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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75360 ***
+
+Transcriber’s notes:
+
+The text of this book has been preserved as in the original, apart
+from repositioning of some footnotes and illustrations closer to the
+relevant text. Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
+
+
+
+
+                            THE HUMAN FOOT
+
+                                AND THE
+
+                              HUMAN HAND.
+
+                                  BY
+
+                      G. M. HUMPHRY, M.D. F.R.S.
+
+               LECTURER ON ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY IN THE
+                       UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.
+
+                           MACMILLAN AND CO.
+                              Cambridge:
+               AND 23, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN,
+                                London.
+                                 1861.
+
+
+
+
+                              Cambridge:
+                      PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A.
+                       AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
+
+
+
+
+The following pages originated in two popular Lectures which were
+delivered in Cambridge. In the preparation for publication many
+additions have been made; but I have thought it best to retain the
+original form.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+THE HUMAN FOOT.
+
+Why are the generality of persons so ignorant of the structure of their
+own bodies? p. 1. The dependence of the hand upon the foot, 3.
+Principle of “division of Labour” illustrated in the animal world, 4;
+and in the function of locomotion, 6.
+
+Structure of Lower Limb, 8. Length of Leg in GIANTS, 9. Bones of
+Foot, _ib._ Peculiarity of GREAT TOE, 10. Uniformity in plan, and
+dissimilarity in detail seen throughout nature, 13. Homologous parts in
+animals, 14. Comparison of Horse’s Leg with Man’s, 15. The ARCH of the
+foot, 18; its elasticity greater in the fore part than in the hinder,
+21. The Component bones held together by Ligaments, 24. WEAK ANKLE and
+FLAT FOOT, 27, 74; time of life at which they occur, 31. Injurious
+effects of “High-lows,” 29.
+
+Movements of the FOOT, 33; compared with those of the HEAD, 35.
+Nature’s abhorrence of straight lines illustrated by shape of
+leg-bone, 37, and by movements of leg upon thigh, 39. Sitting upon the
+heel, _ib._ Grecian and Egyptian statuary compared, 40. Relation of
+PERFECTION and BEAUTY, 41.
+
+MUSCLES of Leg and Foot, 42. Purpose served by movements of Infants,
+46. CLUB-FOOT, 47. Shape of the ankle, 48. Length and direction of the
+heel, 50. The CALF, _ib._; characteristic of man, 53. EUROPEAN Leg
+and Foot contrasted with NEGRO’S, 51. CHINESE foot, 54. Tendency of
+different races to exaggerate their peculiarities, 56. Provision for
+enabling balls of toes to adapt themselves to uneven surfaces, 57.
+
+STANDING, 59. BOWING, STOOPING and SQUATTING, 61. WALKING, 62. RUNNING,
+64. TROTTING and GALLOPING, 67. Rolling in walking, 69. Sprained ankle,
+70. Mode in which foot revolves on the ground, 73. Character shown in
+walking, 76. The IDIOT, 80. The DRUNKARD, 81.
+
+Distinctive features of the Human Foot, 82; most marked in highest
+races, 91. The TOES of small size and, comparatively, unimportant, 84.
+The foot of the ELEPHANT, 86; of the HIPPOPOTAMUS, RHINOCEROS, OX, and
+HORSE, 87; of the GORILLA, 88. Proportions of the limbs, 94. Foot and
+hand small in very short and very tall persons, 96. The foot measure,
+97.
+
+SKIN of the sole, 98. On SHOES, 102.
+
+
+THE HUMAN HAND.
+
+HAND how distinguished from FOOT, 109. Construction of Upper limb, 110.
+Small bones rarely dislocated, 112.
+
+Movements at SHOULDER very free, 114; conducive to good development
+of Chest, 125. Uses of COLLAR-BONE, 116. Injuries to Shoulder why so
+frequent, 119. Shape of CHEST, 122; in Rhinoceros, 120; in Monkey, 123.
+
+Movements at the ELBOW, 126. PRONATION and SUPINATION of the forearm
+and hand, _ib._ No exactly corresponding movements in lower limb, 129.
+MUSCLES by which they are effected, 130. Anatomical reason for the
+direction in which we turn a screw or a gimlet, 132.
+
+Structure and movements of the WRIST, 134. Movements of the FINGERS,
+136. MUSCLES by which they are effected, 137. MOVEMENTS of the THUMB,
+141; of the metacarpal bones upon the wrist, 143. Advantage gained by
+the fingers and thumb all differing in length, 145. Middle finger the
+centre about which the others move, 147. On holding the PEN, _ib._ The
+direction in which the letters are slanted, 148. WRITING from left to
+right, 149. Reason for the RING being placed upon the fourth finger,
+150. The “funny-bone,” 153.
+
+The MONKEY’S HAND, 154, 187.
+
+The hand the organ of the WILL, 156; its relation to the MIND, 157; an
+organ of EXPRESSION, 159. SHAKING HANDS, 162. Why do we shake hands?
+162. Why do we KISS? 164.
+
+Structure of the SKIN, 165. The Cuticle, 166; its uses, 167. The Rete
+Mucosum, 166. Cause of the colour of the Skin, 167. The Cutis, 168.
+Difference between a WART and a CORN, 170. How to cut Corns, 172.
+
+NAILS; their formation and growth, 173. Claws in lower animals, 173,
+175. Sensitiveness of the Skin beneath the nails, 177.
+
+HAIRS; their formation, 178; colour, 179; uses, 180.
+
+OIL-GLANDS; their uses, the odour of their secretion, 180.
+
+SWEAT-GLANDS, 183; their structure, _ib._ The “Pores” of the Skin, 183.
+The moisture of the palm, 184. Cold Sweat, _ib._
+
+FEELING and TOUCH, 185. Structure of the three parts in which they are
+most acute, _ib._ The “Pulps” of the fingers connected with peculiar
+shape of the bones, 186; their sensitiveness to cold, 187. Distinction
+between Common Feeling and the Sense of Touch, 188. Relation between
+the two in the Tongue, the Eye and the Hand, 189. The tentacle of a
+Polyp a rudimentary hand, 191. Acuteness of touch in man, 193; in BLIND
+persons, _ib._
+
+Relation of the hand to the EYE and the MOUTH, 195. The Elephant’s
+Trunk, 197. CHEIROMANCY, 198. The LOCK-JAW fallacy, 200. Cause of the
+superiority of the RIGHT HAND, 201. “This unworthy hand!” 205.
+
+Explanation of Wood-cuts, 207.
+
+
+
+
+THE HUMAN FOOT.
+
+
+The Human Body is one of the most worthy objects of man’s study. It is
+the noblest as well as the crowning work of creation. In it material
+organization is carried to the greatest perfection. It surpasses,
+therefore, all other physical objects in exquisiteness of construction
+and in interest. How comes it, then, that most persons are so ignorant
+respecting it? Men, well informed in other matters, are usually
+altogether uninformed with regard to this. In every other branch of
+science we find amateur students pursuing the subject with zeal and
+success. Geology, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, and even Comparative
+Anatomy have each their votaries; but Human Anatomy attracts no one.
+Why is this? Partly, I think, because opportunities for acquiring such
+information as is suitable and interesting are not so many as they
+ought to be.
+
+It must be confessed, also, that we teachers of Anatomy are somewhat
+to blame. We are too prone, in our Lectures and Examinations, to dwell
+upon bare details, without enlivening those details with the many
+bright features of interest with which they are naturally invested; and
+we fail, therefore, to render it so attractive a science as it might
+be. The example of those able and animated teachers, John and Charles
+Bell, who laboured with some success to disperse the clouds that have
+ever overhung the horizon of anatomy, has been too much forgotten; and
+the flame which they kindled has almost died out under the chilling
+apathy of their successors. Truly glad should I be to see a change in
+this. I cannot but think that if the teachers of Anatomy took higher
+and more philosophical views of their science there would be no lack
+of interest on the part of the students. The interest so excited would
+soon spread beyond the limits of the profession; and there would thus
+be opened up to the public some of the products of that rich vein of
+knowledge and of that abundant material for thought which lie buried in
+the human frame.
+
+I therefore willingly accede to your request for a Lecture upon some
+part of the anatomy of the human body, relying upon the intrinsic
+interest of the subject to make amends for my own deficiencies in
+expounding it; and I select the HUMAN FOOT, because a few of the more
+important points of its construction can be explained without much
+difficulty, because it affords a good illustration of some of the
+principles of animal mechanism, and because its form constitutes one of
+the great characteristics whereby man is distinguished from the lower
+animals. As an instrument of support and of locomotion it excels the
+foot of any other animal. It evinces its excellence by enabling man to
+stand upright in a way that no other animal can do; and so efficiently
+does the foot accomplish this and perform the task of carrying the
+body, that the hand is set at liberty to minister to the will. Thus is
+the foot instrumental in giving us an advantage over other animals,
+and in enabling us to provide the means of defence; and, thus, it aids
+us to carry out those wondrous works which are second only to the
+marvellous results of creative power.
+
+We are accustomed to regard the hand as the great agent by which all
+this is attained, and we are apt to forget how much it is indebted
+to the foot. We do not reflect that, if the foot of man presented no
+distinguishing peculiarity, the hand, like the corresponding part in
+other animals, would be compelled to share with it the task of carrying
+the body, and could, therefore, not be devoted to the various offices
+which it is now free to perform. Little right has the hand to say to
+the foot, “I have no need of thee.”
+
+
+_The principle of “division of labour.”_
+
+In this concentration of locomotive power in the foot we have an
+illustration of what is called the “principle of division of labour,”
+a principle with which all civilized communities are familiar, and
+to which we are much indebted for the present advanced state of the
+arts and sciences; but which we may be said to have borrowed from
+the economy of nature. We find ever-increasing manifestations of it
+as we ascend in the animal series, from the lower and more simple to
+the higher and more complicated forms. Indeed, just as each step in
+civilization is attended with a further development of this principle,
+so is each division of the animal kingdom distinguished from those
+below it by the more distinct assignation of particular functions to
+particular organs, and by the consequent improvement of the mode in
+which the functions are performed. While, in proportion as the several
+organs acquire more distinct speciality in their work, so do they
+become, more and more, dependent upon one another, and, more and more,
+subjected to the control of central government, which is represented by
+the brain.
+
+For instance, some of the lower animals, as the fresh-water POLYP,
+present nearly a uniform structure throughout their whole substance;
+and every part of them consequently performs the same function. There
+is not one organ for digestion, another for circulation, a third for
+respiration, and so on; but all these functions are performed by the
+same structure, and are performed, therefore, in a rude and imperfect
+manner. Any portion of the creature possesses all the requisites for
+its own nutrition, and is, so, independent of the remainder, and can
+live alone. Hence, the polyp may be divided into a number of pieces,
+each of which goes on living. Gradually, as we ascend from these lowly
+beings to the higher classes of animals, we find organs and functions
+more and more distinct from another; a Stomach is provided for the
+work of digestion, a Heart for circulation, Lungs for respiration.
+Each of these organs is essential to the existence of the others and
+of every part of the body; and they are all maintained in harmonious
+co-operation by the presiding influence of the nervous system.
+
+Or, trace one of the _functions_ in illustration of the same principle.
+Take the function of Locomotion, which has an especial relation to our
+present subject. In the LEECH and the WORM the whole length of the body
+is occupied in the work, one part as much as another; and still, it
+is but a crawl. In the FISH the whole body is buoyed up by the water;
+it is flattened from side to side, and is all, from the head to the
+tail, concerned in the lateral stroke by which the animal is driven
+along; the side fins, which are the representatives of limbs, doing
+little beyond serving to guide and balance. In the other VERTEBRATES
+the work of locomotion is so far concentrated as to be assigned, almost
+entirely, to the limbs. All _four_ limbs are in most of them devoted
+to it; while the bones and muscles of the trunk are only indirectly
+concerned in it. In MAN, however, _two_ limbs only are assigned to this
+important office. In him, therefore, the concentration of locomotive
+power, in other words the principle of division of labour, is carried
+out to the greatest extent--a disposition which affords one of the many
+proofs that the construction of his body combines with the faculties of
+his mind to place him at the head of the animal kingdom.
+
+In making comparisons of different animals with one another, and in
+speaking of the relative perfection of their several organs, we must
+not forget that _every_ organ of every animal is perfect as regards the
+purpose for which it was made. But some animals are said to occupy a
+higher position than others, or to be superior to others, because their
+mechanism is more complex, and they are, thereby, enabled to perform a
+greater variety of functions. And, in the animal kingdom, in proportion
+as each function rises into prominence, and becomes well and distinctly
+performed, so is a special organ assigned to it, and that organ becomes
+more and more highly elaborated.
+
+You will not misunderstand me, then, when I say that concentration
+of function and perfection of structure usually go together. And,
+forasmuch as in the lower limbs of man there is a greater concentration
+of locomotive function than in any other part of any other animal,
+you will expect to find, in them, a greater perfection of locomotive
+mechanism--that is to say, a more complete combination of strength with
+variety, rapidity, and extent of movement--than is elsewhere to be met
+with.
+
+This consideration will ensure attention while I give a brief account
+of the anatomy of man’s lower limb, more particularly of the foot.
+
+
+_Structure of the Lower Limbs._
+
+The weight of the trunk is transmitted to the knee (see fig. 4,
+p. 15) by a single bone--the thigh-bone. This is the longest bone
+in the body, measuring, on the average, nearly eighteen inches. Above,
+it is jointed with the haunch-bone of the pelvis at the hip-joint.
+From the knee two bones descend to the ankle. Of these one is much the
+larger, and bears the chief of the weight. The other serves to give
+attachment to muscles, and to strengthen the ankle-joint. It runs down
+on the outer side of the ankle, forming there what is called the “outer
+ankle;” and a process of the larger bone runs down, in like manner, on
+the inner side, and forms the “inner ankle.” The front and inner side
+of the larger bone are close under the skin. This part is called the
+“_shin_,” being so named perhaps from the word “chine” or edge, because
+the leg presents an edge along the front, to facilitate its cleaving
+a way through the air, water, grass, or underwood. The shin itself is
+not particularly tender; but the skin is a good deal exposed here,
+and, as it lies so near the hard bone, it is easily injured; and, when
+“broken,” it is often difficult to heal.
+
+In some very tall persons, and particularly in those who are so tall
+as to be called GIANTS, I have found the leg or shank bones, that is,
+the bones between the knee and the ankle, very long, disproportionately
+long to the rest of the skeleton. They are so in the skeleton of the
+Irish Giant, O’Byrne, which is preserved in the Museum of the College
+of Surgeons, in another Irish Giant in the Museum of Trinity College,
+Dublin, and in some other specimens which I have had an opportunity
+of measuring. In the name “Long Shanks” given to Edward I., the word
+“shanks” probably included the thigh as well as the leg, just as we are
+in the habit of applying the word “leg” to the whole of the lower limb.
+
+
+_Bones of the Foot._
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
+
+There are 26 bones in the Foot. The hinder 7--called _tarsal_
+bones--are short and thick; they form the hinder part of the instep. In
+front of them lie 5 _metatarsal_ bones, one passing, forwards, from the
+fore part of the tarsus to each toe. Behind, these are close together,
+and are connected with the tarsus. As they run forwards they diverge a
+little from one another; and their anterior ends rest upon the ground,
+and form the “balls” of the toes. They constitute the fore part of
+the instep. The remaining 14 bones are the toes. They are arranged in
+rows, like soldiers in a phalanx, three deep, and are hence called
+_phalanges_.
+
+You observe that, although each of the other toes has 3 bones, the
+great toe has only 2. In this respect, therefore, it is an imperfect,
+or, rather, an incomplete member. The deficiency does not depend upon
+a want of length in the great toe; for this is usually as long as the
+second toe; in some persons it is a good deal longer; and it is always
+distinctly longer than the outer two toes. The reason for there being
+only two phalanges instead of three probably is because the great toe
+is required to be stronger than any of the others; and an additional
+bone would have tended to weaken it. I have, elsewhere[1], given
+reasons for thinking that it is the middle phalanx which is absent in
+the great toe.
+
+  [1] _Treatise on the Human Skeleton_, p. 395.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.
+
+Seal’s Foot.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.
+
+Lizard’s Foot.]
+
+It is a curious and interesting fact, affording a remarkable
+illustration of the close adherence to a uniform plan which has been
+observed in the construction of the various animals, that, in no
+instance, does this toe contain more than two bones. Even in those
+creatures, as the SEAL (fig. 2), in which it attains to greater
+length than any of the other sprawling digits, it contains the same
+number of bones as in man, its extraordinary length being attained by
+an elongation of the two bones, not by the addition of a third. And in
+those animals, as certain Lizards (fig. 3), where the number of
+bones in the other toes is increased to 4 or even 5, the number in the
+first, or inner, toe is still no more than two. The same rule applies
+to the fore limb; the number of bones in the inner digit, which, in
+man and monkeys, is called the “thumb,” is in no case more than two.
+In some animals, as will be mentioned again, there is only one bone in
+this digit, and in some the digit is wanting altogether; but in none
+does it contain _more_ than _two_ bones.
+
+This reminds me of a still more remarkable instance of adherence to
+a particular number of bones. In the mammalian group of animals the
+_neck_, with only one or two exceptions, contains _seven_ bones,
+neither more nor less. Whether it be the long neck of the GIRAFFE, or
+the short neck of the MOUSE, the BAT, or the PORPOISE, each consists,
+like the neck in MAN, of seven bones. For what reason a particular
+number should be thus rigidly observed, it is not easy to say.
+
+Of the seven tarsal bones the uppermost (fig. 1) is called the
+_astragalus_, from a supposed resemblance to a die. It is the middle
+bone of the instep. Above, it is jointed with the leg-bones; behind,
+it is connected with, and rests upon, the _heel-bone_, which is the
+largest bone in the foot. The bone which lies immediately in front
+of the astragalus, and supports it in this direction, is called the
+_scaphoid_, or boat-like, bone. In front of it are three _wedge-bones_,
+each of which is connected with one of the metatarsal bones of the
+inner three toes. On the outer side of the wedge-bones, connected with
+the metatarsals of the two small toes, and locked in between them and
+the heel-bone, is the _cuboid_ bone.
+
+I must confine my remarks chiefly to the _human_ foot. Still the
+anatomy of man derives so much interest from being studied in connexion
+with that of the lower animals, and is so much more instructive when
+this is done, that I cannot forbear diverging, here and there, to
+make a few comparisons. Let me, for a moment, draw your attention to
+a similarity, in general construction, which exists between the lower
+limbs of man, and the hinder limbs of other animals. And the comparison
+may be extended to the fore limbs; for however diverse may be the
+appearance and the mode of action of the limbs in different animals,
+whether they be terminated by hands or by feet, whether they move upon
+the ground or ply in air or water, whether they be attached to the
+head, as are the front fins in many fishes, or, as is more common, be
+situated at the fore and hinder parts of the trunk, the same plan is
+traceable in all.
+
+Great, indeed, is the variety of detail in nature. It is everywhere
+observable. No two things, however near their resemblance, are
+precisely alike. Yet, as I have before said, there is a remarkable
+adherence to unity of plan. One star differs from another star in
+glory, yet all appear fashioned in the same manner, and subject to
+the same laws. There are almost infinite varieties in the vertebrate
+kingdom. Each animal exhibits its own peculiarities; yet they are all
+formed in the same manner, and are developed upon one fundamental
+pattern, diverging from it in different ways according to the
+requirements of each. Again, though the several parts of the same
+animal differ from one another; yet in the skeleton the same bones
+which exist in one part may, as a general rule, be traced in other
+parts and in other animals. The bones which make up the pelvis in man
+are repeated in his shoulder, and, even, in his skull; and they may be
+recognised in the pelvis, in the shoulder, and in the skull, of all
+other vertebrate animals, with few exceptions. They undergo, it is
+true, great varieties in shape and size; but they can be shown to be
+the same, or, in the language of anatomists, to be “homologous.” It is
+highly interesting to the anatomist to trace the same bone through the
+different parts of the same animal, and through the various animals
+of the vertebrate series, and to observe the modifications which it
+undergoes in order to adapt it to the multiform mechanism of the
+several classes, to observe it sometimes dwindling, or even vanishing,
+and then, it may be, reappearing under some new conditions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.
+
+Human Leg.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.
+
+Horse’s Leg.]
+
+I must, however, resist the temptation to wander into this attractive
+field. It will suffice to take an illustration by a comparison of the
+bones of the human lower limb with those of the hind limb of the Horse.
+This may be easily done by the aid of these drawings (figs. 4
+and 5) in which the two limbs are placed side by side, and the
+corresponding bones are marked with the same letters. Notwithstanding
+the many points of difference the same plan will be recognised in each.
+There is in each the thigh(C), the leg(E), and the foot, with the
+tarsal and metatarsal(G) bones, and the phalanges(H, I, K). But in the
+HORSE two of the digits (the marginal ones, that is, the great toe and
+the little toe) are wanting, two are rudimentary, and the remaining
+one, which corresponds with the middle toe of man, in length, size,
+and strength, more than makes amends for the deficiency of the others.
+The lowermost bone, or terminal phalanx, of this huge toe, called the
+_coffin-bone_(K), is encased in the hoof, which corresponds with the
+human nail, and is the only part of the foot that rests upon the ground.
+
+In MAN the whole weight of the body has to be borne upon _two_ feet;
+often it is balanced upon _one_. The foot is, consequently, spread out;
+and all the bones, from the heel to the tips of the toes, are made to
+form the basis of support upon the ground. The HORSE, on the contrary,
+having no hands, but _four_ feet, does not require so great breadth
+in each foot; and the opportunity is taken to narrow the foot, and to
+lengthen it so as to give fleetness. The end is attained by suppressing
+some of the toes, by elongating one far beyond the others, and enduing
+it with such strength as to enable it to carry the requisite weight
+upon the tip of the last phalanx. The heel(F) is raised high above the
+ground and becomes the “hock.” To speak of a horse _kicking with his
+heels_ is, therefore, about as correct as to say, that he _breaks his
+knees_. His knee, as you perceive by the position of the “knee-cap”(D),
+is high up in the hind limb, near his body, quite out of harm’s way in
+a fall. The fact is, that he kicks with his _toes_; and, when he falls,
+he cuts the skin over the part in his _fore_ limbs, which corresponds
+with the back of our _wrists_.
+
+In the upper segment, or thigh, the difference between the two limbs
+is seen to be, to a certain extent, the reverse of what it is below.
+That is to say, whereas, in the HORSE, the _toe_ is elongated and
+thickened, so as greatly to exceed the corresponding part of the human
+limb; in MAN the _thigh-bone_ is elongated, so as to be double the
+length of that of the horse; the thigh-bone in man is also placed more
+vertically, nearly in the plane of gravity of the trunk. The horse’s
+thigh-bone slants forwards and outwards, which gives the muscles great
+power by causing them to run more at right angles between their points
+of attachment; and this arrangement increases the strength of the
+animal in drawing weights, and facilitates springing. A man cannot
+spring without first bending the limbs a little; whereas a horse, or a
+goat, can spring, at once, from the position in which it is standing.
+
+To revert to the anatomy of the Human Foot.
+
+
+_The Arch of the Foot._
+
+The seven tarsal and the five metatarsal bones--that is, the twelve
+bones of the instep--are arranged and jointed together so as to form
+an arch from the point of the heel to the balls of the toes. This is
+called the “plantar arch,” from the Latin word _planta_, the sole of
+the foot. The _astragalus_ forms the summit, or key-bone, of the arch.
+It receives the weight from the leg, and transmits it, through the
+hinder pillar of the arch, to the heel, and, through the front pillar
+of the arch, to the balls of the toes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+The drawing represents a section, from behind forwards, of the lower
+end of the leg-bone, and of the bones lying along the inner side of the
+plantar arch. Behind it extends through the heel-bone, and in front
+through the great toe. It exhibits the arrangement of the fibres and
+plates in the interior of the bones, and shows that the greater number
+of them, in each bone, follow the direction of the two pillars of the
+arch; that is to say, they descend from the summit of the arch where
+it supports the leg-bone, backwards and downwards, to the heel, and,
+forwards and downwards, to the balls of the toes. Their arrangement
+is, therefore, such as to give resisting strength to the bones in the
+directions in which it is most required.
+
+You may think that the arch of the foot would have been a much simpler
+structure, as well as stronger, if it had been composed of one bone
+instead of several. But it must be remembered that it would, then, have
+been liable to be cracked and broken by the sudden and violent manner
+in which, during running and jumping, the weight of the body is thrown
+upon it. Moreover, the several bones, where they touch one another,
+are covered with a tolerably thick layer of highly elastic gristle or
+cartilage (represented by the clear line left in the drawing along
+the contiguous edges of the bones); and this provision, together with
+the slight movements which take place between these bones, gives an
+elasticity to the foot and to the step, and serves to break the jars
+and shocks which are caused by the sudden contact of the foot with the
+ground.
+
+This last is a very important point; and we find numerous contrivances
+in different parts of the body to protect the brain and other
+delicate organs from jars. So efficient are these contrivances, and
+so exact is the adaptation of the mechanism of the limbs and the
+trunk to the texture of the internal organs, that, while these are
+in a healthy state, we are able to run, to jump, and to leap from a
+considerable height, without inconvenience. But, if the organs be
+inflamed, or if the nervous system be over sensitive, as in common
+headache, the provisions, which are calculated for the normal state,
+are insufficient; ordinary movements are then painful, and to jump is
+intolerable.
+
+The muscles play a very essential part in this work. _First_, they
+place the limbs in the most favourable position. Thus, when we alight
+upon the ground, from a height, we always contrive to do so with the
+knees and hips a little bent, so that the limbs readily yield at the
+joints, and act as springs to break the jar. Elderly persons commonly
+keep the limbs bent, even when walking quietly along. They do this
+because they need all the benefit which position will afford to make
+amends for the loss of elasticity consequent on the thinning and drying
+of the cartilages, and other changes that take place in the body with
+advancing years. _Secondly_, the muscles brace the limbs and joints in
+the position in which they have placed them. We experience the effect
+of the want of this salutary influence when we kick against an unseen
+object, or fall suddenly, or receive any blow or shock for which we are
+unprepared. How disagreeable, to say the least, it is to make the step
+for an additional stair when we have arrived at the top of a staircase,
+or, still worse, to meet with an unseen stair when we think that we
+have got to the bottom.
+
+You perceive from the drawing (fig. 6) that there is a great
+difference between the two pillars of the plantar arch. The hinder
+pillar is comparatively short, and narrow, and descends suddenly,
+almost in a vertical direction, from the ankle, to the ground; and it
+is composed of only one bone--the heel-bone--which is jointed directly
+with the astragalus: whereas the fore pillar is longer and broader,
+is composed of several bones jointed together, and slopes much more
+gradually to the ground. There is, therefore, far less elasticity in
+the hinder part of the foot than in the fore part. Hence, when we
+descend from a height upon the ground, we always alight upon the balls
+of the toes, and thus gain the advantage which the several bones and
+joints afford in breaking the shock. If, after going up stairs this
+evening, you take the trouble to come down again, you will find that
+you alight upon each stair on the balls of the toes and experience no
+inconvenience, however quickly the descent is made. But, if you change
+the mode of proceeding, and descend upon the heels, the feeling will
+be by no means agreeable; and the various organs of the body, being
+disturbed from their accustomed repose, will raise such remonstrances
+against your infringement upon nature’s ways, that you will scarcely
+be able to continue the experiment. Proportionately more distressing
+is the sensation caused by jumping from a chair upon the heels.
+Indeed, this is not done altogether without risk; and the trial of it
+is scarcely to be recommended to persons who have attained to that
+sober period of life at which we are willing to concede that, in some
+things, nature is wiser than ourselves. Only a short time since I
+saw a gentleman, who, in jumping down some steps into a back yard,
+accidentally came upon his heels, and jarred one hip so severely that
+he was confined to his sofa for several days in consequence.
+
+But, you may say, “in walking we do place the heel upon the ground
+first and experience no inconvenience.” True, because the force with
+which the foot descends in walking is very slight; and the weight is
+directed upon the heel, obliquely, in such a manner as to bring the
+toes very quickly to the ground, and really to throw nearly the whole
+force in that direction. Moreover, you may observe that when we walk,
+the weight of the body is partly sustained by the fore part of the
+one foot till the whole of the other foot is on the ground. I will,
+however, revert to the disposition of the feet in walking and running
+presently.
+
+The arch of the foot has to bear great weight and at great
+disadvantage; and there is very little in the _shape_ of the bones to
+maintain its integrity. Indeed, they all fall asunder when the other
+structures are removed, the key-bone dropping through of its own
+weight. And the same thing may be remarked throughout the skeleton.
+Wherever two or more bones move upon one another, their surfaces are
+so constructed that they do not hold together without some assistance
+from the soft parts. There are joints in the body which we call
+“hinge-joints,” and others which we call “ball-and-socket joints;” but
+in none of them is there such a holding and locking of one part in the
+other as you have in the hinge and the ball-and-socket of the mechanic.
+In every case the bones are held together, not by their own shape, but
+by ligaments and muscles. Consequently, any one of the bones may be
+dislocated from those next it without breakage; and when the muscles
+and ligaments are cut through, or have been destroyed by maceration,
+all the bones, between which any movement was possible during life,
+separate from one another.
+
+Not only is this so, but in no instance are the movements of joints
+_limited_ simply by the shape of the bones--that is to say, they are
+never brought to a stop by a part of one bone coming into contact
+with the edge of another. Such a contact would have caused a _sudden_
+check; and this would have been attended with more or less jar and with
+some danger of chipping and breaking the articular edges. The range
+of movement of a joint is always regulated by the ligaments or the
+muscles, not, directly, by the bones; and the restraint thus imposed
+upon the movements is brought to bear, not suddenly, but _gradually_;
+somewhat like the effect of the “break” upon a railway-train; while the
+cartilages between the bones may be compared with the “buffers” between
+the carriages.
+
+It is chiefly by means of strong LIGAMENTS, or sinewy bands, passing
+from bone to bone, that the shape of the plantar arch is maintained and
+the movements of the bones upon one another are regulated and limited.
+These ligaments are numerous; but I will mention only two.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+One, the _Plantar Ligament_ (A, fig. 7), of great strength,
+passes from the under surface of the heel-bone, near its extremity,
+forwards, to the ends of the metatarsal bones; in other words, it
+extends between the lowest points of the two pillars of the arch,
+girding, or holding, them in their places, and preventing their being
+thrust asunder when pressure is made upon the key-bone (D); just as
+the “tie-beam” of a roof resists the tendency to outward yielding of
+the sides when weight is laid upon the summit. The ligament, however,
+has an advantage which no tie-beam can ever possess; inasmuch as a
+quantity of muscular fibres are attached along the hinder part of its
+upper surface. These instantly respond to any demand that is made
+upon them, being thrown into contraction directly the foot touches
+the ground; and the force of their contraction is proportionate to
+the degree of pressure which is made upon the foot. Thus they add a
+living, self-acting, self-regulating power to the passive resistance
+of the ligament. In addition to its office of binding the bones in
+their places, the ligament serves the further purpose of protecting
+from pressure the tender structures--the blood-vessels, nerves and
+muscles--that lie above it, in the hollow of the foot, under the
+shelter of the plantar arch.
+
+Another very strong ligament (B in the wood-cut) passes from the under
+and fore part of the heel-bone (F) to the under part of the scaphoid
+bone (E). It underlies and supports the round head of the astragalus,
+and has to bear a great deal of the weight which is transmitted to that
+bone from the leg. It does not derive the same assistance from a close
+connexion with muscular fibres as the ligament just described; but it
+possesses a quality, which that and most other ligaments do not have,
+viz. elasticity. This is very important, for it allows the head of the
+key-bone (D) to descend a little, when pressure is made upon it, and
+forces it up again when the pressure is removed, and so gives very
+material assistance to the other provisions for preventing jars and for
+giving ease and elasticity to the step.
+
+A glance at the drawing will show you that here is a weak point in the
+foot. The head of the key-bone receives great weight from the leg,
+but is comparatively unsupported; and there is a considerable strain
+upon this part when the heel is being raised in walking. Moreover,
+a good deal of movement takes place between the key-bone (D) and
+the scaphoid bone (E), more than between any other two bones of the
+instep; and freedom in the range of movement is generally attended
+with some sacrifice of strength. The strong elastic ligament comes in
+therefore with peculiar advantage at this point; and it is underlaid,
+and additional support is afforded exactly when it is most required, by
+the tendon (b in fig. 12) of a strong muscle, the especial office
+of which is to assist in raising the heel and bending the instep, and
+which runs, from the back of the leg, behind the inner ankle, to the
+scaphoid bone.
+
+
+_Weak Ankle and Flat-foot._
+
+In spite, however, of the thick elastic ligament and the strong
+tendon just mentioned, the joint between the astragalus or key-bone and
+the scaphoid bone still remains a weak point. The head of the key-bone,
+from being insufficiently supported or from being overweighted, is very
+apt to descend a little below its proper level; the consequence of
+which is that the plantar arch is lowered and the foot is flattened;
+and the more the foot is flattened the weaker it necessarily is,
+because the position of the bones then becomes less and less favourable
+for bearing weight, and an increasing strain is thus incurred by the
+ligaments and muscles. Hence the foot and ankle feel weak; and the
+weakness is especially felt when the person endeavours to raise the
+heel, so as to mount upon the balls of the toes, in walking. For the
+performance of that movement with ease and steadiness a well-formed
+plantar arch is essential; and the person, whose feet are defective
+in the manner we are considering, can never walk with a bold, firm
+step. The movement in him may be better described as a shuffling from
+one foot on to the other, than as a walk. To this I will recur again
+when I come to speak more of walking. The defect, when slight in
+degree, is commonly called “weak-ankle;” when more decided it is called
+“flat-foot,” because the sole is then nearly, or quite, flat. The head
+of the key-bone, under such circumstances, may even bulge downwards and
+inwards, and form a prominence on the inner side of the sole, so as
+to give more or less _convexity_ to the line on the inner side of the
+foot, which should be _concave_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Flat-foot.]
+
+The representation of “flat-foot” here shown was drawn from the foot of
+a labouring man in this county. He said he believed the deformity was
+due to his having worn thick tight shoes when he was a growing boy. He
+is most likely right in his opinion; for tight or ill-fitting shoes,
+cramping the feet and preventing the proper growth of the bones and the
+free play of the muscles, are a common cause of this evil. This is so
+especially among the agricultural class, whose feet are, from an early
+period, enclosed in stiff unyielding leather cases that are enough to
+mar nature’s best efforts to construct a plantar arch.
+
+The same drawing shows that flat-foot is not the only deformity
+for which “high-lows” are answerable. Besides the almost total want
+of calf, which is due to the wearer being obliged to hobble along,
+whole-footed, with short feeble steps, it will be seen that the great
+toe has not been allowed to assume its natural straight line, but has
+been squeezed athwart the other toes, so as to be almost at a right
+angle with the foot. No room at all is thus given for the second toe;
+it has been driven quite out of the field, and has been obliged to hide
+itself by bending down under the other toes. This is no uncommon state
+of things. Frequently it is attended with the formation of a painful
+bunion upon the prominent inner side of the ball of the great toe;
+and, in addition, there is sometimes a corn upon the first joint of
+the second toe, which is a source of so much inconvenience that I have
+known many sufferers glad to get relief by parting with the toe.
+
+I wish I could hope that the days of high-lows are numbered, and could
+believe that in the next generation they will be ranged with the things
+of the past, and that our children may know these enemies to the form
+of the rustic foot, only as objects to be gazed upon with feelings of
+astonishment and pity, just as we regard the perukes and the stays of
+our ancestors. There are, however, some practical difficulties in the
+way of the fulfilment of this charitable wish.
+
+There are two periods of life at which FLAT-FOOT is most likely to be
+engendered. _First_, in infancy, if the child be put upon its feet too
+early, before the bones and ligaments are strong enough to bear the
+weight of the body. Therefore mothers should not indulge their anxiety
+to see their infants walk very early; the pride attendant on premature
+success is liable to be followed by regret at finding that the children
+never walk well. Parents and nurses should be content to let the
+children crawl and roll about upon the floor, and should not encourage
+them to stand upright, especially if they be rather heavy or weak
+children. Children are quite sure to acquire the faculty of walking as
+soon as they are well fit to exercise it.
+
+The _second_ period is at about fourteen. The body attains a
+considerable increase of weight at this time, in consequence of the
+quick growth that takes place. We often remark that lads and girls
+of this age shoot up apace; and their greater weight is not always
+attended with a proportionate acquisition of strength. They are apt to
+be rather weak and ungainly in their movements; and the weakness often
+shows itself in the foot, by a yielding of the plantar arch. Moreover,
+many boys and girls are, at this age, turned out into the world to
+earn a livelihood, and are obliged to be a good deal upon their feet,
+and perhaps, in addition, have to carry weights. Thus errand-boys,
+butchers’ and bakers’ boys, and young nursery-maids, are frequent
+sufferers in this way. The constrained positions in dancing, also,
+if enforced too much, or continued too long, so as to tire the feet,
+sometimes lead to the same result. On the other hand, moderate exercise
+of this kind is calculated to strengthen the foot and also the whole
+frame, and contributes much to improve the carriage.
+
+This is not the place to enter into particulars of _treatment_. I
+will, therefore, merely remark that the common notion of supporting
+and strengthening the ankles by tight-laced boots is altogether a
+mistake, and must be ranked among the most influential of the causes
+which combine to spoil so many feet. It has its parallel in the idea
+of strengthening the waist by stays. The notion is, in both instances,
+fortified by the fact that those persons who have been accustomed to
+the pressure, either upon the ankle or the waist, feel a want of it
+when it is removed, and are uncomfortable without it. They forget, or
+are unconscious, that the feeling of the want has been engendered by
+the appliance, and that had they never resorted to the latter they
+would never have experienced the former; just as dram-drinking induces
+a recurrence to the stimulus by causing a sense of sinking when it is
+discontinued; and, for the same reason, the opium-eater can hardly
+exist without his drug.
+
+
+_The Movements of the Foot._
+
+We come now to the MOVEMENTS of the foot upon the leg; and rarely do we
+contemplate anything more calculated to excite our admiration. Consider
+their variety, the rapidity with which they take place, in order to
+effect the requisite succession of positions in walking and running,
+and to adapt the sole to the inequalities of the surface on which we
+tread; and remember the great weight which has to be sustained while
+these movements are going on: yet, how seldom is there a failure.
+
+This combination of variety of movement with security is effected by
+the employment of _three_ joints, each of which plays in a direction
+different from the others, while all act harmoniously together.
+
+_One_ of the three joints--strictly called the “ankle-joint”--is
+between the leg-bones and the foot-bones, that is, between the tibia
+and fibula, above, and the astragalus beneath. By means of it the foot
+may be bent or straightened upon the leg; in other words, the toes may
+be raised or depressed. In this movement the heel participates, being
+depressed when the toes are raised, and _vice versâ_. A _second_ joint
+is between the astragalus and the heel-bone. It permits the foot to
+be rolled inwards or outwards upon an antero-posterior axis; so that
+the sole may be turned inwards, with its inner edge upwards, or may be
+turned down so as to be placed flat upon the ground. A _third_ joint is
+between the first and second row of tarsal bones--that is, between the
+astragalus and the heel bone, behind, and the scaphoid and cuboid bones
+in front. It permits the degree of flexure of the tarsal or plantar
+arch to be increased or diminished.
+
+Had the several movements which are requisite for easy walking all
+taken place in one joint, that joint must necessarily have been very
+insecure; indeed, it must have been a “ball-and-socket” joint, and we
+should have been poised upon our feet in the state of what is called
+“unstable equilibrium”--a state quite incompatible with security or
+strength, and which would have rendered the assistance of the upper
+limbs essential to either standing or walking.
+
+An instance of a similar kind of mechanism to this of the joints
+between the foot and the leg is presented by the mode in which the
+head is secured upon the back-bone. We can nod the head upwards and
+downwards; we can turn it to either side in so free a manner that we
+are able to command with our eyes the whole circle in which we sit
+simply by the movements of the head; and we can incline the head to the
+right or to the left. Any of these movements may be made very quickly;
+and there is a separate joint or joints for each of them. Thus, the
+_nodding_ movement takes place between the head and the first vertebra
+or uppermost bone of the spine; the _turning_ of the head from side
+to side takes place between the first and second vertebræ, the head
+with the first vertebra rotating upon a pivot projected upwards from
+the second vertebra; and the _inclination_ of the head from side to
+side takes place by movements of the second vertebra upon the third,
+of the third upon the fourth, and so on. The result is that, although
+the movements are thus varied, they are free as well as rapid. Yet the
+head is so well poised and so strongly fixed that the neck is able to
+bear it all day long without fatigue; and, as though the weight of the
+head, which is by no means inconsiderable, were not enough for the
+neck, we are in the habit of selecting this as the part upon which to
+carry burdens. One never feels so strongly impressed with the carrying
+capabilities of the neck and the ankle, as when following men and women
+in mountain districts toiling up and down the hills under great bundles
+of hay, baskets full of bitter beer, and various things intended to
+minister to the comfort and luxury of travellers and the inhabitants at
+the top. So effectual, indeed, are the provisions for security that,
+notwithstanding the freedom and variety of their movements, the joints
+of the foot with the leg, and of the head with the spine, are, in
+proportion to their size, the strongest in the body.
+
+I have stated the movements that take place in the three joints of
+the foot with the leg in a simple manner, for the sake of avoiding
+confusion. In reality, however, they are not so simple, but very
+difficult to analyse and make out correctly. The difficulty is due,
+partly, to the close proximity of the joints to one another, which
+renders it no easy matter to distinguish the movements of one from
+those of the others, and, partly, to the fact that the movements in
+each joint are a little oblique.
+
+In the latter respect the foot-joints resemble most of the others in
+the body; and it is this _obliquity_ in the movements of the joints,
+added to the _curves_ and _twists_ in the shape of the bones, that
+constitutes one of the chief difficulties in investigating and clearly
+understanding the mechanism of the human frame. It has been said
+that “Nature abhors a vacuum:” it may with equal truth be said that
+she abhors a straight line. In the Human Skeleton, at any rate, all
+the bones are bent and twisted, some in two or three directions; and
+the surfaces by which any bone is jointed to the adjacent bones, are
+invariably oblique with regard to each other.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.]
+
+Take, for instance, the _tibia_, or large bone of the leg, of which
+a front view and an inner side view are given in the drawings. The
+tibia is a column transmitting weight from the thigh to the foot;
+and in any machine of man’s construction a column fulfilling similar
+purposes would be made straight and of uniform diameter throughout.
+The bone, on the contrary, does not present the same thickness at any
+two parts of its length. It has a distinct bend, forwards, in nearly
+its whole length (fig. 10): there are lateral curves, alternating
+like those in the letter S, seen along its front (fig. 9): and
+the articular surface at the lower end is placed obliquely with regard
+to that at its upper end, in consequence of a twist in the shaft, in
+such a manner that when the hinder surface of the upper end of the bone
+rests upon a board, the lower end touches the board only by its outer
+corner (fig. 10). This disposition of the lower end, I may remark,
+assists to give the foot a slant outwards from the heel to the toe, so
+that when we stand, with the heels together, the great toes of the two
+feet diverge a little from one another.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+Moreover, the surfaces by which the tibia is jointed with the
+thigh-bone at the knee are arranged with a varying degree of obliquity,
+so that the relation of the leg to the thigh varies somewhat in
+different positions of the limb. For instance, when we stand upright,
+the _thigh_ slants _in_wards from the pelvis, and the _leg_ descends
+in a _vertical_ direction to the ground. While, however, the knee is
+being bent the leg is carried, not in a vertical plane, but a little
+obliquely, so that the lower part soon begins to slant _out_wards; and
+when the knee is fully bent the obliquity of the leg and that of the
+thigh correspond, and the leg is, as it were, folded up against the
+thigh. The heel is thus brought up, not to the middle line of the body,
+but to the hip, and we are enabled to sit with the hips upon the heels,
+as the Japanese are represented doing, or with one hip upon one heel--a
+position in which our riflemen are trained to take aim, and in which
+their predecessors with the arrow were wont to shoot, as is shown by
+the accompanying sketch of a bowman (fig. 11), taken from one of
+the Æginetan marbles in the Glyptothek at Munich.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+A variety of purposes is attained by the curvilinear shape of the
+bones and the obliquity in the movements of the joints. Not the least
+of these is the appearance of elegance and ease which is given to the
+whole frame, both when it is at rest and when it is in motion. In
+order that you may fully appreciate this result, I would ask you, the
+next time you are in a gallery of antique statuary, to contrast the
+figures which the Egyptians have left us with those by the Greeks. In
+the former you will find that straight lines and right angles prevail:
+the figure sits, probably, bolt upright, with the elbows, hips, knees,
+and ankles bent at right angles: the fingers commonly run straight
+forwards; and a hand is often laid upon each knee, the limbs of the two
+sides being quite symmetrically placed. Such statues may be imposing;
+but they are stiff and unnatural. They represent positions which the
+body rarely assumes; and they, certainly, are far from pleasing. Very
+different is the Greek statuary. A correct representation of nature
+is the great difficulty and the highest consummation of art; and the
+Greeks evinced their greatness in art by a true appreciation and
+close imitation of natural form. The position of their figures is
+life-like; and, therefore, we love to contemplate them. The outline
+in them exhibits a graceful disposition of curves and obliques; and
+it is because the great sculptors of Greece were, in this and in
+other respects, so true to nature that their works have commanded the
+admiration, and served as models for the imitation, of all succeeding
+ages.
+
+It is one of the master results of creation, and one of the peculiar
+marks of creative genius, that _perfection_ and _beauty_ are usually
+presented together. As truth is the soul of eloquence, so is perfection
+the soul of beauty. The works of nature are beautiful because there is
+so much excellence in them, such admirable adaptation to their purpose;
+and we find the works of man beautiful only so far as they are correct
+imitations of their great originals in nature, or show some approach
+to nature’s excellence. And man is the most beautiful object in nature
+because he is the most perfect, that is, because the purpose of his
+existence is the highest, and because his physique exhibits the most
+marvellous moulding to adapt it to its high purpose; because, in short,
+in him the material is wrought to such a point of refinement as to be
+the receptacle and minister of the immaterial.
+
+The movements of the three joints between the foot and the leg take
+place in harmony. The following is the order observed. The raising
+of the _heel_ is accompanied by a rolling of the foot _in_wards, and
+by an increased _flexure_ of the plantar arch; and the raising of
+the _toes_ is accompanied by a rolling of the foot _out_wards and a
+_straightening_ of the sole.
+
+
+_The Muscles of the Leg and Foot._
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+The _first_ series of the movements just described is effected,
+mainly, by three muscles. Of these one (A, fig. 12) raises the
+heel while the other two (B, fig. 12, and C, fig. 13) raise
+and support the ankle. The muscle which acts upon the heel is one of
+the largest and most powerful in the body; and well it may be, for in
+raising the heel it has to raise the whole weight of the body. Its
+fibres, accumulated at the middle and upper part of the leg, form the
+“calf;” below they taper into a thick tendon (a) connected with the
+hinder extremity of the heel-bone, and called the _Tendo Achillis_. The
+name, it need scarcely be said, refers to the tale of Thetis holding
+her son Achilles by this part when she dipped him in the river Styx.
+Her hand prevented the part from coming in contact with the water; and
+so it did not partake of the invulnerability which was conferred upon
+the rest of his body by the immersion. We read, accordingly, he was
+finally killed by a wound in the heel[2].
+
+  [2] It does not appear that the legend is based upon any peculiar
+  ideas of susceptibility attached to the heel among Eastern nations;
+  nor can the passages in Scripture, that the Serpent shall bruise
+  man’s heel (Genesis iii. 15); “For the greatness of thine iniquity
+  are thy heels made bare” (Jeremiah xiii. 22), be adduced as
+  indicating the existence of such an idea. There are some other myths
+  resembling this one of Achilles; but in them a different part of
+  the body missed the protecting influence. Thus, Ajax was wrapped by
+  Hercules in the skin of the Nemæan lion, and was, thereby, rendered
+  invulnerable, except at the pit of the stomach where the edges of
+  the skin did not quite meet; and he killed himself by running his
+  sword in there. In the _Niebelungenlied_, the hero, Siegfried, is
+  represented to have rendered himself invulnerable by smearing himself
+  with the blood of a dragon which he had killed. A leaf, however,
+  adhering to his back, prevented the contact of the fluid with one
+  spot. The secret was unwarily communicated by his wife Krimhild to
+  his enemy Hagan, who took advantage of the information to plunge his
+  sword into the fatal spot while Siegfried was stooping down to drink
+  at a rivulet.
+
+  The lesson inculcated by these myths seems to be that all men, even
+  heroes, have their weak points.
+
+The other two muscles (B and C) also descend from the leg and terminate
+in tendons (b and c) which pass, one on either side, behind the
+projections (D and E) which we call respectively the inner and outer
+ankle, to the inner and outer edges of the instep. They assist to raise
+the ankle, and support it so as to prevent its swerving from side to
+side; and they permit it to play to and fro upon them, like a pulley
+upon ropes running under it, in a safe and easy manner. The inner (b,
+fig. 12) of the two tendons passes, as before mentioned, beneath
+the head of the key-bone, and adds greatly to the strength of the arch.
+It is, moreover, the chief agent in effecting the two movements which
+are associated with the elevation of the heel, viz. the turning of the
+sole inward and the flexion of the foot.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.]
+
+The _second_ series of movements--the raising the toes, the turning
+the sole downwards, and the straightening the foot--are effected by
+two muscles (F, fig. 12, and G, fig. 13), the tendons (f and
+g) of which pass, one in front of the inner ankle, and the other in
+front of the outer ankle, to the respective edges of the instep. These
+require much less power than their opponents; and the muscles on the
+front of the leg are, therefore, smaller and weaker than those behind.
+
+A question of practical interest here suggests itself. How is the
+balance between these antagonistic muscles maintained, and the
+proper position of the foot preserved? If the muscles which cause
+the elevation of the heel and the other movements associated with it
+are so much stronger than those which produce the opposite series of
+movements, and if, as we know to be the case, muscles are always, even
+when a limb is at rest, contracting with a certain amount of force, why
+do not those of superior power gain and maintain the ascendancy, and
+hold the limb in the position to which they have a tendency to draw it?
+And why, in this instance, are not the feet kept with the heels raised
+and the soles inturned and bent? The reply is, that the ill consequence
+suggested is prevented, and a proper adjustment between the opponent
+sets of muscles, in this and other parts of the body, is effected
+through the medium of the nervous system. That system institutes
+friendly relations, and compels an orderly and harmonious action of the
+several muscles; and it does so by frequently exerting its influence
+upon them, keeping them in drill, as it were, and enforcing the habit
+of yielding in a kindly manner to one another.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. Club-foot.]
+
+You have often observed, and perhaps wondered at, the almost
+incessant, semi-involuntary and, seemingly, meaningless movements of
+infants, especially the peculiar sprawlings out of their fingers and
+toes. Now these are for the purpose of keeping the different sets
+of muscles in practice and in order, till the will acquires a due
+control, when they gradually cease. They are going on before birth as
+well as afterwards; and when they are deficient, or when they take
+place irregularly, in consequence of an imperfection in the nervous
+system, the limbs are liable to become deformed. The feet, under these
+circumstances, are often drawn into the very position I have just
+mentioned; the sole is turned inwards and upwards, so as never to touch
+the ground; the heel and the toes are approximated; and the foot rests
+upon the ground on the outer side, or quite on the fore part, of the
+instep. Such a condition constitutes one of the most common forms of
+what is called “club foot.” Children are often born with one or both of
+their feet thus distorted. Happily, however, if they be submitted in
+time to the modern improved modes of treatment they may usually be set
+right. The accompanying woodcut gives a sketch of the foot of a young
+woman who had not the good fortune to be thus attended to.
+
+The muscles compose the flesh or chief part of the bulk of a limb. The
+“calf” is almost entirely made up of the fibres of the “calf-muscle.”
+But at the ankle there are no muscles. As they descend the leg, all
+the _muscular_ fibres disappear, and there are only _tendons_. These,
+though much thinner than the muscles, are very strong; and they are the
+cords or ropes by which the muscles pull upon distant parts. As they
+pass over the ankle they are strapped down close to the bones by means
+of stout sinewy cross-bands, which prevent their starting from their
+places when the muscular portions pull at them.
+
+Two especial advantages result from this arrangement.
+
+_First_, the lower part of the leg and the ankle are reduced in size.
+Thereby the resistance to the passage of the limb through the air is
+lessened; and when it is upon the ground, the leg is less in the way of
+the other foot which is swinging, to and fro, beside it. An elegance
+of shape is also thereby imparted. The “pretty ankle” owes much of its
+charm to the mode in which the tendons are disposed. How comparatively
+thick and clumsy would the ankle be if the tendons of the toes took the
+straight course represented by the line _a_ in the drawing, instead of
+being bound down, as they are, to the curve of the ankle!
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.]
+
+_Secondly_, the obliquity with which the tendons run to their
+insertions is increased by this arrangement; and the velocity of the
+movements to which they minister is increased also. True, a loss of
+strength is involved in such a disposition, but the gain in velocity is
+of more importance. If (to refer again to the diagram, fig. 15)
+the tendon ran in a straight course from the front of the leg to the
+great toe, the angle at which it joined the toe would enable it to act
+with more strength; but the movements connected with it could not be so
+quick as they now are.
+
+We find in the construction of the human frame many instances in which
+strength is sacrificed to rapidity of movement in this and other ways.
+Scarcely any conceivable amount of strength, for instance, would be an
+adequate compensation for a loss of that celerity of movement of the
+hand which enables us to strike a blow and drive a nail. No wonder,
+therefore, that strength is here sacrificed to obtain celerity. And the
+same principle holds good for other parts.
+
+The length and direction of the heel affords a good illustration of
+the principle of which I am speaking. When the heel-bone runs out to
+a considerable distance, and nearly straight, behind the ankle, as it
+does in some of the lower animals and in the inferior races of mankind,
+it presents a better leverage to the calf-muscle, which is, then,
+enabled to raise the ankle with a less amount of effort; but there
+is proportionately less velocity. Accordingly, in the more perfectly
+formed foot, such as we find it in the higher races of mankind, the
+heel-bone, instead of running out backwards, descends very obliquely,
+almost vertically.
+
+In this instance, the loss of strength, which is thus incurred for
+the purpose of acquiring celerity in movement, is usually compensated
+for by the greater development of the calf-muscle. Hence the high heel
+and the well-developed calf go together; and, like most of the other
+features of good bodily formation, they are, on the whole, best marked
+in the nations which are endued with the highest intelligence, and
+which are, in this way, physically, as well as mentally, qualified
+to occupy the foremost places in the human family. Thus, we may mark
+a relation between the heel and the brain; and, as the comparative
+anatomist is able by the inspection of a bone to trace out the skeleton
+to which it belonged, so might it be possible for the human anatomist,
+by observing minutely the peculiarities of the heel and the other
+features of the foot in any particular race of men, to form some
+estimate of the capacity and conformation of the skull, and thereby, of
+the amount of intelligence.
+
+Contrast the foot and leg of the EUROPEAN (fig. 16), as
+represented in the drawing reduced from the Farnese Hercules, with
+those of the NEGRO (fig. 17), the drawing of which was taken from
+a native of Sierra Leone. In the former the leg is plump and the calf
+well developed; the foot is compact and well arched; the heel descends
+nearly vertically; and the inner ankle stands clearly out and is raised
+high above the ground. In the Negro the leg is thinner and the calf is
+not so well defined; the foot is long, flat, and sprawling; the heel is
+more horizontal; and the inner ankle does not show clearly, and almost
+touches the ground.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18. European.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19. Negro.]
+
+Contrast also the outline (fig. 19) of the foot of the same
+Negro with that (fig. 18) of an Englishman. Both were traced upon
+the ground, and reduced upon the same scale. The Negro was 5 ft.
+2 in. in height; the Englishman was 6 ft.; both were of the
+same age: yet the Negro’s foot was considerably the larger. It was 11
+inches long, 3-1/2 inches across the middle of the instep, and 10-1/2
+inches round the balls of the toes. Whereas the Englishman’s foot
+was less than 10-1/2 inches long, was 2-1/2 inches across the middle
+of the instep, and 9-1/2 inches round the balls of the toes. Even in
+this simple outline how much less shapely is the African’s foot. Some
+allowance must be made for the fact that the Negro was more accustomed
+to go barefooted than the Englishman; and the pressure of the boot or
+shoe has, in some degree, the effect of giving compactness to the foot.
+
+In the native AUSTRALIAN the leg is commonly still more lanky, there
+being less calf than in the African; and in the MONKEY the heel is
+quite horizontal, the sole is flat, and the muscular fibres of the
+leg are continued low down, close to the ankle, instead of being
+concentrated higher up; so that the leg has nearly the same thickness
+from the knee to the foot, and there is no calf at all. Indeed, in
+the GORILLA (see fig. at page 90) the circumference of the leg
+increases towards the ankle. Thus, the calf may be regarded as the
+characteristic of MAN; and a well-developed calf is a characteristic of
+the higher members of the human species. The pride, therefore, which
+is felt in a well-formed leg is not altogether a senseless folly, but
+finds some excuse in the fact that its foundation lies deep in the laws
+of physiology and ethnology. It must be confessed, that the fashion
+which, in the last century, dictated the knee-breeches, the silk
+stocking, and the shoe, evinced a truer appreciation of the dignity and
+beauty of the human figure than do the modern investments, which quite
+cover up the limbs, encumbering their movements and hiding the beauty
+of the leg and ankle.
+
+In the addition of the _high heel_ to the shoe we recognise an effort
+to improve upon the original, by exaggerating one of the peculiar
+features of the human foot; but it results in a failure, as is
+invariably the case with such strainings after a greater perfection
+than nature has given. It increases the apparent height of the person
+and of the arch of the instep; but it throws the weight too forward
+upon the toes, and detracts from the length and security of the step.
+Moreover, by causing disuse of the elevators of the heel, it interferes
+with the full growth of the calf.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20. Chinese.]
+
+This is, however, a harmless piece of vanity in comparison with the
+monstrous efforts of the Chinese to mould the foot to their ideal by
+squeezing the heel and the toes together. They effect this to such
+a degree that (fig. 20) the heel-bone descends vertically from
+the ankle, the plantar arch is bent to an acute angle, and the foot
+is so crumpled up that all movement in it is effectually prevented,
+and the part is reduced almost to a mere stump. These observant and
+ingenious people have caught, it may be, the idea that compactness,
+elevation of instep, and sudden descent of heel are characteristics
+of the well-formed foot, and may urge that they are helping nature
+to perfection in the direction which she has herself indicated. But
+in their silly attempt at the preternatural, in this impious use, as
+it were, of fire stolen from heaven, they simply burn and cripple
+themselves, and render themselves ridiculous, and give to all other
+nations the much needed lesson that it is enough for man to follow as a
+humble imitator of his Maker’s works, and that his attempts to alter,
+or improve upon, any part of the wondrous design of creation will
+assuredly have the effect of spoiling and defacing it[3].
+
+  [3] It is a remarkable statement by a correspondent in _The Times_,
+  Jan. 14th, 1861, that in the pillage of the Summer Palace of
+  the Emperor of Pekin “all the ladies of the Court must have had
+  natural-sized feet, all the slippers found in their rooms being
+  large; not a single cramped-footed shoe was seen.”
+
+It seems that the several races of mankind are usually rather proud
+of their peculiarities, and that each has an inclination to make much
+of, and artificially exaggerate, the points in which it differs from
+the others. Thus the Chinese are remarkable for the spareness of their
+hair and the smallness of their feet; so the men shave their heads,
+leaving only the pig-tail, and the women squeeze up their feet in the
+remorseless manner we have seen. The Singhalese, who are flat-footed,
+are said to consider it one of the requisites for a ‘belle’ that the
+soles of her feet should not have any hollow. The red Indians of
+America delight in staining and painting their skins of a lively red
+colour. The Columbian tribe of Indians increase the natural lowness of
+their forehead by flattening it out in infancy, and succeed in bringing
+about a deformation of the skull almost as remarkable in its way as is
+the effect of Chinese cramping upon the foot. These people also take
+pains to reduce the small quantity of hair upon their eyebrows, lips,
+and chin, by plucking it out.
+
+
+_Joints of the Metatarsus with the Tarsus._
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Figs. 25    24.    23.    22.    21.]
+
+I will briefly draw your attention to one other point in the anatomy
+of the foot; and that is, the mode in which the “metatarsal” bones
+are jointed with the “tarsal.” If you take hold of the ends of the
+metatarsal bones--in other words the “balls”--of the great toe and of
+the two toes next to it, in your own foot, you will find that you can
+move them scarcely at all; they are firmly set upon the rest of the
+foot, almost as though they formed one piece with it. If you then try
+the end of the metatarsal bone of the fourth toe you will be able to
+move it a little upwards and downwards; and in the case of the little
+toe the movement is still more distinct. This difference depends upon
+the mode of construction of the joints of the metatarsal bones with
+the tarsal, which is easily understood by the aid of the accompanying
+drawings, representing sections, from above downwards, through these
+joints. In 21, 22, and 23, which are the tarso-metatarsal joints of
+the great toe and the two next it, the opposed surfaces of the bones
+between _c_, _c_, are quite flat, so that the only movement that can
+take place is a slight sliding of one bone upon the other, just enough
+to assist in breaking the jar, but not enough to interfere with the
+firm basis of support which these toes are required to afford to the
+plantar arch in consequence of the great stress of the weight in
+walking being borne upon this side of the foot. In No. 24, which is the
+joint of the ring toe, and still more in No. 25, which is the joint
+of the little toe, the end of the metatarsal bone (A) is rounded and
+is received into a corresponding concavity or cup in the tarsal bone
+(B). This allows a slight revolving of one bone upon the other to take
+place, and permits the movement which you discover when you grasp the
+balls of these two toes between your fingers. The outer part of the
+foot needs not to be so strong and firm as the inner part, because it
+does not lie so nearly in the plane of gravity during walking; and the
+provision just described, which permits some movement in the outer
+two metatarsals, enables the balls of the toes to adapt themselves to
+inequalities on the ground, and to share more equally, under various
+circumstances, the weight which is thrown upon them.
+
+
+_Standing and Stooping._
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 26. Standing.
+
+27. Bowing.
+
+28. Stooping.
+
+29. Squatting.]
+
+When we STAND straight upright (fig. 26) the centre of gravity of
+the head is directly over a point midway between the two ankles; and
+the plane of gravity, represented by the vertical line in the figure,
+descends, from the head, through the spine, pelvis, and lower limbs,
+to the key-bone of the instep. And you observe that, between the head
+and the ankle, the skeleton is not quite straight, but is arranged in
+six curves, which are, alternately, in front of and behind the line
+of gravity. Of these curves the upper three are in the spine. They
+are well marked; the uppermost (_a_) is in the neck and is directed
+forwards; the next (_b_) is in the back and is directed backwards;
+the third (_c_) is in the loins and is directed forwards. The fourth
+curve (_d_), less distinct than those above it, is in the pelvis and
+is directed backwards. The fifth and sixth curves are very slight; the
+fifth (_e_), directed forwards, is at the hip-joint; and the sixth,
+(_f_), directed backwards, is at the knee. The last two curves, though
+slight, are not unimportant; and they contribute very much to our
+comfort and to prevent fatigue when we are standing: they do so in the
+following way. The strong ligaments of the hip are placed towards the
+_fore_ part of the joint, that is, in _front_ of the line of gravity;
+and the strong ligaments of the knee are placed towards the _back_
+part of the joint, that is, _behind_ the line of gravity. It follows
+that when these joints are fully extended they are “locked,” as it is
+termed, just as is a hinge when opened to a little beyond the straight
+line; and, by this means, the muscles are set at rest, and we are able
+to maintain the erect posture, for some time, steadily and without
+fatigue.
+
+When standing upright in this way, at rest on both legs, or on one leg
+in the military position of “at ease,” and the muscles are off their
+guard, if a sudden and unexpected, though slight, pressure be made upon
+the ham, so as to bend the knee a little and throw the joint in front
+of the line of gravity, the man will drop, unless the muscles come
+quickly to the rescue--a tendency which has not escaped the observation
+of school-boys.
+
+In BENDING or BOWING (fig. 27) the head is carried forwards; and,
+to maintain the balance, the opposite pole of the trunk is carried
+backwards, so as to preserve the line of gravity still over the ankles.
+
+In STOOPING (fig. 28) or SQUATTING (fig. 29), as in picking
+up any thing from the ground, the lower limbs and the trunk are bent in
+a zigzag manner; the heels are raised; and the plane of gravity falls,
+in front of the ankles, over the balls of the toes. Now we recognise
+one of the advantages which accrues to man from the great length of his
+thigh. For the head and upper part of the trunk are advanced so far in
+_front_ of the feet, that it would be impossible to maintain a balance
+at all, even upon the balls of the toes, and we should necessarily fall
+forwards, were it not that, owing to the length of the thigh, the lower
+part of the trunk is carried backwards to a plane _behind_ the heels,
+and so serves to maintain the equilibrium.
+
+
+_Walking._
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Figs. 30.    31.    32.
+
+Walking.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Figs. 33.    34.    35.
+
+Walking.]
+
+Let us next consider the part which the foot performs in WALKING.
+To understand this it is necessary to consider its positions and
+movements in the several stages of a step. When first placed upon the
+ground the foot (R, fig. 30) is a little in advance of the body;
+and the heel comes first (fig. 33) into contact with the ground.
+The toes quickly follow; and the body, then, passes, vertically, over,
+the ankle and the key-bone of the instep. The foot (R, fig. 31
+and fig. 34) now rests steadily upon the heel and the balls of
+the toes; the other foot (L) leaves the ground, so that the whole
+weight is borne by one foot; and the plantar arch of that foot expands
+a little, so as to cause slight lengthening of the foot, under the
+weight that is laid upon it. Much yielding of the arch is, however,
+prevented by the ligaments that brace the arch (fig. 7), and by
+the muscles that are disposed beneath it. Next, the heel (fig. 35)
+is raised by the action of the calf muscle, and the weight of the body
+is thrown forwards, over the balls of the toes, while the other foot
+(L, fig. 32) is carried onwards, and is placed upon the ground
+ready to receive the weight and commence its carrying work. When this
+has been done the foot is withdrawn from the ground; and, in the
+withdrawal, a final impulse onward is given, so as to throw the weight
+of the body fairly over to the other foot. The fore part of the foot
+is then raised, and the knee is bent a little. By these means the toes
+are kept clear of the ground, while the foot is swung forward, beside
+the other, so as to be ready again to rest upon the ground and bear the
+weight of the body.
+
+In each complete step, therefore, there is a period during which the
+foot rests upon the ground, and a period in which it is swinging in
+the air. In walking the former period is considerably longer than
+the latter; and at the commencement, and at the end, of that period
+(figs. 30 and 32) the other foot is also upon the ground, so that
+it is only during the middle of the time (fig. 31) in which the
+foot rests upon the ground that it has to bear the whole weight of the
+body.
+
+
+_Running._
+
+In RUNNING the process is much the same as in walking. The chief
+difference is that, whereas in walking _both_ feet are never _off_
+the ground at the same time, and both are _upon_ the ground at the
+beginning and end of each step; in running _both_ feet are never _on_
+the ground at the same time, and both are _off_ the ground, and the
+body is flying unsupported through the air, at the beginning and end
+of each step (figs. 36 and 38). Thus, you may always distinguish
+running, though it be ever so slow, from walking, because, in the
+latter, the two feet are upon the ground at the same time; while, in
+the former, only one foot touches the ground at a time.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Figs. 36.    37.    38.
+
+Running.]
+
+The period during which the body rests upon the ground in running is
+comparatively very short, being merely the time when one foot is set
+down in the middle of each step (fig. 37); and great force has,
+consequently, to be exerted to propel the body through the air during
+the whole remainder of the step. Hence the exertion of running is much
+greater than that of walking. In slow running the same parts of the
+foot are applied upon the ground as in walking, and in the same order;
+but in quick running the balls of the toes only touch the ground. The
+quicker we run the shorter, relatively to the rest of the step, is the
+time during which the foot rests upon the ground, and the greater,
+consequently, is the effort.
+
+After the foot leaves the ground, in running, it is thrown up behind;
+and, at the same time, the fore part of the sole and the toes are
+turned a little obliquely _in_wards, so as to prevent their catching
+against adjacent objects. If the toes were turned _out_, when thrown
+up behind, it would present a very awkward appearance, and we should
+frequently be tripped up by their coming in contact with substances
+near which we pass. While the foot is being swung forwards the toes
+are gradually turned a little the other way. Thus, by the time they
+pass the other leg the toes have lost the inclination inwards, and are
+directed straight _for_wards; and when the foot has reached a point in
+advance of the other leg, and the sole is preparing to present itself
+to the ground, the toes are turned a little _out_wards. This turning of
+the foot _in_wards and _out_wards during its movement _back_wards and
+_for_wards, in each step, is a graceful movement, and may be compared
+to the “feathering” of an oar. It takes place, also, in walking, but
+is less marked than in running; and in many persons it can scarcely be
+discerned during walking.
+
+The distinction between the paces of other animals resembles that
+between the walking and the running of man, and is equally definite.
+Take, for instance, the WALKING, TROTTING, and GALLOPING of the Horse.
+In WALKING the fore and the hind limbs of the _same_ side are moved
+together, or nearly together, but they do not leave the ground till the
+limbs of the opposite side are placed upon it; so that at one period
+all four limbs are upon the ground together. In TROTTING the fore and
+the hind limbs of _opposite_ sides move together; but, as in walking,
+neither of them are withdrawn from the ground till the opposite one has
+reached it[4].
+
+  [4] In WALKING the hind leg moves first, then the fore leg of the
+  same side; and both reach the ground before the hind leg of the
+  opposite side is raised. So that at one time there are three feet on
+  the ground, at another two, but never less than two.
+
+  In TROTTING, especially quick trotting, one foot is raised at the
+  same instant that the opposite one is put down. This renders it
+  difficult to make out the sequence of the movements.
+
+In GALLOPING, or CANTERING, the horse springs or bounds with all four
+limbs at the same time; all the feet are thrown up nearly together;
+all are off the ground together; and all reach the ground again nearly
+at the same time ready for another spring. I say that the feet are
+all thrown up _nearly_, and not _quite_, together, because the fore
+and the hind limbs of one side take the precedence a little of the
+others, or “lead,” as it is called. The trained horse is taught to
+lead, habitually, with one, usually the right, side, because the motion
+is more steady when the horse is accustomed to gallop in one way than
+if he be allowed to vary it. Directly the horse begins to gallop, the
+rider knows, by the motion, whether he is leading with the proper
+leg. In some animals, as the DEER, the two fore and the two hind feet
+move together exactly in galloping. Anthony Trollope tells us that in
+Panama, Cuba, and other Spanish countries in the West, the horses are
+“taught to pace, that is, move with the two off legs together, and then
+with the two near legs. The motion is exceedingly gentle, and well
+fitted for those hot climates, in which the rougher work of trotting
+would be almost too much for the energies of debilitated mankind.” This
+_pacing_ is probably only a quick walk.
+
+When we walk the heels follow one another nearly in a straight line,
+as is shewn by “walking a chalk,” or more readily by walking along the
+line between the curb and the flagstone pavement; and the plane of
+gravity of the body corresponds with this line. There ought, therefore,
+to be no perceptible _swerving_ of the trunk from side to side in
+walking. There should, also, be scarcely any _rising_ or _falling_;
+inasmuch as there are provisions in the mode of bending the limbs
+(which I cannot here discuss) to prevent the body from being moved up
+and down during the step. The head and shoulders should be carried
+along nearly in a straight line. If it were otherwise, if they were
+moved in a zigzag or undulating manner, from right to left, or up and
+down, the space traversed in a given distance would be much increased,
+and there would be a proportionately greater expenditure of muscular
+force. By a beautiful combination of movements this is prevented, and
+a rectilinear course is maintained, while the weight of the body is
+transferred from foot to foot, in a succession of steps.
+
+Only observe a good walker for a minute or two, and you will see
+how straight the head is carried along; and when your eye falls upon
+a person who “rolls in his walk” you perceive how ungainly are his
+movements, and you have an instinctive feeling that he is an awkward
+fellow. Whether you are disposed to make an exception in favour of the
+British tar, in consequence of his many other good qualities, I must
+leave you to judge. His peculiar gait on shore is probably due to his
+not being sufficiently practised in straight walking to counteract the
+effect of the lounging manner and general disregard for appearances
+which he acquires on board ship. Whatever the reason may be, though he
+has the better of us in a storm at sea, he certainly does not always
+appear to advantage on _terra firma_. Now that a general improvement
+in gait and step may be expected among landsmen, as a result of the
+volunteer movement, it becomes still more desirable that the sailor
+should participate in the good influences of the drill.
+
+Although the heels follow one another in a line the toes diverge a
+little from the line, because the foot slants, as I have just said,
+somewhat _out_wards when it is placed upon the ground. It results from
+this position of the foot that the weight of the body descends upon it
+with a slight obliquity, _in_wards as well as forwards; and that is
+precisely the direction in which the foot is best prepared to receive
+weight. For, when the foot rests upon the ground in this position
+all the ligaments on the inner side (and they are very strong) as
+well as those beneath, are on the stretch; and the joints, with the
+exception of the ankle-joint, are as it were locked, so as to afford
+a secure, steady basis of support to the leg. When the weight of the
+body descends upon the foot in the direction mentioned a sprain rarely
+occurs. It is when the weight falls in the opposite direction, that is,
+more or less obliquely _out_wards, and throws the ankle out, that a
+sprain easily happens. Thus a slight inequality of the ground, or any
+other cause that tilts up the inner edge of the foot, is likely to lead
+to a sprain, especially when we are going down hill or down steps.
+
+Here let me remark that a SPRAIN is the result of a stretching of
+some ligament, or other part, caused by an undue force being brought
+to bear upon it. The ligaments are very strong, and under ordinary
+circumstances are not very sensitive; and they are capable of offering
+great resistance to force applied in the direction in which they are
+calculated to meet it. But, if the force be applied in a direction in
+which they are not calculated to meet it, they are easily injured, and
+they become, then, very painful. The same is, also, likely to occur if
+the force be severe or sudden.
+
+The muscles are a very great assistance to the ligaments, forasmuch
+as, by placing and retaining the joints in proper positions, they
+regulate the direction in which forces are brought to bear upon
+the ligaments. Moreover, by steadying or bracing the joints, they
+check or break the force and prevent its being suddenly imposed
+upon the ligaments. And the muscles, by virtue of their contractile
+property, have the capability of becoming tight in any position of
+the joint, which is an immense advantage; whereas a ligament having
+no contractility and, usually, no elasticity, is tight only in one
+position. The office of a ligament is to limit the movement of a joint
+in a particular direction; and, till the joint has assumed a certain
+position--till it is bent or straightened to a certain angle--the
+ligament does not come into play. During the bending or straightening
+of a limb the muscles regulate the movement, and bring it to a stop or
+check it before it has gone to its full extent; and, thus, the ligament
+is relieved from that sudden imposition of force which would result if
+it were required to check the movement of a joint in its full swing.
+
+Accordingly, when the muscles are prepared and in proper action, that
+is, when they place the joint in a suitable position and duly support
+or brace it, a sprain very rarely occurs. It is when the muscles are
+unprepared, when we make a false step, or when the foot encounters an
+unexpected obstacle, and the weight falls suddenly upon the ligaments
+in an unfavourable direction, that a sprain occurs. A man jumps from a
+considerable height, or descends deep steps with a heavy weight upon
+his back, and no harm results; but he slips off the curb-stone, or
+treads unwarily upon a piece of orange-peel, or turns his foot hastily,
+to avoid some object on the ground, and sprains his ankle.
+
+In order that they may do their work well, be alert, and maintain good
+guard, the muscles need to be kept in practice. A person unaccustomed
+to throw a ball is very liable to sprain his elbow with the sudden
+jerk which is required for that feat; or if a person takes to tumbling
+and jumping, without proper training, he will probably suffer for his
+temerity. Again, common experience tells us that a joint which has been
+sprained is, for a long time, liable to be sprained again. This is
+because the part remains tender as well as weak; and the muscles do not
+brace it steadily and firmly, or come nimbly to its aid when it is in
+danger.
+
+In consequence of the foot, in walking, being placed upon the ground
+with the toes slanting a little outwards, the _out_er and hinder edge
+of the heel first touches the ground. Hence this part of the heel of
+the shoe is usually worn down before the remainder. The ball of the
+little toe next comes to the ground, and the balls of the other toes
+follow in quick succession; and it is from the great toe--that is, from
+the inner side of the foot--that the last impulse is given to propel
+the body, forwards, over the other foot. In order to give full effect
+to this final impulse an especial muscle, the “Long Fibular” muscle (I
+in fig. 13), is provided. The tendon (i) of this muscle passes,
+behind the outer ankle, beneath the sole of the foot, to the great
+toe. It has the effect of pressing the ball of the great toe upon the
+ground, while it raises the outer ankle, and so contributes to throw
+the weight, across, in the direction of the other foot.
+
+Thus the foot revolves upon the ground, from the heel to the balls of
+the toes, and from the outer edge of the former to the inner edge of
+the latter; and during the revolution, which has been compared, though
+the comparison fails in many points, to the revolving of the segment of
+a wheel, the ankle is raised and advanced forwards.
+
+On the complete and steady execution of this movement good walking
+chiefly depends, more particularly upon the full performance of the
+last stage of the process, viz. the rising fairly upon the balls of
+the toes and delivering the weight steadily over to the other foot.
+This is the most difficult part of the process, the whole weight of
+the body during its execution being borne upon the fore part of the
+foot, that is, upon the longer pillar of the plantar arch; forasmuch
+as the heel is being raised and the other foot is off the ground. For
+the good performance of this part of the process, all the features of
+the well-made foot are essential. There must be a high and firm plantar
+arch, a heel set at a proper angle, and a strong great toe running
+straight forwards. There must be also a fully developed calf to set the
+machinery well in motion.
+
+If the plantar arch be low it cannot bear the strain attendant
+upon this movement; and the person, in consequence, shirks the full
+performance of it. He does that by turning the toes too much out; and,
+then, he contrives to roll over the inner side of the foot, instead of
+rising upon the balls of the toes; and so he gets along with short,
+shuffling, feeble steps. How many persons, owing to one cause or other,
+hobble in this way! Some turn the toes very much in, and rise over the
+ball of the little toe, instead of over the great toe. This is done
+with comparative ease, because the ball of the little toe is nearer to
+the ankle; but the step is, thereby, shortened, as well as rendered
+less firm and less graceful.
+
+The revolving movement of the foot, or the bringing of its several
+parts into contact with the ground in succession, in a distinct manner,
+is peculiar to man. Many animals do not bear upon the heel at all; they
+only tread upon the toes, and are, therefore, called DIGITIGRADE. Some,
+indeed, bear only upon the tips of the toes, as the Horse (fig. 5,
+p. 15). Others go upon the balls of the toes, as the Cat, the
+Hare, the Pig, and the Dog. Some animals bear upon the heels as well as
+the toes, and are called PLANTIGRADE, as the Bear, the Badger, and the
+Monkey; but these all flop the sole upon the ground in its whole length
+at once. The foot in them is not sufficiently compact and strong to
+bear the weight of the body first upon one part then upon another; and
+they, consequently, walk in an ungainly manner, as compared with man.
+
+
+_Character evinced by manner of Walking._
+
+Bear in mind that for the firm vigorous walk there is required, not
+only the well-formed limb, but also the manly and determined WILL,
+acting in a decided and authoritative manner over the several members
+of the body, so that these are accustomed readily, and steadily, to
+obey its commands; just as the soldiers of a well-drilled regiment obey
+the directions of the superior officer in an orderly and efficient
+manner. And, as you may judge of the character of the officer by the
+discipline of his men, so may you form an estimate of a man by the
+movements of his limbs. You see a man walk along the street, and you
+instinctively form an opinion of him by the mode in which he carries
+himself and treads the ground. Be careful not to allow yourselves to
+be inflexibly biassed by these first impressions, as that amounts to
+prejudice. Nevertheless, experience tells us that they are not to be
+altogether despised. They originate in a perception of the working of
+the great laws by which body and mind are harmonized; and, if fairly
+estimated, they rarely deceive us.
+
+We have little difficulty in recognising three chief classes among
+pedestrians. _First_, there are those who pay too much attention to
+the movements, who walk with a pompous strut, or a mincing gait, or
+affect some style or other. We are naturally very little inclined in
+favour of such persons; indeed, we have usually to make an effort not
+to be decidedly prejudiced against them. _Secondly_, there are those
+who pay too little attention to their movements, who do not seem to be
+sufficiently alive to the responsibility attaching to the possessors of
+so noble a structure as the human frame, and who do not give themselves
+the trouble to exert the powers of the glorious mechanism with which
+they are charged. They slouch, or dawdle, along in a listless lazy
+manner. Instinct tells us, and tells us rightly, to beware how we
+trust such persons with the conduct of our affairs, or with any office
+of responsibility. We feel that the lack of energy manifested in the
+guidance of their limbs is, too probably, a feature of character,
+which unfits them for the active duties of life; and we know that such
+men are not usually successful in their calling. _Thirdly_, there are
+those who shew, by the firmness and precision of their step, and by
+the regularity in the succession of the movements by which the step
+is made, that they are conscious of the dignity of their species, of
+the responsibility attendant on that dignity, and of the respect due
+to themselves. Such men we feel are likely to pursue their avocations
+energetically and methodically, as well as with punctuality.
+
+Many points of character peep out in the way men walk. Our poet tells
+us that in one we may read
+
+      “rascal in the motions of his back
+  And scoundrel in his supple sliding knee.”
+
+Another has a halting, shuffling, undecided gait; while a third walks
+in a bold, determined, straight-forward, erect and independent manner.
+One has a cautious, parsimonious step, as if sparing of shoe-leather,
+or afraid to trust the ground; he has, however, probably, trusted the
+funds with considerable investments. Some walk with long, pretentious,
+measured strides; others make short, quick, insignificant steps. Some,
+again, are hurried, fussy, noisy; while others glide along in a quiet,
+shrinking, unpretending, it may be timid, manner.
+
+I need not dilate upon these diversities. Your own observation will
+supply abundant illustrations of the correspondence between character
+and manner of walking.
+
+The several movements in walking are under the control of the WILL,
+and are directed by it, to such an extent that the continuous agency
+of the will is essential to the process. If the influence of the will
+be suspended, but for a moment, the action ceases, and the man falls
+to the ground. Nevertheless, the play of the individual muscles, and
+their co-ordination, or the manner in which their several movements
+are combined, are, in a great measure, independent of the will.
+They are, to a certain extent, automatic, and result from peculiar
+relations between the nervous and the muscular systems. The will may
+be compared to the driver of an engine, who, by turning on the steam,
+and maintaining the supply, sets the machine in motion, and regulates
+the rate of its speed; but the several wheels are so arranged that they
+go on irrespectively of his immediate superintendence. It would be
+impossible for the engine-man to attend to the working of each detail
+of his machine; and it would be too much for the will to have to direct
+all the movements of the limbs in walking. We should be wearied with
+such an effort of attention before we had walked across a room; for the
+exercise of the will is exhausting, and soon engenders fatigue. The
+more we think of any movement and take pains to direct it, the sooner
+we are tired and unable to continue it; and the more the attention is
+diverted, the less quickly do we experience a feeling of exhaustion;
+while those movements in the body which are not at all under the
+influence of the will--the movements of the heart for instance--go on
+unceasingly, through a long life, without any sense of weariness. What
+so prevents fatigue, when we are walking, as the diverting conversation
+of an agreeable companion?
+
+But though the combination of the movements in walking is, to a
+certain extent, automatic, it is not complete without the proper
+control of the will. This is proved by the gait of those unfortunate
+beings in whom the mind, and with it commonly the will, is deficient
+from birth--I mean IDIOTS. Their movements are, usually, more or less,
+irregular and unharmonious, jerky, without proper steadiness and
+rhythm; the head is tossed about; the eye looks one way; the fingers
+are sprawled out in another direction; the foot is jerked out at a
+hazard, as it were, so that you don’t know when it will reach the
+ground, perhaps it kicks against the other foot. A sad spectacle this.
+The visit to an Idiot Asylum fills one, it is true, with a sense of the
+value of an institution where these poor members of the human family
+are kept out of harm’s way, and away from the gibes of the village
+boys, and are made clean, and tidy, and taught so far as they are
+capable of instruction; but I know no sadder sight than is presented
+by a string of the inmates of such an asylum, guided from room to room
+by the foremost of the number, who shews by his walk, somewhat more
+steady than that of the others, that he is gifted with rather more
+intelligence than they, and is so fitted to be their guide.
+
+An equally melancholy, an even more distressing, spectacle is that
+of criminals pacing, like animals in their dens, up and down the
+court-yard of their prison; for in them we know, that there is no
+deficiency of will. It is strong enough to control and regulate
+the movements of their limbs; but there is a still more important
+deficiency, viz. a deficiency of that moral sense which should control
+the will.
+
+Another sad, but physiologically interesting, sight is the rolling
+walk of the drunkard. Here, again, the will is not deficient; but it
+is, partly, and by its own agency, dethroned. Enough of the will is
+left to set the machine going, not enough to guide it and control it
+well. Though the movements follow one another, for the most part, in
+proper sequence, they are uncertain and ill-directed. The balancing
+power is partly lost. The feet are dragged hither and thither, and
+thrown about, by the swerving weight of the body; and they follow
+one another upon the ground at uncertain intervals, and in any but a
+straight line. You watch a man in this state staggering from side to
+side, and wonder how he keeps his legs at all. Soon the foot catches
+against some slight obstacle or against the other leg, or fails to
+come quickly enough into the required place, and the man rolls over.
+The supple manner in which his unstrung limbs give under the weight,
+perhaps, saves him, to some extent, from the shock; but you must
+not imagine that drunkards have any charm against injury. A large
+proportion of the accidents admitted into our Hospitals are the result
+of drunkenness.
+
+
+_Distinctive Features of the Human Foot._
+
+I have already made a few comparisons between the human foot and that
+of certain of the lower animals. It will be interesting to add some
+others.
+
+There are several animals, as the Monkey, the Bear, and some Reptiles,
+in which the foot resembles the human foot in many particulars. It has,
+for instance, the same number of toes as the human foot, and the same,
+or nearly the same, number of bones, and the latter disposed in much
+the same manner. Certain peculiarities, however, distinguish the human
+foot. These all have reference to the power which man, and man alone,
+possesses of standing firmly upright, and of walking steadily, upon the
+two feet.
+
+The following are the most important of these distinctive features.
+
+_First._ The several parts are fitted and bound together in a compact
+firm manner, so as to combine strength and elasticity in the highest
+degree. In this respect the human foot contrasts very remarkably
+with the sprawling foot of the Seal or Lizard (figs. 2 and 3,
+p. 11). The result is obtained, partly, by the great size of the
+tarsal bones, in proportion to the other components of the foot, and,
+partly, by the formation of the “Plantar Arch,” which is higher and
+stronger in man than in any of the lower animals.
+
+_Secondly._ The TOES are short and small in relation to the other parts
+of the foot. In many animals, the Monkey for instance (fig. 44,
+p. 89), the toes form the greater part of the foot; and, in some,
+the bones of the instep are reduced in number as well as in size: the
+reason being that, in such animals, the toes are required to perform a
+variety of offices--burrowing in the ground, scratching, holding on to
+the branches of trees, catching and tearing prey, &c.--for which their
+services are not needed by man.
+
+It may here be noticed that one of the great points of dissimilarity
+between the foot and the hand consists in the difference which the
+length of the digits bears to the other components in the two members.
+They form nearly _half_ the length of the hand, but not more than a
+_tenth_ of that of the foot. Clearly, therefore, they constitute a far
+less important segment of the lower limb than they do of the upper,
+and are intended to perform much less important functions in it. In
+the hand the fingers and thumb may be said to constitute the essential
+part; whereas the toes do little more than help the foot to adapt
+itself to inequalities of the ground and so to obtain a firmer holding.
+In civilized countries, accordingly, where we walk, chiefly, upon even
+paths and paved streets, very little evil results from the loss of the
+services of the toes which is incurred by covering over the foot to
+protect it against the hardness of the roads.
+
+We often hear the toes spoken of as ill-treated members, which are
+not allowed fair play because the art of man keeps them in a state
+of inertness and deprives them of their natural functions. Anatomy,
+too, gives some countenance to the idea, inasmuch as it shews that
+the muscles which minister to the toes are as numerous as those which
+are concerned in moving the fingers; and we occasionally see persons,
+who, having been born without hands, or having lost them, contrive to
+write and paint and do other unusual offices with their toes. Watch
+the movements in an infant’s foot as yet unshod. They are considerably
+more free than in your own; especially you will observe that there is
+a power of separating the great toe from the others and approximating
+it to them which you have, probably, altogether lost. The small size,
+however, of the toes, and the comparative fixedness of the inner, or
+great toe, prove, that they were never intended for anything like the
+same variety of purposes as the fingers, and shew that, under the most
+favourable circumstances, the _pes_ could never be _altera manus_, as
+some would persuade us that it is. Certainly it was never intended to
+be an organ of prehension. Hence, although in practice, boot-makers may
+excite our wrath and deserve our condemnation, I don’t think that, in
+principle, they are so much to be complained of.
+
+The _third_ striking peculiarity of the human foot is the size of the
+inner or GREAT TOE and the firm manner in which its metatarsal bone is
+joined to the other bones, so as to render it a main pillar of support
+to the foot. These features of the great toe have reference to the
+share of the weight of the body which is borne by the inner side of the
+foot, more particularly during the last stage of the step, when the
+body is propelled forwards over the other foot. Hence it is sometimes
+called the “hallux,” from a Greek word (ἅλ-λομαι) signifying to bound
+or spring. The _mobility_ of the _thumb_, enabling it to be opposed so
+easily to each of the other fingers, is a characteristic of the human
+_hand_; and the _solidity_ of the _great toe_ is equally, or even more,
+characteristic of the human _foot_. The great toe should be continued,
+from the instep, straight along the inner edge of the _foot_, or
+inclined a little _in_wards; often, as before mentioned, its phalanges
+become inclined _out_wards so as to interfere with the other toes[5].
+
+  [5] In ancient times warriors were wont to cut off the _great toes_
+  as well as the _thumbs_ of their captives to disable them for further
+  service (Judges i. 6, 7).
+
+Though, in many animals the number of the toes is the same as in man,
+this is not the case in all; and we may trace a gradual and progressive
+diminution of the number, in the following order.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 39. Elephant.
+
+40. Hippopotamus.
+
+41. Rhinoceros.
+
+42. Ox.
+
+43. Horse.]
+
+I have said (page 10) that the inner toe is incomplete in all
+animals, forasmuch as, in none, does it possess the same complement
+of bones as do the other toes. You will not be surprised to find,
+therefore, that it is the first to be missing. The ELEPHANT goes upon
+_five_ toes; but if you look closely you will perceive that the inner
+toe (fig. 39, I.) has not attained even its usual incomplete
+number of bones. It is short of one; and the inner wedge-bone, which
+looks like a metacarpal bone, is prolonged, downwards, to supply the
+place, and to give sufficient length to the toe. The same thing may be
+seen in some other animals, and it is interesting as shewing the first
+indication of departure from what may be called the standard number of
+the phalanges. In the HIPPOPOTAMUS (fig. 40) we have an additional
+stage of imperfection in this same toe; for here there is only one
+small bone to remind us of the existence of the toe (it is the same in
+the Rhinoceros, I.); all the rest have failed to be developed; and the
+animal, consequently, goes upon _four_ toes. Next the failure appears
+on the _out_er side of the foot, and affects the little toe. Thus, the
+RHINOCEROS (fig. 41) goes upon _three_ toes--namely, Nos. II. III.
+and IV.--and there is scarcely a trace either of the first toe or of
+the fifth. In Ruminating animals, as the OX (fig. 42), the second
+toe is wanting, as well as the first and the fifth; so that the foot
+rests upon _two_ toes (Nos. III. and IV.); and in the HORSE (fig. 43),
+as we have already seen, only _one_ toe--the middle one (No. III.)--is
+developed sufficiently to reach the ground.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44. Gorilla.]
+
+Whatever pretensions to Humanity the MONKEY may make--and they are
+sufficiently striking to render some persons very uncomfortable on
+the score of relationship--he is certainly far removed from us in the
+construction of the foot (fig. 44); and the good people to whom
+I have alluded may derive consolation from the reflection that, in
+this respect at least, there is very little indication of cousinship.
+Indeed we ought not to speak of his _foot_ at all; for the part which
+corresponds with the human foot does not even deserve that name. It is
+so much more like a hand, that the term four-handed, or _quadrumanous_,
+is by naturalists applied to this class of animals. There is scarcely
+any plantar arch; the animal bears, chiefly, upon the outer edge of the
+foot; the digits are long and strong; and the inner one, instead of
+being parallel with the others, diverges from them so as to constitute
+a true _thumb_ instead of a great toe. All these points are very
+suitable for enabling the animal to cling to branches of trees, and for
+other prehensile purposes; but they unfit him for the upright posture,
+and render it impossible for him to walk steadily upon his lower limbs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45. Gorilla.]
+
+In the great ape called the GORILLA, which is found in the
+south-western part of Africa, and of which many specimens have now been
+sent to this Country, the _hind-hand_ is of great size and strength, as
+may be seen in the accompanying drawing made from a stuffed specimen
+in the British Museum. The lower part of the leg is also very thick,
+owing to the size of the muscles which move the great toe and the other
+digits, and which enable them to give a most powerful grasp. So strong
+and savage is the creature that all efforts to capture one alive, when
+full-grown, have, hitherto, failed. He is said to give evidence of his
+strength of hand and of his amiable propensities in the following way.
+He swings by his fore-hands from the trees, and, letting himself down
+quietly by them, watches an opportunity of seizing by the neck, with
+his huge hind-hand, some unwary Negro who may be passing by, draws him
+up, and holds him with vice-like grasp, till his struggles have ceased,
+and then drops him a strangled corpse to the ground.
+
+Most of the characters above mentioned as distinctive of the human
+foot--such as its compactness and strength, the height of the plantar
+arch, the shortness of the toes--are, like the size of the calf, most
+marked in the higher members of the human family, in those, that is to
+say, who are gifted with the highest intelligence. Thus the formation
+of the foot is found to have a correspondence with the formation of
+the head, and may, like it, be, to a certain extent, taken, as I
+have before remarked, to be an index of intellectual, as well as of
+physical, capacity. The relation between the intellectual power and
+the physical conformation of man, which is here exemplified, and which
+is maintained throughout the frame, is a subject of extreme interest,
+and is one which has not attracted the attention of anatomists and
+ethnologists so much as it deserves.
+
+To what secondary causes this harmonious adaptation of body to mind
+may be due, we cannot clearly tell; but we can see in it a provision
+for giving physical ascendancy to superior intellect. And it is most
+gratifying to be able to derive, as we may do, from this as well as
+from the observation of the past and the present, the assurance that
+the cultivation of the mind, provided its moral tone be preserved and
+proper sanitary precautions be taken, is not likely to be attended with
+any deterioration of the body. On the contrary, we have good reason to
+believe that the present civilized nations of the earth, with their
+higher mental culture, are inferior to none of their predecessors
+in the qualities of the body; surely soldiers never maintained a
+hand-to-hand struggle better than the victors at Inkermann; and we
+know that the civilized nations are physically superior to most of the
+uncivilized. We have good ground, therefore, to hope that the extension
+of education and commerce will be productive, on the whole, of an
+improvement of the physical condition of the species.
+
+Sir James Emerson Tennent says that the Veddahs, or aboriginal
+inhabitants of Ceylon, use the foot in drawing the bow. They sit down,
+place the toe against it, and draw the string with the hand; and some
+of the American Indians appear to have used both feet in the same way.
+These Veddahs furnish a good illustration of the low physical condition
+which is usually associated with absence of mental culture. They are
+described as in a singularly degraded state. “They have scarcely any
+language, no knowledge of God, nor of a future state, no temples, no
+idols, no altars, prayers, or charms; and, in short, no instinct of
+worship, except it be some addiction to ceremonies, analogous to devil
+worship, to avert storms, lightning, and sickness. All presented the
+same characteristics of wretchedness and dejection--projecting mouths,
+prominent teeth, flattened noses, stunted stature, and other evidences
+of the physical depravity which is the usual consequence of hunger
+and ignorance. The children were unsightly objects, entirely naked,
+with misshapen joints, huge heads, and protuberant stomachs. The women
+were the most repulsive specimens of humanity I have ever seen in any
+country.”
+
+
+_The Proportions of the Limbs._
+
+A few years ago I took the measurements of numerous skeletons which
+I found in the museums in France, Germany, and England, and made the
+following table to shew the proportions of the several parts.
+
+The length of the foot and hand is in all somewhat greater than it
+should be, in consequence of the bones composing them being usually
+less closely articulated in the artificial skeleton than they are in
+nature.
+
+From this it appears that the limbs of MAN differ from those of the
+APE, chiefly, in the proportionate length of the thigh and arm, and in
+the shortness of the foot and hand. And it will be seen that, in both
+these particulars, the NEGRO differs from the EUROPEAN and exhibits
+some approximation to the APE.
+
+I found, also (the tables shewing this are given in my work on the
+Human Skeleton), that these characteristic proportions of the European
+are brought out only during growth; for that in the early periods of
+infancy the foot and hand are, relatively, very long, and the thigh
+is actually shorter than either the leg or the foot, and the arm is
+shorter than either the forearm or the
+
+
+MEASUREMENTS OF SKELETONS (IN INCHES).
+
+  +----------+---+------------+------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-------------+
+  |          | H |            |      |C     S|  H  |  R  |  H  |  F  |  T  |  F  |   Pelvis.   |
+  |          | e |   Middle   |Spine,|i f   k|  u  |  a  |  a  |  e  |  i  |  o  +------+------+
+  |          | i |   point    |      |r e o u|  m  |  d  |  n  |  m  |  b  |  o  |      |      |
+  |          | g |     of     |length|c r f l|  e  |  i  |  d  |  u  |  i  |  t  |Trans.|Ant.- |
+  |          | h |   spine.   | of.  |u e   l|  r  |  u  |  .  |  r  |  a  |  .  | dia- |post. |
+  |          | t |            |      |m n   .|  u  |  s  |     |  .  |  .  |     |meter.|dia-  |
+  |          | . |            |      |- c    |  s  |  .  |     |     |     |     |      |meter.|
+  |          |   |            |      |  e    |  .  |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  +----------+---+------------+------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+------+
+  |European  |   |            |      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |(average  |65 | Symphysis  | 22.2 | 20.5  |12.7 | 9.2 | 7.3 |17.88|14.4 |10.6 | 5.2  | 4.3  |
+  |  of 25)  |   |  pubis.    |      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |          |   |            |      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |Negro     |   |{ 1 inch   }|      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |(average  |62 |{  below   }| 19.3 | 19.8  |12.1 | 9.4 | 7.7 |17   |14.4 |11.11| 4.6  | 4.1  |
+  |  of 25)  |   |{Symphysis.}|      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |          |   |            |      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |Bosjesman |   |            |      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |(average  |54 | Symphysis. | 17   | 19.6  |10.8 | 8.3 | 6   |15   |12.9 | 7.5 | 4.4  | 3.5  |
+  |  of 3)   |   |            |      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |          |   |            |      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |Idiot     |   |            |      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |(in Berlin|57 |            | 19.5 | 13.5  |12   | 8.8 | 7   |16   |12.5 | 8.5 | 5    | 3.8  |
+  | Museum)  |   |            |      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |          |   |            |      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |Chimpanzee|   |{ 3 inches }|      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |(average  |50 |{  above   }| 17   |       |12.2 |11   | 9   |12.4 |10   |10.5 | 4    | 5.5  |
+  |  of 4)   |   |{Symphysis.}|      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |          |   |            |      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |Orang     |   |{  3-1/2   }|      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |(average  |44 |{ inches   }| 18   |       |14   |14   |10   |10.6 | 9.2 |12   | 3.8  | 4.5  |
+  |  of 2)   |   |{  above   }|      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |          |   |{Symphysis.}|      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |          |   |            |      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |Gorilla   |   |{ 4 inches }|      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  |(average  |58 |{  above   }| 21   |       |16.6 |12.9 | 9   |13.9 |11.3 |12   | 5.7  | 7.3  |
+  |  of 3)   |   |{Symphysis.}|      |       |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |      |
+  +----------+---+------------+------+-------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+------+
+
+hand; and it is only, gradually, during the advance to manhood,
+that the proper proportions are attained. So that the transient or
+immature condition of the human frame shews certain resemblances to the
+permanent Negro type and to that of the quadrumanous animals; and these
+resemblances become obliterated during further growth.
+
+The accounts of travellers indicate that some other nations
+present great varieties in the proportion which the length of the
+foot and hand bears to the height. Bushmen and Hottentots are very
+diminutive, commonly under 5 feet in height; and their hands and
+feet are remarkably small and delicate, in which respect they differ
+from Negroes. Mr Bartram observes with regard to the Cherokees or
+Muscogulges--a tribe of North American Indians--that the women are,
+perhaps, the smallest race of women yet known, almost all under
+5 ft.; and their hands and feet are not larger than those of
+Europeans of 9 or 10 years of age. He tells us, also, what is very
+strange, that the men of this same tribe are of gigantic stature, “a
+full size larger than Europeans,” many of them above, and a few under,
+6 ft.; but he says nothing of the size of their hands and feet.
+The hands and feet of the Patagonians are said to be very small. This
+may be contrary to what we might expect; but it accords with what I
+found to be the case in the skeletons of some Giants which I measured;
+for in all of them the feet and the hands were disproportionately
+short. It would seem, therefore, that, whether the stature of the
+individual be diminutive or gigantic, the foot and the hand, in either
+case, are, usually, less than their proper relative length. A greater
+number of accurate data are, however, necessary to enable us to
+generalise correctly upon this and other points of a like nature, or to
+decide what truth there is in the common remark, that a long foot in a
+child indicates a tall man.
+
+In former times the parts of the human body were used as measures; and
+it was not uncommon to illustrate the tables of measures by drawings
+of the human body, with descriptions of the foot, palm, &c. One of the
+tables of the 16th century, derived in great part from the Romans and
+the Greeks, is founded upon the notion, which is not very far from
+the truth, that in the well proportioned man, the breadth of the palm
+is a 24th part of the whole stature, and the length of the foot a 6th
+part, and the length of the cubit--from the elbow to the end of the
+fingers--a 4th. The measures, however, varied at different times and in
+different countries, even though the names were the same. The latter
+have, in several instances, remained, though the definite measure
+which they now indicate is different from what it was, and differs
+from that of the part of the body from which the name was taken. Thus,
+our present foot measure (twelve inches) is considerably more than the
+length of the human foot.
+
+
+_The Skin of the Sole._
+
+The SKIN of the sole is soft and yet very tough and strong. It
+underlies a thick pad of fat, which separates it from the bones and the
+plantar ligament. The fat is interwoven with fibres passing, through
+it, from the tissue of the skin to the bones and ligaments. It is,
+in this way, rendered very firm, though it retains much of the soft
+quality of fat; and it forms an admirable cushion for receiving the
+weight of the body and defending from injurious pressure both the skin
+and the other parts of the foot. The fibres just mentioned bind the
+skin to the superjacent bones and ligaments, and hold it firmly to
+them, so as to prevent its being displaced from them in the movements
+of the foot upon the ground.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.]
+
+The accompanying woodcut shows that these connecting fibres are
+most numerous where there is the greatest pressure, viz. beneath the
+heel and the balls of the toes. It shows, too, that they take the
+direction at each of those parts which is most calculated to prevent
+displacement. Thus, at the heel their direction is chiefly from the
+heel-bone, backwards, to the skin. When we place the heel upon the
+ground in walking, the weight of the body has a tendency to drive the
+heel-bone _for_wards from the skin; and the direction of the fibres,
+from the heel-bone, _back_wards, just resists this tendency and
+holds the skin and the bone firmly together. On the contrary, when
+we withdraw the foot from the ground the pressure is in the opposite
+direction, and has a tendency to drive the metatarsal bones _back_wards
+from the skin. The course of the fibres is, consequently, changed.
+They, many of them at least, run _for_wards from the bones and prevent
+the displacement that would be likely to occur. This direction is also
+very marked, and for the same reason, at the end of the great toe. A
+bundle of fibres radiates from the projecting process, or tubercle,
+which is conspicuous upon the under surface of the bone near its end;
+and the greater number of them run _for_wards, through the pulp of the
+toe, to the skin, and maintain the connection of the skin with the bone
+when the latter is pressed _back_wards in withdrawing the foot from the
+ground.
+
+The skin of the sole has a peculiar sensitiveness, which enables it to
+take quick cognisance of contact with the ground or of any injurious
+substances lying upon the ground. The sensitiveness in the foot is
+rather increased by its being so much covered up. We are aroused to a
+consciousness of this sensitiveness when the soles are tickled, or when
+any one treads on our toes, especially if there happen to be a corn
+there. We know also how sensitive the feet are to cold, and how liable
+we are to catch cold from wet feet. This sensitiveness renders washing
+the feet a refreshing luxury, especially in hot climates or when we
+are fatigued. It is a luxury much indulged in by Eastern nations;
+“Mephibosheth had neither dressed his feet nor trimmed his beard from
+the day the king departed, until he came again in peace;” and among
+the Jews in our Saviour’s time (Luke vii. 38), when guests were made
+very welcome, their sandals were unloosed, and their feet washed and
+carefully wiped, and, if the person were of high rank, anointed.
+
+The integument of the foot varies in different animals, according to
+the nature of the ground upon which they tread and other circumstances.
+Thus the Elephant, the Hippopotamus, and the Rhinoceros, living in
+jungles and in marshy districts, have a more or less soft covering of
+skin. Oxen and Horses gallop about upon dry ground; and their feet
+are soled with thick hoofs of horn. The Dog has tough pads of skin
+with thick cuticle upon his feet; and the feet of the Feline tribe
+are muffled with fur so as to enable them to approach their prey with
+a noiseless tread. Man’s foot is, by nature, like the rest of the
+surface of his body, comparatively unprotected; but as the foot, by its
+efficiency, emancipates the hand from the drudgery of carrying, so does
+the latter make some return for this relief by providing artificial
+coverings which enable the foot to tread upon various surfaces, and
+protect it against the inclemencies of the seasons.
+
+
+_On Shoes._
+
+A few words on the subject of SHOES. No one will dispute the
+correctness of the principle that the shoe should be made to fit the
+foot; yet it is not a little remarkable that this principle is so often
+departed from in practice, and that the usual plan is to make the foot
+adapt itself to the shoe. That is, the shape of the shoe is determined
+according to the fancy of the maker or the dictates of fashion, and
+the foot is expected to mould itself accordingly. This is particularly
+the case with the fore part of the shoe, into which the toes, or most
+compliant parts of the foot, are squeezed. Thus, the shape of the
+sole of a sound foot is about that represented in fig. 47; the
+great toe is seen to be free from the others, and the line of its
+axis, prolonged backwards, traverses the centre of the heel. Compare
+this with the outline of the sole of a shoe as usually made; and the
+violence that is done to nature is at once perceived. The shoe is made
+quite symmetrical, or is curved a little in the part between the heel
+and the sole--in the “waist” as it is called--when the shoes are to be
+worn on the left and right foot respectively; and the toes, instead
+of being allowed to spread out a little, are pressed together, and
+made to converge to a point in the line of the middle toe, as seen in
+fig. 48.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 47. 48. 49. 50.]
+
+The line of the great toe is thus quite altered, and the other toes
+are tightly wedged together (figs. 49 and 50); or, not being able
+to find room side by side, they overlap one another and form unsightly
+projections beneath the upper leather of the shoe. No wonder that
+“corns” and “bunions” and “in-growing toe-nails” are the frequent
+result of this treatment, and that so many persons are compelled to
+walk in a cautious, feeling manner, and to watch the ground narrowly,
+lest their cramped and tender toes come into contact with a stone or
+other projecting body.
+
+How greatly to be lamented it is that the foot should be thus
+maltreated and distorted, and that walking should be made so painful,
+and that the shoe, which is intended to befriend and protect the foot,
+and which, if well fitted, would support it and preserve its shape,
+and make some amends to it for the rough hard roads upon which it is
+compelled to tread, should be thus perverted into a means of galling it
+and impairing its functions.
+
+This subject has been treated of in a simple and concise manner by
+Dr Meyer, Professor of Anatomy at Zurich, in a small pamphlet, which
+has been translated into English by Mr Craig, and entitled, “_Why the
+Shoe pinches_[6].” I hope it may be read by boot-makers, and may lead
+to some improvement in their art. Dr Meyer very properly remarks that
+one of the main points to be attended to is, to allow the great toe to
+have its normal position; and this can be done by making the inner edge
+of the sole incline _in_wards, from the balls of the toes, instead of
+_out_wards. The accompanying drawing (fig. 51) gives the outline
+of a shoe designed under his superintendence, and shows the difference
+between it and the usual shape, the latter being indicated by the
+dotted outline. In fig. 52 the shoe is pointed, the pointing being
+effected from the outer side. I have often laboured, but laboured in
+vain, to impress the same point, and hope the more systematic attempt
+of Professor Meyer may lead to better results.
+
+  [6] _Why the Shoe pinches_, a contribution to Applied Anatomy by
+  Hermann Meyer, M.D. Professor of Anatomy in the University of Zurich,
+  translated from the German by John Stirling Craig, L.R.C.P.E.,
+  L.R.C.S.E., price sixpence.
+
+  The preceding four figures and the two following are taken from this
+  pamphlet with Mr Craig’s permission.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 51. 52.]
+
+With regard to the _heel-piece_, I have already said that it should
+not be high because it makes the step less steady and secure, and at
+the same time shortens it, and impairs the action of the calf-muscle.
+A high heel-piece, moreover, renders the position of the foot upon the
+ground oblique, placing the fore part at a lower level than the heel;
+thus the weight is thrown too much in the direction of the toes, and
+they are driven forwards and cramped against the upper leather of the
+shoe. The high-heel of a boot, therefore, tends to aggravate the evils
+which are caused by the insufficient and ill-adjusted space which is
+allowed to the toes.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+This account of the foot has necessarily been very superficial and
+imperfect. There are many points in its anatomy to which I have not
+even alluded; but, if I have succeeded in giving you some idea of the
+general plan of its construction, and in stimulating you to further
+enquiry respecting the mechanism of the Human Frame, my purpose will
+have been served. Still more will it have been so, if you carry away
+with you some sense both of the Pride and of the Humility which the
+review of such a structure is calculated to excite--of pride, not
+selfish pride, but pride resulting from a consciousness of the nobility
+of your physical nature, a pride which will make you spurn what is bad
+and degrading, and will help you to aspire to what is elevated and
+good. The impressions resulting from a comparison of this one fragment
+of Nature’s work with our own most laboured achievements must quell
+any other pride; and the very admiration with which we contemplate the
+structure of our body impels us to walk humbly with our God, whose gift
+that body is.
+
+
+
+
+THE HUMAN HAND.
+
+
+The great characteristic of the Hand, as distinguished from the Foot,
+is the mobility of the first digit, or thumb. Accordingly when this
+digit stands out apart from the others, and can be moved independently
+of them, so as to be more or less completely opposed to them, in the
+upper or Mammalian Class of animals, at least, we call the member a
+Hand. When this digit is absent, or is fixed in the same manner as the
+others, which is the case in each of the four limbs of Quadrupeds, we
+call the member a Foot. In Monkeys, or in most of them, the thumb is
+present and is separate and moveable in each of the four limbs; and
+these animals are, therefore, called “quadrumanous” or “four-handed.”
+Man, having the moveable thumb upon each of the two upper limbs only,
+is “bimanous” or “two-handed.” By this peculiarity, perhaps more
+definitely than by any other, he is distinguished in structure from all
+the rest of the animal series; and naturalists have, accordingly, given
+the epithet “Bimanous” to the class in which he is placed, and in which
+he stands alone.
+
+The hand is the executive or essential part of the upper limb. Without
+it the limb would be almost useless. The whole limb is, therefore, so
+made as to give play and strength to the hand; and, in ever so brief a
+description of the hand, it is necessary, even more than in the case
+of the foot, to give some idea of the manner in which the other parts
+of the limb are constructed, and to dwell a little upon such points as
+have relation to its movements.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.]
+
+The general plan of construction of the upper limb will readily
+be understood by means of the drawings (figs. 53 and 58,
+p. 122). It resembles very much that of the lower limb
+(see fig. 4, page 15). The one bone of the upper arm--the
+_humerus_--resembles the one bone of the thigh, and is jointed, above,
+with the shoulder-blade, which, with the collar-bone, corresponds
+with the pelvis. Below, it is connected with the two bones of the
+fore-arm--the _radius_ and _ulna_; and these correspond with the two
+bones of the leg. In the wrist there are eight bones, called _carpal_
+bones, arranged in two rows. These are connected with five _metacarpal_
+bones; and these, like the metatarsals of the foot, are jointed with
+the _phalanges_. Of the latter there are three in each finger; but in
+the thumb, as in the great toe (page 10), there are only two.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54.]
+
+The diagram shows how the bones of the hand are arranged in three
+divisions. Thus, the upper row of carpal bones (3, 4, 5) consists,
+practically, of three bones; the fourth (6), which is much smaller than
+the others, being rather an appendage to one of them than a distinct
+constituent of the wrist. (According to this view, the number of the
+wrist-bones corresponds exactly with that of the tarsal bones of the
+foot, viz. 7). The _outer_ of these three carpal bones (3) bears the
+thumb[7] and the fore-finger (I. and II.), and constitutes, with them,
+the outer division of the hand; the inner one (5) bears the ring-finger
+and the little finger (IV. and V.), and constitutes the _inner_
+division of the hand; and the middle one (4) bears the middle finger
+(III.), and is the _middle_ division of the hand. The diagram shows,
+too, that the two outer bones (3 and 4), with the two outer divisions
+of the hand, are connected with the radius; whereas the inner bone (5)
+only, with the inner division of the hand, is connected with the ulna.
+Strictly speaking, even this bone is not directly connected with the
+ulna, but is separated from it, as will be shown presently, by a thick
+ligament.
+
+  [7] In deference to custom we call the palm the _front_ of the hand;
+  and, therefore, we speak of the thumb as the _out_er and the little
+  finger as the _in_ner digit: though it would better accord with the
+  ordinary position of the part, with its correspondence with the foot
+  and with comparative anatomy, to reverse these terms.
+
+You frequently hear ignorant persons (and the greater number of
+persons are lamentably ignorant of the structure of their own body)
+speaking of the _small bones_ of the shoulder, or the _small bones_
+of the elbow. You may think this a matter of no importance, and that
+it does not concern you and people generally to have any knowledge of
+human anatomy. But I will tell you what is very often happening, and
+will leave you to judge whether such complete ignorance on this subject
+is not attended with some practical disadvantage. A man meets with an
+injury, falls and hurts his shoulder. The immediate effects of the
+injury subside; but he does not quickly recover the use of the part; he
+still cannot raise his elbow, or put his hand upon his head, or put it
+behind him. Soon he begins to think that something more is wrong than
+has been suspected; and the notion creeps over his mind, and gradually
+takes possession of it, that some small bone is displaced. Not content
+with the assurances of his medical man, he resorts to a quack, called
+a “bone-setter.” The latter, taking advantage of the popular fallacy,
+gratifies the patient with the information that his fears are correct,
+affirms that “a small bone is out,” and proceeds forthwith to employ
+the requisite forcible measures for putting the said “small bone” in. I
+need not say with what result. Every year, in this civilized country,
+many persons are maimed for life by these attempts to put imaginary
+small bones in. I beg you, therefore, particularly to observe that
+_there is no small bone_ either at the shoulder or at the elbow. The
+only small bones are at the wrist; and these are so well fitted to one
+another, and so firmly bound together, that nothing short of a crushing
+force suffices to displace them. This remark respecting the small bones
+of the wrist is true of nearly all the small bones in other parts of
+the body. So that, in fact, small bones are very rarely dislocated;
+and when you hear it asserted that a small bone is out, you may pretty
+confidently conclude that the speaker does not know what he is talking
+about.
+
+I have said that the upper limbs resemble the lower in their general
+construction. There are, however, some important differences; and
+one of the chief of these is the greater variety and freedom of the
+movements in the upper limbs. _Strength_, for the purpose of carrying
+the body, is the object in the lower limbs. _Mobility_ is the requisite
+in the upper limbs. Of this one example has already been given in the
+instance of the thumb as compared with the great toe.
+
+
+_Movements at the Shoulder._
+
+An equally striking example is afforded by the shoulder. In the
+first place, the “Shoulder-blade” itself can be moved in several
+directions--upwards, downwards, backwards and forwards;--whereas
+the “Pelvis,” i. e. the part which bears to the lower limb the same
+relation that the shoulder-blade does to the upper-limb, is immoveably
+fixed.
+
+Secondly, the “Shoulder-joint” is so made as to permit a great variety
+and extensive range of movements to take place. We can move the arm
+forwards or backwards, as in throwing a ball, or, in sword exercise; we
+can raise it so that the limb points straight upwards; and we can swing
+it round in any direction. It is owing to the free movement in this
+joint that we are able to apply the hand to every part of the body, so
+as to remove sources of irritation. It is interesting to observe how
+other animals get on without hands, though they are much exposed to
+what we should consider great annoyance, as from flies, &c. The Cow,
+for instance, lashes its hide with its tail. The Cat licks itself with
+its tongue. The Sparrow dusts itself by the road-side. The Pig and the
+Donkey roll in the mud. And many of them, as the Horse and the Ox,
+have a thin muscle, called “panniculus carnosus,” spread out under the
+skin, which effects those sudden twitchings of the skin whereby they
+are enabled to jerk off anything that troubles them. In Man the hand
+answers better than all these methods combined; and it is necessary
+that it should do so, because his skin is more sensitive and less
+protected by natural covering than that of any other animal.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55.
+
+Chest and shoulders of man.]
+
+For this freedom of movement of the arms, so important to the
+usefulness of the hand, we are much indebted to the “Collar-bones.”
+These bones, so called because they are placed at the lower part of
+the _collum_ or neck, extend, horizontally, from the upper edge of the
+breast-bone, to the processes of the blade-bones which overhang the
+shoulder-joint. Thus they hold the shoulders apart, and give width to
+the upper part of the chest. They also steady the shoulder-blades,
+and afford a _point d’appui_ to the muscles which effect the lateral
+movements of the arms,--for instance, to the muscles which tend to draw
+the arms together, as when we hold anything, between the hands, in
+front of us; and to those which separate the arms from one another, as
+when we stretch them out at right angles with the body.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.
+
+Chest and shoulders of bird.]
+
+Many animals--the ELEPHANT, the RHINOCEROS, the HORSE and the OX--have
+no collar-bones; and they are only able to swing their fore limbs to
+and fro. They cannot execute any lateral movements. They cannot throw
+the limbs out sideways, nor press their fore feet together, so as to
+hold anything between them. If the horse wants to seize or hold any
+substance he must do it with his mouth. The Elephant has a special
+provision for the purpose of prehension in his trunk, which enables him
+to provide himself with food by pulling down the branches of trees.
+The LION and the TIGER can press their fore paws together sufficiently
+to enable them to hold their prey, and fix it upon the ground, while
+they put the head down to it and pull at it and tear it with their
+teeth; and they are furnished with rudimentary, or half, collar-bones
+suspended in the flesh of the upper part of the chest; while the
+little SQUIRREL, which sits upon its hind legs, and holds up the nuts
+between its fore paws to be nibbled, has complete collar-bones. So has
+the flying BAT, the climbing SLOTH and the digging MOLE. In BIRDS the
+collar-bones (fig. 56, AA) are very large; and, for the purpose of
+giving them greater strength, they are united together in the middle
+line just above the breast-bone, forming what is commonly called the
+“merry-thought;” and, as this is not sufficiently strong to resist the
+force of the powerful muscles which flap the wings and sustain the
+animal in the air, there are, in addition, stout “side-bones,” called
+by anatomists “coracoid bones.” These (B) run, from the breast-bone
+(D), in the same direction as the collar-bones, one, on either side, to
+the shoulder-blades (C); and they afford even more efficient support to
+the shoulders than do the collar-bones. The coracoid bones are peculiar
+to oviparous animals, or nearly so. In some reptiles, as the CROCODILE,
+they quite supersede the collar-bones.
+
+These few examples are enough to show that freedom of movement of
+the arms, especially of lateral movement, is closely associated with,
+and, indeed, is dependent upon the shoulder-blades being supported
+and steadied by bones, which extend from the breast-bone to the
+shoulder-blades, and fasten the one to the other.
+
+But, even the powers and advantages conferred by nature have often
+some drawbacks; and this free play of the arm at the shoulder in man,
+of which we are speaking, and the provision for it afforded by the
+collar-bone, are no exceptions to the remark. It is necessary for so
+great a range of movement that the socket in the shoulder-blade should
+be shallow, and that the ligaments which connect the arm-bone with the
+blade-bone should be loose. Hence the shoulder-joint is weak as regards
+its ability to resist injury. The collar-bone also causes the shoulder
+to project so much that it is greatly exposed to injury and often bears
+the brunt of a fall. A man is thrown from a horse or is knocked down
+upon the ground, and, if anything prevents the hand being stretched
+out, the chances are that he falls upon the shoulder. True, the head is
+saved thereby; but the shoulder suffers. Hence the shoulder-joint is
+more often dislocated than any other; and no bone is more frequently
+broken than the collar-bone. Even in little children, in whom,
+notwithstanding their many tumbles, the other bones usually contrive to
+escape, the collar-bones are often broken; and in grown-up persons the
+shoulder is sometimes dislocated by the mere action of the muscles, as
+in swimming, or throwing, or lifting a weight above the head.
+
+That you may understand the movements of the shoulder a little more
+fully, I will ask you to contrast the drawing (fig. 58), which
+shows the position of the blade-bone upon the chest in Man, with the
+drawing (fig. 57) of the corresponding parts of the Rhinoceros;
+and you will at once recognise several important differences, besides
+the presence of the collar-bone in the one and its absence in the other.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57. Rhinoceros.]
+
+In the RHINOCEROS the chest is deep, from the back-bone to the
+breast-bone, and is flattened at the sides; and the depth of this part
+of the trunk is increased, slightly, by the breast-bone projecting,
+keel-like, underneath, and, much more, by the spines of the back-bone
+running up into a high ridge, above. The blade-bone and the arm-bone
+are applied against the flat side of the chest, and lie, lengthways,
+between the spine and the breast-bone, nearly parallel with the
+broad flat ribs. The blade-bone has no process overhanging the
+shoulder-joint, and, as before said, there is no collar-bone. The short
+thick arm-bone descends nearly in a line with the blade-bone, and has
+huge processes at its upper end for the attachment of muscles. The
+parts are designed to bear the great weight of the animal, and to carry
+its ponderous head and horn; but the only movement of which they admit
+is a sliding of the blade-bone and arm-bone, backwards and forwards,
+upon the side of the chest.
+
+In animals of similar construction to the Rhinoceros, but of lighter
+frame, and of greater fleetness, the blade-bone is placed more
+obliquely, which gives freer and easier movement both to it and to the
+arm-bone. This, for instance, is the case with the well-bred horse, and
+if we want a quick-going horse, one that can lift his fore feet well,
+we should observe whether the shoulder-blade is oblique, and whether
+the spines of the back rise well above it. Such a horse is said to have
+“a good shoulder” and to be “well up.” He will carry a saddle well, and
+is not likely to trip.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58.]
+
+In MAN the chest has proportionately less depth and length, and greater
+breadth, than in any other animal; the breast-bone is quite flat;
+and the spines of the back are sloped downwards, so that they do not
+project beyond the level of the ribs and the blade-bones. Hence he can
+lie easily either upon the stomach or the back--a privilege which is
+shared with him by very few of the lower animals. Scarcely any of them
+can lie upon the back, or even upon the stomach without the help of the
+fore limbs. The donkey enjoys rolling over and over upon a dusty road,
+but he cannot poise himself for a minute upon his back.
+
+The sides of Man’s chest, moreover, are not _flat_, as in the
+Rhinoceros and Horse, but _rounded_, so that the blade-bones can
+revolve upon them to and fro, as well as slide upwards and downwards;
+and the long arms--comparatively long, that is, from the shoulder to
+the elbow--hang quite free of the chest and form sharp angles with the
+blade-bones.
+
+The blade-bones are accommodated to the shape of the chest; for,
+instead of being elongated in a direction parallel with the ribs, they
+are prolonged downwards, along the sides of the chest, at right angles
+with the ribs. This prolongation of the lower part of the blade-bone
+is very important, inasmuch as it enables the muscles to hold the
+bone steady upon the wall of the chest, and so gives greater power to
+those muscles which pass from the blade-bone to the arm and act upon
+the shoulder-joint. Were it not for this provision the contraction of
+the muscles intended to raise the arm would quite fail to produce the
+desired effect, and instead of it would simply cause the shoulder-blade
+to revolve upon a transverse axis. That is to say, when we endeavoured
+to raise the arm our effort would merely have the effect of raising the
+hinder part of the shoulder-blade.
+
+In each of these particulars--in the form of the chest, and in the
+shape and direction of the shoulder-blade--the Monkey is intermediate
+between Man and the inferior animals. The Monkey’s chest is broad
+and round, in proportion to its length, if we compare it with other
+animals; but this is less marked than in the human chest. And you
+perceive that the Monkey’s back-bones project, as they do in other
+animals, beyond the level of the ribs. The blade-bones are also like
+those of Man in being prolonged downwards, and in being carried, to a
+certain extent, across the ribs; but their lower angles do not run so
+far in this direction as they do in the human skeleton.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59. Monkey.]
+
+The movement of raising the arm, as in carrying the hand _outwards_,
+or pointing upwards, or putting the hand upon the head, is rather a
+difficult one, and requires the combined action of many muscles. It
+is, therefore, to be avoided by persons to whom muscular straining is
+likely to be injurious; and the power of effecting this movement is
+easily impaired by accident or disease. A long time often elapses even
+after a slight bruise of the shoulder, before the person recovers the
+power of putting the hand upon the head.
+
+The exercise of raising the arms above the head is a good one for
+those in health, and is much, and wisely, recommended by the directors
+of gymnastics. It brings many muscles into play, not only those of
+the shoulder, but the muscles all round about the chest, viz. those
+which pass from the spine and ribs, as well as from the breast-bone,
+head, and pelvis, to the shoulder-blade and arm; and, thus, it tends
+to strengthen the spine and the chest, as well as the shoulders and
+arms. There is, perhaps, no exercise so good as this; and it is much
+to be regretted that the dress of young ladies, with its paraphernalia
+of stays and shoulder-straps, interferes so greatly with it. The
+frequency among them of “pigeon-breast” and “crooked spine” must,
+partly, be attributed to the confinement of the arms, caused by the
+mode of dress and the customs of life. One of the few opportunities
+afforded to the arms of availing themselves of this exercise is in the
+dressing-room during the process of brushing the hair. I would by all
+means, therefore, recommend young ladies to give sufficient time and
+attention to this part of the toilette, and not to delegate it to the
+lady’s maid. If, in addition, I suggest that it be commonly done with
+open window, I feel sure that I shall have a deservedly great authority
+among them--Miss Nightingale--on my side.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60. Elbow-joint.]
+
+The movement at the ELBOW is, merely, that of bending and
+straightening, in a hinge-like manner; yet there is a slight obliquity
+in the direction in which it takes place, an obliquity resembling that
+in the movement at the knee (page 39).
+
+
+_Pronation and Supination of the Hand._
+
+In the FOREARM and HAND there is a movement with which we have
+nothing exactly corresponding in the leg. It is called “Pronation
+and Supination.” In _pronation_ we turn the palm _down_wards, as in
+picking up any substance from a table; in _supination_ we turn the palm
+_up_wards, as a boy does when he holds out his hand for a caning, or
+for the more agreeable purpose of having a shilling put into it.
+
+PRONATION and SUPINATION take place in the following manner. Each of
+the two bones of the forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist (fig.
+53); but one of them--the “ulna”--is chiefly connected with the elbow;
+and the other--the “radius”--is chiefly connected with the wrist, and,
+by means of the wrist, with the hand. The two bones are separate from
+one another, except at their ends. There they touch, and are jointed
+together in such a manner that the large lower end of the radius can
+play round, or partly round, the small, button-like, lower end of the
+ulna; and, in so doing, it carries the hand with it. In this movement
+the upper end of the radius (A, fig. 60) does not leave its place,
+but simply revolves, upon its own axis, on the surface of the arm-bone;
+and its edge turns in a notch cut for it in the upper end of the ulna
+(B), which remains still.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61.
+
+Hand supine.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62.
+
+Hand prone.]
+
+In the drawings (figs. 61 and 62) the relation of the parts in
+the supine and in the prone state is shown by the aid of a plumb-line
+falling from the part of the arm-bone upon which the upper end of
+the radius revolves. The line traverses the upper end of the radius,
+then passes along the interval between the two bones, then traverses
+the lower end of the ulna, and, finally, takes the course of the ring
+finger. And, provided the limb be held vertically, the line traverses
+the same parts whatever be the position of the forearm and hand. It
+does so in complete supination, as shown in fig. 61; it does so
+in complete pronation, as shown in fig. 62; and it does so in
+every intermediate position. We may call it, therefore, the axis upon
+which the radius and the hand turn in pronation and supination; and,
+according to this representation, the ring finger remains stationary
+during the movement, while the other fingers and the thumb perform
+their partial revolutions around it.
+
+I have said there is no movement in the lower limb exactly like the
+pronation and supination of the forearm and hand. We have, it is true,
+a power of moving the leg upon the thigh in a somewhat similar manner;
+but this can only be done when the knee is bent. For instance, when
+sitting in a chair with the foot upon a fender, or with the toes upon
+the ground, we can make the foot revolve so as to turn the heel in
+or out. A little careful observation, however, will prove that this
+movement takes place, altogether, at the knee, and that _both_ bones
+of the leg participate equally in it, the _whole_ leg revolving with
+the foot. Whereas, in the case of the forearm, the movement takes
+place, partly, at the wrist, and, partly, at the elbow; and _one_ bone
+(the ulna) remains _still_ while the lower end of the other bone (the
+radius) revolves around it. Moreover, the pronation and supination of
+the hand and forearm are much more free than these movements of the
+foot and leg; and they take place with equal facility and freedom in
+any position of the limb. We can turn the palm up or down as easily
+when the elbow is straight as when it is bent.
+
+The movement of which I am speaking is so important to the usefulness
+of the hand, that I will call your attention to three of the muscles by
+which it is effected.
+
+And, let me remark, by the way, that all the movements in the solid
+parts of the body--probably all without exception, even the slight
+wrinklings of the skin that take place when it is exposed to cold--are
+the result of muscular action. Muscles are bundles of fibres which
+have usually a red colour and constitute what is commonly called the
+“flesh” or “lean meat” of animals. They are endued with the power
+of contracting or shortening themselves; and it is this property
+which gives rise to the various movements of animal bodies. At their
+ends muscles often dwindle into “tendons” or “sinews” which, though
+occupying much less space, and having no contractile power, are very
+strong, and serve to connect the muscles with the bones.
+
+One of the three muscles just mentioned (A, fig. 61) passes from
+a projecting process on the inner side of the arm-bone, at its lower
+end, to the outer edge of the middle of the radius. Its contraction
+causes the radius to roll over, or in front of, the ulna. It thus
+pronates the hand, and is called a “_Pronator_” muscle. Another muscle
+(B, fig. 62) passes, from a projecting process on the outer side
+of the arm-bone, to the inner edge of the radius near its upper part.
+It runs, therefore, in an opposite direction to the former muscle and
+produces an opposite effect, rolling the radius and the hand back into
+the position of supination. Hence it is called a “_Supinator_” muscle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 63. The Biceps Muscle.]
+
+The third is a very powerful muscle. It is called the “_Biceps_”
+muscle (fig. 63), because it has _two_ points of attachment to the
+shoulder-blade. It descends along the front of the arm, and, bulging
+there, forms a conspicuous feature, to which athletic persons are proud
+to point in evidence of their muscular development. Its tendon crosses
+over the front of the elbow, and is inserted into the hinder edge of a
+stout tubercle which is seen on the inner side of the radius near its
+upper end. The chief effect of this muscle is to bend the elbow; but it
+also rotates the radius so as to supinate the hand; and it gives great
+power to that movement. When we turn a screw, or drive a gimlet, or
+draw a cork, we always employ the _supinating_ movement of the hand for
+the purpose; and all screws, gimlets, and implements of the like kind,
+are made to turn in a manner suited to that movement of the right hand,
+because mechanicians have observed that we have more power to supinate
+the hand than to pronate it, though they are, probably, not aware that
+the preponderating influence of the _biceps_ muscle is the cause of the
+difference.
+
+The movement of which I am speaking is performed to its full extent
+only by Man. Monkeys cannot completely supinate the hand; and in most
+of the lower animals the part corresponding with the hand remains
+nearly, or quite, fixed in a state of pronation. Even in Man, complete
+supination is rather a constrained and awkward position. It is not
+a position which is habitual or natural to us. When we see any one
+sitting or walking with the palms turned forward it strikes us as
+strange, and the idea is suggested to us that the individual must be
+strange too, that, possibly, his head may be a little turned as well as
+his hands. In a state of ease the hand is naturally more or less prone;
+so that when it is desired to place the forearm or hand at rest, as
+in case of disease or injury, the prone position is usually selected.
+If the forearm be broken, for instance, the surgeon sets the fracture
+and fixes the limb with the hand prone or semiprone. This is, also,
+the position of greatest strength, as well as of most ease. Hence, in
+striking a blow, or carrying a weight, or making any strong muscular
+effort, the palm is always kept more or less inturned.
+
+
+_The Wrist._
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 64. Wrist-joints.]
+
+This drawing (fig. 64) represents what is seen when a section has
+been made, from side to side, through the wrist and lower part of the
+forearm. It gives an idea of the mode in which the several bones of the
+wrist are adapted to one another and held together by ligaments. The
+upper three wrist-bones (C, E, D) are joined together, so as to present
+a convex surface, which is received into a wide cup, or socket, formed
+by the end of the radius (A) and a ligament passing from the radius to
+the ulna (B); and, in pronation and supination, the end of the radius,
+together with this ligament and the wrist-bones, revolves upon the end
+of the ulna.
+
+All the bones here represented are so well fitted to one another, and
+so strongly bound together, that, as I have before said, displacement
+very rarely occurs among them. We sometimes _hear_ of a dislocation of
+the wrist, but very seldom _see_ one. The wrist is often bruised, or
+its ligaments strained, by falls upon the hand; or, what very often
+happens, especially after the middle period of life, the bones of the
+forearm are broken a little above the wrist.
+
+You might think that, in such an accident, the radius only would
+suffer, inasmuch as it is especially connected with the wrist-bones,
+and so receives the force directly from the hand. But, if you observe
+the line of contact of the radius and ulna (running from F), you will
+see that it is oblique, and that its direction is such as to cause the
+ulna to support the radius, and to receive some of the force from it;
+and this disposition, which makes the ulna share the duties of the
+radius, makes it, also, share the dangers; hence, it is very frequently
+involved with the radius in fracture of the forearm.
+
+By the joints of the wrist we are enabled to move the hand backwards
+and forwards, and also slightly sideways.
+
+
+_The Movements of the Hand._
+
+I come now to speak more particularly of the movements that take
+place in the Hand. I have already said that the mobility of the thumb
+is the chief characteristic of the hand as distinguished from the
+foot. Another important distinction between the hand and the foot is
+the greater length and mobility of the fingers as compared with the
+toes. The toes are short; and our power of moving them is, under any
+circumstances, slight. They constitute a small, and, comparatively,
+unimportant, part of the foot. The fingers, on the contrary, are long;
+they form a half, and, including the thumb, the more important half,
+of the hand. Without them the rest of the hand, indeed the rest of the
+limb, would be comparatively useless. Their movements are varied and
+free, and take place with singular facility and rapidity. We can bend
+them quite down upon the palm, and can extend them beyond the straight
+line; we can separate them from one another to a considerable extent;
+and we can bring them together with some force, as a waiter does when
+he carries a number of wine-glasses between his fingers; and persons
+who have lost the thumb contrive to hold a pen, a knife or fork, or
+other things, between the fingers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65.
+
+Muscles of forearm and hand.]
+
+Let me endeavour to give you an idea of some of the muscles which are
+concerned in executing these movements.
+
+The wrist and hand are bent forwards upon the forearm by means of
+three muscles (A, B, C, fig. 65). These all pass downwards from
+the inner side of the lower end of the armbone. The outer and inner
+ones (A and C) are connected, by tendons, with the wrist-bones; and the
+tendon of the middle one (B) runs over the wrist and becomes spread
+out in the palm like a fan, so as to support the skin of the palm and
+to protect the nerves and blood-vessels, which lie beneath it, from
+injurious pressure, when we grasp any substance firmly in the hand. The
+fan-like expansion of this tendon in the palm is called the “palmar
+fascia.” It is very strong, and is connected, below, with the ends of
+the metacarpal bones, and with the sheaths of the fingers. The bundle
+of muscles near D forms what is called the “ball of the thumb,” and
+serves to move the thumb in various directions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66.
+
+Muscles and tendons of hand.]
+
+Beneath these three muscles which bend the wrist and strengthen the
+palm lies another set of muscles (A, B, fig. 66) which bend the
+thumb and fingers. They pass from the bones of the forearm, and end in
+long tendons or “leaders” which run over the wrist and palm and along
+the fingers and are firmly connected with the last phalanges of the
+fingers. They lie close to the bones in their whole course, and are
+held in their places by sinewy cross bands and sheaths which are seen,
+both at the wrist and in the fingers, in fig. 65.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.
+
+Muscles and tendons on back of forearm and hand.]
+
+Fig. 67 represents the muscles on the back of the forearm. The
+tendons pass from them, and run, some to the wrist and extend, or bend
+backwards, the wrist upon the forearm, some to the thumb and extend the
+several joints ofthe thumb; and others run to the back of the fingers. These leaders
+lie nearer to the skin than do those on the palmar aspect; and most of
+those which go to the thumb and fingers may be distinguished through
+the skin. The short muscles (A, A) situated upon and between the
+metacarpal bones pass from them to the sides of the fingers; some of
+these serve to spread the fingers out from one another, while others
+have the effect of drawing them together. There are several such small
+muscles on both surfaces of the hand, but I must not detain you by
+a description of them; and there are other little muscles passing
+from the flexor tendons to the phalanges, which have been called
+_fidicinales_, from their assisting in performing the short quick
+motions of the fingers, and from their being, accordingly, called into
+action in playing upon the violin and other musical instruments.
+
+
+_Movements of the Thumb._
+
+In its adaptation to the purposes of bearing the weight and
+ministering to the locomotion of the body the human foot excels that
+of any other animal; and, unquestionably, the human hand is not less
+preeminently distinguished by the nicety, the variety, and the freedom
+of its movements. This is shown by the manner in which it can be
+twisted about, by the exquisite play of the fingers; and it is shown,
+above all, by the mode in which the thumb can be moved to and fro, can
+be opposed to the other fingers, and to any part of them individually
+and collectively, and can be folded beneath them or clasped upon them
+as occasion may require.
+
+The power which the thumb possesses, and gives to the hand, is
+signified by its name--“pollex,”--derived from the Latin word
+_pollere_, which means to have power. Some have supposed that the word
+“poltroon” is derived from _pollice truncato_, and signifies one so
+cowardly that he has submitted to have his thumb cut off in order that
+he may be incapacitated for fighting.
+
+The faculty which we possess of moving the thumb in the way I have
+mentioned, athwart the other fingers, and of touching any part of the
+palmar surface of either of them depends, partly, upon its being set,
+not quite in the same plane with them, but, obliquely, so that when it
+is moved towards the palm it faces or opposes the other fingers; and,
+partly, upon the nature of the joint between its metacarpal bone and
+the bone of the wrist with which it is connected.
+
+This joint is so constructed as to admit of three different movements.
+_First_, the thumb can be moved forwards or backwards, that is,
+towards, or, away from, the palm. _Secondly_, it can be “adducted” or
+“abducted,” that is, approximated to the forefinger or inclined away
+from it. _Thirdly_, it can be “circumducted,” that is, its extremity
+can be made to describe a circle, as in “twiddling the thumbs.” These
+several movements are effected with great power and rapidity by
+means of the bundle of muscles which forms the “ball of the thumb”
+(fig. 65. D), as well as by the long muscles and tendons which
+descend, from the forearm, to the thumb.
+
+
+_Movements of the metacarpal bones of the Fingers upon the Wrist._
+
+The movements of the thumb, through the medium of its metacarpal bone,
+upon the wrist are much more free than those of any of the other
+fingers. The middle finger, indeed, has its metacarpal bone set upon
+the wrist so fixedly as to admit of scarcely any such movement. The
+forefinger can be thus moved a little; the ring finger more and the
+little finger still more.
+
+You may easily prove this by taking the knuckles or heads of the
+respective metacarpal bones of one hand between the fingers and thumb
+of the other hand, when you will find that you can press the knuckle of
+the little finger backwards and forwards in a very perceptible manner.
+Then try the knuckle of the ring finger; the movement is distinct,
+though not so free as in the case of the little finger. The knuckle of
+the forefinger you will find to be almost fixed; and in that of the
+middle finger you will be unable to perceive any movement at all.
+
+In fact the joints of the metacarpal bones of the fingers with the
+wrist resemble those of the outer four toes with the tarsus; and the
+drawings of these joints of the foot (figs. 22 to 25) will serve
+sufficiently well to illustrate those of the hand.
+
+These movements of the metacarpal, or knuckle, bones upon the wrist
+enable us to increase or diminish the hollow of the palm by bringing
+its edges more or less forward. Thus, when we make a cup of the hand we
+bring forward the metacarpal bones of the thumb and the little finger,
+wrinkling the skin of the palm; and when we spread the hand open we
+carry those bones backwards, rendering the skin of the palm tense.
+
+These movements, moreover, enable us to bring the little fingers and
+the thumb more easily into contact.
+
+Have you ever wondered what advantage is gained by the fingers and
+thumb all differing from one another in length; or don’t you take the
+trouble to reflect upon little matters of this sort? If you have, I
+would ask you now to remark that there is, in the several fingers,
+a relation between their shortness, their position near the edge of
+the hand, and the amount of mobility of their metacarpal bones upon
+the wrist. Thus the finger which is in the middle of the hand is
+the longest, and its metacarpal is the most fixed. The fore-finger
+is not quite so long; and its metacarpal is rather less immovable.
+The ring-finger comes next in shortness and in the mobility of its
+metacarpal. Then the little finger; and the thumb which is much shorter
+than any other has also its metacarpal much more moveable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68.]
+
+Observe, further, that, when the fingers and thumb are separated from
+one another, and then bent, the middle knuckle-bone remains stationary,
+but the others are advanced a little forwards, each to an extent
+proportionate to its mobility upon the wrist, and to the shortness of
+the finger. The fore-finger is, by this means, advanced a little, the
+ring and the little fingers more, and the thumb most of all. And the
+result is, that the tips of the fingers and the thumb come all to a
+level, and form, with the palm, a great hollow in which we can grasp
+any substance, a cricket-ball, for instance, and hold it very firmly.
+The length of the several fingers and the thumb is, therefore, just so
+regulated, in relation to their mobility upon the wrist, as to give us
+this power.
+
+You may observe, also, that when the fingers and the thumb are spread
+out the space between the thumb and the fore-finger is considerably
+greater than either of the spaces between the other fingers. Then, by a
+slight movement, the thumb takes up a position in front of, or opposite
+to, the fingers; and in grasping any substance it has to antagonise the
+pressure exerted by all the fingers. Hence it needs to be much stronger
+than they are, and to be wielded by more numerous and more powerful
+muscles.
+
+The MIDDLE FINGER is not only the longest and the largest finger; it
+is also, to a certain extent, the centre about which the others move.
+Thus, when the fingers are bent down into the palm, their tips all
+converge towards the middle finger; and when they are spread out, they
+all diverge from it. Its greater length and the greater prominence
+of its knuckle, expose this finger to injury more than any of the
+others; which may account for the fact that Surgeons are called upon
+to amputate the middle finger more frequently than either of the other
+fingers or the thumb.
+
+The FORE-FINGER has the greatest range of independent movement. Hence
+it is used to point with, and is called the “Index” or “Indicator”
+finger.
+
+
+_Writing._
+
+In WRITING the pen should be held between the pulps of the fore and
+middle fingers and the thumb, in contact with all three, and firmly
+lodged between them. The down-stroke is made by bending the phalanges
+of the fingers and the thumb inwards and the metacarpal bone of the
+thumb outwards; and the up-stroke is made by straightening all the
+joints of the fingers and thumb. The hand rests lightly, not upon its
+whole edge, but, upon the hindermost and foremost parts of the edge,
+that is, upon the pisiform bone of the wrist and upon the little finger
+near the end, so that it can be moved easily along the paper, and can
+be inclined, or rolled, a little to either side. The obliquity of the
+stroke is not imposed by mere arbitrary rule, but is in accordance with
+the direction in which there is the freest movement of the fingers and
+thumb when thus holding the pen. Make the experiment for yourselves of
+moving the pen in different directions, and you will soon be satisfied
+that the writing-master has nature on his side in insisting on a
+particular movement as well as a particular mode of holding the pen.
+Some persons make the strokes vertical, or slope them the wrong way;
+but in either case the writing is stiff and awkward; it is not natural.
+
+The custom of writing from left to right may also be regarded as
+correct or natural, inasmuch as we can move the pen more freely
+upwards and _out_wards than upwards and _in_wards. Hence the light
+_up_ or advancing stroke--that which connects a letter with the one
+which follows it--is most easily made _out_wards or to the right;
+and the letters are, consequently, made to follow one another in
+that direction. To understand this more clearly make a down-stroke
+upon paper in the usual manner; you will then find that you can make
+up-strokes from any part of it more easily to the right than to the
+left; and if you make a series of continuous up-and-down-strokes at
+a little distance from one another, the up-stroke is, not merely
+habitually, but naturally, made fine and inclined to the right, whereas
+the down-stroke is made heavier or thicker and is sloped to the left.
+Moreover, you will perceive that the hand slides along the paper more
+easily from left to right than from right to left.
+
+It is worthy of remark that the writing of all that great class of
+languages called Indo-European, which includes Sanscrit, Greek, Latin,
+and many others, with our own, is from left to right; whereas nearly
+all the writing of another great class called the Semitic, which
+includes the Hebrew and Arabic, is in the opposite direction, viz.
+from right to left. Some nations write in perpendicular columns, the
+letters being placed under one another, of which the Chinese affords an
+example. But either of the two latter methods must be inferior to the
+Indo-European style in ease of execution and expedition.
+
+
+_Reason for the Ring being usually placed upon the Fourth finger._
+
+The RING-FINGER has less independent movement than either of the
+others. It cannot be bent or straightened much without being
+accompanied by one or both of those next it. This is, partly, because
+its extensor tendon is connected, by means of a band of fibres, with
+the tendon on either side of it. You may discern these connecting bands
+working up and down under the skin of the back of your hand when you
+move the fingers to and fro (they are represented in fig. 67).
+The ring-finger is, therefore, always, more or less, protected by the
+other fingers; and it owes to this circumstance a comparative immunity
+from injury, as well, probably, as the privilege of being especially
+selected to bear the ring in matrimony. The left hand is chosen for a
+similar reason; a ring placed upon it being less likely to be damaged
+than it would be upon the right hand.
+
+Other reasons have been given for this preference. It has been
+attributed to a notion among the ancients that the ring-finger is
+connected with the heart by means of some particular nerve or vessel,
+which renders it a more favourable medium than the other fingers for
+the reception and transmission of sympathetic impressions; the left
+hand being selected, in preference to the right, because it lies rather
+nearer to the heart.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69. Nerves of hand.]
+
+Some slight foundation for such a notion might be imagined to exist
+in the fact (supposing the ancients to have been acquainted with it)
+that the distribution of the nerves to the ring-finger is rather
+peculiar. The peculiarity will be readily understood by reference
+to the accompanying drawing (fig. 69). Two chief nerves are
+seen descending, in their course from the brain, along the arm and
+forearm, to supply sensation to the palmar surface of the hand. One
+(A), the larger of the two, passes in front of the middle of the
+wrist, and divides into branches which are distributed to the skin of
+the thumb, of the fore and middle fingers, and of the _out_er side
+of the ring-finger. The other nerve (B) lies on the _in_ner side of
+the forearm and wrist, and its branches go to the skin of the little
+finger, and of the inner side of the ring-finger. You see, therefore,
+that there is, in this finger, a meeting of the branches of the two
+nerves; the two sides of the finger being supplied by different
+nerves. It would be a mistake, however, to suppose that it gains
+any superiority in sensitiveness or sympathetic relations by this
+arrangement; and this distribution of the nerves certainly does not
+offer so probable an explanation of the selection of that finger for
+the honourable office of ring-bearer as the one I have suggested.
+
+I must remark, here, that the nerve (B), in passing from the arm to
+the forearm, lies on the inner side of the back of the elbow, and is
+popularly known by the misnomer of the “funny-bone[8].” It lies, pretty
+much out of harm’s way, in a well-protected channel between two bones.
+Nevertheless, it is now and then hurt; and you know that when the
+“funny-bone” is struck, a peculiar pain, or tingling, is experienced
+along the little finger and the adjacent side of the ring-finger.
+
+  [8] It has been suggested, probably by _Punch_, that it is called the
+  “_funny-bone_” because it lies near the “_humerus_.”
+
+The practice of wearing rings upon the hand is a very ancient one. In
+some instances they were badges of slavery. More generally they were
+marks of high esteem or authority; as when “Pharaoh took off his ring
+from his hand and put it upon Joseph’s hand,” and when “Ahasuerus took
+off his ring, which he had taken from Haman, and gave it to Mordecai.”
+The Roman knights also wore rings of gold. Sometimes rings were worn
+as charms against diseases; a practice which has been revived in our
+own day. They were placed upon any of the fingers, and upon the right
+hand as well as the left. Thus we read in Jeremiah, “though Coniah the
+son of Jehoiakim king of Judah were the signet upon my right hand.”
+The preference of the left hand and of the ring-finger seems to be
+comparatively modern, originating, probably, when the ring was made
+lighter and more fragile, and was, at the same time, adorned with
+precious stones, and when it became, therefore, desirable to place it
+upon the part of the hand where it is least exposed to injury.
+
+
+_The Monkey’s Hand._
+
+Most of you have spent some time in watching the inmates of that
+interesting part of a zoological collection, the MONKEYS’ cage, and
+have observed how nearly the hand of that animal resembles the human
+hand, in the presence of a thumb, in the variety and celerity of its
+movements, in the facility with which it can catch and pick up objects
+and hold them up to the mouth, and in some other points. A little
+closer observation, however, will show that there are some differences
+between the two. The several parts do not bear the same relation to one
+another in the Monkey’s hand which they do in the human hand; neither
+have they quite so great variety or range of movement. The hand is
+altogether narrower, and straighter. The thumb is shorter and less
+strong, scarcely reaching beyond the knuckle of the fore-finger. The
+fingers, on the contrary, are longer and of more uniform length; they
+do not admit of being separated so widely from each other in a fan-like
+manner; and the metacarpal bones at the edges of the hand, i. e. the
+metacarpal bones of the thumb and of the ring and little fingers, have
+not the same amount of play upon the wrist. Hence the thumb and the
+fingers of the Monkey cannot be opposed to one another so easily as
+in man; neither can they be so advanced in front of the middle finger
+as to form a hollow or cup, in the way I described when speaking of
+the hollow of the palm and the different lengths of the fingers in the
+Human hand. When you throw a Monkey a nut he usually picks it up and
+holds it between the thumb and the _side_ of the bent fore-finger, not
+between the tips of the thumb and fingers. The length of the fingers
+adapts the Monkey’s hand well for clasping firmly the branches of
+trees, and assisting the animal to climb about in its native forests,
+or to hold on to the bars of its cage; and so the part answers the
+requirements of the creature better than if these qualities had been
+sacrificed to a greater regard for variety and range of movement.
+
+
+_The Hand the Organ of the Will._
+
+The human hand is peculiarly an organ devoted to the will, being more
+directly and completely under its influence than is any other part of
+the body. The WILL, remember, is that self-directing faculty which can
+be said to exist, definitely and decidedly, in Man alone, which is
+associated in him with the responsibility attaching to the selection
+between good and evil, and which is given to him to fit him to be
+the reasonable servant of his Maker, and upon which, therefore, his
+dignity, and his capability for occupying a position between the low
+animal and the high spiritual world, so much depend. How appropriate
+is it, then, that the will should have a special organ assigned as its
+more peculiar minister. It is to the complete subjection of the hand
+to the will, no less than to the combination of strength with variety
+and delicacy in its movements, that Man is indebted for his dominion
+over the rest of the animal world, and for the ability to execute the
+wonderful works which his genius designs.
+
+When we reflect how essential is the hand to Man’s well-being, power,
+and progress, and upon the infinite variety of purposes which it serves
+in obedience to the will, we are not surprised that the construction
+of the foot, indeed of every part of the frame, should have reference
+to the object of liberating the hand from the subordinate work of
+locomotion to a degree which we find in no other animal, and of leaving
+it free to execute its higher offices in a ready and efficient manner.
+
+But, after all, notwithstanding the excellence of its mechanism and
+its intimate relation to the will, what would the hand be without
+the reflecting and designing MIND--the mind that can build upon the
+past and prepare for the future, and so carry on the ever-advancing
+work of human civilization and progress. Without it Man would remain
+stationary, like the other animals; and, as age succeeded age, the
+hand would only suffice to provide the necessary requirements of the
+body. Nay, even this is saying too much; for without the mind, without,
+at least, some higher instinctive or reflective faculty than the
+other animals possess, Man would, in reality, be inferior to them. He
+would be absolutely unable to maintain his existence, and would be a
+miserable victim to the fineness of his organisation. His hand would
+fail to supply him with food, or to defend him against his numerous
+enemies, or to provide for the protection of his delicate and sensitive
+frame from the inclemency of the elements.
+
+The real excellence of the human hand--and the remark applies equally
+to the whole human body--consists, not in the admirable construction of
+its several parts, nor in their well-adjusted relation to one another,
+so much as in the adaptation of the whole to the mind that presides
+over it. This it is that renders Man the lord of the creation, that
+enables him to subdue all his foes, and gives him, in some measure,
+power over the elements, so that land and water, fire and air, are made
+to serve his purpose. By this harmonious co-aptation of mind and body
+Man is rendered cosmopolitan, being able to thrive in every clime,
+from the regions of continual snow to those burning equatorial plains
+where even reptiles perish from the heat and drought, and being able to
+convert the barren plain into a fertile field, and to draw water out of
+the stony rock.
+
+At the late meeting of the British Association at Oxford, a gentleman
+related that he had a monkey which was very partial to oysters, and was
+very fond of playing with a hammer; but he never could be taught to use
+the hammer for the purpose of breaking the oyster-shells to gratify
+his appetite. How wide a gulf does the absence of intelligence in this
+simple matter indicate between ourselves and the animal that approaches
+nearest to us!
+
+
+_The Hand an Organ of Expression._
+
+Further, we cannot fail to recognise and admire the adaptation of
+the hand to the mind at all ages, and under various circumstances;
+in its weakness and suppleness, and in its purposeless and playful
+movements in infancy and childhood; in its gradually increasing
+strength and steadiness as the intellect ripens; in the stiffness and
+shakiness of declining years; in the iron grasp of the artizan; in
+the light delicate touch of the lady; in the twirlings, fumblings,
+and contortions of the idiot; in the stealthy movements of the thief;
+in the tremulousness of the drunkard; in the open-handedness of the
+liberal man; and in the close-fistedness of the niggard.
+
+Thus the hand becomes an organ of expression and an index of
+character. What would the nervous young gentleman in a morning call
+give to be quit of these tale-telling members; or what would he do
+without a hat or a stick to employ and amuse them? How effective an
+auxiliary to the orator is the wave of the hand, or, even, the movement
+of a finger. Some men, indeed, seem to owe the efficiency of their
+declamations as much to the hand as to the tongue. I have seen a
+practised orator (he was a man of the most complete self-possession)
+quell an excited audience by one determined movement of his hand. It
+happened to me to hear two of the most celebrated preachers of the
+day within a short period. In each of them the movements of the hand
+were remarkable, though very different. In one, the free, impassioned,
+but natural, and, therefore, easy action of the hand showed a deep
+and genuine interest in the subject, and helped to waft the fervid
+sentiments straight from his own heart to the hearts of his audience.
+In the other, who was a no less accomplished speaker, the constrained
+and carefully regulated movements of the hands were evidently the
+result of forethought and study; they were intended to be impressive,
+but were too obviously done for effect; and, therefore, were far less
+effective as well as less pleasing.
+
+Our great and venerable orator, as well as high authority on the art
+of speaking (Lord Brougham), tells us that the subject of a speech
+should be carefully studied, and the sequences well adjusted. He says
+that, in the most effective passages, even of practised speakers,
+the exact words are usually selected beforehand; but he is silent
+respecting the actions by which they should be accompanied. These, at
+least, should be unpremeditated; and they will best assist to convey to
+others the real feelings and emotions when they are the simple result
+of the natural working of the mind upon the body.
+
+The kind of expression that lies in the hand, being much dependent
+on the effect of the muscles upon it, is very hard for the artist
+to catch, though very important to the excellence of the picture.
+Painters, usually, make the hand a subject of careful study, but
+rarely succeed in throwing the proper amount, either of animation or
+of listlessness, into it. In portraits, especially, the hands are a
+difficult part to treat satisfactorily; yet the artist feels that they
+are too important not to have a prominent place, and he, commonly,
+imposes upon himself the task of representing them both in full. I have
+seen them drawn held up in front, like the paws of a kangaroo, in an
+otherwise good picture. The stereotyped position in portraits is that
+one hand lies upon a table, though it, probably, evinces an uneasiness
+there, while the other rests, perhaps equally uneasily, upon the arm of
+a chair. Vandyck, in whose paintings the hand usually forms a prominent
+feature, is considered to have peculiarly excelled in imparting to it a
+sentimental air imbued with deep pathos.
+
+
+_Shaking Hands._
+
+How much do we learn of a man by his “SHAKE-OF-HAND.” Who would expect
+to get a handsome donation, or a donation at all, from one who puts
+out two fingers to be shaken and keeps the others bent as upon an
+“itching palm”? How different is the impression conveyed by the hand
+which is coldly held out to be shaken and slips away again as soon as
+decently may be, and the hand which comes boldly and warmly forward and
+unwillingly relinquishes its hearty grasp? Sometimes one’s hand finds
+itself comfortably enclosed, nursed, as it were, between both hands of
+a friend, an elderly friend probably; or it is shaken from side to side
+in a peculiar short brisk manner. In either case we are instinctively
+convinced that we have to do with a warm and kindly heart. In a
+momentary squeeze of the hand how much of the heart often oozes through
+the fingers; and who that ever experienced it has forgotten the feeling
+conveyed by the eloquent pressure of the hand of a dying friend, when
+the tongue has ceased to speak?
+
+Why do we shake hands? It is a very old-fashioned way of indicating
+friendship. Jehu said to Jehonadab, “Is thine heart right as my heart
+is with thine heart? If it be, give me thine hand.” It is not merely
+an old-fashioned custom; it is a strictly _natural_ one, and, as usual
+in such cases, we may find a physiological reason, if we will only
+take the pains to search for it. The Animals cultivate friendship by
+the sense of touch, as well as by the senses of smell, hearing, and
+sight; and for this purpose they employ the most sensitive parts of
+their bodies. They rub their noses together, or they lick one another
+with their tongues. Now, the hand is a part of the human body in which
+the sense of touch is highly developed; and, after the manner of the
+animals, we not only like to see and hear our friend (we do not usually
+smell him, though Isaac, when his eyes were dim, resorted to this sense
+as a means of recognition), we, also, touch him, and promote the kindly
+feelings by the contact and reciprocal pressure of the sensitive hands.
+
+Observe, too, how this principle is illustrated by another of our
+modes of greeting. When we wish to determine whether a substance be
+perfectly smooth and are not quite satisfied with the information
+conveyed by the fingers, we apply it to the LIPS and rub it gently upon
+them. We do so, because we know by experience that the sense of touch
+is more acutely developed in the lips than in the hands. Accordingly,
+when we wish to reciprocate the warmer feelings we are not content with
+the contact of the hands, and we bring the lips into the service. A
+SHAKE-OF-HANDS suffices for friendship, in undemonstrative England at
+least; but a KISS is the token of a more tender affection.
+
+Possibly it occurs to you that the TONGUE is more sensitive than
+either the hands or the lips. You have observed that it will detect an
+inequality of surface that escapes them both, and that minute, indeed,
+is the flaw in a tooth which eludes its searching touch. You are right.
+The sense of touch is more exquisite in the tongue than in any other
+part of the body; and to carry out my theory, it may be suggested that
+the tongue should be used for the purposes of which we are speaking. It
+is so by some of the lower animals. But, in man, this organ has work
+enough to do in the cultivation and expression of friendship in its own
+peculiar way; and there are obvious objections to the employment of it
+in a more direct manner for this purpose.
+
+
+_The Skin of the Hand._
+
+By the aid of the accompanying drawings you will be able to form some
+idea of the structure of the SKIN of the hand.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70. Skin.]
+
+One of them (fig. 70) represents a section of the skin, made
+perpendicular to the surface, as seen under the microscope. It is from
+the end of the thumb, and includes three of those delicate lines, or
+ridges that are found there.
+
+The superficial, or uppermost strata (_a_ and _b_), are the “Cuticle”
+or “false skin.” The outer layer (_a_) is hard, horny, and dry. It is
+composed of numerous fine scales laid upon one another, like the tiles
+upon the roof of a house, but adhering more closely together, so as to
+form one continuous sheet extending all over the body. The outermost
+of these scales are continually being shed, peeling off as scurf, or
+being rubbed off; and fresh ones are supplied by the next layer (_b_),
+which is a softer material and lies immediately upon the surface of the
+“cutis” or “true skin.”
+
+This softer layer (_b_) is often called the “_Rete Mucosum_.” It is
+made up of minute bags or bladders, named “cells” by anatomists, which
+grow and propagate upon the exterior of the true skin, being nourished
+by the blood in the skin. Those which lie nearest the cutis are the
+youngest and the softest. Gradually they are pushed outwards by their
+successors or offspring; and, as they approach the surface, they become
+flatter and drier and more adherent to one another, and are finally
+converted into the thin scales of the cuticle. Thus, there is no real
+line of division between the cuticle and the rete mucosum; but the
+cells of the latter are gradually transformed into the scales of the
+former.
+
+The rete mucosum is thicker in the Negro than in the white man, and
+contributes somewhat to the softness of his skin. It contains also the
+colouring matter in the form of minute black particles diffused among
+its cells (fig. 72). These particles disappear, more or less,
+as the cells become changed into scales; hence the outer part of the
+cuticle of the Negro is not so dark as the rete mucosum, but, as it is
+transparent, or nearly so, it allows the dark colour of the rete to
+show through it.
+
+Persons commonly speak of the cuticle as if it were the whole thickness
+of the skin. Thus, when a blister has drawn, they say the _skin_ is
+raised; whereas it is only the _cuticle_. This is forced off from
+the skin by the fluid effused into its softer layer--i. e. into the
+rete--in consequence of the irritating influence of the blister.
+
+The cuticle has no nerves, and, therefore, no feeling. It may be cut
+or torn without pain. The snipping of a blister with the scissors is
+not felt, because the cuticle only is touched. It forms a covering
+to the whole surface of the body, and is invaluable as a means of
+preventing too great evaporation. Without it we should be dried up,
+almost mummified, by the end of a summer’s day. It also protects the
+delicate sensitive skin underneath. How sore is the knuckle when
+the cuticle has been rubbed off! The cuticle has, moreover, the
+accommodating property of becoming thickest where it is most wanted, as
+on the sole of the foot, and on the palms of the hands of blacksmiths,
+and artizans, and persons who handle the oar. And if any other part
+of the body be subjected to much friction, for instance, the knees of
+housemaids, or the shoulders of men who carry packs, the cuticle soon
+becomes thickened there.
+
+Beneath the cuticle lies the “Cutis” or “True Skin” (_c_,
+fig. 70, and _c_ and _d_, fig. 71). It is a tough structure
+consisting of interlacing fibrous and fine muscular tissue, and
+contains the blood-vessels and nerves. The cuticle may be pared off
+without any bleeding; but directly the skin is wounded the blood flows.
+The cutis does not present an even surface next the cuticle, but shoots
+out into a number of little finger-like processes, called “Papillæ,”
+which project into the contiguous soft stratum of the cuticle, and are
+embedded in it. Thus the superficies of the skin is increased; and
+as the blood-vessels and nerves of the cutis are continued into the
+papillæ, they contribute very greatly to the sensitiveness of the skin.
+They are most numerous in parts where the sensitiveness of the skin
+is greatest; for instance, they are more numerous on the palmar, than
+on the dorsal, surface of the hand. Near the ends of the fingers and
+thumb they are arranged in a linear manner, forming the delicate ridges
+that encircle the cones of the pulps. Sections of these ridges are
+represented in fig. 70.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71. Skin.]
+
+The superficial or papillary part of the cutis is of finer and more
+delicate structure than the deeper or fibrous layer, and is, therefore,
+sometimes described as a separate layer. It is so represented in the
+accompanying figure (71, _c_).
+
+As we are upon the subject of the cuticle and the papillæ, I will
+take the opportunity to say a word respecting two diseases of these
+structures, in which most of you, probably, have a personal interest. I
+mean “Warts” and “Corns.”
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73. Corn.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74. Wart.]
+
+A WART (fig. 74) depends chiefly on a diseased state of the
+papillary stratum of the skin. The papillæ become coarse and grow up
+beyond the level of the surrounding skin, so as to present an uneven or
+“warty” surface. They carry a layer of cuticle before them. This layer
+is usually thin, so that the wart bleeds easily when it is rubbed.
+Sometimes, however, it is very thick and hard like a piece of horn.
+We, now and then, hear of a horn growing upon some part of the body,
+perhaps on the forehead. Such a horn is, usually, nothing more than a
+conical mass of cuticle formed upon the surface of a large wart. Warts
+are generally caused by something irritating the skin, as dirt or soot
+rubbed into the cuticle. For this reason they are more frequent upon
+the hands than upon other parts of the body.
+
+In a CORN (fig. 73), also, the papillæ are somewhat enlarged;
+and this accounts in part for the great tenderness of corns. But the
+primary and essential feature of a corn is a thickened state of the
+cuticle. This is caused by too great rapidity in its formation, and
+is, usually, dependent upon pressure, especially if the pressure be
+combined with some friction. Hence corns are most commonly found upon
+the foot, and upon the parts of the foot, where the skin is subject to
+pressure and rubbing against the shoe. The drawing shows the appearance
+presented by a vertical section through a corn and through a small
+portion of the skin on either side. The accumulated layers of cuticle
+are seen, and the enlarged papillæ shooting up into them. I need
+scarcely add that it is owing to ignorance, or something worse, when
+corn-cutters talk of curing the malady by taking out the _roots_; for,
+corns, evidently, have no roots.
+
+One word of advice about corn-cutting. Most persons have some
+experience in this art, and some opportunity of practising it on
+themselves; and many pride themselves on their skill in it. The
+usual plan is to shave off layer after layer from the whole surface
+of the corn; and this, by lessening the projection of the corn, may
+give relief for a few days, though it does not always do that. Soon,
+however, the distress returns; and the area of the corn increases
+after each operation. Now, I would have you observe that it is at the
+_middle_ of the corn that the papillæ are most enlarged; and it is
+here that the formation of cuticle goes on most quickly, giving rise
+to the little white cone or cones often seen in a corn and sometimes
+wrongly called the roots. The proper mode is to confine the cutting to
+this part, and to remove as much of the thickened cuticle as you can
+from this spot, digging, as it were, a hole in the middle and leaving
+the circumference intact. The circumference, which is not usually
+tender, thus forms a wall round the excavated centre and defends it
+from pressure; and great relief is experienced. Further benefit will
+be found from covering the corn with some soft adhesive plaster; and
+you may sometimes, with advantage, lightly apply common caustic before
+putting on the plaster. If you follow these directions carefully you
+may be your own chiropodists, and almost defy your bootmakers.
+
+If, in cutting a corn, you go too deeply, you will wound the tops
+of the papillæ and cause some bleeding; this is not however usually
+followed by any ill consequences.
+
+
+_Nails._
+
+Almost all vegetable as well as animal surfaces are covered with some
+kind of cuticle. It forms the smooth exterior of a leaf and the rind
+of an apple; and the soft down of a moth or a butterfly, the scales of
+fish, the feathers and claws of birds, the quills of the porcupine, the
+horns of oxen and the hoofs of the horse are examples of modifications
+of cuticle. NAILS and HAIR are also of this nature. They are both
+continuous with the cuticle, and peel off with it when it is, by any
+process, separated from the skin. Both are formed, like the cuticle, of
+compressed plates or scales matted together; and these are continually
+being shed or rubbed off on the one side, and supplied from the rete
+mucosum on the other.
+
+The rete mucosum, it should be stated, extends over the whole surface
+of the body. In most situations, as already mentioned, it is the medium
+from which the ordinary cuticle is produced; but on the upper part of
+the ends of the fingers and toes it is converted into nail, and in the
+hair follicles, as I will presently describe, it is transformed into
+hair.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 75, 76, 77. Longitudinal sections of Nail.]
+
+The drawings will help you to understand the relation of the nails to
+the cuticle and the cutis. In the upper of the three (fig. 75)
+the nail with the cuticle has been detached from the cutis, so that
+the continuity of the two, at either end, is shown. In the middle one
+(fig. 76) it is represented lying in its bed in the cutis; its
+thin hinder edge being received into a furrow made for it in the cutis.
+The layer of rete mucosum (_b_) extends behind and beneath it, between
+it (_d_) and the cutis (_c_), and continually adds fresh material to
+the nail, just as, in other parts, it adds to the substance of the
+cuticle. The cuticle, or white line (_a_) is continuous with the nail
+at the sides as well as at either end. The lower figure (77) shows the
+bed of the cutis in which the nail reposes, the nail as well as the
+adjacent cuticle and the rete having been cleared away.
+
+Thus the addition from the rete--in other words the growth of the
+nail--takes place at the hinder edge and at the under surface. In
+consequence of the addition from _behind_ the nail is increased in
+length and is pushed forward; and as it advances forwards it receives
+accessions from _beneath_, which increase its thickness and strength.
+Unless they be cut, or worn down, the nails grow to an indefinite
+length; and, when they extend beyond the tips of the fingers, their
+edges are bent in towards each other, and they become curved like
+claws. This tendency to a convex form is shown also if the nails be
+not properly supported by the pulps of the fingers. For instance, when
+persons become emaciated the pulps of the fingers usually participate
+in the general wasting and the nails become curved. Hence this shape
+of the nails has been regarded as an indication of consumption. You
+will understand, however, from what I have said that it is not really
+a symptom of any one particular disease. It simply indicates that,
+from some cause or other, the nutrition of the body is not properly
+maintained.
+
+The Dervishes in some parts of Asia allow the thumb-nail to grow long,
+and then pare it to a point, so as to be able to write with it. Dr
+Wolff, the Eastern traveller, has told me that he has repeatedly seen
+this done, and that he has in his possession manuscripts written in
+this way.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78. Transverse section of Nail Rete and Cutis.]
+
+Beneath the nail the cutis is disposed in a series of parallel ridges
+(fig. 78) with intervening furrows. These take the same direction
+as the nail, and, indeed, give rise to the fine lines that you see upon
+the surface of the nail. The rete mucosum, or deep soft layer of the
+nail, extends into the furrows between the ridges, just as the soft
+stratum of the cuticle extends between the papillæ of the cutis. It
+thus serves to keep the nail steady in its place, while it permits a
+certain amount of movement, and allows the nail to slide forwards upon
+the skin under the pressure caused by the growth at its hinder edge.
+
+A little in front of the root of the nail the ridges of the cutis
+suddenly become larger and more vascular. This gives a pink hue to
+the nail in the greater part of its extent; while the hinder portion,
+separated from the front by a crescentic line, is white, in consequence
+of the subjacent cutis being there, more pale. You will, at once,
+recognise the distinction between these parts by looking at your own
+nails.
+
+The ridges and furrows serve, like the papillæ in other parts of the
+skin, to increase the surface of the cutis; and, by affording more
+space for the distribution of the vessels and nerves, they contribute
+to the sensitiveness of the part, and account for the severe pain which
+is caused when any foreign body is thrust under the nail. The pulp
+in the interior of a tooth, and the frog of a horse’s foot, are also
+instances in which an exquisitely sensitive structure is placed beneath
+a hard or horny substance. The object, in each case, is the same, viz.
+to give the power of taking cognizance of impressions which are made
+upon the surface.
+
+
+_Hairs._
+
+HAIRS may also be regarded as modifications of the cuticle, because,
+like the nails, they are continuous with the cuticle, and are formed
+from the rete mucosum. Each hair (figs. 79 and 83) is received
+into a depression of the cutis, which is called a “follicle,” and which
+is lined, as far as the bottom, by cuticle (_a_), and rete mucosum
+(_b_). At the bottom of the follicle (_d_) the cuticle is absent, and
+the hair rests, directly, upon the rete; and, at this part, the rete,
+instead of being converted into cuticle, as it is at the sides of the
+follicle, becomes transformed into hair, in the following way.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79. Hair.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82.]
+
+The cells of which the rete is composed swell out as they ascend,
+and so form the soft “bulb” of the hair. The outermost cells are
+gradually flattened, and assume an imbricated arrangement, overlapping
+one another like the tiles upon a roof (fig. 79, _e_, and
+fig. 80); and those in the interior are elongated, so as to be
+converted into more or less distinct fibres. The cells nearest the
+middle, or axis, of the hair remain moister and softer than those
+nearer the exterior, and form what is sometimes called the “marrow” of
+the hair (figs. 81 and 82).
+
+The colour of the hair is given by the presence of minute grains of
+colouring matter, like those in the cuticle of the Negro. They are
+formed in the cells at the root of the hair, and pass up with them into
+its structure. The quantity of colouring matter is usually slight in
+infancy and childhood, and increases during adolescence. Hence the hair
+becomes darker as we grow up. It is more or less deficient in the grey
+hair of old age; and in the instance of Marie Antoinette, and others
+whose hair is said to have turned grey in a few hours, the colouring
+matter is supposed to have been destroyed by some fluid, formed from
+the blood, and passing, through the pulp, into the hair.
+
+The hairs serve to protect the skin; and, as a general rule, they
+are most abundant upon the parts which are most exposed, and which,
+therefore, stand most in need of such protection. They are scattered
+over the back of the hand. On the palmar surface they are not required,
+and they would have interfered with the sense of touch; and we do not,
+accordingly, find them there, nor upon the sole of the foot, nor upon
+the edges of the lips. In certain parts of some animals, however,
+they serve as valuable adjuncts to the tactile organs by extending
+the range within which the contact of surrounding substances is felt.
+Thus the whiskers of the cat are set upon papillæ so sensitive that
+the slightest touch upon any part of the hair is felt; and the animal
+is thereby assisted in threading its way in the dark. This provision,
+added to the mode in which their feet are muffled with soft hair and
+their claws are retracted, enables the members of the feline tribe to
+steal with almost absolute stillness upon their prey.
+
+
+_Oil-glands._
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83. Hair, and Oil-glands.]
+
+There are also in the skin a number of little GLANDS. One set of
+these are called “oil-glands;” for their office is to furnish an oily,
+or waxy, substance, which serves to keep the skin soft and pliable,
+and defends it against too much moisture, or too great dryness of the
+atmosphere. They are usually, as shown in the accompanying sketch,
+(fig. 83, _g_, _g_) connected with the hairs, lying beside them; and
+their ducts--the little tubes that carry off the oily matter formed in
+them--open either into the hair follicles, or penetrate the cuticle at
+some other part. They are not found on the palms of the hand or the
+soles of the feet, because those parts are, in great measure, sheltered
+from atmospheric influences, and are well moistened with perspiration.
+When the dry easterly winds prevail one is disposed to wish that these
+glands were more numerous on the back of the hands; for a more liberal
+supply of their secretion would, probably, prevent the disagreeable
+chapping to which we are subject at those times. As a substitute we
+resort to some unctuous matter, such as glycerine, which if frequently
+applied in small quantities performs, to some extent, the part of
+the natural secretion in keeping the cuticle soft and supple, and so
+preventing its cracking.
+
+The secretion of these glands has an odour, the purpose of which,
+in man, is not very obvious. It is faintest in the highest and most
+civilized nations. In none is it very agreeable; and persons are
+fain to conceal it by substituting some other odour, as that of
+lavender or eau-de-cologne. Unfortunately the choice is not always so
+refined; and one is, sometimes, disposed to think that the natural
+odour must be very bad, if the substitute be preferable. The odour
+varies at different parts of the body; it varies also in different
+persons, sufficiently to enable the acute nose of the dog to track one
+particular man among a thousand.
+
+
+_Sweat-glands._
+
+To revert to the figure (70) at page 165, the little masses at
+_g_, _g_, are grains of fat lying in the meshes of the deeper strata
+of the skin, or in the structure just below it. And the little balls
+of twisted tube (_f_, _f_) are GLANDS that secrete the PERSPIRATION;
+for, the perspiration does not ooze up from the whole surface of the
+skin, but has a regular system of factories for its formation. A fine
+tube (_h_) is seen passing from each of these “sweat-glands,” as they
+are called. It curls in a spiral manner, like a cork-screw, where it
+traverses the cuticle to open at the surface. On the palmar aspect of
+the hand most of these tubes or ducts open along the tops of the fine
+ridges which are there seen; and with a magnifying glass of moderate
+power you can distinguish their orifices on the flattened tops of
+the ridges on your own fingers. These are the “pores of the skin,”
+respecting which we hear so much, and through which the Roman Bath
+brings such streams from the subjacent glands.
+
+The sweat-glands are scattered all over the body, but are especially
+numerous in the palm and in the sole; and the moisture issuing from
+them tends to keep the skin of these parts soft and moist, and so
+fitted for the reception of tactile impressions. The quantity of fluid
+furnished by them varies a good deal in different persons, and under
+different circumstances. In some persons it is habitually slight; and
+the hands feel dry and harsh. Or, what is equally disagreeable, it is
+superabundant; and the hands are habitually damp, perhaps, cold and
+clammy, staining the gloves and soiling everything they touch. In fever
+the perspiration is defective; and the dryness and heat of the palm
+are often the first symptoms of an accession of fever that attract the
+patient’s notice.
+
+We all know that perspiration is usually increased by exercise, or
+by the application of warmth to the surface, as by the hot air in
+the sudatorium of the Roman Bath; and then, by its evaporation, it
+cools and relieves the body, and contributes to our comfort. We know,
+too, that it is liable to be increased by any thing that produces a
+depressing effect, and that it then induces an uncomfortable sensation,
+chilling the surface too much, and making it cold and clammy. Most
+of you have experienced the discomfort of the cold sweat caused by
+fright; and some of you may have felt the cold, clammy hand of one who
+was suffering under the shock of a severe accident or the prostration
+caused by the sudden onset of a dangerous malady. Why perspiration
+should occur under these very different conditions, producing, at one
+time, so much relief, and, at another, so much additional discomfort,
+it is not easy to say.
+
+
+_The sense of Feeling and of Touch in the Hand._
+
+I have mentioned three parts of the body as remarkable for the
+acuteness of the sense of touch, namely, the TONGUE, the LIPS, and
+the HANDS. Now in each of these the skin is richly supplied with
+nerves and blood-vessels; and it is also thick and lies upon a soft
+cushiony substance, so as to be yielding and to admit of being applied
+accurately over any surface with which it is placed in contact, and of
+again resuming its shape when the pressure is removed. For instance,
+the tongue is so soft and yielding that, when it is applied to a tooth,
+it dips down between the inequalities and coves accurate information of
+the condition of the whole surface. The same is the case with the edges
+of the lips, though not in so marked a degree as in the tongue; and
+each of these parts is indebted for its great sensitiveness very much
+to the delicate soft supple nature of its structure. The palmar surface
+of the hand too, though, like the skin of the sole, it is strong and
+tough, so as to offer considerable resistance to injury and to prove
+no dainty morsel even to dogs, as we surmise from the narrative of the
+death of Jezebel, is yet very soft and yielding. It is also underlaid
+by a stratum of fat interwoven with strong fibres of tissue, just in
+the same manner as the skin of the sole of the foot (fig. 46,
+p. 99).
+
+An accumulation of this fat and fibrous tissue under the skin forms
+the “Pulps” at the ends of the fingers. The slightly conical form and
+exquisite softness of the Pulps adapts them well for the examination of
+the surfaces of bodies; and the sense of touch is more acute in them
+than in other parts of the hand.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84. Bones of Finger.]
+
+In connection with them it is interesting to observe that the last
+bone of each finger and of the thumb swells out, at the end, into a
+nodulated lump, which serves the purpose both of supporting the pulp
+and of giving breadth to the nail. It also, like the corresponding part
+of the toe (page 99), affords a basis of attachment for the fibres
+that run, from the bone, through the pad of fat, to the skin, and give
+firmness and consistence to the part. The bulbous enlargement at the
+ends of the phalanges of the fingers and toes is peculiar, or almost
+peculiar, to man. In most Animals these bones taper to a point; in
+many they are also curved. Hence the nails are, in them, comparatively
+unsupported, and they become bent in at the sides and curved in their
+length, that is to say, they are formed into claws. This is the case,
+to a considerable extent, in the Monkey. The terminal phalanges of
+the monkey’s digits are more tapering than in man; the nails are more
+claw-like; and the pulps are less well-formed. This constitutes a not
+unimportant feature of difference between the hand of that animal and
+the human hand, in addition to those I have already mentioned.
+
+You have experienced the sensitiveness to cold of the pulps of
+the fingers and toes; and have, probably, remarked that it is more
+difficult to keep them warm than any part of the body. I may add that,
+notwithstanding the liberal allowance of the means of supporting life
+(that is, blood and nervous influence) which they enjoy, they are very
+liable to mortify from frost-bite and other causes. I have repeatedly
+known that to happen when all the rest of the hand has escaped. This
+must be attributed, perhaps entirely, to their exposed position as
+terminal parts; and they share their susceptibility to cold with other
+parts similarly circumstanced, such as the nose, the elbows, the knees
+and the buttocks.
+
+It is necessary to make a distinction between the SENSE OF TOUCH and
+common FEELING or sensitiveness to pain; for they are not quite the
+same. They are, it is true, very nearly alike, so nearly that we may
+consider them to be modifications of one another; and it is probable
+that the same nerves minister to both. Still there is a difference.
+The sense of touch is the sense of contact with _ex_ternal bodies, and
+enables us to take cognisance of their presence and inform ourselves of
+their shape, consistence, smoothness or roughness, &c.; whereas common
+sensation, or the sense of feeling, has an _in_ternal relation. It
+imparts to us information respecting the condition of our own bodies or
+any part of them. By the sense of touch in the tongue, for instance,
+we judge of the size and hardness of the morsel in the mouth; and by
+common sensation we learn that the organ is being bruised or scratched
+by it. Sensation of pain commonly destroys the sense of touch. Put your
+finger into a vice, and you may feel both sides of it. Screw it up, and
+you have nothing but the sensation of pain. If you were to awake in
+this state you would not, from the mere sensation, know that you were
+_touching_ anything.
+
+As a general rule there is a relation between the degree in which
+sensation and the sense of touch are manifested in different parts of
+the body. For instance, I have just been remarking on the acuteness of
+the sense of touch in the Tongue; and we know that this part is very
+sensitive to pain. The pain caused by a bite of the tongue is horrible;
+and so effectually does it serve the good end of warning the tongue to
+keep within its proper bounds, that that organ very rarely suffers from
+the pressure of the teeth.
+
+But, forasmuch as sensitiveness to pain serves a different purpose
+from the sense of touch, namely, as in the instance of the tongue just
+mentioned, it renders parts alive to injurious impressions, and gives
+them warning to escape or protect themselves; so it is, as we might
+expect, most manifested in those surfaces where a slight amount of
+injury would prove most detrimental.
+
+Thus, the membrane (the conjunctiva) which lines the eyelids and
+covers the front of the eyeball is exquisitely sensitive to pain. We
+are reminded of this when anything touches the eye, or when a fly
+has lodged itself under the eyelid. And, when an operator wishes to
+ascertain whether his patient is sufficiently under the influence of
+chloroform he separates the eyelids and puts his finger gently upon
+the eye, knowing that if no indication be given, by flinching, that
+the impression made here is felt, it is probable that the patient will
+not be conscious of the more severe impression to be made by the knife
+elsewhere. Yet, this membrane is by no means pre-eminently endued with
+the sense of touch. Indeed, the very acuteness of its sensitiveness to
+pain quite unfits it for distinguishing the quality of the impressions
+made upon it. We know very quickly that something is in contact with
+the eye, but can form no idea what kind of substance it is, whether it
+be hard or soft, rough or smooth.
+
+In the hand, on the contrary, the sensitiveness to pain, though
+considerable, is not proportionate to the acuteness of the sense of
+touch. The sting of the rod on the palm, if my recollection serves me
+right, is not so sharply felt as it is upon that other region which
+shares with the hand the privilege of receiving the wrathful attentions
+of the master; and, yet, that other region is by no means distinguished
+for acuteness in the sense of touch.
+
+The mode in which sensitiveness to touch and to pain are adjusted
+in the hand and in the eye in relation to the functions of these two
+organs is one of the admirable features of their construction. Suppose
+the disposition to have been reversed--suppose the hand to have been
+as tender as the eye--of what use would it have been? The contact of
+a particle of dust would have caused agony; or, had the eye been no
+more sentient than the hand, it would soon have been destroyed by the
+chafing of foreign bodies upon its delicate surface.
+
+How important is the sense of Feeling! more important than any of
+the other senses; more so than all the others taken together. It
+is almost universal in the animal kingdom. Indeed, we can scarcely
+conceive animal existence without it, and are slow to admit that to be
+an animal which shows no sign of it. Several of the lower animals seem
+to be destitute of any of the other senses. The POLYPS, for instance,
+have no sight, hearing, taste, or smell, and are dependent, therefore,
+entirely, upon feeling for their communication with the external world;
+and the range of this sense is extended in them by means of their
+“tentacles” or “feelers” which wave about in the water, and, when they
+come in contact with foreign bodies, close upon them and draw them
+towards the oral opening. Thus, the tentacle of the polyp is a sort of
+rudimentary hand, and, by the aid of feeling, fulfils one important
+function of the hand, viz. that of the supplying the mouth with food.
+The sprawling movements of an infant’s hands and the tendency which
+they have to close upon anything--dress, blanket, or whatever it
+be--and draw it to the mouth remind one forcibly of the feelers of a
+polyp.
+
+In most of the lower animals, however, the sense of feeling, though
+present, serving for protection and giving notice of injury, is
+not very acute. It is not much employed by them for the purpose of
+obtaining information respecting external objects; and they can
+scarcely be said to enjoy that modification of it which we call the
+sense of touch in any high degree. Indeed, the skins of animals have,
+commonly, such a covering of thick, horny cuticle, scales, feathers, or
+hair, as is incompatible with a fine discriminating sense of touch.
+
+In many of them, however, some other sense is highly developed. The
+VULTURE is guided by the smell of carrion for miles and miles; and
+the dog will, by the same sense, track game where man cannot detect
+the trace of an odour. Some birds can distinguish objects which are
+quite out of the range of our sight. The EAGLE, for instance, soars
+aloft, till it dwindles to a mere speck or is lost to our view, and,
+then, from that great height, will pounce, with unerring certainty,
+on an unhappy grouse upon the ground. The sense of hearing is a great
+means of protection to animals, and necessitates extreme stillness and
+caution on the part of their pursuers. The DEER, when feeding, directs
+his eyes upon the ground, and depends for safety, chiefly, upon his
+hearing, which is so acute that the huntsman is obliged to approach
+with all possible wariness.
+
+In each of these instances, it may be observed, the acuteness of the
+particular sense is manifested chiefly in the power it gives to the
+animal of distinguishing objects _at a distance_. Whereas, in the
+ability to use the several senses for the nice discernment of the
+_qualities_ of substances and to derive enjoyment from them, man stands
+quite unrivalled. He alone appreciates the perfume of a bouquet, or
+takes cognisance of the various shades of colour and of the notes of
+music; and the sense of touch, which is of especial service in aiding
+us to an accurate knowledge of bodies, is much more highly developed in
+man than in other animals.
+
+Fine as the sense of touch usually is in the human hand, it becomes
+far more so when an unusual demand is made upon it in consequence of a
+deficiency, or absence, of other senses. The rapidity with which blind
+persons can read with their fingers is truly astonishing. Some are
+said to be able to distinguish colours by the feel. (It should rather
+be said that they are capable of recognising the nice differences in
+certain substances by which colours are caused; for one can scarcely
+conceive it possible to distinguish by feeling the colours in a ray of
+light separated by a prism.) I am acquainted with a lady who has been,
+not only blind, but deaf and dumb from infancy. The sense of touch is,
+therefore, almost her only avenue for impressions from without; and
+it is surprising how much information is conveyed through it, and how
+quickly. It enables her to hold converse with her relatives, by the
+language of the fingers, almost as freely and as briskly as others do
+with the tongue. A few touches are sufficient to transmit a series of
+thoughts. After one shake of the hand her friends told me that she
+would recognise me again; and, true enough, although several days
+elapsed before I again saw her, she made the sign for my name as soon
+as she touched my hand. At our next meeting I presented my left hand,
+but was, again, immediately recognised.
+
+Persons who have had much experience in the instruction of the deaf
+and dumb find that the hand, by means of writing and “dactylogy”, or
+the language of finger-signs, is abundantly sufficient for all the
+intercourse to which a deaf-mute is equal; and they are, therefore,
+disposed to discourage the teaching of articulation. Dr Kitto, in his
+little book “On the Lost Senses,” which acquires so much interest
+from the fact of his being himself deaf and dumb in consequence of an
+accident, relates that, after he had, with great difficulty, reacquired
+considerable facility of speech, he found it stood him in little stead.
+So efficient a means of intercourse had the hand become that, he tells
+us, he had not occasion for the use of his tongue ten times in a year.
+
+Not only may the hand thus serve, to some extent, as a substitute
+for some of the other senses; it is also a most important auxiliary
+to them. Particularly is it so to the sense of sight, by proving, or
+correcting, the impressions which we receive through the eye. Without
+its aid we should often fail to distinguish between a real object and
+a picture or a reflection in a mirror, and should have difficulty in
+judging of size, shape, distance, &c.
+
+
+_Relation of the Hand to the Eye and the Mouth._
+
+You cannot have watched a game of cricket without being struck by the
+manner in which the hand acts in harmony with the eye. With what almost
+lightning-like rapidity it is in the exact place to catch the ball;
+and with what precision the practised cricketer can throw the ball to
+a great distance. In this, however, he is surpassed by the wonderful
+skill with which the Indian throws the lasso. Again, it is enough for
+the sportsman merely to get sight of the bird; he is scarcely conscious
+of the process by which the hand directs the gun and pulls the trigger
+at the exact moment. Still more remarkable is the successful aim when
+taken, as it occasionally is, without bringing the gun to the shoulder.
+
+In estimating the importance of the hand, you must not forget that
+the mouth is quite dependent upon it for supplies. In most other
+animals the jaws are prolonged, forwards, from the cranium, and the
+head is placed in such a position that the mouth becomes an organ of
+prehension, and is enabled to provide for itself. But, in man, the head
+is carried so high above the ground, and the jaws are so shortened and
+compressed beneath the forehead, that the mouth is of little use in
+obtaining food. Its abilities and duties are restricted to receiving,
+masticating, and swallowing; and, if it had to rely upon its own
+efforts for supplies of food, it would, indeed, be in a poor case. When
+we look at one of the Sphinxes from Egypt, or at one of the stately
+Bulls from Nineveh, in which wisdom and power are represented by
+joining a human head to the trunk and limbs of an animal, the question
+suggests itself, “How is that mouth to be fed?” In the Centaur and
+Mermaid this difficulty is overcome by adding the hands, as well as
+the human head, to the trunk and locomotory organs of the horse in the
+one instance, and the fish in the other; so that monstrosity does not
+preclude the means of sustentation. Sufficient incongruities, however,
+still remain to justify the exclamation
+
+  “Spectatum admissi risum teneatis amici?”
+
+In the ELEPHANT the mouth is circumstanced, somewhat, as in man; and
+the office of feeder is performed by the elongated snout or proboscis.
+This organ, with its finger-like extremity, is so sensitive and mobile
+as to be able to pick up small bodies--pins or needles--from the
+ground, and so strong as to pull down large branches of trees, and
+gather the fruit from them. It is interesting, in connection with the
+relation of the hand to the will and the intellectual endowments, to
+remark that this proboscidean substitute, which fulfils so many of the
+purposes of the hand, is furnished to the “half reasoning” elephant.
+The natural sagacity and teachableness of this creature, of which such
+interesting evidence is given in Sir Emerson Tennent’s book on Ceylon,
+seem to render it quite worthy of the privilege of having an especial
+organ provided to minister to its will.
+
+
+_Cheiromancy._
+
+The BEAUTY of the hand does not come in for quite so great a share
+of admiration as that of the foot. Perhaps, because we are less
+often gratified with the view of the latter. Perhaps, because we are
+conscious that the foot is even more decidedly characteristic of
+the human form than is the hand; inasmuch as the hand of the monkey
+approaches more nearly to the human hand than does the foot of any
+animal to the human foot. Still, we are by no means insensible to the
+charms of a pretty hand; and we prefer that the glove which envelopes
+it should be of a material as thin and pliable as kid, so that it
+may adapt itself accurately to the part, and not conceal its form.
+A small and delicate hand is thought to be one of the best signs of
+high-breeding. Thus, Byron, who was no bad judge of such matters, writes
+
+  “Even to the delicacy of her hand
+  There was resemblance such as true blood bears,”
+
+and again,
+
+  “Though on more thorough-bred or fairer fingers
+  No lips ere left their transitory trace.”
+
+The LINES upon the palm, or creases formed in closing the hand, differ
+a little in different persons. In former times, when men were addicted
+to the arts of divination, and thought more about the connection
+between the physical world and the world of spirits, and strove, by
+a close observation of the former, to penetrate the mysteries of the
+latter, much attention was paid to these lines. They were named with
+the names of the Planets and the signs of the Zodiac; and a science
+grew up akin to Astrology and Physiognomy. CHEIROMANCY was the name
+given to it; and numerous and voluminous treatises were written upon
+it. We are told that Homer was the author of a complete essay upon the
+lines of the hand. That something of the kind was practised among the
+Romans we learn from a passage in Juvenal, translated, somewhat freely,
+by Dryden, as follows:
+
+  “The middle sort, who have not much to spare,
+  To cheiromancer’s cheaper art repair,
+  Who claps the pretty palm to make the lines more fair.”
+
+You will estimate the value of the science of CHEIROMANCY when you
+hear that equal furrows upon the lower joint of the thumb argue riches
+and possessions; but a line surrounding the middle joint portends
+hanging. The nails, also, came in for their share of attention: and
+we are informed that, when short, they imply goodness; when long and
+narrow, steadiness but dulness; when curved, rapacity. Black spots upon
+them are unlucky; white are fortunate. Even at the present day Gipsies
+practise the art when they can find sufficient credulity to encourage
+them.
+
+Whether any fancy of the like kind gave origin to the notion still
+prevalent that a wound or injury between the thumb and the fore-finger
+is peculiarly likely to be followed by LOCK-JAW, or whether the notion
+was grounded on some notable instance in which that fearful malady did
+actually supervene upon a wound in the situation mentioned, I cannot
+tell. You may, however, rest assured, that it is quite a fallacy.
+Lock-jaw may result from a wound in any part of the body, or it may
+occur without a wound; it is very capricious in its attack; the surgeon
+does not know when to look for it; it often shows itself when he least
+expects it; but it is not more likely to follow a wound between the
+thumb and the fore-finger than a wound elsewhere. I think it well to
+mention this, because I have often known persons greatly alarmed when
+they have accidentally cut themselves in the dreaded spot.
+
+
+_Cause of the preferential use of the Right Hand._
+
+Why is man usually <sc>RIGHT-HANDED</sc>? Many attempts have been
+made to answer this question; but it has never been done quite
+satisfactorily; and I do not think that a clear and distinct
+explanation of the fact can be given.
+
+There is no anatomical reason for it with which we are acquainted. The
+only peculiarity that we can discern is a slight difference in the
+disposition, within the chest, between the blood-vessels which supply
+the right and the left arms. This, however, is quite insufficient to
+account for the disparity between the two limbs. Moreover, the same
+disposition is observed in left-handed persons, and in some of the
+lower animals; and in none of the latter is there that difference
+between the two limbs which is so general among men.
+
+Is the superiority of the right hand real and natural, that is,
+congenital? or is it merely acquired? I incline much to the latter
+view; because all men are not right-handed; some are left-handed; some
+are ambidextrous; and in all persons, I believe, the left hand may be
+trained to as great expertness and strength as the right[9]. It is so
+in those who have been deprived of their right hand in early life; and
+most persons can do certain things with the left hand better than with
+the right.
+
+  [9] In the tribe of Benjamin “there were seven hundred chosen men
+  left-handed; every one could sling stones at an hair breadth, and
+  not miss.” Judges xx. 16. When David was at Ziklag there came to him
+  a company of men who “were armed with bows and could use both the
+  right hand and the left in hurling stones and shooting arrows out of
+  a bow.” 1 Chronicles xii. 2.
+
+Nevertheless, though I think the superiority of the right hand is
+acquired and is a result of its more frequent use, the tendency to use
+it, in preference to the left, is so universal that it would seem to
+be natural. I am driven, therefore, to the rather nice distinction,
+that, though the superiority is acquired, the tendency to acquire the
+superiority is natural.
+
+It may be argued that the tendency must be based upon something
+physical, and that, therefore, a tendency to superiority implies an
+actual superiority. This may be so; but I do not think that we are
+quite in a position to assert that it is so. We perceive that there is
+a tendency to the preferential use of the right hand; but we do not
+know upon what that tendency depends, and have, therefore no right to
+assert that the cause of it lies in the construction of the limb or of
+the parts which supply the limb with blood and nervous influence, or,
+indeed, upon any strictly physical cause whatever.
+
+It may be a tendency like that of certain animals to make their holes
+and nests in particular places and in particular ways, to watch for
+their prey at particular spots, to migrate in certain directions at
+particular periods, and to group themselves in a particular order
+during their travels. Such tendencies, or “Instincts” as they are often
+called, may possibly be the result of a peculiar conformation of the
+several animals; but it is, at present, by no means certain that they
+are so.
+
+I have said that man is the only animal in whom a preference in the
+use of the limb or limbs of one side is shown. This is a consequence of
+the fact that he is the only animal who has occasion to use the limbs
+of the two sides separately, or who is in the habit of doing so. Even
+in the rudest state of society this habit is engendered in him from a
+very early period, as in carrying a stick, throwing a spear, and in
+a variety of ways. The habit increases as he becomes more civilized,
+owing to the greater number of offices which the hands are called upon
+to perform; and the necessity for using the hands separately would, of
+itself, lead each individual to the employment of one more frequently
+than the other; but that that one should so universally be the right
+hand, seems to be accounted for only by reference to some natural
+tendency. The imitative propensity in man and the convenience of
+uniformity of modes of action are scarcely sufficient to account for it.
+
+I will not detain you by dwelling upon the effect which the
+superiority of the right hand has in giving a slight superiority to the
+right leg and the right eye, and will content myself with mentioning
+a single beneficial result of the preferential use of one hand, viz.
+that by it, we acquire a greater degree of skilfulness and dexterity
+than we should do if both hands were equally employed. The exclusive
+use, for instance, of the right hand in writing, cutting, &c. gives it
+a greater expertness than either hand would have had if both of them
+had been accustomed to perform these offices. Hence, we usually find
+that persons who are left-handed are rather clumsy-fingered, because,
+although, in them, the left hand is used for many purposes which are
+commonly assigned to the right, yet the conventionalities of life
+interfere a good deal. The pen and the knife, for instance, are still
+wielded by the right hand. Accordingly such persons are neither truly
+right-handed nor truly left-handed; and they do not commonly acquire
+so great skill in the use of either hand as do those whose natural
+tendency is more in harmony with custom.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The great martyr of our Church, when at the stake, is said to
+have held out his right hand into the flames and to have been heard
+exclaiming, till utterance was stifled, “This unworthy hand.” This
+unworthy hand! Of whom or of what was that hand unworthy? Was it
+unworthy of Him who made it? Was it unworthy of him who bore it? Was
+it unworthy of the purposes for which it was made? Was it not, on the
+contrary, a too worthy hand? a hand worthy of a better usage than to
+be made, first, to sign a recantation of faith and, then, to be burned
+for having done so? a hand worthy of a better man? No one would have
+admitted this more readily than Cranmer. We may be sure that he would
+never have thought of proclaiming a hand or any of his members to
+be really unworthy of him. Rather would he have willingly confessed
+that he had fallen far short of the standard of excellence which the
+body presents; and in that excellence, we doubt not, he recognised
+an evidence of Divine workmanship. His meaning, therefore, has not
+been misunderstood. Nevertheless disparaging remarks respecting the
+body, and the use of the word “carnal” in the sense in which it is
+usually employed, have some tendency to excuse a shrinking from moral
+responsibilities on the ground of the weakness of the flesh. Let us
+remember that much of that weakness is of our own engendering, that a
+moral obliquity is the source of many of those physical infirmities
+which, we flatter ourselves, may cover our delinquencies, and which a
+sympathising humanity is wont, perhaps too often, to throw as a shield
+over offenders against the laws. In man, and in man alone of created
+beings, the physical and the moral grow up together and react upon one
+another; and the charge of a body thus capable of influencing and being
+influenced demands all our energies to prove ourselves worthy of it.
+
+
+
+
+EXPLANATION OF WOOD-CUTS.
+
+
+THE HUMAN FOOT.
+
+  Fig.  page
+
+   1      9    Bones of foot, with the lower ends of the two
+                 leg-bones.
+
+   2     11    Bones of the hind foot of a seal, with lower ends
+                 of leg-bones.
+
+   3     11    The same of the hind foot of a lizard.
+
+   4     14    Side view of the pelvis and lower limb of man.
+                 A, the _haunch-bone_. B, the _ischium_, or part upon
+                 which we sit. C, the _thigh-bone_. D, the _knee-pan_.
+                 E, the _tibia_, or larger leg-bone, with the
+                 _fibula_, or smaller leg-bone, alongside it. F, the
+                 _heel-bone_. G, the _metatarsal_ bones. H, I, K, the
+                 _phalanges_, or bones of the toes.
+
+   5     14    Similar view of the pelvis and hind limb of a horse.
+                 The letters refer to the same parts as in the preceding
+                 figure.
+
+   6     18    Represents a section through the lower end of the
+                 tibia and through the _heel-bone_, the _astragalus_,
+                 _navicular_ bone, inner _cuneiform_ bone, and the bones
+                 of the _great toe_. It shows the arrangement of
+                 these bones in the arch of the foot and the disposition
+                 of the plates of which these bones are composed.
+
+   7     25    The same bones as in preceding, with two connecting
+                 ligaments. A, the _plantar ligament_. B, ligament
+                 passing from the heel-bone F to the scaphoid bone
+                 E. D the _Astragalus_. C, one of two small bones,
+                 called _sesamoid_ bones, usually found at the ball of
+                 the great toe.
+
+   8     29    A foot, in an aggravated condition of “flat-foot.”
+                 The sole is convex, and so is the inner margin
+                 of the foot. It represents also another common
+                 deformity, inasmuch as the great toe runs athwart
+                 the second toe, which is pressed almost out of
+                 sight.
+
+   9     38    Front view of the right _tibia_, or larger leg-bone.
+
+  10     38    Right _tibia_ lying on a board. The inner, as well
+                 as the outer edge, of the upper end rests upon the
+                 board; but the inner edge of the lower end is
+                 turned away from the board. In other words, the
+                 bone is so twisted that, though the upper end
+                 lies flat upon the board, the lower end touches
+                 it only by its outer edge.
+
+  11     40    Figure sitting upon the heel to draw the bow. It is
+                 one of a beautiful series of statues in the Glyptothek
+                 at Munich. They adorned the pediments
+                 of a temple in Ægina, and are supposed to represent
+                 the noble actions of the Æacidæ.
+
+  12     42    Represents some of the muscles and tendons seen
+                 on the inner side of the leg and foot. A, _Gastro-
+                 cnemius_ and _Soleus_ muscles. They are attached,
+                 above, to the thigh-bone and the leg-bones; below,
+                 by means of the _Tendo Achillis_ (_a_) to the heel-bone;
+                 they together form the calf-muscle. B,
+                 _Posterior tibial_ muscle attached, above, to the
+                 tibia, below, by its tendon (_b_) to the scaphoid
+                 bone. D, process of the tibia called the _internal
+                 malleolus_ or inner ankle. F, _Anterior tibial_ muscle
+                 attached, above, to the front of the tibia, below,
+                 to the scaphoid bone. _k_, the _flexor tendon_ of the
+                 great toe.
+
+  13     44    Gives a corresponding view of the outer side of the
+                 leg and foot. E, the lower end of the fibula,
+                 called the _external malleolus_, or outer ankle. C,
+                 the _short fibular_ muscle attached, above, to the
+                 fibula; below, by its tendon (_c_), to the outer
+                 metatarsal bone. I, the _long fibular_ muscle. Its
+                 tendon (_i_) runs, behind the outer ankle and under
+                 the instep, to the metatarsal bone of the great
+                 toe; it is not seen in the latter part of its course.
+                 G, the _anterior fibular_ muscle attached by its tendon
+                 _g_ to the outer metatarsal bone. _h_, the _extensor
+                 tendons_ of the toes.
+
+  14     47    Foot of a young woman presenting the variety of
+                 “club-foot” called “_Talipes varus_.” The sole is
+                 very much bent, and turned inwards and upwards,
+                 so that the part of the instep which should be above
+                 and in front is directed downwards and comes into
+                 contact with the ground.
+
+  15     49    Diagram (from Bell’s _Anatomy_) showing the mode
+                 in which the extensor tendons of the toes follow
+                 the curve of the ankle and are bound to it by
+                 cross straps, instead of taking the direct course
+                 represented by the line _a_.
+
+  16     52   Foot and leg from the cast of the Farnese Hercules
+                 in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge.
+
+  17     52   Foot and leg of a Negro.
+
+  18     52   Outline of under surface of foot of an Englishman.
+
+  19     52   Outline of under surface of foot of a Negro.
+
+  20     55   Skeleton of the foot of a Chinese female. From a
+                drawing by B. Cooper, in _Phil. Trans._
+
+  21–25  57   Sections, from above downwards, through the tarso-metatarsal
+                joints. A, _metatarsal_ bone. B, _tarsal_
+                bone. C, C, the _ligaments_ connecting the two.
+
+  26–29  59    Figures standing, bowing, stooping, and squatting.
+
+  30–32  60    Figures walking.
+
+  33–35  62    Position of foot in three stages of a step in walking.
+
+  36–38  65    Figures running.
+
+  39     86    Bones of the left hind limb of an Elephant.
+
+  40     86    Bones of the left hind limb of a Hippopotamus.
+
+  41     86    Bones of the left hind limb of a Rhinoceros.
+
+  42     86    Bones of the left hind limb of an Ox.
+
+  43     86    Bones of the left hind limb of a Horse.
+
+  44     89    Hind limb of a Gorilla, showing the length of the
+                 digits, and the strong inner digit diverging from
+                 the others.
+
+  45     90    Drawing of stuffed specimen of a Gorilla in the
+                 British Museum.
+
+  46     98    Section of a foot, showing the disposition of the fibres
+                 that run from the bones and plantar ligament to
+                 the skin of the sole. At the heel the greater number
+                 of the fibres are seen to run _back_wards from
+                 the heel-bone to the skin. At the end of the
+                 great toe and beneath the ball of the toe they run,
+                 for the most part, _for_wards, from the bones and
+                 plantar ligament, to the skin.
+
+  47    103    View of the sole of a foot in its natural state.
+
+  48    103    Outline of the sole of a shoe, as commonly made for
+                 a man’s foot.
+
+  49    103    Sole of the foot of a girl twenty-two years old, distorted
+                 by the pressure of the shoe, but otherwise
+                 healthy.
+
+  50    103    View of the skeleton of a foot so deformed, from
+                 above.
+
+  51    105    The proper sole for a shoe laid, for the sake of
+                 comparison, on the symmetrical sole of the ordinary
+                 shape.
+
+  52    105    The proper sole pointed at the toes.
+
+
+THE HUMAN HAND.
+
+  Fig.  page
+
+  53    110    The bones of the arm (_humerus_), of the forearm
+                 (_radius_ and _ulna_, the former is the upper of the
+                 two, the forearm and hand being semi-prone), and
+                 of the hand. The names of the wrist-bones are,
+                 _scaphoid_, _semilunar_ (these two are in contact with
+                 the radius), _cuneiform_ (this is in a line with the
+                 ulna, but separated from it by an interval in
+                 which lies the triangular ligament, see fig. 64,
+                 page 134), _pisiform_ (faintly seen in shadow beneath
+                 the cuneiform), _trapezium_ (supporting the
+                 metacarpal bone of thumb), _trapezoid_ (supporting
+                 the metacarpal bone of fore-finger), _magnum_ (supporting
+                 the metacarpal bone of the middle or
+                 great finger), _unciform_ (supporting the metacarpal
+                 bones of the ring and the little fingers).
+
+  54    112    Diagram of the bones of the hand with the ends of
+                 the radius and ulna. 1, end of _radius_; 2, end of
+                 _ulna_; 3, _scaphoid_; 4, _semilunar_; 5, _cuneiform_;
+                 6, _pisiform_; 7, _trapezium_; 8, _trapezoid_; 9, _magnum_;
+                 10, _unciform_; 11, 11, _metacarpal_ bones;
+                 12, 12, first row of _phalanges_; 13, 13, second
+                 row of _phalanges_; 14, 14, third row of _phalanges_;
+                 I, thumb; II, forefinger; III, middle finger; IV,
+                 ring finger; V, little finger.
+
+  55    116    Drawing of the front of the chest and the shoulders,
+                 with the collar-bones running across from the
+                 upper edge of the breast-bone to the projecting
+                 processes of the shoulder-blades.
+
+  56    117    The chest and shoulder of an Eagle. A, A, the united
+                 _collar-bones_, or “merry-thought;” B, the _coracoid_,
+                 or “side-bone;” C, the long, slender _shoulder-blade_;
+                 D, the _sternum_; E, the _humerus_.
+
+  57    120    The head, fore part of chest, and shoulder of a
+                 Rhinoceros. The chest is deep and flat at the
+                 sides. The shoulder-blade and arm-bone are
+                 nearly vertical, that is, they nearly correspond
+                 with the ribs in their direction.
+
+  58    122    Side view of chest, shoulder and arm (human). The
+                 shoulder-blade is prolonged in the direction of the
+                 spine, that is, _across_ the ribs.
+
+  59    124    Side view of fore part of a Monkey’s skeleton.
+
+  60    126    A section, from side to side, through the Elbow-joint,
+                 showing the shape of the surfaces of the
+                 bones. A, the _radius_; B, the _ulna_; CC, the side
+                 _ligaments_ holding the radius and ulna to the _arm-bone_,
+                 D.
+
+  61    127    The upper limb with the forearm and hand in the
+                 state of supination. A, the _long Pronator_ muscle.
+
+  62    127    The same in a state of pronation. B, the _short
+                 Supinator_ muscle.
+
+               In this and the preceding drawing a plumb-line,
+                 descending from the outer condyle of the humerus
+                 traverses the lower end of the ulna and the ring
+                 finger.
+
+  63    131    Drawing of the _biceps_ muscle. The hand is in a
+                 state of pronation. Driving the gimlet is effected
+                 by the movement to the state of supination.
+
+  64    134    Section, from side to side, through the Wrist, showing
+                 the shapes of the bones and the mode in
+                 which they are adapted to one another. A, the
+                 _radius_; B, the _ulna_; C, _scaphoid_ bone; D, _cuneiform_
+                 bone; E, _semi-lunar_ bone; F, line of contact
+                 of radius and ulna; G, G, side _ligaments_
+                 connecting the wrist-bones with the bones of the
+                 forearm. H, I, K, L, M, _metacarpal_ bones of thumb
+                 and fingers.
+
+  65    138    View of the superficial muscles on the palmar
+                 aspect of the forearm and hand. A, the _radial
+                 flexor_ of the wrist. B, the _long palmar_ muscle.
+                 C, the _ulnar flexor_ of the wrist. D, the muscles
+                 of the “ball of the thumb.” E, the _long supinator_
+                 muscle. F, the _long pronator_. G, the
+                 lower part of the _biceps_ muscle. H, Cross _ligaments_
+                 binding the tendons in their places. (This
+                 and the two following figures are from Quain’s
+                 _Anatomy_.)
+
+  66    138    View of the deep muscles and tendons on the
+                 palmar aspects of the forearm and hand. A, the
+                 _long flexor_ of the thumb. B, some of the _flexors_
+                 of the fingers. C, the _Adductor_ muscle of the
+                 thumb.
+
+  67    139    The _extensor_ muscles and tendons of the wrist,
+                 thumb, and fingers seen on the back of the
+                 forearm and hand. A, A, A, the _abductors_ and
+                 _adductors_ of the fingers. B, B, the cross _ligament_
+                 which binds the tendons in their places.
+
+  68    146    Hand holding a cricket-ball, showing that the tips
+                 of the fingers and the thumb all reach the same
+                 level.
+
+  69    152    Diagram showing the distribution of the _median_ (A)
+                 and _ulnar_ (B) _nerves_ in the hand.
+
+  70    165    Drawing of a magnified section through the skin of
+                 the palmar surface of the thumb, including three
+                 of the ridges seen on that surface. _a_, the outer
+                 or horny layer of the _cuticle_; _b_, the deeper layer
+                 of the same called “_rete mucosum_;” _c_, _c_, _c_, the
+                 _cutis_, with _papillæ_ rising from its surface beneath
+                 the ridges and projecting into the rete mucosum;
+                 _g_, _g_, grains of _fat_ lying in the deeper part of the
+                 cutis and in the tissue beneath it. Between _f_
+                 and _f_ are three _sweat-glands_, each composed of a
+                 tube rolled up into a ball or knot. The tubes (_h_, _h_)
+                 are seen ascending from them through the cutis
+                 and cuticle, and opening at the tops of the ridges.
+                 (From Kölliker’s _Mikroskopishe Anatomie_.)
+
+  71    170    Section of skin still more magnified. _a_, Outer or
+                 horny stratum of cuticle; _b_, inner stratum of cuticle,
+                 or “rete mucosum;” _c_, papillary stratum of
+                 cutis; _d_, deeper or fibrous stratum of cutis. The
+                 curling tube rolled into a ball at the lower part
+                 is the sweat-gland. Its duct is seen ascending
+                 through the fibrous structure of the cutis, and
+                 presents the coiled appearance of a rope as it
+                 traverses the cuticle.
+
+  72    170    A few layers of the cuticle and rete mucosum of
+                 a Negro, showing the spots of dark pigment in
+                 the rete which give the black colour to the
+                 Negro’s skin. (This and the preceding from
+                 Todd and Bowman’s _Phys. Anatomy_.)
+
+  73    170    Section of a Corn and adjacent skin. _a_, the _cuticle_;
+                 _c_, the _cutis_ with its _papillæ_. The cuticle is seen
+                 to be very thick, and the papillæ are somewhat
+                 enlarged in the corn.
+
+  74    170    Section of a Wart and adjacent skin. _a_, _cuticle_;
+                 _c_, the _cutis_ with its _papillæ_. The latter are seen
+                 to be enlarged, or “hypertrophied,” in the wart.
+
+  75    174    Vertical section, made lengthways, of a Nail raised
+                 from its bed, showing its connexion with the
+                 cuticle. _a_, _a_, _cuticle_; _d_, _d_, _nail_.
+
+  76    174    Similar section of a Nail lying in its bed of cutis.
+                 _a_, _cuticle_; _b_, _rete mucosum_; _c_, _cutis_; _d_, _nail_.
+
+  77    174    Section of the Cutis from which the nail, the cuticle,
+                 and the rete have been removed.
+
+  78    176    Transverse section of the Nail and Skin, made vertically.
+                 _a_, _a_, _cuticle_; _b_, _rete_; _c_, _c_, _cutis_; _d_, _d_,
+                 lines running through the cutis to the _papillæ_;
+                 _e_, _e_, _e_, lines running through the nail to the rete.
+                 (This and the three preceding from Kölliker.)
+
+  79    179    Section of a Hair and Hair-follicle. _a_ and _b_, the
+                 _cuticle_ and _rete_ lining the follicle. _e_, the outer
+                 layer, or rind, of the hair formed by closely-plaited
+                 scales of cuticle continued upon it from
+                 the bottom of the follicle _d_.
+
+  80    179    Piece of the exterior of a Hair more highly magnified
+                 to show the imbricated arrangement of the
+                 plates or scales forming its outer surface.
+
+  81,82 179    Transverse sections of Hairs. (These and two preceding
+                 from Todd and Bowman.)
+
+  83    181    Section of a Hair-follicle containing a Hair, and
+                 with two Oil-glands, _g_, _g_, lying near it, and with
+                 their ducts opening into it. _a_ and _b_, cuticle and
+                 rete; _d_, bottom of follicle. (From Kölliker.)
+
+  84    187    The terminal Bone of a finger, with a portion of the
+                 bone next it, showing the nodulated bulbous end
+                 of the former.
+
+
+CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
+
+
+
+
+_By the same Author._
+
+
+I.
+
+A TREATISE ON THE HUMAN SKELETON,
+
+(INCLUDING THE JOINTS),
+
+_With Two Hundred and Sixty Illustrations drawn from Nature._
+
+Medium 8vo. cloth, price £1. 8_s._
+
+
+II.
+
+AN ESSAY ON THE LIMBS OF VERTEBRATE ANIMALS.
+
+4to. sewed, 5_s._
+
+
+III.
+
+ON THE COAGULATION OF THE BLOOD IN THE VENOUS SYSTEM DURING LIFE.
+
+8vo. sewed, 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75360 ***
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+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75360 ***</div>
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<p><b><a id="Transcribers_notes"></a>Transcriber’s notes</b>:</p>
+
+<p>The text of this eBook has been preserved as in the original, but
+footnotes have been numbered consecutively, hyperlinked, and moved to
+the end of the book. Hyperlinks have also been applied to the table of
+contents, to cross references, and to the author’s descriptions of the
+numerous images, located at the end of the book.</p>
+
+<p>New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the
+public domain.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="titlepage">
+<h1><span class="t1">THE HUMAN FOOT</span>
+
+<span class="t2">AND THE</span>
+
+<span class="t1">HUMAN HAND.</span></h1>
+
+<div class="tp1">BY</div>
+
+<div class="tp2">G. M. HUMPHRY, M.D. F.R.S.</div>
+
+<div class="tp3">LECTURER ON ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY IN THE<br>
+UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.</div>
+
+<div class="tp4">MACMILLAN AND CO.</div>
+<div class="tp5">Cambridge:</div>
+<div class="tp6">AND 23, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN,</div>
+<div class="tp5">London.</div>
+<div class="tp7">1861.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="tac fs120 ti0">Cambridge:</p>
+
+<p class="tac ti0 ls01em ws05em">PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A.<br>
+AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">Pg v</span></p>
+
+<p class="intro"> The following pages originated in two
+popular Lectures which were delivered in
+Cambridge. In the preparation for publication
+many additions have been made; but I
+have thought it best to retain the original
+form.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="tac ti0 fs110 mt2em">THE HUMAN FOOT.</p>
+
+<div class="fs90">
+<p>Why are the generality of persons so ignorant of the structure
+of their own bodies? p. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>. The dependence of the hand
+upon the foot, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>. Principle of “division of Labour” illustrated
+in the animal world, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>; and in the function of locomotion, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Structure of Lower Limb, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>. Length of Leg in <span class="smcap">Giants</span>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.
+Bones of Foot, <i>ib.</i> Peculiarity of <span class="smcap">Great Toe</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>. Uniformity
+in plan, and dissimilarity in detail seen throughout nature, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.
+Homologous parts in animals, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>. Comparison of Horse’s Leg
+with Man’s, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>. The <span class="smcap">Arch</span> of the foot, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>; its elasticity greater
+in the fore part than in the hinder, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>. The Component bones
+held together by Ligaments, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>. <span class="smcap">Weak Ankle</span> and <span class="smcap">Flat Foot</span>,
+<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; time of life at which they occur, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>. Injurious effects
+of “High-lows,” <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Movements of the <span class="smcap">Foot</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>; compared with those of the
+<span class="smcap">Head</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>. Nature’s abhorrence of straight lines illustrated by
+shape of leg-bone, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, and by movements of leg upon thigh, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.
+Sitting upon the heel, <i>ib.</i> Grecian and Egyptian statuary compared,
+<a href="#Page_40">40</a>. Relation of <span class="smcap">Perfection</span> and <span class="smcap">Beauty</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Muscles</span> of Leg and Foot, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>. Purpose served by movements
+of Infants, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>. <span class="smcap">Club-foot</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>. Shape of the ankle, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>. Length
+and direction of the heel, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>. The <span class="smcap">Calf</span>, <i>ib.</i>; characteristic
+of man, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>. <span class="smcap">European</span> Leg and Foot contrasted with <span class="smcap">Negro’s</span>,
+<a href="#Page_51">51</a>. <span class="smcap">Chinese</span> foot, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>. Tendency of different races to exaggerate
+their peculiarities, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>. Provision for enabling balls of toes to
+adapt themselves to uneven surfaces, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Standing</span>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>. <span class="smcap">Bowing</span>, <span class="smcap">Stooping</span> and <span class="smcap">Squatting</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.
+<span class="smcap">Walking</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>. <span class="smcap">Running</span>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>. <span class="smcap">Trotting</span> and <span class="smcap">Galloping</span>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.
+Rolling in walking, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>. Sprained ankle, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>. Mode in which
+foot revolves on the ground, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>. Character shown in walking,
+<a href="#Page_76">76</a>. The <span class="smcap">Idiot</span>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>. The <span class="smcap">Drunkard</span>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Distinctive features of the Human Foot, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>; most marked in
+highest races, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>. The <span class="smcap">Toes</span> of small size and, comparatively,
+unimportant, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>. The foot of the <span class="smcap">Elephant</span>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>; of the <span class="smcap">Hippopotamus</span>,
+<span class="smcap">Rhinoceros</span>, <span class="smcap">Ox</span>, and <span class="smcap">Horse</span>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>; of the <span class="smcap">Gorilla</span>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.
+Proportions of the limbs, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>. Foot and hand small in very short
+and very tall persons, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>. The foot measure, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Skin</span> of the sole, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>. On <span class="smcap">Shoes</span>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="tac ti0 fs110 mt2em">THE HUMAN HAND.</p>
+
+<div class="fs90">
+<p><span class="smcap">Hand</span> how distinguished from <span class="smcap">Foot</span>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>. Construction of
+Upper limb, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>. Small bones rarely dislocated, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Movements at <span class="smcap">Shoulder</span> very free, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>; conducive to good
+development of Chest, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>. Uses of <span class="smcap">Collar-bone</span>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>. Injuries
+to Shoulder why so frequent, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>. Shape of <span class="smcap">Chest</span>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;
+in Rhinoceros, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>; in Monkey, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Movements at the <span class="smcap">Elbow</span>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>. <span class="smcap">Pronation</span> and <span class="smcap">Supination</span>
+of the forearm and hand, <i>ib.</i> No exactly corresponding movements<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span>
+in lower limb, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>. <span class="smcap">Muscles</span> by which they are effected,
+<a href="#Page_130">130</a>. Anatomical reason for the direction in which we turn a
+screw or a gimlet, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Structure and movements of the <span class="smcap">Wrist</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>. Movements
+of the <span class="smcap">Fingers</span>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>. <span class="smcap">Muscles</span> by which they are effected, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.
+<span class="smcap">Movements</span> of the <span class="smcap">Thumb</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>; of the metacarpal bones upon
+the wrist, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>. Advantage gained by the fingers and thumb all
+differing in length, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>. Middle finger the centre about which
+the others move, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>. On holding the <span class="smcap">Pen</span>, <i>ib.</i> The direction
+in which the letters are slanted, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>. <span class="smcap">Writing</span> from left to right,
+<a href="#Page_149">149</a>. Reason for the <span class="lowercase smcap">RING</span> being placed upon the fourth finger,
+<a href="#Page_150">150</a>. The “funny-bone,” <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Monkey’s Hand</span>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The hand the organ of the <span class="smcap">Will</span>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>; its relation to the
+<span class="smcap">Mind</span>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>; an organ of <span class="smcap">Expression</span>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>. <span class="smcap">Shaking hands</span>,
+<a href="#Page_162">162</a>. Why do we shake hands? <a href="#Page_162">162</a>. Why do we <span class="smcap">Kiss</span>? <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Structure of the <span class="smcap">Skin</span>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>. The Cuticle, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>; its uses, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.
+The Rete Mucosum, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>. Cause of the colour of the Skin, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.
+The Cutis, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>. Difference between a <span class="smcap">Wart</span> and a <span class="smcap">Corn</span>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.
+How to cut Corns, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nails</span>; their formation and growth, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>. Claws in lower
+animals, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>. Sensitiveness of the Skin beneath the nails,
+<a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hairs</span>; their formation, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>; colour, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>; uses, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oil-Glands</span>; their uses, the odour of their secretion, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sweat-Glands</span>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>; their structure, <i>ib.</i> The “Pores” of
+the Skin, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>. The moisture of the palm, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>. Cold Sweat,
+<i>ib.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Feeling</span> and <span class="smcap">Touch</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>. Structure of the three parts in
+which they are most acute, <i>ib.</i> The “Pulps” of the fingers
+connected with peculiar shape of the bones, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>; their sensitiveness
+to cold, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>. Distinction between Common Feeling and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span>
+the Sense of Touch, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>. Relation between the two in the
+Tongue, the Eye and the Hand, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>. The tentacle of a Polyp
+a rudimentary hand, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>. Acuteness of touch in man, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;
+in <span class="smcap">Blind</span> persons, <i>ib.</i></p>
+
+<p>Relation of the hand to the <span class="smcap">Eye</span> and the <span class="smcap">Mouth</span>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>. The
+Elephant’s Trunk, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>. <span class="smcap">Cheiromancy</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>. The <span class="smcap">Lock-jaw</span>
+fallacy, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>. Cause of the superiority of the <span class="smcap">Right Hand</span>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.
+“This unworthy hand!” <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Explanation of Wood-cuts, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_HUMAN_FOOT">THE HUMAN FOOT.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="dropcap">THE Human Body is one of the most worthy
+objects of man’s study. It is the noblest as
+well as the crowning work of creation. In it
+material organization is carried to the greatest
+perfection. It surpasses, therefore, all other physical
+objects in exquisiteness of construction and
+in interest. How comes it, then, that most persons
+are so ignorant respecting it? Men, well
+informed in other matters, are usually altogether
+uninformed with regard to this. In every other
+branch of science we find amateur students pursuing
+the subject with zeal and success. Geology,
+Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, and even Comparative
+Anatomy have each their votaries; but
+Human Anatomy attracts no one. Why is this?
+Partly, I think, because opportunities for acquiring<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span>
+such information as is suitable and interesting
+are not so many as they ought to be.</p>
+
+<p>It must be confessed, also, that we teachers of
+Anatomy are somewhat to blame. We are too
+prone, in our Lectures and Examinations, to dwell
+upon bare details, without enlivening those details
+with the many bright features of interest with
+which they are naturally invested; and we fail,
+therefore, to render it so attractive a science as it
+might be. The example of those able and animated
+teachers, John and Charles Bell, who laboured
+with some success to disperse the clouds that
+have ever overhung the horizon of anatomy, has
+been too much forgotten; and the flame which
+they kindled has almost died out under the chilling
+apathy of their successors. Truly glad should
+I be to see a change in this. I cannot but think
+that if the teachers of Anatomy took higher
+and more philosophical views of their science
+there would be no lack of interest on the part
+of the students. The interest so excited would
+soon spread beyond the limits of the profession;
+and there would thus be opened up to the public
+some of the products of that rich vein of knowledge
+and of that abundant material for thought
+which lie buried in the human frame.</p>
+
+<p>I therefore willingly accede to your request for
+a Lecture upon some part of the anatomy of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span>
+human body, relying upon the intrinsic interest of
+the subject to make amends for my own deficiencies
+in expounding it; and I select the <span class="smcap">Human Foot</span>,
+because a few of the more important points of its
+construction can be explained without much difficulty,
+because it affords a good illustration of
+some of the principles of animal mechanism, and
+because its form constitutes one of the great
+characteristics whereby man is distinguished from
+the lower animals. As an instrument of support
+and of locomotion it excels the foot of any other
+animal. It evinces its excellence by enabling
+man to stand upright in a way that no other
+animal can do; and so efficiently does the foot
+accomplish this and perform the task of carrying
+the body, that the hand is set at liberty to
+minister to the will. Thus is the foot instrumental
+in giving us an advantage over other animals,
+and in enabling us to provide the means of defence;
+and, thus, it aids us to carry out those
+wondrous works which are second only to the
+marvellous results of creative power.</p>
+
+<p>We are accustomed to regard the hand as the
+great agent by which all this is attained, and
+we are apt to forget how much it is indebted
+to the foot. We do not reflect that, if the foot
+of man presented no distinguishing peculiarity,
+the hand, like the corresponding part in other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span>
+animals, would be compelled to share with it
+the task of carrying the body, and could, therefore,
+not be devoted to the various offices which
+it is now free to perform. Little right has the
+hand to say to the foot, “I have no need of thee.”</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>The principle of “division of labour.”</i></h3>
+
+<p>In this concentration of locomotive power in
+the foot we have an illustration of what is called
+the “principle of division of labour,” a principle
+with which all civilized communities are familiar,
+and to which we are much indebted for the present
+advanced state of the arts and sciences; but
+which we may be said to have borrowed from the
+economy of nature. We find ever-increasing manifestations
+of it as we ascend in the animal series,
+from the lower and more simple to the higher and
+more complicated forms. Indeed, just as each step
+in civilization is attended with a further development
+of this principle, so is each division of the
+animal kingdom distinguished from those below
+it by the more distinct assignation of particular
+functions to particular organs, and by the consequent
+improvement of the mode in which the
+functions are performed. While, in proportion as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span>
+the several organs acquire more distinct speciality
+in their work, so do they become, more and more,
+dependent upon one another, and, more and
+more, subjected to the control of central government,
+which is represented by the brain.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, some of the lower animals, as
+the fresh-water <span class="smcap">Polyp</span>, present nearly a uniform
+structure throughout their whole substance; and
+every part of them consequently performs the same
+function. There is not one organ for digestion,
+another for circulation, a third for respiration, and
+so on; but all these functions are performed by
+the same structure, and are performed, therefore,
+in a rude and imperfect manner. Any portion
+of the creature possesses all the requisites for its
+own nutrition, and is, so, independent of the remainder,
+and can live alone. Hence, the polyp
+may be divided into a number of pieces, each
+of which goes on living. Gradually, as we ascend
+from these lowly beings to the higher classes of
+animals, we find organs and functions more and
+more distinct from another; a Stomach is provided
+for the work of digestion, a Heart for circulation,
+Lungs for respiration. Each of these
+organs is essential to the existence of the others
+and of every part of the body; and they are
+all maintained in harmonious co-operation by
+the presiding influence of the nervous system.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span></p>
+
+<p>Or, trace one of the <i>functions</i> in illustration
+of the same principle. Take the function of Locomotion,
+which has an especial relation to our
+present subject. In the <span class="smcap">Leech</span> and the <span class="smcap">Worm</span>
+the whole length of the body is occupied in the
+work, one part as much as another; and still, it
+is but a crawl. In the <span class="smcap">Fish</span> the whole body
+is buoyed up by the water; it is flattened from
+side to side, and is all, from the head to the
+tail, concerned in the lateral stroke by which the
+animal is driven along; the side fins, which are
+the representatives of limbs, doing little beyond
+serving to guide and balance. In the other <span class="smcap">Vertebrates</span>
+the work of locomotion is so far concentrated
+as to be assigned, almost entirely, to
+the limbs. All <i>four</i> limbs are in most of them
+devoted to it; while the bones and muscles of
+the trunk are only indirectly concerned in it.
+In <span class="smcap">Man</span>, however, <i>two</i> limbs only are assigned
+to this important office. In him, therefore, the
+concentration of locomotive power, in other words
+the principle of division of labour, is carried out
+to the greatest extent—a disposition which affords
+one of the many proofs that the construction of
+his body combines with the faculties of his
+mind to place him at the head of the animal
+kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>In making comparisons of different animals<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span>
+with one another, and in speaking of the relative
+perfection of their several organs, we must
+not forget that <i>every</i> organ of every animal is
+perfect as regards the purpose for which it was
+made. But some animals are said to occupy a
+higher position than others, or to be superior to
+others, because their mechanism is more complex,
+and they are, thereby, enabled to perform
+a greater variety of functions. And, in the animal
+kingdom, in proportion as each function rises
+into prominence, and becomes well and distinctly
+performed, so is a special organ assigned to it,
+and that organ becomes more and more highly
+elaborated.</p>
+
+<p>You will not misunderstand me, then, when
+I say that concentration of function and perfection
+of structure usually go together. And, forasmuch
+as in the lower limbs of man there is a
+greater concentration of locomotive function than
+in any other part of any other animal, you will
+expect to find, in them, a greater perfection of
+locomotive mechanism—that is to say, a more
+complete combination of strength with variety,
+rapidity, and extent of movement—than is elsewhere
+to be met with.</p>
+
+<p>This consideration will ensure attention while
+I give a brief account of the anatomy of man’s
+lower limb, more particularly of the foot.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Structure of the Lower Limbs.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The weight of the trunk is transmitted to the
+knee (see fig. <a href="#f04">4</a>, p. 15) by a single bone—the thigh-bone.
+This is the longest bone in the body, measuring,
+on the average, nearly eighteen inches.
+Above, it is jointed with the haunch-bone of the
+pelvis at the hip-joint. From the knee two bones
+descend to the ankle. Of these one is much the
+larger, and bears the chief of the weight. The
+other serves to give attachment to muscles, and to
+strengthen the ankle-joint. It runs down on the
+outer side of the ankle, forming there what is
+called the “outer ankle;” and a process of the
+larger bone runs down, in like manner, on the
+inner side, and forms the “inner ankle.” The
+front and inner side of the larger bone are close
+under the skin. This part is called the “<i>shin</i>,”
+being so named perhaps from the word “chine”
+or edge, because the leg presents an edge along
+the front, to facilitate its cleaving a way through
+the air, water, grass, or underwood. The shin
+itself is not particularly tender; but the skin is a
+good deal exposed here, and, as it lies so near the
+hard bone, it is easily injured; and, when “broken,”
+it is often difficult to heal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span></p>
+
+<p>In some very tall persons, and particularly in
+those who are so tall as to be called <span class="smcap">Giants</span>, I
+have found the leg or shank bones, that is, the
+bones between the knee and the ankle, very long,
+disproportionately long to the rest of the skeleton.
+They are so in the skeleton of the Irish Giant,
+O’Byrne, which is preserved in the Museum of the
+College of Surgeons, in another Irish Giant in the
+Museum of Trinity College, Dublin, and in some
+other specimens which I have had an opportunity
+of measuring. In the name “Long Shanks” given
+to Edward I., the word “shanks” probably included
+the thigh as well as the leg, just as we are in the
+habit of applying the word “leg” to the whole of
+the lower limb.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Bones of the Foot.</i></h3>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="f01" style="max-width: 16.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f01.jpg" alt="Bones of the foot">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_01">1</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>There are 26 bones in the Foot. The hinder
+7—called <i>tarsal</i> bones—are short and thick; they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span>
+form the hinder part of the instep. In front of
+them lie 5 <i>metatarsal</i> bones, one passing, forwards,
+from the fore part of the tarsus to each toe. Behind,
+these are close together, and are connected
+with the tarsus. As they run forwards they diverge
+a little from one another; and their anterior
+ends rest upon the ground, and form the “balls”
+of the toes. They constitute the fore part of the
+instep. The remaining 14 bones are the toes.
+They are arranged in rows, like soldiers in a phalanx,
+three deep, and are hence called <i>phalanges</i>.</p>
+
+<p>You observe that, although each of the other
+toes has 3 bones, the great toe has only 2. In this
+respect, therefore, it is an imperfect, or, rather, an
+incomplete member. The deficiency does not depend
+upon a want of length in the great toe; for
+this is usually as long as the second toe; in some
+persons it is a good deal longer; and it is always
+distinctly longer than the outer two toes. The
+reason for there being only two phalanges instead
+of three probably is because the great toe is required
+to be stronger than any of the others; and
+an additional bone would have tended to weaken
+it. I have, elsewhere‍<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a>, given reasons for thinking
+that it is the middle phalanx which is absent in
+the great toe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span></p>
+<div class="figcontainer">
+<div class="figsub">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f02" style="max-width: 10.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f02.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_02">2</a>.<br>Seal’s Foot.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="figsub">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f03" style="max-width: 12em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f03.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_03">3</a>.<br>Lizard’s Foot</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is a curious and interesting fact, affording a
+remarkable illustration of the close adherence to a
+uniform plan which has been observed in the construction
+of the various animals, that, in no instance,
+does this toe contain more than two bones.
+Even in those creatures, as the <span class="smcap">Seal</span> (fig. 2), in which
+it attains to greater length than any of the other
+sprawling digits, it contains the same number of
+bones as in man, its extraordinary length being
+attained by an elongation of the two bones, not by
+the addition of a third. And in those animals, as
+certain Lizards (fig. 3), where the number of bones
+in the other toes is increased to 4 or even 5, the
+number in the first, or inner, toe is still no more
+than two. The same rule applies to the fore limb;
+the number of bones in the inner digit, which, in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span>
+man and monkeys, is called the “thumb,” is in no
+case more than two. In some animals, as will be
+mentioned again, there is only one bone in this
+digit, and in some the digit is wanting altogether;
+but in none does it contain <i>more</i> than <i>two</i> bones.</p>
+
+<p>This reminds me of a still more remarkable instance
+of adherence to a particular number of bones.
+In the mammalian group of animals the <i>neck</i>, with
+only one or two exceptions, contains <i>seven</i> bones,
+neither more nor less. Whether it be the long
+neck of the <span class="smcap">Giraffe</span>, or the short neck of the
+<span class="smcap">Mouse</span>, the <span class="smcap">Bat</span>, or the <span class="smcap">Porpoise</span>, each consists,
+like the neck in <span class="smcap">Man</span>, of seven bones. For what
+reason a particular number should be thus rigidly
+observed, it is not easy to say.</p>
+
+<p>Of the seven tarsal bones the uppermost (fig. <a href="#f01">1</a>)
+is called the <i>astragalus</i>, from a supposed resemblance
+to a die. It is the middle bone of the
+instep. Above, it is jointed with the leg-bones;
+behind, it is connected with, and rests upon, the
+<i>heel-bone</i>, which is the largest bone in the foot.
+The bone which lies immediately in front of the
+astragalus, and supports it in this direction, is
+called the <i>scaphoid</i>, or boat-like, bone. In front of
+it are three <i>wedge-bones</i>, each of which is connected
+with one of the metatarsal bones of the inner
+three toes. On the outer side of the wedge-bones,
+connected with the metatarsals of the two small<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span>
+toes, and locked in between them and the heel-bone,
+is the <i>cuboid</i> bone.</p>
+
+<p>I must confine my remarks chiefly to the <i>human</i>
+foot. Still the anatomy of man derives so
+much interest from being studied in connexion
+with that of the lower animals, and is so much
+more instructive when this is done, that I cannot
+forbear diverging, here and there, to make a few
+comparisons. Let me, for a moment, draw your
+attention to a similarity, in general construction,
+which exists between the lower limbs of man, and
+the hinder limbs of other animals. And the comparison
+may be extended to the fore limbs; for
+however diverse may be the appearance and the
+mode of action of the limbs in different animals,
+whether they be terminated by hands or by feet,
+whether they move upon the ground or ply in air
+or water, whether they be attached to the head,
+as are the front fins in many fishes, or, as is more
+common, be situated at the fore and hinder parts
+of the trunk, the same plan is traceable in all.</p>
+
+<p>Great, indeed, is the variety of detail in nature.
+It is everywhere observable. No two things,
+however near their resemblance, are precisely
+alike. Yet, as I have before said, there is a remarkable
+adherence to unity of plan. One star
+differs from another star in glory, yet all appear
+fashioned in the same manner, and subject to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span>
+same laws. There are almost infinite varieties in
+the vertebrate kingdom. Each animal exhibits
+its own peculiarities; yet they are all formed
+in the same manner, and are developed upon
+one fundamental pattern, diverging from it in
+different ways according to the requirements of
+each. Again, though the several parts of the same
+animal differ from one another; yet in the skeleton
+the same bones which exist in one part may,
+as a general rule, be traced in other parts and in
+other animals. The bones which make up the pelvis
+in man are repeated in his shoulder, and, even,
+in his skull; and they may be recognised in the
+pelvis, in the shoulder, and in the skull, of all other
+vertebrate animals, with few exceptions. They undergo,
+it is true, great varieties in shape and size;
+but they can be shown to be the same, or, in the
+language of anatomists, to be “homologous.” It
+is highly interesting to the anatomist to trace
+the same bone through the different parts of the
+same animal, and through the various animals of
+the vertebrate series, and to observe the modifications
+which it undergoes in order to adapt it to
+the multiform mechanism of the several classes,
+to observe it sometimes dwindling, or even vanishing,
+and then, it may be, reappearing under some
+new conditions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcontainer">
+<div class="figsub">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f04" style="max-width: 5.3125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f04.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_04">4</a>.<br>Human Leg</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="figsub">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f05" style="max-width: 8.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f05.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_05">5</a>.<br>Horse’s Leg</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>I must, however, resist the temptation to wander<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span>
+into this attractive field. It will suffice to
+take an illustration by a comparison of the bones
+of the human lower limb with those of the hind
+limb of the Horse. This may be easily done by
+the aid of these drawings (figs. 4> and 5) in which
+the two limbs are placed side by side, and the corresponding
+bones are marked with the same letters.
+Notwithstanding the many points of difference
+the same plan will be recognised in each.
+There is in each the thigh(<span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>), the leg(<span class="lowercase smcap">E</span>), and the
+foot, with the tarsal and metatarsal(<span class="lowercase smcap">G</span>) bones, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span>
+the phalanges(<span class="lowercase smcap">H</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">I</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">K</span>). But in the <span class="smcap">Horse</span> two of
+the digits (the marginal ones, that is, the great toe
+and the little toe) are wanting, two are rudimentary,
+and the remaining one, which corresponds with
+the middle toe of man, in length, size, and strength,
+more than makes amends for the deficiency of the
+others. The lowermost bone, or terminal phalanx,
+of this huge toe, called the <i>coffin-bone</i>(<span class="lowercase smcap">K</span>), is encased
+in the hoof, which corresponds with the
+human nail, and is the only part of the foot that
+rests upon the ground.</p>
+
+<p>In <span class="smcap">Man</span> the whole weight of the body has to
+be borne upon <i>two</i> feet; often it is balanced upon
+<i>one</i>. The foot is, consequently, spread out; and
+all the bones, from the heel to the tips of the
+toes, are made to form the basis of support upon
+the ground. The <span class="smcap">Horse</span>, on the contrary, having
+no hands, but <i>four</i> feet, does not require so great
+breadth in each foot; and the opportunity is
+taken to narrow the foot, and to lengthen it
+so as to give fleetness. The end is attained by
+suppressing some of the toes, by elongating
+one far beyond the others, and enduing it with
+such strength as to enable it to carry the requisite
+weight upon the tip of the last phalanx.
+The heel(<span class="lowercase smcap">F</span>) is raised high above the ground and
+becomes the “hock.” To speak of a horse <i>kicking
+with his heels</i> is, therefore, about as correct as to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span>
+say, that he <i>breaks his knees</i>. His knee, as you
+perceive by the position of the “knee-cap”(<span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>), is
+high up in the hind limb, near his body, quite
+out of harm’s way in a fall. The fact is, that he
+kicks with his <i>toes</i>; and, when he falls, he cuts the
+skin over the part in his <i>fore</i> limbs, which corresponds
+with the back of our <i>wrists</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the upper segment, or thigh, the difference
+between the two limbs is seen to be, to a certain
+extent, the reverse of what it is below. That is
+to say, whereas, in the <span class="smcap">Horse</span>, the <i>toe</i> is elongated
+and thickened, so as greatly to exceed the corresponding
+part of the human limb; in <span class="smcap">Man</span> the
+<i>thigh-bone</i> is elongated, so as to be double the
+length of that of the horse; the thigh-bone in man
+is also placed more vertically, nearly in the plane
+of gravity of the trunk. The horse’s thigh-bone
+slants forwards and outwards, which gives the muscles
+great power by causing them to run more at
+right angles between their points of attachment;
+and this arrangement increases the strength of the
+animal in drawing weights, and facilitates springing.
+A man cannot spring without first bending
+the limbs a little; whereas a horse, or a goat, can
+spring, at once, from the position in which it is
+standing.</p>
+
+<p>To revert to the anatomy of the Human Foot.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>The Arch of the Foot.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The seven tarsal and the five metatarsal bones—that
+is, the twelve bones of the instep—are arranged
+and jointed together so as to form an arch
+from the point of the heel to the balls of the toes.
+This is called the “plantar arch,” from the Latin
+word <i>planta</i>, the sole of the foot. The <i>astragalus</i>
+forms the summit, or key-bone, of the arch. It
+receives the weight from the leg, and transmits it,
+through the hinder pillar of the arch, to the heel,
+and, through the front pillar of the arch, to the
+balls of the toes.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f06" style="max-width: 23.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f06.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_06">6</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The drawing represents a section, from behind
+forwards, of the lower end of the leg-bone, and of
+the bones lying along the inner side of the plantar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span>
+arch. Behind it extends through the heel-bone,
+and in front through the great toe. It exhibits
+the arrangement of the fibres and plates in the
+interior of the bones, and shows that the greater
+number of them, in each bone, follow the direction
+of the two pillars of the arch; that is to say, they
+descend from the summit of the arch where it
+supports the leg-bone, backwards and downwards,
+to the heel, and, forwards and downwards, to the
+balls of the toes. Their arrangement is, therefore,
+such as to give resisting strength to the bones in
+the directions in which it is most required.</p>
+
+<p>You may think that the arch of the foot would
+have been a much simpler structure, as well as
+stronger, if it had been composed of one bone instead
+of several. But it must be remembered that
+it would, then, have been liable to be cracked and
+broken by the sudden and violent manner in which,
+during running and jumping, the weight of the
+body is thrown upon it. Moreover, the several
+bones, where they touch one another, are covered
+with a tolerably thick layer of highly elastic gristle
+or cartilage (represented by the clear line left in
+the drawing along the contiguous edges of the
+bones); and this provision, together with the slight
+movements which take place between these bones,
+gives an elasticity to the foot and to the step, and
+serves to break the jars and shocks which are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span>
+caused by the sudden contact of the foot with the
+ground.</p>
+
+<p>This last is a very important point; and we find
+numerous contrivances in different parts of the
+body to protect the brain and other delicate organs
+from jars. So efficient are these contrivances,
+and so exact is the adaptation of the mechanism
+of the limbs and the trunk to the texture of the
+internal organs, that, while these are in a healthy
+state, we are able to run, to jump, and to leap
+from a considerable height, without inconvenience.
+But, if the organs be inflamed, or if the nervous
+system be over sensitive, as in common headache,
+the provisions, which are calculated for the normal
+state, are insufficient; ordinary movements are
+then painful, and to jump is intolerable.</p>
+
+<p>The muscles play a very essential part in this
+work. <i>First</i>, they place the limbs in the most favourable
+position. Thus, when we alight upon the
+ground, from a height, we always contrive to do so
+with the knees and hips a little bent, so that the
+limbs readily yield at the joints, and act as springs
+to break the jar. Elderly persons commonly keep
+the limbs bent, even when walking quietly along.
+They do this because they need all the benefit which
+position will afford to make amends for the loss of
+elasticity consequent on the thinning and drying
+of the cartilages, and other changes that take place<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span>
+in the body with advancing years. <i>Secondly</i>, the
+muscles brace the limbs and joints in the position
+in which they have placed them. We experience
+the effect of the want of this salutary influence
+when we kick against an unseen object, or fall
+suddenly, or receive any blow or shock for which
+we are unprepared. How disagreeable, to say the
+least, it is to make the step for an additional stair
+when we have arrived at the top of a staircase, or,
+still worse, to meet with an unseen stair when we
+think that we have got to the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>You perceive from the drawing (fig. <a href="#f06">6</a>) that
+there is a great difference between the two pillars
+of the plantar arch. The hinder pillar is comparatively
+short, and narrow, and descends suddenly,
+almost in a vertical direction, from the ankle, to
+the ground; and it is composed of only one bone—the
+heel-bone—which is jointed directly with the
+astragalus: whereas the fore pillar is longer and
+broader, is composed of several bones jointed together,
+and slopes much more gradually to the
+ground. There is, therefore, far less elasticity in
+the hinder part of the foot than in the fore part.
+Hence, when we descend from a height upon the
+ground, we always alight upon the balls of the
+toes, and thus gain the advantage which the several
+bones and joints afford in breaking the shock.
+If, after going up stairs this evening, you take the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span>
+trouble to come down again, you will find that
+you alight upon each stair on the balls of the toes
+and experience no inconvenience, however quickly
+the descent is made. But, if you change the mode
+of proceeding, and descend upon the heels, the
+feeling will be by no means agreeable; and the
+various organs of the body, being disturbed from
+their accustomed repose, will raise such remonstrances
+against your infringement upon nature’s
+ways, that you will scarcely be able to continue
+the experiment. Proportionately more distressing
+is the sensation caused by jumping from a chair
+upon the heels. Indeed, this is not done altogether
+without risk; and the trial of it is scarcely to be
+recommended to persons who have attained to that
+sober period of life at which we are willing to concede
+that, in some things, nature is wiser than
+ourselves. Only a short time since I saw a gentleman,
+who, in jumping down some steps into a
+back yard, accidentally came upon his heels, and
+jarred one hip so severely that he was confined to
+his sofa for several days in consequence.</p>
+
+<p>But, you may say, “in walking we do place the
+heel upon the ground first and experience no inconvenience.”
+True, because the force with which
+the foot descends in walking is very slight; and
+the weight is directed upon the heel, obliquely, in
+such a manner as to bring the toes very quickly to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span>
+the ground, and really to throw nearly the whole
+force in that direction. Moreover, you may observe
+that when we walk, the weight of the body
+is partly sustained by the fore part of the one foot
+till the whole of the other foot is on the ground.
+I will, however, revert to the disposition of the
+feet in walking and running presently.</p>
+
+<p>The arch of the foot has to bear great weight
+and at great disadvantage; and there is very
+little in the <i>shape</i> of the bones to maintain its
+integrity. Indeed, they all fall asunder when the
+other structures are removed, the key-bone dropping
+through of its own weight. And the same
+thing may be remarked throughout the skeleton.
+Wherever two or more bones move upon one
+another, their surfaces are so constructed that
+they do not hold together without some assistance
+from the soft parts. There are joints in the
+body which we call “hinge-joints,” and others
+which we call “ball-and-socket joints;” but in
+none of them is there such a holding and locking
+of one part in the other as you have in the
+hinge and the ball-and-socket of the mechanic.
+In every case the bones are held together, not by
+their own shape, but by ligaments and muscles.
+Consequently, any one of the bones may be dislocated
+from those next it without breakage;
+and when the muscles and ligaments are cut<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span>
+through, or have been destroyed by maceration,
+all the bones, between which any movement was
+possible during life, separate from one another.</p>
+
+<p>Not only is this so, but in no instance are
+the movements of joints <i>limited</i> simply by the
+shape of the bones—that is to say, they are never
+brought to a stop by a part of one bone coming
+into contact with the edge of another. Such a
+contact would have caused a <i>sudden</i> check; and
+this would have been attended with more or less
+jar and with some danger of chipping and breaking
+the articular edges. The range of movement
+of a joint is always regulated by the ligaments
+or the muscles, not, directly, by the bones; and
+the restraint thus imposed upon the movements
+is brought to bear, not suddenly, but <i>gradually</i>;
+somewhat like the effect of the “break” upon a
+railway-train; while the cartilages between the
+bones may be compared with the “buffers” between
+the carriages.</p>
+
+<p>It is chiefly by means of strong <span class="smcap">Ligaments</span>,
+or sinewy bands, passing from bone to bone, that
+the shape of the plantar arch is maintained and
+the movements of the bones upon one another
+are regulated and limited. These ligaments are
+numerous; but I will mention only two.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f07" style="max-width: 23.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f07.jpg" alt="Side view of foot bones and main ligaments">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_07">7</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>One, the <i>Plantar Ligament</i> (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, fig. 7), of
+great strength, passes from the under surface of
+the heel-bone, near its extremity, forwards, to the
+ends of the metatarsal bones; in other words, it
+extends between the lowest points of the two
+pillars of the arch, girding, or holding, them in
+their places, and preventing their being thrust
+asunder when pressure is made upon the key-bone
+(<span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>); just as the “tie-beam” of a roof resists
+the tendency to outward yielding of the sides
+when weight is laid upon the summit. The ligament,
+however, has an advantage which no tie-beam
+can ever possess; inasmuch as a quantity
+of muscular fibres are attached along the hinder
+part of its upper surface. These instantly respond
+to any demand that is made upon them, being
+thrown into contraction directly the foot touches<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span>
+the ground; and the force of their contraction
+is proportionate to the degree of pressure which
+is made upon the foot. Thus they add a living,
+self-acting, self-regulating power to the passive
+resistance of the ligament. In addition to its
+office of binding the bones in their places, the
+ligament serves the further purpose of protecting
+from pressure the tender structures—the blood-vessels,
+nerves and muscles—that lie above it, in
+the hollow of the foot, under the shelter of the
+plantar arch.</p>
+
+<p>Another very strong ligament (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span> in the wood-cut)
+passes from the under and fore part of the
+heel-bone (<span class="lowercase smcap">F</span>) to the under part of the scaphoid
+bone (<span class="lowercase smcap">E</span>). It underlies and supports the round head
+of the astragalus, and has to bear a great deal of
+the weight which is transmitted to that bone from
+the leg. It does not derive the same assistance
+from a close connexion with muscular fibres as
+the ligament just described; but it possesses a
+quality, which that and most other ligaments do
+not have, viz. elasticity. This is very important, for
+it allows the head of the key-bone (<span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>) to descend
+a little, when pressure is made upon it, and forces
+it up again when the pressure is removed, and
+so gives very material assistance to the other
+provisions for preventing jars and for giving ease
+and elasticity to the step.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span></p>
+
+<p>A glance at the drawing will show you that
+here is a weak point in the foot. The head of
+the key-bone receives great weight from the leg,
+but is comparatively unsupported; and there is
+a considerable strain upon this part when the heel
+is being raised in walking. Moreover, a good deal
+of movement takes place between the key-bone
+(<span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>) and the scaphoid bone (<span class="lowercase smcap">E</span>), more than between
+any other two bones of the instep; and freedom
+in the range of movement is generally attended
+with some sacrifice of strength. The strong elastic
+ligament comes in therefore with peculiar advantage
+at this point; and it is underlaid, and additional
+support is afforded exactly when it is
+most required, by the tendon (b in fig. <a href="#f12">12</a>) of a
+strong muscle, the especial office of which is to
+assist in raising the heel and bending the instep,
+and which runs, from the back of the leg, behind
+the inner ankle, to the scaphoid bone.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Weak Ankle and Flat-foot.</i></h3>
+
+<p>In spite, however, of the thick elastic ligament
+and the strong tendon just mentioned, the
+joint between the astragalus or key-bone and the
+scaphoid bone still remains a weak point. The
+head of the key-bone, from being insufficiently
+supported or from being overweighted, is very apt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span>
+to descend a little below its proper level; the consequence
+of which is that the plantar arch is lowered
+and the foot is flattened; and the more the foot
+is flattened the weaker it necessarily is, because
+the position of the bones then becomes less and
+less favourable for bearing weight, and an increasing
+strain is thus incurred by the ligaments and
+muscles. Hence the foot and ankle feel weak;
+and the weakness is especially felt when the person
+endeavours to raise the heel, so as to mount
+upon the balls of the toes, in walking. For the
+performance of that movement with ease and
+steadiness a well-formed plantar arch is essential;
+and the person, whose feet are defective in the
+manner we are considering, can never walk with
+a bold, firm step. The movement in him may be
+better described as a shuffling from one foot on to
+the other, than as a walk. To this I will recur
+again when I come to speak more of walking. The
+defect, when slight in degree, is commonly called
+“weak-ankle;” when more decided it is called
+“flat-foot,” because the sole is then nearly, or
+quite, flat. The head of the key-bone, under
+such circumstances, may even bulge downwards
+and inwards, and form a prominence on the inner
+side of the sole, so as to give more or less <i>convexity</i>
+to the line on the inner side of the foot,
+which should be <i>concave</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp38" id="f08" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f08.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_08">8</a>. Flat-foot.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The representation of “flat-foot” here shown
+was drawn from the foot of a labouring man in
+this county. He said he believed the deformity
+was due to his having worn thick tight shoes
+when he was a growing boy. He is most likely
+right in his opinion; for tight or ill-fitting shoes,
+cramping the feet and preventing the proper
+growth of the bones and the free play of the
+muscles, are a common cause of this evil. This
+is so especially among the agricultural class, whose
+feet are, from an early period, enclosed in stiff
+unyielding leather cases that are enough to mar
+nature’s best efforts to construct a plantar arch.</p>
+
+<p>The same drawing shows that flat-foot is not
+the only deformity for which “high-lows” are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span>
+answerable. Besides the almost total want of
+calf, which is due to the wearer being obliged to
+hobble along, whole-footed, with short feeble steps,
+it will be seen that the great toe has not been
+allowed to assume its natural straight line, but
+has been squeezed athwart the other toes, so as
+to be almost at a right angle with the foot.
+No room at all is thus given for the second toe;
+it has been driven quite out of the field, and
+has been obliged to hide itself by bending down
+under the other toes. This is no uncommon
+state of things. Frequently it is attended with
+the formation of a painful bunion upon the prominent
+inner side of the ball of the great toe;
+and, in addition, there is sometimes a corn upon
+the first joint of the second toe, which is a source
+of so much inconvenience that I have known
+many sufferers glad to get relief by parting with
+the toe.</p>
+
+<p>I wish I could hope that the days of high-lows
+are numbered, and could believe that in
+the next generation they will be ranged with
+the things of the past, and that our children
+may know these enemies to the form of the rustic
+foot, only as objects to be gazed upon with feelings
+of astonishment and pity, just as we regard
+the perukes and the stays of our ancestors.
+There are, however, some practical difficulties<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span>
+in the way of the fulfilment of this charitable
+wish.</p>
+
+<p>There are two periods of life at which <span class="smcap">Flat-foot</span>
+is most likely to be engendered. <i>First</i>, in
+infancy, if the child be put upon its feet too
+early, before the bones and ligaments are strong
+enough to bear the weight of the body. Therefore
+mothers should not indulge their anxiety to
+see their infants walk very early; the pride attendant
+on premature success is liable to be followed
+by regret at finding that the children never
+walk well. Parents and nurses should be content
+to let the children crawl and roll about upon
+the floor, and should not encourage them to
+stand upright, especially if they be rather heavy
+or weak children. Children are quite sure to
+acquire the faculty of walking as soon as they are
+well fit to exercise it.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>second</i> period is at about fourteen. The
+body attains a considerable increase of weight
+at this time, in consequence of the quick growth
+that takes place. We often remark that lads and
+girls of this age shoot up apace; and their greater
+weight is not always attended with a proportionate
+acquisition of strength. They are apt to
+be rather weak and ungainly in their movements;
+and the weakness often shows itself in the foot,
+by a yielding of the plantar arch. Moreover,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span>
+many boys and girls are, at this age, turned out
+into the world to earn a livelihood, and are
+obliged to be a good deal upon their feet, and
+perhaps, in addition, have to carry weights.
+Thus errand-boys, butchers’ and bakers’ boys, and
+young nursery-maids, are frequent sufferers in
+this way. The constrained positions in dancing,
+also, if enforced too much, or continued too long,
+so as to tire the feet, sometimes lead to the
+same result. On the other hand, moderate exercise
+of this kind is calculated to strengthen the
+foot and also the whole frame, and contributes
+much to improve the carriage.</p>
+
+<p>This is not the place to enter into particulars
+of <i>treatment</i>. I will, therefore, merely remark
+that the common notion of supporting and
+strengthening the ankles by tight-laced boots is
+altogether a mistake, and must be ranked among
+the most influential of the causes which combine
+to spoil so many feet. It has its parallel in the
+idea of strengthening the waist by stays. The notion
+is, in both instances, fortified by the fact that
+those persons who have been accustomed to the
+pressure, either upon the ankle or the waist,
+feel a want of it when it is removed, and are
+uncomfortable without it. They forget, or are
+unconscious, that the feeling of the want has
+been engendered by the appliance, and that had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span>
+they never resorted to the latter they would
+never have experienced the former; just as dram-drinking
+induces a recurrence to the stimulus by
+causing a sense of sinking when it is discontinued;
+and, for the same reason, the opium-eater
+can hardly exist without his drug.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>The Movements of the Foot.</i></h3>
+
+<p>We come now to the <span class="smcap">Movements</span> of the foot
+upon the leg; and rarely do we contemplate anything
+more calculated to excite our admiration.
+Consider their variety, the rapidity with which
+they take place, in order to effect the requisite
+succession of positions in walking and running,
+and to adapt the sole to the inequalities of the
+surface on which we tread; and remember the
+great weight which has to be sustained while
+these movements are going on: yet, how seldom
+is there a failure.</p>
+
+<p>This combination of variety of movement with
+security is effected by the employment of <i>three</i>
+joints, each of which plays in a direction different
+from the others, while all act harmoniously
+together.</p>
+
+<p><i>One</i> of the three joints—strictly called the
+“ankle-joint”—is between the leg-bones and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span>
+foot-bones, that is, between the tibia and fibula,
+above, and the astragalus beneath. By means of
+it the foot may be bent or straightened upon
+the leg; in other words, the toes may be raised
+or depressed. In this movement the heel participates,
+being depressed when the toes are raised,
+and <i>vice versâ</i>. A <i>second</i> joint is between the
+astragalus and the heel-bone. It permits the
+foot to be rolled inwards or outwards upon an
+antero-posterior axis; so that the sole may be
+turned inwards, with its inner edge upwards, or
+may be turned down so as to be placed flat
+upon the ground. A <i>third</i> joint is between the
+first and second row of tarsal bones—that is, between
+the astragalus and the heel bone, behind,
+and the scaphoid and cuboid bones in front. It
+permits the degree of flexure of the tarsal or
+plantar arch to be increased or diminished.</p>
+
+<p>Had the several movements which are requisite
+for easy walking all taken place in one joint,
+that joint must necessarily have been very insecure;
+indeed, it must have been a “ball-and-socket”
+joint, and we should have been poised
+upon our feet in the state of what is called
+“unstable equilibrium”—a state quite incompatible
+with security or strength, and which would
+have rendered the assistance of the upper limbs
+essential to either standing or walking.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span></p>
+
+<p>An instance of a similar kind of mechanism
+to this of the joints between the foot and the
+leg is presented by the mode in which the head
+is secured upon the back-bone. We can nod the
+head upwards and downwards; we can turn it
+to either side in so free a manner that we are
+able to command with our eyes the whole circle
+in which we sit simply by the movements of
+the head; and we can incline the head to the
+right or to the left. Any of these movements
+may be made very quickly; and there is a separate
+joint or joints for each of them. Thus, the
+<i>nodding</i> movement takes place between the head
+and the first vertebra or uppermost bone of the
+spine; the <i>turning</i> of the head from side to side
+takes place between the first and second vertebræ,
+the head with the first vertebra rotating upon a
+pivot projected upwards from the second vertebra;
+and the <i>inclination</i> of the head from side to side
+takes place by movements of the second vertebra
+upon the third, of the third upon the fourth, and
+so on. The result is that, although the movements
+are thus varied, they are free as well as rapid. Yet
+the head is so well poised and so strongly fixed
+that the neck is able to bear it all day long without
+fatigue; and, as though the weight of the
+head, which is by no means inconsiderable, were
+not enough for the neck, we are in the habit of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span>
+selecting this as the part upon which to carry burdens.
+One never feels so strongly impressed with
+the carrying capabilities of the neck and the ankle,
+as when following men and women in mountain
+districts toiling up and down the hills under great
+bundles of hay, baskets full of bitter beer, and
+various things intended to minister to the comfort
+and luxury of travellers and the inhabitants at
+the top. So effectual, indeed, are the provisions
+for security that, notwithstanding the freedom and
+variety of their movements, the joints of the foot
+with the leg, and of the head with the spine, are,
+in proportion to their size, the strongest in the
+body.</p>
+
+<p>I have stated the movements that take place
+in the three joints of the foot with the leg in a
+simple manner, for the sake of avoiding confusion.
+In reality, however, they are not so simple, but
+very difficult to analyse and make out correctly.
+The difficulty is due, partly, to the close proximity
+of the joints to one another, which renders it no
+easy matter to distinguish the movements of one
+from those of the others, and, partly, to the fact
+that the movements in each joint are a little oblique.</p>
+
+<p>In the latter respect the foot-joints resemble
+most of the others in the body; and it is this <i>obliquity</i>
+in the movements of the joints, added to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span>
+the <i>curves</i> and <i>twists</i> in the shape of the bones,
+that constitutes one of the chief difficulties in
+investigating and clearly understanding the mechanism
+of the human frame. It has been said
+that “Nature abhors a vacuum:” it may with
+equal truth be said that she abhors a straight line.
+In the Human Skeleton, at any rate, all the bones
+are bent and twisted, some in two or three directions;
+and the surfaces by which any bone is
+jointed to the adjacent bones, are invariably oblique
+with regard to each other.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp20" id="f09" style="max-width: 5.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f09.jpg" alt="Front view of tibia">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_09">9</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Take, for instance, the <i>tibia</i>, or large bone of
+the leg, of which a front view and an inner side
+view are given in the drawings. The tibia is a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span>
+column transmitting weight from the thigh to the
+foot; and in any machine of man’s construction a
+column fulfilling similar purposes would be made
+straight and of uniform diameter throughout. The
+bone, on the contrary, does not present the same
+thickness at any two parts of its length. It has
+a distinct bend, forwards, in nearly its whole
+length (fig. 10): there are lateral curves, alternating
+like those in the letter S, seen along its
+front (fig. 9): and the articular surface at the
+lower end is placed obliquely with regard to that
+at its upper end, in consequence of a twist in
+the shaft, in such a manner that when the
+hinder surface of the upper end of the bone rests
+upon a board, the lower end touches the board
+only by its outer corner (fig. 10). This disposition
+of the lower end, I may remark, assists to
+give the foot a slant outwards from the heel to
+the toe, so that when we stand, with the heels
+together, the great toes of the two feet diverge
+a little from one another.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f10" style="max-width: 23.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f10.jpg" alt="Medial view of tibia">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_10">10</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span></p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the surfaces by which the tibia is
+jointed with the thigh-bone at the knee are arranged
+with a varying degree of obliquity, so
+that the relation of the leg to the thigh varies
+somewhat in different positions of the limb. For
+instance, when we stand upright, the <i>thigh</i> slants
+<i>in</i>wards from the pelvis, and the <i>leg</i> descends
+in a <i>vertical</i> direction to the ground. While,
+however, the knee is being bent the leg is carried,
+not in a vertical plane, but a little obliquely,
+so that the lower part soon begins to slant <i>out</i>wards;
+and when the knee is fully bent the obliquity
+of the leg and that of the thigh correspond,
+and the leg is, as it were, folded up against the
+thigh. The heel is thus brought up, not to the
+middle line of the body, but to the hip, and we
+are enabled to sit with the hips upon the heels, as
+the Japanese are represented doing, or with one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span>
+hip upon one heel—a position in which our
+riflemen are trained to take aim, and in which
+their predecessors with the arrow were wont to
+shoot, as is shown by the accompanying sketch
+of a bowman (fig. 11), taken from one of the Æginetan
+marbles in the Glyptothek at Munich.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp100" id="f11" style="max-width: 11.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f11.jpg" alt="Sketch of kneeling bowman">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_11">11</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>A variety of purposes is attained by the curvilinear
+shape of the bones and the obliquity in
+the movements of the joints. Not the least of
+these is the appearance of elegance and ease which
+is given to the whole frame, both when it is at
+rest and when it is in motion. In order that you
+may fully appreciate this result, I would ask you,
+the next time you are in a gallery of antique statuary,
+to contrast the figures which the Egyptians
+have left us with those by the Greeks. In the
+former you will find that straight lines and right
+angles prevail: the figure sits, probably, bolt
+upright, with the elbows, hips, knees, and ankles
+bent at right angles: the fingers commonly run
+straight forwards; and a hand is often laid upon
+each knee, the limbs of the two sides being quite
+symmetrically placed. Such statues may be imposing;
+but they are stiff and unnatural. They
+represent positions which the body rarely assumes;
+and they, certainly, are far from pleasing. Very
+different is the Greek statuary. A correct representation
+of nature is the great difficulty<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span>
+and the highest consummation of art; and the
+Greeks evinced their greatness in art by a true
+appreciation and close imitation of natural form.
+The position of their figures is life-like; and,
+therefore, we love to contemplate them. The
+outline in them exhibits a graceful disposition
+of curves and obliques; and it is because the
+great sculptors of Greece were, in this and in
+other respects, so true to nature that their works
+have commanded the admiration, and served as
+models for the imitation, of all succeeding ages.</p>
+
+<p>It is one of the master results of creation,
+and one of the peculiar marks of creative genius,
+that <i>perfection</i> and <i>beauty</i> are usually presented
+together. As truth is the soul of eloquence, so
+is perfection the soul of beauty. The works of
+nature are beautiful because there is so much
+excellence in them, such admirable adaptation to
+their purpose; and we find the works of man
+beautiful only so far as they are correct imitations
+of their great originals in nature, or show
+some approach to nature’s excellence. And man
+is the most beautiful object in nature because
+he is the most perfect, that is, because the purpose
+of his existence is the highest, and because
+his physique exhibits the most marvellous moulding
+to adapt it to its high purpose; because, in
+short, in him the material is wrought to such a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span>
+point of refinement as to be the receptacle and
+minister of the immaterial.</p>
+
+<p>The movements of the three joints between
+the foot and the leg take place in harmony.
+The following is the order observed. The raising
+of the <i>heel</i> is accompanied by a rolling of
+the foot <i>in</i>wards, and by an increased <i>flexure</i> of
+the plantar arch; and the raising of the <i>toes</i> is
+accompanied by a rolling of the foot <i>out</i>wards
+and a <i>straightening</i> of the sole.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>The Muscles of the Leg and Foot.</i></h3>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp77" id="f12" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f12.jpg" alt="Muscles and tendons that raise the heel">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_12">12</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The <i>first</i> series of the movements just described
+is effected, mainly, by three muscles. Of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span>
+these one (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, fig. 12) raises the heel while the
+other two (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, fig. 12, and <span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>, fig. <a href="#f13">13</a>) raise and
+support the ankle. The muscle which acts upon
+the heel is one of the largest and most powerful
+in the body; and well it may be, for in
+raising the heel it has to raise the whole weight
+of the body. Its fibres, accumulated at the middle
+and upper part of the leg, form the “calf;” below
+they taper into a thick tendon (a) connected
+with the hinder extremity of the heel-bone, and
+called the <i>Tendo Achillis</i>. The name, it need
+scarcely be said, refers to the tale of Thetis
+holding her son Achilles by this part when she
+dipped him in the river Styx. Her hand prevented
+the part from coming in contact with
+the water; and so it did not partake of the invulnerability
+which was conferred upon the rest
+of his body by the immersion. We read, accordingly,
+he was finally killed by a wound in
+the heel‍<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span></p>
+<p>The other two muscles (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span> and <span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>) also descend
+from the leg and terminate in tendons (b and c)
+which pass, one on either side, behind the projections
+(<span class="lowercase smcap">D</span> and <span class="lowercase smcap">E</span>) which we call respectively the
+inner and outer ankle, to the inner and outer edges
+of the instep. They assist to raise the ankle, and
+support it so as to prevent its swerving from side
+to side; and they permit it to play to and fro upon
+them, like a pulley upon ropes running under it,
+in a safe and easy manner. The inner (b, fig. 12)
+of the two tendons passes, as before mentioned,
+beneath the head of the key-bone, and adds
+greatly to the strength of the arch. It is, moreover,
+the chief agent in effecting the two movements
+which are associated with the elevation of
+the heel, viz. the turning of the sole inward and
+the flexion of the foot.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="f13" style="max-width: 20.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f13.jpg" alt="Muscles and tendons that raise the toes">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_13">13</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The <i>second</i> series of movements—the raising
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span>the toes, the turning the sole downwards, and the
+straightening the foot—are effected by two muscles
+(<span class="lowercase smcap">F</span>, fig. <a href="#f12">12</a>, and <span class="lowercase smcap">G</span>, fig. 13), the tendons
+(f and g) of which pass, one in front of the inner
+ankle, and the other in front of the outer ankle,
+to the respective edges of the instep. These require
+much less power than their opponents; and
+the muscles on the front of the leg are, therefore,
+smaller and weaker than those behind.</p>
+
+<p>A question of practical interest here suggests
+itself. How is the balance between these antagonistic
+muscles maintained, and the proper position<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span>
+of the foot preserved? If the muscles which
+cause the elevation of the heel and the other
+movements associated with it are so much stronger
+than those which produce the opposite series of
+movements, and if, as we know to be the case,
+muscles are always, even when a limb is at rest,
+contracting with a certain amount of force, why
+do not those of superior power gain and maintain
+the ascendancy, and hold the limb in the position
+to which they have a tendency to draw it? And
+why, in this instance, are not the feet kept with
+the heels raised and the soles inturned and bent?
+The reply is, that the ill consequence suggested
+is prevented, and a proper adjustment between
+the opponent sets of muscles, in this and other
+parts of the body, is effected through the medium
+of the nervous system. That system institutes
+friendly relations, and compels an orderly and
+harmonious action of the several muscles; and it
+does so by frequently exerting its influence upon
+them, keeping them in drill, as it were, and enforcing
+the habit of yielding in a kindly manner
+to one another.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp27" id="f14" style="max-width: 6.5625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f14.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_14">14</a>.<br>Club-foot.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>You have often observed, and perhaps wondered
+at, the almost incessant, semi-involuntary
+and, seemingly, meaningless movements of infants,
+especially the peculiar sprawlings out of their
+fingers and toes. Now these are for the purpose<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span>
+of keeping the different sets of muscles in practice
+and in order, till the will acquires a due control,
+when they gradually cease. They are going on
+before birth as well as afterwards; and when they
+are deficient, or when they take place irregularly,
+in consequence of an imperfection in the nervous
+system, the limbs are liable to become deformed.
+The feet, under these circumstances, are often
+drawn into the very position I have just mentioned;
+the sole is turned inwards and upwards,
+so as never to touch the ground; the heel and
+the toes are approximated; and the foot rests upon
+the ground on the outer side, or quite on the fore
+part, of the instep. Such a condition constitutes
+one of the most common forms of what is called
+“club foot.” Children are often born with one or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span>
+both of their feet thus distorted. Happily, however,
+if they be submitted in time to the modern
+improved modes of treatment they may usually
+be set right. The accompanying woodcut gives a
+sketch of the foot of a young woman who had
+not the good fortune to be thus attended to.</p>
+
+<p>The muscles compose the flesh or chief part of
+the bulk of a limb. The “calf” is almost entirely
+made up of the fibres of the “calf-muscle.” But
+at the ankle there are no muscles. As they descend
+the leg, all the <i>muscular</i> fibres disappear,
+and there are only <i>tendons</i>. These, though much
+thinner than the muscles, are very strong; and
+they are the cords or ropes by which the muscles
+pull upon distant parts. As they pass over the
+ankle they are strapped down close to the bones
+by means of stout sinewy cross-bands, which prevent
+their starting from their places when the
+muscular portions pull at them.</p>
+
+<p>Two especial advantages result from this
+arrangement.</p>
+
+<p><i>First</i>, the lower part of the leg and the ankle
+are reduced in size. Thereby the resistance to
+the passage of the limb through the air is lessened;
+and when it is upon the ground, the leg is
+less in the way of the other foot which is swinging,
+to and fro, beside it. An elegance of shape is also
+thereby imparted. The “pretty ankle” owes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span>
+much of its charm to the mode in which the tendons
+are disposed. How comparatively thick and
+clumsy would the ankle be if the tendons of the
+toes took the straight course represented by the
+line <i>a</i> in the drawing, instead of being bound
+down, as they are, to the curve of the ankle!</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp57" id="f15" style="max-width: 9.0625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f15.jpg" alt="Shows ligaments restraining tendons on front of ankle">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_15">15</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Secondly</i>, the obliquity with which the tendons
+run to their insertions is increased by this arrangement;
+and the velocity of the movements to
+which they minister is increased also. True, a
+loss of strength is involved in such a disposition,
+but the gain in velocity is of more importance.
+If (to refer again to the diagram, fig. 15) the tendon
+ran in a straight course from the front of the
+leg to the great toe, the angle at which it joined
+the toe would enable it to act with more strength;
+but the movements connected with it could not be
+so quick as they now are.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span></p>
+
+<p>We find in the construction of the human
+frame many instances in which strength is sacrificed
+to rapidity of movement in this and other
+ways. Scarcely any conceivable amount of
+strength, for instance, would be an adequate compensation
+for a loss of that celerity of movement
+of the hand which enables us to strike a blow and
+drive a nail. No wonder, therefore, that strength
+is here sacrificed to obtain celerity. And the
+same principle holds good for other parts.</p>
+
+<p>The length and direction of the heel affords a
+good illustration of the principle of which I am
+speaking. When the heel-bone runs out to a considerable
+distance, and nearly straight, behind the
+ankle, as it does in some of the lower animals and in
+the inferior races of mankind, it presents a better
+leverage to the calf-muscle, which is, then, enabled
+to raise the ankle with a less amount of effort;
+but there is proportionately less velocity. Accordingly,
+in the more perfectly formed foot, such as
+we find it in the higher races of mankind, the
+heel-bone, instead of running out backwards,
+descends very obliquely, almost vertically.</p>
+
+<p>In this instance, the loss of strength, which
+is thus incurred for the purpose of acquiring
+celerity in movement, is usually compensated for
+by the greater development of the calf-muscle.
+Hence the high heel and the well-developed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span>
+calf go together; and, like most of the other
+features of good bodily formation, they are, on
+the whole, best marked in the nations which are
+endued with the highest intelligence, and which
+are, in this way, physically, as well as mentally,
+qualified to occupy the foremost places in the
+human family. Thus, we may mark a relation
+between the heel and the brain; and, as the
+comparative anatomist is able by the inspection
+of a bone to trace out the skeleton to which it
+belonged, so might it be possible for the human
+anatomist, by observing minutely the peculiarities
+of the heel and the other features of the
+foot in any particular race of men, to form some
+estimate of the capacity and conformation of the
+skull, and thereby, of the amount of intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>Contrast the foot and leg of the <span class="smcap">European</span>
+(fig. 16), as represented in the drawing reduced
+from the Farnese Hercules, with those of the
+<span class="smcap">Negro</span> (fig. 17), the drawing of which was taken
+from a native of Sierra Leone. In the former
+the leg is plump and the calf well developed;
+the foot is compact and well arched; the heel
+descends nearly vertically; and the inner ankle
+stands clearly out and is raised high above the
+ground. In the Negro the leg is thinner and
+the calf is not so well defined; the foot is long,
+flat, and sprawling; the heel is more horizontal;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span>
+and the inner ankle does not show clearly, and
+almost touches the ground.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<div class="table">
+<div class="row">
+<div class="cell vab">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f16" style="max-width: 10.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f16.jpg" alt="Leg of European - side view">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_16">16</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell vab">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f17" style="max-width: 12.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f17.jpg" alt="Leg of Negro - side view">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_17">17</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="row">
+<div class="cell vab">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f18" style="max-width: 10.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f18.jpg" alt="Foot of European">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_18">18</a>.<br>
+European.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell vab">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f19" style="max-width: 12.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f19.jpg" alt="Foot of Negro">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_19">19</a>.<br>
+Negro.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Contrast also the outline (fig. 19) of the foot of
+the same Negro with that (fig. 18) of an Englishman.
+Both were traced upon the ground, and reduced
+upon the same scale. The Negro was 5 ft.
+2 in. in height; the Englishman was 6 ft.; both were
+of the same age: yet the Negro’s foot was considerably
+the larger. It was 11 inches long, <span class="nowrap">3 <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span></span> inches
+across the middle of the instep, and <span class="nowrap">10 <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span></span> inches
+round the balls of the toes. Whereas the Englishman’s
+foot was less than <span class="nowrap">10 <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span></span> inches long, was <span class="nowrap">2 <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span></span><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span>
+inches across the middle of the instep, and <span class="nowrap">9 <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span></span>
+inches round the balls of the toes. Even in this
+simple outline how much less shapely is the African’s
+foot. Some allowance must be made for the
+fact that the Negro was more accustomed to go
+barefooted than the Englishman; and the pressure
+of the boot or shoe has, in some degree, the effect
+of giving compactness to the foot.</p>
+
+<p>In the native <span class="smcap">Australian</span> the leg is commonly
+still more lanky, there being less calf than
+in the African; and in the <span class="smcap">Monkey</span> the heel
+is quite horizontal, the sole is flat, and the muscular
+fibres of the leg are continued low down,
+close to the ankle, instead of being concentrated
+higher up; so that the leg has nearly the same
+thickness from the knee to the foot, and there
+is no calf at all. Indeed, in the <span class="smcap">Gorilla</span> (see
+fig. at page <a href="#Page_91">91</a>) the circumference of the leg increases
+towards the ankle. Thus, the calf may
+be regarded as the characteristic of <span class="smcap">Man</span>; and
+a well-developed calf is a characteristic of the
+higher members of the human species. The pride,
+therefore, which is felt in a well-formed leg is
+not altogether a senseless folly, but finds some
+excuse in the fact that its foundation lies deep in
+the laws of physiology and ethnology. It must
+be confessed, that the fashion which, in the last
+century, dictated the knee-breeches, the silk stocking,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span>
+and the shoe, evinced a truer appreciation of
+the dignity and beauty of the human figure than
+do the modern investments, which quite cover up
+the limbs, encumbering their movements and
+hiding the beauty of the leg and ankle.</p>
+
+<p>In the addition of the <i>high heel</i> to the shoe
+we recognise an effort to improve upon the original,
+by exaggerating one of the peculiar features
+of the human foot; but it results in a failure,
+as is invariably the case with such strainings after
+a greater perfection than nature has given. It
+increases the apparent height of the person and
+of the arch of the instep; but it throws the
+weight too forward upon the toes, and detracts
+from the length and security of the step. Moreover,
+by causing disuse of the elevators of the
+heel, it interferes with the full growth of the
+calf.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp81" id="f20" style="max-width: 11.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f20.jpg" alt="Deformed Chinese foot">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_20">20</a>. Chinese.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This is, however, a harmless piece of vanity
+in comparison with the monstrous efforts of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span>
+Chinese to mould the foot to their ideal by
+squeezing the heel and the toes together. They
+effect this to such a degree that (fig. 20) the
+heel-bone descends vertically from the ankle, the
+plantar arch is bent to an acute angle, and the
+foot is so crumpled up that all movement in it
+is effectually prevented, and the part is reduced
+almost to a mere stump. These observant and
+ingenious people have caught, it may be, the idea
+that compactness, elevation of instep, and sudden
+descent of heel are characteristics of the well-formed
+foot, and may urge that they are helping
+nature to perfection in the direction which she
+has herself indicated. But in their silly attempt
+at the preternatural, in this impious use, as it
+were, of fire stolen from heaven, they simply
+burn and cripple themselves, and render themselves
+ridiculous, and give to all other nations
+the much needed lesson that it is enough for
+man to follow as a humble imitator of his Maker’s
+works, and that his attempts to alter, or improve
+upon, any part of the wondrous design of creation
+will assuredly have the effect of spoiling
+and defacing it‍<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span></p>
+<p>It seems that the several races of mankind are
+usually rather proud of their peculiarities, and
+that each has an inclination to make much of,
+and artificially exaggerate, the points in which it
+differs from the others. Thus the Chinese are
+remarkable for the spareness of their hair and
+the smallness of their feet; so the men shave
+their heads, leaving only the pig-tail, and the
+women squeeze up their feet in the remorseless
+manner we have seen. The Singhalese, who are
+flat-footed, are said to consider it one of the requisites
+for a ‘belle’ that the soles of her feet
+should not have any hollow. The red Indians of
+America delight in staining and painting their
+skins of a lively red colour. The Columbian tribe
+of Indians increase the natural lowness of their
+forehead by flattening it out in infancy, and
+succeed in bringing about a deformation of the
+skull almost as remarkable in its way as is the
+effect of Chinese cramping upon the foot. These
+people also take pains to reduce the small quantity
+of hair upon their eyebrows, lips, and chin,
+by plucking it out.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Joints of the Metatarsus with the Tarsus.</i></h3>
+
+<div class="center">
+<div class="table">
+<div class="row">
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe100" id="f25" style="max-width: 5.8125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f25.jpg" alt="Little toe">
+  <figcaption>Figs. <a href="#fignote_21">25</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe100" id="f24" style="max-width: 5.8125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f24.jpg" alt="Fourth toe">
+  <figcaption>24.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe100" id="f23" style="max-width: 5.8125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f23.jpg" alt="Middle toe">
+  <figcaption>23.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe100" id="f22" style="max-width: 5.8125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f22.jpg" alt="Second toe">
+  <figcaption>22.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe100" id="f21" style="max-width: 5.8125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f21.jpg" alt="Big toe">
+  <figcaption>21.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>I will briefly draw your attention to one other
+point in the anatomy of the foot; and that is,
+the mode in which the “metatarsal” bones are
+jointed with the “tarsal.” If you take hold of the
+ends of the metatarsal bones—in other words the
+“balls”—of the great toe and of the two toes
+next to it, in your own foot, you will find that
+you can move them scarcely at all; they are
+firmly set upon the rest of the foot, almost as
+though they formed one piece with it. If you
+then try the end of the metatarsal bone of the
+fourth toe you will be able to move it a little
+upwards and downwards; and in the case of
+the little toe the movement is still more distinct.
+This difference depends upon the mode
+of construction of the joints of the metatarsal
+bones with the tarsal, which is easily understood
+by the aid of the accompanying drawings, representing
+sections, from above downwards, through
+these joints. In 21, 22, and 23, which are the
+tarso-metatarsal joints of the great toe and the
+two next it, the opposed surfaces of the bones
+between <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, are quite flat, so that the only
+movement that can take place is a slight sliding
+of one bone upon the other, just enough to assist<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span>
+in breaking the jar, but not enough to interfere
+with the firm basis of support which these toes
+are required to afford to the plantar arch in consequence
+of the great stress of the weight in walking
+being borne upon this side of the foot. In No. 24,
+which is the joint of the ring toe, and still more in
+No. 25, which is the joint of the little toe, the end
+of the metatarsal bone (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>) is rounded and is received
+into a corresponding concavity or cup in the tarsal
+bone (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>). This allows a slight revolving of one bone
+upon the other to take place, and permits the
+movement which you discover when you grasp the
+balls of these two toes between your fingers. The
+outer part of the foot needs not to be so strong and
+firm as the inner part, because it does not lie so
+nearly in the plane of gravity during walking; and
+the provision just described, which permits some
+movement in the outer two metatarsals, enables
+the balls of the toes to adapt themselves to inequalities
+on the ground, and to share more equally,
+under various circumstances, the weight which is
+thrown upon them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Standing and Stooping.</i></h3>
+
+<div class="center">
+<div class="table">
+<div class="row">
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f26" style="max-width: 5.5625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f26.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Figs. <a href="#fignote_26">26</a>.<br>Standing.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f27" style="max-width: 7.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f27.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>27.<br>Bowing.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f28" style="max-width: 7.4375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f28.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>28.<br>Stooping.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f29" style="max-width: 7.9375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f29.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>29.<br>Squatting.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>When we <span class="smcap">Stand</span> straight upright (fig. 26) the
+centre of gravity of the head is directly over a
+point midway between the two ankles; and the
+plane of gravity, represented by the vertical line
+in the figure, descends, from the head, through the
+spine, pelvis, and lower limbs, to the key-bone of
+the instep. And you observe that, between the
+head and the ankle, the skeleton is not quite
+straight, but is arranged in six curves, which are,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span>
+alternately, in front of and behind the line of gravity.
+Of these curves the upper three are in the
+spine. They are well marked; the uppermost (<i>a</i>)
+is in the neck and is directed forwards; the next
+(<i>b</i>) is in the back and is directed backwards; the
+third (<i>c</i>) is in the loins and is directed forwards.
+The fourth curve (<i>d</i>), less distinct than those above
+it, is in the pelvis and is directed backwards. The
+fifth and sixth curves are very slight; the fifth (<i>e</i>),
+directed forwards, is at the hip-joint; and the sixth,
+(<i>f</i>), directed backwards, is at the knee. The last
+two curves, though slight, are not unimportant;
+and they contribute very much to our comfort
+and to prevent fatigue when we are standing: they
+do so in the following way. The strong ligaments
+of the hip are placed towards the <i>fore</i> part of the
+joint, that is, in <i>front</i> of the line of gravity; and
+the strong ligaments of the knee are placed towards
+the <i>back</i> part of the joint, that is, <i>behind</i>
+the line of gravity. It follows that when these
+joints are fully extended they are “locked,” as it
+is termed, just as is a hinge when opened to a
+little beyond the straight line; and, by this means,
+the muscles are set at rest, and we are able to
+maintain the erect posture, for some time, steadily
+and without fatigue.</p>
+
+<p>When standing upright in this way, at rest on
+both legs, or on one leg in the military position of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span>
+“at ease,” and the muscles are off their guard, if a
+sudden and unexpected, though slight, pressure be
+made upon the ham, so as to bend the knee a
+little and throw the joint in front of the line of
+gravity, the man will drop, unless the muscles
+come quickly to the rescue—a tendency which has
+not escaped the observation of school-boys.</p>
+
+<p>In <span class="smcap">Bending</span> or <span class="smcap">Bowing</span> (fig. <a href="#f27">27</a>) the head is
+carried forwards; and, to maintain the balance, the
+opposite pole of the trunk is carried backwards,
+so as to preserve the line of gravity still over the
+ankles.</p>
+
+<p>In <span class="smcap">Stooping</span> (fig. <a href="#f28">28</a>) or <span class="smcap">Squatting</span> (fig. <a href="#f29">29</a>),
+as in picking up any thing from the ground, the
+lower limbs and the trunk are bent in a zigzag
+manner; the heels are raised; and the plane of
+gravity falls, in front of the ankles, over the balls
+of the toes. Now we recognise one of the advantages
+which accrues to man from the great length
+of his thigh. For the head and upper part of the
+trunk are advanced so far in <i>front</i> of the feet, that
+it would be impossible to maintain a balance at
+all, even upon the balls of the toes, and we
+should necessarily fall forwards, were it not that,
+owing to the length of the thigh, the lower part
+of the trunk is carried backwards to a plane <i>behind</i>
+the heels, and so serves to maintain the
+equilibrium.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Walking.</i></h3>
+
+<div class="center">
+<div class="table">
+<div class="row">
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f30" style="max-width: 8em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f30.jpg" alt="First stage stance taking a step">
+  <figcaption>Figs. <a href="#fignote_30">30</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f31" style="max-width: 6.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f31.jpg" alt="Second stage stance taking a step">
+  <figcaption>31.<br>Walking.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f32" style="max-width: 7.4375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f32.jpg" alt="Third stage stance taking a step">
+  <figcaption>32.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center">
+<div class="table">
+<div class="row">
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f33" style="max-width: 6.0625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f33.jpg" alt="Foot position - first stage">
+  <figcaption>Figs. <a href="#fignote_33">33</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f34" style="max-width: 7.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f34.jpg" alt="Foot position - second stage">
+  <figcaption>34.<br>Walking.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f35" style="max-width: 6.125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f35.jpg" alt="Foot position - third stage">
+  <figcaption>35.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Let us next consider the part which the foot
+performs in <span class="smcap">Walking</span>. To understand this it is
+necessary to consider its positions and movements
+in the several stages of a step. When first placed
+upon the ground the foot (<span class="lowercase smcap">R</span>, fig. 30) is a little in
+advance of the body; and the heel comes first (fig. 33)
+into contact with the ground. The toes quickly
+follow; and the body, then, passes, vertically, over,
+the ankle and the key-bone of the instep. The foot<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span>
+(<span class="lowercase smcap">R</span>, fig. 31 and fig. 34) now rests steadily upon the
+heel and the balls of the toes; the other foot (<span class="lowercase smcap">L</span>)
+leaves the ground, so that the whole weight is
+borne by one foot; and the plantar arch of that
+foot expands a little, so as to cause slight lengthening
+of the foot, under the weight that is laid
+upon it. Much yielding of the arch is, however,
+prevented by the ligaments that brace the arch
+(fig. <a href="#f07">7</a>), and by the muscles that are disposed beneath
+it. Next, the heel (fig. 35) is raised by the
+action of the calf muscle, and the weight of the
+body is thrown forwards, over the balls of the toes,
+while the other foot (<span class="lowercase smcap">L</span>, fig. 32) is carried onwards,
+and is placed upon the ground ready to receive the
+weight and commence its carrying work. When
+this has been done the foot is withdrawn from the
+ground; and, in the withdrawal, a final impulse
+onward is given, so as to throw the weight of the
+body fairly over to the other foot. The fore part
+of the foot is then raised, and the knee is bent a
+little. By these means the toes are kept clear of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span>
+the ground, while the foot is swung forward, beside
+the other, so as to be ready again to rest upon
+the ground and bear the weight of the body.</p>
+
+<p>In each complete step, therefore, there is a period
+during which the foot rests upon the ground,
+and a period in which it is swinging in the air. In
+walking the former period is considerably longer
+than the latter; and at the commencement, and at
+the end, of that period (figs. <a href="#f30">30</a> and 32) the other
+foot is also upon the ground, so that it is only
+during the middle of the time (fig. <a href="#f31">31</a>) in which
+the foot rests upon the ground that it has to bear
+the whole weight of the body.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Running.</i></h3>
+
+<p>In <span class="smcap">Running</span> the process is much the same as
+in walking. The chief difference is that, whereas
+in walking <i>both</i> feet are never <i>off</i> the ground at
+the same time, and both are <i>upon</i> the ground at
+the beginning and end of each step; in running
+<i>both</i> feet are never <i>on</i> the ground at the same
+time, and both are <i>off</i> the ground, and the body is
+flying unsupported through the air, at the beginning
+and end of each step (figs. 36 and 38). Thus,
+you may always distinguish running, though it be
+ever so slow, from walking, because, in the latter,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span>
+the two feet are upon the ground at the same
+time; while, in the former, only one foot touches
+the ground at a time.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<div class="table">
+<div class="row">
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f36" style="max-width: 8.5625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f36.jpg" alt="First stage running stance">
+  <figcaption>Figs. <a href="#fignote_36">36</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f37" style="max-width: 7.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f37.jpg" alt="Second stage running stance">
+  <figcaption>37.<br>Running.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f38" style="max-width: 9.6875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f38.jpg" alt="Third stage running stance">
+  <figcaption>38.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The period during which the body rests upon
+the ground in running is comparatively very short,
+being merely the time when one foot is set down
+in the middle of each step (fig. 37); and great force
+has, consequently, to be exerted to propel the body
+through the air during the whole remainder of the
+step. Hence the exertion of running is much
+greater than that of walking. In slow running the
+same parts of the foot are applied upon the ground
+as in walking, and in the same order; but in quick
+running the balls of the toes only touch the ground.
+The quicker we run the shorter, relatively to the
+rest of the step, is the time during which the foot
+rests upon the ground, and the greater, consequently,
+is the effort.</p>
+
+<p>After the foot leaves the ground, in running, it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span>
+is thrown up behind; and, at the same time, the
+fore part of the sole and the toes are turned a
+little obliquely <i>in</i>wards, so as to prevent their
+catching against adjacent objects. If the toes
+were turned <i>out</i>, when thrown up behind, it would
+present a very awkward appearance, and we should
+frequently be tripped up by their coming in contact
+with substances near which we pass. While the
+foot is being swung forwards the toes are gradually
+turned a little the other way. Thus, by the time
+they pass the other leg the toes have lost the inclination
+inwards, and are directed straight <i>for</i>wards;
+and when the foot has reached a point in advance
+of the other leg, and the sole is preparing to present
+itself to the ground, the toes are turned a
+little <i>out</i>wards. This turning of the foot <i>in</i>wards
+and <i>out</i>wards during its movement <i>back</i>wards and
+<i>for</i>wards, in each step, is a graceful movement,
+and may be compared to the “feathering” of an
+oar. It takes place, also, in walking, but is less
+marked than in running; and in many persons it
+can scarcely be discerned during walking.</p>
+
+<p>The distinction between the paces of other animals
+resembles that between the walking and the
+running of man, and is equally definite. Take, for
+instance, the <span class="smcap">Walking</span>, <span class="smcap">Trotting</span>, and <span class="smcap">Galloping</span>
+of the Horse. In <span class="smcap">Walking</span> the fore and the
+hind limbs of the <i>same</i> side are moved together, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span>
+nearly together, but they do not leave the ground
+till the limbs of the opposite side are placed upon
+it; so that at one period all four limbs are upon
+the ground together. In <span class="smcap">Trotting</span> the fore and
+the hind limbs of <i>opposite</i> sides move together; but,
+as in walking, neither of them are withdrawn from
+the ground till the opposite one has reached it‍<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a>.</p>
+
+<p>In <span class="smcap">Galloping</span>, or <span class="smcap">Cantering</span>, the horse springs
+or bounds with all four limbs at the same time;
+all the feet are thrown up nearly together; all are
+off the ground together; and all reach the ground
+again nearly at the same time ready for another
+spring. I say that the feet are all thrown up
+<i>nearly</i>, and not <i>quite</i>, together, because the fore
+and the hind limbs of one side take the precedence
+a little of the others, or “lead,” as it is called.
+The trained horse is taught to lead, habitually,
+with one, usually the right, side, because the motion
+is more steady when the horse is accustomed
+to gallop in one way than if he be allowed to vary
+it. Directly the horse begins to gallop, the rider
+knows, by the motion, whether he is leading with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span>
+the proper leg. In some animals, as the <span class="smcap">Deer</span>,
+the two fore and the two hind feet move together
+exactly in galloping. Anthony Trollope tells us that
+in Panama, Cuba, and other Spanish countries in
+the West, the horses are “taught to pace, that is,
+move with the two off legs together, and then with
+the two near legs. The motion is exceedingly gentle,
+and well fitted for those hot climates, in which
+the rougher work of trotting would be almost too
+much for the energies of debilitated mankind.”
+This <i>pacing</i> is probably only a quick walk.</p>
+
+<p>When we walk the heels follow one another
+nearly in a straight line, as is shewn by “walking
+a chalk,” or more readily by walking along the
+line between the curb and the flagstone pavement;
+and the plane of gravity of the body corresponds
+with this line. There ought, therefore, to be no
+perceptible <i>swerving</i> of the trunk from side to
+side in walking. There should, also, be scarcely
+any <i>rising</i> or <i>falling</i>; inasmuch as there are provisions
+in the mode of bending the limbs (which I
+cannot here discuss) to prevent the body from being
+moved up and down during the step. The head
+and shoulders should be carried along nearly in
+a straight line. If it were otherwise, if they were
+moved in a zigzag or undulating manner, from
+right to left, or up and down, the space traversed
+in a given distance would be much increased, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span>
+there would be a proportionately greater expenditure
+of muscular force. By a beautiful combination
+of movements this is prevented, and a rectilinear
+course is maintained, while the weight of
+the body is transferred from foot to foot, in a
+succession of steps.</p>
+
+<p>Only observe a good walker for a minute or
+two, and you will see how straight the head is
+carried along; and when your eye falls upon a
+person who “rolls in his walk” you perceive how
+ungainly are his movements, and you have an instinctive
+feeling that he is an awkward fellow.
+Whether you are disposed to make an exception
+in favour of the British tar, in consequence of his
+many other good qualities, I must leave you to
+judge. His peculiar gait on shore is probably due
+to his not being sufficiently practised in straight
+walking to counteract the effect of the lounging
+manner and general disregard for appearances
+which he acquires on board ship. Whatever the
+reason may be, though he has the better of us
+in a storm at sea, he certainly does not always
+appear to advantage on <i>terra firma</i>. Now that
+a general improvement in gait and step may be
+expected among landsmen, as a result of the volunteer
+movement, it becomes still more desirable
+that the sailor should participate in the good influences
+of the drill.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span></p>
+
+<p>Although the heels follow one another in a
+line the toes diverge a little from the line, because
+the foot slants, as I have just said, somewhat
+<i>out</i>wards when it is placed upon the ground.
+It results from this position of the foot that the
+weight of the body descends upon it with a slight
+obliquity, <i>in</i>wards as well as forwards; and that
+is precisely the direction in which the foot is best
+prepared to receive weight. For, when the foot
+rests upon the ground in this position all the ligaments
+on the inner side (and they are very strong)
+as well as those beneath, are on the stretch; and
+the joints, with the exception of the ankle-joint,
+are as it were locked, so as to afford a secure,
+steady basis of support to the leg. When the
+weight of the body descends upon the foot in the
+direction mentioned a sprain rarely occurs. It is
+when the weight falls in the opposite direction,
+that is, more or less obliquely <i>out</i>wards, and throws
+the ankle out, that a sprain easily happens. Thus
+a slight inequality of the ground, or any other
+cause that tilts up the inner edge of the foot,
+is likely to lead to a sprain, especially when we
+are going down hill or down steps.</p>
+
+<p>Here let me remark that a <span class="smcap">Sprain</span> is the
+result of a stretching of some ligament, or other
+part, caused by an undue force being brought to
+bear upon it. The ligaments are very strong,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span>
+and under ordinary circumstances are not very
+sensitive; and they are capable of offering great
+resistance to force applied in the direction in
+which they are calculated to meet it. But, if the
+force be applied in a direction in which they are
+not calculated to meet it, they are easily injured,
+and they become, then, very painful. The same
+is, also, likely to occur if the force be severe or
+sudden.</p>
+
+<p>The muscles are a very great assistance to the
+ligaments, forasmuch as, by placing and retaining
+the joints in proper positions, they regulate the
+direction in which forces are brought to bear upon
+the ligaments. Moreover, by steadying or bracing
+the joints, they check or break the force and
+prevent its being suddenly imposed upon the ligaments.
+And the muscles, by virtue of their contractile
+property, have the capability of becoming
+tight in any position of the joint, which is an immense
+advantage; whereas a ligament having no
+contractility and, usually, no elasticity, is tight
+only in one position. The office of a ligament is
+to limit the movement of a joint in a particular
+direction; and, till the joint has assumed a certain
+position—till it is bent or straightened to a
+certain angle—the ligament does not come into
+play. During the bending or straightening of a
+limb the muscles regulate the movement, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span>
+bring it to a stop or check it before it has gone
+to its full extent; and, thus, the ligament is relieved
+from that sudden imposition of force which
+would result if it were required to check the
+movement of a joint in its full swing.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, when the muscles are prepared
+and in proper action, that is, when they place
+the joint in a suitable position and duly support
+or brace it, a sprain very rarely occurs. It is
+when the muscles are unprepared, when we make
+a false step, or when the foot encounters an unexpected
+obstacle, and the weight falls suddenly
+upon the ligaments in an unfavourable direction,
+that a sprain occurs. A man jumps from a considerable
+height, or descends deep steps with a
+heavy weight upon his back, and no harm results;
+but he slips off the curb-stone, or treads
+unwarily upon a piece of orange-peel, or turns his
+foot hastily, to avoid some object on the ground,
+and sprains his ankle.</p>
+
+<p>In order that they may do their work well,
+be alert, and maintain good guard, the muscles
+need to be kept in practice. A person unaccustomed
+to throw a ball is very liable to sprain his
+elbow with the sudden jerk which is required for
+that feat; or if a person takes to tumbling and
+jumping, without proper training, he will probably
+suffer for his temerity. Again, common experience<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span>
+tells us that a joint which has been sprained
+is, for a long time, liable to be sprained again.
+This is because the part remains tender as well
+as weak; and the muscles do not brace it steadily
+and firmly, or come nimbly to its aid when it
+is in danger.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of the foot, in walking, being
+placed upon the ground with the toes slanting
+a little outwards, the <i>out</i>er and hinder edge of
+the heel first touches the ground. Hence this
+part of the heel of the shoe is usually worn down
+before the remainder. The ball of the little toe
+next comes to the ground, and the balls of the
+other toes follow in quick succession; and it is
+from the great toe—that is, from the inner side
+of the foot—that the last impulse is given to
+propel the body, forwards, over the other foot.
+In order to give full effect to this final impulse
+an especial muscle, the “Long Fibular” muscle
+(<span class="lowercase smcap">I</span> in fig. <a href="#f13">13</a>), is provided. The tendon (i) of this
+muscle passes, behind the outer ankle, beneath
+the sole of the foot, to the great toe. It has the
+effect of pressing the ball of the great toe upon
+the ground, while it raises the outer ankle, and
+so contributes to throw the weight, across, in the
+direction of the other foot.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the foot revolves upon the ground, from
+the heel to the balls of the toes, and from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span>
+outer edge of the former to the inner edge of the
+latter; and during the revolution, which has been
+compared, though the comparison fails in many
+points, to the revolving of the segment of a wheel,
+the ankle is raised and advanced forwards.</p>
+
+<p>On the complete and steady execution of this
+movement good walking chiefly depends, more
+particularly upon the full performance of the last
+stage of the process, viz. the rising fairly upon
+the balls of the toes and delivering the weight
+steadily over to the other foot. This is the most
+difficult part of the process, the whole weight of
+the body during its execution being borne upon the
+fore part of the foot, that is, upon the longer pillar
+of the plantar arch; forasmuch as the heel is being
+raised and the other foot is off the ground. For
+the good performance of this part of the process,
+all the features of the well-made foot are essential.
+There must be a high and firm plantar arch,
+a heel set at a proper angle, and a strong great
+toe running straight forwards. There must be
+also a fully developed calf to set the machinery
+well in motion.</p>
+
+<p>If the plantar arch be low it cannot bear the
+strain attendant upon this movement; and the
+person, in consequence, shirks the full performance
+of it. He does that by turning the toes too much
+out; and, then, he contrives to roll over the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span>
+inner side of the foot, instead of rising upon the
+balls of the toes; and so he gets along with short,
+shuffling, feeble steps. How many persons, owing
+to one cause or other, hobble in this way! Some
+turn the toes very much in, and rise over the
+ball of the little toe, instead of over the great toe.
+This is done with comparative ease, because the
+ball of the little toe is nearer to the ankle; but
+the step is, thereby, shortened, as well as rendered
+less firm and less graceful.</p>
+
+<p>The revolving movement of the foot, or the
+bringing of its several parts into contact with the
+ground in succession, in a distinct manner, is
+peculiar to man. Many animals do not bear upon
+the heel at all; they only tread upon the toes,
+and are, therefore, called <span class="smcap">Digitigrade</span>. Some,
+indeed, bear only upon the tips of the toes, as the
+Horse (fig. <a href="#f05">5</a>, p. 15). Others go upon the balls
+of the toes, as the Cat, the Hare, the Pig, and
+the Dog. Some animals bear upon the heels as
+well as the toes, and are called <span class="smcap">Plantigrade</span>,
+as the Bear, the Badger, and the Monkey; but
+these all flop the sole upon the ground in its whole
+length at once. The foot in them is not sufficiently
+compact and strong to bear the weight of
+the body first upon one part then upon another;
+and they, consequently, walk in an ungainly manner,
+as compared with man.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Character evinced by manner of Walking.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Bear in mind that for the firm vigorous walk
+there is required, not only the well-formed limb,
+but also the manly and determined <span class="smcap">Will</span>, acting
+in a decided and authoritative manner over
+the several members of the body, so that these
+are accustomed readily, and steadily, to obey its
+commands; just as the soldiers of a well-drilled
+regiment obey the directions of the superior officer
+in an orderly and efficient manner. And, as you
+may judge of the character of the officer by the
+discipline of his men, so may you form an estimate
+of a man by the movements of his limbs.
+You see a man walk along the street, and you
+instinctively form an opinion of him by the mode
+in which he carries himself and treads the ground.
+Be careful not to allow yourselves to be inflexibly
+biassed by these first impressions, as that
+amounts to prejudice. Nevertheless, experience
+tells us that they are not to be altogether despised.
+They originate in a perception of the
+working of the great laws by which body and
+mind are harmonized; and, if fairly estimated,
+they rarely deceive us.</p>
+
+<p>We have little difficulty in recognising three
+chief classes among pedestrians. <i>First</i>, there are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span>
+those who pay too much attention to the movements,
+who walk with a pompous strut, or a mincing gait,
+or affect some style or other. We are naturally
+very little inclined in favour of such persons; indeed,
+we have usually to make an effort not to
+be decidedly prejudiced against them. <i>Secondly</i>,
+there are those who pay too little attention to
+their movements, who do not seem to be sufficiently
+alive to the responsibility attaching to the
+possessors of so noble a structure as the human
+frame, and who do not give themselves the trouble
+to exert the powers of the glorious mechanism
+with which they are charged. They slouch, or
+dawdle, along in a listless lazy manner. Instinct
+tells us, and tells us rightly, to beware how we
+trust such persons with the conduct of our affairs,
+or with any office of responsibility. We feel that
+the lack of energy manifested in the guidance of
+their limbs is, too probably, a feature of character,
+which unfits them for the active duties of life;
+and we know that such men are not usually successful
+in their calling. <i>Thirdly</i>, there are those
+who shew, by the firmness and precision of their
+step, and by the regularity in the succession of
+the movements by which the step is made, that
+they are conscious of the dignity of their species,
+of the responsibility attendant on that dignity,
+and of the respect due to themselves. Such men<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span>
+we feel are likely to pursue their avocations energetically
+and methodically, as well as with punctuality.</p>
+
+<p>Many points of character peep out in the way
+men walk. Our poet tells us that in one we may
+read</p>
+
+<p class="tac fs85">
+“rascal in the motions of his back<br>
+And scoundrel in his supple sliding knee.”
+</p>
+
+<p class="ti0">Another has a halting, shuffling, undecided gait;
+while a third walks in a bold, determined, straight-forward,
+erect and independent manner. One
+has a cautious, parsimonious step, as if sparing
+of shoe-leather, or afraid to trust the ground; he
+has, however, probably, trusted the funds with
+considerable investments. Some walk with long,
+pretentious, measured strides; others make short,
+quick, insignificant steps. Some, again, are hurried,
+fussy, noisy; while others glide along in a
+quiet, shrinking, unpretending, it may be timid,
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>I need not dilate upon these diversities. Your
+own observation will supply abundant illustrations
+of the correspondence between character and
+manner of walking.</p>
+
+<p>The several movements in walking are under
+the control of the <span class="lowercase smcap">WILL</span>, and are directed by it,
+to such an extent that the continuous agency of
+the will is essential to the process. If the influence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span>
+of the will be suspended, but for a moment,
+the action ceases, and the man falls to the ground.
+Nevertheless, the play of the individual muscles,
+and their co-ordination, or the manner in which
+their several movements are combined, are, in a
+great measure, independent of the will. They are,
+to a certain extent, automatic, and result from
+peculiar relations between the nervous and the
+muscular systems. The will may be compared to
+the driver of an engine, who, by turning on the
+steam, and maintaining the supply, sets the machine
+in motion, and regulates the rate of its
+speed; but the several wheels are so arranged
+that they go on irrespectively of his immediate
+superintendence. It would be impossible for the
+engine-man to attend to the working of each detail
+of his machine; and it would be too much
+for the will to have to direct all the movements
+of the limbs in walking. We should be wearied
+with such an effort of attention before we had
+walked across a room; for the exercise of the will
+is exhausting, and soon engenders fatigue. The
+more we think of any movement and take pains
+to direct it, the sooner we are tired and unable
+to continue it; and the more the attention is
+diverted, the less quickly do we experience a feeling
+of exhaustion; while those movements in the
+body which are not at all under the influence of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span>
+the will—the movements of the heart for instance—go
+on unceasingly, through a long life, without
+any sense of weariness. What so prevents fatigue,
+when we are walking, as the diverting conversation
+of an agreeable companion?</p>
+
+<p>But though the combination of the movements
+in walking is, to a certain extent, automatic, it is
+not complete without the proper control of the
+will. This is proved by the gait of those unfortunate
+beings in whom the mind, and with it commonly
+the will, is deficient from birth—I mean
+<span class="smcap">Idiots</span>. Their movements are, usually, more or
+less, irregular and unharmonious, jerky, without
+proper steadiness and rhythm; the head is tossed
+about; the eye looks one way; the fingers are
+sprawled out in another direction; the foot is
+jerked out at a hazard, as it were, so that you
+don’t know when it will reach the ground, perhaps
+it kicks against the other foot. A sad spectacle
+this. The visit to an Idiot Asylum fills one, it is
+true, with a sense of the value of an institution
+where these poor members of the human family
+are kept out of harm’s way, and away from the
+gibes of the village boys, and are made clean, and
+tidy, and taught so far as they are capable of instruction;
+but I know no sadder sight than is presented
+by a string of the inmates of such an asylum,
+guided from room to room by the foremost of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span>
+the number, who shews by his walk, somewhat
+more steady than that of the others, that he is
+gifted with rather more intelligence than they, and
+is so fitted to be their guide.</p>
+
+<p>An equally melancholy, an even more distressing,
+spectacle is that of criminals pacing, like animals
+in their dens, up and down the court-yard of
+their prison; for in them we know, that there is
+no deficiency of will. It is strong enough to control
+and regulate the movements of their limbs;
+but there is a still more important deficiency, viz.
+a deficiency of that moral sense which should control
+the will.</p>
+
+<p>Another sad, but physiologically interesting,
+sight is the rolling walk of the drunkard. Here,
+again, the will is not deficient; but it is, partly,
+and by its own agency, dethroned. Enough of the
+will is left to set the machine going, not enough
+to guide it and control it well. Though the movements
+follow one another, for the most part, in
+proper sequence, they are uncertain and ill-directed.
+The balancing power is partly lost. The
+feet are dragged hither and thither, and thrown
+about, by the swerving weight of the body; and
+they follow one another upon the ground at uncertain
+intervals, and in any but a straight line.
+You watch a man in this state staggering from
+side to side, and wonder how he keeps his legs at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span>
+all. Soon the foot catches against some slight obstacle
+or against the other leg, or fails to come
+quickly enough into the required place, and the
+man rolls over. The supple manner in which his
+unstrung limbs give under the weight, perhaps,
+saves him, to some extent, from the shock; but
+you must not imagine that drunkards have any
+charm against injury. A large proportion of the
+accidents admitted into our Hospitals are the result
+of drunkenness.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Distinctive Features of the Human Foot.</i></h3>
+
+<p>I have already made a few comparisons between
+the human foot and that of certain of the
+lower animals. It will be interesting to add some
+others.</p>
+
+<p>There are several animals, as the Monkey, the
+Bear, and some Reptiles, in which the foot resembles
+the human foot in many particulars. It has,
+for instance, the same number of toes as the human
+foot, and the same, or nearly the same, number
+of bones, and the latter disposed in much
+the same manner. Certain peculiarities, however,
+distinguish the human foot. These all have reference
+to the power which man, and man alone,
+possesses of standing firmly upright, and of walking
+steadily, upon the two feet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span></p>
+
+<p>The following are the most important of these
+distinctive features.</p>
+
+<p><i>First.</i> The several parts are fitted and bound
+together in a compact firm manner, so as to combine
+strength and elasticity in the highest degree.
+In this respect the human foot contrasts very
+remarkably with the sprawling foot of the Seal
+or Lizard (figs. <a href="#f02">2</a> and 3, p. 11). The result is
+obtained, partly, by the great size of the tarsal
+bones, in proportion to the other components of
+the foot, and, partly, by the formation of the
+“Plantar Arch,” which is higher and stronger in
+man than in any of the lower animals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Secondly.</i> The <span class="smcap">Toes</span> are short and small in
+relation to the other parts of the foot. In many
+animals, the Monkey for instance (fig. <a href="#f44">44</a>, p. 89),
+the toes form the greater part of the foot; and,
+in some, the bones of the instep are reduced in
+number as well as in size: the reason being that,
+in such animals, the toes are required to perform
+a variety of offices—burrowing in the ground,
+scratching, holding on to the branches of trees,
+catching and tearing prey, &amp;c.—for which their
+services are not needed by man.</p>
+
+<p>It may here be noticed that one of the great
+points of dissimilarity between the foot and the
+hand consists in the difference which the length
+of the digits bears to the other components in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span>
+two members. They form nearly <i>half</i> the length
+of the hand, but not more than a <i>tenth</i> of that
+of the foot. Clearly, therefore, they constitute a
+far less important segment of the lower limb than
+they do of the upper, and are intended to perform
+much less important functions in it. In the
+hand the fingers and thumb may be said to constitute
+the essential part; whereas the toes do
+little more than help the foot to adapt itself to
+inequalities of the ground and so to obtain a
+firmer holding. In civilized countries, accordingly,
+where we walk, chiefly, upon even paths and paved
+streets, very little evil results from the loss of the
+services of the toes which is incurred by covering
+over the foot to protect it against the hardness
+of the roads.</p>
+
+<p>We often hear the toes spoken of as ill-treated
+members, which are not allowed fair play because
+the art of man keeps them in a state of inertness
+and deprives them of their natural functions.
+Anatomy, too, gives some countenance to the idea,
+inasmuch as it shews that the muscles which
+minister to the toes are as numerous as those
+which are concerned in moving the fingers; and
+we occasionally see persons, who, having been born
+without hands, or having lost them, contrive to
+write and paint and do other unusual offices with
+their toes. Watch the movements in an infant’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span>
+foot as yet unshod. They are considerably more
+free than in your own; especially you will observe
+that there is a power of separating the great
+toe from the others and approximating it to them
+which you have, probably, altogether lost. The
+small size, however, of the toes, and the comparative
+fixedness of the inner, or great toe, prove,
+that they were never intended for anything like
+the same variety of purposes as the fingers, and
+shew that, under the most favourable circumstances,
+the <i>pes</i> could never be <i>altera manus</i>, as
+some would persuade us that it is. Certainly it
+was never intended to be an organ of prehension.
+Hence, although in practice, boot-makers may
+excite our wrath and deserve our condemnation,
+I don’t think that, in principle, they are so much
+to be complained of.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>third</i> striking peculiarity of the human
+foot is the size of the inner or <span class="smcap">Great Toe</span> and
+the firm manner in which its metatarsal bone is
+joined to the other bones, so as to render it a
+main pillar of support to the foot. These features
+of the great toe have reference to the share of the
+weight of the body which is borne by the inner
+side of the foot, more particularly during the last
+stage of the step, when the body is propelled forwards
+over the other foot. Hence it is sometimes
+called the “hallux,” from a Greek word (ἅλ-λομαι)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span>
+signifying to bound or spring. The <i>mobility</i>
+of the <i>thumb</i>, enabling it to be opposed so easily
+to each of the other fingers, is a characteristic of
+the human <i>hand</i>; and the <i>solidity</i> of the <i>great toe</i>
+is equally, or even more, characteristic of the human
+<i>foot</i>. The great toe should be continued,
+from the instep, straight along the inner edge of
+the <i>foot</i>, or inclined a little <i>in</i>wards; often, as
+before mentioned, its phalanges become inclined
+<i>out</i>wards so as to interfere with the other toes‍<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Though, in many animals the number of the
+toes is the same as in man, this is not the case
+in all; and we may trace a gradual and progressive
+diminution of the number, in the following
+order.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<div class="table">
+<div class="row">
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f39" style="max-width: 6.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f39.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Figs. <a href="#fignote_39">39</a>.<br>Elephant.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f40" style="max-width: 7.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f40.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption><a href="#fignote_40">40</a>.<br>Hippopotamus.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f41" style="max-width: 7.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f41.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption><a href="#fignote_41">41</a>.<br>Rhinoceros.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f42" style="max-width: 6.1875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f42.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption><a href="#fignote_42">42</a>.<br>Ox.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f43" style="max-width: 3.9375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f43.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption><a href="#fignote_43">43</a>.<br>Horse.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>I have said (page <a href="#Page_10">10</a>) that the inner toe is incomplete
+in all animals, forasmuch as, in none,
+does it possess the same complement of bones as
+do the other toes. You will not be surprised to
+find, therefore, that it is the first to be missing.
+The <span class="smcap">Elephant</span> goes upon <i>five</i> toes; but if you
+look closely you will perceive that the inner toe
+(fig. 39, <span class="lowercase smcap">I</span>.) has not attained even its usual incomplete
+number of bones. It is short of one; and the
+inner wedge-bone, which looks like a metacarpal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span>
+bone, is prolonged, downwards, to supply the place,
+and to give sufficient length to the toe. The same
+thing may be seen in some other animals, and it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span>
+is interesting as shewing the first indication of departure
+from what may be called the standard
+number of the phalanges. In the <span class="smcap">Hippopotamus</span>
+(fig. 40) we have an additional stage of imperfection
+in this same toe; for here there is only one
+small bone to remind us of the existence of the toe
+(it is the same in the Rhinoceros, <span class="lowercase smcap">I.</span>); all the rest
+have failed to be developed; and the animal, consequently,
+goes upon <i>four</i> toes. Next the failure
+appears on the <i>out</i>er side of the foot, and affects
+the little toe. Thus, the <span class="smcap">Rhinoceros</span> (fig. 41)
+goes upon <i>three</i> toes—namely, Nos. <span class="lowercase smcap">II.</span> <span class="lowercase smcap">III.</span> and <span class="lowercase smcap">IV.</span>—and
+there is scarcely a trace either of the first
+toe or of the fifth. In Ruminating animals, as the
+<span class="smcap">Ox</span> (fig. 42), the second toe is wanting, as well as
+the first and the fifth; so that the foot rests upon
+<i>two</i> toes (Nos. <span class="lowercase smcap">III.</span> and <span class="lowercase smcap">IV.</span>); and in the <span class="smcap">Horse</span> (fig.
+43), as we have already seen, only <i>one</i> toe—the
+middle one (No. <span class="lowercase smcap">III.</span>)—is developed sufficiently to
+reach the ground.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowp26" id="f44" style="max-width: 5.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f44.jpg" alt="Leg and foot bones">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_44">44</a>. Gorilla.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Whatever pretensions to Humanity the <span class="smcap">Monkey</span>
+may make—and they are sufficiently striking
+to render some persons very uncomfortable on the
+score of relationship—he is certainly far removed
+from us in the construction of the foot (fig. 44);
+and the good people to whom I have alluded may
+derive consolation from the reflection that, in this
+respect at least, there is very little indication of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span>
+cousinship. Indeed we ought not to speak of his
+<i>foot</i> at all; for the part which corresponds with the
+human foot does not even deserve that name. It
+is so much more like a hand, that the term four-handed,
+or <i>quadrumanous</i>, is by naturalists applied
+to this class of animals. There is scarcely any
+plantar arch; the animal bears, chiefly, upon the
+outer edge of the foot; the digits are long and
+strong; and the inner one, instead of being parallel
+with the others, diverges from them so as to constitute
+a true <i>thumb</i> instead of a great toe. All these
+points are very suitable for enabling the animal to
+cling to branches of trees, and for other prehensile
+purposes; but they unfit him for the upright posture,
+and render it impossible for him to walk
+steadily upon his lower limbs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowp57" id="f45" style="max-width: 16.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f45.jpg" alt="Drawing of stuffed specimen">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_45">45</a>. Gorilla.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the great ape called the <span class="smcap">Gorilla</span>, which is
+found in the south-western part of Africa, and of
+which many specimens have now been sent to this
+Country, the <i>hind-hand</i> is of great size and strength,
+as may be seen in the accompanying drawing made
+from a stuffed specimen in the British Museum.
+The lower part of the leg is also very thick,
+owing to the size of the muscles which move the
+great toe and the other digits, and which enable
+them to give a most powerful grasp. So strong
+and savage is the creature that all efforts to capture
+one alive, when full-grown, have, hitherto,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span>
+failed. He is said to give evidence of his strength
+of hand and of his amiable propensities in the following
+way. He swings by his fore-hands from
+the trees, and, letting himself down quietly by
+them, watches an opportunity of seizing by the
+neck, with his huge hind-hand, some unwary Negro
+who may be passing by, draws him up, and holds
+him with vice-like grasp, till his struggles have
+ceased, and then drops him a strangled corpse to
+the ground.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the characters above mentioned as distinctive
+of the human foot—such as its compactness
+and strength, the height of the plantar arch,
+the shortness of the toes—are, like the size of the
+calf, most marked in the higher members of the
+human family, in those, that is to say, who are
+gifted with the highest intelligence. Thus the
+formation of the foot is found to have a correspondence
+with the formation of the head, and may,
+like it, be, to a certain extent, taken, as I have
+before remarked, to be an index of intellectual, as
+well as of physical, capacity. The relation between
+the intellectual power and the physical conformation
+of man, which is here exemplified, and which
+is maintained throughout the frame, is a subject
+of extreme interest, and is one which has not attracted
+the attention of anatomists and ethnologists
+so much as it deserves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span></p>
+
+<p>To what secondary causes this harmonious
+adaptation of body to mind may be due, we cannot
+clearly tell; but we can see in it a provision
+for giving physical ascendancy to superior intellect.
+And it is most gratifying to be able to derive,
+as we may do, from this as well as from the
+observation of the past and the present, the assurance
+that the cultivation of the mind, provided
+its moral tone be preserved and proper sanitary
+precautions be taken, is not likely to be attended
+with any deterioration of the body. On the contrary,
+we have good reason to believe that the
+present civilized nations of the earth, with their
+higher mental culture, are inferior to none of their
+predecessors in the qualities of the body; surely
+soldiers never maintained a hand-to-hand struggle
+better than the victors at Inkermann; and we know
+that the civilized nations are physically superior
+to most of the uncivilized. We have good ground,
+therefore, to hope that the extension of education
+and commerce will be productive, on the whole, of
+an improvement of the physical condition of the
+species.</p>
+
+<p>Sir James Emerson Tennent says that the Veddahs,
+or aboriginal inhabitants of Ceylon, use the
+foot in drawing the bow. They sit down, place
+the toe against it, and draw the string with the
+hand; and some of the American Indians appear<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span>
+to have used both feet in the same way. These
+Veddahs furnish a good illustration of the low physical
+condition which is usually associated with absence
+of mental culture. They are described as in
+a singularly degraded state. “They have scarcely
+any language, no knowledge of God, nor of a future
+state, no temples, no idols, no altars, prayers, or
+charms; and, in short, no instinct of worship, except
+it be some addiction to ceremonies, analogous
+to devil worship, to avert storms, lightning, and
+sickness. All presented the same characteristics of
+wretchedness and dejection—projecting mouths,
+prominent teeth, flattened noses, stunted stature,
+and other evidences of the physical depravity which
+is the usual consequence of hunger and ignorance.
+The children were unsightly objects, entirely naked,
+with misshapen joints, huge heads, and protuberant
+stomachs. The women were the most repulsive
+specimens of humanity I have ever seen
+in any country.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>The Proportions of the Limbs.</i></h3>
+
+<p>A few years ago I took the measurements of
+numerous skeletons which I found in the museums
+in France, Germany, and England, and made the
+following table to shew the proportions of the
+several parts.</p>
+
+<p>The length of the foot and hand is in all somewhat
+greater than it should be, in consequence of
+the bones composing them being usually less
+closely articulated in the artificial skeleton than
+they are in nature.</p>
+
+<p>From this it appears that the limbs of <span class="smcap">Man</span>
+differ from those of the <span class="smcap">Ape</span>, chiefly, in the proportionate
+length of the thigh and arm, and in
+the shortness of the foot and hand. And it will
+be seen that, in both these particulars, the <span class="smcap">Negro</span>
+differs from the <span class="smcap">European</span> and exhibits some approximation
+to the <span class="smcap">Ape</span>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="tac">MEASUREMENTS OF SKELETONS (IN INCHES).</p>
+
+<table id="skel" class="">
+<tr>
+<td class="tal ball" rowspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tac ball" rowspan="2"><div>Height.</div></td>
+<td class="tal btb" rowspan="2">&ensp;</td>
+<td class="tac btb" rowspan="2"><div>Middle point of.</div></td>
+<td class="tar btb" rowspan="2">&ensp;</td>
+<td class="tac ball" rowspan="2"><div>Spine, length of.</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball" rowspan="2"><div>Circum­ference of Skull.</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball" rowspan="2"><div>Humerus.</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball" rowspan="2"><div>Radius.</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball" rowspan="2"><div>Hand.</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball" rowspan="2"><div>Femur.</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball" rowspan="2"><div>Tibia.</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball" rowspan="2"><div>Foot.</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball" colspan="2"><div>Pelvis.</div></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>Trans. diameter.</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>Ant-post. diameter.</div></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tal ball" style="padding-left:0.8em; text-indent:-0.5em">European (average of 25)</td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>65</div></td>
+<td class="tar btb vab"><div><img src="images/39x6bl.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></div></td>
+<td class="tac btb"><div>Symphysis pubis.</div></td>
+<td class="tal btb vab"><img src="images/39x6br.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>22.2</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>20.5</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>12.7</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div> 9.2</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div> 7.3</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>17.88</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>14.4</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>10.6 </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>5.2</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>4.3</div></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tal ball" style="padding-left:0.8em; text-indent:-0.5em">Negro (average of 25)</td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>62</div></td>
+<td class="tar btb vab"><div><img src="images/39x6bl.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></div></td>
+<td class="tac btb"><div>1 inch below Symphysis.</div></td>
+<td class="tal btb vab"><img src="images/39x6br.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>19.3</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>19.8</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>12.1</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div> 9.4</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div> 7.7</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>17   </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>14.4</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>11.11</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>4.6</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>4.1</div></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tal ball" style="padding-left:0.8em; text-indent:-0.5em">Bosjesman (average of 3)</td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>54</div></td>
+<td class="tal btb"></td>
+<td class="tac btb"><div>Symphysis.</div></td>
+<td class="tar btb"></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>17  </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>19.6</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>10.8</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div> 8.3</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div> 6  </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>15   </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>12.9</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div> 7.5 </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>4.4</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>3.5</div></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tal ball" style="padding-left:0.8em; text-indent:-0.5em">Idiot (in Berlin Museum)</td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>57</div></td>
+<td class="tal btb"></td>
+<td class="tac btb"></td>
+<td class="tar btb"></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>19.5</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>13.5</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>12  </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div> 8.8</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div> 7  </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>16   </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>12.5</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div> 8.5 </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>5  </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>3.8</div></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tal ball" style="padding-left:0.8em; text-indent:-0.5em">Chimpanzee (average of 4)</td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>50</div></td>
+<td class="tar btb"><div><img src="images/39x6bl.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></div></td>
+<td class="tac btb"><div>3 inches above Symphysis.</div></td>
+<td class="tal btb"><img src="images/39x6br.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>17  </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>12.2</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>11  </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div> 9  </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>12.4 </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>10  </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>10.5 </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>4  </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>5.5</div></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tal ball" style="padding-left:0.8em; text-indent:-0.5em">Orang (average of 2)</td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>44</div></td>
+<td class="tar btb"><div><img src="images/39x6bl.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></div></td>
+<td class="tac btb"><div><span class="nowrap">3<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span></span> inches above Symphysis.</div></td>
+<td class="tal btb"><img src="images/39x6br.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>18  </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>14  </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>14  </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>10  </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>10.6 </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div> 9.2</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>12   </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>3.8</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>4.5</div></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tal ball" style="padding-left:0.8em; text-indent:-0.5em">Gorilla (average of 3)</td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>58</div></td>
+<td class="tar btb"><div><img src="images/39x6bl.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></div></td>
+<td class="tac btb"><div>4 inches above Symphysis.</div></td>
+<td class="tal btb"><img src="images/39x6br.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>21  </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>16.6</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>12.9</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div> 9  </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>13.9 </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>11.3</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>12   </div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>5.7</div></td>
+<td class="tac ball"><div>7.3</div></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span></p>
+
+<p>I found, also (the tables shewing this are given
+in my work on the Human Skeleton), that these
+characteristic proportions of the European are
+brought out only during growth; for that in the
+early periods of infancy the foot and hand are,
+relatively, very long, and the thigh is actually
+shorter than either the leg or the foot, and the
+arm is shorter than either the forearm or the
+hand; and it is only, gradually, during the advance
+to manhood, that the proper proportions
+are attained. So that the transient or immature
+condition of the human frame shews certain resemblances
+to the permanent Negro type and to
+that of the quadrumanous animals; and these
+resemblances become obliterated during further
+growth.</p>
+
+<p>The accounts of travellers indicate that some
+other nations present great varieties in the proportion
+which the length of the foot and hand
+bears to the height. Bushmen and Hottentots
+are very diminutive, commonly under 5 feet in
+height; and their hands and feet are remarkably
+small and delicate, in which respect they differ
+from Negroes. Mr Bartram observes with regard
+to the Cherokees or Muscogulges—a tribe of North
+American Indians—that the women are, perhaps,
+the smallest race of women yet known, almost all
+under 5 ft.; and their hands and feet are not larger
+than those of Europeans of 9 or 10 years of age.
+He tells us, also, what is very strange, that the
+men of this same tribe are of gigantic stature, “a
+full size larger than Europeans,” many of them
+above, and a few under, 6 ft.; but he says nothing
+of the size of their hands and feet. The hands
+and feet of the Patagonians are said to be very
+small. This may be contrary to what we might<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span>
+expect; but it accords with what I found to be
+the case in the skeletons of some Giants which I
+measured; for in all of them the feet and the
+hands were disproportionately short. It would
+seem, therefore, that, whether the stature of the
+individual be diminutive or gigantic, the foot and
+the hand, in either case, are, usually, less than
+their proper relative length. A greater number of
+accurate data are, however, necessary to enable us
+to generalise correctly upon this and other points
+of a like nature, or to decide what truth there is
+in the common remark, that a long foot in a child
+indicates a tall man.</p>
+
+<p>In former times the parts of the human body
+were used as measures; and it was not uncommon
+to illustrate the tables of measures by drawings
+of the human body, with descriptions of the foot,
+palm, &amp;c. One of the tables of the 16th century,
+derived in great part from the Romans and the
+Greeks, is founded upon the notion, which is not
+very far from the truth, that in the well proportioned
+man, the breadth of the palm is a 24th
+part of the whole stature, and the length of
+the foot a 6th part, and the length of the cubit—from
+the elbow to the end of the fingers—a 4th.
+The measures, however, varied at different times
+and in different countries, even though the names
+were the same. The latter have, in several instances,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span>
+remained, though the definite measure
+which they now indicate is different from what it
+was, and differs from that of the part of the body
+from which the name was taken. Thus, our present
+foot measure (twelve inches) is considerably
+more than the length of the human foot.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>The Skin of the Sole.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Skin</span> of the sole is soft and yet very tough
+and strong. It underlies a thick pad of fat, which
+separates it from the bones and the plantar ligament.
+The fat is interwoven with fibres passing,
+through it, from the tissue of the skin to the
+bones and ligaments. It is, in this way, rendered
+very firm, though it retains much of the soft
+quality of fat; and it forms an admirable cushion
+for receiving the weight of the body and defending
+from injurious pressure both the skin and
+the other parts of the foot. The fibres just mentioned
+bind the skin to the superjacent bones and
+ligaments, and hold it firmly to them, so as to
+prevent its being displaced from them in the
+movements of the foot upon the ground.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f46" style="max-width: 24.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f46.jpg" alt="Side view foot bones and sole">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_46">46</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The accompanying woodcut shows that these
+connecting fibres are most numerous where there
+is the greatest pressure, viz. beneath the heel and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span>
+the balls of the toes. It shows, too, that they
+take the direction at each of those parts which
+is most calculated to prevent displacement. Thus,
+at the heel their direction is chiefly from the heel-bone,
+backwards, to the skin. When we place the
+heel upon the ground in walking, the weight of
+the body has a tendency to drive the heel-bone
+<i>for</i>wards from the skin; and the direction of the
+fibres, from the heel-bone, <i>back</i>wards, just resists
+this tendency and holds the skin and the bone
+firmly together. On the contrary, when we withdraw
+the foot from the ground the pressure is
+in the opposite direction, and has a tendency to
+drive the metatarsal bones <i>back</i>wards from the
+skin. The course of the fibres is, consequently,
+changed. They, many of them at least, run <i>for</i>wards
+from the bones and prevent the displacement
+that would be likely to occur. This direction
+is also very marked, and for the same reason,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span>
+at the end of the great toe. A bundle of fibres
+radiates from the projecting process, or tubercle,
+which is conspicuous upon the under surface of
+the bone near its end; and the greater number
+of them run <i>for</i>wards, through the pulp of the toe,
+to the skin, and maintain the connection of the
+skin with the bone when the latter is pressed <i>back</i>wards
+in withdrawing the foot from the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The skin of the sole has a peculiar sensitiveness,
+which enables it to take quick cognisance
+of contact with the ground or of any injurious
+substances lying upon the ground. The sensitiveness
+in the foot is rather increased by its being
+so much covered up. We are aroused to a consciousness
+of this sensitiveness when the soles are
+tickled, or when any one treads on our toes, especially
+if there happen to be a corn there. We
+know also how sensitive the feet are to cold, and
+how liable we are to catch cold from wet feet.
+This sensitiveness renders washing the feet a refreshing
+luxury, especially in hot climates or when
+we are fatigued. It is a luxury much indulged in
+by Eastern nations; “Mephibosheth had neither
+dressed his feet nor trimmed his beard from the
+day the king departed, until he came again in
+peace;” and among the Jews in our Saviour’s
+time (Luke vii. 38), when guests were made very
+welcome, their sandals were unloosed, and their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span>
+feet washed and carefully wiped, and, if the person
+were of high rank, anointed.</p>
+
+<p>The integument of the foot varies in different
+animals, according to the nature of the ground
+upon which they tread and other circumstances.
+Thus the Elephant, the Hippopotamus, and the
+Rhinoceros, living in jungles and in marshy districts,
+have a more or less soft covering of skin.
+Oxen and Horses gallop about upon dry ground;
+and their feet are soled with thick hoofs of horn.
+The Dog has tough pads of skin with thick cuticle
+upon his feet; and the feet of the Feline tribe
+are muffled with fur so as to enable them to approach
+their prey with a noiseless tread. Man’s
+foot is, by nature, like the rest of the surface
+of his body, comparatively unprotected; but as
+the foot, by its efficiency, emancipates the hand
+from the drudgery of carrying, so does the latter
+make some return for this relief by providing
+artificial coverings which enable the foot to tread
+upon various surfaces, and protect it against the
+inclemencies of the seasons.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>On Shoes.</i></h3>
+
+<p>A few words on the subject of <span class="smcap">Shoes</span>. No one
+will dispute the correctness of the principle that
+the shoe should be made to fit the foot; yet it is
+not a little remarkable that this principle is so
+often departed from in practice, and that the usual
+plan is to make the foot adapt itself to the shoe.
+That is, the shape of the shoe is determined according
+to the fancy of the maker or the dictates
+of fashion, and the foot is expected to mould itself
+accordingly. This is particularly the case with the
+fore part of the shoe, into which the toes, or most
+compliant parts of the foot, are squeezed. Thus,
+the shape of the sole of a sound foot is about that
+represented in fig. 47; the great toe is seen to be
+free from the others, and the line of its axis, prolonged
+backwards, traverses the centre of the heel.
+Compare this with the outline of the sole of a shoe
+as usually made; and the violence that is done to
+nature is at once perceived. The shoe is made
+quite symmetrical, or is curved a little in the part
+between the heel and the sole—in the “waist” as
+it is called—when the shoes are to be worn on the
+left and right foot respectively; and the toes, instead
+of being allowed to spread out a little, are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span>
+pressed together, and made to converge to a point
+in the line of the middle toe, as seen in fig. 48.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<div class="table">
+<div class="row">
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe8_4375" id="f47">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f47.jpg" alt="Normal alignment of toes">
+  <figcaption>Figs. <a href="#fignote_47">47</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe6_625" id="f48">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f48.jpg" alt="Unsatisfactory symmetrical shoe style">
+  <figcaption><a href="#fignote_48">48</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe7_375" id="f49">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f49.jpg" alt="Misaligned toes from poor-fitting shoes">
+  <figcaption><a href="#fignote_49">49</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe5_8125" id="f50">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f50.jpg" alt="Misaligned foot bones">
+  <figcaption><a href="#fignote_50">50</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The line of the great toe is thus quite altered,
+and the other toes are tightly wedged together
+(figs. 49 and 50); or, not being able to find room
+side by side, they overlap one another and form
+unsightly projections beneath the upper leather of
+the shoe. No wonder that “corns” and “bunions”
+and “in-growing toe-nails” are the frequent result
+of this treatment, and that so many persons are
+compelled to walk in a cautious, feeling manner,
+and to watch the ground narrowly, lest their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span>
+cramped and tender toes come into contact with
+a stone or other projecting body.</p>
+
+<p>How greatly to be lamented it is that the foot
+should be thus maltreated and distorted, and that
+walking should be made so painful, and that the
+shoe, which is intended to befriend and protect
+the foot, and which, if well fitted, would support
+it and preserve its shape, and make some amends
+to it for the rough hard roads upon which it is
+compelled to tread, should be thus perverted into
+a means of galling it and impairing its functions.</p>
+
+<p>This subject has been treated of in a simple
+and concise manner by Dr Meyer, Professor of Anatomy
+at Zurich, in a small pamphlet, which has
+been translated into English by Mr Craig, and entitled,
+“<i>Why the Shoe pinches</i>‍<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a>.” I hope it may be
+read by boot-makers, and may lead to some improvement
+in their art. Dr Meyer very properly
+remarks that one of the main points to be attended
+to is, to allow the great toe to have its normal position;
+and this can be done by making the inner
+edge of the sole incline <i>in</i>wards, from the balls of
+the toes, instead of <i>out</i>wards. The accompanying<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span>
+drawing (fig. 51) gives the outline of a shoe designed
+under his superintendence, and shows the
+difference between it and the usual shape, the latter
+being indicated by the dotted outline. In fig. 52
+the shoe is pointed, the pointing being effected
+from the outer side. I have often laboured, but
+laboured in vain, to impress the same point, and
+hope the more systematic attempt of Professor
+Meyer may lead to better results.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<div class="table">
+<div class="row">
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe8_625" id="f51">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f51.jpg" alt="Faulty and corrected shoe style ">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_51">51</a>.&emsp;</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe8_25" id="f52">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f52.jpg" alt="Faulty tapered shoe toe">
+  <figcaption>&emsp;Fig. <a href="#fignote_52">52</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>With regard to the <i>heel-piece</i>, I have already
+said that it should not be high because it makes
+the step less steady and secure, and at the same
+time shortens it, and impairs the action of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span>
+calf-muscle. A high heel-piece, moreover, renders
+the position of the foot upon the ground oblique,
+placing the fore part at a lower level than the
+heel; thus the weight is thrown too much in
+the direction of the toes, and they are driven forwards
+and cramped against the upper leather of
+the shoe. The high-heel of a boot, therefore, tends
+to aggravate the evils which are caused by the insufficient
+and ill-adjusted space which is allowed
+to the toes.</p>
+
+<p class="mt2em">This account of the foot has necessarily been
+very superficial and imperfect. There are many
+points in its anatomy to which I have not even
+alluded; but, if I have succeeded in giving you
+some idea of the general plan of its construction,
+and in stimulating you to further enquiry respecting
+the mechanism of the Human Frame, my purpose
+will have been served. Still more will it
+have been so, if you carry away with you some
+sense both of the Pride and of the Humility which
+the review of such a structure is calculated to excite—of
+pride, not selfish pride, but pride resulting
+from a consciousness of the nobility of your
+physical nature, a pride which will make you spurn
+what is bad and degrading, and will help you to
+aspire to what is elevated and good. The impressions
+resulting from a comparison of this one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span>
+fragment of Nature’s work with our own most
+laboured achievements must quell any other pride;
+and the very admiration with which we contemplate
+the structure of our body impels us to walk
+humbly with our God, whose gift that body is.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_HUMAN_HAND">THE HUMAN HAND.</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="dropcap">THE great characteristic of the Hand, as distinguished
+from the Foot, is the mobility of the
+first digit, or thumb. Accordingly when this digit
+stands out apart from the others, and can be
+moved independently of them, so as to be more or
+less completely opposed to them, in the upper or
+Mammalian Class of animals, at least, we call the
+member a Hand. When this digit is absent, or is
+fixed in the same manner as the others, which is
+the case in each of the four limbs of Quadrupeds,
+we call the member a Foot. In Monkeys, or in
+most of them, the thumb is present and is separate
+and moveable in each of the four limbs; and these
+animals are, therefore, called “quadrumanous” or
+“four-handed.” Man, having the moveable thumb
+upon each of the two upper limbs only, is “bimanous”
+or “two-handed.” By this peculiarity, perhaps
+more definitely than by any other, he is distinguished
+in structure from all the rest of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span>
+animal series; and naturalists have, accordingly,
+given the epithet “Bimanous” to the class in
+which he is placed, and in which he stands alone.</p>
+
+<p>The hand is the executive or essential part of
+the upper limb. Without it the limb would be
+almost useless. The whole limb is, therefore, so
+made as to give play and strength to the hand;
+and, in ever so brief a description of the hand, it
+is necessary, even more than in the case of the
+foot, to give some idea of the manner in which the
+other parts of the limb are constructed, and to
+dwell a little upon such points as have relation to
+its movements.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe25" id="f53">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f53.jpg" alt="Skeleton of arm and hand">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_53">53</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The general plan of construction of the upper
+limb will readily be understood by means of the
+drawings (figs. 53 and <a href="#f58">58</a>, p. 122). It resembles<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span>
+very much that of the lower limb (see fig. <a href="#f04">4</a>, page
+15). The one bone of the upper arm—the <i>humerus</i>—resembles
+the one bone of the thigh, and is
+jointed, above, with the shoulder-blade, which, with
+the collar-bone, corresponds with the pelvis. Below,
+it is connected with the two bones of the fore-arm—the
+<i>radius</i> and <i>ulna</i>; and these correspond
+with the two bones of the leg. In the wrist there
+are eight bones, called <i>carpal</i> bones, arranged in
+two rows. These are connected with five <i>metacarpal</i>
+bones; and these, like the metatarsals of the
+foot, are jointed with the <i>phalanges</i>. Of the latter
+there are three in each finger; but in the thumb,
+as in the great toe (page <a href="#Page_10">10</a>), there are only two.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowe10_125" id="f54">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f54.jpg" alt="Diagrammatic drawing of hand bones">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_54">54</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The diagram shows how the bones of the hand
+are arranged in three divisions. Thus, the upper
+row of carpal bones (3, 4, 5) consists, practically,
+of three bones; the fourth (6), which is much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span>
+smaller than the others, being rather an appendage
+to one of them than a distinct constituent of
+the wrist. (According to this view, the number of
+the wrist-bones corresponds exactly with that of
+the tarsal bones of the foot, viz. 7). The <i>outer</i> of
+these three carpal bones (3) bears the thumb‍<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> and
+the fore-finger (<span class="lowercase smcap">I.</span> and <span class="lowercase smcap">II.</span>), and constitutes, with
+them, the outer division of the hand; the inner
+one (5) bears the ring-finger and the little finger
+(<span class="lowercase smcap">IV.</span> and <span class="lowercase smcap">V.</span>), and constitutes the <i>inner</i> division of
+the hand; and the middle one (4) bears the middle
+finger (<span class="lowercase smcap">III.</span>), and is the <i>middle</i> division of the
+hand. The diagram shows, too, that the two outer
+bones (3 and 4), with the two outer divisions of
+the hand, are connected with the radius; whereas
+the inner bone (5) only, with the inner division of
+the hand, is connected with the ulna. Strictly
+speaking, even this bone is not directly connected
+with the ulna, but is separated from it, as will be
+shown presently, by a thick ligament.</p>
+
+<p>You frequently hear ignorant persons (and the
+greater number of persons are lamentably ignorant
+of the structure of their own body) speaking of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span>
+<i>small bones</i> of the shoulder, or the <i>small bones</i> of
+the elbow. You may think this a matter of no
+importance, and that it does not concern you and
+people generally to have any knowledge of human
+anatomy. But I will tell you what is very often
+happening, and will leave you to judge whether
+such complete ignorance on this subject is not attended
+with some practical disadvantage. A man
+meets with an injury, falls and hurts his shoulder.
+The immediate effects of the injury subside; but
+he does not quickly recover the use of the part;
+he still cannot raise his elbow, or put his hand
+upon his head, or put it behind him. Soon he begins
+to think that something more is wrong than
+has been suspected; and the notion creeps over his
+mind, and gradually takes possession of it, that
+some small bone is displaced. Not content with
+the assurances of his medical man, he resorts to a
+quack, called a “bone-setter.” The latter, taking
+advantage of the popular fallacy, gratifies the patient
+with the information that his fears are correct,
+affirms that “a small bone is out,” and proceeds
+forthwith to employ the requisite forcible
+measures for putting the said “small bone” in. I
+need not say with what result. Every year, in
+this civilized country, many persons are maimed
+for life by these attempts to put imaginary small
+bones in. I beg you, therefore, particularly to observe<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span>
+that <i>there is no small bone</i> either at the
+shoulder or at the elbow. The only small bones
+are at the wrist; and these are so well fitted to
+one another, and so firmly bound together, that
+nothing short of a crushing force suffices to displace
+them. This remark respecting the small
+bones of the wrist is true of nearly all the small
+bones in other parts of the body. So that, in fact,
+small bones are very rarely dislocated; and when
+you hear it asserted that a small bone is out, you
+may pretty confidently conclude that the speaker
+does not know what he is talking about.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that the upper limbs resemble the
+lower in their general construction. There are,
+however, some important differences; and one
+of the chief of these is the greater variety and
+freedom of the movements in the upper limbs.
+<i>Strength</i>, for the purpose of carrying the body, is
+the object in the lower limbs. <i>Mobility</i> is the
+requisite in the upper limbs. Of this one example
+has already been given in the instance of the
+thumb as compared with the great toe.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Movements at the Shoulder.</i></h3>
+
+<p>An equally striking example is afforded by the
+shoulder. In the first place, the “Shoulder-blade”
+itself can be moved in several directions—upwards,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span>
+downwards, backwards and forwards;—whereas the
+“Pelvis,” i. e. the part which bears to the lower
+limb the same relation that the shoulder-blade
+does to the upper-limb, is immoveably fixed.</p>
+
+<p>Secondly, the “Shoulder-joint” is so made as
+to permit a great variety and extensive range of
+movements to take place. We can move the arm
+forwards or backwards, as in throwing a ball, or,
+in sword exercise; we can raise it so that the limb
+points straight upwards; and we can swing it
+round in any direction. It is owing to the free
+movement in this joint that we are able to apply
+the hand to every part of the body, so as to remove
+sources of irritation. It is interesting to
+observe how other animals get on without hands,
+though they are much exposed to what we should
+consider great annoyance, as from flies, &amp;c. The
+Cow, for instance, lashes its hide with its tail.
+The Cat licks itself with its tongue. The Sparrow
+dusts itself by the road-side. The Pig and the
+Donkey roll in the mud. And many of them, as
+the Horse and the Ox, have a thin muscle, called
+“panniculus carnosus,” spread out under the skin,
+which effects those sudden twitchings of the skin
+whereby they are enabled to jerk off anything
+that troubles them. In Man the hand answers
+better than all these methods combined; and it is
+necessary that it should do so, because his skin is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span>
+more sensitive and less protected by natural covering
+than that of any other animal.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowe10_9375" id="f55" style="width: 200px">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f55.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_55">55</a>.<br>Chest and shoulders of man.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>For this freedom of movement of the arms,
+so important to the usefulness of the hand, we
+are much indebted to the “Collar-bones.” These
+bones, so called because they are placed at the
+lower part of the <i>collum</i> or neck, extend, horizontally,
+from the upper edge of the breast-bone,
+to the processes of the blade-bones which overhang
+the shoulder-joint. Thus they hold the
+shoulders apart, and give width to the upper part
+of the chest. They also steady the shoulder-blades,
+and afford a <i>point d’appui</i> to the muscles which
+effect the lateral movements of the arms,—for
+instance, to the muscles which tend to draw the
+arms together, as when we hold anything, between
+the hands, in front of us; and to those which
+separate the arms from one another, as when we
+stretch them out at right angles with the body.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowe10" id="f56">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f56.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption >Fig. <a href="#fignote_56">56</a>.<br>Chest and shoulders of bird.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Many animals—the <span class="smcap">Elephant</span>, the <span class="smcap">Rhinoceros</span>,
+the <span class="smcap">Horse</span> and the <span class="smcap">Ox</span>—have no collar-bones;
+and they are only able to swing their fore
+limbs to and fro. They cannot execute any lateral
+movements. They cannot throw the limbs
+out sideways, nor press their fore feet together,
+so as to hold anything between them. If the
+horse wants to seize or hold any substance he
+must do it with his mouth. The Elephant has
+a special provision for the purpose of prehension
+in his trunk, which enables him to provide himself
+with food by pulling down the branches of
+trees. The <span class="smcap">Lion</span> and the <span class="smcap">Tiger</span> can press their
+fore paws together sufficiently to enable them to
+hold their prey, and fix it upon the ground, while
+they put the head down to it and pull at it and
+tear it with their teeth; and they are furnished
+with rudimentary, or half, collar-bones suspended
+in the flesh of the upper part of the chest; while
+the little <span class="smcap">Squirrel</span>, which sits upon its hind legs,
+and holds up the nuts between its fore paws to be
+nibbled, has complete collar-bones. So has the
+flying <span class="smcap">Bat</span>, the climbing <span class="smcap">Sloth</span> and the digging
+<span class="smcap">Mole</span>. In <span class="smcap">Birds</span> the collar-bones (fig. 56, <span class="lowercase smcap">AA</span>)
+are very large; and, for the purpose of giving
+them greater strength, they are united together
+in the middle line just above the breast-bone,
+forming what is commonly called the “merry-thought;”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> 
+and, as this is not sufficiently strong
+to resist the force of the powerful muscles which
+flap the wings and sustain the animal in the air,
+there are, in addition, stout “side-bones,” called by
+anatomists “coracoid bones.” These (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>) run, from
+the breast-bone (<span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>), in the same direction as the
+collar-bones, one, on either side, to the shoulder-blades
+(<span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>); and they afford even more efficient
+support to the shoulders than do the collar-bones.
+The coracoid bones are peculiar to oviparous
+animals, or nearly so. In some reptiles, as the
+<span class="smcap">Crocodile</span>, they quite supersede the collar-bones.</p>
+
+<p>These few examples are enough to show that
+freedom of movement of the arms, especially of
+lateral movement, is closely associated with, and,
+indeed, is dependent upon the shoulder-blades<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span>
+being supported and steadied by bones, which extend
+from the breast-bone to the shoulder-blades,
+and fasten the one to the other.</p>
+
+<p>But, even the powers and advantages conferred
+by nature have often some drawbacks; and
+this free play of the arm at the shoulder in man,
+of which we are speaking, and the provision for it
+afforded by the collar-bone, are no exceptions to
+the remark. It is necessary for so great a range
+of movement that the socket in the shoulder-blade
+should be shallow, and that the ligaments which
+connect the arm-bone with the blade-bone should
+be loose. Hence the shoulder-joint is weak as
+regards its ability to resist injury. The collar-bone
+also causes the shoulder to project so much
+that it is greatly exposed to injury and often
+bears the brunt of a fall. A man is thrown from
+a horse or is knocked down upon the ground, and,
+if anything prevents the hand being stretched out,
+the chances are that he falls upon the shoulder.
+True, the head is saved thereby; but the shoulder
+suffers. Hence the shoulder-joint is more often
+dislocated than any other; and no bone is more
+frequently broken than the collar-bone. Even in
+little children, in whom, notwithstanding their
+many tumbles, the other bones usually contrive to
+escape, the collar-bones are often broken; and
+in grown-up persons the shoulder is sometimes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span>
+dislocated by the mere action of the muscles, as
+in swimming, or throwing, or lifting a weight
+above the head.</p>
+
+<p>That you may understand the movements of
+the shoulder a little more fully, I will ask you to
+contrast the drawing (fig. <a href="#f58">58</a>), which shows the
+position of the blade-bone upon the chest in Man,
+with the drawing (fig. 57) of the corresponding
+parts of the Rhinoceros; and you will at once
+recognise several important differences, besides
+the presence of the collar-bone in the one and
+its absence in the other.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe30" id="f57">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f57.jpg" alt="Rhinoceros skull, neck and shoulder girdle">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_57">57</a>. Rhinoceros.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In the <span class="smcap">Rhinoceros</span> the chest is deep, from
+the back-bone to the breast-bone, and is flattened
+at the sides; and the depth of this part of the
+trunk is increased, slightly, by the breast-bone
+projecting, keel-like, underne1ath, and, much more,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span>
+by the spines of the back-bone running up into
+a high ridge, above. The blade-bone and the
+arm-bone are applied against the flat side of the
+chest, and lie, lengthways, between the spine and
+the breast-bone, nearly parallel with the broad
+flat ribs. The blade-bone has no process overhanging
+the shoulder-joint, and, as before said,
+there is no collar-bone. The short thick arm-bone
+descends nearly in a line with the blade-bone,
+and has huge processes at its upper end
+for the attachment of muscles. The parts are
+designed to bear the great weight of the animal,
+and to carry its ponderous head and horn; but
+the only movement of which they admit is a
+sliding of the blade-bone and arm-bone, backwards
+and forwards, upon the side of the chest.</p>
+
+<p>In animals of similar construction to the Rhinoceros,
+but of lighter frame, and of greater fleetness,
+the blade-bone is placed more obliquely,
+which gives freer and easier movement both to it
+and to the arm-bone. This, for instance, is the
+case with the well-bred horse, and if we want a
+quick-going horse, one that can lift his fore feet
+well, we should observe whether the shoulder-blade
+is oblique, and whether the spines of the back
+rise well above it. Such a horse is said to have
+“a good shoulder” and to be “well up.” He will
+carry a saddle well, and is not likely to trip.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span></p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowe11_25" id="f58">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f58.jpg" alt="Side view of human shoulder, arm and chest">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_58">58</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In <span class="smcap">Man</span> the chest has proportionately less
+depth and length, and greater breadth, than in
+any other animal; the breast-bone is quite flat;
+and the spines of the back are sloped downwards,
+so that they do not project beyond the level of
+the ribs and the blade-bones. Hence he can lie
+easily either upon the stomach or the back—a
+privilege which is shared with him by very few of
+the lower animals. Scarcely any of them can lie
+upon the back, or even upon the stomach without
+the help of the fore limbs. The donkey enjoys
+rolling over and over upon a dusty road,
+but he cannot poise himself for a minute upon
+his back.</p>
+
+<p>The sides of Man’s chest, moreover, are not
+<i>flat</i>, as in the Rhinoceros and Horse, but <i>rounded</i>,
+so that the blade-bones can revolve upon them
+to and fro, as well as slide upwards and downwards;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span>
+and the long arms—comparatively long,
+that is, from the shoulder to the elbow—hang
+quite free of the chest and form sharp angles with
+the blade-bones.</p>
+
+<p>The blade-bones are accommodated to the
+shape of the chest; for, instead of being elongated
+in a direction parallel with the ribs, they
+are prolonged downwards, along the sides of the
+chest, at right angles with the ribs. This prolongation
+of the lower part of the blade-bone is
+very important, inasmuch as it enables the muscles
+to hold the bone steady upon the wall of the
+chest, and so gives greater power to those muscles
+which pass from the blade-bone to the arm and
+act upon the shoulder-joint. Were it not for this
+provision the contraction of the muscles intended
+to raise the arm would quite fail to produce the
+desired effect, and instead of it would simply cause
+the shoulder-blade to revolve upon a transverse
+axis. That is to say, when we endeavoured to
+raise the arm our effort would merely have the
+effect of raising the hinder part of the shoulder-blade.</p>
+
+<p>In each of these particulars—in the form of
+the chest, and in the shape and direction of the
+shoulder-blade—the Monkey is intermediate between
+Man and the inferior animals. The Monkey’s
+chest is broad and round, in proportion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span>
+to its length, if we compare it with other animals;
+but this is less marked than in the human chest.
+And you perceive that the Monkey’s back-bones
+project, as they do in other animals, beyond the
+level of the ribs. The blade-bones are also like
+those of Man in being prolonged downwards, and
+in being carried, to a certain extent, across the
+ribs; but their lower angles do not run so far
+in this direction as they do in the human skeleton.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe20" id="f59">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f59.jpg" alt="Side view of monkey shoulder, arm and chest">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_59">59</a>. Monkey.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The movement of raising the arm, as in carrying
+the hand <i>outwards</i>, or pointing upwards, or
+putting the hand upon the head, is rather a
+difficult one, and requires the combined action of
+many muscles. It is, therefore, to be avoided by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span>
+persons to whom muscular straining is likely to
+be injurious; and the power of effecting this movement
+is easily impaired by accident or disease.
+A long time often elapses even after a slight
+bruise of the shoulder, before the person recovers
+the power of putting the hand upon the head.</p>
+
+<p>The exercise of raising the arms above the
+head is a good one for those in health, and is
+much, and wisely, recommended by the directors
+of gymnastics. It brings many muscles into play,
+not only those of the shoulder, but the muscles
+all round about the chest, viz. those which pass
+from the spine and ribs, as well as from the breast-bone,
+head, and pelvis, to the shoulder-blade and
+arm; and, thus, it tends to strengthen the spine
+and the chest, as well as the shoulders and arms.
+There is, perhaps, no exercise so good as this; and
+it is much to be regretted that the dress of young
+ladies, with its paraphernalia of stays and shoulder-straps,
+interferes so greatly with it. The frequency
+among them of “pigeon-breast” and “crooked
+spine” must, partly, be attributed to the confinement
+of the arms, caused by the mode of dress and the
+customs of life. One of the few opportunities afforded
+to the arms of availing themselves of this
+exercise is in the dressing-room during the process
+of brushing the hair. I would by all means, therefore,
+recommend young ladies to give sufficient<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span>
+time and attention to this part of the toilette, and
+not to delegate it to the lady’s maid. If, in addition,
+I suggest that it be commonly done with
+open window, I feel sure that I shall have a deservedly
+great authority among them—Miss Nightingale—on
+my side.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe7_75" id="f60">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f60.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_60">60</a>.<br>Elbow-joint.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The movement at the <span class="smcap">Elbow</span> is, merely, that
+of bending and straightening, in a hinge-like manner;
+yet there is a slight obliquity in the direction
+in which it takes place, an obliquity resembling
+that in the movement at the knee (page <a href="#Page_39">39</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Pronation and Supination of the Hand.</i></h3>
+
+<p>In the <span class="smcap">Forearm</span> and <span class="smcap">Hand</span> there is a movement
+with which we have nothing exactly corresponding
+in the leg. It is called “Pronation and
+Supination.” In <i>pronation</i> we turn the palm
+<i>down</i>wards, as in picking up any substance from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span>
+a table; in <i>supination</i> we turn the palm <i>up</i>wards,
+as a boy does when he holds out his hand for a
+caning, or for the more agreeable purpose of having
+a shilling put into it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pronation</span> and <span class="smcap">Supination</span> take place in the
+following manner. Each of the two bones of the
+forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist (fig. <a href="#f53">53</a>);
+ but one of them—the “ulna”—is chiefly connected
+with the elbow; and the other—the “radius”—is
+chiefly connected with the wrist, and, by
+means of the wrist, with the hand. The two bones
+are separate from one another, except at their
+ends. There they touch, and are jointed together
+in such a manner that the large lower end of the
+radius can play round, or partly round, the small,
+button-like, lower end of the ulna; and, in so
+doing, it carries the hand with it. In this movement
+the upper end of the radius (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, fig. <a href="#f60">60</a>) does
+not leave its place, but simply revolves, upon its
+own axis, on the surface of the arm-bone; and its
+edge turns in a notch cut for it in the upper end
+of the ulna (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>), which remains still.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<div class="table">
+<div class="row">
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe100" id="f61" style="max-width: 8.4375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f61.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_61">61</a>.<br>Hand supine.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe100" id="f62" style="max-width: 8.4375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f62.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_62">62</a>.<br>Hand prone.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the drawings (figs. 61 and 62) the relation
+of the parts in the supine and in the prone state
+is shown by the aid of a plumb-line falling from
+the part of the arm-bone upon which the upper
+end of the radius revolves. The line traverses the
+upper end of the radius, then passes along the interval<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span>
+between the two bones, then traverses the
+lower end of the ulna, and, finally, takes the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span>
+course of the ring finger. And, provided the limb
+be held vertically, the line traverses the same
+parts whatever be the position of the forearm and
+hand. It does so in complete supination, as shown
+in fig. 61; it does so in complete pronation, as
+shown in fig. 62; and it does so in every intermediate
+position. We may call it, therefore, the axis
+upon which the radius and the hand turn in pronation
+and supination; and, according to this representation,
+the ring finger remains stationary during
+the movement, while the other fingers and the
+thumb perform their partial revolutions around it.</p>
+
+<p>I have said there is no movement in the lower
+limb exactly like the pronation and supination of
+the forearm and hand. We have, it is true, a
+power of moving the leg upon the thigh in a
+somewhat similar manner; but this can only be
+done when the knee is bent. For instance, when
+sitting in a chair with the foot upon a fender, or
+with the toes upon the ground, we can make the
+foot revolve so as to turn the heel in or out. A
+little careful observation, however, will prove that
+this movement takes place, altogether, at the knee,
+and that <i>both</i> bones of the leg participate equally in
+it, the <i>whole</i> leg revolving with the foot. Whereas,
+in the case of the forearm, the movement takes
+place, partly, at the wrist, and, partly, at the elbow;
+and <i>one</i> bone (the ulna) remains <i>still</i> while<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span>
+the lower end of the other bone (the radius) revolves
+around it. Moreover, the pronation and
+supination of the hand and forearm are much more
+free than these movements of the foot and leg;
+and they take place with equal facility and freedom
+in any position of the limb. We can turn the
+palm up or down as easily when the elbow is
+straight as when it is bent.</p>
+
+<p>The movement of which I am speaking is so
+important to the usefulness of the hand, that I
+will call your attention to three of the muscles by
+which it is effected.</p>
+
+<p>And, let me remark, by the way, that all the
+movements in the solid parts of the body—probably
+all without exception, even the slight wrinklings
+of the skin that take place when it is exposed
+to cold—are the result of muscular action.
+Muscles are bundles of fibres which have usually a
+red colour and constitute what is commonly called
+the “flesh” or “lean meat” of animals. They are
+endued with the power of contracting or shortening
+themselves; and it is this property which
+gives rise to the various movements of animal
+bodies. At their ends muscles often dwindle into
+“tendons” or “sinews” which, though occupying
+much less space, and having no contractile power,
+are very strong, and serve to connect the muscles
+with the bones.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span></p>
+
+<p>One of the three muscles just mentioned (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>,
+fig. <a href="#f61">61</a>) passes from a projecting process on the inner
+side of the arm-bone, at its lower end, to the
+outer edge of the middle of the radius. Its contraction
+causes the radius to roll over, or in front
+of, the ulna. It thus pronates the hand, and is
+called a “<i>Pronator</i>” muscle. Another muscle (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>,
+fig. <a href="#f62">62</a>) passes, from a projecting process on the
+outer side of the arm-bone, to the inner edge of
+the radius near its upper part. It runs, therefore,
+in an opposite direction to the former muscle and
+produces an opposite effect, rolling the radius and
+the hand back into the position of supination.
+Hence it is called a “<i>Supinator</i>” muscle.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe29_75" id="f63">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f63.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_63">63</a>. The Biceps Muscle.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The third is a very powerful muscle. It is
+called the “<i>Biceps</i>” muscle (fig. 63), because it has
+<i>two</i> points of attachment to the shoulder-blade.
+It descends along the front of the arm, and, bulging
+there, forms a conspicuous feature, to which
+athletic persons are proud to point in evidence of
+their muscular development. Its tendon crosses
+over the front of the elbow, and is inserted into
+the hinder edge of a stout tubercle which is seen
+on the inner side of the radius near its upper end.
+The chief effect of this muscle is to bend the
+elbow; but it also rotates the radius so as to supinate
+the hand; and it gives great power to that
+movement. When we turn a screw, or drive a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span>
+gimlet, or draw a cork, we always employ the <i>supinating</i>
+movement of the hand for the purpose;
+and all screws, gimlets, and implements of the like
+kind, are made to turn in a manner suited to that
+movement of the right hand, because mechanicians
+have observed that we have more power to supinate
+the hand than to pronate it, though they are,
+probably, not aware that the preponderating influence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span>
+of the <i>biceps</i> muscle is the cause of the difference.</p>
+
+<p>The movement of which I am speaking is
+performed to its full extent only by Man.
+Monkeys cannot completely supinate the hand;
+and in most of the lower animals the part
+corresponding with the hand remains nearly,
+or quite, fixed in a state of pronation. Even in
+Man, complete supination is rather a constrained
+and awkward position. It is not a position which
+is habitual or natural to us. When we see any
+one sitting or walking with the palms turned forward
+it strikes us as strange, and the idea is suggested
+to us that the individual must be strange
+too, that, possibly, his head may be a little turned
+as well as his hands. In a state of ease the hand
+is naturally more or less prone; so that when it is
+desired to place the forearm or hand at rest, as in
+case of disease or injury, the prone position is
+usually selected. If the forearm be broken, for instance,
+the surgeon sets the fracture and fixes the
+limb with the hand prone or semiprone. This is,
+also, the position of greatest strength, as well as of
+most ease. Hence, in striking a blow, or carrying
+a weight, or making any strong muscular effort,
+the palm is always kept more or less inturned.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>The Wrist.</i></h3>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe20_625" id="f64">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f64.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_64">64</a>. Wrist-joints.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>This drawing (fig. 64) represents what is seen
+when a section has been made, from side to side,
+through the wrist and lower part of the forearm.
+It gives an idea of the mode in which the several
+bones of the wrist are adapted to one another and
+held together by ligaments. The upper three
+wrist-bones (<span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">E</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>) are joined together, so as to
+present a convex surface, which is received into a
+wide cup, or socket, formed by the end of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span>
+radius (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>) and a ligament passing from the radius
+to the ulna (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>); and, in pronation and supination,
+the end of the radius, together with this ligament
+and the wrist-bones, revolves upon the end of the
+ulna.</p>
+
+<p>All the bones here represented are so well fitted
+to one another, and so strongly bound together,
+that, as I have before said, displacement very
+rarely occurs among them. We sometimes <i>hear</i> of
+a dislocation of the wrist, but very seldom <i>see</i> one.
+The wrist is often bruised, or its ligaments strained,
+by falls upon the hand; or, what very often happens,
+especially after the middle period of life, the
+bones of the forearm are broken a little above the
+wrist.</p>
+
+<p>You might think that, in such an accident, the
+radius only would suffer, inasmuch as it is especially
+connected with the wrist-bones, and so receives
+the force directly from the hand. But, if
+you observe the line of contact of the radius and
+ulna (running from <span class="lowercase smcap">F</span>), you will see that it is oblique,
+and that its direction is such as to cause the
+ulna to support the radius, and to receive some
+of the force from it; and this disposition, which
+makes the ulna share the duties of the radius,
+makes it, also, share the dangers; hence, it is very
+frequently involved with the radius in fracture of
+the forearm.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span></p>
+
+<p>By the joints of the wrist we are enabled to
+move the hand backwards and forwards, and also
+slightly sideways.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>The Movements of the Hand.</i></h3>
+
+<p>I come now to speak more particularly of the
+movements that take place in the Hand. I have
+already said that the mobility of the thumb is the
+chief characteristic of the hand as distinguished
+from the foot. Another important distinction between
+the hand and the foot is the greater length
+and mobility of the fingers as compared with the
+toes. The toes are short; and our power of moving
+them is, under any circumstances, slight. They
+constitute a small, and, comparatively, unimportant,
+part of the foot. The fingers, on the contrary,
+are long; they form a half, and, including
+the thumb, the more important half, of the hand.
+Without them the rest of the hand, indeed the
+rest of the limb, would be comparatively useless.
+Their movements are varied and free, and take
+place with singular facility and rapidity. We can
+bend them quite down upon the palm, and can
+extend them beyond the straight line; we can
+separate them from one another to a considerable
+extent; and we can bring them together with some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span>
+force, as a waiter does when he carries a number
+of wine-glasses between his fingers; and persons
+who have lost the thumb contrive to hold a pen, a
+knife or fork, or other things, between the fingers.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowe8_875" id="f65">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f65.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_65">65</a>.<br>Muscles of forearm and hand.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Let me endeavour to give you an idea of some
+of the muscles which are concerned in executing
+these movements.</p>
+
+<p>The wrist and hand are bent forwards upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span>
+the forearm by means of three muscles (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>,
+fig. 65). These all pass downwards from the inner
+side of the lower end of the armbone. The outer
+and inner ones (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span> and <span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>) are connected, by tendons,
+with the wrist-bones; and the tendon of the middle
+one (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>) runs over the wrist and becomes spread
+out in the palm like a fan, so as to support the
+skin of the palm and to protect the nerves and
+blood-vessels, which lie beneath it, from injurious
+pressure, when we grasp any substance firmly in
+the hand. The fan-like expansion of this tendon
+in the palm is called the “palmar fascia.” It is
+very strong, and is connected, below, with the
+ends of the metacarpal bones, and with the sheaths
+of the fingers. The bundle of muscles near <span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>
+forms what is called the “ball of the thumb,”
+and serves to move the thumb in various directions.</p>
+
+<figure class="figleft illowe8_875" id="f66">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f66.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_66">66</a>.<br>Muscles and tendons of hand.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Beneath these three muscles which bend the
+wrist and strengthen the palm lies another set of
+muscles (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, fig. 66) which bend the thumb and
+fingers. They pass from the bones of the forearm,
+and end in long tendons or “leaders”
+which run over the wrist and palm and along
+the fingers and are firmly connected with the
+last phalanges of the fingers. They lie close to
+the bones in their whole course, and are held
+in their places by sinewy cross bands and sheaths<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span>
+which are seen, both at the wrist and in the
+fingers, in fig. 65.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe8_75" id="f67">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f67.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_67">67</a>.<br>Muscles and tendons on back of forearm and hand.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Fig. 67 represents the muscles on the back
+of the forearm. The tendons pass from them,
+and run, some to the wrist and extend, or bend
+backwards, the wrist upon the forearm, some
+to the thumb and extend the several joints of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span>
+the thumb; and others run to the back of the
+fingers. These leaders lie nearer to the skin
+than do those on the palmar aspect; and most
+of those which go to the thumb and fingers may
+be distinguished through the skin. The short
+muscles (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>) situated upon and between the
+metacarpal bones pass from them to the sides<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span>
+of the fingers; some of these serve to spread
+the fingers out from one another, while others
+have the effect of drawing them together. There
+are several such small muscles on both surfaces
+of the hand, but I must not detain you by a
+description of them; and there are other little
+muscles passing from the flexor tendons to the
+phalanges, which have been called <i>fidicinales</i>,
+from their assisting in performing the short
+quick motions of the fingers, and from their
+being, accordingly, called into action in playing
+upon the violin and other musical instruments.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Movements of the Thumb.</i></h3>
+
+<p>In its adaptation to the purposes of bearing
+the weight and ministering to the locomotion
+of the body the human foot excels that of any
+other animal; and, unquestionably, the human
+hand is not less preeminently distinguished by
+the nicety, the variety, and the freedom of its
+movements. This is shown by the manner in
+which it can be twisted about, by the exquisite
+play of the fingers; and it is shown, above all,
+by the mode in which the thumb can be moved
+to and fro, can be opposed to the other fingers,
+and to any part of them individually and collectively,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span>
+and can be folded beneath them or
+clasped upon them as occasion may require.</p>
+
+<p>The power which the thumb possesses, and
+gives to the hand, is signified by its name—“pollex,”—derived
+from the Latin word <i>pollere</i>,
+which means to have power. Some have supposed
+that the word “poltroon” is derived from
+<i>pollice truncato</i>, and signifies one so cowardly
+that he has submitted to have his thumb cut
+off in order that he may be incapacitated for
+fighting.</p>
+
+<p>The faculty which we possess of moving the
+thumb in the way I have mentioned, athwart
+the other fingers, and of touching any part of
+the palmar surface of either of them depends,
+partly, upon its being set, not quite in the
+same plane with them, but, obliquely, so that
+when it is moved towards the palm it faces or
+opposes the other fingers; and, partly, upon the
+nature of the joint between its metacarpal bone
+and the bone of the wrist with which it is connected.</p>
+
+<p>This joint is so constructed as to admit of
+three different movements. <i>First</i>, the thumb can
+be moved forwards or backwards, that is, towards,
+or, away from, the palm. <i>Secondly</i>, it can be
+“adducted” or “abducted,” that is, approximated
+to the forefinger or inclined away from it.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span>
+<i>Thirdly</i>, it can be “circumducted,” that is, its
+extremity can be made to describe a circle, as
+in “twiddling the thumbs.” These several movements
+are effected with great power and rapidity
+by means of the bundle of muscles which forms
+the “ball of the thumb” (fig. <a href="#f65">65</a>. <span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>), as well
+as by the long muscles and tendons which descend,
+from the forearm, to the thumb.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Movements of the metacarpal bones of the
+Fingers upon the Wrist.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The movements of the thumb, through the
+medium of its metacarpal bone, upon the wrist
+are much more free than those of any of the
+other fingers. The middle finger, indeed, has its
+metacarpal bone set upon the wrist so fixedly
+as to admit of scarcely any such movement. The
+forefinger can be thus moved a little; the ring
+finger more and the little finger still more.</p>
+
+<p>You may easily prove this by taking the
+knuckles or heads of the respective metacarpal
+bones of one hand between the fingers and
+thumb of the other hand, when you will find
+that you can press the knuckle of the little
+finger backwards and forwards in a very perceptible
+manner. Then try the knuckle of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span>
+ring finger; the movement is distinct, though
+not so free as in the case of the little finger.
+The knuckle of the forefinger you will find to
+be almost fixed; and in that of the middle finger
+you will be unable to perceive any movement at
+all.</p>
+
+<p>In fact the joints of the metacarpal bones of
+the fingers with the wrist resemble those of the
+outer four toes with the tarsus; and the drawings
+of these joints of the foot (figs. <a href="#f22">22</a> to 25)
+will serve sufficiently well to illustrate those of
+the hand.</p>
+
+<p>These movements of the metacarpal, or knuckle,
+bones upon the wrist enable us to increase or
+diminish the hollow of the palm by bringing
+its edges more or less forward. Thus, when we
+make a cup of the hand we bring forward the
+metacarpal bones of the thumb and the little
+finger, wrinkling the skin of the palm; and
+when we spread the hand open we carry those
+bones backwards, rendering the skin of the palm
+tense.</p>
+
+<p>These movements, moreover, enable us to
+bring the little fingers and the thumb more easily
+into contact.</p>
+
+<p>Have you ever wondered what advantage is
+gained by the fingers and thumb all differing
+from one another in length; or don’t you take<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span>
+the trouble to reflect upon little matters of this
+sort? If you have, I would ask you now to remark
+that there is, in the several fingers, a relation
+between their shortness, their position near
+the edge of the hand, and the amount of mobility
+of their metacarpal bones upon the wrist. Thus
+the finger which is in the middle of the hand is
+the longest, and its metacarpal is the most fixed.
+The fore-finger is not quite so long; and its metacarpal
+is rather less immovable. The ring-finger
+comes next in shortness and in the mobility of
+its metacarpal. Then the little finger; and the
+thumb which is much shorter than any other has
+also its metacarpal much more moveable.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowe13_75" id="f68">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f68.jpg" alt="Hand position holding a ball">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_68">68</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Observe, further, that, when the fingers and
+thumb are separated from one another, and then
+bent, the middle knuckle-bone remains stationary,
+but the others are advanced a little forwards, each
+to an extent proportionate to its mobility upon
+the wrist, and to the shortness of the finger. The
+fore-finger is, by this means, advanced a little,
+the ring and the little fingers more, and the
+thumb most of all. And the result is, that the
+tips of the fingers and the thumb come all to a
+level, and form, with the palm, a great hollow in
+which we can grasp any substance, a cricket-ball,
+for instance, and hold it very firmly. The length
+of the several fingers and the thumb is, therefore,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span>
+just so regulated, in relation to their mobility
+upon the wrist, as to give us this power.</p>
+
+<p>You may observe, also, that when the fingers
+and the thumb are spread out the space between
+the thumb and the fore-finger is considerably
+greater than either of the spaces between the other
+fingers. Then, by a slight movement, the thumb
+takes up a position in front of, or opposite to,
+the fingers; and in grasping any substance it
+has to antagonise the pressure exerted by all
+the fingers. Hence it needs to be much stronger
+than they are, and to be wielded by more
+numerous and more powerful muscles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Middle Finger</span> is not only the longest
+and the largest finger; it is also, to a certain
+extent, the centre about which the others move.
+Thus, when the fingers are bent down into the
+palm, their tips all converge towards the middle
+finger; and when they are spread out, they all
+diverge from it. Its greater length and the
+greater prominence of its knuckle, expose this
+finger to injury more than any of the others;
+which may account for the fact that Surgeons
+are called upon to amputate the middle finger
+more frequently than either of the other fingers
+or the thumb.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Fore-finger</span> has the greatest range of independent
+movement. Hence it is used to point
+with, and is called the “Index” or “Indicator”
+finger.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Writing.</i></h3>
+
+<p>In <span class="smcap">Writing</span> the pen should be held between
+the pulps of the fore and middle fingers and the
+thumb, in contact with all three, and firmly lodged
+between them. The down-stroke is made by bending
+the phalanges of the fingers and the thumb
+inwards and the metacarpal bone of the thumb
+outwards; and the up-stroke is made by straightening
+all the joints of the fingers and thumb.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span>
+The hand rests lightly, not upon its whole
+edge, but, upon the hindermost and foremost
+parts of the edge, that is, upon the pisiform
+bone of the wrist and upon the little finger near
+the end, so that it can be moved easily along the
+paper, and can be inclined, or rolled, a little to
+either side. The obliquity of the stroke is not
+imposed by mere arbitrary rule, but is in accordance
+with the direction in which there is the freest
+movement of the fingers and thumb when thus
+holding the pen. Make the experiment for yourselves
+of moving the pen in different directions,
+and you will soon be satisfied that the writing-master
+has nature on his side in insisting on a
+particular movement as well as a particular mode
+of holding the pen. Some persons make the
+strokes vertical, or slope them the wrong way;
+but in either case the writing is stiff and awkward;
+it is not natural.</p>
+
+<p>The custom of writing from left to right may
+also be regarded as correct or natural, inasmuch
+as we can move the pen more freely upwards and
+<i>out</i>wards than upwards and <i>in</i>wards. Hence the
+light <i>up</i> or advancing stroke—that which connects
+a letter with the one which follows it—is most
+easily made <i>out</i>wards or to the right; and the letters
+are, consequently, made to follow one another
+in that direction. To understand this more clearly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span>
+make a down-stroke upon paper in the usual
+manner; you will then find that you can make
+up-strokes from any part of it more easily to the
+right than to the left; and if you make a series of
+continuous up-and-down-strokes at a little distance
+from one another, the up-stroke is, not
+merely habitually, but naturally, made fine and
+inclined to the right, whereas the down-stroke
+is made heavier or thicker and is sloped to the
+left. Moreover, you will perceive that the hand
+slides along the paper more easily from left to
+right than from right to left.</p>
+
+<p>It is worthy of remark that the writing of all
+that great class of languages called Indo-European,
+which includes Sanscrit, Greek, Latin, and many
+others, with our own, is from left to right; whereas
+nearly all the writing of another great class called
+the Semitic, which includes the Hebrew and Arabic,
+is in the opposite direction, viz. from right to
+left. Some nations write in perpendicular columns,
+the letters being placed under one another, of
+which the Chinese affords an example. But either
+of the two latter methods must be inferior to the
+Indo-European style in ease of execution and expedition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Reason for the Ring being usually placed upon the
+Fourth finger.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Ring-finger</span> has less independent movement
+than either of the others. It cannot be bent
+or straightened much without being accompanied
+by one or both of those next it. This is, partly,
+because its extensor tendon is connected, by means
+of a band of fibres, with the tendon on either side
+of it. You may discern these connecting bands
+working up and down under the skin of the back
+of your hand when you move the fingers to and fro
+(they are represented in fig. <a href="#f67">67</a>). The ring-finger
+is, therefore, always, more or less, protected by the
+other fingers; and it owes to this circumstance a
+comparative immunity from injury, as well, probably,
+as the privilege of being especially selected
+to bear the ring in matrimony. The left hand is
+chosen for a similar reason; a ring placed upon it
+being less likely to be damaged than it would be
+upon the right hand.</p>
+
+<p>Other reasons have been given for this preference.
+It has been attributed to a notion among
+the ancients that the ring-finger is connected with
+the heart by means of some particular nerve or
+vessel, which renders it a more favourable medium<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span>
+than the other fingers for the reception and transmission
+of sympathetic impressions; the left hand
+being selected, in preference to the right, because
+it lies rather nearer to the heart.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowe9_75" id="f69">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f69.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_69">69</a>.<br>Nerves of hand.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span></p>
+
+<p>Some slight foundation for such a notion might
+be imagined to exist in the fact (supposing the ancients
+to have been acquainted with it) that the
+distribution of the nerves to the ring-finger is
+rather peculiar. The peculiarity will be readily
+understood by reference to the accompanying
+drawing (fig. 69). Two chief nerves are seen descending,
+in their course from the brain, along the
+arm and forearm, to supply sensation to the palmar
+surface of the hand. One (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>), the larger of the
+two, passes in front of the middle of the wrist, and
+divides into branches which are distributed to the
+skin of the thumb, of the fore and middle fingers,
+and of the <i>out</i>er side of the ring-finger. The other
+nerve (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>) lies on the <i>in</i>ner side of the forearm and
+wrist, and its branches go to the skin of the little
+finger, and of the inner side of the ring-finger.
+You see, therefore, that there is, in this finger, a
+meeting of the branches of the two nerves; the
+two sides of the finger being supplied by different
+nerves. It would be a mistake, however, to suppose
+that it gains any superiority in sensitiveness
+or sympathetic relations by this arrangement; and
+this distribution of the nerves certainly does not
+offer so probable an explanation of the selection of
+that finger for the honourable office of ring-bearer
+as the one I have suggested.</p>
+
+<p>I must remark, here, that the nerve (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>), in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span>
+passing from the arm to the forearm, lies on the
+inner side of the back of the elbow, and is popularly
+known by the misnomer of the “funny-bone‍<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a>.”
+It lies, pretty much out of harm’s way, in a well-protected
+channel between two bones. Nevertheless,
+it is now and then hurt; and you know that
+when the “funny-bone” is struck, a peculiar pain,
+or tingling, is experienced along the little finger
+and the adjacent side of the ring-finger.</p>
+
+<p>The practice of wearing rings upon the hand is
+a very ancient one. In some instances they were
+badges of slavery. More generally they were marks
+of high esteem or authority; as when “Pharaoh
+took off his ring from his hand and put it upon
+Joseph’s hand,” and when “Ahasuerus took off his
+ring, which he had taken from Haman, and gave it
+to Mordecai.” The Roman knights also wore rings
+of gold. Sometimes rings were worn as charms
+against diseases; a practice which has been revived
+in our own day. They were placed upon any of
+the fingers, and upon the right hand as well as
+the left. Thus we read in Jeremiah, “though
+Coniah the son of Jehoiakim king of Judah were
+the signet upon my right hand.” The preference
+of the left hand and of the ring-finger seems to be
+comparatively modern, originating, probably, when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span>
+the ring was made lighter and more fragile, and
+was, at the same time, adorned with precious
+stones, and when it became, therefore, desirable
+to place it upon the part of the hand where it is
+least exposed to injury.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>The Monkey’s Hand.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Most of you have spent some time in watching
+the inmates of that interesting part of a zoological
+collection, the <span class="smcap">Monkeys’</span> cage, and have observed
+how nearly the hand of that animal resembles the
+human hand, in the presence of a thumb, in the
+variety and celerity of its movements, in the facility
+with which it can catch and pick up objects
+and hold them up to the mouth, and in some other
+points. A little closer observation, however, will
+show that there are some differences between the
+two. The several parts do not bear the same relation
+to one another in the Monkey’s hand which
+they do in the human hand; neither have they quite
+so great variety or range of movement. The hand
+is altogether narrower, and straighter. The thumb
+is shorter and less strong, scarcely reaching beyond
+the knuckle of the fore-finger. The fingers, on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span>
+contrary, are longer and of more uniform length;
+they do not admit of being separated so widely
+from each other in a fan-like manner; and the
+metacarpal bones at the edges of the hand, i. e.
+the metacarpal bones of the thumb and of the ring
+and little fingers, have not the same amount of
+play upon the wrist. Hence the thumb and the
+fingers of the Monkey cannot be opposed to one
+another so easily as in man; neither can they be
+so advanced in front of the middle finger as to
+form a hollow or cup, in the way I described when
+speaking of the hollow of the palm and the different
+lengths of the fingers in the Human hand.
+When you throw a Monkey a nut he usually picks
+it up and holds it between the thumb and the <i>side</i>
+of the bent fore-finger, not between the tips of the
+thumb and fingers. The length of the fingers
+adapts the Monkey’s hand well for clasping firmly
+the branches of trees, and assisting the animal to
+climb about in its native forests, or to hold on to
+the bars of its cage; and so the part answers the
+requirements of the creature better than if these
+qualities had been sacrificed to a greater regard
+for variety and range of movement.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>The Hand the Organ of the Will.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The human hand is peculiarly an organ devoted
+to the will, being more directly and completely
+under its influence than is any other part
+of the body. The <span class="smcap">Will</span>, remember, is that self-directing
+faculty which can be said to exist, definitely
+and decidedly, in Man alone, which is
+associated in him with the responsibility attaching
+to the selection between good and evil, and
+which is given to him to fit him to be the reasonable
+servant of his Maker, and upon which, therefore,
+his dignity, and his capability for occupying
+a position between the low animal and the
+high spiritual world, so much depend. How appropriate
+is it, then, that the will should have
+a special organ assigned as its more peculiar
+minister. It is to the complete subjection of
+the hand to the will, no less than to the combination
+of strength with variety and delicacy in
+its movements, that Man is indebted for his dominion
+over the rest of the animal world, and for
+the ability to execute the wonderful works which
+his genius designs.</p>
+
+<p>When we reflect how essential is the hand
+to Man’s well-being, power, and progress, and upon
+the infinite variety of purposes which it serves<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span>
+in obedience to the will, we are not surprised that
+the construction of the foot, indeed of every part
+of the frame, should have reference to the object
+of liberating the hand from the subordinate work
+of locomotion to a degree which we find in no
+other animal, and of leaving it free to execute
+its higher offices in a ready and efficient manner.</p>
+
+<p>But, after all, notwithstanding the excellence
+of its mechanism and its intimate relation to the
+will, what would the hand be without the reflecting
+and designing <span class="smcap">Mind</span>—the mind that can build
+upon the past and prepare for the future, and so
+carry on the ever-advancing work of human civilization
+and progress. Without it Man would remain
+stationary, like the other animals; and, as
+age succeeded age, the hand would only suffice
+to provide the necessary requirements of the body.
+Nay, even this is saying too much; for without
+the mind, without, at least, some higher instinctive
+or reflective faculty than the other animals
+possess, Man would, in reality, be inferior to them.
+He would be absolutely unable to maintain his
+existence, and would be a miserable victim to
+the fineness of his organisation. His hand would
+fail to supply him with food, or to defend him
+against his numerous enemies, or to provide for
+the protection of his delicate and sensitive frame
+from the inclemency of the elements.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span></p>
+
+<p>The real excellence of the human hand—and
+the remark applies equally to the whole human
+body—consists, not in the admirable construction
+of its several parts, nor in their well-adjusted
+relation to one another, so much as in the adaptation
+of the whole to the mind that presides over
+it. This it is that renders Man the lord of the
+creation, that enables him to subdue all his foes,
+and gives him, in some measure, power over the
+elements, so that land and water, fire and air,
+are made to serve his purpose. By this harmonious
+co-aptation of mind and body Man is rendered
+cosmopolitan, being able to thrive in every
+clime, from the regions of continual snow to those
+burning equatorial plains where even reptiles
+perish from the heat and drought, and being able
+to convert the barren plain into a fertile field,
+and to draw water out of the stony rock.</p>
+
+<p>At the late meeting of the British Association
+at Oxford, a gentleman related that he had a
+monkey which was very partial to oysters, and
+was very fond of playing with a hammer; but
+he never could be taught to use the hammer for
+the purpose of breaking the oyster-shells to gratify
+his appetite. How wide a gulf does the
+absence of intelligence in this simple matter indicate
+between ourselves and the animal that
+approaches nearest to us!</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>The Hand an Organ of Expression.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Further, we cannot fail to recognise and admire
+the adaptation of the hand to the mind at
+all ages, and under various circumstances; in its
+weakness and suppleness, and in its purposeless
+and playful movements in infancy and childhood;
+in its gradually increasing strength and steadiness
+as the intellect ripens; in the stiffness and shakiness
+of declining years; in the iron grasp of the
+artizan; in the light delicate touch of the lady;
+in the twirlings, fumblings, and contortions of the
+idiot; in the stealthy movements of the thief; in
+the tremulousness of the drunkard; in the open-handedness
+of the liberal man; and in the close-fistedness
+of the niggard.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the hand becomes an organ of expression
+and an index of character. What would the
+nervous young gentleman in a morning call give
+to be quit of these tale-telling members; or what
+would he do without a hat or a stick to employ
+and amuse them? How effective an auxiliary to
+the orator is the wave of the hand, or, even, the
+movement of a finger. Some men, indeed, seem
+to owe the efficiency of their declamations as
+much to the hand as to the tongue. I have seen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span>
+a practised orator (he was a man of the most complete
+self-possession) quell an excited audience by
+one determined movement of his hand. It happened
+to me to hear two of the most celebrated
+preachers of the day within a short period. In
+each of them the movements of the hand were
+remarkable, though very different. In one, the
+free, impassioned, but natural, and, therefore, easy
+action of the hand showed a deep and genuine
+interest in the subject, and helped to waft the
+fervid sentiments straight from his own heart to
+the hearts of his audience. In the other, who was
+a no less accomplished speaker, the constrained
+and carefully regulated movements of the hands
+were evidently the result of forethought and
+study; they were intended to be impressive, but
+were too obviously done for effect; and, therefore,
+were far less effective as well as less pleasing.</p>
+
+<p>Our great and venerable orator, as well as high
+authority on the art of speaking (Lord Brougham),
+tells us that the subject of a speech should be
+carefully studied, and the sequences well adjusted.
+He says that, in the most effective passages, even
+of practised speakers, the exact words are usually
+selected beforehand; but he is silent respecting
+the actions by which they should be accompanied.
+These, at least, should be unpremeditated; and
+they will best assist to convey to others the real<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span>
+feelings and emotions when they are the simple
+result of the natural working of the mind upon
+the body.</p>
+
+<p>The kind of expression that lies in the hand,
+being much dependent on the effect of the
+muscles upon it, is very hard for the artist to
+catch, though very important to the excellence
+of the picture. Painters, usually, make the hand
+a subject of careful study, but rarely succeed in
+throwing the proper amount, either of animation
+or of listlessness, into it. In portraits, especially,
+the hands are a difficult part to treat satisfactorily;
+yet the artist feels that they are too important
+not to have a prominent place, and he,
+commonly, imposes upon himself the task of representing
+them both in full. I have seen them
+drawn held up in front, like the paws of a
+kangaroo, in an otherwise good picture. The
+stereotyped position in portraits is that one hand
+lies upon a table, though it, probably, evinces
+an uneasiness there, while the other rests, perhaps
+equally uneasily, upon the arm of a chair.
+Vandyck, in whose paintings the hand usually
+forms a prominent feature, is considered to have
+peculiarly excelled in imparting to it a sentimental
+air imbued with deep pathos.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Shaking Hands.</i></h3>
+
+<p>How much do we learn of a man by his
+“<span class="lowercase smcap">SHAKE-OF-HAND</span>.” Who would expect to get
+a handsome donation, or a donation at all, from
+one who puts out two fingers to be shaken and
+keeps the others bent as upon an “itching palm”?
+How different is the impression conveyed by the
+hand which is coldly held out to be shaken and
+slips away again as soon as decently may be,
+and the hand which comes boldly and warmly
+forward and unwillingly relinquishes its hearty
+grasp? Sometimes one’s hand finds itself comfortably
+enclosed, nursed, as it were, between both
+hands of a friend, an elderly friend probably; or
+it is shaken from side to side in a peculiar short
+brisk manner. In either case we are instinctively
+convinced that we have to do with a warm and
+kindly heart. In a momentary squeeze of the
+hand how much of the heart often oozes through
+the fingers; and who that ever experienced it
+has forgotten the feeling conveyed by the eloquent
+pressure of the hand of a dying friend,
+when the tongue has ceased to speak?</p>
+
+<p>Why do we shake hands? It is a very old-fashioned
+way of indicating friendship. Jehu
+said to Jehonadab, “Is thine heart right as my<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span>
+heart is with thine heart? If it be, give me
+thine hand.” It is not merely an old-fashioned
+custom; it is a strictly <i>natural</i> one, and, as
+usual in such cases, we may find a physiological
+reason, if we will only take the pains to search
+for it. The Animals cultivate friendship by the
+sense of touch, as well as by the senses of smell,
+hearing, and sight; and for this purpose they
+employ the most sensitive parts of their bodies.
+They rub their noses together, or they lick one
+another with their tongues. Now, the hand is
+a part of the human body in which the sense of
+touch is highly developed; and, after the manner
+of the animals, we not only like to see and
+hear our friend (we do not usually smell him,
+though Isaac, when his eyes were dim, resorted
+to this sense as a means of recognition), we,
+also, touch him, and promote the kindly feelings
+by the contact and reciprocal pressure of the
+sensitive hands.</p>
+
+<p>Observe, too, how this principle is illustrated
+by another of our modes of greeting. When we
+wish to determine whether a substance be perfectly
+smooth and are not quite satisfied with
+the information conveyed by the fingers, we
+apply it to the <span class="lowercase smcap">LIPS</span> and rub it gently upon them.
+We do so, because we know by experience that
+the sense of touch is more acutely developed in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span>
+the lips than in the hands. Accordingly, when
+we wish to reciprocate the warmer feelings we
+are not content with the contact of the hands,
+and we bring the lips into the service. A <span class="lowercase smcap">SHAKE-OF-HANDS</span>
+suffices for friendship, in undemonstrative
+England at least; but a <span class="lowercase smcap">KISS</span> is the token
+of a more tender affection.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly it occurs to you that the <span class="smcap">Tongue</span> is
+more sensitive than either the hands or the lips.
+You have observed that it will detect an inequality
+of surface that escapes them both, and that minute,
+indeed, is the flaw in a tooth which eludes its
+searching touch. You are right. The sense of
+touch is more exquisite in the tongue than in any
+other part of the body; and to carry out my theory,
+it may be suggested that the tongue should be
+used for the purposes of which we are speaking.
+It is so by some of the lower animals. But, in
+man, this organ has work enough to do in the cultivation
+and expression of friendship in its own
+peculiar way; and there are obvious objections to
+the employment of it in a more direct manner for
+this purpose.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>The Skin of the Hand.</i></h3>
+
+<p>By the aid of the accompanying drawings you
+will be able to form some idea of the structure of
+the <span class="lowercase smcap">SKIN</span> of the hand.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowe21_875" id="f70">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f70.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_70">70</a>. Skin.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>One of them (fig. 70) represents a section of
+the skin, made perpendicular to the surface, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span>
+seen under the microscope. It is from the end of
+the thumb, and includes three of those delicate
+lines, or ridges that are found there.</p>
+
+<p>The superficial, or uppermost strata (<i>a</i> and <i>b</i>),
+are the “Cuticle” or “false skin.” The outer layer
+(<i>a</i>) is hard, horny, and dry. It is composed of
+numerous fine scales laid upon one another, like
+the tiles upon the roof of a house, but adhering
+more closely together, so as to form one continuous
+sheet extending all over the body. The outermost
+of these scales are continually being shed, peeling
+off as scurf, or being rubbed off; and fresh ones are
+supplied by the next layer (<i>b</i>), which is a softer
+material and lies immediately upon the surface of
+the “cutis” or “true skin.”</p>
+
+<p>This softer layer (<i>b</i>) is often called the “<i>Rete
+Mucosum</i>.” It is made up of minute bags or bladders,
+named “cells” by anatomists, which grow
+and propagate upon the exterior of the true skin,
+being nourished by the blood in the skin. Those
+which lie nearest the cutis are the youngest and
+the softest. Gradually they are pushed outwards
+by their successors or offspring; and, as they approach
+the surface, they become flatter and drier
+and more adherent to one another, and are finally
+converted into the thin scales of the cuticle. Thus,
+there is no real line of division between the cuticle
+and the rete mucosum; but the cells of the latter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span>
+are gradually transformed into the scales of the
+former.</p>
+
+<p>The rete mucosum is thicker in the Negro than
+in the white man, and contributes somewhat to the
+softness of his skin. It contains also the colouring
+matter in the form of minute black particles diffused
+among its cells (fig. <a href="#f72">72</a>). These particles disappear,
+more or less, as the cells become changed
+into scales; hence the outer part of the cuticle of
+the Negro is not so dark as the rete mucosum,
+but, as it is transparent, or nearly so, it allows the
+dark colour of the rete to show through it.</p>
+
+<p>Persons commonly speak of the cuticle as if it
+were the whole thickness of the skin. Thus, when
+a blister has drawn, they say the <i>skin</i> is raised;
+whereas it is only the <i>cuticle</i>. This is forced off
+from the skin by the fluid effused into its softer
+layer—i. e. into the rete—in consequence of the
+irritating influence of the blister.</p>
+
+<p>The cuticle has no nerves, and, therefore, no
+feeling. It may be cut or torn without pain. The
+snipping of a blister with the scissors is not felt,
+because the cuticle only is touched. It forms a
+covering to the whole surface of the body, and
+is invaluable as a means of preventing too great
+evaporation. Without it we should be dried up,
+almost mummified, by the end of a summer’s day.
+It also protects the delicate sensitive skin underneath.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span>
+How sore is the knuckle when the cuticle
+has been rubbed off! The cuticle has, moreover,
+the accommodating property of becoming thickest
+where it is most wanted, as on the sole of the foot,
+and on the palms of the hands of blacksmiths, and
+artizans, and persons who handle the oar. And if
+any other part of the body be subjected to much
+friction, for instance, the knees of housemaids, or
+the shoulders of men who carry packs, the cuticle
+soon becomes thickened there.</p>
+
+<p>Beneath the cuticle lies the “Cutis” or “True
+Skin” (<i>c</i>, fig. <a href="#f70">70</a>, and <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>, fig. <a href="#f71">71</a>). It is a
+tough structure consisting of interlacing fibrous
+and fine muscular tissue, and contains the blood-vessels
+and nerves. The cuticle may be pared off
+without any bleeding; but directly the skin is
+wounded the blood flows. The cutis does not present
+an even surface next the cuticle, but shoots
+out into a number of little finger-like processes,
+called “Papillæ,” which project into the contiguous
+soft stratum of the cuticle, and are embedded in
+it. Thus the superficies of the skin is increased;
+and as the blood-vessels and nerves of the cutis
+are continued into the papillæ, they contribute
+very greatly to the sensitiveness of the skin. They
+are most numerous in parts where the sensitiveness
+of the skin is greatest; for instance, they are
+more numerous on the palmar, than on the dorsal,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span>
+surface of the hand. Near the ends of the fingers
+and thumb they are arranged in a linear manner,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span>
+forming the delicate ridges that encircle the cones
+of the pulps. Sections of these ridges are represented
+in fig. <a href="#f70">70</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<div class="table">
+<div class="row">
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe5_8125" id="f72">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f72.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_72">72</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe10_8125" id="f71">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f71.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_71">71</a>. Skin.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The superficial or papillary part of the cutis
+is of finer and more delicate structure than the
+deeper or fibrous layer, and is, therefore, sometimes
+described as a separate layer. It is so represented
+in the accompanying figure (71, <i>c</i>).</p>
+
+<p>As we are upon the subject of the cuticle and
+the papillæ, I will take the opportunity to say a
+word respecting two diseases of these structures,
+in which most of you, probably, have a personal
+interest. I mean “Warts” and “Corns.”</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<div class="table">
+<div class="row">
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe100" id="f73" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f73.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_73">73</a>. Corn.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="row">
+<div class="cell">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe100" id="f74" style="max-width: 20em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f74.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_74">74</a>. Wart.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>A <span class="smcap">Wart</span> (fig. 74) depends chiefly on a diseased
+state of the papillary stratum of the skin. The
+papillæ become coarse and grow up beyond the
+level of the surrounding skin, so as to present an
+uneven or “warty” surface. They carry a layer of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span>
+cuticle before them. This layer is usually thin, so
+that the wart bleeds easily when it is rubbed.
+Sometimes, however, it is very thick and hard like
+a piece of horn. We, now and then, hear of a horn
+growing upon some part of the body, perhaps on
+the forehead. Such a horn is, usually, nothing
+more than a conical mass of cuticle formed upon
+the surface of a large wart. Warts are generally
+caused by something irritating the skin, as dirt or
+soot rubbed into the cuticle. For this reason they
+are more frequent upon the hands than upon other
+parts of the body.</p>
+
+<p>In a <span class="smcap">Corn</span> (fig. 73), also, the papillæ are somewhat
+enlarged; and this accounts in part for the
+great tenderness of corns. But the primary and
+essential feature of a corn is a thickened state of
+the cuticle. This is caused by too great rapidity
+in its formation, and is, usually, dependent upon
+pressure, especially if the pressure be combined
+with some friction. Hence corns are most commonly
+found upon the foot, and upon the parts of
+the foot, where the skin is subject to pressure and
+rubbing against the shoe. The drawing shows the
+appearance presented by a vertical section through
+a corn and through a small portion of the skin on
+either side. The accumulated layers of cuticle are
+seen, and the enlarged papillæ shooting up into
+them. I need scarcely add that it is owing to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span>
+ignorance, or something worse, when corn-cutters
+talk of curing the malady by taking out the
+<i>roots</i>; for, corns, evidently, have no roots.</p>
+
+<p>One word of advice about corn-cutting. Most
+persons have some experience in this art, and
+some opportunity of practising it on themselves;
+and many pride themselves on their skill in it.
+The usual plan is to shave off layer after layer
+from the whole surface of the corn; and this, by
+lessening the projection of the corn, may give
+relief for a few days, though it does not always
+do that. Soon, however, the distress returns;
+and the area of the corn increases after each
+operation. Now, I would have you observe that
+it is at the <i>middle</i> of the corn that the papillæ
+are most enlarged; and it is here that the formation
+of cuticle goes on most quickly, giving
+rise to the little white cone or cones often seen
+in a corn and sometimes wrongly called the roots.
+The proper mode is to confine the cutting to this
+part, and to remove as much of the thickened
+cuticle as you can from this spot, digging, as it
+were, a hole in the middle and leaving the circumference
+intact. The circumference, which is
+not usually tender, thus forms a wall round the excavated
+centre and defends it from pressure; and
+great relief is experienced. Further benefit will
+be found from covering the corn with some soft<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span>
+adhesive plaster; and you may sometimes, with
+advantage, lightly apply common caustic before
+putting on the plaster. If you follow these directions
+carefully you may be your own chiropodists,
+and almost defy your bootmakers.</p>
+
+<p>If, in cutting a corn, you go too deeply, you
+will wound the tops of the papillæ and cause some
+bleeding; this is not however usually followed
+by any ill consequences.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Nails.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Almost all vegetable as well as animal surfaces
+are covered with some kind of cuticle. It
+forms the smooth exterior of a leaf and the
+rind of an apple; and the soft down of a moth
+or a butterfly, the scales of fish, the feathers
+and claws of birds, the quills of the porcupine,
+the horns of oxen and the hoofs of the horse
+are examples of modifications of cuticle. <span class="lowercase smcap">NAILS</span>
+and <span class="lowercase smcap">HAIR</span> are also of this nature. They are both
+continuous with the cuticle, and peel off with it
+when it is, by any process, separated from the
+skin. Both are formed, like the cuticle, of compressed
+plates or scales matted together; and
+these are continually being shed or rubbed off
+on the one side, and supplied from the rete mucosum
+on the other.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span></p>
+
+<p>The rete mucosum, it should be stated, extends
+over the whole surface of the body. In
+most situations, as already mentioned, it is the
+medium from which the ordinary cuticle is produced;
+but on the upper part of the ends of the
+fingers and toes it is converted into nail, and in
+the hair follicles, as I will presently describe, it
+is transformed into hair.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowe15_375" id="f75-77">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f75-77.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Figs. 75, 76, 77.<br>Longitudinal sections of Nail.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The drawings will help you to understand the
+relation of the nails to the cuticle and the cutis.
+In the upper of the three (fig. 75) the nail with
+the cuticle has been detached from the cutis, so
+that the continuity of the two, at either end,
+is shown. In the middle one (fig. 76) it is represented
+lying in its bed in the cutis; its thin
+hinder edge being received into a furrow made
+for it in the cutis. The layer of rete mucosum
+(<i>b</i>) extends behind and beneath it, between it (<i>d</i>)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span>
+and the cutis (<i>c</i>), and continually adds fresh
+material to the nail, just as, in other parts, it
+adds to the substance of the cuticle. The cuticle,
+or white line (<i>a</i>) is continuous with the nail at
+the sides as well as at either end. The lower
+figure (77) shows the bed of the cutis in which
+the nail reposes, the nail as well as the adjacent
+cuticle and the rete having been cleared away.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the addition from the rete—in other
+words the growth of the nail—takes place at
+the hinder edge and at the under surface. In
+consequence of the addition from <i>behind</i> the nail
+is increased in length and is pushed forward;
+and as it advances forwards it receives accessions
+from <i>beneath</i>, which increase its thickness and
+strength. Unless they be cut, or worn down,
+the nails grow to an indefinite length; and,
+when they extend beyond the tips of the fingers,
+their edges are bent in towards each other, and
+they become curved like claws. This tendency to
+a convex form is shown also if the nails be not
+properly supported by the pulps of the fingers.
+For instance, when persons become emaciated
+the pulps of the fingers usually participate in
+the general wasting and the nails become curved.
+Hence this shape of the nails has been regarded
+as an indication of consumption. You will understand,
+however, from what I have said that it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span>
+is not really a symptom of any one particular
+disease. It simply indicates that, from some
+cause or other, the nutrition of the body is not
+properly maintained.</p>
+
+<p>The Dervishes in some parts of Asia allow the
+thumb-nail to grow long, and then pare it to a
+point, so as to be able to write with it. Dr Wolff,
+the Eastern traveller, has told me that he has
+repeatedly seen this done, and that he has in his
+possession manuscripts written in this way.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowe22_5" id="f78">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f78.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_78">78</a>. <br>Transverse section of Nail Rete and Cutis.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Beneath the nail the cutis is disposed in a
+series of parallel ridges (fig. 78) with intervening
+furrows. These take the same direction as the
+nail, and, indeed, give rise to the fine lines that
+you see upon the surface of the nail. The rete
+mucosum, or deep soft layer of the nail, extends
+into the furrows between the ridges, just as the
+soft stratum of the cuticle extends between the
+papillæ of the cutis. It thus serves to keep the
+nail steady in its place, while it permits a certain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span>
+amount of movement, and allows the nail to slide
+forwards upon the skin under the pressure caused
+by the growth at its hinder edge.</p>
+
+<p>A little in front of the root of the nail the
+ridges of the cutis suddenly become larger and
+more vascular. This gives a pink hue to the nail
+in the greater part of its extent; while the hinder
+portion, separated from the front by a crescentic
+line, is white, in consequence of the subjacent
+cutis being there, more pale. You will, at once,
+recognise the distinction between these parts by
+looking at your own nails.</p>
+
+<p>The ridges and furrows serve, like the papillæ
+in other parts of the skin, to increase the surface
+of the cutis; and, by affording more space for the
+distribution of the vessels and nerves, they contribute
+to the sensitiveness of the part, and account
+for the severe pain which is caused when
+any foreign body is thrust under the nail. The
+pulp in the interior of a tooth, and the frog of a
+horse’s foot, are also instances in which an exquisitely
+sensitive structure is placed beneath a hard
+or horny substance. The object, in each case, is
+the same, viz. to give the power of taking cognizance
+of impressions which are made upon the
+surface.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Hairs.</i></h3>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hairs</span> may also be regarded as modifications
+of the cuticle, because, like the nails, they are continuous
+with the cuticle, and are formed from
+the rete mucosum. Each hair (figs. 79 and <a href="#f83">83</a>) is
+received into a depression of the cutis, which is
+called a “follicle,” and which is lined, as far as the
+bottom, by cuticle (<i>a</i>), and rete mucosum (<i>b</i>). At
+the bottom of the follicle (<i>d</i>) the cuticle is absent,
+and the hair rests, directly, upon the rete; and, at
+this part, the rete, instead of being converted into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span>
+cuticle, as it is at the sides of the follicle, becomes
+transformed into hair, in the following way.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td rowspan="2">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe12_3125" id="f79">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f79.jpg" alt="Longitudinal section of finger/toe nail">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_79">79</a>. Hair.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</td>
+<td>
+<figure class="figcenter illowe8_5" id="f81">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f81.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_81">81</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</td>
+<td>
+<figure class="figcenter illowe8_75" id="f82">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f82.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_81">82</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2">
+<figure class="figcenter illowe15_25" id="f80">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f80.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_80">80</a>.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cells of which the rete is composed swell
+out as they ascend, and so form the soft “bulb” of
+the hair. The outermost cells are gradually flattened,
+and assume an imbricated arrangement,
+overlapping one another like the tiles upon a
+roof (fig. 79, <i>e</i>, and fig. 80); and those in the interior
+are elongated, so as to be converted into
+more or less distinct fibres. The cells nearest the
+middle, or axis, of the hair remain moister and
+softer than those nearer the exterior, and form
+what is sometimes called the “marrow” of the
+hair (figs. 81 and 82).</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the hair is given by the presence
+of minute grains of colouring matter, like those in
+the cuticle of the Negro. They are formed in the
+cells at the root of the hair, and pass up with them
+into its structure. The quantity of colouring matter
+is usually slight in infancy and childhood, and
+increases during adolescence. Hence the hair becomes
+darker as we grow up. It is more or less
+deficient in the grey hair of old age; and in the
+instance of Marie Antoinette, and others whose
+hair is said to have turned grey in a few hours,
+the colouring matter is supposed to have been destroyed
+by some fluid, formed from the blood, and
+passing, through the pulp, into the hair.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span></p>
+
+<p>The hairs serve to protect the skin; and, as a
+general rule, they are most abundant upon the
+parts which are most exposed, and which, therefore,
+stand most in need of such protection. They
+are scattered over the back of the hand. On the
+palmar surface they are not required, and they
+would have interfered with the sense of touch; and
+we do not, accordingly, find them there, nor upon
+the sole of the foot, nor upon the edges of the lips.
+In certain parts of some animals, however, they
+serve as valuable adjuncts to the tactile organs by
+extending the range within which the contact of
+surrounding substances is felt. Thus the whiskers
+of the cat are set upon papillæ so sensitive that
+the slightest touch upon any part of the hair is
+felt; and the animal is thereby assisted in threading
+its way in the dark. This provision, added to
+the mode in which their feet are muffled with soft
+hair and their claws are retracted, enables the
+members of the feline tribe to steal with almost
+absolute stillness upon their prey.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Oil-glands.</i></h3>
+
+<figure class="figright illowe11_25" id="f83">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f83.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_83">83</a>.<br>Hair, and Oil-glands.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>There are also in the skin a number of little
+<span class="smcap">Glands</span>. One set of these are called “oil-glands;”
+for their office is to furnish an oily, or waxy, substance,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span>
+which serves to keep the skin soft and pliable,
+and defends it against too much moisture, or
+too great dryness of the atmosphere. They are
+usually, as shown in the accompanying sketch, (fig.
+83, <i>g</i>, <i>g</i>) connected with the hairs, lying beside them;
+and their ducts—the little tubes that carry off the
+oily matter formed in them—open either into the
+hair follicles, or penetrate the cuticle at some other
+part. They are not found on the palms of the hand
+or the soles of the feet, because those parts are, in
+great measure, sheltered from atmospheric influences,
+and are well moistened with perspiration.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span>
+When the dry easterly winds prevail one is disposed
+to wish that these glands were more numerous
+on the back of the hands; for a more liberal
+supply of their secretion would, probably, prevent
+the disagreeable chapping to which we are subject
+at those times. As a substitute we resort to some
+unctuous matter, such as glycerine, which if frequently
+applied in small quantities performs, to
+some extent, the part of the natural secretion in
+keeping the cuticle soft and supple, and so preventing
+its cracking.</p>
+
+<p>The secretion of these glands has an odour, the
+purpose of which, in man, is not very obvious. It
+is faintest in the highest and most civilized nations.
+In none is it very agreeable; and persons
+are fain to conceal it by substituting some other
+odour, as that of lavender or eau-de-cologne. Unfortunately
+the choice is not always so refined;
+and one is, sometimes, disposed to think that the
+natural odour must be very bad, if the substitute
+be preferable. The odour varies at different parts
+of the body; it varies also in different persons,
+sufficiently to enable the acute nose of the dog to
+track one particular man among a thousand.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Sweat-glands.</i></h3>
+
+<p>To revert to the figure (<a href="#f70">70</a>) at page 165, the
+little masses at <i>g</i>, <i>g</i>, are grains of fat lying in the
+meshes of the deeper strata of the skin, or in the
+structure just below it. And the little balls of
+twisted tube (<i>f</i>, <i>f</i>) are <span class="smcap">Glands</span> that secrete the
+<span class="smcap">Perspiration</span>; for, the perspiration does not ooze
+up from the whole surface of the skin, but has a
+regular system of factories for its formation. A
+fine tube (<i>h</i>) is seen passing from each of these
+“sweat-glands,” as they are called. It curls in a
+spiral manner, like a cork-screw, where it traverses
+the cuticle to open at the surface. On the palmar
+aspect of the hand most of these tubes or ducts
+open along the tops of the fine ridges which are
+there seen; and with a magnifying glass of moderate
+power you can distinguish their orifices on the
+flattened tops of the ridges on your own fingers.
+These are the “pores of the skin,” respecting which
+we hear so much, and through which the Roman
+Bath brings such streams from the subjacent
+glands.</p>
+
+<p>The sweat-glands are scattered all over the
+body, but are especially numerous in the palm
+and in the sole; and the moisture issuing from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span>
+them tends to keep the skin of these parts soft
+and moist, and so fitted for the reception of tactile
+impressions. The quantity of fluid furnished by
+them varies a good deal in different persons, and
+under different circumstances. In some persons it
+is habitually slight; and the hands feel dry and
+harsh. Or, what is equally disagreeable, it is superabundant;
+and the hands are habitually damp,
+perhaps, cold and clammy, staining the gloves and
+soiling everything they touch. In fever the perspiration
+is defective; and the dryness and heat of
+the palm are often the first symptoms of an accession
+of fever that attract the patient’s notice.</p>
+
+<p>We all know that perspiration is usually increased
+by exercise, or by the application of warmth
+to the surface, as by the hot air in the sudatorium
+of the Roman Bath; and then, by its evaporation, it
+cools and relieves the body, and contributes to our
+comfort. We know, too, that it is liable to be
+increased by any thing that produces a depressing
+effect, and that it then induces an uncomfortable
+sensation, chilling the surface too much, and making
+it cold and clammy. Most of you have experienced
+the discomfort of the cold sweat caused by
+fright; and some of you may have felt the cold,
+clammy hand of one who was suffering under the
+shock of a severe accident or the prostration caused
+by the sudden onset of a dangerous malady. Why<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span>
+perspiration should occur under these very different
+conditions, producing, at one time, so much
+relief, and, at another, so much additional discomfort,
+it is not easy to say.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>The sense of Feeling and of Touch in the Hand.</i></h3>
+
+<p>I have mentioned three parts of the body as
+remarkable for the acuteness of the sense of touch,
+namely, the <span class="smcap">Tongue</span>, the <span class="smcap">Lips</span>, and the <span class="smcap">Hands</span>.
+Now in each of these the skin is richly supplied
+with nerves and blood-vessels; and it is also thick
+and lies upon a soft cushiony substance, so as to
+be yielding and to admit of being applied accurately
+over any surface with which it is placed in
+contact, and of again resuming its shape when the
+pressure is removed. For instance, the tongue is
+so soft and yielding that, when it is applied to a
+tooth, it dips down between the inequalities and
+coves accurate information of the condition of the
+whole surface. The same is the case with the
+edges of the lips, though not in so marked a degree
+as in the tongue; and each of these parts is
+indebted for its great sensitiveness very much to
+the delicate soft supple nature of its structure.
+The palmar surface of the hand too, though, like
+the skin of the sole, it is strong and tough, so as
+to offer considerable resistance to injury and to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span>
+prove no dainty morsel even to dogs, as we surmise
+from the narrative of the death of Jezebel, is
+yet very soft and yielding. It is also underlaid by
+a stratum of fat interwoven with strong fibres of
+tissue, just in the same manner as the skin of the
+sole of the foot (fig. <a href="#f46">46</a>, p. 99).</p>
+
+<p>An accumulation of this fat and fibrous tissue
+under the skin forms the “Pulps” at the ends of
+the fingers. The slightly conical form and exquisite
+softness of the Pulps adapts them well for the
+examination of the surfaces of bodies; and the
+sense of touch is more acute in them than in other
+parts of the hand.</p>
+
+<figure class="figright illowe5" id="f84">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/f84.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_84">84</a>.<br>Bones of Finger.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>In connection with them it is interesting to
+observe that the last bone of each finger and of
+the thumb swells out, at the end, into a nodulated
+lump, which serves the purpose both of supporting
+the pulp and of giving breadth to the nail. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span>
+also, like the corresponding part of the toe (page <a href="#Page_99">99</a>),
+affords a basis of attachment for the fibres
+that run, from the bone, through the pad of fat, to
+the skin, and give firmness and consistence to the
+part. The bulbous enlargement at the ends of the
+phalanges of the fingers and toes is peculiar, or
+almost peculiar, to man. In most Animals these
+bones taper to a point; in many they are also
+curved. Hence the nails are, in them, comparatively
+unsupported, and they become bent in at
+the sides and curved in their length, that is to say,
+they are formed into claws. This is the case, to a
+considerable extent, in the Monkey. The terminal
+phalanges of the monkey’s digits are more
+tapering than in man; the nails are more claw-like;
+and the pulps are less well-formed. This
+constitutes a not unimportant feature of difference
+between the hand of that animal and the
+human hand, in addition to those I have already
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>You have experienced the sensitiveness to cold
+of the pulps of the fingers and toes; and have,
+probably, remarked that it is more difficult to
+keep them warm than any part of the body. I
+may add that, notwithstanding the liberal allowance
+of the means of supporting life (that is, blood
+and nervous influence) which they enjoy, they are
+very liable to mortify from frost-bite and other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span>
+causes. I have repeatedly known that to happen
+when all the rest of the hand has escaped. This
+must be attributed, perhaps entirely, to their exposed
+position as terminal parts; and they share
+their susceptibility to cold with other parts similarly
+circumstanced, such as the nose, the elbows,
+the knees and the buttocks.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to make a distinction between
+the <span class="smcap">Sense of Touch</span> and common <span class="smcap">Feeling</span> or
+sensitiveness to pain; for they are not quite the
+same. They are, it is true, very nearly alike, so
+nearly that we may consider them to be modifications
+of one another; and it is probable that the
+same nerves minister to both. Still there is a
+difference. The sense of touch is the sense of
+contact with <i>ex</i>ternal bodies, and enables us to
+take cognisance of their presence and inform ourselves
+of their shape, consistence, smoothness or
+roughness, &amp;c.; whereas common sensation, or
+the sense of feeling, has an <i>in</i>ternal relation. It
+imparts to us information respecting the condition
+of our own bodies or any part of them. By
+the sense of touch in the tongue, for instance,
+we judge of the size and hardness of the morsel
+in the mouth; and by common sensation we learn
+that the organ is being bruised or scratched by
+it. Sensation of pain commonly destroys the sense
+of touch. Put your finger into a vice, and you<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span>
+may feel both sides of it. Screw it up, and you
+have nothing but the sensation of pain. If you
+were to awake in this state you would not, from
+the mere sensation, know that you were <i>touching</i>
+anything.</p>
+
+<p>As a general rule there is a relation between
+the degree in which sensation and the sense of
+touch are manifested in different parts of the
+body. For instance, I have just been remarking
+on the acuteness of the sense of touch in the
+Tongue; and we know that this part is very
+sensitive to pain. The pain caused by a bite of
+the tongue is horrible; and so effectually does it
+serve the good end of warning the tongue to
+keep within its proper bounds, that that organ
+very rarely suffers from the pressure of the teeth.</p>
+
+<p>But, forasmuch as sensitiveness to pain serves
+a different purpose from the sense of touch,
+namely, as in the instance of the tongue just
+mentioned, it renders parts alive to injurious impressions,
+and gives them warning to escape or
+protect themselves; so it is, as we might expect,
+most manifested in those surfaces where a slight
+amount of injury would prove most detrimental.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, the membrane (the conjunctiva) which
+lines the eyelids and covers the front of the eyeball
+is exquisitely sensitive to pain. We are reminded
+of this when anything touches the eye,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span>
+or when a fly has lodged itself under the eyelid.
+And, when an operator wishes to ascertain whether
+his patient is sufficiently under the influence
+of chloroform he separates the eyelids and puts
+his finger gently upon the eye, knowing that if no
+indication be given, by flinching, that the impression
+made here is felt, it is probable that the
+patient will not be conscious of the more severe
+impression to be made by the knife elsewhere.
+Yet, this membrane is by no means pre-eminently
+endued with the sense of touch. Indeed, the
+very acuteness of its sensitiveness to pain quite
+unfits it for distinguishing the quality of the impressions
+made upon it. We know very quickly
+that something is in contact with the eye, but
+can form no idea what kind of substance it is,
+whether it be hard or soft, rough or smooth.</p>
+
+<p>In the hand, on the contrary, the sensitiveness
+to pain, though considerable, is not proportionate
+to the acuteness of the sense of touch.
+The sting of the rod on the palm, if my recollection
+serves me right, is not so sharply felt as it
+is upon that other region which shares with the
+hand the privilege of receiving the wrathful attentions
+of the master; and, yet, that other
+region is by no means distinguished for acuteness
+in the sense of touch.</p>
+
+<p>The mode in which sensitiveness to touch and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span>
+to pain are adjusted in the hand and in the eye in
+relation to the functions of these two organs is one
+of the admirable features of their construction.
+Suppose the disposition to have been reversed—suppose
+the hand to have been as tender as the
+eye—of what use would it have been? The
+contact of a particle of dust would have caused
+agony; or, had the eye been no more sentient
+than the hand, it would soon have been destroyed
+by the chafing of foreign bodies upon its delicate
+surface.</p>
+
+<p>How important is the sense of Feeling! more
+important than any of the other senses; more so
+than all the others taken together. It is almost
+universal in the animal kingdom. Indeed, we
+can scarcely conceive animal existence without it,
+and are slow to admit that to be an animal which
+shows no sign of it. Several of the lower animals
+seem to be destitute of any of the other
+senses. The <span class="smcap">Polyps</span>, for instance, have no sight,
+hearing, taste, or smell, and are dependent, therefore,
+entirely, upon feeling for their communication
+with the external world; and the range of
+this sense is extended in them by means of their
+“tentacles” or “feelers” which wave about in
+the water, and, when they come in contact with
+foreign bodies, close upon them and draw them
+towards the oral opening. Thus, the tentacle of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span>
+the polyp is a sort of rudimentary hand, and, by
+the aid of feeling, fulfils one important function
+of the hand, viz. that of the supplying the mouth
+with food. The sprawling movements of an infant’s
+hands and the tendency which they have
+to close upon anything—dress, blanket, or whatever
+it be—and draw it to the mouth remind
+one forcibly of the feelers of a polyp.</p>
+
+<p>In most of the lower animals, however, the
+sense of feeling, though present, serving for protection
+and giving notice of injury, is not very
+acute. It is not much employed by them for
+the purpose of obtaining information respecting
+external objects; and they can scarcely be said
+to enjoy that modification of it which we call the
+sense of touch in any high degree. Indeed, the
+skins of animals have, commonly, such a covering
+of thick, horny cuticle, scales, feathers, or hair,
+as is incompatible with a fine discriminating sense
+of touch.</p>
+
+<p>In many of them, however, some other sense
+is highly developed. The <span class="smcap">Vulture</span> is guided by
+the smell of carrion for miles and miles; and the
+dog will, by the same sense, track game where
+man cannot detect the trace of an odour. Some
+birds can distinguish objects which are quite out
+of the range of our sight. The <span class="smcap">Eagle</span>, for instance,
+soars aloft, till it dwindles to a mere speck or is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span>
+lost to our view, and, then, from that great height,
+will pounce, with unerring certainty, on an unhappy
+grouse upon the ground. The sense of hearing
+is a great means of protection to animals, and
+necessitates extreme stillness and caution on the
+part of their pursuers. The <span class="smcap">Deer</span>, when feeding,
+directs his eyes upon the ground, and depends for
+safety, chiefly, upon his hearing, which is so acute
+that the huntsman is obliged to approach with all
+possible wariness.</p>
+
+<p>In each of these instances, it may be observed,
+the acuteness of the particular sense is manifested
+chiefly in the power it gives to the animal of distinguishing
+objects <i>at a distance</i>. Whereas, in the
+ability to use the several senses for the nice discernment
+of the <i>qualities</i> of substances and to derive
+enjoyment from them, man stands quite unrivalled.
+He alone appreciates the perfume of a
+bouquet, or takes cognisance of the various shades
+of colour and of the notes of music; and the sense
+of touch, which is of especial service in aiding us
+to an accurate knowledge of bodies, is much more
+highly developed in man than in other animals.</p>
+
+<p>Fine as the sense of touch usually is in the
+human hand, it becomes far more so when an unusual
+demand is made upon it in consequence of
+a deficiency, or absence, of other senses. The
+rapidity with which blind persons can read with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span>
+their fingers is truly astonishing. Some are said
+to be able to distinguish colours by the feel. (It
+should rather be said that they are capable of recognising
+the nice differences in certain substances
+by which colours are caused; for one can scarcely
+conceive it possible to distinguish by feeling the
+colours in a ray of light separated by a prism.) I
+am acquainted with a lady who has been, not only
+blind, but deaf and dumb from infancy. The
+sense of touch is, therefore, almost her only avenue
+for impressions from without; and it is surprising
+how much information is conveyed through it, and
+how quickly. It enables her to hold converse with
+her relatives, by the language of the fingers, almost
+as freely and as briskly as others do with
+the tongue. A few touches are sufficient to transmit
+a series of thoughts. After one shake of the
+hand her friends told me that she would recognise
+me again; and, true enough, although several days
+elapsed before I again saw her, she made the sign
+for my name as soon as she touched my hand.
+At our next meeting I presented my left hand,
+but was, again, immediately recognised.</p>
+
+<p>Persons who have had much experience in the
+instruction of the deaf and dumb find that the
+hand, by means of writing and “dactylogy”, or the
+language of finger-signs, is abundantly sufficient
+for all the intercourse to which a deaf-mute is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span>
+equal; and they are, therefore, disposed to discourage
+the teaching of articulation. Dr Kitto, in
+his little book “On the Lost Senses,” which acquires
+so much interest from the fact of his being
+himself deaf and dumb in consequence of an accident,
+relates that, after he had, with great difficulty,
+reacquired considerable facility of speech,
+he found it stood him in little stead. So efficient
+a means of intercourse had the hand become that,
+he tells us, he had not occasion for the use of his
+tongue ten times in a year.</p>
+
+<p>Not only may the hand thus serve, to some
+extent, as a substitute for some of the other
+senses; it is also a most important auxiliary to
+them. Particularly is it so to the sense of sight, by
+proving, or correcting, the impressions which we
+receive through the eye. Without its aid we
+should often fail to distinguish between a real
+object and a picture or a reflection in a mirror,
+and should have difficulty in judging of size,
+shape, distance, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Relation of the Hand to the Eye and the Mouth.</i></h3>
+
+<p>You cannot have watched a game of cricket
+without being struck by the manner in which
+the hand acts in harmony with the eye. With
+what almost lightning-like rapidity it is in the exact
+place to catch the ball; and with what precision<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span>
+the practised cricketer can throw the ball to
+a great distance. In this, however, he is surpassed
+by the wonderful skill with which the Indian
+throws the lasso. Again, it is enough for the
+sportsman merely to get sight of the bird; he is
+scarcely conscious of the process by which the
+hand directs the gun and pulls the trigger at the
+exact moment. Still more remarkable is the successful
+aim when taken, as it occasionally is, without
+bringing the gun to the shoulder.</p>
+
+<p>In estimating the importance of the hand, you
+must not forget that the mouth is quite dependent
+upon it for supplies. In most other animals the
+jaws are prolonged, forwards, from the cranium,
+and the head is placed in such a position that the
+mouth becomes an organ of prehension, and is
+enabled to provide for itself. But, in man, the
+head is carried so high above the ground, and the
+jaws are so shortened and compressed beneath the
+forehead, that the mouth is of little use in obtaining
+food. Its abilities and duties are restricted to
+receiving, masticating, and swallowing; and, if it
+had to rely upon its own efforts for supplies of
+food, it would, indeed, be in a poor case. When
+we look at one of the Sphinxes from Egypt, or at
+one of the stately Bulls from Nineveh, in which
+wisdom and power are represented by joining a
+human head to the trunk and limbs of an animal,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span>
+the question suggests itself, “How is that mouth
+to be fed?” In the Centaur and Mermaid this difficulty
+is overcome by adding the hands, as well
+as the human head, to the trunk and locomotory
+organs of the horse in the one instance, and the
+fish in the other; so that monstrosity does not preclude
+the means of sustentation. Sufficient incongruities,
+however, still remain to justify the exclamation</p>
+
+<p class="ml2em fs90 ti0">“Spectatum admissi risum teneatis amici?”</p>
+
+<p>In the <span class="smcap">Elephant</span> the mouth is circumstanced,
+somewhat, as in man; and the office of feeder is
+performed by the elongated snout or proboscis.
+This organ, with its finger-like extremity, is so
+sensitive and mobile as to be able to pick up small
+bodies—pins or needles—from the ground, and so
+strong as to pull down large branches of trees, and
+gather the fruit from them. It is interesting, in
+connection with the relation of the hand to the
+will and the intellectual endowments, to remark
+that this proboscidean substitute, which fulfils so
+many of the purposes of the hand, is furnished to
+the “half reasoning” elephant. The natural sagacity
+and teachableness of this creature, of
+which such interesting evidence is given in Sir
+Emerson Tennent’s book on Ceylon, seem to render
+it quite worthy of the privilege of having an
+especial organ provided to minister to its will.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Cheiromancy.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Beauty</span> of the hand does not come in for
+quite so great a share of admiration as that of the
+foot. Perhaps, because we are less often gratified
+with the view of the latter. Perhaps, because we
+are conscious that the foot is even more decidedly
+characteristic of the human form than is the hand;
+inasmuch as the hand of the monkey approaches
+more nearly to the human hand than does the
+foot of any animal to the human foot. Still, we
+are by no means insensible to the charms of a
+pretty hand; and we prefer that the glove which
+envelopes it should be of a material as thin and
+pliable as kid, so that it may adapt itself accurately
+to the part, and not conceal its form. A
+small and delicate hand is thought to be one of
+the best signs of high-breeding. Thus, Byron, who
+was no bad judge of such matters, writes</p>
+
+<p class="ml2em fs90 ti0">
+“Even to the delicacy of her hand<br>
+There was resemblance such as true blood bears,”
+</p>
+
+<p class="ti0">and again,</p>
+
+<p class="ml2em fs90 ti0">
+“Though on more thorough-bred or fairer fingers<br>
+No lips ere left their transitory trace.”
+</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Lines</span> upon the palm, or creases formed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span>
+in closing the hand, differ a little in different persons.
+In former times, when men were addicted
+to the arts of divination, and thought more about
+the connection between the physical world and
+the world of spirits, and strove, by a close observation
+of the former, to penetrate the mysteries
+of the latter, much attention was paid to these
+lines. They were named with the names of the
+Planets and the signs of the Zodiac; and a science
+grew up akin to Astrology and Physiognomy.
+<span class="smcap">Cheiromancy</span> was the name given to it; and numerous
+and voluminous treatises were written upon
+it. We are told that Homer was the author of a
+complete essay upon the lines of the hand. That
+something of the kind was practised among the
+Romans we learn from a passage in Juvenal, translated,
+somewhat freely, by Dryden, as follows:</p>
+
+<p class="ml2em fs90 ti0">
+“The middle sort, who have not much to spare,<br>
+To cheiromancer’s cheaper art repair,<br>
+Who claps the pretty palm to make the lines more fair.”
+</p>
+
+<p>You will estimate the value of the science of
+<span class="smcap">Cheiromancy</span> when you hear that equal furrows
+upon the lower joint of the thumb argue riches
+and possessions; but a line surrounding the middle
+joint portends hanging. The nails, also, came in
+for their share of attention: and we are informed
+that, when short, they imply goodness; when long
+and narrow, steadiness but dulness; when curved,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span>
+rapacity. Black spots upon them are unlucky;
+white are fortunate. Even at the present day
+Gipsies practise the art when they can find sufficient
+credulity to encourage them.</p>
+
+<p>Whether any fancy of the like kind gave
+origin to the notion still prevalent that a wound
+or injury between the thumb and the fore-finger
+is peculiarly likely to be followed by <span class="smcap">Lock-jaw</span>,
+or whether the notion was grounded on some
+notable instance in which that fearful malady
+did actually supervene upon a wound in the
+situation mentioned, I cannot tell. You may,
+however, rest assured, that it is quite a fallacy.
+Lock-jaw may result from a wound in any part
+of the body, or it may occur without a wound;
+it is very capricious in its attack; the surgeon
+does not know when to look for it; it often
+shows itself when he least expects it; but it is
+not more likely to follow a wound between the
+thumb and the fore-finger than a wound elsewhere.
+I think it well to mention this, because
+I have often known persons greatly alarmed when
+they have accidentally cut themselves in the
+dreaded spot.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span></p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Cause of the preferential use of the Right Hand.</i></h3>
+
+<p>Why is man usually <span class="lowercase smcap">RIGHT-HANDED</span>? Many
+attempts have been made to answer this question;
+but it has never been done quite satisfactorily;
+and I do not think that a clear and distinct
+explanation of the fact can be given.</p>
+
+<p>There is no anatomical reason for it with
+which we are acquainted. The only peculiarity
+that we can discern is a slight difference in the
+disposition, within the chest, between the blood-vessels
+which supply the right and the left arms.
+This, however, is quite insufficient to account for
+the disparity between the two limbs. Moreover,
+the same disposition is observed in left-handed
+persons, and in some of the lower animals; and
+in none of the latter is there that difference between
+the two limbs which is so general among
+men.</p>
+
+<p>Is the superiority of the right hand real and
+natural, that is, congenital? or is it merely acquired?
+I incline much to the latter view; because
+all men are not right-handed; some are
+left-handed; some are ambidextrous; and in all
+persons, I believe, the left hand may be trained<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span>
+to as great expertness and strength as the right‍<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a>.
+It is so in those who have been deprived of their
+right hand in early life; and most persons can do
+certain things with the left hand better than with
+the right.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, though I think the superiority
+of the right hand is acquired and is a result
+of its more frequent use, the tendency to use it,
+in preference to the left, is so universal that it
+would seem to be natural. I am driven, therefore,
+to the rather nice distinction, that, though
+the superiority is acquired, the tendency to acquire
+the superiority is natural.</p>
+
+<p>It may be argued that the tendency must be
+based upon something physical, and that, therefore,
+a tendency to superiority implies an actual
+superiority. This may be so; but I do not think
+that we are quite in a position to assert that it
+is so. We perceive that there is a tendency to
+the preferential use of the right hand; but we do
+not know upon what that tendency depends, and
+have, therefore no right to assert that the cause of
+it lies in the construction of the limb or of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span>
+parts which supply the limb with blood and nervous
+influence, or, indeed, upon any strictly physical
+cause whatever.</p>
+
+<p>It may be a tendency like that of certain
+animals to make their holes and nests in particular
+places and in particular ways, to watch for
+their prey at particular spots, to migrate in certain
+directions at particular periods, and to group
+themselves in a particular order during their travels.
+Such tendencies, or “Instincts” as they are
+often called, may possibly be the result of a peculiar
+conformation of the several animals; but it
+is, at present, by no means certain that they
+are so.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that man is the only animal in
+whom a preference in the use of the limb or
+limbs of one side is shown. This is a consequence
+of the fact that he is the only animal who
+has occasion to use the limbs of the two sides
+separately, or who is in the habit of doing so.
+Even in the rudest state of society this habit is
+engendered in him from a very early period, as
+in carrying a stick, throwing a spear, and in a
+variety of ways. The habit increases as he becomes
+more civilized, owing to the greater number
+of offices which the hands are called upon to
+perform; and the necessity for using the hands
+separately would, of itself, lead each individual<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span>
+to the employment of one more frequently than
+the other; but that that one should so universally
+be the right hand, seems to be accounted
+for only by reference to some natural tendency.
+The imitative propensity in man and the convenience
+of uniformity of modes of action are scarcely
+sufficient to account for it.</p>
+
+<p>I will not detain you by dwelling upon the
+effect which the superiority of the right hand
+has in giving a slight superiority to the right leg
+and the right eye, and will content myself with
+mentioning a single beneficial result of the preferential
+use of one hand, viz. that by it, we
+acquire a greater degree of skilfulness and dexterity
+than we should do if both hands were
+equally employed. The exclusive use, for instance,
+of the right hand in writing, cutting, &amp;c.
+gives it a greater expertness than either hand
+would have had if both of them had been accustomed
+to perform these offices. Hence, we usually
+find that persons who are left-handed are rather
+clumsy-fingered, because, although, in them, the
+left hand is used for many purposes which are
+commonly assigned to the right, yet the conventionalities
+of life interfere a good deal. The pen
+and the knife, for instance, are still wielded by
+the right hand. Accordingly such persons are
+neither truly right-handed nor truly left-handed;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span>
+and they do not commonly acquire so great skill
+in the use of either hand as do those whose natural
+tendency is more in harmony with custom.</p>
+
+<p class="mt2em">The great martyr of our Church, when at the
+stake, is said to have held out his right hand
+into the flames and to have been heard exclaiming,
+till utterance was stifled, “This unworthy
+hand.” This unworthy hand! Of whom or of
+what was that hand unworthy? Was it unworthy
+of Him who made it? Was it unworthy of him
+who bore it? Was it unworthy of the purposes
+for which it was made? Was it not, on the
+contrary, a too worthy hand? a hand worthy of
+a better usage than to be made, first, to sign a
+recantation of faith and, then, to be burned for
+having done so? a hand worthy of a better man?
+No one would have admitted this more readily
+than Cranmer. We may be sure that he would
+never have thought of proclaiming a hand or any
+of his members to be really unworthy of him.
+Rather would he have willingly confessed that he
+had fallen far short of the standard of excellence
+which the body presents; and in that excellence,
+we doubt not, he recognised an evidence of Divine
+workmanship. His meaning, therefore, has
+not been misunderstood. Nevertheless disparaging
+remarks respecting the body, and the use of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span>
+word “carnal” in the sense in which it is usually
+employed, have some tendency to excuse a shrinking
+from moral responsibilities on the ground of
+the weakness of the flesh. Let us remember that
+much of that weakness is of our own engendering,
+that a moral obliquity is the source of many
+of those physical infirmities which, we flatter ourselves,
+may cover our delinquencies, and which
+a sympathising humanity is wont, perhaps too
+often, to throw as a shield over offenders against
+the laws. In man, and in man alone of created
+beings, the physical and the moral grow up together
+and react upon one another; and the
+charge of a body thus capable of influencing and
+being influenced demands all our energies to
+prove ourselves worthy of it.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="EXPLANATION_OF_WOOD-CUTS">EXPLANATION OF WOOD-CUTS.</h2>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="r15" >
+
+<h3>THE HUMAN FOOT.</h3>
+
+<table id="wcfoot">
+<tr>
+<td>Fig.</td>  <td>page</td>   <td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td> <a href="#f01" id="fignote_01">1</a></td>      <td>  9</td>   <td>Bones of foot, with the lower ends of the two
+                 leg-bones.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>        
+<td> <a href="#f02" id="fignote_02">2</a></td>      <td> 11</td>    <td>Bones of the hind foot of a seal, with lower ends
+                 of leg-bones.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td> <a href="#f03" id="fignote_03">3</a></td>      <td> 11</td>    <td>The same of the hind foot of a lizard.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td> <a href="#f04" id="fignote_04">4</a></td>      <td> 14</td>    <td>Side view of the pelvis and lower limb of man.
+                 A, the <i>haunch-bone</i>. B, the <i>ischium</i>, or part upon
+                 which we sit. C, the <i>thigh-bone</i>. D, the <i>knee-pan</i>.
+                 E, the <i>tibia</i>, or larger leg-bone, with the
+                 <i>fibula</i>, or smaller leg-bone, alongside it. F, the
+                 <i>heel-bone</i>. G, the <i>metatarsal</i> bones. H, I, K, the
+                 <i>phalanges</i>, or bones of the toes.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td> <a href="#f05" id="fignote_05">5</a></td>      <td> 14</td>    <td>Similar view of the pelvis and hind limb of a horse.
+                 The letters refer to the same parts as in the preceding
+                 figure.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td> <a href="#f06" id="fignote_06">6</a></td>      <td> 18</td>    <td>Represents a section through the lower end of the
+                 tibia and through the <i>heel-bone</i>, the <i>astragalus</i>,
+                 <i>navicular</i> bone, inner <i>cuneiform</i> bone, and the bones
+                 of the <i>great toe</i>. It shows the arrangement of
+                 these bones in the arch of the foot and the disposition
+                 of the plates of which these bones are composed.
+                 <span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td> <a href="#f07" id="fignote_07">7</a></td>      <td> 25</td>    <td>The same bones as in preceding, with two connecting
+                   ligaments. A, the <i>plantar ligament</i>. B, ligament
+                   passing from the heel-bone F to the scaphoid bone
+                   E. D the <i>Astragalus</i>. C, one of two small bones,
+                   called <i>sesamoid</i> bones, usually found at the ball of
+                   the great toe.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td> <a href="#f08" id="fignote_08">8</a></td>      <td> 29</td>    <td>A foot, in an aggravated condition of “flat-foot.”
+                 The sole is convex, and so is the inner margin
+                 of the foot. It represents also another common
+                 deformity, inasmuch as the great toe runs athwart
+                 the second toe, which is pressed almost out of
+                 sight.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td> <a href="#f09" id="fignote_09">9</a></td>      <td> 38</td>    <td>Front view of the right <i>tibia</i>, or larger leg-bone.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f10" id="fignote_10">10</a></td>      <td> 38</td>    <td>Right <i>tibia</i> lying on a board. The inner, as well
+                 as the outer edge, of the upper end rests upon the
+                 board; but the inner edge of the lower end is
+                 turned away from the board. In other words, the
+                 bone is so twisted that, though the upper end
+                 lies flat upon the board, the lower end touches
+                 it only by its outer edge.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f11" id="fignote_11">11</a></td>      <td> 40</td>    <td>Figure sitting upon the heel to draw the bow. It is
+                 one of a beautiful series of statues in the Glyptothek
+                 at Munich. They adorned the pediments
+                 of a temple in Ægina, and are supposed to represent
+                 the noble actions of the Æacidæ.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f12" id="fignote_12">12</a></td>      <td> 42</td>    <td>Represents some of the muscles and tendons seen
+                 on the inner side of the leg and foot. A, <i>Gastro-
+                 cnemius</i> and <i>Soleus</i> muscles. They are attached,
+                 above, to the thigh-bone and the leg-bones; below,
+                 by means of the <i>Tendo Achillis</i> (<i>a</i>) to the heel-bone;
+                 they together form the calf-muscle. B,
+                 <i>Posterior tibial</i> muscle attached, above, to the
+                 tibia, below, by its tendon (<i>b</i>) to the scaphoid
+                 bone. D, process of the tibia called the <i>internal
+                 malleolus</i> or inner ankle. F, <i>Anterior tibial</i> muscle
+                 attached, above, to the front of the tibia, below,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span>
+                 to the scaphoid bone. <i>k</i>, the <i>flexor tendon</i> of the
+                 great toe.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f13" id="fignote_13">13</a></td>      <td> 44</td>    <td>Gives a corresponding view of the outer side of the
+                 leg and foot. E, the lower end of the fibula,
+                 called the <i>external malleolus</i>, or outer ankle. C,
+                 the <i>short fibular</i> muscle attached, above, to the
+                 fibula; below, by its tendon (<i>c</i>), to the outer
+                 metatarsal bone. I, the <i>long fibular</i> muscle. Its
+                 tendon (<i>i</i>) runs, behind the outer ankle and under
+                 the instep, to the metatarsal bone of the great
+                 toe; it is not seen in the latter part of its course.
+                 G, the <i>anterior fibular</i> muscle attached by its tendon
+                 <i>g</i> to the outer metatarsal bone. <i>h</i>, the <i>extensor
+                 tendons</i> of the toes.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f14" id="fignote_14">14</a></td>      <td> 47</td>    <td>Foot of a young woman presenting the variety of
+                 “club-foot” called “<i>Talipes varus</i>.” The sole is
+                 very much bent, and turned inwards and upwards,
+                 so that the part of the instep which should be above
+                 and in front is directed downwards and comes into
+                 contact with the ground.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f15" id="fignote_15">15</a></td>      <td> 49</td>    <td>Diagram (from Bell’s <i>Anatomy</i>) showing the mode
+                 in which the extensor tendons of the toes follow
+                 the curve of the ankle and are bound to it by
+                 cross straps, instead of taking the direct course
+                 represented by the line <i>a</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f16" id="fignote_16">16</a></td>      <td> 52</td>    <td>Foot and leg from the cast of the Farnese Hercules
+                  in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f17" id="fignote_17">17</a></td>      <td> 52</td>    <td>Foot and leg of a Negro.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f18" id="fignote_18">18</a></td>      <td> 52</td>    <td>Outline of under surface of foot of an Englishman.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f19" id="fignote_19">19</a></td>      <td> 52</td>   <td> Outline of under surface of foot of a Negro.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f20" id="fignote_20">20</a></td>      <td> 55</td>   <td> Skeleton of the foot of a Chinese female. From a
+                drawing by B. Cooper, in <i>Phil. Trans.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><span class="nowrap"><a href="#f21" id="fignote_21">21–25</a></span></td>   <td> 57</td>    <td>Sections, from above downwards, through the tarso-metatarsal
+                 joints. A, <i>metatarsal</i> bone. B, <i>tarsal</i>
+                 bone. C, C, the <i>ligaments</i> connecting the two.
+                 <span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><span class="nowrap"><a href="#f26" id="fignote_26">26–29</a></span></td>   <td> 59</td>    <td>Figures standing, bowing, stooping, and squatting.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><span class="nowrap"><a href="#f30" id="fignote_30">30–32</a></span></td>   <td> 62</td>    <td>Figures walking.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><span class="nowrap"><a href="#f33" id="fignote_33">33–35</a></span></td>   <td> 62</td>    <td>Position of foot in three stages of a step in walking.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><span class="nowrap"><a href="#f36" id="fignote_36">36–38</a></span></td>   <td> 65</td>    <td>Figures running.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f39" id="fignote_39">39</a></td>      <td> 86</td>    <td>Bones of the left hind limb of an Elephant.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f40" id="fignote_40">40</a></td>      <td> 86</td>    <td>Bones of the left hind limb of a Hippopotamus.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f41" id="fignote_41">41</a></td>      <td> 86</td>    <td>Bones of the left hind limb of a Rhinoceros.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f42" id="fignote_42">42</a></td>      <td> 86</td>    <td>Bones of the left hind limb of an Ox.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f43" id="fignote_43">43</a></td>      <td> 86</td>    <td>Bones of the left hind limb of a Horse.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f44" id="fignote_44">44</a></td>      <td> 89</td>    <td>Hind limb of a Gorilla, showing the length of the
+                 digits, and the strong inner digit diverging from
+                 the others.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f45" id="fignote_45">45</a></td>      <td> 90</td>    <td>Drawing of stuffed specimen of a Gorilla in the
+                 British Museum.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f46" id="fignote_46">46</a></td>      <td> 98</td>    <td>Section of a foot, showing the disposition of the fibres
+                 that run from the bones and plantar ligament to
+                 the skin of the sole. At the heel the greater number
+                 of the fibres are seen to run <i>back</i>wards from
+                 the heel-bone to the skin. At the end of the
+                 great toe and beneath the ball of the toe they run,
+                 for the most part, <i>for</i>wards, from the bones and
+                 plantar ligament, to the skin.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f47" id="fignote_47">47</a></td>      <td>103</td>    <td>View of the sole of a foot in its natural state.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f48" id="fignote_48">48</a></td>      <td>103</td>    <td>Outline of the sole of a shoe, as commonly made for
+                 a man’s foot.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f49" id="fignote_49">49</a></td>      <td>103</td>    <td>Sole of the foot of a girl twenty-two years old, distorted
+                 by the pressure of the shoe, but otherwise
+                 healthy.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f50" id="fignote_50">50</a></td>      <td>103</td>    <td>View of the skeleton of a foot so deformed, from
+                 above.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f51" id="fignote_51">51</a></td>      <td>105</td>    <td>The proper sole for a shoe laid, for the sake of
+                 comparison, on the symmetrical sole of the ordinary
+                 shape.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f52" id="fignote_52">52</a></td>      <td>105</td>    <td>The proper sole pointed at the toes.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>THE HUMAN HAND.</h3>
+
+<table id="wchand">
+<tr>
+<td>Fig.</td>  <td>page</td>   <td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f53" id="fignote_53">53</a></td>    <td>110</td>    <td>The bones of the arm (<i>humerus</i>), of the forearm
+               (<i>radius</i> and <i>ulna</i>, the former is the upper of the
+               two, the forearm and hand being semi-prone), and
+               of the hand. The names of the wrist-bones are,
+               <i>scaphoid</i>, <i>semilunar</i> (these two are in contact with
+               the radius), <i>cuneiform</i> (this is in a line with the
+               ulna, but separated from it by an interval in
+               which lies the triangular ligament, see fig. <a href="#f64">64</a>,
+               page 134), <i>pisiform</i> (faintly seen in shadow beneath
+               the cuneiform), <i>trapezium</i> (supporting the
+               metacarpal bone of thumb), <i>trapezoid</i> (supporting
+               the metacarpal bone of fore-finger), <i>magnum</i> (supporting
+               the metacarpal bone of the middle or
+               great finger), <i>unciform</i> (supporting the metacarpal
+               bones of the ring and the little fingers).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f54" id="fignote_54">54</a></td>    <td>112</td>    <td>Diagram of the bones of the hand with the ends of
+               the radius and ulna. 1, end of <i>radius</i>; 2, end of
+               <i>ulna</i>; 3, <i>scaphoid</i>; 4, <i>semilunar</i>; 5, <i>cuneiform</i>;
+               6, <i>pisiform</i>; 7, <i>trapezium</i>; 8, <i>trapezoid</i>; 9, <i>magnum</i>;
+               10, <i>unciform</i>; 11, 11, <i>metacarpal</i> bones;
+               12, 12, first row of <i>phalanges</i>; 13, 13, second
+               row of <i>phalanges</i>; 14, 14, third row of <i>phalanges</i>;
+               <span class="lowercase smcap">I</span>, thumb; <span class="lowercase smcap">II</span>, forefinger; <span class="lowercase smcap">III</span>,
+               middle finger; <span class="lowercase smcap">IV</span>,
+               ring finger; <span class="lowercase smcap">V</span>, little finger.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f55" id="fignote_55">55</a></td>    <td>116</td>    <td>Drawing of the front of the chest and the shoulders,
+               with the collar-bones running across from the
+               upper edge of the breast-bone to the projecting
+               processes of the shoulder-blades.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f56" id="fignote_56">56</a></td>    <td>117</td>    <td>The chest and shoulder of an Eagle. <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, the united
+               <i>collar-bones</i>, or “merry-thought;” <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, the <i>coracoid</i>,
+               or “side-bone;” <span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>, the long, slender <i>shoulder-blade</i>;
+               <span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>, the <i>sternum</i>; <span class="lowercase smcap">E</span>, the <i>humerus</i>.
+               <span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f57" id="fignote_57">57</a></td>    <td>120</td>    <td>The head, fore part of chest, and shoulder of a
+               Rhinoceros. The chest is deep and flat at the
+               sides. The shoulder-blade and arm-bone are
+               nearly vertical, that is, they nearly correspond
+               with the ribs in their direction.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f58" id="fignote_58">58</a></td>    <td>122</td>    <td>Side view of chest, shoulder and arm (human). The
+               shoulder-blade is prolonged in the direction of the
+               spine, that is, <i>across</i> the ribs.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f59" id="fignote_59">59</a></td>    <td>124</td>    <td>Side view of fore part of a Monkey’s skeleton.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f60" id="fignote_60">60</a></td>    <td>126</td>    <td>A section, from side to side, through the Elbow-joint,
+               showing the shape of the surfaces of the bones. 
+               <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, the <i>radius</i>; <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, the <i>ulna</i>; <span class="lowercase smcap">CC</span>, the side
+               <i>ligaments</i> holding the radius and ulna to the <i>arm-bone</i>,
+               <span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f61" id="fignote_61">61</a></td>    <td>127</td>    <td>The upper limb with the forearm and hand in the
+               state of supination. <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, the <i>long Pronator</i> muscle.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f62" id="fignote_62">62</a></td>    <td>127</td>    <td>The same in a state of pronation. <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, the <i>short
+               Supinator</i> muscle.<br><br>
+
+             In this and the preceding drawing a plumb-line,
+               descending from the outer condyle of the humerus
+               traverses the lower end of the ulna and the ring
+               finger.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f63" id="fignote_63">63</a></td>    <td>131</td>    <td>Drawing of the <i>biceps</i> muscle. The hand is in a
+               state of pronation. Driving the gimlet is effected
+               by the movement to the state of supination.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f64" id="fignote_64">64</a></td>    <td>134</td>    <td>Section, from side to side, through the Wrist, showing
+               the shapes of the bones and the mode in which they are adapted
+               to one another. <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, the
+               <i>radius</i>; <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, the <i>ulna</i>;
+               <span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>, <i>scaphoid</i> bone;
+               <span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>, <i>cuneiform</i> bone;
+               <span class="lowercase smcap">E</span>, <i>semi-lunar</i> bone;
+               <span class="lowercase smcap">F</span>, line of contact of radius
+               and ulna; <span class="lowercase smcap">G</span>, <span class="lowercase
+               smcap">G</span>, side <i>ligaments</i> connecting the wrist-bones
+               with the bones of the forearm. <span class="lowercase smcap">H</span>,
+               <span class="lowercase smcap">I</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">K</span>,
+               <span class="lowercase smcap">L</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">M</span>,
+               <i>metacarpal</i> bones of thumb and fingers.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f65" id="fignote_65">65</a></td>    <td>138</td>    <td>View of the superficial muscles on the palmar
+               aspect of the forearm and hand. <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, the <i>radial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span>
+               flexor</i> of the wrist. <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, the <i>long palmar</i> muscle.
+               <span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>, the <i>ulnar flexor</i> of the wrist. <span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>, the muscles
+               of the “ball of the thumb.” <span class="lowercase smcap">E</span>, the <i>long supinator</i>
+               muscle. <span class="lowercase smcap">F</span>, the <i>long pronator</i>. <span class="lowercase smcap">G</span>, the
+               lower part of the <i>biceps</i> muscle. <span class="lowercase smcap">H</span>, Cross <i>ligaments</i>
+               binding the tendons in their places. (This
+               and the two following figures are from Quain’s
+               <i>Anatomy</i>.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f66" id="fignote_66">66</a></td>    <td>138</td>    <td>View of the deep muscles and tendons on the
+               palmar aspects of the forearm and hand. <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, the
+               <i>long flexor</i> of the thumb. <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, some of the <i>flexors</i>
+               of the fingers. <span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>, the <i>Adductor</i> muscle of the
+               thumb.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f67" id="fignote_67">67</a></td>    <td>139</td>    <td>The <i>extensor</i> muscles and tendons of the wrist,
+               thumb, and fingers seen on the back of the
+               forearm and hand. <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, the <i>abductors</i> and
+               <i>adductors</i> of the fingers. <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, the cross <i>ligament</i>
+               which binds the tendons in their places.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f68" id="fignote_68">68</a></td>    <td>146</td>    <td>Hand holding a cricket-ball, showing that the tips
+               of the fingers and the thumb all reach the same
+               level.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f69" id="fignote_69">69</a></td>    <td>152</td>    <td>Diagram showing the distribution of the <i>median</i> (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>)
+               and <i>ulnar</i> (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>) <i>nerves</i> in the hand.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f70" id="fignote_70">70</a></td>    <td>165</td>    <td>Drawing of a magnified section through the skin of
+               the palmar surface of the thumb, including three
+               of the ridges seen on that surface. <i>a</i>, the outer
+               or horny layer of the <i>cuticle</i>; <i>b</i>, the deeper layer
+               of the same called “<i>rete mucosum</i>;” <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, the
+               <i>cutis</i>, with <i>papillæ</i> rising from its surface beneath
+               the ridges and projecting into the rete mucosum;
+               <i>g</i>, <i>g</i>, grains of <i>fat</i> lying in the deeper part of the
+               cutis and in the tissue beneath it. Between <i>f</i>
+               and <i>f</i> are three <i>sweat-glands</i>, each composed of a
+               tube rolled up into a ball or knot. The tubes (<i>h</i>, <i>h</i>)
+               are seen ascending from them through the cutis<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span>
+               and cuticle, and opening at the tops of the ridges.
+               (From Kölliker’s <i>Mikroskopishe Anatomie</i>.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f71" id="fignote_71">71</a></td>    <td>170</td>    <td>Section of skin still more magnified. <i>a</i>, Outer or
+               horny stratum of cuticle; <i>b</i>, inner stratum of cuticle,
+               or “rete mucosum;” <i>c</i>, papillary stratum of
+               cutis; <i>d</i>, deeper or fibrous stratum of cutis. The
+               curling tube rolled into a ball at the lower part
+               is the sweat-gland. Its duct is seen ascending
+               through the fibrous structure of the cutis, and
+               presents the coiled appearance of a rope as it
+               traverses the cuticle.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f72" id="fignote_72">72</a></td>    <td>170</td>    <td>A few layers of the cuticle and rete mucosum of
+               a Negro, showing the spots of dark pigment in
+               the rete which give the black colour to the
+               Negro’s skin. (This and the preceding from
+               Todd and Bowman’s <i>Phys. Anatomy</i>.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f73" id="fignote_73">73</a></td>    <td>170</td>    <td>Section of a Corn and adjacent skin. <i>a</i>, the <i>cuticle</i>;
+               <i>c</i>, the <i>cutis</i> with its <i>papillæ</i>. The cuticle is seen
+               to be very thick, and the papillæ are somewhat
+               enlarged in the corn.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f74" id="fignote_74">74</a></td>    <td>170</td>    <td>Section of a Wart and adjacent skin. <i>a</i>, <i>cuticle</i>;
+               <i>c</i>, the <i>cutis</i> with its <i>papillæ</i>. The latter are seen
+               to be enlarged, or “hypertrophied,” in the wart.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f75-77" id="fignote_75-77">75</a></td>    <td>174</td>    <td>Vertical section, made lengthways, of a Nail raised
+               from its bed, showing its connexion with the
+               cuticle. <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>cuticle</i>; <i>d</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>nail</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f75-77">76</a></td>    <td>174</td>    <td>Similar section of a Nail lying in its bed of cutis.
+               <i>a</i>, <i>cuticle</i>; <i>b</i>, <i>rete mucosum</i>; <i>c</i>, <i>cutis</i>; <i>d</i>, <i>nail</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f75-77">77</a></td>    <td>174</td>    <td>Section of the Cutis from which the nail, the cuticle,
+               and the rete have been removed.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f78" id="fignote_78">78</a></td>    <td>176</td>    <td>Transverse section of the Nail and Skin, made vertically.
+               <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>cuticle</i>; <i>b</i>, <i>rete</i>; <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>cutis</i>; <i>d</i>, <i>d</i>,
+               lines running through the cutis to the <i>papillæ</i>;
+               <i>e</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>e</i>, lines running through the nail to the rete.
+               (This and the three preceding from Kölliker.)
+               <span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f79" id="fignote_79">79</a></td>    <td>179</td>    <td>Section of a Hair and Hair-follicle. <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, the
+               <i>cuticle</i> and <i>rete</i> lining the follicle. <i>e</i>, the outer
+               layer, or rind, of the hair formed by closely-plaited
+               scales of cuticle continued upon it from
+               the bottom of the follicle <i>d</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f80" id="fignote_80">80</a></td>    <td>179</td>    <td>Piece of the exterior of a Hair more highly magnified
+               to show the imbricated arrangement of the
+               plates or scales forming its outer surface.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f81" id="fignote_81">81,82</a></td> <td>179</td>    <td>Transverse sections of Hairs. (These and two preceding
+               from Todd and Bowman.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f83" id="fignote_83">83</a></td>    <td>181</td>    <td>Section of a Hair-follicle containing a Hair, and
+               with two Oil-glands, <i>g</i>, <i>g</i>, lying near it, and with
+               their ducts opening into it. <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, cuticle and
+               rete; <i>d</i>, bottom of follicle. (From Kölliker.)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>             
+<td><a href="#f84" id="fignote_84">84</a></td>    <td>187</td>    <td>The terminal Bone of a finger, with a portion of the
+               bone next it, showing the nodulated bulbous end
+               of the former.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p class="ti0 tac fs70 mt-2em">CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.</p>
+
+<p class="tac ti0 fs110 mtb3em"><i>By the same Author.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<p class="ti0 tac fs120">I.</p>
+
+<p class="ti0 tac fs120">A TREATISE ON THE HUMAN SKELETON,</p>
+
+<p class="ti0 tac">(<span class="lowercase smcap">INCLUDING THE JOINTS</span>),</p>
+
+<p class="ti0 tac"><i>With Two Hundred and Sixty Illustrations drawn from Nature.</i></p>
+
+<p class="ti0 tac">Medium 8vo. cloth, price £1. 8<i>s.</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="ti0 tac fs120 mt2em">II.</p>
+
+<p class="ti0 tac fs120">AN ESSAY ON THE LIMBS OF VERTEBRATE<br>
+ANIMALS.</p>
+
+<p class="ti0 tac">4to. sewed, 5<i>s.</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="ti0 tac fs120 mt2em">III.</p>
+
+<p class="ti0 tac fs120">ON THE COAGULATION OF THE BLOOD IN<br>
+THE VENOUS SYSTEM DURING LIFE.</p>
+
+<p class="ti0 tac">8vo. sewed, 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">1</a>
+<i>Treatise on the Human Skeleton</i>, p. 395.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">2</a>
+It does not appear that the legend is based upon any
+peculiar ideas of susceptibility attached to the heel among Eastern
+nations; nor can the passages in Scripture, that the Serpent
+shall bruise man’s heel (Genesis iii. 15); “For the greatness of
+thine iniquity are thy heels made bare” (Jeremiah xiii. 22), be
+adduced as indicating the existence of such an idea. There
+are some other myths resembling this one of Achilles; but in
+them a different part of the body missed the protecting influence.
+Thus, Ajax was wrapped by Hercules in the skin of the Nemæan
+lion, and was, thereby, rendered invulnerable, except at the pit
+of the stomach where the edges of the skin did not quite meet;
+and he killed himself by running his sword in there. In the
+<i>Niebelungenlied</i>, the hero, Siegfried, is represented to have rendered
+himself invulnerable by smearing himself with the blood
+of a dragon which he had killed. A leaf, however, adhering
+to his back, prevented the contact of the fluid with one spot.
+The secret was unwarily communicated by his wife Krimhild
+to his enemy Hagan, who took advantage of the information
+to plunge his sword into the fatal spot while Siegfried was stooping
+down to drink at a rivulet.</p>
+
+<p>The lesson inculcated by these myths seems to be that all
+men, even heroes, have their weak points.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">3</a>
+It is a remarkable statement by a correspondent in <i>The
+Times</i>, Jan. 14th, 1861, that in the pillage of the Summer Palace
+of the Emperor of Pekin “all the ladies of the Court must have
+had natural-sized feet, all the slippers found in their rooms being
+large; not a single cramped-footed shoe was seen.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">4</a>
+In <span class="smcap">Walking</span> the hind leg moves first, then the fore leg of
+the same side; and both reach the ground before the hind leg of
+the opposite side is raised. So that at one time there are three
+feet on the ground, at another two, but never less than two.</p>
+
+<p>In <span class="smcap">Trotting</span>, especially quick trotting, one foot is raised at
+the same instant that the opposite one is put down. This renders
+it difficult to make out the sequence of the movements.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">5</a>
+In ancient times warriors were wont to cut off the <i>great
+toes</i> as well as the <i>thumbs</i> of their captives to disable them for
+further service (Judges i. 6, 7).</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">6</a>
+<i>Why the Shoe pinches</i>, a contribution to Applied Anatomy by
+Hermann Meyer, M.D. Professor of Anatomy in the University
+of Zurich, translated from the German by John Stirling Craig,
+L.R.C.P.E., L.R.C.S.E., price sixpence.</p>
+
+<p>The preceding four figures and the two following are taken
+from this pamphlet with Mr Craig’s permission.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">7</a>
+In deference to custom we call the palm the <i>front</i> of the
+hand; and, therefore, we speak of the thumb as the <i>out</i>er and the
+little finger as the <i>in</i>ner digit: though it would better accord
+with the ordinary position of the part, with its correspondence
+with the foot and with comparative anatomy, to reverse these
+terms.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">8</a>
+It has been suggested, probably by <i>Punch</i>, that it is called
+the “<i>funny-bone</i>” because it lies near the “<i>humerus</i>.”</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">9</a>
+In the tribe of Benjamin “there were seven hundred chosen
+men left-handed; every one could sling stones at an hair breadth,
+and not miss.” Judges xx. 16. When David was at Ziklag
+there came to him a company of men who “were armed with
+bows and could use both the right hand and the left in hurling
+stones and shooting arrows out of a bow.” 1 Chronicles xii. 2.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75360 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
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diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #75360 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/75360)