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diff --git a/75360-0.txt b/75360-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..38988de --- /dev/null +++ b/75360-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4616 @@ + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75360 *** + +Transcriber’s notes: + +The text of this book has been preserved as in the original, apart +from repositioning of some footnotes and illustrations closer to the +relevant text. Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. + + + + + THE HUMAN FOOT + + AND THE + + HUMAN HAND. + + BY + + G. M. HUMPHRY, M.D. F.R.S. + + LECTURER ON ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY IN THE + UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE. + + MACMILLAN AND CO. + Cambridge: + AND 23, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, + London. + 1861. + + + + + Cambridge: + PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A. + AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. + + + + +The following pages originated in two popular Lectures which were +delivered in Cambridge. In the preparation for publication many +additions have been made; but I have thought it best to retain the +original form. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +THE HUMAN FOOT. + +Why are the generality of persons so ignorant of the structure of their +own bodies? p. 1. The dependence of the hand upon the foot, 3. +Principle of “division of Labour” illustrated in the animal world, 4; +and in the function of locomotion, 6. + +Structure of Lower Limb, 8. Length of Leg in GIANTS, 9. Bones of +Foot, _ib._ Peculiarity of GREAT TOE, 10. Uniformity in plan, and +dissimilarity in detail seen throughout nature, 13. Homologous parts in +animals, 14. Comparison of Horse’s Leg with Man’s, 15. The ARCH of the +foot, 18; its elasticity greater in the fore part than in the hinder, +21. The Component bones held together by Ligaments, 24. WEAK ANKLE and +FLAT FOOT, 27, 74; time of life at which they occur, 31. Injurious +effects of “High-lows,” 29. + +Movements of the FOOT, 33; compared with those of the HEAD, 35. +Nature’s abhorrence of straight lines illustrated by shape of +leg-bone, 37, and by movements of leg upon thigh, 39. Sitting upon the +heel, _ib._ Grecian and Egyptian statuary compared, 40. Relation of +PERFECTION and BEAUTY, 41. + +MUSCLES of Leg and Foot, 42. Purpose served by movements of Infants, +46. CLUB-FOOT, 47. Shape of the ankle, 48. Length and direction of the +heel, 50. The CALF, _ib._; characteristic of man, 53. EUROPEAN Leg +and Foot contrasted with NEGRO’S, 51. CHINESE foot, 54. Tendency of +different races to exaggerate their peculiarities, 56. Provision for +enabling balls of toes to adapt themselves to uneven surfaces, 57. + +STANDING, 59. BOWING, STOOPING and SQUATTING, 61. WALKING, 62. RUNNING, +64. TROTTING and GALLOPING, 67. Rolling in walking, 69. Sprained ankle, +70. Mode in which foot revolves on the ground, 73. Character shown in +walking, 76. The IDIOT, 80. The DRUNKARD, 81. + +Distinctive features of the Human Foot, 82; most marked in highest +races, 91. The TOES of small size and, comparatively, unimportant, 84. +The foot of the ELEPHANT, 86; of the HIPPOPOTAMUS, RHINOCEROS, OX, and +HORSE, 87; of the GORILLA, 88. Proportions of the limbs, 94. Foot and +hand small in very short and very tall persons, 96. The foot measure, +97. + +SKIN of the sole, 98. On SHOES, 102. + + +THE HUMAN HAND. + +HAND how distinguished from FOOT, 109. Construction of Upper limb, 110. +Small bones rarely dislocated, 112. + +Movements at SHOULDER very free, 114; conducive to good development +of Chest, 125. Uses of COLLAR-BONE, 116. Injuries to Shoulder why so +frequent, 119. Shape of CHEST, 122; in Rhinoceros, 120; in Monkey, 123. + +Movements at the ELBOW, 126. PRONATION and SUPINATION of the forearm +and hand, _ib._ No exactly corresponding movements in lower limb, 129. +MUSCLES by which they are effected, 130. Anatomical reason for the +direction in which we turn a screw or a gimlet, 132. + +Structure and movements of the WRIST, 134. Movements of the FINGERS, +136. MUSCLES by which they are effected, 137. MOVEMENTS of the THUMB, +141; of the metacarpal bones upon the wrist, 143. Advantage gained by +the fingers and thumb all differing in length, 145. Middle finger the +centre about which the others move, 147. On holding the PEN, _ib._ The +direction in which the letters are slanted, 148. WRITING from left to +right, 149. Reason for the RING being placed upon the fourth finger, +150. The “funny-bone,” 153. + +The MONKEY’S HAND, 154, 187. + +The hand the organ of the WILL, 156; its relation to the MIND, 157; an +organ of EXPRESSION, 159. SHAKING HANDS, 162. Why do we shake hands? +162. Why do we KISS? 164. + +Structure of the SKIN, 165. The Cuticle, 166; its uses, 167. The Rete +Mucosum, 166. Cause of the colour of the Skin, 167. The Cutis, 168. +Difference between a WART and a CORN, 170. How to cut Corns, 172. + +NAILS; their formation and growth, 173. Claws in lower animals, 173, +175. Sensitiveness of the Skin beneath the nails, 177. + +HAIRS; their formation, 178; colour, 179; uses, 180. + +OIL-GLANDS; their uses, the odour of their secretion, 180. + +SWEAT-GLANDS, 183; their structure, _ib._ The “Pores” of the Skin, 183. +The moisture of the palm, 184. Cold Sweat, _ib._ + +FEELING and TOUCH, 185. Structure of the three parts in which they are +most acute, _ib._ The “Pulps” of the fingers connected with peculiar +shape of the bones, 186; their sensitiveness to cold, 187. Distinction +between Common Feeling and the Sense of Touch, 188. Relation between +the two in the Tongue, the Eye and the Hand, 189. The tentacle of a +Polyp a rudimentary hand, 191. Acuteness of touch in man, 193; in BLIND +persons, _ib._ + +Relation of the hand to the EYE and the MOUTH, 195. The Elephant’s +Trunk, 197. CHEIROMANCY, 198. The LOCK-JAW fallacy, 200. Cause of the +superiority of the RIGHT HAND, 201. “This unworthy hand!” 205. + +Explanation of Wood-cuts, 207. + + + + +THE HUMAN FOOT. + + +The Human Body is one of the most worthy objects of man’s study. It is +the noblest as well as the crowning work of creation. In it material +organization is carried to the greatest perfection. It surpasses, +therefore, all other physical objects in exquisiteness of construction +and in interest. How comes it, then, that most persons are so ignorant +respecting it? Men, well informed in other matters, are usually +altogether uninformed with regard to this. In every other branch of +science we find amateur students pursuing the subject with zeal and +success. Geology, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, and even Comparative +Anatomy have each their votaries; but Human Anatomy attracts no one. +Why is this? Partly, I think, because opportunities for acquiring such +information as is suitable and interesting are not so many as they +ought to be. + +It must be confessed, also, that we teachers of Anatomy are somewhat +to blame. We are too prone, in our Lectures and Examinations, to dwell +upon bare details, without enlivening those details with the many +bright features of interest with which they are naturally invested; and +we fail, therefore, to render it so attractive a science as it might +be. The example of those able and animated teachers, John and Charles +Bell, who laboured with some success to disperse the clouds that have +ever overhung the horizon of anatomy, has been too much forgotten; and +the flame which they kindled has almost died out under the chilling +apathy of their successors. Truly glad should I be to see a change in +this. I cannot but think that if the teachers of Anatomy took higher +and more philosophical views of their science there would be no lack +of interest on the part of the students. The interest so excited would +soon spread beyond the limits of the profession; and there would thus +be opened up to the public some of the products of that rich vein of +knowledge and of that abundant material for thought which lie buried in +the human frame. + +I therefore willingly accede to your request for a Lecture upon some +part of the anatomy of the human body, relying upon the intrinsic +interest of the subject to make amends for my own deficiencies in +expounding it; and I select the HUMAN FOOT, because a few of the more +important points of its construction can be explained without much +difficulty, because it affords a good illustration of some of the +principles of animal mechanism, and because its form constitutes one of +the great characteristics whereby man is distinguished from the lower +animals. As an instrument of support and of locomotion it excels the +foot of any other animal. It evinces its excellence by enabling man to +stand upright in a way that no other animal can do; and so efficiently +does the foot accomplish this and perform the task of carrying the +body, that the hand is set at liberty to minister to the will. Thus is +the foot instrumental in giving us an advantage over other animals, +and in enabling us to provide the means of defence; and, thus, it aids +us to carry out those wondrous works which are second only to the +marvellous results of creative power. + +We are accustomed to regard the hand as the great agent by which all +this is attained, and we are apt to forget how much it is indebted +to the foot. We do not reflect that, if the foot of man presented no +distinguishing peculiarity, the hand, like the corresponding part in +other animals, would be compelled to share with it the task of carrying +the body, and could, therefore, not be devoted to the various offices +which it is now free to perform. Little right has the hand to say to +the foot, “I have no need of thee.” + + +_The principle of “division of labour.”_ + +In this concentration of locomotive power in the foot we have an +illustration of what is called the “principle of division of labour,” +a principle with which all civilized communities are familiar, and +to which we are much indebted for the present advanced state of the +arts and sciences; but which we may be said to have borrowed from +the economy of nature. We find ever-increasing manifestations of it +as we ascend in the animal series, from the lower and more simple to +the higher and more complicated forms. Indeed, just as each step in +civilization is attended with a further development of this principle, +so is each division of the animal kingdom distinguished from those +below it by the more distinct assignation of particular functions to +particular organs, and by the consequent improvement of the mode in +which the functions are performed. While, in proportion as the several +organs acquire more distinct speciality in their work, so do they +become, more and more, dependent upon one another, and, more and more, +subjected to the control of central government, which is represented by +the brain. + +For instance, some of the lower animals, as the fresh-water POLYP, +present nearly a uniform structure throughout their whole substance; +and every part of them consequently performs the same function. There +is not one organ for digestion, another for circulation, a third for +respiration, and so on; but all these functions are performed by the +same structure, and are performed, therefore, in a rude and imperfect +manner. Any portion of the creature possesses all the requisites for +its own nutrition, and is, so, independent of the remainder, and can +live alone. Hence, the polyp may be divided into a number of pieces, +each of which goes on living. Gradually, as we ascend from these lowly +beings to the higher classes of animals, we find organs and functions +more and more distinct from another; a Stomach is provided for the +work of digestion, a Heart for circulation, Lungs for respiration. +Each of these organs is essential to the existence of the others and +of every part of the body; and they are all maintained in harmonious +co-operation by the presiding influence of the nervous system. + +Or, trace one of the _functions_ in illustration of the same principle. +Take the function of Locomotion, which has an especial relation to our +present subject. In the LEECH and the WORM the whole length of the body +is occupied in the work, one part as much as another; and still, it +is but a crawl. In the FISH the whole body is buoyed up by the water; +it is flattened from side to side, and is all, from the head to the +tail, concerned in the lateral stroke by which the animal is driven +along; the side fins, which are the representatives of limbs, doing +little beyond serving to guide and balance. In the other VERTEBRATES +the work of locomotion is so far concentrated as to be assigned, almost +entirely, to the limbs. All _four_ limbs are in most of them devoted +to it; while the bones and muscles of the trunk are only indirectly +concerned in it. In MAN, however, _two_ limbs only are assigned to this +important office. In him, therefore, the concentration of locomotive +power, in other words the principle of division of labour, is carried +out to the greatest extent--a disposition which affords one of the many +proofs that the construction of his body combines with the faculties of +his mind to place him at the head of the animal kingdom. + +In making comparisons of different animals with one another, and in +speaking of the relative perfection of their several organs, we must +not forget that _every_ organ of every animal is perfect as regards the +purpose for which it was made. But some animals are said to occupy a +higher position than others, or to be superior to others, because their +mechanism is more complex, and they are, thereby, enabled to perform a +greater variety of functions. And, in the animal kingdom, in proportion +as each function rises into prominence, and becomes well and distinctly +performed, so is a special organ assigned to it, and that organ becomes +more and more highly elaborated. + +You will not misunderstand me, then, when I say that concentration +of function and perfection of structure usually go together. And, +forasmuch as in the lower limbs of man there is a greater concentration +of locomotive function than in any other part of any other animal, +you will expect to find, in them, a greater perfection of locomotive +mechanism--that is to say, a more complete combination of strength with +variety, rapidity, and extent of movement--than is elsewhere to be met +with. + +This consideration will ensure attention while I give a brief account +of the anatomy of man’s lower limb, more particularly of the foot. + + +_Structure of the Lower Limbs._ + +The weight of the trunk is transmitted to the knee (see fig. 4, +p. 15) by a single bone--the thigh-bone. This is the longest bone +in the body, measuring, on the average, nearly eighteen inches. Above, +it is jointed with the haunch-bone of the pelvis at the hip-joint. +From the knee two bones descend to the ankle. Of these one is much the +larger, and bears the chief of the weight. The other serves to give +attachment to muscles, and to strengthen the ankle-joint. It runs down +on the outer side of the ankle, forming there what is called the “outer +ankle;” and a process of the larger bone runs down, in like manner, on +the inner side, and forms the “inner ankle.” The front and inner side +of the larger bone are close under the skin. This part is called the +“_shin_,” being so named perhaps from the word “chine” or edge, because +the leg presents an edge along the front, to facilitate its cleaving +a way through the air, water, grass, or underwood. The shin itself is +not particularly tender; but the skin is a good deal exposed here, +and, as it lies so near the hard bone, it is easily injured; and, when +“broken,” it is often difficult to heal. + +In some very tall persons, and particularly in those who are so tall +as to be called GIANTS, I have found the leg or shank bones, that is, +the bones between the knee and the ankle, very long, disproportionately +long to the rest of the skeleton. They are so in the skeleton of the +Irish Giant, O’Byrne, which is preserved in the Museum of the College +of Surgeons, in another Irish Giant in the Museum of Trinity College, +Dublin, and in some other specimens which I have had an opportunity +of measuring. In the name “Long Shanks” given to Edward I., the word +“shanks” probably included the thigh as well as the leg, just as we are +in the habit of applying the word “leg” to the whole of the lower limb. + + +_Bones of the Foot._ + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +There are 26 bones in the Foot. The hinder 7--called _tarsal_ +bones--are short and thick; they form the hinder part of the instep. In +front of them lie 5 _metatarsal_ bones, one passing, forwards, from the +fore part of the tarsus to each toe. Behind, these are close together, +and are connected with the tarsus. As they run forwards they diverge a +little from one another; and their anterior ends rest upon the ground, +and form the “balls” of the toes. They constitute the fore part of +the instep. The remaining 14 bones are the toes. They are arranged in +rows, like soldiers in a phalanx, three deep, and are hence called +_phalanges_. + +You observe that, although each of the other toes has 3 bones, the +great toe has only 2. In this respect, therefore, it is an imperfect, +or, rather, an incomplete member. The deficiency does not depend upon +a want of length in the great toe; for this is usually as long as the +second toe; in some persons it is a good deal longer; and it is always +distinctly longer than the outer two toes. The reason for there being +only two phalanges instead of three probably is because the great toe +is required to be stronger than any of the others; and an additional +bone would have tended to weaken it. I have, elsewhere[1], given +reasons for thinking that it is the middle phalanx which is absent in +the great toe. + + [1] _Treatise on the Human Skeleton_, p. 395. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2. + +Seal’s Foot.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3. + +Lizard’s Foot.] + +It is a curious and interesting fact, affording a remarkable +illustration of the close adherence to a uniform plan which has been +observed in the construction of the various animals, that, in no +instance, does this toe contain more than two bones. Even in those +creatures, as the SEAL (fig. 2), in which it attains to greater +length than any of the other sprawling digits, it contains the same +number of bones as in man, its extraordinary length being attained by +an elongation of the two bones, not by the addition of a third. And in +those animals, as certain Lizards (fig. 3), where the number of +bones in the other toes is increased to 4 or even 5, the number in the +first, or inner, toe is still no more than two. The same rule applies +to the fore limb; the number of bones in the inner digit, which, in +man and monkeys, is called the “thumb,” is in no case more than two. +In some animals, as will be mentioned again, there is only one bone in +this digit, and in some the digit is wanting altogether; but in none +does it contain _more_ than _two_ bones. + +This reminds me of a still more remarkable instance of adherence to +a particular number of bones. In the mammalian group of animals the +_neck_, with only one or two exceptions, contains _seven_ bones, +neither more nor less. Whether it be the long neck of the GIRAFFE, or +the short neck of the MOUSE, the BAT, or the PORPOISE, each consists, +like the neck in MAN, of seven bones. For what reason a particular +number should be thus rigidly observed, it is not easy to say. + +Of the seven tarsal bones the uppermost (fig. 1) is called the +_astragalus_, from a supposed resemblance to a die. It is the middle +bone of the instep. Above, it is jointed with the leg-bones; behind, +it is connected with, and rests upon, the _heel-bone_, which is the +largest bone in the foot. The bone which lies immediately in front +of the astragalus, and supports it in this direction, is called the +_scaphoid_, or boat-like, bone. In front of it are three _wedge-bones_, +each of which is connected with one of the metatarsal bones of the +inner three toes. On the outer side of the wedge-bones, connected with +the metatarsals of the two small toes, and locked in between them and +the heel-bone, is the _cuboid_ bone. + +I must confine my remarks chiefly to the _human_ foot. Still the +anatomy of man derives so much interest from being studied in connexion +with that of the lower animals, and is so much more instructive when +this is done, that I cannot forbear diverging, here and there, to +make a few comparisons. Let me, for a moment, draw your attention to +a similarity, in general construction, which exists between the lower +limbs of man, and the hinder limbs of other animals. And the comparison +may be extended to the fore limbs; for however diverse may be the +appearance and the mode of action of the limbs in different animals, +whether they be terminated by hands or by feet, whether they move upon +the ground or ply in air or water, whether they be attached to the +head, as are the front fins in many fishes, or, as is more common, be +situated at the fore and hinder parts of the trunk, the same plan is +traceable in all. + +Great, indeed, is the variety of detail in nature. It is everywhere +observable. No two things, however near their resemblance, are +precisely alike. Yet, as I have before said, there is a remarkable +adherence to unity of plan. One star differs from another star in +glory, yet all appear fashioned in the same manner, and subject to +the same laws. There are almost infinite varieties in the vertebrate +kingdom. Each animal exhibits its own peculiarities; yet they are all +formed in the same manner, and are developed upon one fundamental +pattern, diverging from it in different ways according to the +requirements of each. Again, though the several parts of the same +animal differ from one another; yet in the skeleton the same bones +which exist in one part may, as a general rule, be traced in other +parts and in other animals. The bones which make up the pelvis in man +are repeated in his shoulder, and, even, in his skull; and they may be +recognised in the pelvis, in the shoulder, and in the skull, of all +other vertebrate animals, with few exceptions. They undergo, it is +true, great varieties in shape and size; but they can be shown to be +the same, or, in the language of anatomists, to be “homologous.” It is +highly interesting to the anatomist to trace the same bone through the +different parts of the same animal, and through the various animals +of the vertebrate series, and to observe the modifications which it +undergoes in order to adapt it to the multiform mechanism of the +several classes, to observe it sometimes dwindling, or even vanishing, +and then, it may be, reappearing under some new conditions. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4. + +Human Leg.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 5. + +Horse’s Leg.] + +I must, however, resist the temptation to wander into this attractive +field. It will suffice to take an illustration by a comparison of the +bones of the human lower limb with those of the hind limb of the Horse. +This may be easily done by the aid of these drawings (figs. 4 +and 5) in which the two limbs are placed side by side, and the +corresponding bones are marked with the same letters. Notwithstanding +the many points of difference the same plan will be recognised in each. +There is in each the thigh(C), the leg(E), and the foot, with the +tarsal and metatarsal(G) bones, and the phalanges(H, I, K). But in the +HORSE two of the digits (the marginal ones, that is, the great toe and +the little toe) are wanting, two are rudimentary, and the remaining +one, which corresponds with the middle toe of man, in length, size, +and strength, more than makes amends for the deficiency of the others. +The lowermost bone, or terminal phalanx, of this huge toe, called the +_coffin-bone_(K), is encased in the hoof, which corresponds with the +human nail, and is the only part of the foot that rests upon the ground. + +In MAN the whole weight of the body has to be borne upon _two_ feet; +often it is balanced upon _one_. The foot is, consequently, spread out; +and all the bones, from the heel to the tips of the toes, are made to +form the basis of support upon the ground. The HORSE, on the contrary, +having no hands, but _four_ feet, does not require so great breadth +in each foot; and the opportunity is taken to narrow the foot, and to +lengthen it so as to give fleetness. The end is attained by suppressing +some of the toes, by elongating one far beyond the others, and enduing +it with such strength as to enable it to carry the requisite weight +upon the tip of the last phalanx. The heel(F) is raised high above the +ground and becomes the “hock.” To speak of a horse _kicking with his +heels_ is, therefore, about as correct as to say, that he _breaks his +knees_. His knee, as you perceive by the position of the “knee-cap”(D), +is high up in the hind limb, near his body, quite out of harm’s way in +a fall. The fact is, that he kicks with his _toes_; and, when he falls, +he cuts the skin over the part in his _fore_ limbs, which corresponds +with the back of our _wrists_. + +In the upper segment, or thigh, the difference between the two limbs +is seen to be, to a certain extent, the reverse of what it is below. +That is to say, whereas, in the HORSE, the _toe_ is elongated and +thickened, so as greatly to exceed the corresponding part of the human +limb; in MAN the _thigh-bone_ is elongated, so as to be double the +length of that of the horse; the thigh-bone in man is also placed more +vertically, nearly in the plane of gravity of the trunk. The horse’s +thigh-bone slants forwards and outwards, which gives the muscles great +power by causing them to run more at right angles between their points +of attachment; and this arrangement increases the strength of the +animal in drawing weights, and facilitates springing. A man cannot +spring without first bending the limbs a little; whereas a horse, or a +goat, can spring, at once, from the position in which it is standing. + +To revert to the anatomy of the Human Foot. + + +_The Arch of the Foot._ + +The seven tarsal and the five metatarsal bones--that is, the twelve +bones of the instep--are arranged and jointed together so as to form +an arch from the point of the heel to the balls of the toes. This is +called the “plantar arch,” from the Latin word _planta_, the sole of +the foot. The _astragalus_ forms the summit, or key-bone, of the arch. +It receives the weight from the leg, and transmits it, through the +hinder pillar of the arch, to the heel, and, through the front pillar +of the arch, to the balls of the toes. + +[Illustration: Fig. 6.] + +The drawing represents a section, from behind forwards, of the lower +end of the leg-bone, and of the bones lying along the inner side of the +plantar arch. Behind it extends through the heel-bone, and in front +through the great toe. It exhibits the arrangement of the fibres and +plates in the interior of the bones, and shows that the greater number +of them, in each bone, follow the direction of the two pillars of the +arch; that is to say, they descend from the summit of the arch where +it supports the leg-bone, backwards and downwards, to the heel, and, +forwards and downwards, to the balls of the toes. Their arrangement +is, therefore, such as to give resisting strength to the bones in the +directions in which it is most required. + +You may think that the arch of the foot would have been a much simpler +structure, as well as stronger, if it had been composed of one bone +instead of several. But it must be remembered that it would, then, have +been liable to be cracked and broken by the sudden and violent manner +in which, during running and jumping, the weight of the body is thrown +upon it. Moreover, the several bones, where they touch one another, +are covered with a tolerably thick layer of highly elastic gristle or +cartilage (represented by the clear line left in the drawing along +the contiguous edges of the bones); and this provision, together with +the slight movements which take place between these bones, gives an +elasticity to the foot and to the step, and serves to break the jars +and shocks which are caused by the sudden contact of the foot with the +ground. + +This last is a very important point; and we find numerous contrivances +in different parts of the body to protect the brain and other +delicate organs from jars. So efficient are these contrivances, and +so exact is the adaptation of the mechanism of the limbs and the +trunk to the texture of the internal organs, that, while these are +in a healthy state, we are able to run, to jump, and to leap from a +considerable height, without inconvenience. But, if the organs be +inflamed, or if the nervous system be over sensitive, as in common +headache, the provisions, which are calculated for the normal state, +are insufficient; ordinary movements are then painful, and to jump is +intolerable. + +The muscles play a very essential part in this work. _First_, they +place the limbs in the most favourable position. Thus, when we alight +upon the ground, from a height, we always contrive to do so with the +knees and hips a little bent, so that the limbs readily yield at the +joints, and act as springs to break the jar. Elderly persons commonly +keep the limbs bent, even when walking quietly along. They do this +because they need all the benefit which position will afford to make +amends for the loss of elasticity consequent on the thinning and drying +of the cartilages, and other changes that take place in the body with +advancing years. _Secondly_, the muscles brace the limbs and joints in +the position in which they have placed them. We experience the effect +of the want of this salutary influence when we kick against an unseen +object, or fall suddenly, or receive any blow or shock for which we are +unprepared. How disagreeable, to say the least, it is to make the step +for an additional stair when we have arrived at the top of a staircase, +or, still worse, to meet with an unseen stair when we think that we +have got to the bottom. + +You perceive from the drawing (fig. 6) that there is a great +difference between the two pillars of the plantar arch. The hinder +pillar is comparatively short, and narrow, and descends suddenly, +almost in a vertical direction, from the ankle, to the ground; and it +is composed of only one bone--the heel-bone--which is jointed directly +with the astragalus: whereas the fore pillar is longer and broader, +is composed of several bones jointed together, and slopes much more +gradually to the ground. There is, therefore, far less elasticity in +the hinder part of the foot than in the fore part. Hence, when we +descend from a height upon the ground, we always alight upon the balls +of the toes, and thus gain the advantage which the several bones and +joints afford in breaking the shock. If, after going up stairs this +evening, you take the trouble to come down again, you will find that +you alight upon each stair on the balls of the toes and experience no +inconvenience, however quickly the descent is made. But, if you change +the mode of proceeding, and descend upon the heels, the feeling will +be by no means agreeable; and the various organs of the body, being +disturbed from their accustomed repose, will raise such remonstrances +against your infringement upon nature’s ways, that you will scarcely +be able to continue the experiment. Proportionately more distressing +is the sensation caused by jumping from a chair upon the heels. +Indeed, this is not done altogether without risk; and the trial of it +is scarcely to be recommended to persons who have attained to that +sober period of life at which we are willing to concede that, in some +things, nature is wiser than ourselves. Only a short time since I +saw a gentleman, who, in jumping down some steps into a back yard, +accidentally came upon his heels, and jarred one hip so severely that +he was confined to his sofa for several days in consequence. + +But, you may say, “in walking we do place the heel upon the ground +first and experience no inconvenience.” True, because the force with +which the foot descends in walking is very slight; and the weight is +directed upon the heel, obliquely, in such a manner as to bring the +toes very quickly to the ground, and really to throw nearly the whole +force in that direction. Moreover, you may observe that when we walk, +the weight of the body is partly sustained by the fore part of the +one foot till the whole of the other foot is on the ground. I will, +however, revert to the disposition of the feet in walking and running +presently. + +The arch of the foot has to bear great weight and at great +disadvantage; and there is very little in the _shape_ of the bones to +maintain its integrity. Indeed, they all fall asunder when the other +structures are removed, the key-bone dropping through of its own +weight. And the same thing may be remarked throughout the skeleton. +Wherever two or more bones move upon one another, their surfaces are +so constructed that they do not hold together without some assistance +from the soft parts. There are joints in the body which we call +“hinge-joints,” and others which we call “ball-and-socket joints;” but +in none of them is there such a holding and locking of one part in the +other as you have in the hinge and the ball-and-socket of the mechanic. +In every case the bones are held together, not by their own shape, but +by ligaments and muscles. Consequently, any one of the bones may be +dislocated from those next it without breakage; and when the muscles +and ligaments are cut through, or have been destroyed by maceration, +all the bones, between which any movement was possible during life, +separate from one another. + +Not only is this so, but in no instance are the movements of joints +_limited_ simply by the shape of the bones--that is to say, they are +never brought to a stop by a part of one bone coming into contact +with the edge of another. Such a contact would have caused a _sudden_ +check; and this would have been attended with more or less jar and with +some danger of chipping and breaking the articular edges. The range +of movement of a joint is always regulated by the ligaments or the +muscles, not, directly, by the bones; and the restraint thus imposed +upon the movements is brought to bear, not suddenly, but _gradually_; +somewhat like the effect of the “break” upon a railway-train; while the +cartilages between the bones may be compared with the “buffers” between +the carriages. + +It is chiefly by means of strong LIGAMENTS, or sinewy bands, passing +from bone to bone, that the shape of the plantar arch is maintained and +the movements of the bones upon one another are regulated and limited. +These ligaments are numerous; but I will mention only two. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7.] + +One, the _Plantar Ligament_ (A, fig. 7), of great strength, +passes from the under surface of the heel-bone, near its extremity, +forwards, to the ends of the metatarsal bones; in other words, it +extends between the lowest points of the two pillars of the arch, +girding, or holding, them in their places, and preventing their being +thrust asunder when pressure is made upon the key-bone (D); just as +the “tie-beam” of a roof resists the tendency to outward yielding of +the sides when weight is laid upon the summit. The ligament, however, +has an advantage which no tie-beam can ever possess; inasmuch as a +quantity of muscular fibres are attached along the hinder part of its +upper surface. These instantly respond to any demand that is made +upon them, being thrown into contraction directly the foot touches +the ground; and the force of their contraction is proportionate to +the degree of pressure which is made upon the foot. Thus they add a +living, self-acting, self-regulating power to the passive resistance +of the ligament. In addition to its office of binding the bones in +their places, the ligament serves the further purpose of protecting +from pressure the tender structures--the blood-vessels, nerves and +muscles--that lie above it, in the hollow of the foot, under the +shelter of the plantar arch. + +Another very strong ligament (B in the wood-cut) passes from the under +and fore part of the heel-bone (F) to the under part of the scaphoid +bone (E). It underlies and supports the round head of the astragalus, +and has to bear a great deal of the weight which is transmitted to that +bone from the leg. It does not derive the same assistance from a close +connexion with muscular fibres as the ligament just described; but it +possesses a quality, which that and most other ligaments do not have, +viz. elasticity. This is very important, for it allows the head of the +key-bone (D) to descend a little, when pressure is made upon it, and +forces it up again when the pressure is removed, and so gives very +material assistance to the other provisions for preventing jars and for +giving ease and elasticity to the step. + +A glance at the drawing will show you that here is a weak point in the +foot. The head of the key-bone receives great weight from the leg, +but is comparatively unsupported; and there is a considerable strain +upon this part when the heel is being raised in walking. Moreover, +a good deal of movement takes place between the key-bone (D) and +the scaphoid bone (E), more than between any other two bones of the +instep; and freedom in the range of movement is generally attended +with some sacrifice of strength. The strong elastic ligament comes in +therefore with peculiar advantage at this point; and it is underlaid, +and additional support is afforded exactly when it is most required, by +the tendon (b in fig. 12) of a strong muscle, the especial office +of which is to assist in raising the heel and bending the instep, and +which runs, from the back of the leg, behind the inner ankle, to the +scaphoid bone. + + +_Weak Ankle and Flat-foot._ + +In spite, however, of the thick elastic ligament and the strong +tendon just mentioned, the joint between the astragalus or key-bone and +the scaphoid bone still remains a weak point. The head of the key-bone, +from being insufficiently supported or from being overweighted, is very +apt to descend a little below its proper level; the consequence of +which is that the plantar arch is lowered and the foot is flattened; +and the more the foot is flattened the weaker it necessarily is, +because the position of the bones then becomes less and less favourable +for bearing weight, and an increasing strain is thus incurred by the +ligaments and muscles. Hence the foot and ankle feel weak; and the +weakness is especially felt when the person endeavours to raise the +heel, so as to mount upon the balls of the toes, in walking. For the +performance of that movement with ease and steadiness a well-formed +plantar arch is essential; and the person, whose feet are defective +in the manner we are considering, can never walk with a bold, firm +step. The movement in him may be better described as a shuffling from +one foot on to the other, than as a walk. To this I will recur again +when I come to speak more of walking. The defect, when slight in +degree, is commonly called “weak-ankle;” when more decided it is called +“flat-foot,” because the sole is then nearly, or quite, flat. The head +of the key-bone, under such circumstances, may even bulge downwards and +inwards, and form a prominence on the inner side of the sole, so as +to give more or less _convexity_ to the line on the inner side of the +foot, which should be _concave_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8. Flat-foot.] + +The representation of “flat-foot” here shown was drawn from the foot of +a labouring man in this county. He said he believed the deformity was +due to his having worn thick tight shoes when he was a growing boy. He +is most likely right in his opinion; for tight or ill-fitting shoes, +cramping the feet and preventing the proper growth of the bones and the +free play of the muscles, are a common cause of this evil. This is so +especially among the agricultural class, whose feet are, from an early +period, enclosed in stiff unyielding leather cases that are enough to +mar nature’s best efforts to construct a plantar arch. + +The same drawing shows that flat-foot is not the only deformity +for which “high-lows” are answerable. Besides the almost total want +of calf, which is due to the wearer being obliged to hobble along, +whole-footed, with short feeble steps, it will be seen that the great +toe has not been allowed to assume its natural straight line, but has +been squeezed athwart the other toes, so as to be almost at a right +angle with the foot. No room at all is thus given for the second toe; +it has been driven quite out of the field, and has been obliged to hide +itself by bending down under the other toes. This is no uncommon state +of things. Frequently it is attended with the formation of a painful +bunion upon the prominent inner side of the ball of the great toe; +and, in addition, there is sometimes a corn upon the first joint of +the second toe, which is a source of so much inconvenience that I have +known many sufferers glad to get relief by parting with the toe. + +I wish I could hope that the days of high-lows are numbered, and could +believe that in the next generation they will be ranged with the things +of the past, and that our children may know these enemies to the form +of the rustic foot, only as objects to be gazed upon with feelings of +astonishment and pity, just as we regard the perukes and the stays of +our ancestors. There are, however, some practical difficulties in the +way of the fulfilment of this charitable wish. + +There are two periods of life at which FLAT-FOOT is most likely to be +engendered. _First_, in infancy, if the child be put upon its feet too +early, before the bones and ligaments are strong enough to bear the +weight of the body. Therefore mothers should not indulge their anxiety +to see their infants walk very early; the pride attendant on premature +success is liable to be followed by regret at finding that the children +never walk well. Parents and nurses should be content to let the +children crawl and roll about upon the floor, and should not encourage +them to stand upright, especially if they be rather heavy or weak +children. Children are quite sure to acquire the faculty of walking as +soon as they are well fit to exercise it. + +The _second_ period is at about fourteen. The body attains a +considerable increase of weight at this time, in consequence of the +quick growth that takes place. We often remark that lads and girls +of this age shoot up apace; and their greater weight is not always +attended with a proportionate acquisition of strength. They are apt to +be rather weak and ungainly in their movements; and the weakness often +shows itself in the foot, by a yielding of the plantar arch. Moreover, +many boys and girls are, at this age, turned out into the world to +earn a livelihood, and are obliged to be a good deal upon their feet, +and perhaps, in addition, have to carry weights. Thus errand-boys, +butchers’ and bakers’ boys, and young nursery-maids, are frequent +sufferers in this way. The constrained positions in dancing, also, +if enforced too much, or continued too long, so as to tire the feet, +sometimes lead to the same result. On the other hand, moderate exercise +of this kind is calculated to strengthen the foot and also the whole +frame, and contributes much to improve the carriage. + +This is not the place to enter into particulars of _treatment_. I +will, therefore, merely remark that the common notion of supporting +and strengthening the ankles by tight-laced boots is altogether a +mistake, and must be ranked among the most influential of the causes +which combine to spoil so many feet. It has its parallel in the idea +of strengthening the waist by stays. The notion is, in both instances, +fortified by the fact that those persons who have been accustomed to +the pressure, either upon the ankle or the waist, feel a want of it +when it is removed, and are uncomfortable without it. They forget, or +are unconscious, that the feeling of the want has been engendered by +the appliance, and that had they never resorted to the latter they +would never have experienced the former; just as dram-drinking induces +a recurrence to the stimulus by causing a sense of sinking when it is +discontinued; and, for the same reason, the opium-eater can hardly +exist without his drug. + + +_The Movements of the Foot._ + +We come now to the MOVEMENTS of the foot upon the leg; and rarely do we +contemplate anything more calculated to excite our admiration. Consider +their variety, the rapidity with which they take place, in order to +effect the requisite succession of positions in walking and running, +and to adapt the sole to the inequalities of the surface on which we +tread; and remember the great weight which has to be sustained while +these movements are going on: yet, how seldom is there a failure. + +This combination of variety of movement with security is effected by +the employment of _three_ joints, each of which plays in a direction +different from the others, while all act harmoniously together. + +_One_ of the three joints--strictly called the “ankle-joint”--is +between the leg-bones and the foot-bones, that is, between the tibia +and fibula, above, and the astragalus beneath. By means of it the foot +may be bent or straightened upon the leg; in other words, the toes may +be raised or depressed. In this movement the heel participates, being +depressed when the toes are raised, and _vice versâ_. A _second_ joint +is between the astragalus and the heel-bone. It permits the foot to +be rolled inwards or outwards upon an antero-posterior axis; so that +the sole may be turned inwards, with its inner edge upwards, or may be +turned down so as to be placed flat upon the ground. A _third_ joint is +between the first and second row of tarsal bones--that is, between the +astragalus and the heel bone, behind, and the scaphoid and cuboid bones +in front. It permits the degree of flexure of the tarsal or plantar +arch to be increased or diminished. + +Had the several movements which are requisite for easy walking all +taken place in one joint, that joint must necessarily have been very +insecure; indeed, it must have been a “ball-and-socket” joint, and we +should have been poised upon our feet in the state of what is called +“unstable equilibrium”--a state quite incompatible with security or +strength, and which would have rendered the assistance of the upper +limbs essential to either standing or walking. + +An instance of a similar kind of mechanism to this of the joints +between the foot and the leg is presented by the mode in which the +head is secured upon the back-bone. We can nod the head upwards and +downwards; we can turn it to either side in so free a manner that we +are able to command with our eyes the whole circle in which we sit +simply by the movements of the head; and we can incline the head to the +right or to the left. Any of these movements may be made very quickly; +and there is a separate joint or joints for each of them. Thus, the +_nodding_ movement takes place between the head and the first vertebra +or uppermost bone of the spine; the _turning_ of the head from side +to side takes place between the first and second vertebræ, the head +with the first vertebra rotating upon a pivot projected upwards from +the second vertebra; and the _inclination_ of the head from side to +side takes place by movements of the second vertebra upon the third, +of the third upon the fourth, and so on. The result is that, although +the movements are thus varied, they are free as well as rapid. Yet the +head is so well poised and so strongly fixed that the neck is able to +bear it all day long without fatigue; and, as though the weight of the +head, which is by no means inconsiderable, were not enough for the +neck, we are in the habit of selecting this as the part upon which to +carry burdens. One never feels so strongly impressed with the carrying +capabilities of the neck and the ankle, as when following men and women +in mountain districts toiling up and down the hills under great bundles +of hay, baskets full of bitter beer, and various things intended to +minister to the comfort and luxury of travellers and the inhabitants at +the top. So effectual, indeed, are the provisions for security that, +notwithstanding the freedom and variety of their movements, the joints +of the foot with the leg, and of the head with the spine, are, in +proportion to their size, the strongest in the body. + +I have stated the movements that take place in the three joints of +the foot with the leg in a simple manner, for the sake of avoiding +confusion. In reality, however, they are not so simple, but very +difficult to analyse and make out correctly. The difficulty is due, +partly, to the close proximity of the joints to one another, which +renders it no easy matter to distinguish the movements of one from +those of the others, and, partly, to the fact that the movements in +each joint are a little oblique. + +In the latter respect the foot-joints resemble most of the others in +the body; and it is this _obliquity_ in the movements of the joints, +added to the _curves_ and _twists_ in the shape of the bones, that +constitutes one of the chief difficulties in investigating and clearly +understanding the mechanism of the human frame. It has been said +that “Nature abhors a vacuum:” it may with equal truth be said that +she abhors a straight line. In the Human Skeleton, at any rate, all +the bones are bent and twisted, some in two or three directions; and +the surfaces by which any bone is jointed to the adjacent bones, are +invariably oblique with regard to each other. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9.] + +Take, for instance, the _tibia_, or large bone of the leg, of which +a front view and an inner side view are given in the drawings. The +tibia is a column transmitting weight from the thigh to the foot; +and in any machine of man’s construction a column fulfilling similar +purposes would be made straight and of uniform diameter throughout. +The bone, on the contrary, does not present the same thickness at any +two parts of its length. It has a distinct bend, forwards, in nearly +its whole length (fig. 10): there are lateral curves, alternating +like those in the letter S, seen along its front (fig. 9): and +the articular surface at the lower end is placed obliquely with regard +to that at its upper end, in consequence of a twist in the shaft, in +such a manner that when the hinder surface of the upper end of the bone +rests upon a board, the lower end touches the board only by its outer +corner (fig. 10). This disposition of the lower end, I may remark, +assists to give the foot a slant outwards from the heel to the toe, so +that when we stand, with the heels together, the great toes of the two +feet diverge a little from one another. + +[Illustration: Fig. 10.] + +Moreover, the surfaces by which the tibia is jointed with the +thigh-bone at the knee are arranged with a varying degree of obliquity, +so that the relation of the leg to the thigh varies somewhat in +different positions of the limb. For instance, when we stand upright, +the _thigh_ slants _in_wards from the pelvis, and the _leg_ descends +in a _vertical_ direction to the ground. While, however, the knee is +being bent the leg is carried, not in a vertical plane, but a little +obliquely, so that the lower part soon begins to slant _out_wards; and +when the knee is fully bent the obliquity of the leg and that of the +thigh correspond, and the leg is, as it were, folded up against the +thigh. The heel is thus brought up, not to the middle line of the body, +but to the hip, and we are enabled to sit with the hips upon the heels, +as the Japanese are represented doing, or with one hip upon one heel--a +position in which our riflemen are trained to take aim, and in which +their predecessors with the arrow were wont to shoot, as is shown by +the accompanying sketch of a bowman (fig. 11), taken from one of +the Æginetan marbles in the Glyptothek at Munich. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11.] + +A variety of purposes is attained by the curvilinear shape of the +bones and the obliquity in the movements of the joints. Not the least +of these is the appearance of elegance and ease which is given to the +whole frame, both when it is at rest and when it is in motion. In +order that you may fully appreciate this result, I would ask you, the +next time you are in a gallery of antique statuary, to contrast the +figures which the Egyptians have left us with those by the Greeks. In +the former you will find that straight lines and right angles prevail: +the figure sits, probably, bolt upright, with the elbows, hips, knees, +and ankles bent at right angles: the fingers commonly run straight +forwards; and a hand is often laid upon each knee, the limbs of the two +sides being quite symmetrically placed. Such statues may be imposing; +but they are stiff and unnatural. They represent positions which the +body rarely assumes; and they, certainly, are far from pleasing. Very +different is the Greek statuary. A correct representation of nature +is the great difficulty and the highest consummation of art; and the +Greeks evinced their greatness in art by a true appreciation and +close imitation of natural form. The position of their figures is +life-like; and, therefore, we love to contemplate them. The outline +in them exhibits a graceful disposition of curves and obliques; and +it is because the great sculptors of Greece were, in this and in +other respects, so true to nature that their works have commanded the +admiration, and served as models for the imitation, of all succeeding +ages. + +It is one of the master results of creation, and one of the peculiar +marks of creative genius, that _perfection_ and _beauty_ are usually +presented together. As truth is the soul of eloquence, so is perfection +the soul of beauty. The works of nature are beautiful because there is +so much excellence in them, such admirable adaptation to their purpose; +and we find the works of man beautiful only so far as they are correct +imitations of their great originals in nature, or show some approach +to nature’s excellence. And man is the most beautiful object in nature +because he is the most perfect, that is, because the purpose of his +existence is the highest, and because his physique exhibits the most +marvellous moulding to adapt it to its high purpose; because, in short, +in him the material is wrought to such a point of refinement as to be +the receptacle and minister of the immaterial. + +The movements of the three joints between the foot and the leg take +place in harmony. The following is the order observed. The raising +of the _heel_ is accompanied by a rolling of the foot _in_wards, and +by an increased _flexure_ of the plantar arch; and the raising of +the _toes_ is accompanied by a rolling of the foot _out_wards and a +_straightening_ of the sole. + + +_The Muscles of the Leg and Foot._ + +[Illustration: Fig. 12.] + +The _first_ series of the movements just described is effected, +mainly, by three muscles. Of these one (A, fig. 12) raises the +heel while the other two (B, fig. 12, and C, fig. 13) raise +and support the ankle. The muscle which acts upon the heel is one of +the largest and most powerful in the body; and well it may be, for in +raising the heel it has to raise the whole weight of the body. Its +fibres, accumulated at the middle and upper part of the leg, form the +“calf;” below they taper into a thick tendon (a) connected with the +hinder extremity of the heel-bone, and called the _Tendo Achillis_. The +name, it need scarcely be said, refers to the tale of Thetis holding +her son Achilles by this part when she dipped him in the river Styx. +Her hand prevented the part from coming in contact with the water; and +so it did not partake of the invulnerability which was conferred upon +the rest of his body by the immersion. We read, accordingly, he was +finally killed by a wound in the heel[2]. + + [2] It does not appear that the legend is based upon any peculiar + ideas of susceptibility attached to the heel among Eastern nations; + nor can the passages in Scripture, that the Serpent shall bruise + man’s heel (Genesis iii. 15); “For the greatness of thine iniquity + are thy heels made bare” (Jeremiah xiii. 22), be adduced as + indicating the existence of such an idea. There are some other myths + resembling this one of Achilles; but in them a different part of + the body missed the protecting influence. Thus, Ajax was wrapped by + Hercules in the skin of the Nemæan lion, and was, thereby, rendered + invulnerable, except at the pit of the stomach where the edges of + the skin did not quite meet; and he killed himself by running his + sword in there. In the _Niebelungenlied_, the hero, Siegfried, is + represented to have rendered himself invulnerable by smearing himself + with the blood of a dragon which he had killed. A leaf, however, + adhering to his back, prevented the contact of the fluid with one + spot. The secret was unwarily communicated by his wife Krimhild to + his enemy Hagan, who took advantage of the information to plunge his + sword into the fatal spot while Siegfried was stooping down to drink + at a rivulet. + + The lesson inculcated by these myths seems to be that all men, even + heroes, have their weak points. + +The other two muscles (B and C) also descend from the leg and terminate +in tendons (b and c) which pass, one on either side, behind the +projections (D and E) which we call respectively the inner and outer +ankle, to the inner and outer edges of the instep. They assist to raise +the ankle, and support it so as to prevent its swerving from side to +side; and they permit it to play to and fro upon them, like a pulley +upon ropes running under it, in a safe and easy manner. The inner (b, +fig. 12) of the two tendons passes, as before mentioned, beneath +the head of the key-bone, and adds greatly to the strength of the arch. +It is, moreover, the chief agent in effecting the two movements which +are associated with the elevation of the heel, viz. the turning of the +sole inward and the flexion of the foot. + +[Illustration: Fig. 13.] + +The _second_ series of movements--the raising the toes, the turning +the sole downwards, and the straightening the foot--are effected by +two muscles (F, fig. 12, and G, fig. 13), the tendons (f and +g) of which pass, one in front of the inner ankle, and the other in +front of the outer ankle, to the respective edges of the instep. These +require much less power than their opponents; and the muscles on the +front of the leg are, therefore, smaller and weaker than those behind. + +A question of practical interest here suggests itself. How is the +balance between these antagonistic muscles maintained, and the +proper position of the foot preserved? If the muscles which cause +the elevation of the heel and the other movements associated with it +are so much stronger than those which produce the opposite series of +movements, and if, as we know to be the case, muscles are always, even +when a limb is at rest, contracting with a certain amount of force, why +do not those of superior power gain and maintain the ascendancy, and +hold the limb in the position to which they have a tendency to draw it? +And why, in this instance, are not the feet kept with the heels raised +and the soles inturned and bent? The reply is, that the ill consequence +suggested is prevented, and a proper adjustment between the opponent +sets of muscles, in this and other parts of the body, is effected +through the medium of the nervous system. That system institutes +friendly relations, and compels an orderly and harmonious action of the +several muscles; and it does so by frequently exerting its influence +upon them, keeping them in drill, as it were, and enforcing the habit +of yielding in a kindly manner to one another. + +[Illustration: Fig. 14. Club-foot.] + +You have often observed, and perhaps wondered at, the almost +incessant, semi-involuntary and, seemingly, meaningless movements of +infants, especially the peculiar sprawlings out of their fingers and +toes. Now these are for the purpose of keeping the different sets +of muscles in practice and in order, till the will acquires a due +control, when they gradually cease. They are going on before birth as +well as afterwards; and when they are deficient, or when they take +place irregularly, in consequence of an imperfection in the nervous +system, the limbs are liable to become deformed. The feet, under these +circumstances, are often drawn into the very position I have just +mentioned; the sole is turned inwards and upwards, so as never to touch +the ground; the heel and the toes are approximated; and the foot rests +upon the ground on the outer side, or quite on the fore part, of the +instep. Such a condition constitutes one of the most common forms of +what is called “club foot.” Children are often born with one or both of +their feet thus distorted. Happily, however, if they be submitted in +time to the modern improved modes of treatment they may usually be set +right. The accompanying woodcut gives a sketch of the foot of a young +woman who had not the good fortune to be thus attended to. + +The muscles compose the flesh or chief part of the bulk of a limb. The +“calf” is almost entirely made up of the fibres of the “calf-muscle.” +But at the ankle there are no muscles. As they descend the leg, all +the _muscular_ fibres disappear, and there are only _tendons_. These, +though much thinner than the muscles, are very strong; and they are the +cords or ropes by which the muscles pull upon distant parts. As they +pass over the ankle they are strapped down close to the bones by means +of stout sinewy cross-bands, which prevent their starting from their +places when the muscular portions pull at them. + +Two especial advantages result from this arrangement. + +_First_, the lower part of the leg and the ankle are reduced in size. +Thereby the resistance to the passage of the limb through the air is +lessened; and when it is upon the ground, the leg is less in the way of +the other foot which is swinging, to and fro, beside it. An elegance +of shape is also thereby imparted. The “pretty ankle” owes much of its +charm to the mode in which the tendons are disposed. How comparatively +thick and clumsy would the ankle be if the tendons of the toes took the +straight course represented by the line _a_ in the drawing, instead of +being bound down, as they are, to the curve of the ankle! + +[Illustration: Fig. 15.] + +_Secondly_, the obliquity with which the tendons run to their +insertions is increased by this arrangement; and the velocity of the +movements to which they minister is increased also. True, a loss of +strength is involved in such a disposition, but the gain in velocity is +of more importance. If (to refer again to the diagram, fig. 15) +the tendon ran in a straight course from the front of the leg to the +great toe, the angle at which it joined the toe would enable it to act +with more strength; but the movements connected with it could not be so +quick as they now are. + +We find in the construction of the human frame many instances in which +strength is sacrificed to rapidity of movement in this and other ways. +Scarcely any conceivable amount of strength, for instance, would be an +adequate compensation for a loss of that celerity of movement of the +hand which enables us to strike a blow and drive a nail. No wonder, +therefore, that strength is here sacrificed to obtain celerity. And the +same principle holds good for other parts. + +The length and direction of the heel affords a good illustration of +the principle of which I am speaking. When the heel-bone runs out to +a considerable distance, and nearly straight, behind the ankle, as it +does in some of the lower animals and in the inferior races of mankind, +it presents a better leverage to the calf-muscle, which is, then, +enabled to raise the ankle with a less amount of effort; but there +is proportionately less velocity. Accordingly, in the more perfectly +formed foot, such as we find it in the higher races of mankind, the +heel-bone, instead of running out backwards, descends very obliquely, +almost vertically. + +In this instance, the loss of strength, which is thus incurred for +the purpose of acquiring celerity in movement, is usually compensated +for by the greater development of the calf-muscle. Hence the high heel +and the well-developed calf go together; and, like most of the other +features of good bodily formation, they are, on the whole, best marked +in the nations which are endued with the highest intelligence, and +which are, in this way, physically, as well as mentally, qualified +to occupy the foremost places in the human family. Thus, we may mark +a relation between the heel and the brain; and, as the comparative +anatomist is able by the inspection of a bone to trace out the skeleton +to which it belonged, so might it be possible for the human anatomist, +by observing minutely the peculiarities of the heel and the other +features of the foot in any particular race of men, to form some +estimate of the capacity and conformation of the skull, and thereby, of +the amount of intelligence. + +Contrast the foot and leg of the EUROPEAN (fig. 16), as +represented in the drawing reduced from the Farnese Hercules, with +those of the NEGRO (fig. 17), the drawing of which was taken from +a native of Sierra Leone. In the former the leg is plump and the calf +well developed; the foot is compact and well arched; the heel descends +nearly vertically; and the inner ankle stands clearly out and is raised +high above the ground. In the Negro the leg is thinner and the calf is +not so well defined; the foot is long, flat, and sprawling; the heel is +more horizontal; and the inner ankle does not show clearly, and almost +touches the ground. + +[Illustration: Fig. 16.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 17.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 18. European.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 19. Negro.] + +Contrast also the outline (fig. 19) of the foot of the same +Negro with that (fig. 18) of an Englishman. Both were traced upon +the ground, and reduced upon the same scale. The Negro was 5 ft. +2 in. in height; the Englishman was 6 ft.; both were of the +same age: yet the Negro’s foot was considerably the larger. It was 11 +inches long, 3-1/2 inches across the middle of the instep, and 10-1/2 +inches round the balls of the toes. Whereas the Englishman’s foot +was less than 10-1/2 inches long, was 2-1/2 inches across the middle +of the instep, and 9-1/2 inches round the balls of the toes. Even in +this simple outline how much less shapely is the African’s foot. Some +allowance must be made for the fact that the Negro was more accustomed +to go barefooted than the Englishman; and the pressure of the boot or +shoe has, in some degree, the effect of giving compactness to the foot. + +In the native AUSTRALIAN the leg is commonly still more lanky, there +being less calf than in the African; and in the MONKEY the heel is +quite horizontal, the sole is flat, and the muscular fibres of the +leg are continued low down, close to the ankle, instead of being +concentrated higher up; so that the leg has nearly the same thickness +from the knee to the foot, and there is no calf at all. Indeed, in +the GORILLA (see fig. at page 90) the circumference of the leg +increases towards the ankle. Thus, the calf may be regarded as the +characteristic of MAN; and a well-developed calf is a characteristic of +the higher members of the human species. The pride, therefore, which +is felt in a well-formed leg is not altogether a senseless folly, but +finds some excuse in the fact that its foundation lies deep in the laws +of physiology and ethnology. It must be confessed, that the fashion +which, in the last century, dictated the knee-breeches, the silk +stocking, and the shoe, evinced a truer appreciation of the dignity and +beauty of the human figure than do the modern investments, which quite +cover up the limbs, encumbering their movements and hiding the beauty +of the leg and ankle. + +In the addition of the _high heel_ to the shoe we recognise an effort +to improve upon the original, by exaggerating one of the peculiar +features of the human foot; but it results in a failure, as is +invariably the case with such strainings after a greater perfection +than nature has given. It increases the apparent height of the person +and of the arch of the instep; but it throws the weight too forward +upon the toes, and detracts from the length and security of the step. +Moreover, by causing disuse of the elevators of the heel, it interferes +with the full growth of the calf. + +[Illustration: Fig. 20. Chinese.] + +This is, however, a harmless piece of vanity in comparison with the +monstrous efforts of the Chinese to mould the foot to their ideal by +squeezing the heel and the toes together. They effect this to such +a degree that (fig. 20) the heel-bone descends vertically from +the ankle, the plantar arch is bent to an acute angle, and the foot +is so crumpled up that all movement in it is effectually prevented, +and the part is reduced almost to a mere stump. These observant and +ingenious people have caught, it may be, the idea that compactness, +elevation of instep, and sudden descent of heel are characteristics +of the well-formed foot, and may urge that they are helping nature +to perfection in the direction which she has herself indicated. But +in their silly attempt at the preternatural, in this impious use, as +it were, of fire stolen from heaven, they simply burn and cripple +themselves, and render themselves ridiculous, and give to all other +nations the much needed lesson that it is enough for man to follow as a +humble imitator of his Maker’s works, and that his attempts to alter, +or improve upon, any part of the wondrous design of creation will +assuredly have the effect of spoiling and defacing it[3]. + + [3] It is a remarkable statement by a correspondent in _The Times_, + Jan. 14th, 1861, that in the pillage of the Summer Palace of + the Emperor of Pekin “all the ladies of the Court must have had + natural-sized feet, all the slippers found in their rooms being + large; not a single cramped-footed shoe was seen.” + +It seems that the several races of mankind are usually rather proud +of their peculiarities, and that each has an inclination to make much +of, and artificially exaggerate, the points in which it differs from +the others. Thus the Chinese are remarkable for the spareness of their +hair and the smallness of their feet; so the men shave their heads, +leaving only the pig-tail, and the women squeeze up their feet in the +remorseless manner we have seen. The Singhalese, who are flat-footed, +are said to consider it one of the requisites for a ‘belle’ that the +soles of her feet should not have any hollow. The red Indians of +America delight in staining and painting their skins of a lively red +colour. The Columbian tribe of Indians increase the natural lowness of +their forehead by flattening it out in infancy, and succeed in bringing +about a deformation of the skull almost as remarkable in its way as is +the effect of Chinese cramping upon the foot. These people also take +pains to reduce the small quantity of hair upon their eyebrows, lips, +and chin, by plucking it out. + + +_Joints of the Metatarsus with the Tarsus._ + +[Illustration: + + Figs. 25 24. 23. 22. 21.] + +I will briefly draw your attention to one other point in the anatomy +of the foot; and that is, the mode in which the “metatarsal” bones +are jointed with the “tarsal.” If you take hold of the ends of the +metatarsal bones--in other words the “balls”--of the great toe and of +the two toes next to it, in your own foot, you will find that you can +move them scarcely at all; they are firmly set upon the rest of the +foot, almost as though they formed one piece with it. If you then try +the end of the metatarsal bone of the fourth toe you will be able to +move it a little upwards and downwards; and in the case of the little +toe the movement is still more distinct. This difference depends upon +the mode of construction of the joints of the metatarsal bones with +the tarsal, which is easily understood by the aid of the accompanying +drawings, representing sections, from above downwards, through these +joints. In 21, 22, and 23, which are the tarso-metatarsal joints of +the great toe and the two next it, the opposed surfaces of the bones +between _c_, _c_, are quite flat, so that the only movement that can +take place is a slight sliding of one bone upon the other, just enough +to assist in breaking the jar, but not enough to interfere with the +firm basis of support which these toes are required to afford to the +plantar arch in consequence of the great stress of the weight in +walking being borne upon this side of the foot. In No. 24, which is the +joint of the ring toe, and still more in No. 25, which is the joint +of the little toe, the end of the metatarsal bone (A) is rounded and +is received into a corresponding concavity or cup in the tarsal bone +(B). This allows a slight revolving of one bone upon the other to take +place, and permits the movement which you discover when you grasp the +balls of these two toes between your fingers. The outer part of the +foot needs not to be so strong and firm as the inner part, because it +does not lie so nearly in the plane of gravity during walking; and the +provision just described, which permits some movement in the outer +two metatarsals, enables the balls of the toes to adapt themselves to +inequalities on the ground, and to share more equally, under various +circumstances, the weight which is thrown upon them. + + +_Standing and Stooping._ + +[Illustration: Figs. 26. Standing. + +27. Bowing. + +28. Stooping. + +29. Squatting.] + +When we STAND straight upright (fig. 26) the centre of gravity of +the head is directly over a point midway between the two ankles; and +the plane of gravity, represented by the vertical line in the figure, +descends, from the head, through the spine, pelvis, and lower limbs, +to the key-bone of the instep. And you observe that, between the head +and the ankle, the skeleton is not quite straight, but is arranged in +six curves, which are, alternately, in front of and behind the line +of gravity. Of these curves the upper three are in the spine. They +are well marked; the uppermost (_a_) is in the neck and is directed +forwards; the next (_b_) is in the back and is directed backwards; +the third (_c_) is in the loins and is directed forwards. The fourth +curve (_d_), less distinct than those above it, is in the pelvis and +is directed backwards. The fifth and sixth curves are very slight; the +fifth (_e_), directed forwards, is at the hip-joint; and the sixth, +(_f_), directed backwards, is at the knee. The last two curves, though +slight, are not unimportant; and they contribute very much to our +comfort and to prevent fatigue when we are standing: they do so in the +following way. The strong ligaments of the hip are placed towards the +_fore_ part of the joint, that is, in _front_ of the line of gravity; +and the strong ligaments of the knee are placed towards the _back_ +part of the joint, that is, _behind_ the line of gravity. It follows +that when these joints are fully extended they are “locked,” as it is +termed, just as is a hinge when opened to a little beyond the straight +line; and, by this means, the muscles are set at rest, and we are able +to maintain the erect posture, for some time, steadily and without +fatigue. + +When standing upright in this way, at rest on both legs, or on one leg +in the military position of “at ease,” and the muscles are off their +guard, if a sudden and unexpected, though slight, pressure be made upon +the ham, so as to bend the knee a little and throw the joint in front +of the line of gravity, the man will drop, unless the muscles come +quickly to the rescue--a tendency which has not escaped the observation +of school-boys. + +In BENDING or BOWING (fig. 27) the head is carried forwards; and, +to maintain the balance, the opposite pole of the trunk is carried +backwards, so as to preserve the line of gravity still over the ankles. + +In STOOPING (fig. 28) or SQUATTING (fig. 29), as in picking +up any thing from the ground, the lower limbs and the trunk are bent in +a zigzag manner; the heels are raised; and the plane of gravity falls, +in front of the ankles, over the balls of the toes. Now we recognise +one of the advantages which accrues to man from the great length of his +thigh. For the head and upper part of the trunk are advanced so far in +_front_ of the feet, that it would be impossible to maintain a balance +at all, even upon the balls of the toes, and we should necessarily fall +forwards, were it not that, owing to the length of the thigh, the lower +part of the trunk is carried backwards to a plane _behind_ the heels, +and so serves to maintain the equilibrium. + + +_Walking._ + +[Illustration: + + Figs. 30. 31. 32. + +Walking.] + +[Illustration: + + Figs. 33. 34. 35. + +Walking.] + +Let us next consider the part which the foot performs in WALKING. +To understand this it is necessary to consider its positions and +movements in the several stages of a step. When first placed upon the +ground the foot (R, fig. 30) is a little in advance of the body; +and the heel comes first (fig. 33) into contact with the ground. +The toes quickly follow; and the body, then, passes, vertically, over, +the ankle and the key-bone of the instep. The foot (R, fig. 31 +and fig. 34) now rests steadily upon the heel and the balls of +the toes; the other foot (L) leaves the ground, so that the whole +weight is borne by one foot; and the plantar arch of that foot expands +a little, so as to cause slight lengthening of the foot, under the +weight that is laid upon it. Much yielding of the arch is, however, +prevented by the ligaments that brace the arch (fig. 7), and by +the muscles that are disposed beneath it. Next, the heel (fig. 35) +is raised by the action of the calf muscle, and the weight of the body +is thrown forwards, over the balls of the toes, while the other foot +(L, fig. 32) is carried onwards, and is placed upon the ground +ready to receive the weight and commence its carrying work. When this +has been done the foot is withdrawn from the ground; and, in the +withdrawal, a final impulse onward is given, so as to throw the weight +of the body fairly over to the other foot. The fore part of the foot +is then raised, and the knee is bent a little. By these means the toes +are kept clear of the ground, while the foot is swung forward, beside +the other, so as to be ready again to rest upon the ground and bear the +weight of the body. + +In each complete step, therefore, there is a period during which the +foot rests upon the ground, and a period in which it is swinging in +the air. In walking the former period is considerably longer than +the latter; and at the commencement, and at the end, of that period +(figs. 30 and 32) the other foot is also upon the ground, so that +it is only during the middle of the time (fig. 31) in which the +foot rests upon the ground that it has to bear the whole weight of the +body. + + +_Running._ + +In RUNNING the process is much the same as in walking. The chief +difference is that, whereas in walking _both_ feet are never _off_ +the ground at the same time, and both are _upon_ the ground at the +beginning and end of each step; in running _both_ feet are never _on_ +the ground at the same time, and both are _off_ the ground, and the +body is flying unsupported through the air, at the beginning and end +of each step (figs. 36 and 38). Thus, you may always distinguish +running, though it be ever so slow, from walking, because, in the +latter, the two feet are upon the ground at the same time; while, in +the former, only one foot touches the ground at a time. + +[Illustration: + + Figs. 36. 37. 38. + +Running.] + +The period during which the body rests upon the ground in running is +comparatively very short, being merely the time when one foot is set +down in the middle of each step (fig. 37); and great force has, +consequently, to be exerted to propel the body through the air during +the whole remainder of the step. Hence the exertion of running is much +greater than that of walking. In slow running the same parts of the +foot are applied upon the ground as in walking, and in the same order; +but in quick running the balls of the toes only touch the ground. The +quicker we run the shorter, relatively to the rest of the step, is the +time during which the foot rests upon the ground, and the greater, +consequently, is the effort. + +After the foot leaves the ground, in running, it is thrown up behind; +and, at the same time, the fore part of the sole and the toes are +turned a little obliquely _in_wards, so as to prevent their catching +against adjacent objects. If the toes were turned _out_, when thrown +up behind, it would present a very awkward appearance, and we should +frequently be tripped up by their coming in contact with substances +near which we pass. While the foot is being swung forwards the toes +are gradually turned a little the other way. Thus, by the time they +pass the other leg the toes have lost the inclination inwards, and are +directed straight _for_wards; and when the foot has reached a point in +advance of the other leg, and the sole is preparing to present itself +to the ground, the toes are turned a little _out_wards. This turning of +the foot _in_wards and _out_wards during its movement _back_wards and +_for_wards, in each step, is a graceful movement, and may be compared +to the “feathering” of an oar. It takes place, also, in walking, but +is less marked than in running; and in many persons it can scarcely be +discerned during walking. + +The distinction between the paces of other animals resembles that +between the walking and the running of man, and is equally definite. +Take, for instance, the WALKING, TROTTING, and GALLOPING of the Horse. +In WALKING the fore and the hind limbs of the _same_ side are moved +together, or nearly together, but they do not leave the ground till the +limbs of the opposite side are placed upon it; so that at one period +all four limbs are upon the ground together. In TROTTING the fore and +the hind limbs of _opposite_ sides move together; but, as in walking, +neither of them are withdrawn from the ground till the opposite one has +reached it[4]. + + [4] In WALKING the hind leg moves first, then the fore leg of the + same side; and both reach the ground before the hind leg of the + opposite side is raised. So that at one time there are three feet on + the ground, at another two, but never less than two. + + In TROTTING, especially quick trotting, one foot is raised at the + same instant that the opposite one is put down. This renders it + difficult to make out the sequence of the movements. + +In GALLOPING, or CANTERING, the horse springs or bounds with all four +limbs at the same time; all the feet are thrown up nearly together; +all are off the ground together; and all reach the ground again nearly +at the same time ready for another spring. I say that the feet are +all thrown up _nearly_, and not _quite_, together, because the fore +and the hind limbs of one side take the precedence a little of the +others, or “lead,” as it is called. The trained horse is taught to +lead, habitually, with one, usually the right, side, because the motion +is more steady when the horse is accustomed to gallop in one way than +if he be allowed to vary it. Directly the horse begins to gallop, the +rider knows, by the motion, whether he is leading with the proper +leg. In some animals, as the DEER, the two fore and the two hind feet +move together exactly in galloping. Anthony Trollope tells us that in +Panama, Cuba, and other Spanish countries in the West, the horses are +“taught to pace, that is, move with the two off legs together, and then +with the two near legs. The motion is exceedingly gentle, and well +fitted for those hot climates, in which the rougher work of trotting +would be almost too much for the energies of debilitated mankind.” This +_pacing_ is probably only a quick walk. + +When we walk the heels follow one another nearly in a straight line, +as is shewn by “walking a chalk,” or more readily by walking along the +line between the curb and the flagstone pavement; and the plane of +gravity of the body corresponds with this line. There ought, therefore, +to be no perceptible _swerving_ of the trunk from side to side in +walking. There should, also, be scarcely any _rising_ or _falling_; +inasmuch as there are provisions in the mode of bending the limbs +(which I cannot here discuss) to prevent the body from being moved up +and down during the step. The head and shoulders should be carried +along nearly in a straight line. If it were otherwise, if they were +moved in a zigzag or undulating manner, from right to left, or up and +down, the space traversed in a given distance would be much increased, +and there would be a proportionately greater expenditure of muscular +force. By a beautiful combination of movements this is prevented, and +a rectilinear course is maintained, while the weight of the body is +transferred from foot to foot, in a succession of steps. + +Only observe a good walker for a minute or two, and you will see +how straight the head is carried along; and when your eye falls upon +a person who “rolls in his walk” you perceive how ungainly are his +movements, and you have an instinctive feeling that he is an awkward +fellow. Whether you are disposed to make an exception in favour of the +British tar, in consequence of his many other good qualities, I must +leave you to judge. His peculiar gait on shore is probably due to his +not being sufficiently practised in straight walking to counteract the +effect of the lounging manner and general disregard for appearances +which he acquires on board ship. Whatever the reason may be, though he +has the better of us in a storm at sea, he certainly does not always +appear to advantage on _terra firma_. Now that a general improvement +in gait and step may be expected among landsmen, as a result of the +volunteer movement, it becomes still more desirable that the sailor +should participate in the good influences of the drill. + +Although the heels follow one another in a line the toes diverge a +little from the line, because the foot slants, as I have just said, +somewhat _out_wards when it is placed upon the ground. It results from +this position of the foot that the weight of the body descends upon it +with a slight obliquity, _in_wards as well as forwards; and that is +precisely the direction in which the foot is best prepared to receive +weight. For, when the foot rests upon the ground in this position +all the ligaments on the inner side (and they are very strong) as +well as those beneath, are on the stretch; and the joints, with the +exception of the ankle-joint, are as it were locked, so as to afford +a secure, steady basis of support to the leg. When the weight of the +body descends upon the foot in the direction mentioned a sprain rarely +occurs. It is when the weight falls in the opposite direction, that is, +more or less obliquely _out_wards, and throws the ankle out, that a +sprain easily happens. Thus a slight inequality of the ground, or any +other cause that tilts up the inner edge of the foot, is likely to lead +to a sprain, especially when we are going down hill or down steps. + +Here let me remark that a SPRAIN is the result of a stretching of +some ligament, or other part, caused by an undue force being brought +to bear upon it. The ligaments are very strong, and under ordinary +circumstances are not very sensitive; and they are capable of offering +great resistance to force applied in the direction in which they are +calculated to meet it. But, if the force be applied in a direction in +which they are not calculated to meet it, they are easily injured, and +they become, then, very painful. The same is, also, likely to occur if +the force be severe or sudden. + +The muscles are a very great assistance to the ligaments, forasmuch +as, by placing and retaining the joints in proper positions, they +regulate the direction in which forces are brought to bear upon +the ligaments. Moreover, by steadying or bracing the joints, they +check or break the force and prevent its being suddenly imposed +upon the ligaments. And the muscles, by virtue of their contractile +property, have the capability of becoming tight in any position of +the joint, which is an immense advantage; whereas a ligament having +no contractility and, usually, no elasticity, is tight only in one +position. The office of a ligament is to limit the movement of a joint +in a particular direction; and, till the joint has assumed a certain +position--till it is bent or straightened to a certain angle--the +ligament does not come into play. During the bending or straightening +of a limb the muscles regulate the movement, and bring it to a stop or +check it before it has gone to its full extent; and, thus, the ligament +is relieved from that sudden imposition of force which would result if +it were required to check the movement of a joint in its full swing. + +Accordingly, when the muscles are prepared and in proper action, that +is, when they place the joint in a suitable position and duly support +or brace it, a sprain very rarely occurs. It is when the muscles are +unprepared, when we make a false step, or when the foot encounters an +unexpected obstacle, and the weight falls suddenly upon the ligaments +in an unfavourable direction, that a sprain occurs. A man jumps from a +considerable height, or descends deep steps with a heavy weight upon +his back, and no harm results; but he slips off the curb-stone, or +treads unwarily upon a piece of orange-peel, or turns his foot hastily, +to avoid some object on the ground, and sprains his ankle. + +In order that they may do their work well, be alert, and maintain good +guard, the muscles need to be kept in practice. A person unaccustomed +to throw a ball is very liable to sprain his elbow with the sudden +jerk which is required for that feat; or if a person takes to tumbling +and jumping, without proper training, he will probably suffer for his +temerity. Again, common experience tells us that a joint which has been +sprained is, for a long time, liable to be sprained again. This is +because the part remains tender as well as weak; and the muscles do not +brace it steadily and firmly, or come nimbly to its aid when it is in +danger. + +In consequence of the foot, in walking, being placed upon the ground +with the toes slanting a little outwards, the _out_er and hinder edge +of the heel first touches the ground. Hence this part of the heel of +the shoe is usually worn down before the remainder. The ball of the +little toe next comes to the ground, and the balls of the other toes +follow in quick succession; and it is from the great toe--that is, from +the inner side of the foot--that the last impulse is given to propel +the body, forwards, over the other foot. In order to give full effect +to this final impulse an especial muscle, the “Long Fibular” muscle (I +in fig. 13), is provided. The tendon (i) of this muscle passes, +behind the outer ankle, beneath the sole of the foot, to the great +toe. It has the effect of pressing the ball of the great toe upon the +ground, while it raises the outer ankle, and so contributes to throw +the weight, across, in the direction of the other foot. + +Thus the foot revolves upon the ground, from the heel to the balls of +the toes, and from the outer edge of the former to the inner edge of +the latter; and during the revolution, which has been compared, though +the comparison fails in many points, to the revolving of the segment of +a wheel, the ankle is raised and advanced forwards. + +On the complete and steady execution of this movement good walking +chiefly depends, more particularly upon the full performance of the +last stage of the process, viz. the rising fairly upon the balls of +the toes and delivering the weight steadily over to the other foot. +This is the most difficult part of the process, the whole weight of +the body during its execution being borne upon the fore part of the +foot, that is, upon the longer pillar of the plantar arch; forasmuch +as the heel is being raised and the other foot is off the ground. For +the good performance of this part of the process, all the features of +the well-made foot are essential. There must be a high and firm plantar +arch, a heel set at a proper angle, and a strong great toe running +straight forwards. There must be also a fully developed calf to set the +machinery well in motion. + +If the plantar arch be low it cannot bear the strain attendant +upon this movement; and the person, in consequence, shirks the full +performance of it. He does that by turning the toes too much out; and, +then, he contrives to roll over the inner side of the foot, instead of +rising upon the balls of the toes; and so he gets along with short, +shuffling, feeble steps. How many persons, owing to one cause or other, +hobble in this way! Some turn the toes very much in, and rise over the +ball of the little toe, instead of over the great toe. This is done +with comparative ease, because the ball of the little toe is nearer to +the ankle; but the step is, thereby, shortened, as well as rendered +less firm and less graceful. + +The revolving movement of the foot, or the bringing of its several +parts into contact with the ground in succession, in a distinct manner, +is peculiar to man. Many animals do not bear upon the heel at all; they +only tread upon the toes, and are, therefore, called DIGITIGRADE. Some, +indeed, bear only upon the tips of the toes, as the Horse (fig. 5, +p. 15). Others go upon the balls of the toes, as the Cat, the +Hare, the Pig, and the Dog. Some animals bear upon the heels as well as +the toes, and are called PLANTIGRADE, as the Bear, the Badger, and the +Monkey; but these all flop the sole upon the ground in its whole length +at once. The foot in them is not sufficiently compact and strong to +bear the weight of the body first upon one part then upon another; and +they, consequently, walk in an ungainly manner, as compared with man. + + +_Character evinced by manner of Walking._ + +Bear in mind that for the firm vigorous walk there is required, not +only the well-formed limb, but also the manly and determined WILL, +acting in a decided and authoritative manner over the several members +of the body, so that these are accustomed readily, and steadily, to +obey its commands; just as the soldiers of a well-drilled regiment obey +the directions of the superior officer in an orderly and efficient +manner. And, as you may judge of the character of the officer by the +discipline of his men, so may you form an estimate of a man by the +movements of his limbs. You see a man walk along the street, and you +instinctively form an opinion of him by the mode in which he carries +himself and treads the ground. Be careful not to allow yourselves to +be inflexibly biassed by these first impressions, as that amounts to +prejudice. Nevertheless, experience tells us that they are not to be +altogether despised. They originate in a perception of the working of +the great laws by which body and mind are harmonized; and, if fairly +estimated, they rarely deceive us. + +We have little difficulty in recognising three chief classes among +pedestrians. _First_, there are those who pay too much attention to +the movements, who walk with a pompous strut, or a mincing gait, or +affect some style or other. We are naturally very little inclined in +favour of such persons; indeed, we have usually to make an effort not +to be decidedly prejudiced against them. _Secondly_, there are those +who pay too little attention to their movements, who do not seem to be +sufficiently alive to the responsibility attaching to the possessors of +so noble a structure as the human frame, and who do not give themselves +the trouble to exert the powers of the glorious mechanism with which +they are charged. They slouch, or dawdle, along in a listless lazy +manner. Instinct tells us, and tells us rightly, to beware how we +trust such persons with the conduct of our affairs, or with any office +of responsibility. We feel that the lack of energy manifested in the +guidance of their limbs is, too probably, a feature of character, +which unfits them for the active duties of life; and we know that such +men are not usually successful in their calling. _Thirdly_, there are +those who shew, by the firmness and precision of their step, and by +the regularity in the succession of the movements by which the step +is made, that they are conscious of the dignity of their species, of +the responsibility attendant on that dignity, and of the respect due +to themselves. Such men we feel are likely to pursue their avocations +energetically and methodically, as well as with punctuality. + +Many points of character peep out in the way men walk. Our poet tells +us that in one we may read + + “rascal in the motions of his back + And scoundrel in his supple sliding knee.” + +Another has a halting, shuffling, undecided gait; while a third walks +in a bold, determined, straight-forward, erect and independent manner. +One has a cautious, parsimonious step, as if sparing of shoe-leather, +or afraid to trust the ground; he has, however, probably, trusted the +funds with considerable investments. Some walk with long, pretentious, +measured strides; others make short, quick, insignificant steps. Some, +again, are hurried, fussy, noisy; while others glide along in a quiet, +shrinking, unpretending, it may be timid, manner. + +I need not dilate upon these diversities. Your own observation will +supply abundant illustrations of the correspondence between character +and manner of walking. + +The several movements in walking are under the control of the WILL, +and are directed by it, to such an extent that the continuous agency +of the will is essential to the process. If the influence of the will +be suspended, but for a moment, the action ceases, and the man falls +to the ground. Nevertheless, the play of the individual muscles, and +their co-ordination, or the manner in which their several movements +are combined, are, in a great measure, independent of the will. +They are, to a certain extent, automatic, and result from peculiar +relations between the nervous and the muscular systems. The will may +be compared to the driver of an engine, who, by turning on the steam, +and maintaining the supply, sets the machine in motion, and regulates +the rate of its speed; but the several wheels are so arranged that they +go on irrespectively of his immediate superintendence. It would be +impossible for the engine-man to attend to the working of each detail +of his machine; and it would be too much for the will to have to direct +all the movements of the limbs in walking. We should be wearied with +such an effort of attention before we had walked across a room; for the +exercise of the will is exhausting, and soon engenders fatigue. The +more we think of any movement and take pains to direct it, the sooner +we are tired and unable to continue it; and the more the attention is +diverted, the less quickly do we experience a feeling of exhaustion; +while those movements in the body which are not at all under the +influence of the will--the movements of the heart for instance--go on +unceasingly, through a long life, without any sense of weariness. What +so prevents fatigue, when we are walking, as the diverting conversation +of an agreeable companion? + +But though the combination of the movements in walking is, to a +certain extent, automatic, it is not complete without the proper +control of the will. This is proved by the gait of those unfortunate +beings in whom the mind, and with it commonly the will, is deficient +from birth--I mean IDIOTS. Their movements are, usually, more or less, +irregular and unharmonious, jerky, without proper steadiness and +rhythm; the head is tossed about; the eye looks one way; the fingers +are sprawled out in another direction; the foot is jerked out at a +hazard, as it were, so that you don’t know when it will reach the +ground, perhaps it kicks against the other foot. A sad spectacle this. +The visit to an Idiot Asylum fills one, it is true, with a sense of the +value of an institution where these poor members of the human family +are kept out of harm’s way, and away from the gibes of the village +boys, and are made clean, and tidy, and taught so far as they are +capable of instruction; but I know no sadder sight than is presented +by a string of the inmates of such an asylum, guided from room to room +by the foremost of the number, who shews by his walk, somewhat more +steady than that of the others, that he is gifted with rather more +intelligence than they, and is so fitted to be their guide. + +An equally melancholy, an even more distressing, spectacle is that +of criminals pacing, like animals in their dens, up and down the +court-yard of their prison; for in them we know, that there is no +deficiency of will. It is strong enough to control and regulate +the movements of their limbs; but there is a still more important +deficiency, viz. a deficiency of that moral sense which should control +the will. + +Another sad, but physiologically interesting, sight is the rolling +walk of the drunkard. Here, again, the will is not deficient; but it +is, partly, and by its own agency, dethroned. Enough of the will is +left to set the machine going, not enough to guide it and control it +well. Though the movements follow one another, for the most part, in +proper sequence, they are uncertain and ill-directed. The balancing +power is partly lost. The feet are dragged hither and thither, and +thrown about, by the swerving weight of the body; and they follow +one another upon the ground at uncertain intervals, and in any but a +straight line. You watch a man in this state staggering from side to +side, and wonder how he keeps his legs at all. Soon the foot catches +against some slight obstacle or against the other leg, or fails to +come quickly enough into the required place, and the man rolls over. +The supple manner in which his unstrung limbs give under the weight, +perhaps, saves him, to some extent, from the shock; but you must +not imagine that drunkards have any charm against injury. A large +proportion of the accidents admitted into our Hospitals are the result +of drunkenness. + + +_Distinctive Features of the Human Foot._ + +I have already made a few comparisons between the human foot and that +of certain of the lower animals. It will be interesting to add some +others. + +There are several animals, as the Monkey, the Bear, and some Reptiles, +in which the foot resembles the human foot in many particulars. It has, +for instance, the same number of toes as the human foot, and the same, +or nearly the same, number of bones, and the latter disposed in much +the same manner. Certain peculiarities, however, distinguish the human +foot. These all have reference to the power which man, and man alone, +possesses of standing firmly upright, and of walking steadily, upon the +two feet. + +The following are the most important of these distinctive features. + +_First._ The several parts are fitted and bound together in a compact +firm manner, so as to combine strength and elasticity in the highest +degree. In this respect the human foot contrasts very remarkably +with the sprawling foot of the Seal or Lizard (figs. 2 and 3, +p. 11). The result is obtained, partly, by the great size of the +tarsal bones, in proportion to the other components of the foot, and, +partly, by the formation of the “Plantar Arch,” which is higher and +stronger in man than in any of the lower animals. + +_Secondly._ The TOES are short and small in relation to the other parts +of the foot. In many animals, the Monkey for instance (fig. 44, +p. 89), the toes form the greater part of the foot; and, in some, +the bones of the instep are reduced in number as well as in size: the +reason being that, in such animals, the toes are required to perform a +variety of offices--burrowing in the ground, scratching, holding on to +the branches of trees, catching and tearing prey, &c.--for which their +services are not needed by man. + +It may here be noticed that one of the great points of dissimilarity +between the foot and the hand consists in the difference which the +length of the digits bears to the other components in the two members. +They form nearly _half_ the length of the hand, but not more than a +_tenth_ of that of the foot. Clearly, therefore, they constitute a far +less important segment of the lower limb than they do of the upper, +and are intended to perform much less important functions in it. In +the hand the fingers and thumb may be said to constitute the essential +part; whereas the toes do little more than help the foot to adapt +itself to inequalities of the ground and so to obtain a firmer holding. +In civilized countries, accordingly, where we walk, chiefly, upon even +paths and paved streets, very little evil results from the loss of the +services of the toes which is incurred by covering over the foot to +protect it against the hardness of the roads. + +We often hear the toes spoken of as ill-treated members, which are +not allowed fair play because the art of man keeps them in a state +of inertness and deprives them of their natural functions. Anatomy, +too, gives some countenance to the idea, inasmuch as it shews that +the muscles which minister to the toes are as numerous as those which +are concerned in moving the fingers; and we occasionally see persons, +who, having been born without hands, or having lost them, contrive to +write and paint and do other unusual offices with their toes. Watch +the movements in an infant’s foot as yet unshod. They are considerably +more free than in your own; especially you will observe that there is +a power of separating the great toe from the others and approximating +it to them which you have, probably, altogether lost. The small size, +however, of the toes, and the comparative fixedness of the inner, or +great toe, prove, that they were never intended for anything like the +same variety of purposes as the fingers, and shew that, under the most +favourable circumstances, the _pes_ could never be _altera manus_, as +some would persuade us that it is. Certainly it was never intended to +be an organ of prehension. Hence, although in practice, boot-makers may +excite our wrath and deserve our condemnation, I don’t think that, in +principle, they are so much to be complained of. + +The _third_ striking peculiarity of the human foot is the size of the +inner or GREAT TOE and the firm manner in which its metatarsal bone is +joined to the other bones, so as to render it a main pillar of support +to the foot. These features of the great toe have reference to the +share of the weight of the body which is borne by the inner side of the +foot, more particularly during the last stage of the step, when the +body is propelled forwards over the other foot. Hence it is sometimes +called the “hallux,” from a Greek word (ἅλ-λομαι) signifying to bound +or spring. The _mobility_ of the _thumb_, enabling it to be opposed so +easily to each of the other fingers, is a characteristic of the human +_hand_; and the _solidity_ of the _great toe_ is equally, or even more, +characteristic of the human _foot_. The great toe should be continued, +from the instep, straight along the inner edge of the _foot_, or +inclined a little _in_wards; often, as before mentioned, its phalanges +become inclined _out_wards so as to interfere with the other toes[5]. + + [5] In ancient times warriors were wont to cut off the _great toes_ + as well as the _thumbs_ of their captives to disable them for further + service (Judges i. 6, 7). + +Though, in many animals the number of the toes is the same as in man, +this is not the case in all; and we may trace a gradual and progressive +diminution of the number, in the following order. + +[Illustration: Figs. 39. Elephant. + +40. Hippopotamus. + +41. Rhinoceros. + +42. Ox. + +43. Horse.] + +I have said (page 10) that the inner toe is incomplete in all +animals, forasmuch as, in none, does it possess the same complement +of bones as do the other toes. You will not be surprised to find, +therefore, that it is the first to be missing. The ELEPHANT goes upon +_five_ toes; but if you look closely you will perceive that the inner +toe (fig. 39, I.) has not attained even its usual incomplete +number of bones. It is short of one; and the inner wedge-bone, which +looks like a metacarpal bone, is prolonged, downwards, to supply the +place, and to give sufficient length to the toe. The same thing may be +seen in some other animals, and it is interesting as shewing the first +indication of departure from what may be called the standard number of +the phalanges. In the HIPPOPOTAMUS (fig. 40) we have an additional +stage of imperfection in this same toe; for here there is only one +small bone to remind us of the existence of the toe (it is the same in +the Rhinoceros, I.); all the rest have failed to be developed; and the +animal, consequently, goes upon _four_ toes. Next the failure appears +on the _out_er side of the foot, and affects the little toe. Thus, the +RHINOCEROS (fig. 41) goes upon _three_ toes--namely, Nos. II. III. +and IV.--and there is scarcely a trace either of the first toe or of +the fifth. In Ruminating animals, as the OX (fig. 42), the second +toe is wanting, as well as the first and the fifth; so that the foot +rests upon _two_ toes (Nos. III. and IV.); and in the HORSE (fig. 43), +as we have already seen, only _one_ toe--the middle one (No. III.)--is +developed sufficiently to reach the ground. + +[Illustration: Fig. 44. Gorilla.] + +Whatever pretensions to Humanity the MONKEY may make--and they are +sufficiently striking to render some persons very uncomfortable on +the score of relationship--he is certainly far removed from us in the +construction of the foot (fig. 44); and the good people to whom +I have alluded may derive consolation from the reflection that, in +this respect at least, there is very little indication of cousinship. +Indeed we ought not to speak of his _foot_ at all; for the part which +corresponds with the human foot does not even deserve that name. It is +so much more like a hand, that the term four-handed, or _quadrumanous_, +is by naturalists applied to this class of animals. There is scarcely +any plantar arch; the animal bears, chiefly, upon the outer edge of the +foot; the digits are long and strong; and the inner one, instead of +being parallel with the others, diverges from them so as to constitute +a true _thumb_ instead of a great toe. All these points are very +suitable for enabling the animal to cling to branches of trees, and for +other prehensile purposes; but they unfit him for the upright posture, +and render it impossible for him to walk steadily upon his lower limbs. + +[Illustration: Fig. 45. Gorilla.] + +In the great ape called the GORILLA, which is found in the +south-western part of Africa, and of which many specimens have now been +sent to this Country, the _hind-hand_ is of great size and strength, as +may be seen in the accompanying drawing made from a stuffed specimen +in the British Museum. The lower part of the leg is also very thick, +owing to the size of the muscles which move the great toe and the other +digits, and which enable them to give a most powerful grasp. So strong +and savage is the creature that all efforts to capture one alive, when +full-grown, have, hitherto, failed. He is said to give evidence of his +strength of hand and of his amiable propensities in the following way. +He swings by his fore-hands from the trees, and, letting himself down +quietly by them, watches an opportunity of seizing by the neck, with +his huge hind-hand, some unwary Negro who may be passing by, draws him +up, and holds him with vice-like grasp, till his struggles have ceased, +and then drops him a strangled corpse to the ground. + +Most of the characters above mentioned as distinctive of the human +foot--such as its compactness and strength, the height of the plantar +arch, the shortness of the toes--are, like the size of the calf, most +marked in the higher members of the human family, in those, that is to +say, who are gifted with the highest intelligence. Thus the formation +of the foot is found to have a correspondence with the formation of +the head, and may, like it, be, to a certain extent, taken, as I +have before remarked, to be an index of intellectual, as well as of +physical, capacity. The relation between the intellectual power and +the physical conformation of man, which is here exemplified, and which +is maintained throughout the frame, is a subject of extreme interest, +and is one which has not attracted the attention of anatomists and +ethnologists so much as it deserves. + +To what secondary causes this harmonious adaptation of body to mind +may be due, we cannot clearly tell; but we can see in it a provision +for giving physical ascendancy to superior intellect. And it is most +gratifying to be able to derive, as we may do, from this as well as +from the observation of the past and the present, the assurance that +the cultivation of the mind, provided its moral tone be preserved and +proper sanitary precautions be taken, is not likely to be attended with +any deterioration of the body. On the contrary, we have good reason to +believe that the present civilized nations of the earth, with their +higher mental culture, are inferior to none of their predecessors +in the qualities of the body; surely soldiers never maintained a +hand-to-hand struggle better than the victors at Inkermann; and we +know that the civilized nations are physically superior to most of the +uncivilized. We have good ground, therefore, to hope that the extension +of education and commerce will be productive, on the whole, of an +improvement of the physical condition of the species. + +Sir James Emerson Tennent says that the Veddahs, or aboriginal +inhabitants of Ceylon, use the foot in drawing the bow. They sit down, +place the toe against it, and draw the string with the hand; and some +of the American Indians appear to have used both feet in the same way. +These Veddahs furnish a good illustration of the low physical condition +which is usually associated with absence of mental culture. They are +described as in a singularly degraded state. “They have scarcely any +language, no knowledge of God, nor of a future state, no temples, no +idols, no altars, prayers, or charms; and, in short, no instinct of +worship, except it be some addiction to ceremonies, analogous to devil +worship, to avert storms, lightning, and sickness. All presented the +same characteristics of wretchedness and dejection--projecting mouths, +prominent teeth, flattened noses, stunted stature, and other evidences +of the physical depravity which is the usual consequence of hunger +and ignorance. The children were unsightly objects, entirely naked, +with misshapen joints, huge heads, and protuberant stomachs. The women +were the most repulsive specimens of humanity I have ever seen in any +country.” + + +_The Proportions of the Limbs._ + +A few years ago I took the measurements of numerous skeletons which +I found in the museums in France, Germany, and England, and made the +following table to shew the proportions of the several parts. + +The length of the foot and hand is in all somewhat greater than it +should be, in consequence of the bones composing them being usually +less closely articulated in the artificial skeleton than they are in +nature. + +From this it appears that the limbs of MAN differ from those of the +APE, chiefly, in the proportionate length of the thigh and arm, and in +the shortness of the foot and hand. And it will be seen that, in both +these particulars, the NEGRO differs from the EUROPEAN and exhibits +some approximation to the APE. + +I found, also (the tables shewing this are given in my work on the +Human Skeleton), that these characteristic proportions of the European +are brought out only during growth; for that in the early periods of +infancy the foot and hand are, relatively, very long, and the thigh +is actually shorter than either the leg or the foot, and the arm is +shorter than either the forearm or the + + +MEASUREMENTS OF SKELETONS (IN INCHES). + + +----------+---+------------+------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------------+ + | | H | | |C S| H | R | H | F | T | F | Pelvis. | + | | e | Middle |Spine,|i f k| u | a | a | e | i | o +------+------+ + | | i | point | |r e o u| m | d | n | m | b | o | | | + | | g | of |length|c r f l| e | i | d | u | i | t |Trans.|Ant.- | + | | h | spine. | of. |u e l| r | u | . | r | a | . | dia- |post. | + | | t | | |m n .| u | s | | . | . | |meter.|dia- | + | | . | | |- c | s | . | | | | | |meter.| + | | | | | e | . | | | | | | | | + +----------+---+------------+------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+------+ + |European | | | | | | | | | | | | | + |(average |65 | Symphysis | 22.2 | 20.5 |12.7 | 9.2 | 7.3 |17.88|14.4 |10.6 | 5.2 | 4.3 | + | of 25) | | pubis. | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + |Negro | |{ 1 inch }| | | | | | | | | | | + |(average |62 |{ below }| 19.3 | 19.8 |12.1 | 9.4 | 7.7 |17 |14.4 |11.11| 4.6 | 4.1 | + | of 25) | |{Symphysis.}| | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + |Bosjesman | | | | | | | | | | | | | + |(average |54 | Symphysis. | 17 | 19.6 |10.8 | 8.3 | 6 |15 |12.9 | 7.5 | 4.4 | 3.5 | + | of 3) | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + |Idiot | | | | | | | | | | | | | + |(in Berlin|57 | | 19.5 | 13.5 |12 | 8.8 | 7 |16 |12.5 | 8.5 | 5 | 3.8 | + | Museum) | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + |Chimpanzee| |{ 3 inches }| | | | | | | | | | | + |(average |50 |{ above }| 17 | |12.2 |11 | 9 |12.4 |10 |10.5 | 4 | 5.5 | + | of 4) | |{Symphysis.}| | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + |Orang | |{ 3-1/2 }| | | | | | | | | | | + |(average |44 |{ inches }| 18 | |14 |14 |10 |10.6 | 9.2 |12 | 3.8 | 4.5 | + | of 2) | |{ above }| | | | | | | | | | | + | | |{Symphysis.}| | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + |Gorilla | |{ 4 inches }| | | | | | | | | | | + |(average |58 |{ above }| 21 | |16.6 |12.9 | 9 |13.9 |11.3 |12 | 5.7 | 7.3 | + | of 3) | |{Symphysis.}| | | | | | | | | | | + +----------+---+------------+------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+------+ + +hand; and it is only, gradually, during the advance to manhood, +that the proper proportions are attained. So that the transient or +immature condition of the human frame shews certain resemblances to the +permanent Negro type and to that of the quadrumanous animals; and these +resemblances become obliterated during further growth. + +The accounts of travellers indicate that some other nations +present great varieties in the proportion which the length of the +foot and hand bears to the height. Bushmen and Hottentots are very +diminutive, commonly under 5 feet in height; and their hands and +feet are remarkably small and delicate, in which respect they differ +from Negroes. Mr Bartram observes with regard to the Cherokees or +Muscogulges--a tribe of North American Indians--that the women are, +perhaps, the smallest race of women yet known, almost all under +5 ft.; and their hands and feet are not larger than those of +Europeans of 9 or 10 years of age. He tells us, also, what is very +strange, that the men of this same tribe are of gigantic stature, “a +full size larger than Europeans,” many of them above, and a few under, +6 ft.; but he says nothing of the size of their hands and feet. +The hands and feet of the Patagonians are said to be very small. This +may be contrary to what we might expect; but it accords with what I +found to be the case in the skeletons of some Giants which I measured; +for in all of them the feet and the hands were disproportionately +short. It would seem, therefore, that, whether the stature of the +individual be diminutive or gigantic, the foot and the hand, in either +case, are, usually, less than their proper relative length. A greater +number of accurate data are, however, necessary to enable us to +generalise correctly upon this and other points of a like nature, or to +decide what truth there is in the common remark, that a long foot in a +child indicates a tall man. + +In former times the parts of the human body were used as measures; and +it was not uncommon to illustrate the tables of measures by drawings +of the human body, with descriptions of the foot, palm, &c. One of the +tables of the 16th century, derived in great part from the Romans and +the Greeks, is founded upon the notion, which is not very far from +the truth, that in the well proportioned man, the breadth of the palm +is a 24th part of the whole stature, and the length of the foot a 6th +part, and the length of the cubit--from the elbow to the end of the +fingers--a 4th. The measures, however, varied at different times and in +different countries, even though the names were the same. The latter +have, in several instances, remained, though the definite measure +which they now indicate is different from what it was, and differs +from that of the part of the body from which the name was taken. Thus, +our present foot measure (twelve inches) is considerably more than the +length of the human foot. + + +_The Skin of the Sole._ + +The SKIN of the sole is soft and yet very tough and strong. It +underlies a thick pad of fat, which separates it from the bones and the +plantar ligament. The fat is interwoven with fibres passing, through +it, from the tissue of the skin to the bones and ligaments. It is, +in this way, rendered very firm, though it retains much of the soft +quality of fat; and it forms an admirable cushion for receiving the +weight of the body and defending from injurious pressure both the skin +and the other parts of the foot. The fibres just mentioned bind the +skin to the superjacent bones and ligaments, and hold it firmly to +them, so as to prevent its being displaced from them in the movements +of the foot upon the ground. + +[Illustration: Fig. 46.] + +The accompanying woodcut shows that these connecting fibres are +most numerous where there is the greatest pressure, viz. beneath the +heel and the balls of the toes. It shows, too, that they take the +direction at each of those parts which is most calculated to prevent +displacement. Thus, at the heel their direction is chiefly from the +heel-bone, backwards, to the skin. When we place the heel upon the +ground in walking, the weight of the body has a tendency to drive the +heel-bone _for_wards from the skin; and the direction of the fibres, +from the heel-bone, _back_wards, just resists this tendency and +holds the skin and the bone firmly together. On the contrary, when +we withdraw the foot from the ground the pressure is in the opposite +direction, and has a tendency to drive the metatarsal bones _back_wards +from the skin. The course of the fibres is, consequently, changed. +They, many of them at least, run _for_wards from the bones and prevent +the displacement that would be likely to occur. This direction is also +very marked, and for the same reason, at the end of the great toe. A +bundle of fibres radiates from the projecting process, or tubercle, +which is conspicuous upon the under surface of the bone near its end; +and the greater number of them run _for_wards, through the pulp of the +toe, to the skin, and maintain the connection of the skin with the bone +when the latter is pressed _back_wards in withdrawing the foot from the +ground. + +The skin of the sole has a peculiar sensitiveness, which enables it to +take quick cognisance of contact with the ground or of any injurious +substances lying upon the ground. The sensitiveness in the foot is +rather increased by its being so much covered up. We are aroused to a +consciousness of this sensitiveness when the soles are tickled, or when +any one treads on our toes, especially if there happen to be a corn +there. We know also how sensitive the feet are to cold, and how liable +we are to catch cold from wet feet. This sensitiveness renders washing +the feet a refreshing luxury, especially in hot climates or when we +are fatigued. It is a luxury much indulged in by Eastern nations; +“Mephibosheth had neither dressed his feet nor trimmed his beard from +the day the king departed, until he came again in peace;” and among +the Jews in our Saviour’s time (Luke vii. 38), when guests were made +very welcome, their sandals were unloosed, and their feet washed and +carefully wiped, and, if the person were of high rank, anointed. + +The integument of the foot varies in different animals, according to +the nature of the ground upon which they tread and other circumstances. +Thus the Elephant, the Hippopotamus, and the Rhinoceros, living in +jungles and in marshy districts, have a more or less soft covering of +skin. Oxen and Horses gallop about upon dry ground; and their feet +are soled with thick hoofs of horn. The Dog has tough pads of skin +with thick cuticle upon his feet; and the feet of the Feline tribe +are muffled with fur so as to enable them to approach their prey with +a noiseless tread. Man’s foot is, by nature, like the rest of the +surface of his body, comparatively unprotected; but as the foot, by its +efficiency, emancipates the hand from the drudgery of carrying, so does +the latter make some return for this relief by providing artificial +coverings which enable the foot to tread upon various surfaces, and +protect it against the inclemencies of the seasons. + + +_On Shoes._ + +A few words on the subject of SHOES. No one will dispute the +correctness of the principle that the shoe should be made to fit the +foot; yet it is not a little remarkable that this principle is so often +departed from in practice, and that the usual plan is to make the foot +adapt itself to the shoe. That is, the shape of the shoe is determined +according to the fancy of the maker or the dictates of fashion, and +the foot is expected to mould itself accordingly. This is particularly +the case with the fore part of the shoe, into which the toes, or most +compliant parts of the foot, are squeezed. Thus, the shape of the +sole of a sound foot is about that represented in fig. 47; the +great toe is seen to be free from the others, and the line of its +axis, prolonged backwards, traverses the centre of the heel. Compare +this with the outline of the sole of a shoe as usually made; and the +violence that is done to nature is at once perceived. The shoe is made +quite symmetrical, or is curved a little in the part between the heel +and the sole--in the “waist” as it is called--when the shoes are to be +worn on the left and right foot respectively; and the toes, instead +of being allowed to spread out a little, are pressed together, and +made to converge to a point in the line of the middle toe, as seen in +fig. 48. + +[Illustration: Figs. 47. 48. 49. 50.] + +The line of the great toe is thus quite altered, and the other toes +are tightly wedged together (figs. 49 and 50); or, not being able +to find room side by side, they overlap one another and form unsightly +projections beneath the upper leather of the shoe. No wonder that +“corns” and “bunions” and “in-growing toe-nails” are the frequent +result of this treatment, and that so many persons are compelled to +walk in a cautious, feeling manner, and to watch the ground narrowly, +lest their cramped and tender toes come into contact with a stone or +other projecting body. + +How greatly to be lamented it is that the foot should be thus +maltreated and distorted, and that walking should be made so painful, +and that the shoe, which is intended to befriend and protect the foot, +and which, if well fitted, would support it and preserve its shape, +and make some amends to it for the rough hard roads upon which it is +compelled to tread, should be thus perverted into a means of galling it +and impairing its functions. + +This subject has been treated of in a simple and concise manner by +Dr Meyer, Professor of Anatomy at Zurich, in a small pamphlet, which +has been translated into English by Mr Craig, and entitled, “_Why the +Shoe pinches_[6].” I hope it may be read by boot-makers, and may lead +to some improvement in their art. Dr Meyer very properly remarks that +one of the main points to be attended to is, to allow the great toe to +have its normal position; and this can be done by making the inner edge +of the sole incline _in_wards, from the balls of the toes, instead of +_out_wards. The accompanying drawing (fig. 51) gives the outline +of a shoe designed under his superintendence, and shows the difference +between it and the usual shape, the latter being indicated by the +dotted outline. In fig. 52 the shoe is pointed, the pointing being +effected from the outer side. I have often laboured, but laboured in +vain, to impress the same point, and hope the more systematic attempt +of Professor Meyer may lead to better results. + + [6] _Why the Shoe pinches_, a contribution to Applied Anatomy by + Hermann Meyer, M.D. Professor of Anatomy in the University of Zurich, + translated from the German by John Stirling Craig, L.R.C.P.E., + L.R.C.S.E., price sixpence. + + The preceding four figures and the two following are taken from this + pamphlet with Mr Craig’s permission. + +[Illustration: Figs. 51. 52.] + +With regard to the _heel-piece_, I have already said that it should +not be high because it makes the step less steady and secure, and at +the same time shortens it, and impairs the action of the calf-muscle. +A high heel-piece, moreover, renders the position of the foot upon the +ground oblique, placing the fore part at a lower level than the heel; +thus the weight is thrown too much in the direction of the toes, and +they are driven forwards and cramped against the upper leather of the +shoe. The high-heel of a boot, therefore, tends to aggravate the evils +which are caused by the insufficient and ill-adjusted space which is +allowed to the toes. + + * * * * * + +This account of the foot has necessarily been very superficial and +imperfect. There are many points in its anatomy to which I have not +even alluded; but, if I have succeeded in giving you some idea of the +general plan of its construction, and in stimulating you to further +enquiry respecting the mechanism of the Human Frame, my purpose will +have been served. Still more will it have been so, if you carry away +with you some sense both of the Pride and of the Humility which the +review of such a structure is calculated to excite--of pride, not +selfish pride, but pride resulting from a consciousness of the nobility +of your physical nature, a pride which will make you spurn what is bad +and degrading, and will help you to aspire to what is elevated and +good. The impressions resulting from a comparison of this one fragment +of Nature’s work with our own most laboured achievements must quell +any other pride; and the very admiration with which we contemplate the +structure of our body impels us to walk humbly with our God, whose gift +that body is. + + + + +THE HUMAN HAND. + + +The great characteristic of the Hand, as distinguished from the Foot, +is the mobility of the first digit, or thumb. Accordingly when this +digit stands out apart from the others, and can be moved independently +of them, so as to be more or less completely opposed to them, in the +upper or Mammalian Class of animals, at least, we call the member a +Hand. When this digit is absent, or is fixed in the same manner as the +others, which is the case in each of the four limbs of Quadrupeds, we +call the member a Foot. In Monkeys, or in most of them, the thumb is +present and is separate and moveable in each of the four limbs; and +these animals are, therefore, called “quadrumanous” or “four-handed.” +Man, having the moveable thumb upon each of the two upper limbs only, +is “bimanous” or “two-handed.” By this peculiarity, perhaps more +definitely than by any other, he is distinguished in structure from all +the rest of the animal series; and naturalists have, accordingly, given +the epithet “Bimanous” to the class in which he is placed, and in which +he stands alone. + +The hand is the executive or essential part of the upper limb. Without +it the limb would be almost useless. The whole limb is, therefore, so +made as to give play and strength to the hand; and, in ever so brief a +description of the hand, it is necessary, even more than in the case +of the foot, to give some idea of the manner in which the other parts +of the limb are constructed, and to dwell a little upon such points as +have relation to its movements. + +[Illustration: Fig. 53.] + +The general plan of construction of the upper limb will readily +be understood by means of the drawings (figs. 53 and 58, +p. 122). It resembles very much that of the lower limb +(see fig. 4, page 15). The one bone of the upper arm--the +_humerus_--resembles the one bone of the thigh, and is jointed, above, +with the shoulder-blade, which, with the collar-bone, corresponds +with the pelvis. Below, it is connected with the two bones of the +fore-arm--the _radius_ and _ulna_; and these correspond with the two +bones of the leg. In the wrist there are eight bones, called _carpal_ +bones, arranged in two rows. These are connected with five _metacarpal_ +bones; and these, like the metatarsals of the foot, are jointed with +the _phalanges_. Of the latter there are three in each finger; but in +the thumb, as in the great toe (page 10), there are only two. + +[Illustration: Fig. 54.] + +The diagram shows how the bones of the hand are arranged in three +divisions. Thus, the upper row of carpal bones (3, 4, 5) consists, +practically, of three bones; the fourth (6), which is much smaller than +the others, being rather an appendage to one of them than a distinct +constituent of the wrist. (According to this view, the number of the +wrist-bones corresponds exactly with that of the tarsal bones of the +foot, viz. 7). The _outer_ of these three carpal bones (3) bears the +thumb[7] and the fore-finger (I. and II.), and constitutes, with them, +the outer division of the hand; the inner one (5) bears the ring-finger +and the little finger (IV. and V.), and constitutes the _inner_ +division of the hand; and the middle one (4) bears the middle finger +(III.), and is the _middle_ division of the hand. The diagram shows, +too, that the two outer bones (3 and 4), with the two outer divisions +of the hand, are connected with the radius; whereas the inner bone (5) +only, with the inner division of the hand, is connected with the ulna. +Strictly speaking, even this bone is not directly connected with the +ulna, but is separated from it, as will be shown presently, by a thick +ligament. + + [7] In deference to custom we call the palm the _front_ of the hand; + and, therefore, we speak of the thumb as the _out_er and the little + finger as the _in_ner digit: though it would better accord with the + ordinary position of the part, with its correspondence with the foot + and with comparative anatomy, to reverse these terms. + +You frequently hear ignorant persons (and the greater number of +persons are lamentably ignorant of the structure of their own body) +speaking of the _small bones_ of the shoulder, or the _small bones_ +of the elbow. You may think this a matter of no importance, and that +it does not concern you and people generally to have any knowledge of +human anatomy. But I will tell you what is very often happening, and +will leave you to judge whether such complete ignorance on this subject +is not attended with some practical disadvantage. A man meets with an +injury, falls and hurts his shoulder. The immediate effects of the +injury subside; but he does not quickly recover the use of the part; he +still cannot raise his elbow, or put his hand upon his head, or put it +behind him. Soon he begins to think that something more is wrong than +has been suspected; and the notion creeps over his mind, and gradually +takes possession of it, that some small bone is displaced. Not content +with the assurances of his medical man, he resorts to a quack, called +a “bone-setter.” The latter, taking advantage of the popular fallacy, +gratifies the patient with the information that his fears are correct, +affirms that “a small bone is out,” and proceeds forthwith to employ +the requisite forcible measures for putting the said “small bone” in. I +need not say with what result. Every year, in this civilized country, +many persons are maimed for life by these attempts to put imaginary +small bones in. I beg you, therefore, particularly to observe that +_there is no small bone_ either at the shoulder or at the elbow. The +only small bones are at the wrist; and these are so well fitted to one +another, and so firmly bound together, that nothing short of a crushing +force suffices to displace them. This remark respecting the small bones +of the wrist is true of nearly all the small bones in other parts of +the body. So that, in fact, small bones are very rarely dislocated; +and when you hear it asserted that a small bone is out, you may pretty +confidently conclude that the speaker does not know what he is talking +about. + +I have said that the upper limbs resemble the lower in their general +construction. There are, however, some important differences; and +one of the chief of these is the greater variety and freedom of the +movements in the upper limbs. _Strength_, for the purpose of carrying +the body, is the object in the lower limbs. _Mobility_ is the requisite +in the upper limbs. Of this one example has already been given in the +instance of the thumb as compared with the great toe. + + +_Movements at the Shoulder._ + +An equally striking example is afforded by the shoulder. In the +first place, the “Shoulder-blade” itself can be moved in several +directions--upwards, downwards, backwards and forwards;--whereas +the “Pelvis,” i. e. the part which bears to the lower limb the same +relation that the shoulder-blade does to the upper-limb, is immoveably +fixed. + +Secondly, the “Shoulder-joint” is so made as to permit a great variety +and extensive range of movements to take place. We can move the arm +forwards or backwards, as in throwing a ball, or, in sword exercise; we +can raise it so that the limb points straight upwards; and we can swing +it round in any direction. It is owing to the free movement in this +joint that we are able to apply the hand to every part of the body, so +as to remove sources of irritation. It is interesting to observe how +other animals get on without hands, though they are much exposed to +what we should consider great annoyance, as from flies, &c. The Cow, +for instance, lashes its hide with its tail. The Cat licks itself with +its tongue. The Sparrow dusts itself by the road-side. The Pig and the +Donkey roll in the mud. And many of them, as the Horse and the Ox, +have a thin muscle, called “panniculus carnosus,” spread out under the +skin, which effects those sudden twitchings of the skin whereby they +are enabled to jerk off anything that troubles them. In Man the hand +answers better than all these methods combined; and it is necessary +that it should do so, because his skin is more sensitive and less +protected by natural covering than that of any other animal. + +[Illustration: Fig. 55. + +Chest and shoulders of man.] + +For this freedom of movement of the arms, so important to the +usefulness of the hand, we are much indebted to the “Collar-bones.” +These bones, so called because they are placed at the lower part of +the _collum_ or neck, extend, horizontally, from the upper edge of the +breast-bone, to the processes of the blade-bones which overhang the +shoulder-joint. Thus they hold the shoulders apart, and give width to +the upper part of the chest. They also steady the shoulder-blades, +and afford a _point d’appui_ to the muscles which effect the lateral +movements of the arms,--for instance, to the muscles which tend to draw +the arms together, as when we hold anything, between the hands, in +front of us; and to those which separate the arms from one another, as +when we stretch them out at right angles with the body. + +[Illustration: Fig. 56. + +Chest and shoulders of bird.] + +Many animals--the ELEPHANT, the RHINOCEROS, the HORSE and the OX--have +no collar-bones; and they are only able to swing their fore limbs to +and fro. They cannot execute any lateral movements. They cannot throw +the limbs out sideways, nor press their fore feet together, so as to +hold anything between them. If the horse wants to seize or hold any +substance he must do it with his mouth. The Elephant has a special +provision for the purpose of prehension in his trunk, which enables him +to provide himself with food by pulling down the branches of trees. +The LION and the TIGER can press their fore paws together sufficiently +to enable them to hold their prey, and fix it upon the ground, while +they put the head down to it and pull at it and tear it with their +teeth; and they are furnished with rudimentary, or half, collar-bones +suspended in the flesh of the upper part of the chest; while the +little SQUIRREL, which sits upon its hind legs, and holds up the nuts +between its fore paws to be nibbled, has complete collar-bones. So has +the flying BAT, the climbing SLOTH and the digging MOLE. In BIRDS the +collar-bones (fig. 56, AA) are very large; and, for the purpose of +giving them greater strength, they are united together in the middle +line just above the breast-bone, forming what is commonly called the +“merry-thought;” and, as this is not sufficiently strong to resist the +force of the powerful muscles which flap the wings and sustain the +animal in the air, there are, in addition, stout “side-bones,” called +by anatomists “coracoid bones.” These (B) run, from the breast-bone +(D), in the same direction as the collar-bones, one, on either side, to +the shoulder-blades (C); and they afford even more efficient support to +the shoulders than do the collar-bones. The coracoid bones are peculiar +to oviparous animals, or nearly so. In some reptiles, as the CROCODILE, +they quite supersede the collar-bones. + +These few examples are enough to show that freedom of movement of +the arms, especially of lateral movement, is closely associated with, +and, indeed, is dependent upon the shoulder-blades being supported +and steadied by bones, which extend from the breast-bone to the +shoulder-blades, and fasten the one to the other. + +But, even the powers and advantages conferred by nature have often +some drawbacks; and this free play of the arm at the shoulder in man, +of which we are speaking, and the provision for it afforded by the +collar-bone, are no exceptions to the remark. It is necessary for so +great a range of movement that the socket in the shoulder-blade should +be shallow, and that the ligaments which connect the arm-bone with the +blade-bone should be loose. Hence the shoulder-joint is weak as regards +its ability to resist injury. The collar-bone also causes the shoulder +to project so much that it is greatly exposed to injury and often bears +the brunt of a fall. A man is thrown from a horse or is knocked down +upon the ground, and, if anything prevents the hand being stretched +out, the chances are that he falls upon the shoulder. True, the head is +saved thereby; but the shoulder suffers. Hence the shoulder-joint is +more often dislocated than any other; and no bone is more frequently +broken than the collar-bone. Even in little children, in whom, +notwithstanding their many tumbles, the other bones usually contrive to +escape, the collar-bones are often broken; and in grown-up persons the +shoulder is sometimes dislocated by the mere action of the muscles, as +in swimming, or throwing, or lifting a weight above the head. + +That you may understand the movements of the shoulder a little more +fully, I will ask you to contrast the drawing (fig. 58), which +shows the position of the blade-bone upon the chest in Man, with the +drawing (fig. 57) of the corresponding parts of the Rhinoceros; +and you will at once recognise several important differences, besides +the presence of the collar-bone in the one and its absence in the other. + +[Illustration: Fig. 57. Rhinoceros.] + +In the RHINOCEROS the chest is deep, from the back-bone to the +breast-bone, and is flattened at the sides; and the depth of this part +of the trunk is increased, slightly, by the breast-bone projecting, +keel-like, underneath, and, much more, by the spines of the back-bone +running up into a high ridge, above. The blade-bone and the arm-bone +are applied against the flat side of the chest, and lie, lengthways, +between the spine and the breast-bone, nearly parallel with the +broad flat ribs. The blade-bone has no process overhanging the +shoulder-joint, and, as before said, there is no collar-bone. The short +thick arm-bone descends nearly in a line with the blade-bone, and has +huge processes at its upper end for the attachment of muscles. The +parts are designed to bear the great weight of the animal, and to carry +its ponderous head and horn; but the only movement of which they admit +is a sliding of the blade-bone and arm-bone, backwards and forwards, +upon the side of the chest. + +In animals of similar construction to the Rhinoceros, but of lighter +frame, and of greater fleetness, the blade-bone is placed more +obliquely, which gives freer and easier movement both to it and to the +arm-bone. This, for instance, is the case with the well-bred horse, and +if we want a quick-going horse, one that can lift his fore feet well, +we should observe whether the shoulder-blade is oblique, and whether +the spines of the back rise well above it. Such a horse is said to have +“a good shoulder” and to be “well up.” He will carry a saddle well, and +is not likely to trip. + +[Illustration: Fig. 58.] + +In MAN the chest has proportionately less depth and length, and greater +breadth, than in any other animal; the breast-bone is quite flat; +and the spines of the back are sloped downwards, so that they do not +project beyond the level of the ribs and the blade-bones. Hence he can +lie easily either upon the stomach or the back--a privilege which is +shared with him by very few of the lower animals. Scarcely any of them +can lie upon the back, or even upon the stomach without the help of the +fore limbs. The donkey enjoys rolling over and over upon a dusty road, +but he cannot poise himself for a minute upon his back. + +The sides of Man’s chest, moreover, are not _flat_, as in the +Rhinoceros and Horse, but _rounded_, so that the blade-bones can +revolve upon them to and fro, as well as slide upwards and downwards; +and the long arms--comparatively long, that is, from the shoulder to +the elbow--hang quite free of the chest and form sharp angles with the +blade-bones. + +The blade-bones are accommodated to the shape of the chest; for, +instead of being elongated in a direction parallel with the ribs, they +are prolonged downwards, along the sides of the chest, at right angles +with the ribs. This prolongation of the lower part of the blade-bone +is very important, inasmuch as it enables the muscles to hold the +bone steady upon the wall of the chest, and so gives greater power to +those muscles which pass from the blade-bone to the arm and act upon +the shoulder-joint. Were it not for this provision the contraction of +the muscles intended to raise the arm would quite fail to produce the +desired effect, and instead of it would simply cause the shoulder-blade +to revolve upon a transverse axis. That is to say, when we endeavoured +to raise the arm our effort would merely have the effect of raising the +hinder part of the shoulder-blade. + +In each of these particulars--in the form of the chest, and in the +shape and direction of the shoulder-blade--the Monkey is intermediate +between Man and the inferior animals. The Monkey’s chest is broad +and round, in proportion to its length, if we compare it with other +animals; but this is less marked than in the human chest. And you +perceive that the Monkey’s back-bones project, as they do in other +animals, beyond the level of the ribs. The blade-bones are also like +those of Man in being prolonged downwards, and in being carried, to a +certain extent, across the ribs; but their lower angles do not run so +far in this direction as they do in the human skeleton. + +[Illustration: Fig. 59. Monkey.] + +The movement of raising the arm, as in carrying the hand _outwards_, +or pointing upwards, or putting the hand upon the head, is rather a +difficult one, and requires the combined action of many muscles. It +is, therefore, to be avoided by persons to whom muscular straining is +likely to be injurious; and the power of effecting this movement is +easily impaired by accident or disease. A long time often elapses even +after a slight bruise of the shoulder, before the person recovers the +power of putting the hand upon the head. + +The exercise of raising the arms above the head is a good one for +those in health, and is much, and wisely, recommended by the directors +of gymnastics. It brings many muscles into play, not only those of +the shoulder, but the muscles all round about the chest, viz. those +which pass from the spine and ribs, as well as from the breast-bone, +head, and pelvis, to the shoulder-blade and arm; and, thus, it tends +to strengthen the spine and the chest, as well as the shoulders and +arms. There is, perhaps, no exercise so good as this; and it is much +to be regretted that the dress of young ladies, with its paraphernalia +of stays and shoulder-straps, interferes so greatly with it. The +frequency among them of “pigeon-breast” and “crooked spine” must, +partly, be attributed to the confinement of the arms, caused by the +mode of dress and the customs of life. One of the few opportunities +afforded to the arms of availing themselves of this exercise is in the +dressing-room during the process of brushing the hair. I would by all +means, therefore, recommend young ladies to give sufficient time and +attention to this part of the toilette, and not to delegate it to the +lady’s maid. If, in addition, I suggest that it be commonly done with +open window, I feel sure that I shall have a deservedly great authority +among them--Miss Nightingale--on my side. + +[Illustration: Fig. 60. Elbow-joint.] + +The movement at the ELBOW is, merely, that of bending and +straightening, in a hinge-like manner; yet there is a slight obliquity +in the direction in which it takes place, an obliquity resembling that +in the movement at the knee (page 39). + + +_Pronation and Supination of the Hand._ + +In the FOREARM and HAND there is a movement with which we have +nothing exactly corresponding in the leg. It is called “Pronation +and Supination.” In _pronation_ we turn the palm _down_wards, as in +picking up any substance from a table; in _supination_ we turn the palm +_up_wards, as a boy does when he holds out his hand for a caning, or +for the more agreeable purpose of having a shilling put into it. + +PRONATION and SUPINATION take place in the following manner. Each of +the two bones of the forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist (fig. +53); but one of them--the “ulna”--is chiefly connected with the elbow; +and the other--the “radius”--is chiefly connected with the wrist, and, +by means of the wrist, with the hand. The two bones are separate from +one another, except at their ends. There they touch, and are jointed +together in such a manner that the large lower end of the radius can +play round, or partly round, the small, button-like, lower end of the +ulna; and, in so doing, it carries the hand with it. In this movement +the upper end of the radius (A, fig. 60) does not leave its place, +but simply revolves, upon its own axis, on the surface of the arm-bone; +and its edge turns in a notch cut for it in the upper end of the ulna +(B), which remains still. + +[Illustration: Fig. 61. + +Hand supine.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 62. + +Hand prone.] + +In the drawings (figs. 61 and 62) the relation of the parts in +the supine and in the prone state is shown by the aid of a plumb-line +falling from the part of the arm-bone upon which the upper end of +the radius revolves. The line traverses the upper end of the radius, +then passes along the interval between the two bones, then traverses +the lower end of the ulna, and, finally, takes the course of the ring +finger. And, provided the limb be held vertically, the line traverses +the same parts whatever be the position of the forearm and hand. It +does so in complete supination, as shown in fig. 61; it does so +in complete pronation, as shown in fig. 62; and it does so in +every intermediate position. We may call it, therefore, the axis upon +which the radius and the hand turn in pronation and supination; and, +according to this representation, the ring finger remains stationary +during the movement, while the other fingers and the thumb perform +their partial revolutions around it. + +I have said there is no movement in the lower limb exactly like the +pronation and supination of the forearm and hand. We have, it is true, +a power of moving the leg upon the thigh in a somewhat similar manner; +but this can only be done when the knee is bent. For instance, when +sitting in a chair with the foot upon a fender, or with the toes upon +the ground, we can make the foot revolve so as to turn the heel in +or out. A little careful observation, however, will prove that this +movement takes place, altogether, at the knee, and that _both_ bones +of the leg participate equally in it, the _whole_ leg revolving with +the foot. Whereas, in the case of the forearm, the movement takes +place, partly, at the wrist, and, partly, at the elbow; and _one_ bone +(the ulna) remains _still_ while the lower end of the other bone (the +radius) revolves around it. Moreover, the pronation and supination of +the hand and forearm are much more free than these movements of the +foot and leg; and they take place with equal facility and freedom in +any position of the limb. We can turn the palm up or down as easily +when the elbow is straight as when it is bent. + +The movement of which I am speaking is so important to the usefulness +of the hand, that I will call your attention to three of the muscles by +which it is effected. + +And, let me remark, by the way, that all the movements in the solid +parts of the body--probably all without exception, even the slight +wrinklings of the skin that take place when it is exposed to cold--are +the result of muscular action. Muscles are bundles of fibres which +have usually a red colour and constitute what is commonly called the +“flesh” or “lean meat” of animals. They are endued with the power +of contracting or shortening themselves; and it is this property +which gives rise to the various movements of animal bodies. At their +ends muscles often dwindle into “tendons” or “sinews” which, though +occupying much less space, and having no contractile power, are very +strong, and serve to connect the muscles with the bones. + +One of the three muscles just mentioned (A, fig. 61) passes from +a projecting process on the inner side of the arm-bone, at its lower +end, to the outer edge of the middle of the radius. Its contraction +causes the radius to roll over, or in front of, the ulna. It thus +pronates the hand, and is called a “_Pronator_” muscle. Another muscle +(B, fig. 62) passes, from a projecting process on the outer side +of the arm-bone, to the inner edge of the radius near its upper part. +It runs, therefore, in an opposite direction to the former muscle and +produces an opposite effect, rolling the radius and the hand back into +the position of supination. Hence it is called a “_Supinator_” muscle. + +[Illustration: Fig. 63. The Biceps Muscle.] + +The third is a very powerful muscle. It is called the “_Biceps_” +muscle (fig. 63), because it has _two_ points of attachment to the +shoulder-blade. It descends along the front of the arm, and, bulging +there, forms a conspicuous feature, to which athletic persons are proud +to point in evidence of their muscular development. Its tendon crosses +over the front of the elbow, and is inserted into the hinder edge of a +stout tubercle which is seen on the inner side of the radius near its +upper end. The chief effect of this muscle is to bend the elbow; but it +also rotates the radius so as to supinate the hand; and it gives great +power to that movement. When we turn a screw, or drive a gimlet, or +draw a cork, we always employ the _supinating_ movement of the hand for +the purpose; and all screws, gimlets, and implements of the like kind, +are made to turn in a manner suited to that movement of the right hand, +because mechanicians have observed that we have more power to supinate +the hand than to pronate it, though they are, probably, not aware that +the preponderating influence of the _biceps_ muscle is the cause of the +difference. + +The movement of which I am speaking is performed to its full extent +only by Man. Monkeys cannot completely supinate the hand; and in most +of the lower animals the part corresponding with the hand remains +nearly, or quite, fixed in a state of pronation. Even in Man, complete +supination is rather a constrained and awkward position. It is not +a position which is habitual or natural to us. When we see any one +sitting or walking with the palms turned forward it strikes us as +strange, and the idea is suggested to us that the individual must be +strange too, that, possibly, his head may be a little turned as well as +his hands. In a state of ease the hand is naturally more or less prone; +so that when it is desired to place the forearm or hand at rest, as +in case of disease or injury, the prone position is usually selected. +If the forearm be broken, for instance, the surgeon sets the fracture +and fixes the limb with the hand prone or semiprone. This is, also, +the position of greatest strength, as well as of most ease. Hence, in +striking a blow, or carrying a weight, or making any strong muscular +effort, the palm is always kept more or less inturned. + + +_The Wrist._ + +[Illustration: Fig. 64. Wrist-joints.] + +This drawing (fig. 64) represents what is seen when a section has +been made, from side to side, through the wrist and lower part of the +forearm. It gives an idea of the mode in which the several bones of the +wrist are adapted to one another and held together by ligaments. The +upper three wrist-bones (C, E, D) are joined together, so as to present +a convex surface, which is received into a wide cup, or socket, formed +by the end of the radius (A) and a ligament passing from the radius to +the ulna (B); and, in pronation and supination, the end of the radius, +together with this ligament and the wrist-bones, revolves upon the end +of the ulna. + +All the bones here represented are so well fitted to one another, and +so strongly bound together, that, as I have before said, displacement +very rarely occurs among them. We sometimes _hear_ of a dislocation of +the wrist, but very seldom _see_ one. The wrist is often bruised, or +its ligaments strained, by falls upon the hand; or, what very often +happens, especially after the middle period of life, the bones of the +forearm are broken a little above the wrist. + +You might think that, in such an accident, the radius only would +suffer, inasmuch as it is especially connected with the wrist-bones, +and so receives the force directly from the hand. But, if you observe +the line of contact of the radius and ulna (running from F), you will +see that it is oblique, and that its direction is such as to cause the +ulna to support the radius, and to receive some of the force from it; +and this disposition, which makes the ulna share the duties of the +radius, makes it, also, share the dangers; hence, it is very frequently +involved with the radius in fracture of the forearm. + +By the joints of the wrist we are enabled to move the hand backwards +and forwards, and also slightly sideways. + + +_The Movements of the Hand._ + +I come now to speak more particularly of the movements that take +place in the Hand. I have already said that the mobility of the thumb +is the chief characteristic of the hand as distinguished from the +foot. Another important distinction between the hand and the foot is +the greater length and mobility of the fingers as compared with the +toes. The toes are short; and our power of moving them is, under any +circumstances, slight. They constitute a small, and, comparatively, +unimportant, part of the foot. The fingers, on the contrary, are long; +they form a half, and, including the thumb, the more important half, +of the hand. Without them the rest of the hand, indeed the rest of the +limb, would be comparatively useless. Their movements are varied and +free, and take place with singular facility and rapidity. We can bend +them quite down upon the palm, and can extend them beyond the straight +line; we can separate them from one another to a considerable extent; +and we can bring them together with some force, as a waiter does when +he carries a number of wine-glasses between his fingers; and persons +who have lost the thumb contrive to hold a pen, a knife or fork, or +other things, between the fingers. + +[Illustration: Fig. 65. + +Muscles of forearm and hand.] + +Let me endeavour to give you an idea of some of the muscles which are +concerned in executing these movements. + +The wrist and hand are bent forwards upon the forearm by means of +three muscles (A, B, C, fig. 65). These all pass downwards from +the inner side of the lower end of the armbone. The outer and inner +ones (A and C) are connected, by tendons, with the wrist-bones; and the +tendon of the middle one (B) runs over the wrist and becomes spread +out in the palm like a fan, so as to support the skin of the palm and +to protect the nerves and blood-vessels, which lie beneath it, from +injurious pressure, when we grasp any substance firmly in the hand. The +fan-like expansion of this tendon in the palm is called the “palmar +fascia.” It is very strong, and is connected, below, with the ends of +the metacarpal bones, and with the sheaths of the fingers. The bundle +of muscles near D forms what is called the “ball of the thumb,” and +serves to move the thumb in various directions. + +[Illustration: Fig. 66. + +Muscles and tendons of hand.] + +Beneath these three muscles which bend the wrist and strengthen the +palm lies another set of muscles (A, B, fig. 66) which bend the +thumb and fingers. They pass from the bones of the forearm, and end in +long tendons or “leaders” which run over the wrist and palm and along +the fingers and are firmly connected with the last phalanges of the +fingers. They lie close to the bones in their whole course, and are +held in their places by sinewy cross bands and sheaths which are seen, +both at the wrist and in the fingers, in fig. 65. + +[Illustration: Fig. 67. + +Muscles and tendons on back of forearm and hand.] + +Fig. 67 represents the muscles on the back of the forearm. The +tendons pass from them, and run, some to the wrist and extend, or bend +backwards, the wrist upon the forearm, some to the thumb and extend the +several joints ofthe thumb; and others run to the back of the fingers. These leaders +lie nearer to the skin than do those on the palmar aspect; and most of +those which go to the thumb and fingers may be distinguished through +the skin. The short muscles (A, A) situated upon and between the +metacarpal bones pass from them to the sides of the fingers; some of +these serve to spread the fingers out from one another, while others +have the effect of drawing them together. There are several such small +muscles on both surfaces of the hand, but I must not detain you by +a description of them; and there are other little muscles passing +from the flexor tendons to the phalanges, which have been called +_fidicinales_, from their assisting in performing the short quick +motions of the fingers, and from their being, accordingly, called into +action in playing upon the violin and other musical instruments. + + +_Movements of the Thumb._ + +In its adaptation to the purposes of bearing the weight and +ministering to the locomotion of the body the human foot excels that +of any other animal; and, unquestionably, the human hand is not less +preeminently distinguished by the nicety, the variety, and the freedom +of its movements. This is shown by the manner in which it can be +twisted about, by the exquisite play of the fingers; and it is shown, +above all, by the mode in which the thumb can be moved to and fro, can +be opposed to the other fingers, and to any part of them individually +and collectively, and can be folded beneath them or clasped upon them +as occasion may require. + +The power which the thumb possesses, and gives to the hand, is +signified by its name--“pollex,”--derived from the Latin word +_pollere_, which means to have power. Some have supposed that the word +“poltroon” is derived from _pollice truncato_, and signifies one so +cowardly that he has submitted to have his thumb cut off in order that +he may be incapacitated for fighting. + +The faculty which we possess of moving the thumb in the way I have +mentioned, athwart the other fingers, and of touching any part of the +palmar surface of either of them depends, partly, upon its being set, +not quite in the same plane with them, but, obliquely, so that when it +is moved towards the palm it faces or opposes the other fingers; and, +partly, upon the nature of the joint between its metacarpal bone and +the bone of the wrist with which it is connected. + +This joint is so constructed as to admit of three different movements. +_First_, the thumb can be moved forwards or backwards, that is, +towards, or, away from, the palm. _Secondly_, it can be “adducted” or +“abducted,” that is, approximated to the forefinger or inclined away +from it. _Thirdly_, it can be “circumducted,” that is, its extremity +can be made to describe a circle, as in “twiddling the thumbs.” These +several movements are effected with great power and rapidity by +means of the bundle of muscles which forms the “ball of the thumb” +(fig. 65. D), as well as by the long muscles and tendons which +descend, from the forearm, to the thumb. + + +_Movements of the metacarpal bones of the Fingers upon the Wrist._ + +The movements of the thumb, through the medium of its metacarpal bone, +upon the wrist are much more free than those of any of the other +fingers. The middle finger, indeed, has its metacarpal bone set upon +the wrist so fixedly as to admit of scarcely any such movement. The +forefinger can be thus moved a little; the ring finger more and the +little finger still more. + +You may easily prove this by taking the knuckles or heads of the +respective metacarpal bones of one hand between the fingers and thumb +of the other hand, when you will find that you can press the knuckle of +the little finger backwards and forwards in a very perceptible manner. +Then try the knuckle of the ring finger; the movement is distinct, +though not so free as in the case of the little finger. The knuckle of +the forefinger you will find to be almost fixed; and in that of the +middle finger you will be unable to perceive any movement at all. + +In fact the joints of the metacarpal bones of the fingers with the +wrist resemble those of the outer four toes with the tarsus; and the +drawings of these joints of the foot (figs. 22 to 25) will serve +sufficiently well to illustrate those of the hand. + +These movements of the metacarpal, or knuckle, bones upon the wrist +enable us to increase or diminish the hollow of the palm by bringing +its edges more or less forward. Thus, when we make a cup of the hand we +bring forward the metacarpal bones of the thumb and the little finger, +wrinkling the skin of the palm; and when we spread the hand open we +carry those bones backwards, rendering the skin of the palm tense. + +These movements, moreover, enable us to bring the little fingers and +the thumb more easily into contact. + +Have you ever wondered what advantage is gained by the fingers and +thumb all differing from one another in length; or don’t you take the +trouble to reflect upon little matters of this sort? If you have, I +would ask you now to remark that there is, in the several fingers, +a relation between their shortness, their position near the edge of +the hand, and the amount of mobility of their metacarpal bones upon +the wrist. Thus the finger which is in the middle of the hand is +the longest, and its metacarpal is the most fixed. The fore-finger +is not quite so long; and its metacarpal is rather less immovable. +The ring-finger comes next in shortness and in the mobility of its +metacarpal. Then the little finger; and the thumb which is much shorter +than any other has also its metacarpal much more moveable. + +[Illustration: Fig. 68.] + +Observe, further, that, when the fingers and thumb are separated from +one another, and then bent, the middle knuckle-bone remains stationary, +but the others are advanced a little forwards, each to an extent +proportionate to its mobility upon the wrist, and to the shortness of +the finger. The fore-finger is, by this means, advanced a little, the +ring and the little fingers more, and the thumb most of all. And the +result is, that the tips of the fingers and the thumb come all to a +level, and form, with the palm, a great hollow in which we can grasp +any substance, a cricket-ball, for instance, and hold it very firmly. +The length of the several fingers and the thumb is, therefore, just so +regulated, in relation to their mobility upon the wrist, as to give us +this power. + +You may observe, also, that when the fingers and the thumb are spread +out the space between the thumb and the fore-finger is considerably +greater than either of the spaces between the other fingers. Then, by a +slight movement, the thumb takes up a position in front of, or opposite +to, the fingers; and in grasping any substance it has to antagonise the +pressure exerted by all the fingers. Hence it needs to be much stronger +than they are, and to be wielded by more numerous and more powerful +muscles. + +The MIDDLE FINGER is not only the longest and the largest finger; it +is also, to a certain extent, the centre about which the others move. +Thus, when the fingers are bent down into the palm, their tips all +converge towards the middle finger; and when they are spread out, they +all diverge from it. Its greater length and the greater prominence +of its knuckle, expose this finger to injury more than any of the +others; which may account for the fact that Surgeons are called upon +to amputate the middle finger more frequently than either of the other +fingers or the thumb. + +The FORE-FINGER has the greatest range of independent movement. Hence +it is used to point with, and is called the “Index” or “Indicator” +finger. + + +_Writing._ + +In WRITING the pen should be held between the pulps of the fore and +middle fingers and the thumb, in contact with all three, and firmly +lodged between them. The down-stroke is made by bending the phalanges +of the fingers and the thumb inwards and the metacarpal bone of the +thumb outwards; and the up-stroke is made by straightening all the +joints of the fingers and thumb. The hand rests lightly, not upon its +whole edge, but, upon the hindermost and foremost parts of the edge, +that is, upon the pisiform bone of the wrist and upon the little finger +near the end, so that it can be moved easily along the paper, and can +be inclined, or rolled, a little to either side. The obliquity of the +stroke is not imposed by mere arbitrary rule, but is in accordance with +the direction in which there is the freest movement of the fingers and +thumb when thus holding the pen. Make the experiment for yourselves of +moving the pen in different directions, and you will soon be satisfied +that the writing-master has nature on his side in insisting on a +particular movement as well as a particular mode of holding the pen. +Some persons make the strokes vertical, or slope them the wrong way; +but in either case the writing is stiff and awkward; it is not natural. + +The custom of writing from left to right may also be regarded as +correct or natural, inasmuch as we can move the pen more freely +upwards and _out_wards than upwards and _in_wards. Hence the light +_up_ or advancing stroke--that which connects a letter with the one +which follows it--is most easily made _out_wards or to the right; +and the letters are, consequently, made to follow one another in +that direction. To understand this more clearly make a down-stroke +upon paper in the usual manner; you will then find that you can make +up-strokes from any part of it more easily to the right than to the +left; and if you make a series of continuous up-and-down-strokes at +a little distance from one another, the up-stroke is, not merely +habitually, but naturally, made fine and inclined to the right, whereas +the down-stroke is made heavier or thicker and is sloped to the left. +Moreover, you will perceive that the hand slides along the paper more +easily from left to right than from right to left. + +It is worthy of remark that the writing of all that great class of +languages called Indo-European, which includes Sanscrit, Greek, Latin, +and many others, with our own, is from left to right; whereas nearly +all the writing of another great class called the Semitic, which +includes the Hebrew and Arabic, is in the opposite direction, viz. +from right to left. Some nations write in perpendicular columns, the +letters being placed under one another, of which the Chinese affords an +example. But either of the two latter methods must be inferior to the +Indo-European style in ease of execution and expedition. + + +_Reason for the Ring being usually placed upon the Fourth finger._ + +The RING-FINGER has less independent movement than either of the +others. It cannot be bent or straightened much without being +accompanied by one or both of those next it. This is, partly, because +its extensor tendon is connected, by means of a band of fibres, with +the tendon on either side of it. You may discern these connecting bands +working up and down under the skin of the back of your hand when you +move the fingers to and fro (they are represented in fig. 67). +The ring-finger is, therefore, always, more or less, protected by the +other fingers; and it owes to this circumstance a comparative immunity +from injury, as well, probably, as the privilege of being especially +selected to bear the ring in matrimony. The left hand is chosen for a +similar reason; a ring placed upon it being less likely to be damaged +than it would be upon the right hand. + +Other reasons have been given for this preference. It has been +attributed to a notion among the ancients that the ring-finger is +connected with the heart by means of some particular nerve or vessel, +which renders it a more favourable medium than the other fingers for +the reception and transmission of sympathetic impressions; the left +hand being selected, in preference to the right, because it lies rather +nearer to the heart. + +[Illustration: Fig. 69. Nerves of hand.] + +Some slight foundation for such a notion might be imagined to exist +in the fact (supposing the ancients to have been acquainted with it) +that the distribution of the nerves to the ring-finger is rather +peculiar. The peculiarity will be readily understood by reference +to the accompanying drawing (fig. 69). Two chief nerves are +seen descending, in their course from the brain, along the arm and +forearm, to supply sensation to the palmar surface of the hand. One +(A), the larger of the two, passes in front of the middle of the +wrist, and divides into branches which are distributed to the skin of +the thumb, of the fore and middle fingers, and of the _out_er side +of the ring-finger. The other nerve (B) lies on the _in_ner side of +the forearm and wrist, and its branches go to the skin of the little +finger, and of the inner side of the ring-finger. You see, therefore, +that there is, in this finger, a meeting of the branches of the two +nerves; the two sides of the finger being supplied by different +nerves. It would be a mistake, however, to suppose that it gains +any superiority in sensitiveness or sympathetic relations by this +arrangement; and this distribution of the nerves certainly does not +offer so probable an explanation of the selection of that finger for +the honourable office of ring-bearer as the one I have suggested. + +I must remark, here, that the nerve (B), in passing from the arm to +the forearm, lies on the inner side of the back of the elbow, and is +popularly known by the misnomer of the “funny-bone[8].” It lies, pretty +much out of harm’s way, in a well-protected channel between two bones. +Nevertheless, it is now and then hurt; and you know that when the +“funny-bone” is struck, a peculiar pain, or tingling, is experienced +along the little finger and the adjacent side of the ring-finger. + + [8] It has been suggested, probably by _Punch_, that it is called the + “_funny-bone_” because it lies near the “_humerus_.” + +The practice of wearing rings upon the hand is a very ancient one. In +some instances they were badges of slavery. More generally they were +marks of high esteem or authority; as when “Pharaoh took off his ring +from his hand and put it upon Joseph’s hand,” and when “Ahasuerus took +off his ring, which he had taken from Haman, and gave it to Mordecai.” +The Roman knights also wore rings of gold. Sometimes rings were worn +as charms against diseases; a practice which has been revived in our +own day. They were placed upon any of the fingers, and upon the right +hand as well as the left. Thus we read in Jeremiah, “though Coniah the +son of Jehoiakim king of Judah were the signet upon my right hand.” +The preference of the left hand and of the ring-finger seems to be +comparatively modern, originating, probably, when the ring was made +lighter and more fragile, and was, at the same time, adorned with +precious stones, and when it became, therefore, desirable to place it +upon the part of the hand where it is least exposed to injury. + + +_The Monkey’s Hand._ + +Most of you have spent some time in watching the inmates of that +interesting part of a zoological collection, the MONKEYS’ cage, and +have observed how nearly the hand of that animal resembles the human +hand, in the presence of a thumb, in the variety and celerity of its +movements, in the facility with which it can catch and pick up objects +and hold them up to the mouth, and in some other points. A little +closer observation, however, will show that there are some differences +between the two. The several parts do not bear the same relation to one +another in the Monkey’s hand which they do in the human hand; neither +have they quite so great variety or range of movement. The hand is +altogether narrower, and straighter. The thumb is shorter and less +strong, scarcely reaching beyond the knuckle of the fore-finger. The +fingers, on the contrary, are longer and of more uniform length; they +do not admit of being separated so widely from each other in a fan-like +manner; and the metacarpal bones at the edges of the hand, i. e. the +metacarpal bones of the thumb and of the ring and little fingers, have +not the same amount of play upon the wrist. Hence the thumb and the +fingers of the Monkey cannot be opposed to one another so easily as +in man; neither can they be so advanced in front of the middle finger +as to form a hollow or cup, in the way I described when speaking of +the hollow of the palm and the different lengths of the fingers in the +Human hand. When you throw a Monkey a nut he usually picks it up and +holds it between the thumb and the _side_ of the bent fore-finger, not +between the tips of the thumb and fingers. The length of the fingers +adapts the Monkey’s hand well for clasping firmly the branches of +trees, and assisting the animal to climb about in its native forests, +or to hold on to the bars of its cage; and so the part answers the +requirements of the creature better than if these qualities had been +sacrificed to a greater regard for variety and range of movement. + + +_The Hand the Organ of the Will._ + +The human hand is peculiarly an organ devoted to the will, being more +directly and completely under its influence than is any other part of +the body. The WILL, remember, is that self-directing faculty which can +be said to exist, definitely and decidedly, in Man alone, which is +associated in him with the responsibility attaching to the selection +between good and evil, and which is given to him to fit him to be +the reasonable servant of his Maker, and upon which, therefore, his +dignity, and his capability for occupying a position between the low +animal and the high spiritual world, so much depend. How appropriate +is it, then, that the will should have a special organ assigned as its +more peculiar minister. It is to the complete subjection of the hand +to the will, no less than to the combination of strength with variety +and delicacy in its movements, that Man is indebted for his dominion +over the rest of the animal world, and for the ability to execute the +wonderful works which his genius designs. + +When we reflect how essential is the hand to Man’s well-being, power, +and progress, and upon the infinite variety of purposes which it serves +in obedience to the will, we are not surprised that the construction +of the foot, indeed of every part of the frame, should have reference +to the object of liberating the hand from the subordinate work of +locomotion to a degree which we find in no other animal, and of leaving +it free to execute its higher offices in a ready and efficient manner. + +But, after all, notwithstanding the excellence of its mechanism and +its intimate relation to the will, what would the hand be without +the reflecting and designing MIND--the mind that can build upon the +past and prepare for the future, and so carry on the ever-advancing +work of human civilization and progress. Without it Man would remain +stationary, like the other animals; and, as age succeeded age, the +hand would only suffice to provide the necessary requirements of the +body. Nay, even this is saying too much; for without the mind, without, +at least, some higher instinctive or reflective faculty than the +other animals possess, Man would, in reality, be inferior to them. He +would be absolutely unable to maintain his existence, and would be a +miserable victim to the fineness of his organisation. His hand would +fail to supply him with food, or to defend him against his numerous +enemies, or to provide for the protection of his delicate and sensitive +frame from the inclemency of the elements. + +The real excellence of the human hand--and the remark applies equally +to the whole human body--consists, not in the admirable construction of +its several parts, nor in their well-adjusted relation to one another, +so much as in the adaptation of the whole to the mind that presides +over it. This it is that renders Man the lord of the creation, that +enables him to subdue all his foes, and gives him, in some measure, +power over the elements, so that land and water, fire and air, are made +to serve his purpose. By this harmonious co-aptation of mind and body +Man is rendered cosmopolitan, being able to thrive in every clime, +from the regions of continual snow to those burning equatorial plains +where even reptiles perish from the heat and drought, and being able to +convert the barren plain into a fertile field, and to draw water out of +the stony rock. + +At the late meeting of the British Association at Oxford, a gentleman +related that he had a monkey which was very partial to oysters, and was +very fond of playing with a hammer; but he never could be taught to use +the hammer for the purpose of breaking the oyster-shells to gratify +his appetite. How wide a gulf does the absence of intelligence in this +simple matter indicate between ourselves and the animal that approaches +nearest to us! + + +_The Hand an Organ of Expression._ + +Further, we cannot fail to recognise and admire the adaptation of +the hand to the mind at all ages, and under various circumstances; +in its weakness and suppleness, and in its purposeless and playful +movements in infancy and childhood; in its gradually increasing +strength and steadiness as the intellect ripens; in the stiffness and +shakiness of declining years; in the iron grasp of the artizan; in +the light delicate touch of the lady; in the twirlings, fumblings, +and contortions of the idiot; in the stealthy movements of the thief; +in the tremulousness of the drunkard; in the open-handedness of the +liberal man; and in the close-fistedness of the niggard. + +Thus the hand becomes an organ of expression and an index of +character. What would the nervous young gentleman in a morning call +give to be quit of these tale-telling members; or what would he do +without a hat or a stick to employ and amuse them? How effective an +auxiliary to the orator is the wave of the hand, or, even, the movement +of a finger. Some men, indeed, seem to owe the efficiency of their +declamations as much to the hand as to the tongue. I have seen a +practised orator (he was a man of the most complete self-possession) +quell an excited audience by one determined movement of his hand. It +happened to me to hear two of the most celebrated preachers of the +day within a short period. In each of them the movements of the hand +were remarkable, though very different. In one, the free, impassioned, +but natural, and, therefore, easy action of the hand showed a deep +and genuine interest in the subject, and helped to waft the fervid +sentiments straight from his own heart to the hearts of his audience. +In the other, who was a no less accomplished speaker, the constrained +and carefully regulated movements of the hands were evidently the +result of forethought and study; they were intended to be impressive, +but were too obviously done for effect; and, therefore, were far less +effective as well as less pleasing. + +Our great and venerable orator, as well as high authority on the art +of speaking (Lord Brougham), tells us that the subject of a speech +should be carefully studied, and the sequences well adjusted. He says +that, in the most effective passages, even of practised speakers, +the exact words are usually selected beforehand; but he is silent +respecting the actions by which they should be accompanied. These, at +least, should be unpremeditated; and they will best assist to convey to +others the real feelings and emotions when they are the simple result +of the natural working of the mind upon the body. + +The kind of expression that lies in the hand, being much dependent +on the effect of the muscles upon it, is very hard for the artist +to catch, though very important to the excellence of the picture. +Painters, usually, make the hand a subject of careful study, but +rarely succeed in throwing the proper amount, either of animation or +of listlessness, into it. In portraits, especially, the hands are a +difficult part to treat satisfactorily; yet the artist feels that they +are too important not to have a prominent place, and he, commonly, +imposes upon himself the task of representing them both in full. I have +seen them drawn held up in front, like the paws of a kangaroo, in an +otherwise good picture. The stereotyped position in portraits is that +one hand lies upon a table, though it, probably, evinces an uneasiness +there, while the other rests, perhaps equally uneasily, upon the arm of +a chair. Vandyck, in whose paintings the hand usually forms a prominent +feature, is considered to have peculiarly excelled in imparting to it a +sentimental air imbued with deep pathos. + + +_Shaking Hands._ + +How much do we learn of a man by his “SHAKE-OF-HAND.” Who would expect +to get a handsome donation, or a donation at all, from one who puts +out two fingers to be shaken and keeps the others bent as upon an +“itching palm”? How different is the impression conveyed by the hand +which is coldly held out to be shaken and slips away again as soon as +decently may be, and the hand which comes boldly and warmly forward and +unwillingly relinquishes its hearty grasp? Sometimes one’s hand finds +itself comfortably enclosed, nursed, as it were, between both hands of +a friend, an elderly friend probably; or it is shaken from side to side +in a peculiar short brisk manner. In either case we are instinctively +convinced that we have to do with a warm and kindly heart. In a +momentary squeeze of the hand how much of the heart often oozes through +the fingers; and who that ever experienced it has forgotten the feeling +conveyed by the eloquent pressure of the hand of a dying friend, when +the tongue has ceased to speak? + +Why do we shake hands? It is a very old-fashioned way of indicating +friendship. Jehu said to Jehonadab, “Is thine heart right as my heart +is with thine heart? If it be, give me thine hand.” It is not merely +an old-fashioned custom; it is a strictly _natural_ one, and, as usual +in such cases, we may find a physiological reason, if we will only +take the pains to search for it. The Animals cultivate friendship by +the sense of touch, as well as by the senses of smell, hearing, and +sight; and for this purpose they employ the most sensitive parts of +their bodies. They rub their noses together, or they lick one another +with their tongues. Now, the hand is a part of the human body in which +the sense of touch is highly developed; and, after the manner of the +animals, we not only like to see and hear our friend (we do not usually +smell him, though Isaac, when his eyes were dim, resorted to this sense +as a means of recognition), we, also, touch him, and promote the kindly +feelings by the contact and reciprocal pressure of the sensitive hands. + +Observe, too, how this principle is illustrated by another of our +modes of greeting. When we wish to determine whether a substance be +perfectly smooth and are not quite satisfied with the information +conveyed by the fingers, we apply it to the LIPS and rub it gently upon +them. We do so, because we know by experience that the sense of touch +is more acutely developed in the lips than in the hands. Accordingly, +when we wish to reciprocate the warmer feelings we are not content with +the contact of the hands, and we bring the lips into the service. A +SHAKE-OF-HANDS suffices for friendship, in undemonstrative England at +least; but a KISS is the token of a more tender affection. + +Possibly it occurs to you that the TONGUE is more sensitive than +either the hands or the lips. You have observed that it will detect an +inequality of surface that escapes them both, and that minute, indeed, +is the flaw in a tooth which eludes its searching touch. You are right. +The sense of touch is more exquisite in the tongue than in any other +part of the body; and to carry out my theory, it may be suggested that +the tongue should be used for the purposes of which we are speaking. It +is so by some of the lower animals. But, in man, this organ has work +enough to do in the cultivation and expression of friendship in its own +peculiar way; and there are obvious objections to the employment of it +in a more direct manner for this purpose. + + +_The Skin of the Hand._ + +By the aid of the accompanying drawings you will be able to form some +idea of the structure of the SKIN of the hand. + +[Illustration: Fig. 70. Skin.] + +One of them (fig. 70) represents a section of the skin, made +perpendicular to the surface, as seen under the microscope. It is from +the end of the thumb, and includes three of those delicate lines, or +ridges that are found there. + +The superficial, or uppermost strata (_a_ and _b_), are the “Cuticle” +or “false skin.” The outer layer (_a_) is hard, horny, and dry. It is +composed of numerous fine scales laid upon one another, like the tiles +upon the roof of a house, but adhering more closely together, so as to +form one continuous sheet extending all over the body. The outermost +of these scales are continually being shed, peeling off as scurf, or +being rubbed off; and fresh ones are supplied by the next layer (_b_), +which is a softer material and lies immediately upon the surface of the +“cutis” or “true skin.” + +This softer layer (_b_) is often called the “_Rete Mucosum_.” It is +made up of minute bags or bladders, named “cells” by anatomists, which +grow and propagate upon the exterior of the true skin, being nourished +by the blood in the skin. Those which lie nearest the cutis are the +youngest and the softest. Gradually they are pushed outwards by their +successors or offspring; and, as they approach the surface, they become +flatter and drier and more adherent to one another, and are finally +converted into the thin scales of the cuticle. Thus, there is no real +line of division between the cuticle and the rete mucosum; but the +cells of the latter are gradually transformed into the scales of the +former. + +The rete mucosum is thicker in the Negro than in the white man, and +contributes somewhat to the softness of his skin. It contains also the +colouring matter in the form of minute black particles diffused among +its cells (fig. 72). These particles disappear, more or less, +as the cells become changed into scales; hence the outer part of the +cuticle of the Negro is not so dark as the rete mucosum, but, as it is +transparent, or nearly so, it allows the dark colour of the rete to +show through it. + +Persons commonly speak of the cuticle as if it were the whole thickness +of the skin. Thus, when a blister has drawn, they say the _skin_ is +raised; whereas it is only the _cuticle_. This is forced off from +the skin by the fluid effused into its softer layer--i. e. into the +rete--in consequence of the irritating influence of the blister. + +The cuticle has no nerves, and, therefore, no feeling. It may be cut +or torn without pain. The snipping of a blister with the scissors is +not felt, because the cuticle only is touched. It forms a covering +to the whole surface of the body, and is invaluable as a means of +preventing too great evaporation. Without it we should be dried up, +almost mummified, by the end of a summer’s day. It also protects the +delicate sensitive skin underneath. How sore is the knuckle when +the cuticle has been rubbed off! The cuticle has, moreover, the +accommodating property of becoming thickest where it is most wanted, as +on the sole of the foot, and on the palms of the hands of blacksmiths, +and artizans, and persons who handle the oar. And if any other part +of the body be subjected to much friction, for instance, the knees of +housemaids, or the shoulders of men who carry packs, the cuticle soon +becomes thickened there. + +Beneath the cuticle lies the “Cutis” or “True Skin” (_c_, +fig. 70, and _c_ and _d_, fig. 71). It is a tough structure +consisting of interlacing fibrous and fine muscular tissue, and +contains the blood-vessels and nerves. The cuticle may be pared off +without any bleeding; but directly the skin is wounded the blood flows. +The cutis does not present an even surface next the cuticle, but shoots +out into a number of little finger-like processes, called “Papillæ,” +which project into the contiguous soft stratum of the cuticle, and are +embedded in it. Thus the superficies of the skin is increased; and +as the blood-vessels and nerves of the cutis are continued into the +papillæ, they contribute very greatly to the sensitiveness of the skin. +They are most numerous in parts where the sensitiveness of the skin +is greatest; for instance, they are more numerous on the palmar, than +on the dorsal, surface of the hand. Near the ends of the fingers and +thumb they are arranged in a linear manner, forming the delicate ridges +that encircle the cones of the pulps. Sections of these ridges are +represented in fig. 70. + +[Illustration: Fig. 72.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 71. Skin.] + +The superficial or papillary part of the cutis is of finer and more +delicate structure than the deeper or fibrous layer, and is, therefore, +sometimes described as a separate layer. It is so represented in the +accompanying figure (71, _c_). + +As we are upon the subject of the cuticle and the papillæ, I will +take the opportunity to say a word respecting two diseases of these +structures, in which most of you, probably, have a personal interest. I +mean “Warts” and “Corns.” + +[Illustration: Fig. 73. Corn.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 74. Wart.] + +A WART (fig. 74) depends chiefly on a diseased state of the +papillary stratum of the skin. The papillæ become coarse and grow up +beyond the level of the surrounding skin, so as to present an uneven or +“warty” surface. They carry a layer of cuticle before them. This layer +is usually thin, so that the wart bleeds easily when it is rubbed. +Sometimes, however, it is very thick and hard like a piece of horn. +We, now and then, hear of a horn growing upon some part of the body, +perhaps on the forehead. Such a horn is, usually, nothing more than a +conical mass of cuticle formed upon the surface of a large wart. Warts +are generally caused by something irritating the skin, as dirt or soot +rubbed into the cuticle. For this reason they are more frequent upon +the hands than upon other parts of the body. + +In a CORN (fig. 73), also, the papillæ are somewhat enlarged; +and this accounts in part for the great tenderness of corns. But the +primary and essential feature of a corn is a thickened state of the +cuticle. This is caused by too great rapidity in its formation, and +is, usually, dependent upon pressure, especially if the pressure be +combined with some friction. Hence corns are most commonly found upon +the foot, and upon the parts of the foot, where the skin is subject to +pressure and rubbing against the shoe. The drawing shows the appearance +presented by a vertical section through a corn and through a small +portion of the skin on either side. The accumulated layers of cuticle +are seen, and the enlarged papillæ shooting up into them. I need +scarcely add that it is owing to ignorance, or something worse, when +corn-cutters talk of curing the malady by taking out the _roots_; for, +corns, evidently, have no roots. + +One word of advice about corn-cutting. Most persons have some +experience in this art, and some opportunity of practising it on +themselves; and many pride themselves on their skill in it. The +usual plan is to shave off layer after layer from the whole surface +of the corn; and this, by lessening the projection of the corn, may +give relief for a few days, though it does not always do that. Soon, +however, the distress returns; and the area of the corn increases +after each operation. Now, I would have you observe that it is at the +_middle_ of the corn that the papillæ are most enlarged; and it is +here that the formation of cuticle goes on most quickly, giving rise +to the little white cone or cones often seen in a corn and sometimes +wrongly called the roots. The proper mode is to confine the cutting to +this part, and to remove as much of the thickened cuticle as you can +from this spot, digging, as it were, a hole in the middle and leaving +the circumference intact. The circumference, which is not usually +tender, thus forms a wall round the excavated centre and defends it +from pressure; and great relief is experienced. Further benefit will +be found from covering the corn with some soft adhesive plaster; and +you may sometimes, with advantage, lightly apply common caustic before +putting on the plaster. If you follow these directions carefully you +may be your own chiropodists, and almost defy your bootmakers. + +If, in cutting a corn, you go too deeply, you will wound the tops +of the papillæ and cause some bleeding; this is not however usually +followed by any ill consequences. + + +_Nails._ + +Almost all vegetable as well as animal surfaces are covered with some +kind of cuticle. It forms the smooth exterior of a leaf and the rind +of an apple; and the soft down of a moth or a butterfly, the scales of +fish, the feathers and claws of birds, the quills of the porcupine, the +horns of oxen and the hoofs of the horse are examples of modifications +of cuticle. NAILS and HAIR are also of this nature. They are both +continuous with the cuticle, and peel off with it when it is, by any +process, separated from the skin. Both are formed, like the cuticle, of +compressed plates or scales matted together; and these are continually +being shed or rubbed off on the one side, and supplied from the rete +mucosum on the other. + +The rete mucosum, it should be stated, extends over the whole surface +of the body. In most situations, as already mentioned, it is the medium +from which the ordinary cuticle is produced; but on the upper part of +the ends of the fingers and toes it is converted into nail, and in the +hair follicles, as I will presently describe, it is transformed into +hair. + +[Illustration: Figs. 75, 76, 77. Longitudinal sections of Nail.] + +The drawings will help you to understand the relation of the nails to +the cuticle and the cutis. In the upper of the three (fig. 75) +the nail with the cuticle has been detached from the cutis, so that +the continuity of the two, at either end, is shown. In the middle one +(fig. 76) it is represented lying in its bed in the cutis; its +thin hinder edge being received into a furrow made for it in the cutis. +The layer of rete mucosum (_b_) extends behind and beneath it, between +it (_d_) and the cutis (_c_), and continually adds fresh material to +the nail, just as, in other parts, it adds to the substance of the +cuticle. The cuticle, or white line (_a_) is continuous with the nail +at the sides as well as at either end. The lower figure (77) shows the +bed of the cutis in which the nail reposes, the nail as well as the +adjacent cuticle and the rete having been cleared away. + +Thus the addition from the rete--in other words the growth of the +nail--takes place at the hinder edge and at the under surface. In +consequence of the addition from _behind_ the nail is increased in +length and is pushed forward; and as it advances forwards it receives +accessions from _beneath_, which increase its thickness and strength. +Unless they be cut, or worn down, the nails grow to an indefinite +length; and, when they extend beyond the tips of the fingers, their +edges are bent in towards each other, and they become curved like +claws. This tendency to a convex form is shown also if the nails be +not properly supported by the pulps of the fingers. For instance, when +persons become emaciated the pulps of the fingers usually participate +in the general wasting and the nails become curved. Hence this shape +of the nails has been regarded as an indication of consumption. You +will understand, however, from what I have said that it is not really +a symptom of any one particular disease. It simply indicates that, +from some cause or other, the nutrition of the body is not properly +maintained. + +The Dervishes in some parts of Asia allow the thumb-nail to grow long, +and then pare it to a point, so as to be able to write with it. Dr +Wolff, the Eastern traveller, has told me that he has repeatedly seen +this done, and that he has in his possession manuscripts written in +this way. + +[Illustration: Fig. 78. Transverse section of Nail Rete and Cutis.] + +Beneath the nail the cutis is disposed in a series of parallel ridges +(fig. 78) with intervening furrows. These take the same direction +as the nail, and, indeed, give rise to the fine lines that you see upon +the surface of the nail. The rete mucosum, or deep soft layer of the +nail, extends into the furrows between the ridges, just as the soft +stratum of the cuticle extends between the papillæ of the cutis. It +thus serves to keep the nail steady in its place, while it permits a +certain amount of movement, and allows the nail to slide forwards upon +the skin under the pressure caused by the growth at its hinder edge. + +A little in front of the root of the nail the ridges of the cutis +suddenly become larger and more vascular. This gives a pink hue to +the nail in the greater part of its extent; while the hinder portion, +separated from the front by a crescentic line, is white, in consequence +of the subjacent cutis being there, more pale. You will, at once, +recognise the distinction between these parts by looking at your own +nails. + +The ridges and furrows serve, like the papillæ in other parts of the +skin, to increase the surface of the cutis; and, by affording more +space for the distribution of the vessels and nerves, they contribute +to the sensitiveness of the part, and account for the severe pain which +is caused when any foreign body is thrust under the nail. The pulp +in the interior of a tooth, and the frog of a horse’s foot, are also +instances in which an exquisitely sensitive structure is placed beneath +a hard or horny substance. The object, in each case, is the same, viz. +to give the power of taking cognizance of impressions which are made +upon the surface. + + +_Hairs._ + +HAIRS may also be regarded as modifications of the cuticle, because, +like the nails, they are continuous with the cuticle, and are formed +from the rete mucosum. Each hair (figs. 79 and 83) is received +into a depression of the cutis, which is called a “follicle,” and which +is lined, as far as the bottom, by cuticle (_a_), and rete mucosum +(_b_). At the bottom of the follicle (_d_) the cuticle is absent, and +the hair rests, directly, upon the rete; and, at this part, the rete, +instead of being converted into cuticle, as it is at the sides of the +follicle, becomes transformed into hair, in the following way. + +[Illustration: Fig. 79. Hair.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 80.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 81.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 82.] + +The cells of which the rete is composed swell out as they ascend, +and so form the soft “bulb” of the hair. The outermost cells are +gradually flattened, and assume an imbricated arrangement, overlapping +one another like the tiles upon a roof (fig. 79, _e_, and +fig. 80); and those in the interior are elongated, so as to be +converted into more or less distinct fibres. The cells nearest the +middle, or axis, of the hair remain moister and softer than those +nearer the exterior, and form what is sometimes called the “marrow” of +the hair (figs. 81 and 82). + +The colour of the hair is given by the presence of minute grains of +colouring matter, like those in the cuticle of the Negro. They are +formed in the cells at the root of the hair, and pass up with them into +its structure. The quantity of colouring matter is usually slight in +infancy and childhood, and increases during adolescence. Hence the hair +becomes darker as we grow up. It is more or less deficient in the grey +hair of old age; and in the instance of Marie Antoinette, and others +whose hair is said to have turned grey in a few hours, the colouring +matter is supposed to have been destroyed by some fluid, formed from +the blood, and passing, through the pulp, into the hair. + +The hairs serve to protect the skin; and, as a general rule, they +are most abundant upon the parts which are most exposed, and which, +therefore, stand most in need of such protection. They are scattered +over the back of the hand. On the palmar surface they are not required, +and they would have interfered with the sense of touch; and we do not, +accordingly, find them there, nor upon the sole of the foot, nor upon +the edges of the lips. In certain parts of some animals, however, +they serve as valuable adjuncts to the tactile organs by extending +the range within which the contact of surrounding substances is felt. +Thus the whiskers of the cat are set upon papillæ so sensitive that +the slightest touch upon any part of the hair is felt; and the animal +is thereby assisted in threading its way in the dark. This provision, +added to the mode in which their feet are muffled with soft hair and +their claws are retracted, enables the members of the feline tribe to +steal with almost absolute stillness upon their prey. + + +_Oil-glands._ + +[Illustration: Fig. 83. Hair, and Oil-glands.] + +There are also in the skin a number of little GLANDS. One set of +these are called “oil-glands;” for their office is to furnish an oily, +or waxy, substance, which serves to keep the skin soft and pliable, +and defends it against too much moisture, or too great dryness of the +atmosphere. They are usually, as shown in the accompanying sketch, +(fig. 83, _g_, _g_) connected with the hairs, lying beside them; and +their ducts--the little tubes that carry off the oily matter formed in +them--open either into the hair follicles, or penetrate the cuticle at +some other part. They are not found on the palms of the hand or the +soles of the feet, because those parts are, in great measure, sheltered +from atmospheric influences, and are well moistened with perspiration. +When the dry easterly winds prevail one is disposed to wish that these +glands were more numerous on the back of the hands; for a more liberal +supply of their secretion would, probably, prevent the disagreeable +chapping to which we are subject at those times. As a substitute we +resort to some unctuous matter, such as glycerine, which if frequently +applied in small quantities performs, to some extent, the part of +the natural secretion in keeping the cuticle soft and supple, and so +preventing its cracking. + +The secretion of these glands has an odour, the purpose of which, +in man, is not very obvious. It is faintest in the highest and most +civilized nations. In none is it very agreeable; and persons are +fain to conceal it by substituting some other odour, as that of +lavender or eau-de-cologne. Unfortunately the choice is not always so +refined; and one is, sometimes, disposed to think that the natural +odour must be very bad, if the substitute be preferable. The odour +varies at different parts of the body; it varies also in different +persons, sufficiently to enable the acute nose of the dog to track one +particular man among a thousand. + + +_Sweat-glands._ + +To revert to the figure (70) at page 165, the little masses at +_g_, _g_, are grains of fat lying in the meshes of the deeper strata +of the skin, or in the structure just below it. And the little balls +of twisted tube (_f_, _f_) are GLANDS that secrete the PERSPIRATION; +for, the perspiration does not ooze up from the whole surface of the +skin, but has a regular system of factories for its formation. A fine +tube (_h_) is seen passing from each of these “sweat-glands,” as they +are called. It curls in a spiral manner, like a cork-screw, where it +traverses the cuticle to open at the surface. On the palmar aspect of +the hand most of these tubes or ducts open along the tops of the fine +ridges which are there seen; and with a magnifying glass of moderate +power you can distinguish their orifices on the flattened tops of +the ridges on your own fingers. These are the “pores of the skin,” +respecting which we hear so much, and through which the Roman Bath +brings such streams from the subjacent glands. + +The sweat-glands are scattered all over the body, but are especially +numerous in the palm and in the sole; and the moisture issuing from +them tends to keep the skin of these parts soft and moist, and so +fitted for the reception of tactile impressions. The quantity of fluid +furnished by them varies a good deal in different persons, and under +different circumstances. In some persons it is habitually slight; and +the hands feel dry and harsh. Or, what is equally disagreeable, it is +superabundant; and the hands are habitually damp, perhaps, cold and +clammy, staining the gloves and soiling everything they touch. In fever +the perspiration is defective; and the dryness and heat of the palm +are often the first symptoms of an accession of fever that attract the +patient’s notice. + +We all know that perspiration is usually increased by exercise, or +by the application of warmth to the surface, as by the hot air in +the sudatorium of the Roman Bath; and then, by its evaporation, it +cools and relieves the body, and contributes to our comfort. We know, +too, that it is liable to be increased by any thing that produces a +depressing effect, and that it then induces an uncomfortable sensation, +chilling the surface too much, and making it cold and clammy. Most +of you have experienced the discomfort of the cold sweat caused by +fright; and some of you may have felt the cold, clammy hand of one who +was suffering under the shock of a severe accident or the prostration +caused by the sudden onset of a dangerous malady. Why perspiration +should occur under these very different conditions, producing, at one +time, so much relief, and, at another, so much additional discomfort, +it is not easy to say. + + +_The sense of Feeling and of Touch in the Hand._ + +I have mentioned three parts of the body as remarkable for the +acuteness of the sense of touch, namely, the TONGUE, the LIPS, and +the HANDS. Now in each of these the skin is richly supplied with +nerves and blood-vessels; and it is also thick and lies upon a soft +cushiony substance, so as to be yielding and to admit of being applied +accurately over any surface with which it is placed in contact, and of +again resuming its shape when the pressure is removed. For instance, +the tongue is so soft and yielding that, when it is applied to a tooth, +it dips down between the inequalities and coves accurate information of +the condition of the whole surface. The same is the case with the edges +of the lips, though not in so marked a degree as in the tongue; and +each of these parts is indebted for its great sensitiveness very much +to the delicate soft supple nature of its structure. The palmar surface +of the hand too, though, like the skin of the sole, it is strong and +tough, so as to offer considerable resistance to injury and to prove +no dainty morsel even to dogs, as we surmise from the narrative of the +death of Jezebel, is yet very soft and yielding. It is also underlaid +by a stratum of fat interwoven with strong fibres of tissue, just in +the same manner as the skin of the sole of the foot (fig. 46, +p. 99). + +An accumulation of this fat and fibrous tissue under the skin forms +the “Pulps” at the ends of the fingers. The slightly conical form and +exquisite softness of the Pulps adapts them well for the examination of +the surfaces of bodies; and the sense of touch is more acute in them +than in other parts of the hand. + +[Illustration: Fig. 84. Bones of Finger.] + +In connection with them it is interesting to observe that the last +bone of each finger and of the thumb swells out, at the end, into a +nodulated lump, which serves the purpose both of supporting the pulp +and of giving breadth to the nail. It also, like the corresponding part +of the toe (page 99), affords a basis of attachment for the fibres +that run, from the bone, through the pad of fat, to the skin, and give +firmness and consistence to the part. The bulbous enlargement at the +ends of the phalanges of the fingers and toes is peculiar, or almost +peculiar, to man. In most Animals these bones taper to a point; in +many they are also curved. Hence the nails are, in them, comparatively +unsupported, and they become bent in at the sides and curved in their +length, that is to say, they are formed into claws. This is the case, +to a considerable extent, in the Monkey. The terminal phalanges of +the monkey’s digits are more tapering than in man; the nails are more +claw-like; and the pulps are less well-formed. This constitutes a not +unimportant feature of difference between the hand of that animal and +the human hand, in addition to those I have already mentioned. + +You have experienced the sensitiveness to cold of the pulps of +the fingers and toes; and have, probably, remarked that it is more +difficult to keep them warm than any part of the body. I may add that, +notwithstanding the liberal allowance of the means of supporting life +(that is, blood and nervous influence) which they enjoy, they are very +liable to mortify from frost-bite and other causes. I have repeatedly +known that to happen when all the rest of the hand has escaped. This +must be attributed, perhaps entirely, to their exposed position as +terminal parts; and they share their susceptibility to cold with other +parts similarly circumstanced, such as the nose, the elbows, the knees +and the buttocks. + +It is necessary to make a distinction between the SENSE OF TOUCH and +common FEELING or sensitiveness to pain; for they are not quite the +same. They are, it is true, very nearly alike, so nearly that we may +consider them to be modifications of one another; and it is probable +that the same nerves minister to both. Still there is a difference. +The sense of touch is the sense of contact with _ex_ternal bodies, and +enables us to take cognisance of their presence and inform ourselves of +their shape, consistence, smoothness or roughness, &c.; whereas common +sensation, or the sense of feeling, has an _in_ternal relation. It +imparts to us information respecting the condition of our own bodies or +any part of them. By the sense of touch in the tongue, for instance, +we judge of the size and hardness of the morsel in the mouth; and by +common sensation we learn that the organ is being bruised or scratched +by it. Sensation of pain commonly destroys the sense of touch. Put your +finger into a vice, and you may feel both sides of it. Screw it up, and +you have nothing but the sensation of pain. If you were to awake in +this state you would not, from the mere sensation, know that you were +_touching_ anything. + +As a general rule there is a relation between the degree in which +sensation and the sense of touch are manifested in different parts of +the body. For instance, I have just been remarking on the acuteness of +the sense of touch in the Tongue; and we know that this part is very +sensitive to pain. The pain caused by a bite of the tongue is horrible; +and so effectually does it serve the good end of warning the tongue to +keep within its proper bounds, that that organ very rarely suffers from +the pressure of the teeth. + +But, forasmuch as sensitiveness to pain serves a different purpose +from the sense of touch, namely, as in the instance of the tongue just +mentioned, it renders parts alive to injurious impressions, and gives +them warning to escape or protect themselves; so it is, as we might +expect, most manifested in those surfaces where a slight amount of +injury would prove most detrimental. + +Thus, the membrane (the conjunctiva) which lines the eyelids and +covers the front of the eyeball is exquisitely sensitive to pain. We +are reminded of this when anything touches the eye, or when a fly +has lodged itself under the eyelid. And, when an operator wishes to +ascertain whether his patient is sufficiently under the influence of +chloroform he separates the eyelids and puts his finger gently upon +the eye, knowing that if no indication be given, by flinching, that +the impression made here is felt, it is probable that the patient will +not be conscious of the more severe impression to be made by the knife +elsewhere. Yet, this membrane is by no means pre-eminently endued with +the sense of touch. Indeed, the very acuteness of its sensitiveness to +pain quite unfits it for distinguishing the quality of the impressions +made upon it. We know very quickly that something is in contact with +the eye, but can form no idea what kind of substance it is, whether it +be hard or soft, rough or smooth. + +In the hand, on the contrary, the sensitiveness to pain, though +considerable, is not proportionate to the acuteness of the sense of +touch. The sting of the rod on the palm, if my recollection serves me +right, is not so sharply felt as it is upon that other region which +shares with the hand the privilege of receiving the wrathful attentions +of the master; and, yet, that other region is by no means distinguished +for acuteness in the sense of touch. + +The mode in which sensitiveness to touch and to pain are adjusted +in the hand and in the eye in relation to the functions of these two +organs is one of the admirable features of their construction. Suppose +the disposition to have been reversed--suppose the hand to have been +as tender as the eye--of what use would it have been? The contact of +a particle of dust would have caused agony; or, had the eye been no +more sentient than the hand, it would soon have been destroyed by the +chafing of foreign bodies upon its delicate surface. + +How important is the sense of Feeling! more important than any of +the other senses; more so than all the others taken together. It +is almost universal in the animal kingdom. Indeed, we can scarcely +conceive animal existence without it, and are slow to admit that to be +an animal which shows no sign of it. Several of the lower animals seem +to be destitute of any of the other senses. The POLYPS, for instance, +have no sight, hearing, taste, or smell, and are dependent, therefore, +entirely, upon feeling for their communication with the external world; +and the range of this sense is extended in them by means of their +“tentacles” or “feelers” which wave about in the water, and, when they +come in contact with foreign bodies, close upon them and draw them +towards the oral opening. Thus, the tentacle of the polyp is a sort of +rudimentary hand, and, by the aid of feeling, fulfils one important +function of the hand, viz. that of the supplying the mouth with food. +The sprawling movements of an infant’s hands and the tendency which +they have to close upon anything--dress, blanket, or whatever it +be--and draw it to the mouth remind one forcibly of the feelers of a +polyp. + +In most of the lower animals, however, the sense of feeling, though +present, serving for protection and giving notice of injury, is +not very acute. It is not much employed by them for the purpose of +obtaining information respecting external objects; and they can +scarcely be said to enjoy that modification of it which we call the +sense of touch in any high degree. Indeed, the skins of animals have, +commonly, such a covering of thick, horny cuticle, scales, feathers, or +hair, as is incompatible with a fine discriminating sense of touch. + +In many of them, however, some other sense is highly developed. The +VULTURE is guided by the smell of carrion for miles and miles; and +the dog will, by the same sense, track game where man cannot detect +the trace of an odour. Some birds can distinguish objects which are +quite out of the range of our sight. The EAGLE, for instance, soars +aloft, till it dwindles to a mere speck or is lost to our view, and, +then, from that great height, will pounce, with unerring certainty, +on an unhappy grouse upon the ground. The sense of hearing is a great +means of protection to animals, and necessitates extreme stillness and +caution on the part of their pursuers. The DEER, when feeding, directs +his eyes upon the ground, and depends for safety, chiefly, upon his +hearing, which is so acute that the huntsman is obliged to approach +with all possible wariness. + +In each of these instances, it may be observed, the acuteness of the +particular sense is manifested chiefly in the power it gives to the +animal of distinguishing objects _at a distance_. Whereas, in the +ability to use the several senses for the nice discernment of the +_qualities_ of substances and to derive enjoyment from them, man stands +quite unrivalled. He alone appreciates the perfume of a bouquet, or +takes cognisance of the various shades of colour and of the notes of +music; and the sense of touch, which is of especial service in aiding +us to an accurate knowledge of bodies, is much more highly developed in +man than in other animals. + +Fine as the sense of touch usually is in the human hand, it becomes +far more so when an unusual demand is made upon it in consequence of a +deficiency, or absence, of other senses. The rapidity with which blind +persons can read with their fingers is truly astonishing. Some are +said to be able to distinguish colours by the feel. (It should rather +be said that they are capable of recognising the nice differences in +certain substances by which colours are caused; for one can scarcely +conceive it possible to distinguish by feeling the colours in a ray of +light separated by a prism.) I am acquainted with a lady who has been, +not only blind, but deaf and dumb from infancy. The sense of touch is, +therefore, almost her only avenue for impressions from without; and +it is surprising how much information is conveyed through it, and how +quickly. It enables her to hold converse with her relatives, by the +language of the fingers, almost as freely and as briskly as others do +with the tongue. A few touches are sufficient to transmit a series of +thoughts. After one shake of the hand her friends told me that she +would recognise me again; and, true enough, although several days +elapsed before I again saw her, she made the sign for my name as soon +as she touched my hand. At our next meeting I presented my left hand, +but was, again, immediately recognised. + +Persons who have had much experience in the instruction of the deaf +and dumb find that the hand, by means of writing and “dactylogy”, or +the language of finger-signs, is abundantly sufficient for all the +intercourse to which a deaf-mute is equal; and they are, therefore, +disposed to discourage the teaching of articulation. Dr Kitto, in his +little book “On the Lost Senses,” which acquires so much interest +from the fact of his being himself deaf and dumb in consequence of an +accident, relates that, after he had, with great difficulty, reacquired +considerable facility of speech, he found it stood him in little stead. +So efficient a means of intercourse had the hand become that, he tells +us, he had not occasion for the use of his tongue ten times in a year. + +Not only may the hand thus serve, to some extent, as a substitute +for some of the other senses; it is also a most important auxiliary +to them. Particularly is it so to the sense of sight, by proving, or +correcting, the impressions which we receive through the eye. Without +its aid we should often fail to distinguish between a real object and +a picture or a reflection in a mirror, and should have difficulty in +judging of size, shape, distance, &c. + + +_Relation of the Hand to the Eye and the Mouth._ + +You cannot have watched a game of cricket without being struck by the +manner in which the hand acts in harmony with the eye. With what almost +lightning-like rapidity it is in the exact place to catch the ball; +and with what precision the practised cricketer can throw the ball to +a great distance. In this, however, he is surpassed by the wonderful +skill with which the Indian throws the lasso. Again, it is enough for +the sportsman merely to get sight of the bird; he is scarcely conscious +of the process by which the hand directs the gun and pulls the trigger +at the exact moment. Still more remarkable is the successful aim when +taken, as it occasionally is, without bringing the gun to the shoulder. + +In estimating the importance of the hand, you must not forget that +the mouth is quite dependent upon it for supplies. In most other +animals the jaws are prolonged, forwards, from the cranium, and the +head is placed in such a position that the mouth becomes an organ of +prehension, and is enabled to provide for itself. But, in man, the head +is carried so high above the ground, and the jaws are so shortened and +compressed beneath the forehead, that the mouth is of little use in +obtaining food. Its abilities and duties are restricted to receiving, +masticating, and swallowing; and, if it had to rely upon its own +efforts for supplies of food, it would, indeed, be in a poor case. When +we look at one of the Sphinxes from Egypt, or at one of the stately +Bulls from Nineveh, in which wisdom and power are represented by +joining a human head to the trunk and limbs of an animal, the question +suggests itself, “How is that mouth to be fed?” In the Centaur and +Mermaid this difficulty is overcome by adding the hands, as well as +the human head, to the trunk and locomotory organs of the horse in the +one instance, and the fish in the other; so that monstrosity does not +preclude the means of sustentation. Sufficient incongruities, however, +still remain to justify the exclamation + + “Spectatum admissi risum teneatis amici?” + +In the ELEPHANT the mouth is circumstanced, somewhat, as in man; and +the office of feeder is performed by the elongated snout or proboscis. +This organ, with its finger-like extremity, is so sensitive and mobile +as to be able to pick up small bodies--pins or needles--from the +ground, and so strong as to pull down large branches of trees, and +gather the fruit from them. It is interesting, in connection with the +relation of the hand to the will and the intellectual endowments, to +remark that this proboscidean substitute, which fulfils so many of the +purposes of the hand, is furnished to the “half reasoning” elephant. +The natural sagacity and teachableness of this creature, of which such +interesting evidence is given in Sir Emerson Tennent’s book on Ceylon, +seem to render it quite worthy of the privilege of having an especial +organ provided to minister to its will. + + +_Cheiromancy._ + +The BEAUTY of the hand does not come in for quite so great a share +of admiration as that of the foot. Perhaps, because we are less +often gratified with the view of the latter. Perhaps, because we are +conscious that the foot is even more decidedly characteristic of +the human form than is the hand; inasmuch as the hand of the monkey +approaches more nearly to the human hand than does the foot of any +animal to the human foot. Still, we are by no means insensible to the +charms of a pretty hand; and we prefer that the glove which envelopes +it should be of a material as thin and pliable as kid, so that it +may adapt itself accurately to the part, and not conceal its form. +A small and delicate hand is thought to be one of the best signs of +high-breeding. Thus, Byron, who was no bad judge of such matters, writes + + “Even to the delicacy of her hand + There was resemblance such as true blood bears,” + +and again, + + “Though on more thorough-bred or fairer fingers + No lips ere left their transitory trace.” + +The LINES upon the palm, or creases formed in closing the hand, differ +a little in different persons. In former times, when men were addicted +to the arts of divination, and thought more about the connection +between the physical world and the world of spirits, and strove, by +a close observation of the former, to penetrate the mysteries of the +latter, much attention was paid to these lines. They were named with +the names of the Planets and the signs of the Zodiac; and a science +grew up akin to Astrology and Physiognomy. CHEIROMANCY was the name +given to it; and numerous and voluminous treatises were written upon +it. We are told that Homer was the author of a complete essay upon the +lines of the hand. That something of the kind was practised among the +Romans we learn from a passage in Juvenal, translated, somewhat freely, +by Dryden, as follows: + + “The middle sort, who have not much to spare, + To cheiromancer’s cheaper art repair, + Who claps the pretty palm to make the lines more fair.” + +You will estimate the value of the science of CHEIROMANCY when you +hear that equal furrows upon the lower joint of the thumb argue riches +and possessions; but a line surrounding the middle joint portends +hanging. The nails, also, came in for their share of attention: and +we are informed that, when short, they imply goodness; when long and +narrow, steadiness but dulness; when curved, rapacity. Black spots upon +them are unlucky; white are fortunate. Even at the present day Gipsies +practise the art when they can find sufficient credulity to encourage +them. + +Whether any fancy of the like kind gave origin to the notion still +prevalent that a wound or injury between the thumb and the fore-finger +is peculiarly likely to be followed by LOCK-JAW, or whether the notion +was grounded on some notable instance in which that fearful malady did +actually supervene upon a wound in the situation mentioned, I cannot +tell. You may, however, rest assured, that it is quite a fallacy. +Lock-jaw may result from a wound in any part of the body, or it may +occur without a wound; it is very capricious in its attack; the surgeon +does not know when to look for it; it often shows itself when he least +expects it; but it is not more likely to follow a wound between the +thumb and the fore-finger than a wound elsewhere. I think it well to +mention this, because I have often known persons greatly alarmed when +they have accidentally cut themselves in the dreaded spot. + + +_Cause of the preferential use of the Right Hand._ + +Why is man usually <sc>RIGHT-HANDED</sc>? Many attempts have been +made to answer this question; but it has never been done quite +satisfactorily; and I do not think that a clear and distinct +explanation of the fact can be given. + +There is no anatomical reason for it with which we are acquainted. The +only peculiarity that we can discern is a slight difference in the +disposition, within the chest, between the blood-vessels which supply +the right and the left arms. This, however, is quite insufficient to +account for the disparity between the two limbs. Moreover, the same +disposition is observed in left-handed persons, and in some of the +lower animals; and in none of the latter is there that difference +between the two limbs which is so general among men. + +Is the superiority of the right hand real and natural, that is, +congenital? or is it merely acquired? I incline much to the latter +view; because all men are not right-handed; some are left-handed; some +are ambidextrous; and in all persons, I believe, the left hand may be +trained to as great expertness and strength as the right[9]. It is so +in those who have been deprived of their right hand in early life; and +most persons can do certain things with the left hand better than with +the right. + + [9] In the tribe of Benjamin “there were seven hundred chosen men + left-handed; every one could sling stones at an hair breadth, and + not miss.” Judges xx. 16. When David was at Ziklag there came to him + a company of men who “were armed with bows and could use both the + right hand and the left in hurling stones and shooting arrows out of + a bow.” 1 Chronicles xii. 2. + +Nevertheless, though I think the superiority of the right hand is +acquired and is a result of its more frequent use, the tendency to use +it, in preference to the left, is so universal that it would seem to +be natural. I am driven, therefore, to the rather nice distinction, +that, though the superiority is acquired, the tendency to acquire the +superiority is natural. + +It may be argued that the tendency must be based upon something +physical, and that, therefore, a tendency to superiority implies an +actual superiority. This may be so; but I do not think that we are +quite in a position to assert that it is so. We perceive that there is +a tendency to the preferential use of the right hand; but we do not +know upon what that tendency depends, and have, therefore no right to +assert that the cause of it lies in the construction of the limb or of +the parts which supply the limb with blood and nervous influence, or, +indeed, upon any strictly physical cause whatever. + +It may be a tendency like that of certain animals to make their holes +and nests in particular places and in particular ways, to watch for +their prey at particular spots, to migrate in certain directions at +particular periods, and to group themselves in a particular order +during their travels. Such tendencies, or “Instincts” as they are often +called, may possibly be the result of a peculiar conformation of the +several animals; but it is, at present, by no means certain that they +are so. + +I have said that man is the only animal in whom a preference in the +use of the limb or limbs of one side is shown. This is a consequence of +the fact that he is the only animal who has occasion to use the limbs +of the two sides separately, or who is in the habit of doing so. Even +in the rudest state of society this habit is engendered in him from a +very early period, as in carrying a stick, throwing a spear, and in +a variety of ways. The habit increases as he becomes more civilized, +owing to the greater number of offices which the hands are called upon +to perform; and the necessity for using the hands separately would, of +itself, lead each individual to the employment of one more frequently +than the other; but that that one should so universally be the right +hand, seems to be accounted for only by reference to some natural +tendency. The imitative propensity in man and the convenience of +uniformity of modes of action are scarcely sufficient to account for it. + +I will not detain you by dwelling upon the effect which the +superiority of the right hand has in giving a slight superiority to the +right leg and the right eye, and will content myself with mentioning +a single beneficial result of the preferential use of one hand, viz. +that by it, we acquire a greater degree of skilfulness and dexterity +than we should do if both hands were equally employed. The exclusive +use, for instance, of the right hand in writing, cutting, &c. gives it +a greater expertness than either hand would have had if both of them +had been accustomed to perform these offices. Hence, we usually find +that persons who are left-handed are rather clumsy-fingered, because, +although, in them, the left hand is used for many purposes which are +commonly assigned to the right, yet the conventionalities of life +interfere a good deal. The pen and the knife, for instance, are still +wielded by the right hand. Accordingly such persons are neither truly +right-handed nor truly left-handed; and they do not commonly acquire +so great skill in the use of either hand as do those whose natural +tendency is more in harmony with custom. + + * * * * * + +The great martyr of our Church, when at the stake, is said to +have held out his right hand into the flames and to have been heard +exclaiming, till utterance was stifled, “This unworthy hand.” This +unworthy hand! Of whom or of what was that hand unworthy? Was it +unworthy of Him who made it? Was it unworthy of him who bore it? Was +it unworthy of the purposes for which it was made? Was it not, on the +contrary, a too worthy hand? a hand worthy of a better usage than to +be made, first, to sign a recantation of faith and, then, to be burned +for having done so? a hand worthy of a better man? No one would have +admitted this more readily than Cranmer. We may be sure that he would +never have thought of proclaiming a hand or any of his members to +be really unworthy of him. Rather would he have willingly confessed +that he had fallen far short of the standard of excellence which the +body presents; and in that excellence, we doubt not, he recognised +an evidence of Divine workmanship. His meaning, therefore, has not +been misunderstood. Nevertheless disparaging remarks respecting the +body, and the use of the word “carnal” in the sense in which it is +usually employed, have some tendency to excuse a shrinking from moral +responsibilities on the ground of the weakness of the flesh. Let us +remember that much of that weakness is of our own engendering, that a +moral obliquity is the source of many of those physical infirmities +which, we flatter ourselves, may cover our delinquencies, and which a +sympathising humanity is wont, perhaps too often, to throw as a shield +over offenders against the laws. In man, and in man alone of created +beings, the physical and the moral grow up together and react upon one +another; and the charge of a body thus capable of influencing and being +influenced demands all our energies to prove ourselves worthy of it. + + + + +EXPLANATION OF WOOD-CUTS. + + +THE HUMAN FOOT. + + Fig. page + + 1 9 Bones of foot, with the lower ends of the two + leg-bones. + + 2 11 Bones of the hind foot of a seal, with lower ends + of leg-bones. + + 3 11 The same of the hind foot of a lizard. + + 4 14 Side view of the pelvis and lower limb of man. + A, the _haunch-bone_. B, the _ischium_, or part upon + which we sit. C, the _thigh-bone_. D, the _knee-pan_. + E, the _tibia_, or larger leg-bone, with the + _fibula_, or smaller leg-bone, alongside it. F, the + _heel-bone_. G, the _metatarsal_ bones. H, I, K, the + _phalanges_, or bones of the toes. + + 5 14 Similar view of the pelvis and hind limb of a horse. + The letters refer to the same parts as in the preceding + figure. + + 6 18 Represents a section through the lower end of the + tibia and through the _heel-bone_, the _astragalus_, + _navicular_ bone, inner _cuneiform_ bone, and the bones + of the _great toe_. It shows the arrangement of + these bones in the arch of the foot and the disposition + of the plates of which these bones are composed. + + 7 25 The same bones as in preceding, with two connecting + ligaments. A, the _plantar ligament_. B, ligament + passing from the heel-bone F to the scaphoid bone + E. D the _Astragalus_. C, one of two small bones, + called _sesamoid_ bones, usually found at the ball of + the great toe. + + 8 29 A foot, in an aggravated condition of “flat-foot.” + The sole is convex, and so is the inner margin + of the foot. It represents also another common + deformity, inasmuch as the great toe runs athwart + the second toe, which is pressed almost out of + sight. + + 9 38 Front view of the right _tibia_, or larger leg-bone. + + 10 38 Right _tibia_ lying on a board. The inner, as well + as the outer edge, of the upper end rests upon the + board; but the inner edge of the lower end is + turned away from the board. In other words, the + bone is so twisted that, though the upper end + lies flat upon the board, the lower end touches + it only by its outer edge. + + 11 40 Figure sitting upon the heel to draw the bow. It is + one of a beautiful series of statues in the Glyptothek + at Munich. They adorned the pediments + of a temple in Ægina, and are supposed to represent + the noble actions of the Æacidæ. + + 12 42 Represents some of the muscles and tendons seen + on the inner side of the leg and foot. A, _Gastro- + cnemius_ and _Soleus_ muscles. They are attached, + above, to the thigh-bone and the leg-bones; below, + by means of the _Tendo Achillis_ (_a_) to the heel-bone; + they together form the calf-muscle. B, + _Posterior tibial_ muscle attached, above, to the + tibia, below, by its tendon (_b_) to the scaphoid + bone. D, process of the tibia called the _internal + malleolus_ or inner ankle. F, _Anterior tibial_ muscle + attached, above, to the front of the tibia, below, + to the scaphoid bone. _k_, the _flexor tendon_ of the + great toe. + + 13 44 Gives a corresponding view of the outer side of the + leg and foot. E, the lower end of the fibula, + called the _external malleolus_, or outer ankle. C, + the _short fibular_ muscle attached, above, to the + fibula; below, by its tendon (_c_), to the outer + metatarsal bone. I, the _long fibular_ muscle. Its + tendon (_i_) runs, behind the outer ankle and under + the instep, to the metatarsal bone of the great + toe; it is not seen in the latter part of its course. + G, the _anterior fibular_ muscle attached by its tendon + _g_ to the outer metatarsal bone. _h_, the _extensor + tendons_ of the toes. + + 14 47 Foot of a young woman presenting the variety of + “club-foot” called “_Talipes varus_.” The sole is + very much bent, and turned inwards and upwards, + so that the part of the instep which should be above + and in front is directed downwards and comes into + contact with the ground. + + 15 49 Diagram (from Bell’s _Anatomy_) showing the mode + in which the extensor tendons of the toes follow + the curve of the ankle and are bound to it by + cross straps, instead of taking the direct course + represented by the line _a_. + + 16 52 Foot and leg from the cast of the Farnese Hercules + in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. + + 17 52 Foot and leg of a Negro. + + 18 52 Outline of under surface of foot of an Englishman. + + 19 52 Outline of under surface of foot of a Negro. + + 20 55 Skeleton of the foot of a Chinese female. From a + drawing by B. Cooper, in _Phil. Trans._ + + 21–25 57 Sections, from above downwards, through the tarso-metatarsal + joints. A, _metatarsal_ bone. B, _tarsal_ + bone. C, C, the _ligaments_ connecting the two. + + 26–29 59 Figures standing, bowing, stooping, and squatting. + + 30–32 60 Figures walking. + + 33–35 62 Position of foot in three stages of a step in walking. + + 36–38 65 Figures running. + + 39 86 Bones of the left hind limb of an Elephant. + + 40 86 Bones of the left hind limb of a Hippopotamus. + + 41 86 Bones of the left hind limb of a Rhinoceros. + + 42 86 Bones of the left hind limb of an Ox. + + 43 86 Bones of the left hind limb of a Horse. + + 44 89 Hind limb of a Gorilla, showing the length of the + digits, and the strong inner digit diverging from + the others. + + 45 90 Drawing of stuffed specimen of a Gorilla in the + British Museum. + + 46 98 Section of a foot, showing the disposition of the fibres + that run from the bones and plantar ligament to + the skin of the sole. At the heel the greater number + of the fibres are seen to run _back_wards from + the heel-bone to the skin. At the end of the + great toe and beneath the ball of the toe they run, + for the most part, _for_wards, from the bones and + plantar ligament, to the skin. + + 47 103 View of the sole of a foot in its natural state. + + 48 103 Outline of the sole of a shoe, as commonly made for + a man’s foot. + + 49 103 Sole of the foot of a girl twenty-two years old, distorted + by the pressure of the shoe, but otherwise + healthy. + + 50 103 View of the skeleton of a foot so deformed, from + above. + + 51 105 The proper sole for a shoe laid, for the sake of + comparison, on the symmetrical sole of the ordinary + shape. + + 52 105 The proper sole pointed at the toes. + + +THE HUMAN HAND. + + Fig. page + + 53 110 The bones of the arm (_humerus_), of the forearm + (_radius_ and _ulna_, the former is the upper of the + two, the forearm and hand being semi-prone), and + of the hand. The names of the wrist-bones are, + _scaphoid_, _semilunar_ (these two are in contact with + the radius), _cuneiform_ (this is in a line with the + ulna, but separated from it by an interval in + which lies the triangular ligament, see fig. 64, + page 134), _pisiform_ (faintly seen in shadow beneath + the cuneiform), _trapezium_ (supporting the + metacarpal bone of thumb), _trapezoid_ (supporting + the metacarpal bone of fore-finger), _magnum_ (supporting + the metacarpal bone of the middle or + great finger), _unciform_ (supporting the metacarpal + bones of the ring and the little fingers). + + 54 112 Diagram of the bones of the hand with the ends of + the radius and ulna. 1, end of _radius_; 2, end of + _ulna_; 3, _scaphoid_; 4, _semilunar_; 5, _cuneiform_; + 6, _pisiform_; 7, _trapezium_; 8, _trapezoid_; 9, _magnum_; + 10, _unciform_; 11, 11, _metacarpal_ bones; + 12, 12, first row of _phalanges_; 13, 13, second + row of _phalanges_; 14, 14, third row of _phalanges_; + I, thumb; II, forefinger; III, middle finger; IV, + ring finger; V, little finger. + + 55 116 Drawing of the front of the chest and the shoulders, + with the collar-bones running across from the + upper edge of the breast-bone to the projecting + processes of the shoulder-blades. + + 56 117 The chest and shoulder of an Eagle. A, A, the united + _collar-bones_, or “merry-thought;” B, the _coracoid_, + or “side-bone;” C, the long, slender _shoulder-blade_; + D, the _sternum_; E, the _humerus_. + + 57 120 The head, fore part of chest, and shoulder of a + Rhinoceros. The chest is deep and flat at the + sides. The shoulder-blade and arm-bone are + nearly vertical, that is, they nearly correspond + with the ribs in their direction. + + 58 122 Side view of chest, shoulder and arm (human). The + shoulder-blade is prolonged in the direction of the + spine, that is, _across_ the ribs. + + 59 124 Side view of fore part of a Monkey’s skeleton. + + 60 126 A section, from side to side, through the Elbow-joint, + showing the shape of the surfaces of the + bones. A, the _radius_; B, the _ulna_; CC, the side + _ligaments_ holding the radius and ulna to the _arm-bone_, + D. + + 61 127 The upper limb with the forearm and hand in the + state of supination. A, the _long Pronator_ muscle. + + 62 127 The same in a state of pronation. B, the _short + Supinator_ muscle. + + In this and the preceding drawing a plumb-line, + descending from the outer condyle of the humerus + traverses the lower end of the ulna and the ring + finger. + + 63 131 Drawing of the _biceps_ muscle. The hand is in a + state of pronation. Driving the gimlet is effected + by the movement to the state of supination. + + 64 134 Section, from side to side, through the Wrist, showing + the shapes of the bones and the mode in + which they are adapted to one another. A, the + _radius_; B, the _ulna_; C, _scaphoid_ bone; D, _cuneiform_ + bone; E, _semi-lunar_ bone; F, line of contact + of radius and ulna; G, G, side _ligaments_ + connecting the wrist-bones with the bones of the + forearm. H, I, K, L, M, _metacarpal_ bones of thumb + and fingers. + + 65 138 View of the superficial muscles on the palmar + aspect of the forearm and hand. A, the _radial + flexor_ of the wrist. B, the _long palmar_ muscle. + C, the _ulnar flexor_ of the wrist. D, the muscles + of the “ball of the thumb.” E, the _long supinator_ + muscle. F, the _long pronator_. G, the + lower part of the _biceps_ muscle. H, Cross _ligaments_ + binding the tendons in their places. (This + and the two following figures are from Quain’s + _Anatomy_.) + + 66 138 View of the deep muscles and tendons on the + palmar aspects of the forearm and hand. A, the + _long flexor_ of the thumb. B, some of the _flexors_ + of the fingers. C, the _Adductor_ muscle of the + thumb. + + 67 139 The _extensor_ muscles and tendons of the wrist, + thumb, and fingers seen on the back of the + forearm and hand. A, A, A, the _abductors_ and + _adductors_ of the fingers. B, B, the cross _ligament_ + which binds the tendons in their places. + + 68 146 Hand holding a cricket-ball, showing that the tips + of the fingers and the thumb all reach the same + level. + + 69 152 Diagram showing the distribution of the _median_ (A) + and _ulnar_ (B) _nerves_ in the hand. + + 70 165 Drawing of a magnified section through the skin of + the palmar surface of the thumb, including three + of the ridges seen on that surface. _a_, the outer + or horny layer of the _cuticle_; _b_, the deeper layer + of the same called “_rete mucosum_;” _c_, _c_, _c_, the + _cutis_, with _papillæ_ rising from its surface beneath + the ridges and projecting into the rete mucosum; + _g_, _g_, grains of _fat_ lying in the deeper part of the + cutis and in the tissue beneath it. Between _f_ + and _f_ are three _sweat-glands_, each composed of a + tube rolled up into a ball or knot. The tubes (_h_, _h_) + are seen ascending from them through the cutis + and cuticle, and opening at the tops of the ridges. + (From Kölliker’s _Mikroskopishe Anatomie_.) + + 71 170 Section of skin still more magnified. _a_, Outer or + horny stratum of cuticle; _b_, inner stratum of cuticle, + or “rete mucosum;” _c_, papillary stratum of + cutis; _d_, deeper or fibrous stratum of cutis. The + curling tube rolled into a ball at the lower part + is the sweat-gland. Its duct is seen ascending + through the fibrous structure of the cutis, and + presents the coiled appearance of a rope as it + traverses the cuticle. + + 72 170 A few layers of the cuticle and rete mucosum of + a Negro, showing the spots of dark pigment in + the rete which give the black colour to the + Negro’s skin. (This and the preceding from + Todd and Bowman’s _Phys. Anatomy_.) + + 73 170 Section of a Corn and adjacent skin. _a_, the _cuticle_; + _c_, the _cutis_ with its _papillæ_. The cuticle is seen + to be very thick, and the papillæ are somewhat + enlarged in the corn. + + 74 170 Section of a Wart and adjacent skin. _a_, _cuticle_; + _c_, the _cutis_ with its _papillæ_. The latter are seen + to be enlarged, or “hypertrophied,” in the wart. + + 75 174 Vertical section, made lengthways, of a Nail raised + from its bed, showing its connexion with the + cuticle. _a_, _a_, _cuticle_; _d_, _d_, _nail_. + + 76 174 Similar section of a Nail lying in its bed of cutis. + _a_, _cuticle_; _b_, _rete mucosum_; _c_, _cutis_; _d_, _nail_. + + 77 174 Section of the Cutis from which the nail, the cuticle, + and the rete have been removed. + + 78 176 Transverse section of the Nail and Skin, made vertically. + _a_, _a_, _cuticle_; _b_, _rete_; _c_, _c_, _cutis_; _d_, _d_, + lines running through the cutis to the _papillæ_; + _e_, _e_, _e_, lines running through the nail to the rete. + (This and the three preceding from Kölliker.) + + 79 179 Section of a Hair and Hair-follicle. _a_ and _b_, the + _cuticle_ and _rete_ lining the follicle. _e_, the outer + layer, or rind, of the hair formed by closely-plaited + scales of cuticle continued upon it from + the bottom of the follicle _d_. + + 80 179 Piece of the exterior of a Hair more highly magnified + to show the imbricated arrangement of the + plates or scales forming its outer surface. + + 81,82 179 Transverse sections of Hairs. (These and two preceding + from Todd and Bowman.) + + 83 181 Section of a Hair-follicle containing a Hair, and + with two Oil-glands, _g_, _g_, lying near it, and with + their ducts opening into it. _a_ and _b_, cuticle and + rete; _d_, bottom of follicle. (From Kölliker.) + + 84 187 The terminal Bone of a finger, with a portion of the + bone next it, showing the nodulated bulbous end + of the former. + + +CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. + + + + +_By the same Author._ + + +I. + +A TREATISE ON THE HUMAN SKELETON, + +(INCLUDING THE JOINTS), + +_With Two Hundred and Sixty Illustrations drawn from Nature._ + +Medium 8vo. cloth, price £1. 8_s._ + + +II. + +AN ESSAY ON THE LIMBS OF VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. + +4to. sewed, 5_s._ + + +III. + +ON THE COAGULATION OF THE BLOOD IN THE VENOUS SYSTEM DURING LIFE. + +8vo. sewed, 2_s._ 6_d._ + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75360 *** |