endure and be preserved, but that its parts, and such things in it +as are supervenient, are corrupted and dissolved. + +Further still, it is credible that the universe is without a beginning, +and without an end, from its figure, from motion, from time, and its +essence; and, therefore, it may be concluded that the world is unbegotten +and incorruptible: for the form of its figure is circular; but a circle +is on all sides similar and equal, and is therefore without a beginning, +and without an end. The motion also of the universe is circular, but this +motion is stable and without transition. Time, likewise, in which motion +exists is infinite, for this neither had a beginning, nor will have an +end of its circulation. The essence, too, of the universe, is without +egression [into any other place], and is immutable, because it is not +naturally adapted to be changed, either from the worse to the better, or +from the better to the worse. From all these arguments, therefore, it is +obviously credible, that the world is unbegotten and incorruptible. And +thus much concerning the whole and the universe. + + +CHAP. II. + +Since, however, in the universe, one thing is generation, but another the +cause of generation; and generation indeed takes place where there is a +mutation and an egression from things which rank as subjects; but the +cause of generation then subsists where the subject matter remains the +same: this being the case, it is evident that the cause of generation +possesses both an effective and motive power, but that the recipient of +generation is adapted to passivity, and to be moved. + +But the Fates themselves distinguish and separate the impassive part of +the world from that which is perpetually moved [or mutuable][14]. For +the course of the moon is the isthmus of immortality and generation. The +region, indeed, above the moon, and also that which the moon occupies, +contain the genus of the gods; but the place beneath the moon is the +abode of strife and nature; for in this place there is a mutation of +things that are generated, and a regeneration of things which have +perished. + +In that part of the world, however, in which nature and generation +predominate, it is necessary that the three following things[15] should +be present. In the first place, the body which yields to the touch, +and which is the subject of all generated natures. But this will be an +universal recipient, and a signature of generation itself, having the +same _relation_ to the things that are generated from it, as water to +taste, _silence to sound_[16], darkness to light, and the matter of +artificial forms to the forms themselves. For water is tasteless and +devoid of quality, yet is capable of receiving the sweet and the bitter, +the sharp and the salt. Air, also, which is formless with respect to +sound, is the recipient of words and melody. And darkness, which is +without colour, and without form, becomes the recipient of splendour, +and of the yellow colour and the white; but whiteness pertains to the +statuary’s art; and to the art which fashions figures from wax. Matter, +however, has a relation in a different manner to the statuary’s art; for +in matter all things prior to generation are in capacity, but they exist +in perfection when they are generated and receive their proper nature. +Hence matter [or a universal recipient] is necessary to the existence of +generation. + +The second thing which is necessary, is the existence of contrarieties, +in order that mutations and changes in quality may be effected, matter +for this purpose receiving passive qualities, and an aptitude to the +participation of forms. Contrariety is also necessary, in order that +powers, which are naturally mutually repugnant, may not finally vanquish, +or be vanquished by, each other. But these powers are the hot and the +cold, the dry and the moist. + +Essences rank in the third place; and these are fire and water, air and +earth, of which the hot and the cold, the dry and the moist, are powers. +But essences differ from powers; for essences are locally corrupted by +each other, but powers are neither corrupted nor generated, for the +reasons [or forms] of them are incorporeal. + +Of these four powers, however, the hot and the cold subsist as causes and +things of an effective nature, but the dry and the moist rank as matter +and things that are passive[17]; but matter is the first recipient of +all things, for it is that which is in common spread under all things. +Hence, the body, which is the object of sense in capacity, and ranks as a +principle, is the first thing; but contrarieties, such as heat and cold, +moisture and dryness, form the second thing; and fire and water, earth +and air, have an arrangement in the third place. For these change into +each other; but things of a contrary nature are without change. + +But the differences of bodies are two: for some of them indeed are +primary, but others originate from these: for the hot and the cold, the +moist and the dry, rank as primary differences; but the heavy and the +light, the dense and the rare, have the relation of things which are +produced from the primary differences. All of them, however, are in +number sixteen, viz. the hot and the cold, the moist and the dry, the +heavy and the light, the rare and the dense, the smooth and the rough, +the hard and the soft, the thin and the thick, the acute and the obtuse. +But of all these, the touch has a knowledge, and forms a judgement; +hence, also, the first body in which these differences exist in capacity, +may be sensibly apprehended by the touch. + +The hot and the dry, therefore, the rare and the sharp, are the powers +of fire; but those of water are, the cold and the moist, the dense and +the obtuse; those of air are, the soft, the smooth, the light, and the +attenuated; and those of earth are, the hard and the rough, the heavy and +the thick. + +Of these four bodies, however, fire and earth are the transcendencies +and summits [or extremities] of contraries. Fire, therefore, is the +transcendency of heat, in the same manner as ice is of cold: hence, if +ice is a concretion of moisture and frigidity, fire will be the fervour +of dryness and heat. On which account, nothing is generated from ice, nor +from fire[18]. + +Fire and earth, therefore, are the extremities of the elements, but +water and air are the media, for they have a mixed corporeal nature. Nor +is it possible that there could be only one of the extremes, but it is +necessary that there should be a contrary to it. Nor could there be two +only, for it is necessary that there should be a medium, since media are +opposite to the extremes. + +Fire, therefore, is hot and dry, but air is hot and moist; water is +moist and cold, but earth is cold and dry. Hence, heat is common to air +and fire; cold is common to water and earth; dryness to earth and fire; +and moisture to water and air. But with respect to the peculiarities +of each, heat is the peculiarity of fire, dryness of earth, moisture of +air, and frigidity of water. The essences, therefore, of these remain +permanent, through the possession of common properties; but they change +through such as are peculiar, when one contrary vanquishes another. + +Hence, when the moisture in air vanquishes the dryness in fire, but +the frigidity in water, the heat in air, and the dryness in earth, the +moisture in water, and vice versâ, when the moisture in water vanquishes +the dryness in earth, the heat in air, the coldness in water, and the +dryness in fire, the moisture in air, then the mutations and generations +of the elements from each other into each other are effected. + +The body, however, which is the subject and recipient of mutations, is a +universal receptacle, and is in capacity the first tangible substance. + +But the mutations of the elements are effected, either from a change of +earth into fire, or from fire into air, or from air into water, or from +water into earth. Mutation is also effected in the third place, when that +which is contrary in each element is corrupted, but that which is of a +kindred nature, and connascent, is preserved. Generation, therefore, is +effected, when one contrariety is corrupted. For fire, indeed, is hot +and dry, but air is hot and moist, and heat is common to both; but the +peculiarity of fire is dryness, and of air moisture. Hence, when the +moisture in air vanquishes the dryness in fire, then fire is changed into +air. + +Again, since water is moist and cold, but air is moist and hot, moisture +is common to both. The peculiarity however of water is coldness, but of +air heat. When, therefore, the coldness in water vanquishes the heat in +air, the mutation from air into water is effected. + +Further still, earth is cold and dry, but water is cold and moist, and +coldness is common to both; but the peculiarity of earth is dryness, and +of water moisture. When, therefore, the dryness in earth vanquishes the +moisture in water, a mutation takes place from water into earth. + +The mutation, however, from earth, in an ascending progression, is +performed in a contrary way; but an alternate mutation is effected when +one whole vanquishes another, and two contrary powers are corrupted, +nothing at the same time being common to them. For since fire is hot and +dry, but water is cold and moist; when the moisture in water vanquishes +the dryness in fire, and the coldness in water the heat in fire, then a +mutation is effected from fire into water. + +Again, earth is cold and dry, but air is hot and moist. When, therefore, +the coldness in earth vanquishes the heat in air, and the dryness in +earth, the moisture in air, then a mutation from air into earth is +effected. + +But when the moisture of air corrupts the heat of fire, from both of them +fire will be generated; for the heat of air and the dryness of fire will +still remain. And fire is hot and dry. + +When, however, the coldness of earth is corrupted, and the moisture of +water, from both of them earth will be generated. For the dryness of +earth, indeed, will be left, and the coldness of water. And earth is cold +and dry. + +But when the heat of air, and the heat of fire are corrupted, no element +will be generated; for the contraries in both these will remain, viz. the +moisture of air and the dryness of fire. Moisture, however, is contrary +to dryness. + +And again, when the coldness of earth, and in a similar manner of water, +are corrupted, neither thus will there be any generation; for the dryness +of earth and the moisture of water will remain. But dryness is contrary +to moisture. And thus, we have briefly discussed the generation of the +first bodies, and have shown how and from what subjects it is effected. + +Since, however, the world is indestructible and unbegotten, and neither +received a beginning of generation, nor will ever have an end, it is +necessary that the nature which produces generation in another thing, +and also that which generates in itself, should be present with each +other. And that, indeed, which produces generation in another thing, is +the whole of the region above the moon; but the more proximate cause is +the sun, who, by his accessions and recessions, continually changes the +air, so as to cause it to be at one time cold, and at another hot; the +consequence of which is, that the earth is changed, and everything which +the earth contains. + +The obliquity of the zodiac, also, is well posited with respect to the +motion of the sun, for it likewise is the cause of generation. And +universally this is accomplished by the proper order of the universe; +so that one thing in it is that which makes, but another that which is +passive. Hence, that which generates in another thing, exists above the +moon; but that which generates in itself, has a subsistence beneath the +moon; and that which consists of both these, viz. of an ever-running +divine body, and of an ever-mutable generated nature, is the world. + + +CHAP. III. + +The origin, however, of the generation of man was not derived from the +earth, nor that of other animals, nor of plants; but the proper order of +the world being perpetual, it is also necessary that the natures which +exist in it, and are aptly arranged, should, together with it, have a +never-failing subsistence. For the world primarily always existing, it +is necessary that its parts should be co-existent with it: but I mean by +its parts, the heavens, the earth, and that which subsists between these; +which is placed on high, and is denominated aerial; for the world does +not exist without, but together with, and from these. + +The parts of the world, however, being consubsistent, it is also +necessary that the natures, comprehended in these parts, should be +co-existent with them; with the heavens, indeed, the sun and moon, the +fixed stars, and the planets; but with the earth, animals and plants, +gold and silver; with the place on high, and the aerial region, pneumatic +substances and wind, a mutation to that which is more hot, and a mutation +to that which is more cold; for it is the property of the heavens to +subsist in conjunction with the natures which it comprehends; of the +earth to support the plants and animals which originate from it; and of +the place on high, and the aerial region, to be consubsistent with all +the natures that are generated in it. + +Since, therefore, in each division of the world, a certain genus of +animals is arranged, which surpasses the rest contained in that division; +in the heavens, indeed, the genus of the gods, but in the earth men, and +in the region on high demons;—this being the case, it is necessary that +the race of men should be perpetual, since reason truly induces us to +believe, that not only the [great] parts of the world are consubsistent +with the world, but also the natures comprehended in these parts. + +Violent corruptions, however, and mutations, take place in the parts of +the earth; at one time, indeed, the sea overflowing into another part +of the earth; but at another, the earth itself becoming dilated and +divulsed, through wind or water latently entering into it. But an entire +corruption of the arrangement of the whole earth never did happen, nor +ever will. + +Hence the assertion, that the Grecian history derived its beginning +from the Argive Inachus, must not be admitted as if it commenced from a +certain first principle, but that it originated from some mutation which +happened in Greece; for Greece has frequently been, and will again be, +barbarous, not only from the migration of foreigners into it, but from +nature herself, which, though she does not become greater or less, yet is +always younger, and with reference to us, receives a beginning. + +And thus much has been sufficiently said by me respecting _the whole_ +and _the universe_; and further still, concerning the generation and +corruption of the natures which are generated in it, and the manner in +which they subsist, and will for ever subsist; one part of the universe +consisting of a nature which is perpetually moved, but another part of a +nature which is always passive; and the former of these always governing, +but the latter being always governed. + + +CHAP. IV. + +Concerning the generation of men, however, from each other, after what +manner, and from what particulars, it may be most properly effected, law, +and temperance and piety at the same time co-operating, will be, I think, +as follows. In the first place, indeed, this must be admitted,—that we +should not be connected with women for the sake of pleasure, but for the +sake of begetting children. + +For those powers and instruments, and appetites, which are subservient +to copulation, were imparted to men by Divinity, not for the sake of +voluptuousness, but for the sake of the perpetual duration of the +human race. For since it was impossible that man, who is born mortal, +should participate of a divine life, if the immortality of his genus +was corrupted; Divinity gave completion to this immortality through +individuals, and made this generation of mankind to be unceasing and +continued. This, therefore, is one of the first things which it is +necessary to survey,—that copulation should not be undertaken for the +sake of voluptuous delight. + +In the next place, the co-ordination itself of man should be considered +with reference to the whole, viz. that he is a part of a house and a +city, and (which is the greatest thing of all) that each of the progeny +of the human species ought to give completion to the world[19], if it +does not intend to be a deserter either of the domestic, or political, +or divine Vestal hearth. + +For those who are not entirely connected with each other for the sake of +begetting children, injure the most honourable system of convention. But +if persons of this description procreate with libidinous insolence and +intemperance, their offspring will be miserable and flagitious, and will +be execrated by gods and demons, and by men, and families, and cities. + +Those, therefore, who deliberately consider these things, ought not, in a +way similar to irrational animals, to engage in venereal connections, but +should think copulation to be a necessary good. For it is the opinion of +worthy men, that it is necessary and beautiful, not only to fill houses +with large families, and also the greater part of the earth[20], (for man +is the most mild and the best of all animals,) but, as a thing of the +greatest consequence, to cause them to abound with the most excellent +men. + +For on this account men inhabit cities governed by the best laws, rightly +manage their domestic affairs, and [if they are able] impart to their +friends such political employments as are conformable to the polities in +which they live, since they not only provide for the multitude at large, +but [especially] for worthy men. + +Hence, many err, who enter into the connubial state without regarding +the magnitude of [the power of] fortune, or public utility, but direct +their attention to wealth, or dignity of birth. For in consequence of +this, instead of uniting with females who are young and in the flower of +their age, they become connected with extremely old women; and instead of +having wives with a disposition according with, and most similar to their +own, they marry those who are of an illustrious family, or are extremely +rich. On this account, they procure for themselves discord instead of +concord; and instead of unanimity, dissention; contending with each +other for the mastery. For the wife who surpasses her husband in wealth, +in birth, and in friends, is desirous of ruling over him, contrary to +the law of nature. But the husband justly resisting this desire of +superiority in his wife, and wishing not to be the second, but the first +in domestic sway, is unable, in the management of his family, to take the +lead. + +This being the case, it happens that not only families, but cities, +become miserable. For families are parts of cities, but the composition +of the whole and the universe derives its subsistence from parts[21]. +It is reasonable, therefore, to admit, that such as are the parts, such +likewise will be the whole and the all which consists of things of this +kind. + +And as in fabrics of a primary nature the first structures co-operate +greatly to the good or bad completion of the whole work; as, for +instance, the manner in which the foundation is laid in building a house, +the structure of the keel in building a ship, and in musical modulation +the extension and remission of the voice; so the concordant condition of +families greatly contributes to the well or ill establishment of a polity. + +Those, therefore, who direct their attention to the propagation of the +human species, ought to guard against everything which is dissimilar and +imperfect; for neither plants nor animals, when imperfect, are prolific, +but to their fructification a certain portion of time is necessary, in +order that when the bodies are strong and perfect, they may produce seeds +and fruits. + +Hence, it is necessary that boys, and girls also while they are virgins, +should be trained up in exercises and proper endurance, and that they +should be nourished with that kind of food, which is adapted to a +laborious, temperate, and patient life. + +Moreover, there are many things in human life of such a kind, that it +is better for the knowledge of them to be deferred for a certain time. +Hence, it is requisite that a boy should be so tutored, as not to seek +after venereal pleasures before he is twenty years of age, and then +should rarely engage in them. This, however, will take place, if he +conceives that a good habit of body, and continence, are beautiful and +honourable. + +It is likewise requisite that such legal institutes as the following +should be taught in Grecian cities, viz. that connection with a mother, +or a daughter, or a sister, should not be permitted either in temples, +or in a public place; for it is beautiful and advantageous that numerous +impediments to this energy should be employed. + +And universally, it is requisite that all preternatural generations +should be prevented, and those which are attended with wanton insolence. +But such as are conformable to nature should be admitted, and which are +effected with temperance, for the purpose of producing a temperate and +legitimate offspring. + +Again, it is necessary that those who intend to beget children, should +providentially attend to the welfare of their future offspring. A +temperate and salutary diet, therefore, is the first and greatest thing +which should be attended to by him who wishes to beget children; so +that he should neither be filled with unseasonable food, nor become +intoxicated, nor subject himself to any other perturbation, from which +the habits of the body may become worse. But, above all things, it is +requisite to be careful that the mind, in the act of copulation, should +be in a tranquil state: for, from depraved, discordant, and turbulent +habits, bad seed is produced. + +It is requisite, therefore, to endeavour, with all possible earnestness +and attention, that children may be born elegant and graceful, and +that when born, they should be well educated. For neither is it just +that those who rear horses, or birds, or dogs, should, with the utmost +diligence, endeavour that the breed may be such as is proper, and from +such things as are proper, and when it is proper[22]; and likewise +consider how they ought to be disposed when they copulate with each +other, in order that the offspring may not be a casual production;—but +that men should pay no attention to their progeny, but should beget them +casually; and when begotten, should neglect both their nutriment and +their education: for these being disregarded, the causes of all vice and +depravity are produced, since those that are thus born will resemble +cattle, and will be ignoble and vile. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[8] See Additional Notes, [a]. + +[9] The universe could not be generated together with all things, for the +principle of it must be unbegotten; since everything that is generated, +is generated from a cause; and if this cause was also generated, there +must be a progression of causes ad infinitum, unless the unbegotten is +admitted to be the principle of the universe. Neither, therefore, can +the universe be corrupted together with all things; for the principle of +it being unbegotten is also incorruptible; that only being corruptible, +which was once generated. + +[10] Critolaus, the Peripatetic, employs nearly the same arguments as +those contained in this paragraph, in proof of the perpetuity of the +world, as is evident from the following passage, preserved by Philo, +in his Treatise Περι Αφθαρσιας Κοσμου, “On the Incorruptibility of the +World”: το αιτιον αυτῳ του υγιαινειν, ανοσον εστι· αλλα και το αιτιον +αυτῳ του αγρυπνειν, αγρυπνον εστιν. ει δε τουτο, και το αιτιον αυτῳ του +υπαρχειν, αϊδιον εστιν. αιτιος δε ο κοσμος αυτῳ του υπαρχειν, ειγε και +τοις αλλοις απασιν. αϊδιος ο κοσμος εστιν. i. e. “That which is the cause +to itself of good health, is without disease. But, also, that which is +the cause to itself of a vigilant energy, is sleepless. But if this +be the case, that also which is the cause to itself of existence, is +perpetual. The world, however, is the cause to itself of existence, since +it is the cause of existence to all other things. The world, therefore, +is perpetual.” Everything divine, according to the philosophy of +Pythagoras and Plato, being a self-perfect essence, begins its own energy +from itself, and is therefore primarily the cause to itself of that +which it imparts to others. Hence, since the world, being a divine and +self-subsistent essence, imparts to itself existence, it must be without +non-existence, and therefore must be perpetual. + +[11] i. e. It is not true that the universe can contain anything greater +and more powerful than itself. + +[12] Philo Judæus, in his before-mentioned Treatise Περι Αφθαρσιας +Κοσμου, has adopted the arguments of Ocellus in this paragraph, but not +with the conciseness of his original. + +[13] This four-fold mutation of ages in the human race, consists of the +infant, the lad, the man, and the old man, as is well observed by Theo of +Smyrna. See my Theoretic Arithmetic, p. 189. + +[14] In the original, το τε απαθες μερος του κοσμου και το ακινητον, +which is obviously erroneous. Nogarola, in his note on this passage, +says, “Melius arbitror si legatur το τε αειπαθες μερος, και αεικινητον, +ut sit sensus, semper patibilem, et semper mobilem partem distinguunt ac +separant.” But though he is right in reading αεικινητον for ακινητον, +he is wrong in substituting αειπαθες for απαθες; for Ocellus is here +speaking of the distinction between the celestial and sublunary region, +the former of which is _impassive_, because not subject to generation and +corruption, but the latter being subject to both these is _perpetually +mutable_. + +[15] Aristotle, in his treatise on Generation and Corruption, has +borrowed what Ocellus here says about the three things necessary to +generation. See my translation of that work. + +[16] In the original, και ψοφος προς σιγην, instead of which it is +necessary to read και σιγη προς ψοφον, conformably to the above +translation. See the Notes to my translation of the First Book of +Aristotle’s Physics, p. 73, &c., in which the reader will find a treasury +of information from Simplicius concerning matter. But as matter is devoid +of all quality, and is a privation of all form, the necessity of the +above emendation is immediately obvious. + +[17] Thus also Aristotle, in his Treatise on Generation and Corruption, +θερμον δε και ψυχρον, και ὑγρον, τα μεν τῳ ποιητικα ειναι, τα δε τῳ +παθητικα λερεται, i. e. “With respect to heat and cold, dryness and +moisture, the two former of these are said to be effective, but the two +latter passive powers.” + +[18] The substance of nearly the whole of what Ocellus here says, and +also of the two following paragraphs, is given by Aristotle, in his +Treatise on Generation and Corruption. + +[19] In the original, επειτα δε και την αυτην τῳ ανθρωπῳ συνταξιν προς +το ὁλον, ὁτι μερος ὑπαρχων οικου τε και πολεως, και το μεγιστον κοσμου, +συμπληρουν οφειλει το απογενομενον τουτων ἑκαστον, κ. τ. λ. Here, for +και το μεγιστον κοσμου, συμπληρουν, κ. τ. λ., it is requisite to read, +conformably to the above translation, και το μεγιστον, κοσμου συμπληρουν, +κ. τ. λ. Nogarola, in his version, from not perceiving the necessity of +this emendation, has made Ocellus say that man is the greatest part of +the universe; for his translation is as follows: “Mox eandem hominis +constitutionem ad universam referendam, quippe qui non solum domûs et +civitatis, verum etiam mundi maxima habetur pars,” &c. + +[20] This observation applies only to well regulated cities, but in +London and other large cities, where the population is not restricted to +a definite number, this abundant propagation of the species is, to the +greater part of the community, attended with extreme misery and want. +Plato and Aristotle, who rank among the wisest men that ever lived, were +decidedly of opinion, that the population of a city should be limited. +Hence, the former of these philosophers says, “that in a city where the +inhabitants do not know each other, there is no light, but profound +darkness;” and the latter, “that as 10,000 inhabitants are too few for a +city, so 100,000 are too many.” + +[21] For _whole_, according to the philosophy of Pythagoras and Plato, +has a triple subsistence; since it is either prior to parts, or consists +of parts, or exists in each of the parts of a thing. But a _whole_, prior +to parts, contains in itself parts causally. The universe is a whole of +wholes, the wholes which it comprehends in itself (viz. the inerratic +sphere, and the spheres of the planets and elements) being its parts. And +in the whole which is in each part of a thing, every part according to +participation becomes a whole, i. e. a partial whole. + +[22] In the original, ὡς δει, και εξ ὡν δει, και ὁτε δει, a mode of +diction which frequently occurs in Aristotle, and from him in Platonic +writers. + + + + +OCELLUS LUCANUS ON LAWS. + +A FRAGMENT PRESERVED BY STOBÆUS, ECLOG. PHYS. LIB. I. CAP. 16. + + +Life, connectedly—contains in itself bodies; but of this, soul is the +cause. Harmony comprehends, connectedly, the world; but of this, God +is the cause. Concord binds together families and cities; and of this, +law is the cause. Hence, there is a certain cause and nature which +perpetually adapts the parts of the world to each other, and never +suffers them to be disorderly and without connection. Cities, however, +and families, continue only for a short time; the progeny of which, +and the mortal nature of the matter of which they consist, contain in +themselves the cause of dissolution; for they derive their subsistence +from a mutable and perpetually passive nature. For the destruction[23] +of things which are generated, is the salvation of the matter from which +they are generated. That nature, however, which is perpetually moved[24] +governs, but that which is always passive[25] is governed; and the one +is in capacity prior, but the other posterior. The one also is divine, +and possesses reason and intellect, but the other is generated, and is +irrational and mutable. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[23] In the original, απογενεσις; but the true reading is doubtless +απωλεια, and Vizzanus has in his version _interitus_. What is here said +by Ocellus is in perfect conformity with the following beautiful lines of +our admirable philosophic poet, Pope, in his Essay on Man: + + “All forms that perish other forms supply; + By turns they catch the vital breath and die; + Like bubbles on the sea of matter born, + They rise, they break, and to that sea return.” + +[24] i. e. The celestial region. + +[25] i. e. The sublunary region. + + +ADDITIONAL NOTES. + +[a] Page 1.—“_But others from opinion in conjunction with reason_;”—which +in the original is, τα δε και δοξῃ, μετα λογου. But Ocellus is not +accurate in what he here asserts, as is evident from what Plato says in +his Timæus. For the divine philosopher having, in the former part of this +dialogue, proposed to consider “what that is which is always being, but +is without generation, and what that is which is generated [or consists +in becoming to be], but is never [really] being,” adds: “The former of +these, indeed, is comprehended by _intelligence in conjunction with +reason_, since it always subsists with invariable sameness; but the +latter is perceived _by opinion in conjunction with irrational sense_, +since it is generated and corrupted, and never truly is.” Τι το ον μεν +αει, γενεσιν δε ουκ εχον· και τι το γιγνομενον μεν, ον δε ουδεποτε· το +μεν δη, νοησει μετα λογου περιληπτον, αει κατα ταυτα ον· το δ’αυ δοξῃ +μετ’ αισθησεως αλογου, δοξαστον, γιγνομενον και απολλυμενον, οντως δε +ουδεποτε ον. Plato, as is evident from what is said in the Introduction +to this work, had seen this tract of Ocellus, and corrects him in what he +here says, as he also did the opinions of other philosophers anterior to, +or contemporary with him. For if Ocellus had spoken accurately, he should +have said, “that he had learnt some things through clear arguments from +nature herself, but others from opinion in conjunction with irrational +sense.” For, as Proclus admirably demonstrates in his Commentary on +the above passage from the Timæus of Plato, truly existing being is +only to be apprehended by us through illuminations from an intellect +superior to the human, in conjunction with the energy of _the summit of +our reasoning power_; for such is the accurate meaning of λογος in this +place. But opinion is a knowledge of sensibles conformable to reason, +yet without being able to assign the cause of what it knows; and sense +is an irrational knowledge of the objects to which it is passive, and +the instrument of sense is passion only. See the first volume of my +translation of the Commentaries of Proclus on the Timæus of Plato, p. +202, &c. + +Ocellus adds, “that it is his intention [in this treatise On the +Universe] to derive what is _probable_ from intellectual perception.” For +in physiological discussions we must be satisfied with probability and +an approximation to the truth. Hence, Proclus, in his Commentary on that +part of the Timæus in which Plato says, “What essence is to generation, +that truth is to faith,” admirably observes as follows: “The faith of +which Plato now speaks is rational, but is mingled with irrational +knowledge, as it employs sense and conjecture; hence, it is filled with +much of the unstable. For receiving from sense or conjecture the ὁτι, _or +that a thing is_, it thus explains causes. But these kinds of knowledge +have much of the confused and unstable. Hence, Socrates, in the Phædo, +reprehends sense in many respects, because we neither hear nor see +anything accurately. + +“How, therefore, can the knowledge which originates from sense possess +the accurate and the irreprehensible? For the powers which use science +alone, comprehend the whole of the thing known with accuracy; but those +that energise with sense, are deceived, and deviate from accuracy, on +account of sense, and because the object of knowledge is unstable. For, +with respect to that which is material, what can any one say of it? +since it is always changing and flowing, and is not naturally adapted +to abide for a moment. But that which is celestial, in consequence of +being remote from us, is not easily known, nor can it be apprehended +by science, but we must be satisfied in the theory of it with an +approximation to the truth, and with probability [instead of certainty]. +For everything which is in place requires the being situated there, in +order to a perfect knowledge of its nature. The intelligible, however, +is not a thing of this kind, since it is not apprehended by us in +place; for, wherever any one establishes his reasoning energy, there, +truth being everywhere present, he comes into contact with it. But if +it is possible to assert anything firm and stable about that which is +celestial, this also is possible, so far as it participates of being, +and so far as it can be apprehended by intelligence. For, if anything +necessary can be collected concerning it, it is alone through geometrical +demonstrations which are universal. But so far as it is sensible, it is +difficult to be apprehended, and difficult to be surveyed.”—See the first +volume of my translation of Proclus on the Timæus of Plato, p. 291. + +In p. 293, he also observes, “that perfectly accurate arguments, and such +as are truly scientific, are not to be expected in physical discussions, +but such as are assimilated to them. It is besides this requisite +to know, that as the world is mingled from physical powers, and an +intellectual and divine essence; for “physical works, as the [Chaldean] +Oracle says, co-subsist with the intellectual light of the father;” +thus, also, the discussion of the world makes a commixture of faith and +truth. For things which are assumed from sense participate largely of +conjectural discussion; but things which commence from intelligibles, +possess that which is irreprehensible, and cannot be confuted.” And, +lastly, in p. 296, he adds, “that the want of accuracy in the theory of +the images of being, arises from our imbecility; for, to the knowledge of +them we require imagination, sense, and many other organs. But the Gods +contractedly contain these in their unity and divine intellection; for, +in sublunary natures, we are satisfied in apprehending that which, for +the most part, takes place on account of the instability of their subject +matter. But again, in celestial natures, we are filled with much of the +conjectural, through employing sense and material instruments. On this +account we must be satisfied with proximity in the apprehension, of them, +since we dwell remotely at the bottom, as it is said, of the universe. +This also is evident from those that are conversant with them, who +collect the same things respecting them from different hypotheses; some +things, indeed, through eccentrics, others through epicycles, and others +through evolvents, [in all these] preserving the phænomena.” + +Shuttleworth, in his Astronomy, has demonstrated that the celestial +phænomena may be solved by the hypotheses of Ptolemy and Tycho Brahe, +equally as well as by those of Copernicus. But astronomers of the present +day, from not being skilled in the logic of Aristotle, are not aware that +true conclusions may be deduced from false premises; and hence, because +their theory solves the phænomena, they immediately conclude that it +is true. Aristotle, in his Posterior Analytics, has incontrovertibly +shown, that the things from which demonstrative science consists, must +be necessarily true, the causes of, more known than, and prior to +the conclusion. But where the premises of a syllogism are false, the +conclusion is not _scientifically_, i. e. _necessarily_, true. Thus in +the syllogism, Every stone is an animal; every man is a stone; therefore +every man is an animal,—the conclusion is true, but not _scientific_. + +_Note to p. 14._—Ocellus is wrong in ascribing two powers only to each +of the elements, instead of three, as is clearly shown by Proclus, in +the following extract from his admirable Commentary on the Timæus of +Plato. “There are some physiologists (says he) who ascribe one power to +each of the elements; to fire indeed heat, to air frigidity, to water +moisture, and to earth dryness; in so doing, entirely wandering from the +truth. In the first place, because they subvert the world and order. For +it is impossible for things to be co-adapted to each other, when they +possess the most contrary powers, unless they have something in common. +In the next place, they make the most contrary natures allied to each +other, viz. the hot to the cold, and the moist to the dry[26]. It is +necessary, however, to make things which are hostile more remote than +things which are less foreign. For such is the nature of contraries. In +the third place, therefore, the first two powers will have no sympathy +whatever with the rest, but will be divulsed[27] from each other. For it +is impossible to say what is common to humidity and frigidity. And in +addition to all these things, as the elements are solids, they will not +be conjoined to each other by any medium. It has however been shown that +it is not possible for solids to be conjoined through one medium. Nor can +they be conjoined without a medium. For this is alone the province of +things that are perfectly without interval. + +“But some others, as Ocellus, who was the precursor of Timæus, attribute +two powers to each of the elements; to fire indeed heat and dryness; to +air, heat and moisture; to water, moisture and coldness; and to earth, +coldness and dryness. And these things are written by this man in his +treatise On Nature. In what, therefore, do these err who thus speak? In +the first place, indeed, wishing to discover the common powers in the +elements, in order that they may preserve the co-arrangement of them with +each other, they no more assign communion than separation to them, but +equally honour their hostility and their harmony. What kind of world, +therefore, will subsist from these; what order will there be of things +which are without arrangement and most foreign, and of things which are +most allied and co-arranged? For things which in an equal degree are +hostile and peaceful, will in an equal mode dissolve and constitute +communion. But this communion being similarly dissolved, and similarly +implanted, the universe will no more exist than not exist. In the second +place, they do not assign the greatest contrariety to the extremes, but +to things most remote from the extremes; though we everywhere see, that +of homogeneous natures, those which are most distant have the nature of +contraries, and not those which are less distant. How likewise did nature +arrange them, since they are most remote in their situation from each +other? Was it not by perceiving their contrariety, and that the third +was more allied than the last to the first? How, also, did she arrange +the motions of them, since fire is most light and tends upward, but +earth is most heavy and tends downward? But whence were the motions of +them which are most contrary derived, if not from nature? If, therefore, +nature distributed to them most contrary motions, it is evident that they +are themselves most contrary. For as the motions of simple beings are +simple, and those things are simple of which the motions are simple, +thus also those things are most contrary of which the motions are most +contrary. And this may occasion some one to wonder at Aristotle, who, in +what he says about motion, places earth as most contrary to fire; but in +what he says about powers, he makes the most remote of similar natures +to be more friendly than those that are proximate, when they are moved +with most contrary motions. For, as the elements have contrary places in +their positions, as they have contrary motions in lations, as they have +contrary powers, gravity and levity, through which motions subsist in +their forms, thus also they have contrary passive qualities. Aristotle +himself likewise manifests that earth is contrary to fire. For wishing to +show that it is necessary there should be more bodies than one, he says: +“Moreover, if earth exists, it is also necessary that fire should exist. +For in things, one of the contraries of which naturally is, the other +likewise has a natural subsistence.” So that neither was he able after +any other manner to show that there are more elements than one, than by +asserting that fire is contrary to earth. + +“Further still, as the elements are solids, how can they be bound +together through one medium? For this is impossible in solids, as we +have before observed. Hence those who assert these things, neither +speak mathematically nor physically, but unavoidably err in both these +respects. For physical are derived from mathematical entities. _Timæus +therefore alone, or any other who rightly follows him, neither attributes +one or two powers alone to the elements, but triple powers; to fire +indeed tenuity of parts, acuteness, and facility of motion; to air, +tenuity of parts, obtuseness, and facility of motion; to water, grossness +of parts, obtuseness, and facility of motion; and to earth, grossness of +parts, obtuseness, and difficulty of motion._ But this is in order that +each of the elements may have two powers, each[28] of which is common to +the element placed next to it, and one power which is different, in the +same manner as it was demonstrated in mathematical numbers and figures; +this different power being assumed from one of the extremes; and also in +order that earth, according to all the powers, may subsist oppositely +to fire; and that the extremes may have two media, and the continued +quantities two; the latter having solids for the media, but the former, +common powers. For let fire indeed be attenuated in its parts, acute, and +easily moved. For it has an attenuated essence, and is acute, as having +a figure of this kind [i. e. a pyramidal figure], and on this account is +incisive and fugitive[29], and permeates through all the other elements. +It is also moved with facility[30], as being most near to the celestial +bodies, and existing in them. For the celestial fire itself is moved +with celerity, as is likewise sublunary fire, which is perpetually moved +in conjunction with it, and according to one circle, and one impulse. +Since, therefore, earth is contrary to fire, it has contrary powers, viz. +grossness, obtuseness, and difficulty of motion, all which we see are +present with it. But these being thus hostile, and being solids, are also +similar solids. For their sides and their powers are analogous. For as +the gross is to the attenuated, so is the obtuse to the acute, and that +which is moved with difficulty, to that which is moved with facility. But +those are similar solids of which the sides that constitute the bodies +are analogous. _For the sides are the powers of which bodies consist._ +Hence, as fire and earth are similar bodies, and similar solids, two +analogous media fall between them; and each of the media will have two +sides of the extremes situated next to it, and the remaining side from +the other extreme. Hence, since fire has for its three physical sides the +triple powers, tenuity, acuteness, and facility of motion, by taking away +the middle power, acuteness, and introducing instead of it obtuseness, we +shall produce air, which has two sides of fire, but one of earth, or two +powers of fire, but one of earth; as it is fit that what is near should +rather communicate with it, than what is separated in the third rank from +it. + +“Again, since earth has three physical powers, contrary to the powers of +fire, viz. grossness of parts, obtuseness, and difficulty of motion; by +taking away difficulty of motion, and introducing facility of motion, we +shall produce water, which consists of gross parts, is obtuse, and is +easily moved; and which has indeed two sides or powers common with earth, +but receives one from fire. And thus these media will be spontaneously +conjoined with each other; communicating indeed in twofold powers, but +differing in similitude by one power; and the extremes will be bound +together by two media. Each element also will thus be in a greater +degree conjoined to, than separated from, the element which is near to +it; and one world will be perfectly effected through all of them, and +one harmonious order, through the predominance of analogy. Thus also, of +the two cubes 8 and 27, the medium 12 being placed next to 8, will have +two sides of this, but one side of 27. For 12 is produced by 2 × 2 × 3. +But it is vice versâ with 18. For this is produced by 3 × 3 × 2. And the +side of 27 is 3, in the same manner as 2 is the side of 8. The physical +dogmas, therefore, of Plato, about the elements of the universe, accord +with mathematical speculations.” + +In the Introduction to my Translation of the Timæus of Plato, I have +added the following numbers, for the purpose of representing this +beautiful distribution of the elements, by Proclus, arithmetically. + +Let the number 60 represent fire, and 480 earth; and the media between +these, viz. 120 and 240, will correspond to air and water. For, as 60 : +120 :: 240 : 480. But 60 = 3 × 5 × 4, 120 = 3 × 10 × 4, 240 = 6 × 10 × +4, and 480 = 6 × 10 × 8. So that these numbers will correspond to the +properties of the elements as follows: + + Fire. Air. + 3 × 5 × 4 3 × 10 × 4 :: + Subtle, acute, moveable. Subtle, blunt, moveable. + + Water. Earth. + 6 × 10 × 4 : 6 × 10 × 8. + Dense, blunt, moveable. Dense, blunt, immoveable. + +“Hence,” Proclus adds, “these things being thus determined, let us +physically adapt them to the words of Plato. We call a [physical] +plane or superficies, therefore, that which has two powers only, but a +[physical] solid that which has three powers. And we say, that if we +fashion bodies from two powers, one medium would conjoin the elements +to each other. But since, as we assert, bodies possess triple powers, +they are bound together by two media. For there are two common powers of +the adjacent media, and one power which is different. And the extremes +themselves, if they consisted of two powers, would be conjoined through +one medium. For let fire, if you will, be alone attenuated and easily +moved; but earth, on the contrary, have alone grossness of parts and +immobility. One medium, therefore, will be sufficient for these. For +grossness of parts and facility of motion, and tenuity of parts and +difficulty of motion, are all that is requisite to the colligation of +both. Since, however, each of the elements is triple, the extremes +require two media, and the things themselves that are adjacent are bound +together through two powers. For solids, and these are things that have +triple contrary powers, are never co-adapted by one medium.” + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[26] For το εναντιωτατα here, read τα εναντιωτατα, and for τῳ θερμον τῳ +ψυχρῳ, read το θερμον, κ. τ. λ. + +[27] For απηρτημενα in this place, I read διῃρημενα. + +[28] For μιαν here, it is obviously necessary to read ἑκατεραν. + +[29] For ὑπατικον in this place, read ὑπακτικον. + +[30] Instead of ακινητον here, it is necessary to read ευκινητον. + + + + +FRAGMENTS OF TAURUS, A PLATONIC PHILOSOPHER, ON THE ETERNITY OF THE WORLD. + +EXTRACTED FROM PHILOPONUS AGAINST PROCLUS. + + +Taurus, in his Commentaries on the Timæus of Plato, says: “In the +investigation, whether according to Plato the world is unbegotten, +philosophers differ in their opinions. For Aristotle asserts that +Timæus says the world was generated[31]. And Theophrastus also, in his +treatise On Physical Opinions, says that, according to Plato, the world +was generated, and therefore writes in opposition to him. At the same +time, however, he asserts that Timæus perhaps supposed the world to be +generated, for the sake of perspicuity. Certain other persons also infer, +that, according to Plato, the world was generated. But, again, others +contend that Plato believed the world to be unbegotten. Since, however, +those who assert that the world was generated, cite many other words +of Plato, and likewise the passage in which Plato[32] says, ‘the world +was generated, for it is visible and tangible;’ this being the case, it +is requisite to direct our attention to the different ways in which a +thing is said to be generated, and thus we shall know that Plato asserts +the world to be generated, not according to the signification in which +we affirm this of things which derive their subsistence from a certain +temporal beginning. For this it is which deceives the multitude, when +they conceive the word _generated_ to imply a temporal origin. A thing, +therefore, is said to be generated, which never indeed had a beginning +in time, but yet is in the same genus with generated natures. Thus we +call a thing visible, which is not seen, nor has been seen, nor will be +seen, but yet is in the same genus with things of a visible nature. And +this will take place with a body which may exist about the centre of the +earth. That also is said to be generated, which, in mental conception, +subsists as a composite, though it never has been a composite. Thus, in +music, the middle chord is said to be composed of the lowest and highest +chord. For though it is not thus composed, yet there is perceived in it +the power of the one with reference to the other. The like also takes +place in flowers and animals. In the world, therefore, composition and +mixture are perceived; according to which, we are able to withdraw +and separate qualities from it, and resolve it into a first subject. +The world also is said to be generated, because it always subsists in +becoming to be, like Proteus changing into all-various forms; hence, +with respect to the world, the earth, and the natures, as far as to the +moon, are continually changed into each other. But the natures above the +moon are as to their subject nearly the same, sustaining only a small +mutation. They change, however, according to figure; just as a dancer +being one and the same according to subject, is changed into various +forms by a certain gesture and motion of the hands. The celestial bodies, +therefore, are thus changed, and different habitudes of them take place, +between the motions of the planets with reference to the fixed stars, and +of the fixed stars with respect to the planets. + +“The world, likewise, may be said to be generated, because it derives +its existence from something different from itself, viz. from God, by +whom it is adorned. Thus, also, with those who directly admit that the +world is perpetual, the moon possesses a generated light from the sun, +though there never was a time when the former was not illuminated by +the latter. If, therefore, some one asserts that the world is generated +according to Plato, conformably to these significations of the word, what +he says may be admitted. But so far as the term ‘generated’ signifies a +certain time, and that the world, formerly not existing, was afterwards +generated, this signification, when applied to the world, must by no +means be granted. Plato himself, indeed, indicates how what he asserts +is to be understood, when he says, ‘It must be investigated, whether +the universe always was, having no principle whatever of generation, +or whether it was generated, commencing its generation from a certain +cause.’ For the words, ‘no principle whatever,’ and ‘from a certain +cause,’ manifest he does not intend that a temporal principle should +be assumed; but that what he says, is to be understood in the same +way, as when we say that the history of the Ephori commenced in the +descendants of Hercules. Others say, that the world had a beginning from +the Demiurgus. For the Demiurgus is a principle, and so likewise is the +paradigm of the universe, and matter. But matter cannot be properly said +to be a principle. Again, Plato does not say that the world is a body, +but that it has a body; indicating by this, that so far as it possesses a +corporeal nature, the very being of which consists in _becoming to be_, +it may be said to be generated.” + +Again, Taurus, in the same Commentaries on the Timæus, having cited the +following passage from that dialogue, viz. “We who are about to speak +concerning the universe, whether it is generated, or without generation,” +observes: “Plato says this, though the world is unbegotten. And the poet, + + ‘Though in their race posterior found,’ + +Plato, however, for the sake of discipline, speaks of the world which +is unbegotten, as if it was generated.” Shortly after this, Taurus +says, “What, therefore, are the causes through which the world being +unbegotten, is supposed to be generated?” Both these inquiries[33], +indeed, deserve to be philosophically investigated. For one of them +excites to piety, but the other is assumed for the sake of elucidation. +For Plato, knowing that the multitude apprehend that alone to be a cause +which has a precedency in time, and not conceiving it to be possible for +anything otherwise to be a cause, and also inferring, that, from this +opinion, they might be led to disbelieve in the existence of Providence; +wishing likewise to inculcate this dogma, that the world is governed by +Providence, he tacitly manifests it to those who are abundantly able to +understand that the world is unbegotten according to time; but to those +who are not able to understand this, he indicates that it is generated. +He is also anxious that they may believe this, in order that at the +same time they may be persuaded in the existence of Providence. But the +second cause which induced Plato thus to write, is this,—that assertions +are then more clear, when we meet with them as with things which +actually take place. Thus geometricians compose diagrams as if they were +generated, though they are not composites. And Euclid defines a circle, +as being more simple, to be a plane figure, comprehended under one line, +to which all lines falling from one point within the figure are equal +to each other. But wishing to explain a sphere, he defines it, as if it +was among the number of things generated, to be formed by the revolution +of a semicircle about the diameter, until it returns to the same point +from which it began to be moved. If, however, he had intended to explain +the sphere which already existed, he would have defined it to be a solid +figure, comprehended under one superficies, to which all right lines +falling from one point within the figure, are equal to each other. But +it was usual with Plato, for the sake of discipline, to unfold things +which are without generation[34], as if they were generated. Thus, in +the Republic, he introduces the city as being made, in order that in the +formation of it, the generation of justice might become more manifest. +When, however, Theophrastus says, that perhaps Plato speaks of the world +as generated for the sake of elucidation, just as we consider geometrical +diagrams to be generated, perhaps generation does not subsist similarly +in diagrams. Aristotle also asserts the same thing; for he says, that +in diagrams it is not proper in the beginning to suppose contraries, +but this is to be admitted in the generation of the world; just as if +some one should suppose motion and rest, order and disorder. Neither, +therefore, do all things require invariable paradigms; but the examples +show that it is not more obvious to assert that the world is generated, +than that it is unbegotten. But how is it possible to suppose contraries +in diagrams? For can it be supposed that a triangle is at one and the +same time stationary and moved? Hence, the world is, according to itself, +unbegotten. Nor should any one fatigue himself in endeavouring to prove +from the Atlanticus and Politicus of Plato, that the world is generated. +For we have shown after what manner the world is unbegotten, and how it +is said by Plato to be generated. So far, therefore, as it is supposed +to be generated, it will be incorruptible through the will of God; +but so far as it is unbegotten, it will be incorruptible from its own +nature. And this Plato knew. For everything else that is unbegotten, is +incorruptible.” + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[31] Timæus, in the Dialogue which bears his name, is represented by +Plato as saying this; for, speaking of the world, he says γεγονεναι, _it +was generated_. + +[32] See my Translation of the Commentaries of Proclus on the Timæus, +vol. i. from p. 237 to p. 251. And also the Commentary of the same +incomparable man on the words of Plato, in the same Dialogue, “But we +say that whatever is generated, is necessarily generated by a certain +cause.”—Vol. i. of my Translation, p. 249, &c. + +[33] viz. Whether the world is unbegotten, or generated. + +[34] The sentence in the original is: εθος δε Πλατωνι διδασκαλιας +χαριν, ὡς γινομενα παραδιδοναι. But immediately after χαριν, it is +obviously necessary to add αγενητα. Mahotius also, who published a Latin +translation of this work of Philoponus, has, “Mos est autem Platoni, +doctrinæ gratia, _quæ ortu carent_, perinde atque ea, quæ oriuntur, +explicare.” + + + + +MUNDI THEMA, OR THE GENITURE OF THE WORLD. + +TRANSLATED FROM THE THIRD BOOK OF THE MATHESIS OF JULIUS FIRMICUS +MATERNUS. + + +“O Lollianus, the glory and ornament of our country, it is requisite to +know, in the first place, that the God, who is the fabricator of man, +produced his form, his condition, and his whole essence, in the image +and similitude of the world, nature pointing out the way[35]. For he +composed the body of man, as well as of the world, from the mixture of +the four elements, viz. of fire, water, air, and earth, in order that +the conjunction of all these, when they were mingled in due proportion, +might adorn an animal in the form of a divine imitation. And thus the +Demiurgus exhibited man by the artifice of a divine fabrication, in such +a way, that in a small body he might bestow the power and essence of +all the elements, nature, for this purpose, bringing them together; and +also, so that from the divine spirit, which descended from a celestial +intellect, to the support of the mortal body, he might prepare an abode +for man, which, though fragile, might be similar to the world. On this +account, the five stars[36], and also the sun and moon, sustain man by +a fiery and eternal agitation, as if he were a minor world[37]; so that +the animal which was made in imitation of the world might be governed +by an essence similarly divine. Hence those divine men Petosiris and +Necepso[b], who deserve all possible admiration, and whose wisdom +approached to the very penetralia of Deity, scientifically delivered to +us the geniture of the world, that they might demonstrate and show that +man was fashioned conformably to the nature and similitude of the world, +and that he is under the dominion of the same principles by which the +world itself is governed and contained, and is perennially supported by +the companions of perpetuity[38]. + +“According to Æsculapius, therefore, and Anubius[39], to whom especially +the divinity Mercury committed the secrets of the astrological science, +the geniture of the world is as follows: They constituted the Sun in the +15th part of Leo, the Moon in the 15th part of Cancer, Saturn in the +15th part of Capricorn, Jupiter in the 15th part of Sagittary, Mars in +the 15th part of Scorpio, Venus in the 15th part of Libra, Mercury in +the 15th part of Virgo, and the Horoscope in the 15th part of Cancer. +Conformably to this geniture, therefore, to these conditions of the +stars, and the testimonies which they adduce in confirmation of this +geniture, they are of opinion that the destinies of men, also, are +disposed in accordance with the above arrangement, as may be learnt +from that book of Æsculapius which is called Μυριογενεσις, (i. e. Ten +Thousand, or an innumerable multitude of Genitures,) in order that +nothing in the several genitures of men may be found to be discordant +with the above-mentioned geniture of the world. + +“We may see, therefore, how far or after what manner a star accommodates +the testimony of its radiation to the luminaries. For the luminaries are +the Sun and Moon. But Saturn first conjoins himself with the Moon: for he +follows the condition of the Moon. He does this, however, because, being +constituted in a feminine[40] sign, he diametrically receives the rays +of the Moon, which is also constituted in a feminine sign. But when the +same Saturn, in that geniture, makes a transition to the sign Aquarius, +he again conjoins himself to the Sun by a similar radiation, and is again +disposed in the same condition as that of the Sun. For being constituted +in a masculine sign, he associates himself by an equal testimony of +radiation, since he diametrically looks towards the Sun, with a radiation +similar to that with which he regards the Moon. After this manner also +Jupiter is constituted in Sagittary, and through a trigon affording a +testimony to the Sun, first conjoins himself to his condition, and on +this account being constituted in a masculine sign, and associating with +the Sun, who is constituted in a sign of the same kind, first follows +the power of it; but when he has made a transition to Pisces, he again +conjoins himself in a like condition to the Moon. For he, in a similar +manner, being posited through a trigon in a feminine sign, looks towards +the Moon, who is constituted in a sign of the same kind, with an equal +radiation of condition. + +“In like manner also the planet Mars, being constituted in Scorpio, +because he is in a feminine sign, through a trigon, affords a testimony +to the Moon; but when he comes to Aries, he affords a testimony to +the Sun, and making a transition, being placed in a masculine sign, +he conjoins himself by a trigonic radiation with the Sun. This mode, +however, is changeable; for Mars being constituted in Libra, which is a +masculine sign, yet he affords a testimony to the Moon through a square +aspect; but when he has made a transition to Taurus, being constituted +in a feminine sign, and looking towards the Sun by a square radiation, +he again affords a testimony to it. These [divine] men, however, were +of opinion that the planet Mercury is common in the above-mentioned +geniture, this star affording no testimony either to the Sun or Moon +by a square, or a trigon, or a diameter; nor does it conjoin itself by +radiation either with the Sun or Moon. But if Mercury is a morning star, +he is delighted by day with the Sun, but if an evening star, by night +with the Moon. All that we have here said, these men were of opinion +ought to be observed in the genitures of men[41], and thought that they +could not discover the destiny of man, except those radiations were +collected by a sagacious investigation. Lest, however, the fabulous +device[42] of these men should deceive you, and lest some one should +think that this geniture of the world was contrived by these most wise +men, without a cause, it is requisite that we should explain all things +particularly, in order that the great sagacity displayed in this device, +may, by the most diligent expositions, be intimated to all men. + +“The world had not a certain day of its origin, nor was there any time +in which the world was formed by the counsel of a divine intellect, +and providential Deity; nor has the eager desire of human fragility +been able to extend itself so far as to conceive or explain the origin +of the world, especially since the greater apocatastasis of it, which +is effected by a conflagration or a deluge[43], consists of 300,000 +years[c]. For the mundane apocatastasis is accustomed to be accomplished +by these two events; since a deluge follows a conflagration, because +substances which are burnt can no otherwise be renovated and restored +to their pristine appearance and form, than by the admixtions and the +concrete dust of the ashes, which are a collection of generative seeds +becoming prolific. Divine men, therefore, following the example of +mathematicians in the genitures of men, have prudently devised this, +as if it were the geniture of the world. Hence I deem it expedient to +explain the contrivance of that divine composition, in order that the +admirable reason of the conjectural scheme may be unfolded according to +the rules of art. + +“These divine men, therefore, wished so to constitute the Moon [in the +geniture of the world], that it might conjoin itself with Saturn, and +might deliver the dominion of periodical revolutions. Nor was this +improperly devised. For because the first origin of the world[d] [i. e. +the beginning of the first mundane period] was uncultivated and rude, +and savage through rustic association, and also because barbarous men, +having entered on the first vestiges of light, and which were unknown +to them, were destitute of reason, in consequence of having abandoned +humanity[44], these divine men were of opinion, that this rustic and +barbarous time was Saturnian, that, in imitation of this star, the +beginning of life might be characterized by barbaric and inhuman +ferocity. After Saturn, Jupiter received periodical power. For to +this planet the Moon was conjoined in the second place, in order that +pristine and squalid rusticity being deserted, and the ferocity of rude +association being laid aside, human life might be cultivated through the +purification of the manners. In the third place, the Moon conjoining +herself with Mars, delivered to him the power of periodical revolution; +so that mortality having entered into the right path of life, and +inhumanity being subdued by a certain moderation, all the ornaments of +arts and fabrications might originate from this conjunction. After Mars, +Venus received predominating power, in order that, human disciplines +gradually increasing, prudence and wisdom might adorn mankind. Hence +they were of opinion that this time, in which the manners of men were +cultivated by learning, and naturally formed to rectitude by the several +disciplines, was under the dominion of Venus; so that being protected +by the majesty of this joyful and salutary divinity, they might govern +their erroneous actions by the ruling power of Providence. But [these +divine men] conceived the last period to be under the dominion of +Mercury, to whom the Moon in the last place conjoins herself. What can +be found more subtle than this arrangement? For mankind being purified +from rude and savage pursuits, arts also having been invented, and +disciplines disposed in an orderly manner, the human race sharpened its +inventive power. And because the noble genius in man could not preserve +[uniformly] one course of life, the improbity of evil increased from +various institutes, and confused manners and the crimes of a life of +wickedness prevailed: hence the human race in this period both invented +and delivered to others more enormous machinations. On this account these +wise men thought that this last period should be assigned to Mercury[e], +so that, in imitation of that star, the human race might give birth to +inventions replete with evil[45]. + +“That nothing, however, may be omitted by us requisite to the elucidation +of this subject, all things are to be explained, which prove that man +was formed in the imitation and similitude of the world[46]. And that +the mundane apocatastasis is effected through a conflagration and a +deluge, we also have asserted, and is confirmed by all men. The substance +likewise of the human body, the course of life having received its +completion, is, after a similar manner, dissolved. For as often as, +through the natural ardour of heat, the human body is too much relaxed, +it evaporates in consequence of the inundations of humours; and thus +it always suffers a decoction from a fiery ardour, or is dissolved by +excessive desudation. Nor do the wisest interpreters of the medical art +assert, that the substance of the human race is dissolved by a natural +termination in any other way, than by either moisture dissolving fire, or +again heat predominating, fire being inwardly and deeply extinguished, is +left without moisture. Thus the artificer, Nature, constituted man in an +all-various imitation of the world, so that whatever dissolves, or forms +the essence of the world, this also should be the cause of the formation +and dissolution of man.” + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[35] Nature may be said to point out the way, because its forerunning +energy is employed by Divinity in the formation of bodies. By _the +fabricator_, in the above sentence, Firmicus means Jupiter, who is called +the _Demiurgus_ by Plato, in the Timæus. + +[36] i. e. Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, Mercury. + +[37] + + —— Quid mirum noscere mundum + Si possent homines, quibus est et mundus in ipsis; + Exemplumque Dei quisque est in imagine parva? + + MANILIUS. + +[38] By _the companions of perpetuity_, Firmicus means the stars, whose +nature, and motions, and influences are perpetual. Hence, in the Orphic +Hymn to the Stars, they are invoked as + + —— αει γενετηρες απαντων, + “Th’ _eternal_ fathers of whate’er exists.” + +[39] Of the astrological Æsculapius, I have not been able to obtain any +information; and of Anubius nothing more is to be learnt than that he was +a most ancient poet, and wrote an elegy de Horoscopo. Vid. Salmas. de +Annis Climactericis, pp. 87, 602, &c. + +[40] The feminine signs are, Taurus, Cancer, Virgo, Scorpio, Capricornus, +and Pisces; but the masculine signs are, Aries, Gemini, Leo, Libra, +Sagittarius, and Aquarius. + +[41] It may not be altogether foreign to the purpose to adduce in this +place, what is said by Hermes in his Treatise de Revolut. Nativit. +lib. i. p. 215. A Latin translation only is extant of this work, and +it is uncertain whether the author of it was the celebrated Hermes +Trismegistus, or a Hermes of more modern times. This author says, that +“the dominion of the planets over the ages of man is as follows: The Moon +governs the first age, which consists of four years. Mercury governs the +second, which consists of ten years. Venus the third, and this extends to +eight years. The Sun the fourth, and this age consists of nineteen years. +Mars the fifth, and this consists of fifteen years. Jupiter, the sixth, +consists of twelve years: and Saturn governs the seventh age, and this +extends to the remaining years of human life.” + +Proclus, also, in his admirable Commentary on the First Alcibiades of +Plato, observes, that the different ages of our life on the earth, +correspond to the order of the universe. “For our first age (says +he) partakes in an eminent degree of the Lunar energies, as we then +live according to a nutritive and physical power. But our second age +participates of Mercurial prerogatives, because we then apply ourselves +to letters, music, and wrestling. The third age is governed by Venus, +because then we begin to produce seed, and the generative powers of +nature are put in motion. The fourth age is Solar, for then our youth +is in its vigour and full perfection, subsisting as a medium between +generation and decay; for such is the order which vigour is allotted. But +the fifth age is governed by Mars, in which we principally aspire after +power and superiority over others. The sixth age is governed by Jupiter, +for in this we give ourselves up to prudence, and pursue an active and +political life. And the seventh age is Saturnian, in which it is natural +to separate ourselves from generation, and transfer ourselves to an +incorporeal life. And thus much we have discussed, in order to procure +belief that letters, and the whole education of youth, are suspended from +the Mercurial series.” + +[42] Firmicus calls the geniture of the world a _fabulous_ device, +because it supposes the mundane periods to have had a temporal beginning, +though they are in reality eternal. For in a fable, the _inward_ is +different from the _outward_ meaning. + +[43] In the greater apocatastasis of the world, which is effected by +a deluge or a conflagration, the continent becomes sea, and the sea +continent: “This, however,” says Olympiodorus, (in his Scholia on the +first book of Aristotle’s Treatise on Meteors,) “happens in consequence +of what is called _the great winter_, and _the great summer_. But _the +great winter_ is when all the planets become situated in a wintry sign, +viz. either in Aquarius or in Pisces. And _the great summer_ is when all +of them are situated in a summer sign, viz. either in Leo or in Cancer. +For as the Sun alone, when he is in Leo, causes summer, but when he is in +Capricorn winter, and thus the year is formed, which is so denominated, +because the Sun tends to one and the same point (ενιαυτος), for his +restitution is from the same to the same,—in like manner there is an +arrangement of all the planets effected in long periods of time, which +produces the great year. For if all the planets becoming vertical, heat +in the same manner as the sun, but departing from this vertical position +refrigerate, it is not unreasonable to suppose, that when they become +vertical, they produce _a great summer_, but when they have departed from +this position, _a great winter_. In _the great winter_, therefore, the +continent becomes sea, but in _the great summer_ the contrary happens, +in consequence of the burning heat, and there being great dryness where +there was moisture.” At the end too of this first book of Aristotle on +Meteors, Olympiodorus observes, “that when _the great winter_ happens, +a part of the earth being deluged, a change then takes place to a more +dry condition, till _the great summer_ succeeds, which however does not +cause the corruption of all the earth. For neither was the deluge of +Deucalion mundane, since this happened principally in Greece.” See the +volume of my Aristotle containing this Treatise on Meteors, p. 478, &c. +Firmicus, therefore, is mistaken in asserting that a deluge follows a +conflagration; since the contrary is true. For it is obviously necessary +that places which have been inundated should afterwards become dry, or +they would no longer be habitable. + +[44] In the original, “positæ humanitatis ratio deserebat;” but for +_positæ humanitatis_, it appears to me to be requisite to read, +conformably to the above translation, _positâ humanitate_. + +[45] Is not what is here said about the last period verified in the +present age? + +[46] Man, says Proclus, is a microcosm, and all such things subsist in +him partially, as the world contains divinely and totally. For there is +an intellect in us which is in energy, and a rational soul proceeding +from the same father, and the same vivific goddess, as the soul of the +universe; also an ethereal vehicle analogous to the heavens, and a +terrestrial body derived from the four elements, and with which likewise +it is co-ordinate. See my Translation of Proclus on the Timæus, vol. i, +p. 4. + + +ADDITIONAL NOTES. + +[b] _Page 50._—Petosiris and Necepso were two of the most ancient +writers of Egyptian astrology, which, in many respects, differs from +that of the Chaldeans. The former of these celebrated men is greatly +applauded by Manetho, who, in his Apotelesmatica, professes to be his +follower, and calls him πολυφιλτατον ανδρα. Petosiris, however, was +much prior to Manetho, as is evident from Athenæus, iii. p. 114, who +says he is mentioned by Aristophanes. He is also noticed by Ptolemy (in +Tetrabiblo) under the appellation ‘of an ancient writer’ (του παλαιου or +του αρχαιου). According to Suidas, he wrote, among other things which +are unfortunately lost, Περι των παρ’ Αιγυπτιοις μυστηριων, _Concerning +the Mysteries of the Egyptians_, the loss of which work must be deeply +regretted by every lover of ancient lore. He is also mentioned by +Juvenal, vi. 580. + + “Aptior hora cibo nisi quam dederit Petosiris.” + +And in a Greek epigram (in Anthol. lib. ii. cap. 6.) on a certain person +who had predicted his death from the stars, and, in order that the +prediction might not be falsified, hung himself, it is said: αισχυνθεις +Πετοσιριν απηγξατο και μετεωρος θνησκει, &c. i. e. + + “Lest Petosiris should incur disgrace, + Himself he strangled from a lofty place.” + +Thus, too, it is related of Cardan, the celebrated physician and +astrologer, that having predicted the year and day of his death, when the +time drew near, he suffered himself to perish through hunger, to preserve +his reputation. My worthy and most intelligent friend Mr. J. J. Welsh +has furnished me with the following additional information concerning +the death of Cardan, and other astrologers: “Respecting Cardan’s +abstaining from food, in order to verify his prediction, Thuanus says: +‘Cum tribus diebus minus septuagesimum quintum annum implevisset, eodem +quo prædixerat anno et die, videlicet XI. Kalend. Octobris defecit, ob +id, ne falleret, mortem suâ inediâ accelerasse creditus.’ lib. lxii. p. +155. The same historian also relates, that Cardan brought astrology into +repute by the success he had in calculating nativities. ‘Judiciaria quam +vocant fidem apud multos adstruxit, dum certiora per eam quam ex arte +possint plerumque promere.’ _Id. ib._ Cardan was not the only astrologer +who foretold the time of his own death; for Martin Hortensius, Professor +of Mathematics in Amsterdam, not only predicted the time of his own +death, but that of two young men who were with him, and the result proved +the truth of his prophecy. The fact is admitted by Descartes, while he +ridicules the science and underrates the abilities of Hortensius. See +the 35th of his Letters to Father Mersenne, in the second volume of that +collection. + +“When Ann of Austria, the wife of Louis XIII., was delivered of the +Dauphin, afterwards Louis XIV., a famous German astrologer was in +attendance to draw his nativity, but refused to say more than these three +words, which give a true character of Louis the Fourteenth’s reign; _Diu, +durè, feliciter_. See Limier’s Hist. du Règne de Louis XIV. + +“I omitted to mention above, a curious circumstance related of Cardan +in Lavrey’s Hist. of England, vol. i. p. 711, viz. that having cured +the Archbishop of St. Andrew’s of a disorder which had baffled the most +skilful physicians, he took his leave of the Primate in these words: +‘I have been able to cure you of your sickness, but cannot change your +destiny, nor prevent you from being hanged.’ Eighteen years after, this +Prelate was hung by order of the Commissioners appointed by Mary Queen +Regent of Scotland. + +“By the way, I am much surprised that Cardan’s autobiography has never +been translated; for it is, without a single exception, the most +extraordinary book of the kind ever published.” + +We are informed by Fabricius, that Marsham, in Canone Chron. p. 477, +has eruditely collected many things pertaining to Petosiris, and Necepso +king of Egypt, from the most ancient writers on judicial astrology. We +likewise learn from Fabricius, that Necepso, to whom Petosiris wrote, +as being coeval with him, is believed to have flourished about the +year 800 of the Attic æra, i. e. about the beginning of the Olympiads. +He is praised by Pliny, by Galen, ix. p. 2. De Facultat. Simplicium +Medicament., and from him by Aetius. + +[c] _Page 56._—Proclus in Tim. lib. iv. p. 277, informs us, that the +Chaldeans had observations of the stars, which embraced whole mundane +periods. What Proclus likewise asserts of the Chaldeans is confirmed by +Cicero in his first book on Divination, who says that they had records of +the stars for the space of 370,000 years; and by Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. +lib. xi. p. 113, who says, that their observations comprehended the space +of 473,000 years. + +Plato, in the Timæus, speaking of this greater apocatastasis, says: “At +the same time, however, it is no less possible to conceive, that the +perfect number of time will then accomplish a perfect year, when the +celerities of all the eight periods being terminated with reference to +each other, shall have a summit, as they are measured by the circle, +of that which subsists according to the same and the similar [i. e. +according to the sphere of the fixed stars].” + +On this passage, Proclus, in his Commentary, observes as follows: “The +whole mundane time measures the one life of the universe, according to +which all the celerities are terminated of the celestial and sublunary +circles. For in these also there are periods, which have for the summit +of their apocatastasis the lation of the circle of _the same_ [i. e. of +the sphere of the fixed stars]. For they are referred to this as to their +principle, because it is the most simple of all, since the apocatastases +are surveyed with reference to the points of it. Thus, for instance, all +of them make their apocatastasis about the equinoctial point[47], or +about the summer tropic; or though the joint apocatastasis should not be +considered to be according to the same point, but with reference to the +same, when, for instance, rising or culminating, yet all of them will +have with reference to it a figure of such a kind. For now the present +order is entirely a certain apocatastasis of all the heavenly bodies, yet +the configuration is not seen about the same, but with reference to the +same point. Once, however, it was about the same, and according to one +certain point, at which if it should again take place, the whole of time +will have an end. One certain apocatastasis likewise seems to have been +mentioned; hence it is said that Cancer is the horoscope of the world, +and this year is called Cynic, or pertaining to the Dog, because, among +the constellations, the splendid star of the Dog rises together with +Cancer. If therefore the planets should again meet in the same point of +Cancer, this concurrence will be one period of the universe. If, however, +the apocatastasis takes places in Cancer about the equinoctial point, +that also which is from the summer tropic will be directed towards the +summer tropic, and the number of the one will be equal to the number +of the other, and the time of the one to the time of the other. For +each of them is one period, and is defined by quantity, on account of +the order of the bodies that are moved. In addition, however, to what +has been said, it must be observed, that this perfect number differs +from that mentioned in the Republic, which comprehends the period of +every divinely generated nature[48], since it is more partial, and is +apocatastatic of the eight periods alone. For the other perfect number +comprehends the peculiar motions of the fixed stars, and, in short, of +all the divine genera that are moved in the heavens, whether visibly or +invisibly, and also of the celestial genera posterior to the Gods, and +of the longer or shorter periods of sublunary natures, together with the +periods of fertility and sterility. Hence, likewise, it is the lord of +the period of the human race.” + +“The year (says Macrobius) which is called mundane, is _truly_ revolving, +because it is effected by a full convolution of the universe, and is +evolved in the most extended periods of time, the reason of which is +as follows: All the planets and the stars which are seen fixed in the +heavens, the peculiar motion of the latter of which though the human +sight has never been able to perceive or apprehend, are yet moved, and, +besides the revolution of the heavens by which they are always drawn +along, have an advancing motion of their own. This motion, however, +is completed in such a length of time, that the life of man is not +sufficiently extended to discover, by continual observation, their +mutation to the place in which they were first seen. The end, therefore, +of the mundane year is, when all the planets and all the fixed stars have +returned from a certain place to the same place, so that no star in the +heavens may be situated in a place different from that in which it was +before, since all the other stars, when moved from that place to which +they return, give a termination to their year; so that the luminaries +[i. e. the sun and moon] also, together with the five wandering stars, +may be in the same places and parts in which they were situated when +the mundane year began. This, however, according to the decision of +physiologists, will take place at the expiration of 15,000 years; hence, +as the lunar year is a month, and the solar year consists of twelve +months, and the years of the other planets are those which we have before +mentioned, so the mundane year consists of 15,000 of such years as we +now compute. This year, therefore, is called the _truly revolving year_, +which is not measured by the retrogression of the sun, i. e. of one +planet, but is terminated by the return of all the planets to the same +place, under the same description of the whole heavens; from whence also +it is called mundane, because the world is properly called heaven. Hence, +as we not only denominate the progression of the sun from the kalends of +January to the same kalends, the solar year, but also its progression +from the day after the kalends to the same day, and its return from any +day of any month to the same day, a year; thus, also, the beginning of +this mundane year may be fixed by any one at any time he pleases. Thus, +for instance, Cicero now, from an eclipse of the sun, which happened at +the time of the death of Romulus, supposes the beginning of the mundane +year to commence. And though frequently afterwards an eclipse of the sun +may have happened, yet a repeated eclipse of this luminary is not said to +give completion to the mundane year; but then this completion takes place +when the sun, during its eclipse, will be in the same places and parts, +and likewise all the planets and fixed stars, in which they were at the +time of the death of Romulus. Hence, as physiologists assert, 15,000 +years after the death of Romulus the sun will again be so eclipsed, +that it will be in the same sign, and in the same part of the heavens, +as it was at that time; all the stars likewise returning to the same +place.”—_Macrob. in Somn. Scip._ lib. ii. + +Hence, as the greater mundane apocatastasis consists of 300,000 years, +and 15,000 years make a mundane year, the greater apocatastasis will +consist of 20,000 mundane years. + +This greater apocatastasis is also alluded to by Synesius in his treatise +On Providence, and likewise in the Asclepian Dialogue ascribed to Hermes +Trismegistus. The extract from Synesius, who informs us that his treatise +is an Egyptian narration relative to Osiris and Typhos, is as follows: + +“Some time after this, Typhos obtained the kingdom by fraud and force, +and Osiris was banished: but during the evils arising from the tyrannical +government of Typhos, some God manifestly appeared to a certain +philosopher who was a stranger in Egypt, and who had received great +benefits from Osiris, and ordered him to endure the present calamities, +because they were months only, and not years, in which the Fates had +destined that the Egyptian sceptres should raise the nails of the wild +beasts[49], and depress the heads of the sacred birds[50]. But this is +an arcane symbol. And the philosophic stranger above mentioned knew that +a representation of this was engraved in obelisks and in the sacred +recesses of the temples. The divinity also unfolded to him the meaning +of the sacred sculpture, and gave him a sign of the time in which it +would be verified. _For when those_, said he, _who are now in power, +shall endeavour to make an innovation in our religion, then in a short +time after expect that the GIANTS_ (meaning by these, men of another +nation) _shall be entirely expelled, being agitated by their own avenging +furies_. If, however, some remains of the sedition should still exist, +and the whole should not be at once extinguished, but Typhos should still +remain in the seat of government, nevertheless do not despair of the +Gods. The following also is another symbol for you. _When we shall purify +the air which surrounds the earth, and which is defiled with the breath +of the impious, with fire and water, then the punishment of the rest will +also follow, and then immediately expect a better order of things, Typhos +being removed. For we expel such-like prodigies by the devastation of +fire and thunder._ In consequence of this, the stranger considered that +to be a felicitous circumstance, which had before appeared to him to be +dreadful, and no longer bore with molestation a necessary continuance +in life, through which he would be an eye-witness of the advent of the +Gods; for it exceeded the power of human sagacity to conjecture, that +so powerful a multitude as were then collected together in arms, and +who even in time of peace were by law obliged to be armed, should be +vanquished without any opposition. He considered with himself, therefore, +how these things could be accomplished, for they appeared to surpass the +power of reason. _But after no great length of time, a certain depraved +fragment of religion, and an adulteration of divine worship, like that +of money, as it were, prevailed, which the ancient law exterminated from +cities, shutting the doors against impiety, and expelling it to a great +distance from the walls._ Typhos, however, did not himself introduce +this impiety, for he feared the Egyptian multitude, but for this purpose +called in the assistance of the Barbarians, and erected a temple in the +city, having previously subverted the laws of his country. When these +things, therefore, came to pass, the stranger began to think that this +was the event which divinity had predicted. ‘And perhaps,’ said he, +‘I shall be a spectator of what will follow.’ He likewise then learnt +some particulars about Osiris, which would shortly happen, and others +which would take place at some greater distance of time, viz. when the +boy Horus would choose, as his associate in battle, a wolf instead of a +lion. But who the wolf is, is a sacred narration, which it is not holy to +divulge, even in the form of a fable.” + +Typhos, however, through his tyranny, was at length dethroned, and Osiris +recalled from exile; and Synesius, towards the end of this treatise, +observes, “that the blessed body which revolves in a circle is the +cause of the events in the sublunary world. For both are parts of the +universe, and they have a certain relation to each other. If, therefore, +the cause of generation[51] in the things which surround us originates +in the natures which are above us, it follows that the seeds of things +which happen here descend from thence. And if some one should add, since +astronomy imparts credibility to this, that there are _apocatastatic_[52] +periods of the stars and spheres, some of which are simple, but others +compounded; such a one will partly accord with the Egyptians, and partly +with the Grecians, and will be perfectly wise from both, conjoining +intellect to science. A man of this kind therefore will not deny, that, +in consequence of the same motions returning, effects also will return, +together with their causes; and that lives on the earth, generations, +educations, dispositions, and fortunes, will be the same with those that +formerly existed. We must not wonder, therefore, if we behold a very +ancient history verified in life, and should see things which flourished +before our times accord with what is unfolded in this narration; and, +besides this, perceive that the forms which are inserted in matter are +consentaneous to the arcana of a fable.” + +The following is the extract from the Asclepian Dialogue, a Latin +translation only of which is extant, and is generally believed by the +learned to have been made by Apuleius:— + +“An ignoras, O Asclepi, quod Ægyptus imago sit cœli, aut, quod est +verius, translatio et descensio omnium quæ gubernantur atque exercentur +in cœlo? Et, si dicendum est, verius terra nostra totius mundi est +templum: et tamen quoniam præscire cuncta prudentes decet, istud vos +ignorare fas non est, futurum tempus est, quum appareat Ægyptios incassum +pia mente divinitatem et sedula religione servasse, et omnis eorum sancta +veneratio in irritum casura frustrabitur. E terris enim ad cœlum est +recursura divinitas. _Linquatur Ægyptus, terraque, quæ fuit divinitatis +sedes, religione viduata, Numinum præsentia destituetur. Alienigenis +enim regionem istam terramque complentibus, non solum neglectus +religionum, sed (quod est durius) quasi de legibus, a religione, +pietate, cultuque divino statuetur præscripta pœna, prohibitio. Tunc +terra ista sanctissima, sedes delubrorum et templorum, sepulchrorum erit +mortuorumque plenissima. O Ægypte, Ægypte, religionum solæ supererunt +fabulæ, eæque incredibiles posteris suis; solaque supererunt verba +lapidibus incisa, tua pia facta narrantibus; et inhabitabit Ægyptum +Scythos aut Indus aut aliquis talis._ Divinitas enim repetet cœlum, +deserti homines toti morientur, atque ita Ægyptus Deo et homine viduata +deseretur. Te verò appello sanctissimum flumen, tibique futura prædico: +torrenti sanguine plenus ad ripas usque erumpes, undæque divinæ non solum +polluentur sanguine, sed totæ rumpentur, et vivis multo major erit +numerus sepultorum; superstes verò qui erit, lingua sola cognoscetur +Ægyptius, actibus verò videbitur alienus. Quid fles, O Asclepi? Et his +amplius, multoque deterius ipsa Ægyptus suadebitur, imbueturque pejoribus +malis, quæ sancta quondam et divinitatis amantissima deorum in terras +religionis suæ merito, sola seductio [_lege_ reductio] sanctitatis et +pietatis magistra, erit maximæ crudelitatis exemplum. _Et tunc tædio +hominum non admirandus videbitur mundus, neque adorandus. Hoc totum +bonum, quo melius nec est, nec fuit, nec erit, quod videri possit, +periclitabitur. Eritque grave hominibus, ac per hoc contemnetur, nec +diligetur totus hic mundus, Dei opus immutabile, gloriosa constructio, +bonum multiformi imaginum varietate compositum, machina voluntatis +Dei in suo opere sine invidia suffragantis omnium in unum, quæ +venerari, laudari, amari denique à videntibus possunt, multiformis +adunata congestio._ Nam et tenebræ præponentur lumini, et mors vita +utiloir judicabitur. Nemo suspiciet cœlum. _Religiosus pro insano, +irreligiosus putabitur prudens, furiosus fortis, pro bono habebitur +pessimus._ Anima enim et omnia circum eam quibus aut immortalis nata +est, aut immortalitatem se consecuturam esse præsumit, secundum quod +vobis exposui, non solum risus, sed etiam putabitur vanitas. _Sed mihi +credite etiam periculum capitate constituetur in eum, qui se mentis +religioni dederit. Nova constituentur jura, lex nova; nihil sanctum, +nihil religiosum, nec cœlo, nec cœlestibus dignum audietur, aut mente +credetur. Fiet Deorum ab hominibus dolenda secessio; soli nocentes angeli +remanebant, qui humanitati commixti ad omnia audaciæ mala miseros manu +injecta compellent in bella, in rapinas, in fraudes, et in omnia quæ sunt +animarum naturæ contraria._ Tunc non terra constabit, nec navigabitur +mare, nec cœlum astrorum cursibus, nec siderum cursus constabit in +cœlo. Omnis vox divina necessaria taciturnitate mutescet, fructus terræ +corrumpentur, nec fœcunda erit tellus, et aër ipse mœsto torpore +languescet. Hæc et talis senectus veniet mundi, irreligio, inordinatio, +irrationabilitas bonorum omnium. Cùm hæc cuncta contigerint, O Asclepi, +tunc ille dominus et pater, Deus primipotens, et unus gubernator +mundi, intuens in mores factaque voluntaria voluntate sua, quæ est Dei +benignitas, vitiis resistens, et corruptelæ omnium errorem revocans, +malignitatem omnem vel alluvione diluens, vel igne consumens, vel morbis +pestilentiisque per diversa loca dispersis finiens, ad antiquam faciem +mundum revocabit, ut et mundus ipse adorandus videatur et mirandus, +et tanti operis effector et restitutor Deus ab omnibus qui tunc erunt +frequentibus laudum præconiis benedictionibusque celebretur. Hæc enim +mundi genitura cunctarum reformatio rerum bonarum, et naturæ ipsius +sanctissima et religiosissima restitutio, peracto temporis cursu, quæ est +et fuit sine initio sempiterna. Voluntas enim Dei caret initio, quæ eadem +est, et ubique est sempiterna.” i. e. + +“Are you ignorant, O Asclepius, that Egypt is the image of heaven, or, +which is more true, a translation and descent of everything which is +governed and exercised in heaven? And, if it may be said, our land is +truly the temple of the whole world. Nevertheless, because it becomes +wise men to foreknow all things, it is not lawful that you should be +ignorant that the time will come when it may seem that the Egyptians +have in vain, with a pious mind and sedulous religion, paid attention +to divinity, and all their holy veneration shall become void and of no +effect. For divinity shall return back from earth to heaven. _Egypt +shall be forsaken, and the land which was the seat of divinity shall +be destitute of religion, and deprived of the presence of the Gods. +For when strangers shall possess and fill this region and land, there +shall not only be a neglect of religion, but (which is more miserable) +there shall be laws enacted against religion, piety, and divine worship; +they shall be prohibited, and punishments shall be inflicted on their +votaries. Then this most holy land, the seat of places consecrated to +divinity, and of temples, shall be full of sepulchres and dead bodies. +O Egypt, Egypt, fables alone shall remain of thy religion, and these +such as will be incredible to posterity; and words alone shall be left +engraved in stones, narrating thy pious deeds. The Scythian also, or +Indian, or some other similar nation, shall inhabit Egypt._ For divinity +shall return to heaven, all its inhabitants shall die, and thus Egypt, +bereft both of God and man, shall be deserted. I call on thee, O most +holy river, and predict to thee future events. Thou shalt burst forth +with a torrent of blood, full even to thy banks, and thy divine waters +shall not only be polluted with blood, but the land shall be inundated +with it, and the number of the dead shall exceed that of the living. He, +likewise, who survives, shall only, by his language, be known to be an +Egyptian, but by his deeds he will appear to be a stranger. Why do you +weep, O Asclepius? Egypt shall experience more ample and much worse evils +than these, though she was once holy, and the greatest lover of the Gods +on the earth, by the desert of her religion. And she who was alone the +reductor of sanctity and the mistress of piety will be an example of the +greatest cruelty. Then also, through the weariness of men, the world +will not appear to be an admirable and adorable thing. This whole good, +a better than which, as an object of perception, there neither is, nor +was, nor will be, will be in danger, and will be grievous to men. Hence +this whole world will be despised, and will not be beloved, though it is +the immutable work of God, a glorious fabric, a good compounded with a +multiform variety of images, a machine of the will of God, who, in his +work, gave his suffrage without envy, that all things should be one. It +is also a multiform collected heap, capable of being venerated, praised +and loved by those that behold it. For darkness shall be preferred to +light, and death shall be judged to be more useful than life. No one +shall look up to heaven. _The religious man shall be accounted insane, +the irreligious shall be thought wise, the furious brave, and the worst +of men shall be considered a good man._ For the soul, and all things +about it, by which it is either naturally immortal, or conceives that +it shall attain to immortality, conformably to what I have explained to +you, shall not only be the subject of laughter, but shall be considered +as vanity. _Believe me, likewise, that a capital punishment shall be +appointed for him who applies himself to the religion of intellect. +New statutes and new laws shall be established, and nothing religious, +or which is worthy of heaven or celestial concerns, shall be heard, or +believed by the mind. There will be a lamentable departure of the Gods +from men[53]; noxious angels[54] will alone remain, who, being mingled +with human nature, will violently impel the miserable men [of that time] +to war, to rapine, to fraud, and to every thing contrary to the nature +of the soul._ Then the earth shall be in a preternatural state; the sea +shall not be sailed in, nor shall the heavens accord with the course +of the stars, nor the course of the stars continue in the heavens. +_Every divine voice shall be dumb by a necessary silence_, the fruits +of the earth shall be corrupted, nor shall the earth be prolific, and +the air itself shall languish with a sorrowful torpor. These events and +such an old age of the world as this shall take place, such irreligion, +inordination, and unreasonableness of all good. When all these things +shall happen, O Asclepius, then that lord and father, the God who is +first in power, and the one governor of the world, looking into the +manners and voluntary deeds [of men], and by his will, which is the +benignity of God, resisting vices, and recalling the error arising from +the corruption of all things; washing away likewise all malignity by a +deluge, or consuming it by fire, or bringing it to an end by disease +and pestilence dispersed in different places, will recall the world to +its ancient form, in order that the world itself may appear to be an +adorable and admirable production, and God, the fabricator and restorer +of so great a work, may be celebrated, by all that shall then exist, +with frequent solemn praises and benedictions. For this _geniture_[55] +of the world is the reformation of all good things, and the most holy +and religious restitution of the nature of it, the course of time being +accomplished[56]; since time is perpetual, and always was without a +beginning. For the will of God is without beginning, is always the same, +and is everywhere eternal.” + +Of this very remarkable extract, it is necessary to observe, in the +first place, that it was principally made by me from the edition of the +Asclepian Dialogue by Ficinus, as he appears to have had a more correct +manuscript in his possession than any that have been consulted by more +modern editors. Of this the learned and at the same time philosophic +reader will be immediately convinced, by comparing this extract with the +same part of that dialogue in the most modern editions of it. In the +second place, that this dialogue is of genuine antiquity and no forgery, +is, I think, unquestionably evident from neither Lactantius nor Augustin +having any doubt of its authenticity, though it was their interest +to have proved it to be spurious if they could, because it predicts, +(which is the third thing especially deserving of remark,) that the +memorials of the martyrs should succeed in the place of the temples of +the Gods. Hence Augustin concludes this to be a prophecy or prediction +made _instinctu fallacis spiritûs_,—_by the instinct or suggestion of +a deceitful spirit_. But that this prediction was accomplished, is +evident, as Dr. Cudworth observes in his True Intellectual System of +the Universe, p. 329, from the following passages of Theodoret, which I +shall quote as translated by the Doctor. “Now the martyrs have utterly +abolished and blotted out of the minds of men the memory of those who +were formerly called Gods.” And again, “Our Lord hath now brought his +dead (i. e. his martyrs) into the room and place (i. e. into the temples) +of the Gods; whom he hath sent away empty, and bestowed their honour +upon these his martyrs. For now, instead of the festivals of Jupiter and +Bacchus, are celebrated those of Peter and Paul, Thomas and Sergius, +and other holy martyrs.” Antoninus the philosopher also, according to +Eunapius, predicted the very same thing, viz. that after his decease the +magnificent temple of Serapis in Egypt, together with the rest, should +be demolished, and the temples of the Gods be turned into sepulchres, +και τα ἱερα ταφους γενησεσθαι. And in the fourth and last place, the +intelligent reader who compares this prediction with what is said about +the philosophic stranger by Synesius, in the foregoing extract, will +immediately see that the former wonderfully accords with the latter. + +[d] _Page 57._—This first period of the world, which was uncultivated +and rude, and, according to Firmicus, was under the dominion of Saturn, +is mentioned by Plato at the beginning of his third book On Laws. For +there having observed that time is infinite, he says, “that myriads upon +myriads of cities have existed in this time, and that, in consequence of +the same temporal infinity, as many have been destroyed.” He also says, +“that they will everywhere have been governed according to every kind of +polity; and at one time pass from the less to the greater, and at another +from the greater to the less, and have become worse from the better, and +better from the worse.” He adds, “that the cause of this mutation, viz. +the many destructions of the human race, is through deluges, diseases, +and numerous other things, in which a very small part of mankind was +left....” After this he observes, “that those who escaped the destruction +which was caused by a deluge, were nearly mountain shepherds, a few +dormant sparks of the human race, preserved on the summits of mountains. +That such as these must necessarily have been ignorant of other arts, and +of those artifices, in cities, of men towards each other, with a view +to prerogative and contention, and other base ends.” He also supposes +“that the cities which were situated in plains, and those bordering on +the sea, entirely perished at that time. That hence, all instruments were +destroyed, together with every invention pertaining to art, political +discipline, or anything else characterized by wisdom.” He adds, “We must +therefore assert, that when that devastation by a deluge took place, +human affairs were in a state of infinite and dreadful solitude; that a +prodigious part of the earth was unprolific; and other animals having +perished, some herds of oxen, and a few goats, which were rarely found, +supplied those men with food that escaped the devastation.” See what the +divine philosopher further observes on this interesting subject, in my +Translation of this book of his Laws. + +The reader, however, must be careful not to confound this Saturnian +period with the _golden age_, which also was under Saturn. For the +latter, says Damascius (apud Phot.), consisted of a race of men proximate +to the gods, and is most magnificently celebrated by poets who were +seated on the tripos of the Muse. But by the _golden age_, as Proclus on +Hesiod beautifully observes, “an intellectual life is implied. For such +a life is pure, impassive, and free from sorrow; and of this impassivity +and purity gold is an image, because it is never subject to rust or +putrefaction. Such a life, too, is very properly said to be under Saturn, +because Saturn is an intellectual god.”—See more concerning this Divinity +in the Additional Notes at the end of the 5th vol. of my Plato, p. 675, +&c. + +[e] _Page 59._—Plato, in the eighth book of his Republic, speaking of the +dissolution of the city which he has constituted, observes as follows: +“Not only with respect to terrestrial plants, but likewise in terrestrial +animals, a fertility and sterility of soul as well as of body takes +place, when the revolutions of the heavenly bodies complete the periphery +of their respective orbits; which are shorter to the shorter lived, and +contrarywise to such as are the contrary.” The necessity for such a +mutation taking place is this (as I have observed in the Introduction to +my Translation of Aristotle’s History of Animals),—that all the parts of +the universe are unable to participate the providence of divinity in a +similar manner, but some of its parts enjoy this perpetually, and others +only for a time; some in a primary, and others in a secondary degree. For +the universe, being a perfect whole, must have a first, a middle, and a +last part. But its first part, as having the most excellent subsistence, +must always exist according to nature; and its last part must sometimes +subsist according to, and sometimes contrary to, nature. Hence the +celestial bodies, which are the first parts of the universe, perpetually +subsist according to nature, both the whole spheres and the multitude +co-ordinate to these wholes[57]; and the only alteration which they +experience is a mutation of figure, and variation of light at different +periods; but in the sublunary region, while the spheres of the elements +remain, on account of their subsistence as wholes, always according to +nature, the parts of these wholes have sometimes a natural, and sometimes +an unnatural subsistence; for thus alone can the circle of generation +unfold all the variety which it contains. + +The different periods in which these mutations happen are called by +Plato, with great propriety, periods of _fertility_ and _sterility_; for +in these periods a fertility or sterility of men, irrational animals, and +plants takes place; so that in fertile periods mankind will be both more +numerous, and upon the whole superior in mental and bodily endowments, +to the men of a barren period. And a similar reasoning must be extended +to animals and plants. The so much celebrated heroic age was the result +of one of these fertile periods, in which men transcending the herd of +mankind both in practical and intellectual virtue abounded on the earth. +And a barren period may be considered as having commenced somewhat prior +to the Augustan age, the destruction of all the great ancient cities, +with all their rites, philosophy, &c. being the natural consequence of +such a period. It appears to me that this period commenced in the time of +Sylla, and I found this opinion on the following passage in Plutarch’s +Life of that great commander:—Το δε παντων μεγιστον, εξ ανεφελου και +διαιθρου του περιεχοντος ηχησε φωνη σαλπιγγος, οξυν αποτεινουσα και +θρηνωδη φθογγον, ὡστε παντας εκφρονας γενεσθαι, και καταπτηξαι το +μεγεθος. Τυρῥηνων δε οἱ λογιοι μεταβολην ἑτερου γενους απεφαινοντο, και +μετακοσμησιν αποσημαινειν το τερας. ειναι μεν γαρ αυτῳ οκτω τα συμπαντα +γενη διαφεροντα τοις βιοις και τοις ηθεσι δ’ αλληλων, ἑκαστῳ δε αφωρισθαι +χρονων αριθμον, ὑπο του θεου συμπεραινομενον ενιαυτου μεγαλου περιοδῳ· +και ὁταν αυτη σχη τελος, ἑτερας ενισταμενης κινεισθαι τι σημειον εκ γης ἢ +ουρανου θαυμασιον. i. e. “But the greatest of all [the signs prior to the +civil wars] was the following: On a cloudless and clear day, the sound of +a trumpet was heard, so acute and _mournful_ as to astonish and terrify +by its loudness all that heard it. The Tuscan wise men and soothsayers, +therefore, declared that this prodigy signified the mutation into and +commencement of another age. For according to them there are eight ages, +differing from each other in lives and manners, each of which is limited +by divinity to a certain time of duration, and the number of years of +which this time consists is bounded by the period of the great year. +Hence, when one age is finished, and another is about to commence, a +certain wonderful sign will present itself, either from the earth or the +heavens.” The _mournfulness_ of this sound of the trumpet was evidently +an indication that a barren period was about to commence.—For an account +of the _great year_, see the note to page 478 of the treatise on Meteors. + +The following extracts from a work entitled “Sketches chiefly relating +to the History, Religion, &c. of the Hindoos, concerning the Mundane +Periods,” appear to me to be highly interesting, and to form a most +important addition to what has been before said about the revolutions +which take place in the universe. + +“They reckon the duration of the world by four Yougs, corresponding +in their nature with the Golden, Silver, Brazen, and Iron ages of the +ancients. + + _Years._ + The first, or the Sutty Youg, is said to have lasted 3,200,000 + The Tirtah Youg, or second age 2,400,000 + The Dwapaar Youg, or third age 1,600,000 + And they say the Kaly Youg, or present age, will last 400,000.” + + p. 222. + +“The beginning of the Kaly Youg, or present age, is reckoned from 2 +hours, 27 minutes, and 30 seconds of the morning of the 16th of February +3102 years before the Christian era; but the time for which their +astronomical tables are constructed, is 2 days, 3 hours, 32 minutes, and +30 seconds after that on the 18th of February, about six in the morning. +They say there was then a conjunction of the planets, and their tables +show that conjunction. Monsieur Bailly observes[58], that by calculation +it appears, that Jupiter and Mercury were then in the same degree of the +ecliptic; that Mars was distant about 8 degrees, and Saturn 17; and it +results from thence, that at the time of the date given by the Brahmans +to the commencement of the Kaly Youg, they saw those four planets +successively disengage themselves from the rays of the sun; first Saturn, +then Mars, then Jupiter, and then Mercury. These four planets, therefore, +showed themselves in conjunction; and though Venus could not have +appeared, yet, as they only speak in general terms, it was natural enough +to say there was then a conjunction of the planets. The account given by +the Brahmans is confirmed by the testimony of our European tables, which +prove it to be the result of a true observation. Monsieur Bailly is of +opinion, that their astronomical time is dated from an eclipse of the +moon, which appears then to have happened, and that the conjunction of +the planets is only mentioned by the way.”—pp. 224, 225. + +The conjunction of the planets mentioned in the above extract, is +admirably elucidated by Olympiodorus in his MS. Scholia on the Gorgias of +Plato, as follows: “There are seven spheres, that of the moon, that of +the sun, and those of the other planets; but the inerratic is the eighth +sphere. The lunar sphere, therefore, makes a complete revolution more +swiftly, for it is accomplished in thirty days. That of the sun is more +slow, for it is accomplished in a year. That of Jupiter is still slower, +for it is effected in twelve years. And much more that of Saturn, for it +is completed in thirty years. The stars, therefore, are not conjoined +with each other in their revolutions, except rarely. Thus, for instance, +the sphere of Saturn and the sphere of Jupiter are conjoined with each +other in their revolutions in sixty years. For if the sphere of Jupiter +comes from the same to the same in twelve years, but that of Saturn in +thirty years, it is evident that when Jupiter has made five, Saturn will +have made two revolutions; for twice thirty is sixty, and so likewise is +twelve times five; so that their revolutions will be conjoined in sixty +years. Souls, therefore, are punished for such-like periods. _But the +seven planetary spheres conjoin their revolutions with the inerratic +sphere, through many myriads of years_; and this is the period which +Plato calls τον αει χρονον, _for ever_.”—See the Introduction to the +volume of my Aristotle, which contains a translation of Aristotle’s +treatise on the Soul, &c. &c. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[47] For ισομερικον here, it is obviously necessary to read ισημερινον. +It must also be observed that there are two equinoctial points or signs, +and these are Aries and Libra. + +[48] See my explanation of this perfect, which is also called the +geometric number, in p. 150 of my Theoretic Arithmetic. + +[49] i. e. material dæmons, or θηρες χθονος, _the wild beasts of the +earth_, as they are called in the Chaldean oracles. + +[50] i. e. the whole choir of beneficent natures superior to man. But +by _the depression of the heads of the sacred birds_, the inaptitude of +persons and places to receive divine influence is denoted. + +[51] Instead of ει δη γενεσις εν τοις περι ἡμας, αιτια γενεσεως εν τοις +ὑπερ ἡμας, it is necessary to read, conformably to the above translation, +ει δη γενεσεως εν τοις περι ἡμας, αιτια γινεται, κ. τ. λ. + +[52] i. e. restitutions to a pristine form or condition. + +[53] Proclus, finding that this was partially the case in his time, says +prophetically, in the Introduction to his Commentary on the Parmenides +of Plato, Τουτον εγω φαιην αν τυπον φιλοσοφιας εις ανθρωπους ελθειν επ’ +ευεργεσια των τηδε ψυχων, αντι των αγαλματων, αντι των ἱερων, αντι της +ὁλης αγιστειας αυτης, και σωτηριας αρχηγον τοις γε νυν ουσιν ανθρωποις, +και τοις εισαυθις γενησομενοις. i. e. “With respect to this form of +philosophy [viz. of the philosophy of Plato], I should say that it came +to men for the benefit of terrestrial souls; _that it might be instead of +statues, instead of temples, instead of the whole of sacred institutions, +and the leader of salvation both to the men that now are, and to those +that shall exist hereafter_.” + +[54] i. e. evil dæmons. + +[55] By the _geniture of the world_, the greater _apocatastasis_ is +signified, as is evident from the preceding extract from Julius Firmicus. + +[56] i. e. a mundane period being finished. + +[57] See the Introduction to my Translation of the Timæus of Plato. + +[58] Traité de l’Astronomie Indienne et Orientale, par Monsieur Bailly, +published in 1787. + + + + +SELECT THEOREMS IN PROOF OF THE PERPETUITY OF TIME, AND OF THAT WHICH IS +NATURALLY MOVED WITH A CIRCULAR MOTION. + +EXTRACTED FROM THE SECOND BOOK OF PROCLUS ON MOTION. + + +HYPOTHESES. + +Every natural body is moveable according to place. + +Every local motion is either in a circle, or in a right line, or mixed +from these. + +Every natural body is moved according to one of these motions. + +Every natural body is either simple or compounded. + +Every simple motion is the motion of a simple[59] body. + +Every simple body is moved with one motion according to nature. + + +DEFINITIONS. + +That is heavy which is moved towards the middle. + +That is light which is moved from the middle. + +That is said to be moved in a circle which is continually borne from the +same to the same. + +Contrary motions are from contraries to contraries. + +One motion is contrary to one. + +Time is the number of the motion of the celestial bodies. + +The motion is one which is without difference according to species, and +belongs to one subject, and is produced in a continued time. + + +THEOREM 1. + +Things which are naturally moved in a circle are simple. + +_Demonstration._—Let AB be that which is naturally moved in a circle. +I say that AB is simple: for, since the motion in a circle is a simple +motion; but every simple motion is the motion of a simple body; hence +AB is a simple body. Things, therefore, which are naturally moved in a +circle are simple. + + +THEOREM 2. + +Things naturally moved in a circle, are neither the same with those moved +in a right line, nor with those which are composed from things moved in a +right line. + +_Demonstration._—Let AB be that which is naturally moved in a circle. I +say that it is not the same with those things which are moved in a right +line. For, if it is the same with any one of these, it must either be +naturally moved upwards or downwards. But every simple body is moved with +one simple motion according to nature. Hence, that which is naturally +moved in a circle, is not the same with anything moved in a right line. +But neither is it the same with anything compounded. For it has been +shown that everything which naturally moves in a circle is simple; but +that which consists from things moved in a right line is a composite. AB +therefore, which is naturally moved in a circle, is neither the same with +things moved in a right line, nor with those composed from these. + + +THEOREM 3. + +Things which are naturally moved in a circle, neither participate of +gravity nor levity. + +_Demonstration._—For if AB is either heavy or light, it is either +naturally moved to the middle, or from the middle: for, from the +definitions, that is heavy which is moved to the middle, and that is +light which is moved from the middle. But that which is moved either +from or to the middle, is the same with some one of the things moved in +a right line. AB, therefore, is the same with something moved in a right +line, though naturally moved in a circle, which is impossible. + + +THEOREM 4. + +Nothing is contrary to a circular motion. + +_Demonstration._—For if this be possible, let the motion from A to B be +a circular motion, and let the motion contrary to this be either some +one of the motions in a right line, or some one of those in a circle. +If, then, the motion upwards is contrary to that in a circle, the motion +downwards and that in a circle will be one. But if the motion downwards +is contrary to that in a circle, the motion upwards and that in a circle +will be the same with each other; for one motion is contrary to one into +opposite places. But if the motion from A is contrary to the motion from +B, there will be infinite spaces between two contraries; for between the +points A, B infinite circumferences may be described. But let AB be a +semicircle, and let the motion from A to B be contrary to the motion from +B to A. If, therefore, that which moves in the semicircle from A to B +stops at B, it is by no means a motion in a circle: for a circular motion +is continually from the same to the same point. But, if it does not stop +at B, but continually moves in the other semicircle, A is not contrary to +B. And if this be the case, neither is the motion from A to B contrary +to the motion from B to A: for contrary motions are from contraries to +contraries. But let ABCD be a circle, and let the motion from A to C be +contrary to the motion from C to A. If therefore that which is moved from +A passes through all the places similarly, and there is one motion from A +to D, C is not contrary to A. But if these are not contrary, neither are +the motions from them contrary. And in a similar manner with respect to +that which is moved from C, if it is moved with one motion to B, A is not +contrary to C, so that neither will the motions from these be contrary. + + +THEOREM 5. + +Things which are naturally moved in a circle, neither receive generation +nor corruption. + +_Demonstration._—For let AB be that which is naturally moved in a +circle, I say that AB is without generation and corruption: for if it +is generable and corruptible, it is generated from a contrary, and is +corrupted into a contrary. But that which is moved in a circle has not +any contrary. It is therefore without generation and corruption. But +that there is nothing contrary to things naturally moving in a circle, +is evident from what has been previously demonstrated: for the motions +of things contrary according to nature are contrary. But, as we have +demonstrated, there is nothing contrary to the motion in a circle. +Neither, therefore, has that which is moved in a circle any contrary. + + +THEOREM 6. + +The powers of bodies terminated according to magnitude are not infinite. + +_Demonstration._—For, if possible, let B be the infinite power of the +finite body A; and let the half of A be taken, which let be C, and let +the power of this be D. But it is necessary that the power D should be +less than the power B: for a part has a power less than that of the +whole. Let the ratio, therefore, of C to A be taken, and D will measure +B. The power B therefore is finite, and it is as C to A, so D to B; and +alternately as C to D, so A to B. But the power D is the power of the +magnitude C, and therefore B will be the power of the magnitude A. The +magnitude A, therefore, has a finite power B; but it was infinite, which +is impossible: for, that a power of the same species should be both +finite and infinite in the same thing, is impossible. + + +THEOREM 7. + +Simple bodies are terminated according to species. + +_Demonstration._—For let the magnitude A be a simple body. Since, +therefore, a simple body is moved with a simple motion, A will be moved +with a simple motion. And if it is moved in a circle, it will have one +nature and one form. But if it is moved according to any one of the +motions in a right line, if it is moved from the middle only, it will +be fire, but if only to the middle, earth. But, if it is light with +respect to one thing, and heavy with respect to another, it will be some +one of the middle elements. The species therefore of simple bodies are +terminated. + + +THEOREM 8. + +Time is continued and perpetual. + +_Demonstration._—For, if it is neither continued nor eternal, it will +have a certain beginning. Let, therefore, A B be time, and let its +beginning be A. But if A is time, it is divisible, and we shall not yet +have the beginning of time, but there will be another beginning of the +beginning. But, if A is a moment or _the now_, it will be indivisible, +and the boundary of another time: for _the now_ is not only a beginning, +but an end. There will therefore be time before A. Again: if B is the +boundary of time, if B is time, it may be divided to infinity, and into +the many boundaries which it contains. But if B is _the now_, the same +will also be a beginning: for _the now_ is not only a boundary, but a +beginning[60]. + + +THEOREM 9. + +A motion which is naturally circular is perpetual. + +_Demonstration._—Let the circular motion be that of the circle A B, I say +that it is perpetual: for, since time is perpetual, it is also necessary +that motion should be perpetual. And since time is continued, (for +there is the same _now_ in the past and present time,) it is necessary +that there should be some one continued motion: for time is the number +of motion. However, all other motions are not perpetual: for they are +generated from contraries into contraries. A circular motion, therefore, +is alone perpetual: for to this, as we have demonstrated, nothing is +contrary. But that all the motions which subsist between contraries, +are bounded, and are not perpetual, we thus demonstrate. Let A B be a +motion between the two contraries A and B. The motion, therefore, of A B +is bounded by A and B, and is not infinite. But the motion from A is not +continued with that from B. But, when that which is moved returns, it +will stand still in B: for, if the motion from A is one continued motion, +and also that from B, that which is moved from B will be moved into the +same. It will therefore be moved in vain, being now in A. But nature +does nothing in vain: and hence, there is not one motion. The motions, +therefore, between contraries are not perpetual. Nor is it possible for +a thing to be moved to infinity in a right line: for contraries are the +boundaries. Nor when it returns will it make one motion. + + +THEOREM 10. + +That which moves a perpetual motion is perpetual. + +_Demonstration._—For let A be that which moves a perpetual motion. I say +that A also is perpetual: for, if it is not, it will not then move when +it is not. But this not moving, neither does the motion subsist, which +it moved before. It is however supposed to be perpetual. But, nothing +else moving, that will be immoveable which is perpetually moved. And +if anything else moves when A is no more, the motion is not continual; +which is impossible. Hence, that which moves a perpetual motion is itself +perpetual. + + +THEOREM 11. + +That which is immoveable is the leader of things moving and moved. + +_Demonstration._—For let A be moved by B, and B by C, I say that this +will some time or other stop, and that not everything which moves will be +itself moved: for, if possible, let this take place. Motions, therefore, +are either in a circle, or _ad infinitum_. But, if things moving and +moved are infinite, there will be infinite multitude and magnitude: for +everything which is moved is divisible, and moves from contact. Hence, +that which consists from things moving and moved infinite in multitude, +will be infinite in magnitude. But it is impossible that any body, +whether composite or simple, can be infinite. But if motions are in a +circle, some one of things moved at a certain time, will be the cause of +perpetual motion, if all things move and are moved by each other in a +circle. This, however, is impossible: for that which moves a perpetual +motion is perpetual. Neither, therefore, is the motion of things moved, +in a circle, nor _ad infinitum_. There is, therefore, that which moves +immoveably, and which is perpetual. + +But from hence it is evident, that all things are not moved; for there is +also something which is immoveable. Nor are all things at rest; for there +are also things which are moved. Nor are some things always at rest, +but others always moved; for there are also things which are sometimes +at rest, and sometimes moved, such as are things which are moved from +contraries into contraries. Nor are all things sometimes at rest, and +sometimes moved; for there is that which is perpetually moved, and also +that which is perpetually immoveable. + + +THEOREM 12. + +Everything which is moved, is moved by something. + +_Demonstration._—Let A be that which is moved, I say that A is moved by +something: for it is either moved according or contrary to nature. If, +therefore, it is moved according to nature, that which moves is nature; +but, if contrary to nature, that which employs violence moves; for every +motion contrary to nature is violent. + + +THEOREM 13. + +That which first moves a circular motion is impartible, or without parts. + +_Demonstration._—For let A be that which moves the first motion: for +it is necessary that there should be something of this kind, because +everything which is moved is moved by something. But A, if it is that +which first moves, will be immoveable: for that which is immoveable is +the leader of all things which are moved. And, since it moves a perpetual +motion, it will possess an infinite power of moving; for finite powers +have also finite energies: for energy proceeds from power. So that if +its energy is infinite, its power also will be infinite. Hence, that +which first moves a circular motion, must necessarily either be body, +or incorporeal. But if body, it is either finite or infinite. There is +not however an infinite body. And if it is a finite body, it will not +possess an infinite power. But the powers of things bounded according to +magnitude are finite, as has been demonstrated. Hence, that which first +moves a circular motion, is not a body. It is therefore incorporeal, and +possesses infinite power. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[59] Simple bodies, according to Aristotle, are those which _naturally_ +possess an inherent principle of motion. For animals and plants possess +a principle of motion; but in these it proceeds from soul and not from +nature. + +[60] Hence the world is perpetual; for it is consubsistent with time. + + +THE END. + +PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75391 *** |