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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-02-13 06:21:04 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-02-13 06:21:04 -0800 |
| commit | 9ac5c2147566203ee75edf145c06927e13380fa4 (patch) | |
| tree | fbbacb76e5b470d4e19eac45270256d4a22b5879 /75360-h | |
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+ font-style: normal; + white-space: nowrap; + text-decoration: none; +} + + + +/* Transcriber's notes */ +.transnote { + background-color: #F2F2F2; + color: black; + font-size:smaller; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; +} + +/* Illustration classes */ +.illowe10_125 {width: 10.125em;} +.illowe10_9375 {width: 10.9375em;} +.illowe10 {width: 10em;} +.illowe10_8125 {width: 10.8125em;} +.illowe11_25 {width: 11.25em;} +.illowe12_3125 {width: 12.3125em;} +.illowe13_75 {width: 13.75em;} +.illowe15_375 {width: 15.375em;} +.illowe15_25 {width: 15.25em;} +.illowe20 {width: 20em;} +.illowe20_625 {width: 20.625em;} +.illowe21_875 {width: 21.875em;} +.illowe22_5 {width: 22.5em;} +.illowe25 {width: 25em;} +.illowe29_75 {width: 29.75em;} +.illowe30 {width: 30em;} +.illowe5 {width: 5em;} +.illowe5_8125 {width: 5.8125em;} +.illowe6_625 {width: 6.625em;} +.illowe7_375 {width: 7.375em;} +.illowe7_75 {width: 7.75em;} +.illowe8_4375 {width: 8.4375em;} +.illowe8_625 {width: 8.625em;} +.illowe8_25 {width: 8.25em;} +.illowe8_875 {width: 8.875em;} +.illowe8_75 {width: 8.75em;} +.illowe8_5 {width: 8.5em;} +.illowe9_75 {width: 9.75em;} +.illowp100 {width: 100%;} +.illowp20 {width: 20%;} +.x-ebookmaker .illowp20 {width: 100%;} +.illowp26 {width: 26%;} +.x-ebookmaker .illowp26 {width: 100%;} +.illowp27 {width: 27%;} +.x-ebookmaker .illowp27 {width: 100%;} +.illowp38 {width: 38%;} +.x-ebookmaker .illowp38 {width: 100%;} +.illowp57 {width: 57%;} +.x-ebookmaker .illowp57 {width: 100%;} +.illowp70 {width: 70%;} +.x-ebookmaker .illowp70 {width: 100%;} +.illowp77 {width: 77%;} +.x-ebookmaker .illowp77 {width: 100%;} +.illowp81 {width: 81%;} +.x-ebookmaker .illowp81 {width: 100%;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75360 ***</div> + +<div class="transnote"> +<p><b><a id="Transcribers_notes"></a>Transcriber’s notes</b>:</p> + +<p>The text of this eBook has been preserved as in the original, but +footnotes have been numbered consecutively, hyperlinked, and moved to +the end of the book. Hyperlinks have also been applied to the table of +contents, to cross references, and to the author’s descriptions of the +numerous images, located at the end of the book.</p> + +<p>New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the +public domain.</p> +</div> + + +<div class="titlepage"> +<h1><span class="t1">THE HUMAN FOOT</span> + +<span class="t2">AND THE</span> + +<span class="t1">HUMAN HAND.</span></h1> + +<div class="tp1">BY</div> + +<div class="tp2">G. M. HUMPHRY, M.D. F.R.S.</div> + +<div class="tp3">LECTURER ON ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY IN THE<br> +UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.</div> + +<div class="tp4">MACMILLAN AND CO.</div> +<div class="tp5">Cambridge:</div> +<div class="tp6">AND 23, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN,</div> +<div class="tp5">London.</div> +<div class="tp7">1861.</div> +</div> + + + + +<p class="tac fs120 ti0">Cambridge:</p> + +<p class="tac ti0 ls01em ws05em">PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A.<br> +AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">Pg v</span></p> + +<p class="intro"> The following pages originated in two +popular Lectures which were delivered in +Cambridge. In the preparation for publication +many additions have been made; but I +have thought it best to retain the original +form.</p> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2> +</div> + + +<p class="tac ti0 fs110 mt2em">THE HUMAN FOOT.</p> + +<div class="fs90"> +<p>Why are the generality of persons so ignorant of the structure +of their own bodies? p. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>. The dependence of the hand +upon the foot, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>. Principle of “division of Labour” illustrated +in the animal world, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>; and in the function of locomotion, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p> + +<p>Structure of Lower Limb, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>. Length of Leg in <span class="smcap">Giants</span>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>. +Bones of Foot, <i>ib.</i> Peculiarity of <span class="smcap">Great Toe</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>. Uniformity +in plan, and dissimilarity in detail seen throughout nature, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>. +Homologous parts in animals, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>. Comparison of Horse’s Leg +with Man’s, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>. The <span class="smcap">Arch</span> of the foot, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>; its elasticity greater +in the fore part than in the hinder, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>. The Component bones +held together by Ligaments, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>. <span class="smcap">Weak Ankle</span> and <span class="smcap">Flat Foot</span>, +<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>; time of life at which they occur, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>. Injurious effects +of “High-lows,” <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</p> + +<p>Movements of the <span class="smcap">Foot</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>; compared with those of the +<span class="smcap">Head</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>. Nature’s abhorrence of straight lines illustrated by +shape of leg-bone, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, and by movements of leg upon thigh, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>. +Sitting upon the heel, <i>ib.</i> Grecian and Egyptian statuary compared, +<a href="#Page_40">40</a>. Relation of <span class="smcap">Perfection</span> and <span class="smcap">Beauty</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Muscles</span> of Leg and Foot, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>. Purpose served by movements +of Infants, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>. <span class="smcap">Club-foot</span>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>. Shape of the ankle, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>. Length +and direction of the heel, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>. The <span class="smcap">Calf</span>, <i>ib.</i>; characteristic +of man, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>. <span class="smcap">European</span> Leg and Foot contrasted with <span class="smcap">Negro’s</span>, +<a href="#Page_51">51</a>. <span class="smcap">Chinese</span> foot, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>. Tendency of different races to exaggerate +their peculiarities, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>. Provision for enabling balls of toes to +adapt themselves to uneven surfaces, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Standing</span>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>. <span class="smcap">Bowing</span>, <span class="smcap">Stooping</span> and <span class="smcap">Squatting</span>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>. +<span class="smcap">Walking</span>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>. <span class="smcap">Running</span>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>. <span class="smcap">Trotting</span> and <span class="smcap">Galloping</span>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>. +Rolling in walking, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>. Sprained ankle, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>. Mode in which +foot revolves on the ground, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>. Character shown in walking, +<a href="#Page_76">76</a>. The <span class="smcap">Idiot</span>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>. The <span class="smcap">Drunkard</span>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> + +<p>Distinctive features of the Human Foot, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>; most marked in +highest races, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>. The <span class="smcap">Toes</span> of small size and, comparatively, +unimportant, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>. The foot of the <span class="smcap">Elephant</span>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>; of the <span class="smcap">Hippopotamus</span>, +<span class="smcap">Rhinoceros</span>, <span class="smcap">Ox</span>, and <span class="smcap">Horse</span>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>; of the <span class="smcap">Gorilla</span>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>. +Proportions of the limbs, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>. Foot and hand small in very short +and very tall persons, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>. The foot measure, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Skin</span> of the sole, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>. On <span class="smcap">Shoes</span>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> +</div> + +<p class="tac ti0 fs110 mt2em">THE HUMAN HAND.</p> + +<div class="fs90"> +<p><span class="smcap">Hand</span> how distinguished from <span class="smcap">Foot</span>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>. Construction of +Upper limb, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>. Small bones rarely dislocated, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</p> + +<p>Movements at <span class="smcap">Shoulder</span> very free, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>; conducive to good +development of Chest, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>. Uses of <span class="smcap">Collar-bone</span>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>. Injuries +to Shoulder why so frequent, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>. Shape of <span class="smcap">Chest</span>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>; +in Rhinoceros, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>; in Monkey, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p> + +<p>Movements at the <span class="smcap">Elbow</span>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>. <span class="smcap">Pronation</span> and <span class="smcap">Supination</span> +of the forearm and hand, <i>ib.</i> No exactly corresponding movements<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span> +in lower limb, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>. <span class="smcap">Muscles</span> by which they are effected, +<a href="#Page_130">130</a>. Anatomical reason for the direction in which we turn a +screw or a gimlet, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</p> + +<p>Structure and movements of the <span class="smcap">Wrist</span>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>. Movements +of the <span class="smcap">Fingers</span>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>. <span class="smcap">Muscles</span> by which they are effected, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>. +<span class="smcap">Movements</span> of the <span class="smcap">Thumb</span>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>; of the metacarpal bones upon +the wrist, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>. Advantage gained by the fingers and thumb all +differing in length, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>. Middle finger the centre about which +the others move, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>. On holding the <span class="smcap">Pen</span>, <i>ib.</i> The direction +in which the letters are slanted, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>. <span class="smcap">Writing</span> from left to right, +<a href="#Page_149">149</a>. Reason for the <span class="lowercase smcap">RING</span> being placed upon the fourth finger, +<a href="#Page_150">150</a>. The “funny-bone,” <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</p> + +<p>The <span class="smcap">Monkey’s Hand</span>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p> + +<p>The hand the organ of the <span class="smcap">Will</span>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>; its relation to the +<span class="smcap">Mind</span>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>; an organ of <span class="smcap">Expression</span>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>. <span class="smcap">Shaking hands</span>, +<a href="#Page_162">162</a>. Why do we shake hands? <a href="#Page_162">162</a>. Why do we <span class="smcap">Kiss</span>? <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p> + +<p>Structure of the <span class="smcap">Skin</span>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>. The Cuticle, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>; its uses, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>. +The Rete Mucosum, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>. Cause of the colour of the Skin, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>. +The Cutis, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>. Difference between a <span class="smcap">Wart</span> and a <span class="smcap">Corn</span>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>. +How to cut Corns, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nails</span>; their formation and growth, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>. Claws in lower +animals, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>. Sensitiveness of the Skin beneath the nails, +<a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hairs</span>; their formation, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>; colour, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>; uses, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Oil-Glands</span>; their uses, the odour of their secretion, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sweat-Glands</span>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>; their structure, <i>ib.</i> The “Pores” of +the Skin, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>. The moisture of the palm, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>. Cold Sweat, +<i>ib.</i></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Feeling</span> and <span class="smcap">Touch</span>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>. Structure of the three parts in +which they are most acute, <i>ib.</i> The “Pulps” of the fingers +connected with peculiar shape of the bones, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>; their sensitiveness +to cold, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>. Distinction between Common Feeling and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span> +the Sense of Touch, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>. Relation between the two in the +Tongue, the Eye and the Hand, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>. The tentacle of a Polyp +a rudimentary hand, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>. Acuteness of touch in man, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>; +in <span class="smcap">Blind</span> persons, <i>ib.</i></p> + +<p>Relation of the hand to the <span class="smcap">Eye</span> and the <span class="smcap">Mouth</span>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>. The +Elephant’s Trunk, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>. <span class="smcap">Cheiromancy</span>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>. The <span class="smcap">Lock-jaw</span> +fallacy, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>. Cause of the superiority of the <span class="smcap">Right Hand</span>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>. +“This unworthy hand!” <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> + +<p>Explanation of Wood-cuts, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_HUMAN_FOOT">THE HUMAN FOOT.</h2> +</div> + + +<p class="dropcap">THE Human Body is one of the most worthy +objects of man’s study. It is the noblest as +well as the crowning work of creation. In it +material organization is carried to the greatest +perfection. It surpasses, therefore, all other physical +objects in exquisiteness of construction and +in interest. How comes it, then, that most persons +are so ignorant respecting it? Men, well +informed in other matters, are usually altogether +uninformed with regard to this. In every other +branch of science we find amateur students pursuing +the subject with zeal and success. Geology, +Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, and even Comparative +Anatomy have each their votaries; but +Human Anatomy attracts no one. Why is this? +Partly, I think, because opportunities for acquiring<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span> +such information as is suitable and interesting +are not so many as they ought to be.</p> + +<p>It must be confessed, also, that we teachers of +Anatomy are somewhat to blame. We are too +prone, in our Lectures and Examinations, to dwell +upon bare details, without enlivening those details +with the many bright features of interest with +which they are naturally invested; and we fail, +therefore, to render it so attractive a science as it +might be. The example of those able and animated +teachers, John and Charles Bell, who laboured +with some success to disperse the clouds that +have ever overhung the horizon of anatomy, has +been too much forgotten; and the flame which +they kindled has almost died out under the chilling +apathy of their successors. Truly glad should +I be to see a change in this. I cannot but think +that if the teachers of Anatomy took higher +and more philosophical views of their science +there would be no lack of interest on the part +of the students. The interest so excited would +soon spread beyond the limits of the profession; +and there would thus be opened up to the public +some of the products of that rich vein of knowledge +and of that abundant material for thought +which lie buried in the human frame.</p> + +<p>I therefore willingly accede to your request for +a Lecture upon some part of the anatomy of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span> +human body, relying upon the intrinsic interest of +the subject to make amends for my own deficiencies +in expounding it; and I select the <span class="smcap">Human Foot</span>, +because a few of the more important points of its +construction can be explained without much difficulty, +because it affords a good illustration of +some of the principles of animal mechanism, and +because its form constitutes one of the great +characteristics whereby man is distinguished from +the lower animals. As an instrument of support +and of locomotion it excels the foot of any other +animal. It evinces its excellence by enabling +man to stand upright in a way that no other +animal can do; and so efficiently does the foot +accomplish this and perform the task of carrying +the body, that the hand is set at liberty to +minister to the will. Thus is the foot instrumental +in giving us an advantage over other animals, +and in enabling us to provide the means of defence; +and, thus, it aids us to carry out those +wondrous works which are second only to the +marvellous results of creative power.</p> + +<p>We are accustomed to regard the hand as the +great agent by which all this is attained, and +we are apt to forget how much it is indebted +to the foot. We do not reflect that, if the foot +of man presented no distinguishing peculiarity, +the hand, like the corresponding part in other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span> +animals, would be compelled to share with it +the task of carrying the body, and could, therefore, +not be devoted to the various offices which +it is now free to perform. Little right has the +hand to say to the foot, “I have no need of thee.”</p> + + +<h3><i>The principle of “division of labour.”</i></h3> + +<p>In this concentration of locomotive power in +the foot we have an illustration of what is called +the “principle of division of labour,” a principle +with which all civilized communities are familiar, +and to which we are much indebted for the present +advanced state of the arts and sciences; but +which we may be said to have borrowed from the +economy of nature. We find ever-increasing manifestations +of it as we ascend in the animal series, +from the lower and more simple to the higher and +more complicated forms. Indeed, just as each step +in civilization is attended with a further development +of this principle, so is each division of the +animal kingdom distinguished from those below +it by the more distinct assignation of particular +functions to particular organs, and by the consequent +improvement of the mode in which the +functions are performed. While, in proportion as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> +the several organs acquire more distinct speciality +in their work, so do they become, more and more, +dependent upon one another, and, more and +more, subjected to the control of central government, +which is represented by the brain.</p> + +<p>For instance, some of the lower animals, as +the fresh-water <span class="smcap">Polyp</span>, present nearly a uniform +structure throughout their whole substance; and +every part of them consequently performs the same +function. There is not one organ for digestion, +another for circulation, a third for respiration, and +so on; but all these functions are performed by +the same structure, and are performed, therefore, +in a rude and imperfect manner. Any portion +of the creature possesses all the requisites for its +own nutrition, and is, so, independent of the remainder, +and can live alone. Hence, the polyp +may be divided into a number of pieces, each +of which goes on living. Gradually, as we ascend +from these lowly beings to the higher classes of +animals, we find organs and functions more and +more distinct from another; a Stomach is provided +for the work of digestion, a Heart for circulation, +Lungs for respiration. Each of these +organs is essential to the existence of the others +and of every part of the body; and they are +all maintained in harmonious co-operation by +the presiding influence of the nervous system.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span></p> + +<p>Or, trace one of the <i>functions</i> in illustration +of the same principle. Take the function of Locomotion, +which has an especial relation to our +present subject. In the <span class="smcap">Leech</span> and the <span class="smcap">Worm</span> +the whole length of the body is occupied in the +work, one part as much as another; and still, it +is but a crawl. In the <span class="smcap">Fish</span> the whole body +is buoyed up by the water; it is flattened from +side to side, and is all, from the head to the +tail, concerned in the lateral stroke by which the +animal is driven along; the side fins, which are +the representatives of limbs, doing little beyond +serving to guide and balance. In the other <span class="smcap">Vertebrates</span> +the work of locomotion is so far concentrated +as to be assigned, almost entirely, to +the limbs. All <i>four</i> limbs are in most of them +devoted to it; while the bones and muscles of +the trunk are only indirectly concerned in it. +In <span class="smcap">Man</span>, however, <i>two</i> limbs only are assigned +to this important office. In him, therefore, the +concentration of locomotive power, in other words +the principle of division of labour, is carried out +to the greatest extent—a disposition which affords +one of the many proofs that the construction of +his body combines with the faculties of his +mind to place him at the head of the animal +kingdom.</p> + +<p>In making comparisons of different animals<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span> +with one another, and in speaking of the relative +perfection of their several organs, we must +not forget that <i>every</i> organ of every animal is +perfect as regards the purpose for which it was +made. But some animals are said to occupy a +higher position than others, or to be superior to +others, because their mechanism is more complex, +and they are, thereby, enabled to perform +a greater variety of functions. And, in the animal +kingdom, in proportion as each function rises +into prominence, and becomes well and distinctly +performed, so is a special organ assigned to it, +and that organ becomes more and more highly +elaborated.</p> + +<p>You will not misunderstand me, then, when +I say that concentration of function and perfection +of structure usually go together. And, forasmuch +as in the lower limbs of man there is a +greater concentration of locomotive function than +in any other part of any other animal, you will +expect to find, in them, a greater perfection of +locomotive mechanism—that is to say, a more +complete combination of strength with variety, +rapidity, and extent of movement—than is elsewhere +to be met with.</p> + +<p>This consideration will ensure attention while +I give a brief account of the anatomy of man’s +lower limb, more particularly of the foot.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span></p> + + +<h3><i>Structure of the Lower Limbs.</i></h3> + +<p>The weight of the trunk is transmitted to the +knee (see fig. <a href="#f04">4</a>, p. 15) by a single bone—the thigh-bone. +This is the longest bone in the body, measuring, +on the average, nearly eighteen inches. +Above, it is jointed with the haunch-bone of the +pelvis at the hip-joint. From the knee two bones +descend to the ankle. Of these one is much the +larger, and bears the chief of the weight. The +other serves to give attachment to muscles, and to +strengthen the ankle-joint. It runs down on the +outer side of the ankle, forming there what is +called the “outer ankle;” and a process of the +larger bone runs down, in like manner, on the +inner side, and forms the “inner ankle.” The +front and inner side of the larger bone are close +under the skin. This part is called the “<i>shin</i>,” +being so named perhaps from the word “chine” +or edge, because the leg presents an edge along +the front, to facilitate its cleaving a way through +the air, water, grass, or underwood. The shin +itself is not particularly tender; but the skin is a +good deal exposed here, and, as it lies so near the +hard bone, it is easily injured; and, when “broken,” +it is often difficult to heal.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span></p> + +<p>In some very tall persons, and particularly in +those who are so tall as to be called <span class="smcap">Giants</span>, I +have found the leg or shank bones, that is, the +bones between the knee and the ankle, very long, +disproportionately long to the rest of the skeleton. +They are so in the skeleton of the Irish Giant, +O’Byrne, which is preserved in the Museum of the +College of Surgeons, in another Irish Giant in the +Museum of Trinity College, Dublin, and in some +other specimens which I have had an opportunity +of measuring. In the name “Long Shanks” given +to Edward I., the word “shanks” probably included +the thigh as well as the leg, just as we are in the +habit of applying the word “leg” to the whole of +the lower limb.</p> + + +<h3><i>Bones of the Foot.</i></h3> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="f01" style="max-width: 16.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f01.jpg" alt="Bones of the foot"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_01">1</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>There are 26 bones in the Foot. The hinder +7—called <i>tarsal</i> bones—are short and thick; they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> +form the hinder part of the instep. In front of +them lie 5 <i>metatarsal</i> bones, one passing, forwards, +from the fore part of the tarsus to each toe. Behind, +these are close together, and are connected +with the tarsus. As they run forwards they diverge +a little from one another; and their anterior +ends rest upon the ground, and form the “balls” +of the toes. They constitute the fore part of the +instep. The remaining 14 bones are the toes. +They are arranged in rows, like soldiers in a phalanx, +three deep, and are hence called <i>phalanges</i>.</p> + +<p>You observe that, although each of the other +toes has 3 bones, the great toe has only 2. In this +respect, therefore, it is an imperfect, or, rather, an +incomplete member. The deficiency does not depend +upon a want of length in the great toe; for +this is usually as long as the second toe; in some +persons it is a good deal longer; and it is always +distinctly longer than the outer two toes. The +reason for there being only two phalanges instead +of three probably is because the great toe is required +to be stronger than any of the others; and +an additional bone would have tended to weaken +it. I have, elsewhere<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a>, given reasons for thinking +that it is the middle phalanx which is absent in +the great toe.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span></p> +<div class="figcontainer"> +<div class="figsub"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f02" style="max-width: 10.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f02.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_02">2</a>.<br>Seal’s Foot.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="figsub"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f03" style="max-width: 12em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f03.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_03">3</a>.<br>Lizard’s Foot</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +</div> + +<p>It is a curious and interesting fact, affording a +remarkable illustration of the close adherence to a +uniform plan which has been observed in the construction +of the various animals, that, in no instance, +does this toe contain more than two bones. +Even in those creatures, as the <span class="smcap">Seal</span> (fig. 2), in which +it attains to greater length than any of the other +sprawling digits, it contains the same number of +bones as in man, its extraordinary length being +attained by an elongation of the two bones, not by +the addition of a third. And in those animals, as +certain Lizards (fig. 3), where the number of bones +in the other toes is increased to 4 or even 5, the +number in the first, or inner, toe is still no more +than two. The same rule applies to the fore limb; +the number of bones in the inner digit, which, in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span> +man and monkeys, is called the “thumb,” is in no +case more than two. In some animals, as will be +mentioned again, there is only one bone in this +digit, and in some the digit is wanting altogether; +but in none does it contain <i>more</i> than <i>two</i> bones.</p> + +<p>This reminds me of a still more remarkable instance +of adherence to a particular number of bones. +In the mammalian group of animals the <i>neck</i>, with +only one or two exceptions, contains <i>seven</i> bones, +neither more nor less. Whether it be the long +neck of the <span class="smcap">Giraffe</span>, or the short neck of the +<span class="smcap">Mouse</span>, the <span class="smcap">Bat</span>, or the <span class="smcap">Porpoise</span>, each consists, +like the neck in <span class="smcap">Man</span>, of seven bones. For what +reason a particular number should be thus rigidly +observed, it is not easy to say.</p> + +<p>Of the seven tarsal bones the uppermost (fig. <a href="#f01">1</a>) +is called the <i>astragalus</i>, from a supposed resemblance +to a die. It is the middle bone of the +instep. Above, it is jointed with the leg-bones; +behind, it is connected with, and rests upon, the +<i>heel-bone</i>, which is the largest bone in the foot. +The bone which lies immediately in front of the +astragalus, and supports it in this direction, is +called the <i>scaphoid</i>, or boat-like, bone. In front of +it are three <i>wedge-bones</i>, each of which is connected +with one of the metatarsal bones of the inner +three toes. On the outer side of the wedge-bones, +connected with the metatarsals of the two small<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span> +toes, and locked in between them and the heel-bone, +is the <i>cuboid</i> bone.</p> + +<p>I must confine my remarks chiefly to the <i>human</i> +foot. Still the anatomy of man derives so +much interest from being studied in connexion +with that of the lower animals, and is so much +more instructive when this is done, that I cannot +forbear diverging, here and there, to make a few +comparisons. Let me, for a moment, draw your +attention to a similarity, in general construction, +which exists between the lower limbs of man, and +the hinder limbs of other animals. And the comparison +may be extended to the fore limbs; for +however diverse may be the appearance and the +mode of action of the limbs in different animals, +whether they be terminated by hands or by feet, +whether they move upon the ground or ply in air +or water, whether they be attached to the head, +as are the front fins in many fishes, or, as is more +common, be situated at the fore and hinder parts +of the trunk, the same plan is traceable in all.</p> + +<p>Great, indeed, is the variety of detail in nature. +It is everywhere observable. No two things, +however near their resemblance, are precisely +alike. Yet, as I have before said, there is a remarkable +adherence to unity of plan. One star +differs from another star in glory, yet all appear +fashioned in the same manner, and subject to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span> +same laws. There are almost infinite varieties in +the vertebrate kingdom. Each animal exhibits +its own peculiarities; yet they are all formed +in the same manner, and are developed upon +one fundamental pattern, diverging from it in +different ways according to the requirements of +each. Again, though the several parts of the same +animal differ from one another; yet in the skeleton +the same bones which exist in one part may, +as a general rule, be traced in other parts and in +other animals. The bones which make up the pelvis +in man are repeated in his shoulder, and, even, +in his skull; and they may be recognised in the +pelvis, in the shoulder, and in the skull, of all other +vertebrate animals, with few exceptions. They undergo, +it is true, great varieties in shape and size; +but they can be shown to be the same, or, in the +language of anatomists, to be “homologous.” It +is highly interesting to the anatomist to trace +the same bone through the different parts of the +same animal, and through the various animals of +the vertebrate series, and to observe the modifications +which it undergoes in order to adapt it to +the multiform mechanism of the several classes, +to observe it sometimes dwindling, or even vanishing, +and then, it may be, reappearing under some +new conditions.</p> + +<div class="figcontainer"> +<div class="figsub"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f04" style="max-width: 5.3125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f04.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_04">4</a>.<br>Human Leg</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="figsub"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f05" style="max-width: 8.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f05.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_05">5</a>.<br>Horse’s Leg</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +</div> + +<p>I must, however, resist the temptation to wander<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> +into this attractive field. It will suffice to +take an illustration by a comparison of the bones +of the human lower limb with those of the hind +limb of the Horse. This may be easily done by +the aid of these drawings (figs. 4> and 5) in which +the two limbs are placed side by side, and the corresponding +bones are marked with the same letters. +Notwithstanding the many points of difference +the same plan will be recognised in each. +There is in each the thigh(<span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>), the leg(<span class="lowercase smcap">E</span>), and the +foot, with the tarsal and metatarsal(<span class="lowercase smcap">G</span>) bones, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> +the phalanges(<span class="lowercase smcap">H</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">I</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">K</span>). But in the <span class="smcap">Horse</span> two of +the digits (the marginal ones, that is, the great toe +and the little toe) are wanting, two are rudimentary, +and the remaining one, which corresponds with +the middle toe of man, in length, size, and strength, +more than makes amends for the deficiency of the +others. The lowermost bone, or terminal phalanx, +of this huge toe, called the <i>coffin-bone</i>(<span class="lowercase smcap">K</span>), is encased +in the hoof, which corresponds with the +human nail, and is the only part of the foot that +rests upon the ground.</p> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">Man</span> the whole weight of the body has to +be borne upon <i>two</i> feet; often it is balanced upon +<i>one</i>. The foot is, consequently, spread out; and +all the bones, from the heel to the tips of the +toes, are made to form the basis of support upon +the ground. The <span class="smcap">Horse</span>, on the contrary, having +no hands, but <i>four</i> feet, does not require so great +breadth in each foot; and the opportunity is +taken to narrow the foot, and to lengthen it +so as to give fleetness. The end is attained by +suppressing some of the toes, by elongating +one far beyond the others, and enduing it with +such strength as to enable it to carry the requisite +weight upon the tip of the last phalanx. +The heel(<span class="lowercase smcap">F</span>) is raised high above the ground and +becomes the “hock.” To speak of a horse <i>kicking +with his heels</i> is, therefore, about as correct as to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span> +say, that he <i>breaks his knees</i>. His knee, as you +perceive by the position of the “knee-cap”(<span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>), is +high up in the hind limb, near his body, quite +out of harm’s way in a fall. The fact is, that he +kicks with his <i>toes</i>; and, when he falls, he cuts the +skin over the part in his <i>fore</i> limbs, which corresponds +with the back of our <i>wrists</i>.</p> + +<p>In the upper segment, or thigh, the difference +between the two limbs is seen to be, to a certain +extent, the reverse of what it is below. That is +to say, whereas, in the <span class="smcap">Horse</span>, the <i>toe</i> is elongated +and thickened, so as greatly to exceed the corresponding +part of the human limb; in <span class="smcap">Man</span> the +<i>thigh-bone</i> is elongated, so as to be double the +length of that of the horse; the thigh-bone in man +is also placed more vertically, nearly in the plane +of gravity of the trunk. The horse’s thigh-bone +slants forwards and outwards, which gives the muscles +great power by causing them to run more at +right angles between their points of attachment; +and this arrangement increases the strength of the +animal in drawing weights, and facilitates springing. +A man cannot spring without first bending +the limbs a little; whereas a horse, or a goat, can +spring, at once, from the position in which it is +standing.</p> + +<p>To revert to the anatomy of the Human Foot.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span></p> + + +<h3><i>The Arch of the Foot.</i></h3> + +<p>The seven tarsal and the five metatarsal bones—that +is, the twelve bones of the instep—are arranged +and jointed together so as to form an arch +from the point of the heel to the balls of the toes. +This is called the “plantar arch,” from the Latin +word <i>planta</i>, the sole of the foot. The <i>astragalus</i> +forms the summit, or key-bone, of the arch. It +receives the weight from the leg, and transmits it, +through the hinder pillar of the arch, to the heel, +and, through the front pillar of the arch, to the +balls of the toes.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f06" style="max-width: 23.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f06.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_06">6</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The drawing represents a section, from behind +forwards, of the lower end of the leg-bone, and of +the bones lying along the inner side of the plantar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> +arch. Behind it extends through the heel-bone, +and in front through the great toe. It exhibits +the arrangement of the fibres and plates in the +interior of the bones, and shows that the greater +number of them, in each bone, follow the direction +of the two pillars of the arch; that is to say, they +descend from the summit of the arch where it +supports the leg-bone, backwards and downwards, +to the heel, and, forwards and downwards, to the +balls of the toes. Their arrangement is, therefore, +such as to give resisting strength to the bones in +the directions in which it is most required.</p> + +<p>You may think that the arch of the foot would +have been a much simpler structure, as well as +stronger, if it had been composed of one bone instead +of several. But it must be remembered that +it would, then, have been liable to be cracked and +broken by the sudden and violent manner in which, +during running and jumping, the weight of the +body is thrown upon it. Moreover, the several +bones, where they touch one another, are covered +with a tolerably thick layer of highly elastic gristle +or cartilage (represented by the clear line left in +the drawing along the contiguous edges of the +bones); and this provision, together with the slight +movements which take place between these bones, +gives an elasticity to the foot and to the step, and +serves to break the jars and shocks which are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> +caused by the sudden contact of the foot with the +ground.</p> + +<p>This last is a very important point; and we find +numerous contrivances in different parts of the +body to protect the brain and other delicate organs +from jars. So efficient are these contrivances, +and so exact is the adaptation of the mechanism +of the limbs and the trunk to the texture of the +internal organs, that, while these are in a healthy +state, we are able to run, to jump, and to leap +from a considerable height, without inconvenience. +But, if the organs be inflamed, or if the nervous +system be over sensitive, as in common headache, +the provisions, which are calculated for the normal +state, are insufficient; ordinary movements are +then painful, and to jump is intolerable.</p> + +<p>The muscles play a very essential part in this +work. <i>First</i>, they place the limbs in the most favourable +position. Thus, when we alight upon the +ground, from a height, we always contrive to do so +with the knees and hips a little bent, so that the +limbs readily yield at the joints, and act as springs +to break the jar. Elderly persons commonly keep +the limbs bent, even when walking quietly along. +They do this because they need all the benefit which +position will afford to make amends for the loss of +elasticity consequent on the thinning and drying +of the cartilages, and other changes that take place<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> +in the body with advancing years. <i>Secondly</i>, the +muscles brace the limbs and joints in the position +in which they have placed them. We experience +the effect of the want of this salutary influence +when we kick against an unseen object, or fall +suddenly, or receive any blow or shock for which +we are unprepared. How disagreeable, to say the +least, it is to make the step for an additional stair +when we have arrived at the top of a staircase, or, +still worse, to meet with an unseen stair when we +think that we have got to the bottom.</p> + +<p>You perceive from the drawing (fig. <a href="#f06">6</a>) that +there is a great difference between the two pillars +of the plantar arch. The hinder pillar is comparatively +short, and narrow, and descends suddenly, +almost in a vertical direction, from the ankle, to +the ground; and it is composed of only one bone—the +heel-bone—which is jointed directly with the +astragalus: whereas the fore pillar is longer and +broader, is composed of several bones jointed together, +and slopes much more gradually to the +ground. There is, therefore, far less elasticity in +the hinder part of the foot than in the fore part. +Hence, when we descend from a height upon the +ground, we always alight upon the balls of the +toes, and thus gain the advantage which the several +bones and joints afford in breaking the shock. +If, after going up stairs this evening, you take the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> +trouble to come down again, you will find that +you alight upon each stair on the balls of the toes +and experience no inconvenience, however quickly +the descent is made. But, if you change the mode +of proceeding, and descend upon the heels, the +feeling will be by no means agreeable; and the +various organs of the body, being disturbed from +their accustomed repose, will raise such remonstrances +against your infringement upon nature’s +ways, that you will scarcely be able to continue +the experiment. Proportionately more distressing +is the sensation caused by jumping from a chair +upon the heels. Indeed, this is not done altogether +without risk; and the trial of it is scarcely to be +recommended to persons who have attained to that +sober period of life at which we are willing to concede +that, in some things, nature is wiser than +ourselves. Only a short time since I saw a gentleman, +who, in jumping down some steps into a +back yard, accidentally came upon his heels, and +jarred one hip so severely that he was confined to +his sofa for several days in consequence.</p> + +<p>But, you may say, “in walking we do place the +heel upon the ground first and experience no inconvenience.” +True, because the force with which +the foot descends in walking is very slight; and +the weight is directed upon the heel, obliquely, in +such a manner as to bring the toes very quickly to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> +the ground, and really to throw nearly the whole +force in that direction. Moreover, you may observe +that when we walk, the weight of the body +is partly sustained by the fore part of the one foot +till the whole of the other foot is on the ground. +I will, however, revert to the disposition of the +feet in walking and running presently.</p> + +<p>The arch of the foot has to bear great weight +and at great disadvantage; and there is very +little in the <i>shape</i> of the bones to maintain its +integrity. Indeed, they all fall asunder when the +other structures are removed, the key-bone dropping +through of its own weight. And the same +thing may be remarked throughout the skeleton. +Wherever two or more bones move upon one +another, their surfaces are so constructed that +they do not hold together without some assistance +from the soft parts. There are joints in the +body which we call “hinge-joints,” and others +which we call “ball-and-socket joints;” but in +none of them is there such a holding and locking +of one part in the other as you have in the +hinge and the ball-and-socket of the mechanic. +In every case the bones are held together, not by +their own shape, but by ligaments and muscles. +Consequently, any one of the bones may be dislocated +from those next it without breakage; +and when the muscles and ligaments are cut<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> +through, or have been destroyed by maceration, +all the bones, between which any movement was +possible during life, separate from one another.</p> + +<p>Not only is this so, but in no instance are +the movements of joints <i>limited</i> simply by the +shape of the bones—that is to say, they are never +brought to a stop by a part of one bone coming +into contact with the edge of another. Such a +contact would have caused a <i>sudden</i> check; and +this would have been attended with more or less +jar and with some danger of chipping and breaking +the articular edges. The range of movement +of a joint is always regulated by the ligaments +or the muscles, not, directly, by the bones; and +the restraint thus imposed upon the movements +is brought to bear, not suddenly, but <i>gradually</i>; +somewhat like the effect of the “break” upon a +railway-train; while the cartilages between the +bones may be compared with the “buffers” between +the carriages.</p> + +<p>It is chiefly by means of strong <span class="smcap">Ligaments</span>, +or sinewy bands, passing from bone to bone, that +the shape of the plantar arch is maintained and +the movements of the bones upon one another +are regulated and limited. These ligaments are +numerous; but I will mention only two.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span></p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f07" style="max-width: 23.375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f07.jpg" alt="Side view of foot bones and main ligaments"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_07">7</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>One, the <i>Plantar Ligament</i> (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, fig. 7), of +great strength, passes from the under surface of +the heel-bone, near its extremity, forwards, to the +ends of the metatarsal bones; in other words, it +extends between the lowest points of the two +pillars of the arch, girding, or holding, them in +their places, and preventing their being thrust +asunder when pressure is made upon the key-bone +(<span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>); just as the “tie-beam” of a roof resists +the tendency to outward yielding of the sides +when weight is laid upon the summit. The ligament, +however, has an advantage which no tie-beam +can ever possess; inasmuch as a quantity +of muscular fibres are attached along the hinder +part of its upper surface. These instantly respond +to any demand that is made upon them, being +thrown into contraction directly the foot touches<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span> +the ground; and the force of their contraction +is proportionate to the degree of pressure which +is made upon the foot. Thus they add a living, +self-acting, self-regulating power to the passive +resistance of the ligament. In addition to its +office of binding the bones in their places, the +ligament serves the further purpose of protecting +from pressure the tender structures—the blood-vessels, +nerves and muscles—that lie above it, in +the hollow of the foot, under the shelter of the +plantar arch.</p> + +<p>Another very strong ligament (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span> in the wood-cut) +passes from the under and fore part of the +heel-bone (<span class="lowercase smcap">F</span>) to the under part of the scaphoid +bone (<span class="lowercase smcap">E</span>). It underlies and supports the round head +of the astragalus, and has to bear a great deal of +the weight which is transmitted to that bone from +the leg. It does not derive the same assistance +from a close connexion with muscular fibres as +the ligament just described; but it possesses a +quality, which that and most other ligaments do +not have, viz. elasticity. This is very important, for +it allows the head of the key-bone (<span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>) to descend +a little, when pressure is made upon it, and forces +it up again when the pressure is removed, and +so gives very material assistance to the other +provisions for preventing jars and for giving ease +and elasticity to the step.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span></p> + +<p>A glance at the drawing will show you that +here is a weak point in the foot. The head of +the key-bone receives great weight from the leg, +but is comparatively unsupported; and there is +a considerable strain upon this part when the heel +is being raised in walking. Moreover, a good deal +of movement takes place between the key-bone +(<span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>) and the scaphoid bone (<span class="lowercase smcap">E</span>), more than between +any other two bones of the instep; and freedom +in the range of movement is generally attended +with some sacrifice of strength. The strong elastic +ligament comes in therefore with peculiar advantage +at this point; and it is underlaid, and additional +support is afforded exactly when it is +most required, by the tendon (b in fig. <a href="#f12">12</a>) of a +strong muscle, the especial office of which is to +assist in raising the heel and bending the instep, +and which runs, from the back of the leg, behind +the inner ankle, to the scaphoid bone.</p> + + +<h3><i>Weak Ankle and Flat-foot.</i></h3> + +<p>In spite, however, of the thick elastic ligament +and the strong tendon just mentioned, the +joint between the astragalus or key-bone and the +scaphoid bone still remains a weak point. The +head of the key-bone, from being insufficiently +supported or from being overweighted, is very apt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> +to descend a little below its proper level; the consequence +of which is that the plantar arch is lowered +and the foot is flattened; and the more the foot +is flattened the weaker it necessarily is, because +the position of the bones then becomes less and +less favourable for bearing weight, and an increasing +strain is thus incurred by the ligaments and +muscles. Hence the foot and ankle feel weak; +and the weakness is especially felt when the person +endeavours to raise the heel, so as to mount +upon the balls of the toes, in walking. For the +performance of that movement with ease and +steadiness a well-formed plantar arch is essential; +and the person, whose feet are defective in the +manner we are considering, can never walk with +a bold, firm step. The movement in him may be +better described as a shuffling from one foot on to +the other, than as a walk. To this I will recur +again when I come to speak more of walking. The +defect, when slight in degree, is commonly called +“weak-ankle;” when more decided it is called +“flat-foot,” because the sole is then nearly, or +quite, flat. The head of the key-bone, under +such circumstances, may even bulge downwards +and inwards, and form a prominence on the inner +side of the sole, so as to give more or less <i>convexity</i> +to the line on the inner side of the foot, +which should be <i>concave</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span></p> + +<figure class="figright illowp38" id="f08" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f08.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_08">8</a>. Flat-foot.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The representation of “flat-foot” here shown +was drawn from the foot of a labouring man in +this county. He said he believed the deformity +was due to his having worn thick tight shoes +when he was a growing boy. He is most likely +right in his opinion; for tight or ill-fitting shoes, +cramping the feet and preventing the proper +growth of the bones and the free play of the +muscles, are a common cause of this evil. This +is so especially among the agricultural class, whose +feet are, from an early period, enclosed in stiff +unyielding leather cases that are enough to mar +nature’s best efforts to construct a plantar arch.</p> + +<p>The same drawing shows that flat-foot is not +the only deformity for which “high-lows” are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span> +answerable. Besides the almost total want of +calf, which is due to the wearer being obliged to +hobble along, whole-footed, with short feeble steps, +it will be seen that the great toe has not been +allowed to assume its natural straight line, but +has been squeezed athwart the other toes, so as +to be almost at a right angle with the foot. +No room at all is thus given for the second toe; +it has been driven quite out of the field, and +has been obliged to hide itself by bending down +under the other toes. This is no uncommon +state of things. Frequently it is attended with +the formation of a painful bunion upon the prominent +inner side of the ball of the great toe; +and, in addition, there is sometimes a corn upon +the first joint of the second toe, which is a source +of so much inconvenience that I have known +many sufferers glad to get relief by parting with +the toe.</p> + +<p>I wish I could hope that the days of high-lows +are numbered, and could believe that in +the next generation they will be ranged with +the things of the past, and that our children +may know these enemies to the form of the rustic +foot, only as objects to be gazed upon with feelings +of astonishment and pity, just as we regard +the perukes and the stays of our ancestors. +There are, however, some practical difficulties<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span> +in the way of the fulfilment of this charitable +wish.</p> + +<p>There are two periods of life at which <span class="smcap">Flat-foot</span> +is most likely to be engendered. <i>First</i>, in +infancy, if the child be put upon its feet too +early, before the bones and ligaments are strong +enough to bear the weight of the body. Therefore +mothers should not indulge their anxiety to +see their infants walk very early; the pride attendant +on premature success is liable to be followed +by regret at finding that the children never +walk well. Parents and nurses should be content +to let the children crawl and roll about upon +the floor, and should not encourage them to +stand upright, especially if they be rather heavy +or weak children. Children are quite sure to +acquire the faculty of walking as soon as they are +well fit to exercise it.</p> + +<p>The <i>second</i> period is at about fourteen. The +body attains a considerable increase of weight +at this time, in consequence of the quick growth +that takes place. We often remark that lads and +girls of this age shoot up apace; and their greater +weight is not always attended with a proportionate +acquisition of strength. They are apt to +be rather weak and ungainly in their movements; +and the weakness often shows itself in the foot, +by a yielding of the plantar arch. Moreover,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> +many boys and girls are, at this age, turned out +into the world to earn a livelihood, and are +obliged to be a good deal upon their feet, and +perhaps, in addition, have to carry weights. +Thus errand-boys, butchers’ and bakers’ boys, and +young nursery-maids, are frequent sufferers in +this way. The constrained positions in dancing, +also, if enforced too much, or continued too long, +so as to tire the feet, sometimes lead to the +same result. On the other hand, moderate exercise +of this kind is calculated to strengthen the +foot and also the whole frame, and contributes +much to improve the carriage.</p> + +<p>This is not the place to enter into particulars +of <i>treatment</i>. I will, therefore, merely remark +that the common notion of supporting and +strengthening the ankles by tight-laced boots is +altogether a mistake, and must be ranked among +the most influential of the causes which combine +to spoil so many feet. It has its parallel in the +idea of strengthening the waist by stays. The notion +is, in both instances, fortified by the fact that +those persons who have been accustomed to the +pressure, either upon the ankle or the waist, +feel a want of it when it is removed, and are +uncomfortable without it. They forget, or are +unconscious, that the feeling of the want has +been engendered by the appliance, and that had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span> +they never resorted to the latter they would +never have experienced the former; just as dram-drinking +induces a recurrence to the stimulus by +causing a sense of sinking when it is discontinued; +and, for the same reason, the opium-eater +can hardly exist without his drug.</p> + + +<h3><i>The Movements of the Foot.</i></h3> + +<p>We come now to the <span class="smcap">Movements</span> of the foot +upon the leg; and rarely do we contemplate anything +more calculated to excite our admiration. +Consider their variety, the rapidity with which +they take place, in order to effect the requisite +succession of positions in walking and running, +and to adapt the sole to the inequalities of the +surface on which we tread; and remember the +great weight which has to be sustained while +these movements are going on: yet, how seldom +is there a failure.</p> + +<p>This combination of variety of movement with +security is effected by the employment of <i>three</i> +joints, each of which plays in a direction different +from the others, while all act harmoniously +together.</p> + +<p><i>One</i> of the three joints—strictly called the +“ankle-joint”—is between the leg-bones and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> +foot-bones, that is, between the tibia and fibula, +above, and the astragalus beneath. By means of +it the foot may be bent or straightened upon +the leg; in other words, the toes may be raised +or depressed. In this movement the heel participates, +being depressed when the toes are raised, +and <i>vice versâ</i>. A <i>second</i> joint is between the +astragalus and the heel-bone. It permits the +foot to be rolled inwards or outwards upon an +antero-posterior axis; so that the sole may be +turned inwards, with its inner edge upwards, or +may be turned down so as to be placed flat +upon the ground. A <i>third</i> joint is between the +first and second row of tarsal bones—that is, between +the astragalus and the heel bone, behind, +and the scaphoid and cuboid bones in front. It +permits the degree of flexure of the tarsal or +plantar arch to be increased or diminished.</p> + +<p>Had the several movements which are requisite +for easy walking all taken place in one joint, +that joint must necessarily have been very insecure; +indeed, it must have been a “ball-and-socket” +joint, and we should have been poised +upon our feet in the state of what is called +“unstable equilibrium”—a state quite incompatible +with security or strength, and which would +have rendered the assistance of the upper limbs +essential to either standing or walking.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span></p> + +<p>An instance of a similar kind of mechanism +to this of the joints between the foot and the +leg is presented by the mode in which the head +is secured upon the back-bone. We can nod the +head upwards and downwards; we can turn it +to either side in so free a manner that we are +able to command with our eyes the whole circle +in which we sit simply by the movements of +the head; and we can incline the head to the +right or to the left. Any of these movements +may be made very quickly; and there is a separate +joint or joints for each of them. Thus, the +<i>nodding</i> movement takes place between the head +and the first vertebra or uppermost bone of the +spine; the <i>turning</i> of the head from side to side +takes place between the first and second vertebræ, +the head with the first vertebra rotating upon a +pivot projected upwards from the second vertebra; +and the <i>inclination</i> of the head from side to side +takes place by movements of the second vertebra +upon the third, of the third upon the fourth, and +so on. The result is that, although the movements +are thus varied, they are free as well as rapid. Yet +the head is so well poised and so strongly fixed +that the neck is able to bear it all day long without +fatigue; and, as though the weight of the +head, which is by no means inconsiderable, were +not enough for the neck, we are in the habit of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> +selecting this as the part upon which to carry burdens. +One never feels so strongly impressed with +the carrying capabilities of the neck and the ankle, +as when following men and women in mountain +districts toiling up and down the hills under great +bundles of hay, baskets full of bitter beer, and +various things intended to minister to the comfort +and luxury of travellers and the inhabitants at +the top. So effectual, indeed, are the provisions +for security that, notwithstanding the freedom and +variety of their movements, the joints of the foot +with the leg, and of the head with the spine, are, +in proportion to their size, the strongest in the +body.</p> + +<p>I have stated the movements that take place +in the three joints of the foot with the leg in a +simple manner, for the sake of avoiding confusion. +In reality, however, they are not so simple, but +very difficult to analyse and make out correctly. +The difficulty is due, partly, to the close proximity +of the joints to one another, which renders it no +easy matter to distinguish the movements of one +from those of the others, and, partly, to the fact +that the movements in each joint are a little oblique.</p> + +<p>In the latter respect the foot-joints resemble +most of the others in the body; and it is this <i>obliquity</i> +in the movements of the joints, added to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> +the <i>curves</i> and <i>twists</i> in the shape of the bones, +that constitutes one of the chief difficulties in +investigating and clearly understanding the mechanism +of the human frame. It has been said +that “Nature abhors a vacuum:” it may with +equal truth be said that she abhors a straight line. +In the Human Skeleton, at any rate, all the bones +are bent and twisted, some in two or three directions; +and the surfaces by which any bone is +jointed to the adjacent bones, are invariably oblique +with regard to each other.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp20" id="f09" style="max-width: 5.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f09.jpg" alt="Front view of tibia"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_09">9</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Take, for instance, the <i>tibia</i>, or large bone of +the leg, of which a front view and an inner side +view are given in the drawings. The tibia is a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span> +column transmitting weight from the thigh to the +foot; and in any machine of man’s construction a +column fulfilling similar purposes would be made +straight and of uniform diameter throughout. The +bone, on the contrary, does not present the same +thickness at any two parts of its length. It has +a distinct bend, forwards, in nearly its whole +length (fig. 10): there are lateral curves, alternating +like those in the letter S, seen along its +front (fig. 9): and the articular surface at the +lower end is placed obliquely with regard to that +at its upper end, in consequence of a twist in +the shaft, in such a manner that when the +hinder surface of the upper end of the bone rests +upon a board, the lower end touches the board +only by its outer corner (fig. 10). This disposition +of the lower end, I may remark, assists to +give the foot a slant outwards from the heel to +the toe, so that when we stand, with the heels +together, the great toes of the two feet diverge +a little from one another.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f10" style="max-width: 23.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f10.jpg" alt="Medial view of tibia"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_10">10</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span></p> + +<p>Moreover, the surfaces by which the tibia is +jointed with the thigh-bone at the knee are arranged +with a varying degree of obliquity, so +that the relation of the leg to the thigh varies +somewhat in different positions of the limb. For +instance, when we stand upright, the <i>thigh</i> slants +<i>in</i>wards from the pelvis, and the <i>leg</i> descends +in a <i>vertical</i> direction to the ground. While, +however, the knee is being bent the leg is carried, +not in a vertical plane, but a little obliquely, +so that the lower part soon begins to slant <i>out</i>wards; +and when the knee is fully bent the obliquity +of the leg and that of the thigh correspond, +and the leg is, as it were, folded up against the +thigh. The heel is thus brought up, not to the +middle line of the body, but to the hip, and we +are enabled to sit with the hips upon the heels, as +the Japanese are represented doing, or with one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> +hip upon one heel—a position in which our +riflemen are trained to take aim, and in which +their predecessors with the arrow were wont to +shoot, as is shown by the accompanying sketch +of a bowman (fig. 11), taken from one of the Æginetan +marbles in the Glyptothek at Munich.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp100" id="f11" style="max-width: 11.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f11.jpg" alt="Sketch of kneeling bowman"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_11">11</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>A variety of purposes is attained by the curvilinear +shape of the bones and the obliquity in +the movements of the joints. Not the least of +these is the appearance of elegance and ease which +is given to the whole frame, both when it is at +rest and when it is in motion. In order that you +may fully appreciate this result, I would ask you, +the next time you are in a gallery of antique statuary, +to contrast the figures which the Egyptians +have left us with those by the Greeks. In the +former you will find that straight lines and right +angles prevail: the figure sits, probably, bolt +upright, with the elbows, hips, knees, and ankles +bent at right angles: the fingers commonly run +straight forwards; and a hand is often laid upon +each knee, the limbs of the two sides being quite +symmetrically placed. Such statues may be imposing; +but they are stiff and unnatural. They +represent positions which the body rarely assumes; +and they, certainly, are far from pleasing. Very +different is the Greek statuary. A correct representation +of nature is the great difficulty<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> +and the highest consummation of art; and the +Greeks evinced their greatness in art by a true +appreciation and close imitation of natural form. +The position of their figures is life-like; and, +therefore, we love to contemplate them. The +outline in them exhibits a graceful disposition +of curves and obliques; and it is because the +great sculptors of Greece were, in this and in +other respects, so true to nature that their works +have commanded the admiration, and served as +models for the imitation, of all succeeding ages.</p> + +<p>It is one of the master results of creation, +and one of the peculiar marks of creative genius, +that <i>perfection</i> and <i>beauty</i> are usually presented +together. As truth is the soul of eloquence, so +is perfection the soul of beauty. The works of +nature are beautiful because there is so much +excellence in them, such admirable adaptation to +their purpose; and we find the works of man +beautiful only so far as they are correct imitations +of their great originals in nature, or show +some approach to nature’s excellence. And man +is the most beautiful object in nature because +he is the most perfect, that is, because the purpose +of his existence is the highest, and because +his physique exhibits the most marvellous moulding +to adapt it to its high purpose; because, in +short, in him the material is wrought to such a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> +point of refinement as to be the receptacle and +minister of the immaterial.</p> + +<p>The movements of the three joints between +the foot and the leg take place in harmony. +The following is the order observed. The raising +of the <i>heel</i> is accompanied by a rolling of +the foot <i>in</i>wards, and by an increased <i>flexure</i> of +the plantar arch; and the raising of the <i>toes</i> is +accompanied by a rolling of the foot <i>out</i>wards +and a <i>straightening</i> of the sole.</p> + + +<h3><i>The Muscles of the Leg and Foot.</i></h3> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp77" id="f12" style="max-width: 20em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f12.jpg" alt="Muscles and tendons that raise the heel"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_12">12</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The <i>first</i> series of the movements just described +is effected, mainly, by three muscles. Of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span> +these one (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, fig. 12) raises the heel while the +other two (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, fig. 12, and <span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>, fig. <a href="#f13">13</a>) raise and +support the ankle. The muscle which acts upon +the heel is one of the largest and most powerful +in the body; and well it may be, for in +raising the heel it has to raise the whole weight +of the body. Its fibres, accumulated at the middle +and upper part of the leg, form the “calf;” below +they taper into a thick tendon (a) connected +with the hinder extremity of the heel-bone, and +called the <i>Tendo Achillis</i>. The name, it need +scarcely be said, refers to the tale of Thetis +holding her son Achilles by this part when she +dipped him in the river Styx. Her hand prevented +the part from coming in contact with +the water; and so it did not partake of the invulnerability +which was conferred upon the rest +of his body by the immersion. We read, accordingly, +he was finally killed by a wound in +the heel<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a>.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span></p> +<p>The other two muscles (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span> and <span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>) also descend +from the leg and terminate in tendons (b and c) +which pass, one on either side, behind the projections +(<span class="lowercase smcap">D</span> and <span class="lowercase smcap">E</span>) which we call respectively the +inner and outer ankle, to the inner and outer edges +of the instep. They assist to raise the ankle, and +support it so as to prevent its swerving from side +to side; and they permit it to play to and fro upon +them, like a pulley upon ropes running under it, +in a safe and easy manner. The inner (b, fig. 12) +of the two tendons passes, as before mentioned, +beneath the head of the key-bone, and adds +greatly to the strength of the arch. It is, moreover, +the chief agent in effecting the two movements +which are associated with the elevation of +the heel, viz. the turning of the sole inward and +the flexion of the foot.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="f13" style="max-width: 20.625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f13.jpg" alt="Muscles and tendons that raise the toes"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_13">13</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The <i>second</i> series of movements—the raising +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span>the toes, the turning the sole downwards, and the +straightening the foot—are effected by two muscles +(<span class="lowercase smcap">F</span>, fig. <a href="#f12">12</a>, and <span class="lowercase smcap">G</span>, fig. 13), the tendons +(f and g) of which pass, one in front of the inner +ankle, and the other in front of the outer ankle, +to the respective edges of the instep. These require +much less power than their opponents; and +the muscles on the front of the leg are, therefore, +smaller and weaker than those behind.</p> + +<p>A question of practical interest here suggests +itself. How is the balance between these antagonistic +muscles maintained, and the proper position<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> +of the foot preserved? If the muscles which +cause the elevation of the heel and the other +movements associated with it are so much stronger +than those which produce the opposite series of +movements, and if, as we know to be the case, +muscles are always, even when a limb is at rest, +contracting with a certain amount of force, why +do not those of superior power gain and maintain +the ascendancy, and hold the limb in the position +to which they have a tendency to draw it? And +why, in this instance, are not the feet kept with +the heels raised and the soles inturned and bent? +The reply is, that the ill consequence suggested +is prevented, and a proper adjustment between +the opponent sets of muscles, in this and other +parts of the body, is effected through the medium +of the nervous system. That system institutes +friendly relations, and compels an orderly and +harmonious action of the several muscles; and it +does so by frequently exerting its influence upon +them, keeping them in drill, as it were, and enforcing +the habit of yielding in a kindly manner +to one another.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp27" id="f14" style="max-width: 6.5625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f14.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_14">14</a>.<br>Club-foot.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>You have often observed, and perhaps wondered +at, the almost incessant, semi-involuntary +and, seemingly, meaningless movements of infants, +especially the peculiar sprawlings out of their +fingers and toes. Now these are for the purpose<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> +of keeping the different sets of muscles in practice +and in order, till the will acquires a due control, +when they gradually cease. They are going on +before birth as well as afterwards; and when they +are deficient, or when they take place irregularly, +in consequence of an imperfection in the nervous +system, the limbs are liable to become deformed. +The feet, under these circumstances, are often +drawn into the very position I have just mentioned; +the sole is turned inwards and upwards, +so as never to touch the ground; the heel and +the toes are approximated; and the foot rests upon +the ground on the outer side, or quite on the fore +part, of the instep. Such a condition constitutes +one of the most common forms of what is called +“club foot.” Children are often born with one or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> +both of their feet thus distorted. Happily, however, +if they be submitted in time to the modern +improved modes of treatment they may usually +be set right. The accompanying woodcut gives a +sketch of the foot of a young woman who had +not the good fortune to be thus attended to.</p> + +<p>The muscles compose the flesh or chief part of +the bulk of a limb. The “calf” is almost entirely +made up of the fibres of the “calf-muscle.” But +at the ankle there are no muscles. As they descend +the leg, all the <i>muscular</i> fibres disappear, +and there are only <i>tendons</i>. These, though much +thinner than the muscles, are very strong; and +they are the cords or ropes by which the muscles +pull upon distant parts. As they pass over the +ankle they are strapped down close to the bones +by means of stout sinewy cross-bands, which prevent +their starting from their places when the +muscular portions pull at them.</p> + +<p>Two especial advantages result from this +arrangement.</p> + +<p><i>First</i>, the lower part of the leg and the ankle +are reduced in size. Thereby the resistance to +the passage of the limb through the air is lessened; +and when it is upon the ground, the leg is +less in the way of the other foot which is swinging, +to and fro, beside it. An elegance of shape is also +thereby imparted. The “pretty ankle” owes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> +much of its charm to the mode in which the tendons +are disposed. How comparatively thick and +clumsy would the ankle be if the tendons of the +toes took the straight course represented by the +line <i>a</i> in the drawing, instead of being bound +down, as they are, to the curve of the ankle!</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp57" id="f15" style="max-width: 9.0625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f15.jpg" alt="Shows ligaments restraining tendons on front of ankle"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_15">15</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Secondly</i>, the obliquity with which the tendons +run to their insertions is increased by this arrangement; +and the velocity of the movements to +which they minister is increased also. True, a +loss of strength is involved in such a disposition, +but the gain in velocity is of more importance. +If (to refer again to the diagram, fig. 15) the tendon +ran in a straight course from the front of the +leg to the great toe, the angle at which it joined +the toe would enable it to act with more strength; +but the movements connected with it could not be +so quick as they now are.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span></p> + +<p>We find in the construction of the human +frame many instances in which strength is sacrificed +to rapidity of movement in this and other +ways. Scarcely any conceivable amount of +strength, for instance, would be an adequate compensation +for a loss of that celerity of movement +of the hand which enables us to strike a blow and +drive a nail. No wonder, therefore, that strength +is here sacrificed to obtain celerity. And the +same principle holds good for other parts.</p> + +<p>The length and direction of the heel affords a +good illustration of the principle of which I am +speaking. When the heel-bone runs out to a considerable +distance, and nearly straight, behind the +ankle, as it does in some of the lower animals and in +the inferior races of mankind, it presents a better +leverage to the calf-muscle, which is, then, enabled +to raise the ankle with a less amount of effort; +but there is proportionately less velocity. Accordingly, +in the more perfectly formed foot, such as +we find it in the higher races of mankind, the +heel-bone, instead of running out backwards, +descends very obliquely, almost vertically.</p> + +<p>In this instance, the loss of strength, which +is thus incurred for the purpose of acquiring +celerity in movement, is usually compensated for +by the greater development of the calf-muscle. +Hence the high heel and the well-developed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span> +calf go together; and, like most of the other +features of good bodily formation, they are, on +the whole, best marked in the nations which are +endued with the highest intelligence, and which +are, in this way, physically, as well as mentally, +qualified to occupy the foremost places in the +human family. Thus, we may mark a relation +between the heel and the brain; and, as the +comparative anatomist is able by the inspection +of a bone to trace out the skeleton to which it +belonged, so might it be possible for the human +anatomist, by observing minutely the peculiarities +of the heel and the other features of the +foot in any particular race of men, to form some +estimate of the capacity and conformation of the +skull, and thereby, of the amount of intelligence.</p> + +<p>Contrast the foot and leg of the <span class="smcap">European</span> +(fig. 16), as represented in the drawing reduced +from the Farnese Hercules, with those of the +<span class="smcap">Negro</span> (fig. 17), the drawing of which was taken +from a native of Sierra Leone. In the former +the leg is plump and the calf well developed; +the foot is compact and well arched; the heel +descends nearly vertically; and the inner ankle +stands clearly out and is raised high above the +ground. In the Negro the leg is thinner and +the calf is not so well defined; the foot is long, +flat, and sprawling; the heel is more horizontal;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span> +and the inner ankle does not show clearly, and +almost touches the ground.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<div class="table"> +<div class="row"> +<div class="cell vab"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f16" style="max-width: 10.375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f16.jpg" alt="Leg of European - side view"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_16">16</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell vab"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f17" style="max-width: 12.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f17.jpg" alt="Leg of Negro - side view"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_17">17</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +</div> +<div class="row"> +<div class="cell vab"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f18" style="max-width: 10.375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f18.jpg" alt="Foot of European"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_18">18</a>.<br> +European.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell vab"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f19" style="max-width: 12.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f19.jpg" alt="Foot of Negro"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_19">19</a>.<br> +Negro.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Contrast also the outline (fig. 19) of the foot of +the same Negro with that (fig. 18) of an Englishman. +Both were traced upon the ground, and reduced +upon the same scale. The Negro was 5 ft. +2 in. in height; the Englishman was 6 ft.; both were +of the same age: yet the Negro’s foot was considerably +the larger. It was 11 inches long, <span class="nowrap">3 <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span></span> inches +across the middle of the instep, and <span class="nowrap">10 <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span></span> inches +round the balls of the toes. Whereas the Englishman’s +foot was less than <span class="nowrap">10 <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span></span> inches long, was <span class="nowrap">2 <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span></span><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> +inches across the middle of the instep, and <span class="nowrap">9 <span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span></span> +inches round the balls of the toes. Even in this +simple outline how much less shapely is the African’s +foot. Some allowance must be made for the +fact that the Negro was more accustomed to go +barefooted than the Englishman; and the pressure +of the boot or shoe has, in some degree, the effect +of giving compactness to the foot.</p> + +<p>In the native <span class="smcap">Australian</span> the leg is commonly +still more lanky, there being less calf than +in the African; and in the <span class="smcap">Monkey</span> the heel +is quite horizontal, the sole is flat, and the muscular +fibres of the leg are continued low down, +close to the ankle, instead of being concentrated +higher up; so that the leg has nearly the same +thickness from the knee to the foot, and there +is no calf at all. Indeed, in the <span class="smcap">Gorilla</span> (see +fig. at page <a href="#Page_91">91</a>) the circumference of the leg increases +towards the ankle. Thus, the calf may +be regarded as the characteristic of <span class="smcap">Man</span>; and +a well-developed calf is a characteristic of the +higher members of the human species. The pride, +therefore, which is felt in a well-formed leg is +not altogether a senseless folly, but finds some +excuse in the fact that its foundation lies deep in +the laws of physiology and ethnology. It must +be confessed, that the fashion which, in the last +century, dictated the knee-breeches, the silk stocking,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> +and the shoe, evinced a truer appreciation of +the dignity and beauty of the human figure than +do the modern investments, which quite cover up +the limbs, encumbering their movements and +hiding the beauty of the leg and ankle.</p> + +<p>In the addition of the <i>high heel</i> to the shoe +we recognise an effort to improve upon the original, +by exaggerating one of the peculiar features +of the human foot; but it results in a failure, +as is invariably the case with such strainings after +a greater perfection than nature has given. It +increases the apparent height of the person and +of the arch of the instep; but it throws the +weight too forward upon the toes, and detracts +from the length and security of the step. Moreover, +by causing disuse of the elevators of the +heel, it interferes with the full growth of the +calf.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp81" id="f20" style="max-width: 11.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f20.jpg" alt="Deformed Chinese foot"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_20">20</a>. Chinese.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This is, however, a harmless piece of vanity +in comparison with the monstrous efforts of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> +Chinese to mould the foot to their ideal by +squeezing the heel and the toes together. They +effect this to such a degree that (fig. 20) the +heel-bone descends vertically from the ankle, the +plantar arch is bent to an acute angle, and the +foot is so crumpled up that all movement in it +is effectually prevented, and the part is reduced +almost to a mere stump. These observant and +ingenious people have caught, it may be, the idea +that compactness, elevation of instep, and sudden +descent of heel are characteristics of the well-formed +foot, and may urge that they are helping +nature to perfection in the direction which she +has herself indicated. But in their silly attempt +at the preternatural, in this impious use, as it +were, of fire stolen from heaven, they simply +burn and cripple themselves, and render themselves +ridiculous, and give to all other nations +the much needed lesson that it is enough for +man to follow as a humble imitator of his Maker’s +works, and that his attempts to alter, or improve +upon, any part of the wondrous design of creation +will assuredly have the effect of spoiling +and defacing it<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a>.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span></p> +<p>It seems that the several races of mankind are +usually rather proud of their peculiarities, and +that each has an inclination to make much of, +and artificially exaggerate, the points in which it +differs from the others. Thus the Chinese are +remarkable for the spareness of their hair and +the smallness of their feet; so the men shave +their heads, leaving only the pig-tail, and the +women squeeze up their feet in the remorseless +manner we have seen. The Singhalese, who are +flat-footed, are said to consider it one of the requisites +for a ‘belle’ that the soles of her feet +should not have any hollow. The red Indians of +America delight in staining and painting their +skins of a lively red colour. The Columbian tribe +of Indians increase the natural lowness of their +forehead by flattening it out in infancy, and +succeed in bringing about a deformation of the +skull almost as remarkable in its way as is the +effect of Chinese cramping upon the foot. These +people also take pains to reduce the small quantity +of hair upon their eyebrows, lips, and chin, +by plucking it out.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span></p> + + +<h3><i>Joints of the Metatarsus with the Tarsus.</i></h3> + +<div class="center"> +<div class="table"> +<div class="row"> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe100" id="f25" style="max-width: 5.8125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f25.jpg" alt="Little toe"> + <figcaption>Figs. <a href="#fignote_21">25</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe100" id="f24" style="max-width: 5.8125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f24.jpg" alt="Fourth toe"> + <figcaption>24.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe100" id="f23" style="max-width: 5.8125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f23.jpg" alt="Middle toe"> + <figcaption>23.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe100" id="f22" style="max-width: 5.8125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f22.jpg" alt="Second toe"> + <figcaption>22.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe100" id="f21" style="max-width: 5.8125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f21.jpg" alt="Big toe"> + <figcaption>21.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>I will briefly draw your attention to one other +point in the anatomy of the foot; and that is, +the mode in which the “metatarsal” bones are +jointed with the “tarsal.” If you take hold of the +ends of the metatarsal bones—in other words the +“balls”—of the great toe and of the two toes +next to it, in your own foot, you will find that +you can move them scarcely at all; they are +firmly set upon the rest of the foot, almost as +though they formed one piece with it. If you +then try the end of the metatarsal bone of the +fourth toe you will be able to move it a little +upwards and downwards; and in the case of +the little toe the movement is still more distinct. +This difference depends upon the mode +of construction of the joints of the metatarsal +bones with the tarsal, which is easily understood +by the aid of the accompanying drawings, representing +sections, from above downwards, through +these joints. In 21, 22, and 23, which are the +tarso-metatarsal joints of the great toe and the +two next it, the opposed surfaces of the bones +between <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, are quite flat, so that the only +movement that can take place is a slight sliding +of one bone upon the other, just enough to assist<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span> +in breaking the jar, but not enough to interfere +with the firm basis of support which these toes +are required to afford to the plantar arch in consequence +of the great stress of the weight in walking +being borne upon this side of the foot. In No. 24, +which is the joint of the ring toe, and still more in +No. 25, which is the joint of the little toe, the end +of the metatarsal bone (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>) is rounded and is received +into a corresponding concavity or cup in the tarsal +bone (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>). This allows a slight revolving of one bone +upon the other to take place, and permits the +movement which you discover when you grasp the +balls of these two toes between your fingers. The +outer part of the foot needs not to be so strong and +firm as the inner part, because it does not lie so +nearly in the plane of gravity during walking; and +the provision just described, which permits some +movement in the outer two metatarsals, enables +the balls of the toes to adapt themselves to inequalities +on the ground, and to share more equally, +under various circumstances, the weight which is +thrown upon them.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span></p> + + +<h3><i>Standing and Stooping.</i></h3> + +<div class="center"> +<div class="table"> +<div class="row"> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f26" style="max-width: 5.5625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f26.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Figs. <a href="#fignote_26">26</a>.<br>Standing.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f27" style="max-width: 7.1875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f27.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>27.<br>Bowing.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f28" style="max-width: 7.4375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f28.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>28.<br>Stooping.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f29" style="max-width: 7.9375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f29.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>29.<br>Squatting.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>When we <span class="smcap">Stand</span> straight upright (fig. 26) the +centre of gravity of the head is directly over a +point midway between the two ankles; and the +plane of gravity, represented by the vertical line +in the figure, descends, from the head, through the +spine, pelvis, and lower limbs, to the key-bone of +the instep. And you observe that, between the +head and the ankle, the skeleton is not quite +straight, but is arranged in six curves, which are,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> +alternately, in front of and behind the line of gravity. +Of these curves the upper three are in the +spine. They are well marked; the uppermost (<i>a</i>) +is in the neck and is directed forwards; the next +(<i>b</i>) is in the back and is directed backwards; the +third (<i>c</i>) is in the loins and is directed forwards. +The fourth curve (<i>d</i>), less distinct than those above +it, is in the pelvis and is directed backwards. The +fifth and sixth curves are very slight; the fifth (<i>e</i>), +directed forwards, is at the hip-joint; and the sixth, +(<i>f</i>), directed backwards, is at the knee. The last +two curves, though slight, are not unimportant; +and they contribute very much to our comfort +and to prevent fatigue when we are standing: they +do so in the following way. The strong ligaments +of the hip are placed towards the <i>fore</i> part of the +joint, that is, in <i>front</i> of the line of gravity; and +the strong ligaments of the knee are placed towards +the <i>back</i> part of the joint, that is, <i>behind</i> +the line of gravity. It follows that when these +joints are fully extended they are “locked,” as it +is termed, just as is a hinge when opened to a +little beyond the straight line; and, by this means, +the muscles are set at rest, and we are able to +maintain the erect posture, for some time, steadily +and without fatigue.</p> + +<p>When standing upright in this way, at rest on +both legs, or on one leg in the military position of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> +“at ease,” and the muscles are off their guard, if a +sudden and unexpected, though slight, pressure be +made upon the ham, so as to bend the knee a +little and throw the joint in front of the line of +gravity, the man will drop, unless the muscles +come quickly to the rescue—a tendency which has +not escaped the observation of school-boys.</p> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">Bending</span> or <span class="smcap">Bowing</span> (fig. <a href="#f27">27</a>) the head is +carried forwards; and, to maintain the balance, the +opposite pole of the trunk is carried backwards, +so as to preserve the line of gravity still over the +ankles.</p> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">Stooping</span> (fig. <a href="#f28">28</a>) or <span class="smcap">Squatting</span> (fig. <a href="#f29">29</a>), +as in picking up any thing from the ground, the +lower limbs and the trunk are bent in a zigzag +manner; the heels are raised; and the plane of +gravity falls, in front of the ankles, over the balls +of the toes. Now we recognise one of the advantages +which accrues to man from the great length +of his thigh. For the head and upper part of the +trunk are advanced so far in <i>front</i> of the feet, that +it would be impossible to maintain a balance at +all, even upon the balls of the toes, and we +should necessarily fall forwards, were it not that, +owing to the length of the thigh, the lower part +of the trunk is carried backwards to a plane <i>behind</i> +the heels, and so serves to maintain the +equilibrium.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span></p> + + +<h3><i>Walking.</i></h3> + +<div class="center"> +<div class="table"> +<div class="row"> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f30" style="max-width: 8em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f30.jpg" alt="First stage stance taking a step"> + <figcaption>Figs. <a href="#fignote_30">30</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f31" style="max-width: 6.1875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f31.jpg" alt="Second stage stance taking a step"> + <figcaption>31.<br>Walking.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f32" style="max-width: 7.4375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f32.jpg" alt="Third stage stance taking a step"> + <figcaption>32.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<div class="center"> +<div class="table"> +<div class="row"> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f33" style="max-width: 6.0625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f33.jpg" alt="Foot position - first stage"> + <figcaption>Figs. <a href="#fignote_33">33</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f34" style="max-width: 7.1875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f34.jpg" alt="Foot position - second stage"> + <figcaption>34.<br>Walking.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f35" style="max-width: 6.125em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f35.jpg" alt="Foot position - third stage"> + <figcaption>35.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Let us next consider the part which the foot +performs in <span class="smcap">Walking</span>. To understand this it is +necessary to consider its positions and movements +in the several stages of a step. When first placed +upon the ground the foot (<span class="lowercase smcap">R</span>, fig. 30) is a little in +advance of the body; and the heel comes first (fig. 33) +into contact with the ground. The toes quickly +follow; and the body, then, passes, vertically, over, +the ankle and the key-bone of the instep. The foot<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> +(<span class="lowercase smcap">R</span>, fig. 31 and fig. 34) now rests steadily upon the +heel and the balls of the toes; the other foot (<span class="lowercase smcap">L</span>) +leaves the ground, so that the whole weight is +borne by one foot; and the plantar arch of that +foot expands a little, so as to cause slight lengthening +of the foot, under the weight that is laid +upon it. Much yielding of the arch is, however, +prevented by the ligaments that brace the arch +(fig. <a href="#f07">7</a>), and by the muscles that are disposed beneath +it. Next, the heel (fig. 35) is raised by the +action of the calf muscle, and the weight of the +body is thrown forwards, over the balls of the toes, +while the other foot (<span class="lowercase smcap">L</span>, fig. 32) is carried onwards, +and is placed upon the ground ready to receive the +weight and commence its carrying work. When +this has been done the foot is withdrawn from the +ground; and, in the withdrawal, a final impulse +onward is given, so as to throw the weight of the +body fairly over to the other foot. The fore part +of the foot is then raised, and the knee is bent a +little. By these means the toes are kept clear of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> +the ground, while the foot is swung forward, beside +the other, so as to be ready again to rest upon +the ground and bear the weight of the body.</p> + +<p>In each complete step, therefore, there is a period +during which the foot rests upon the ground, +and a period in which it is swinging in the air. In +walking the former period is considerably longer +than the latter; and at the commencement, and at +the end, of that period (figs. <a href="#f30">30</a> and 32) the other +foot is also upon the ground, so that it is only +during the middle of the time (fig. <a href="#f31">31</a>) in which +the foot rests upon the ground that it has to bear +the whole weight of the body.</p> + + +<h3><i>Running.</i></h3> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">Running</span> the process is much the same as +in walking. The chief difference is that, whereas +in walking <i>both</i> feet are never <i>off</i> the ground at +the same time, and both are <i>upon</i> the ground at +the beginning and end of each step; in running +<i>both</i> feet are never <i>on</i> the ground at the same +time, and both are <i>off</i> the ground, and the body is +flying unsupported through the air, at the beginning +and end of each step (figs. 36 and 38). Thus, +you may always distinguish running, though it be +ever so slow, from walking, because, in the latter,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> +the two feet are upon the ground at the same +time; while, in the former, only one foot touches +the ground at a time.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<div class="table"> +<div class="row"> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f36" style="max-width: 8.5625em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f36.jpg" alt="First stage running stance"> + <figcaption>Figs. <a href="#fignote_36">36</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f37" style="max-width: 7.375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f37.jpg" alt="Second stage running stance"> + <figcaption>37.<br>Running.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f38" style="max-width: 9.6875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f38.jpg" alt="Third stage running stance"> + <figcaption>38.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The period during which the body rests upon +the ground in running is comparatively very short, +being merely the time when one foot is set down +in the middle of each step (fig. 37); and great force +has, consequently, to be exerted to propel the body +through the air during the whole remainder of the +step. Hence the exertion of running is much +greater than that of walking. In slow running the +same parts of the foot are applied upon the ground +as in walking, and in the same order; but in quick +running the balls of the toes only touch the ground. +The quicker we run the shorter, relatively to the +rest of the step, is the time during which the foot +rests upon the ground, and the greater, consequently, +is the effort.</p> + +<p>After the foot leaves the ground, in running, it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> +is thrown up behind; and, at the same time, the +fore part of the sole and the toes are turned a +little obliquely <i>in</i>wards, so as to prevent their +catching against adjacent objects. If the toes +were turned <i>out</i>, when thrown up behind, it would +present a very awkward appearance, and we should +frequently be tripped up by their coming in contact +with substances near which we pass. While the +foot is being swung forwards the toes are gradually +turned a little the other way. Thus, by the time +they pass the other leg the toes have lost the inclination +inwards, and are directed straight <i>for</i>wards; +and when the foot has reached a point in advance +of the other leg, and the sole is preparing to present +itself to the ground, the toes are turned a +little <i>out</i>wards. This turning of the foot <i>in</i>wards +and <i>out</i>wards during its movement <i>back</i>wards and +<i>for</i>wards, in each step, is a graceful movement, +and may be compared to the “feathering” of an +oar. It takes place, also, in walking, but is less +marked than in running; and in many persons it +can scarcely be discerned during walking.</p> + +<p>The distinction between the paces of other animals +resembles that between the walking and the +running of man, and is equally definite. Take, for +instance, the <span class="smcap">Walking</span>, <span class="smcap">Trotting</span>, and <span class="smcap">Galloping</span> +of the Horse. In <span class="smcap">Walking</span> the fore and the +hind limbs of the <i>same</i> side are moved together, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span> +nearly together, but they do not leave the ground +till the limbs of the opposite side are placed upon +it; so that at one period all four limbs are upon +the ground together. In <span class="smcap">Trotting</span> the fore and +the hind limbs of <i>opposite</i> sides move together; but, +as in walking, neither of them are withdrawn from +the ground till the opposite one has reached it<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a>.</p> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">Galloping</span>, or <span class="smcap">Cantering</span>, the horse springs +or bounds with all four limbs at the same time; +all the feet are thrown up nearly together; all are +off the ground together; and all reach the ground +again nearly at the same time ready for another +spring. I say that the feet are all thrown up +<i>nearly</i>, and not <i>quite</i>, together, because the fore +and the hind limbs of one side take the precedence +a little of the others, or “lead,” as it is called. +The trained horse is taught to lead, habitually, +with one, usually the right, side, because the motion +is more steady when the horse is accustomed +to gallop in one way than if he be allowed to vary +it. Directly the horse begins to gallop, the rider +knows, by the motion, whether he is leading with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span> +the proper leg. In some animals, as the <span class="smcap">Deer</span>, +the two fore and the two hind feet move together +exactly in galloping. Anthony Trollope tells us that +in Panama, Cuba, and other Spanish countries in +the West, the horses are “taught to pace, that is, +move with the two off legs together, and then with +the two near legs. The motion is exceedingly gentle, +and well fitted for those hot climates, in which +the rougher work of trotting would be almost too +much for the energies of debilitated mankind.” +This <i>pacing</i> is probably only a quick walk.</p> + +<p>When we walk the heels follow one another +nearly in a straight line, as is shewn by “walking +a chalk,” or more readily by walking along the +line between the curb and the flagstone pavement; +and the plane of gravity of the body corresponds +with this line. There ought, therefore, to be no +perceptible <i>swerving</i> of the trunk from side to +side in walking. There should, also, be scarcely +any <i>rising</i> or <i>falling</i>; inasmuch as there are provisions +in the mode of bending the limbs (which I +cannot here discuss) to prevent the body from being +moved up and down during the step. The head +and shoulders should be carried along nearly in +a straight line. If it were otherwise, if they were +moved in a zigzag or undulating manner, from +right to left, or up and down, the space traversed +in a given distance would be much increased, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> +there would be a proportionately greater expenditure +of muscular force. By a beautiful combination +of movements this is prevented, and a rectilinear +course is maintained, while the weight of +the body is transferred from foot to foot, in a +succession of steps.</p> + +<p>Only observe a good walker for a minute or +two, and you will see how straight the head is +carried along; and when your eye falls upon a +person who “rolls in his walk” you perceive how +ungainly are his movements, and you have an instinctive +feeling that he is an awkward fellow. +Whether you are disposed to make an exception +in favour of the British tar, in consequence of his +many other good qualities, I must leave you to +judge. His peculiar gait on shore is probably due +to his not being sufficiently practised in straight +walking to counteract the effect of the lounging +manner and general disregard for appearances +which he acquires on board ship. Whatever the +reason may be, though he has the better of us +in a storm at sea, he certainly does not always +appear to advantage on <i>terra firma</i>. Now that +a general improvement in gait and step may be +expected among landsmen, as a result of the volunteer +movement, it becomes still more desirable +that the sailor should participate in the good influences +of the drill.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span></p> + +<p>Although the heels follow one another in a +line the toes diverge a little from the line, because +the foot slants, as I have just said, somewhat +<i>out</i>wards when it is placed upon the ground. +It results from this position of the foot that the +weight of the body descends upon it with a slight +obliquity, <i>in</i>wards as well as forwards; and that +is precisely the direction in which the foot is best +prepared to receive weight. For, when the foot +rests upon the ground in this position all the ligaments +on the inner side (and they are very strong) +as well as those beneath, are on the stretch; and +the joints, with the exception of the ankle-joint, +are as it were locked, so as to afford a secure, +steady basis of support to the leg. When the +weight of the body descends upon the foot in the +direction mentioned a sprain rarely occurs. It is +when the weight falls in the opposite direction, +that is, more or less obliquely <i>out</i>wards, and throws +the ankle out, that a sprain easily happens. Thus +a slight inequality of the ground, or any other +cause that tilts up the inner edge of the foot, +is likely to lead to a sprain, especially when we +are going down hill or down steps.</p> + +<p>Here let me remark that a <span class="smcap">Sprain</span> is the +result of a stretching of some ligament, or other +part, caused by an undue force being brought to +bear upon it. The ligaments are very strong,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> +and under ordinary circumstances are not very +sensitive; and they are capable of offering great +resistance to force applied in the direction in +which they are calculated to meet it. But, if the +force be applied in a direction in which they are +not calculated to meet it, they are easily injured, +and they become, then, very painful. The same +is, also, likely to occur if the force be severe or +sudden.</p> + +<p>The muscles are a very great assistance to the +ligaments, forasmuch as, by placing and retaining +the joints in proper positions, they regulate the +direction in which forces are brought to bear upon +the ligaments. Moreover, by steadying or bracing +the joints, they check or break the force and +prevent its being suddenly imposed upon the ligaments. +And the muscles, by virtue of their contractile +property, have the capability of becoming +tight in any position of the joint, which is an immense +advantage; whereas a ligament having no +contractility and, usually, no elasticity, is tight +only in one position. The office of a ligament is +to limit the movement of a joint in a particular +direction; and, till the joint has assumed a certain +position—till it is bent or straightened to a +certain angle—the ligament does not come into +play. During the bending or straightening of a +limb the muscles regulate the movement, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> +bring it to a stop or check it before it has gone +to its full extent; and, thus, the ligament is relieved +from that sudden imposition of force which +would result if it were required to check the +movement of a joint in its full swing.</p> + +<p>Accordingly, when the muscles are prepared +and in proper action, that is, when they place +the joint in a suitable position and duly support +or brace it, a sprain very rarely occurs. It is +when the muscles are unprepared, when we make +a false step, or when the foot encounters an unexpected +obstacle, and the weight falls suddenly +upon the ligaments in an unfavourable direction, +that a sprain occurs. A man jumps from a considerable +height, or descends deep steps with a +heavy weight upon his back, and no harm results; +but he slips off the curb-stone, or treads +unwarily upon a piece of orange-peel, or turns his +foot hastily, to avoid some object on the ground, +and sprains his ankle.</p> + +<p>In order that they may do their work well, +be alert, and maintain good guard, the muscles +need to be kept in practice. A person unaccustomed +to throw a ball is very liable to sprain his +elbow with the sudden jerk which is required for +that feat; or if a person takes to tumbling and +jumping, without proper training, he will probably +suffer for his temerity. Again, common experience<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span> +tells us that a joint which has been sprained +is, for a long time, liable to be sprained again. +This is because the part remains tender as well +as weak; and the muscles do not brace it steadily +and firmly, or come nimbly to its aid when it +is in danger.</p> + +<p>In consequence of the foot, in walking, being +placed upon the ground with the toes slanting +a little outwards, the <i>out</i>er and hinder edge of +the heel first touches the ground. Hence this +part of the heel of the shoe is usually worn down +before the remainder. The ball of the little toe +next comes to the ground, and the balls of the +other toes follow in quick succession; and it is +from the great toe—that is, from the inner side +of the foot—that the last impulse is given to +propel the body, forwards, over the other foot. +In order to give full effect to this final impulse +an especial muscle, the “Long Fibular” muscle +(<span class="lowercase smcap">I</span> in fig. <a href="#f13">13</a>), is provided. The tendon (i) of this +muscle passes, behind the outer ankle, beneath +the sole of the foot, to the great toe. It has the +effect of pressing the ball of the great toe upon +the ground, while it raises the outer ankle, and +so contributes to throw the weight, across, in the +direction of the other foot.</p> + +<p>Thus the foot revolves upon the ground, from +the heel to the balls of the toes, and from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> +outer edge of the former to the inner edge of the +latter; and during the revolution, which has been +compared, though the comparison fails in many +points, to the revolving of the segment of a wheel, +the ankle is raised and advanced forwards.</p> + +<p>On the complete and steady execution of this +movement good walking chiefly depends, more +particularly upon the full performance of the last +stage of the process, viz. the rising fairly upon +the balls of the toes and delivering the weight +steadily over to the other foot. This is the most +difficult part of the process, the whole weight of +the body during its execution being borne upon the +fore part of the foot, that is, upon the longer pillar +of the plantar arch; forasmuch as the heel is being +raised and the other foot is off the ground. For +the good performance of this part of the process, +all the features of the well-made foot are essential. +There must be a high and firm plantar arch, +a heel set at a proper angle, and a strong great +toe running straight forwards. There must be +also a fully developed calf to set the machinery +well in motion.</p> + +<p>If the plantar arch be low it cannot bear the +strain attendant upon this movement; and the +person, in consequence, shirks the full performance +of it. He does that by turning the toes too much +out; and, then, he contrives to roll over the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> +inner side of the foot, instead of rising upon the +balls of the toes; and so he gets along with short, +shuffling, feeble steps. How many persons, owing +to one cause or other, hobble in this way! Some +turn the toes very much in, and rise over the +ball of the little toe, instead of over the great toe. +This is done with comparative ease, because the +ball of the little toe is nearer to the ankle; but +the step is, thereby, shortened, as well as rendered +less firm and less graceful.</p> + +<p>The revolving movement of the foot, or the +bringing of its several parts into contact with the +ground in succession, in a distinct manner, is +peculiar to man. Many animals do not bear upon +the heel at all; they only tread upon the toes, +and are, therefore, called <span class="smcap">Digitigrade</span>. Some, +indeed, bear only upon the tips of the toes, as the +Horse (fig. <a href="#f05">5</a>, p. 15). Others go upon the balls +of the toes, as the Cat, the Hare, the Pig, and +the Dog. Some animals bear upon the heels as +well as the toes, and are called <span class="smcap">Plantigrade</span>, +as the Bear, the Badger, and the Monkey; but +these all flop the sole upon the ground in its whole +length at once. The foot in them is not sufficiently +compact and strong to bear the weight of +the body first upon one part then upon another; +and they, consequently, walk in an ungainly manner, +as compared with man.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span></p> + + +<h3><i>Character evinced by manner of Walking.</i></h3> + +<p>Bear in mind that for the firm vigorous walk +there is required, not only the well-formed limb, +but also the manly and determined <span class="smcap">Will</span>, acting +in a decided and authoritative manner over +the several members of the body, so that these +are accustomed readily, and steadily, to obey its +commands; just as the soldiers of a well-drilled +regiment obey the directions of the superior officer +in an orderly and efficient manner. And, as you +may judge of the character of the officer by the +discipline of his men, so may you form an estimate +of a man by the movements of his limbs. +You see a man walk along the street, and you +instinctively form an opinion of him by the mode +in which he carries himself and treads the ground. +Be careful not to allow yourselves to be inflexibly +biassed by these first impressions, as that +amounts to prejudice. Nevertheless, experience +tells us that they are not to be altogether despised. +They originate in a perception of the +working of the great laws by which body and +mind are harmonized; and, if fairly estimated, +they rarely deceive us.</p> + +<p>We have little difficulty in recognising three +chief classes among pedestrians. <i>First</i>, there are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> +those who pay too much attention to the movements, +who walk with a pompous strut, or a mincing gait, +or affect some style or other. We are naturally +very little inclined in favour of such persons; indeed, +we have usually to make an effort not to +be decidedly prejudiced against them. <i>Secondly</i>, +there are those who pay too little attention to +their movements, who do not seem to be sufficiently +alive to the responsibility attaching to the +possessors of so noble a structure as the human +frame, and who do not give themselves the trouble +to exert the powers of the glorious mechanism +with which they are charged. They slouch, or +dawdle, along in a listless lazy manner. Instinct +tells us, and tells us rightly, to beware how we +trust such persons with the conduct of our affairs, +or with any office of responsibility. We feel that +the lack of energy manifested in the guidance of +their limbs is, too probably, a feature of character, +which unfits them for the active duties of life; +and we know that such men are not usually successful +in their calling. <i>Thirdly</i>, there are those +who shew, by the firmness and precision of their +step, and by the regularity in the succession of +the movements by which the step is made, that +they are conscious of the dignity of their species, +of the responsibility attendant on that dignity, +and of the respect due to themselves. Such men<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> +we feel are likely to pursue their avocations energetically +and methodically, as well as with punctuality.</p> + +<p>Many points of character peep out in the way +men walk. Our poet tells us that in one we may +read</p> + +<p class="tac fs85"> +“rascal in the motions of his back<br> +And scoundrel in his supple sliding knee.” +</p> + +<p class="ti0">Another has a halting, shuffling, undecided gait; +while a third walks in a bold, determined, straight-forward, +erect and independent manner. One +has a cautious, parsimonious step, as if sparing +of shoe-leather, or afraid to trust the ground; he +has, however, probably, trusted the funds with +considerable investments. Some walk with long, +pretentious, measured strides; others make short, +quick, insignificant steps. Some, again, are hurried, +fussy, noisy; while others glide along in a +quiet, shrinking, unpretending, it may be timid, +manner.</p> + +<p>I need not dilate upon these diversities. Your +own observation will supply abundant illustrations +of the correspondence between character and +manner of walking.</p> + +<p>The several movements in walking are under +the control of the <span class="lowercase smcap">WILL</span>, and are directed by it, +to such an extent that the continuous agency of +the will is essential to the process. If the influence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span> +of the will be suspended, but for a moment, +the action ceases, and the man falls to the ground. +Nevertheless, the play of the individual muscles, +and their co-ordination, or the manner in which +their several movements are combined, are, in a +great measure, independent of the will. They are, +to a certain extent, automatic, and result from +peculiar relations between the nervous and the +muscular systems. The will may be compared to +the driver of an engine, who, by turning on the +steam, and maintaining the supply, sets the machine +in motion, and regulates the rate of its +speed; but the several wheels are so arranged +that they go on irrespectively of his immediate +superintendence. It would be impossible for the +engine-man to attend to the working of each detail +of his machine; and it would be too much +for the will to have to direct all the movements +of the limbs in walking. We should be wearied +with such an effort of attention before we had +walked across a room; for the exercise of the will +is exhausting, and soon engenders fatigue. The +more we think of any movement and take pains +to direct it, the sooner we are tired and unable +to continue it; and the more the attention is +diverted, the less quickly do we experience a feeling +of exhaustion; while those movements in the +body which are not at all under the influence of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span> +the will—the movements of the heart for instance—go +on unceasingly, through a long life, without +any sense of weariness. What so prevents fatigue, +when we are walking, as the diverting conversation +of an agreeable companion?</p> + +<p>But though the combination of the movements +in walking is, to a certain extent, automatic, it is +not complete without the proper control of the +will. This is proved by the gait of those unfortunate +beings in whom the mind, and with it commonly +the will, is deficient from birth—I mean +<span class="smcap">Idiots</span>. Their movements are, usually, more or +less, irregular and unharmonious, jerky, without +proper steadiness and rhythm; the head is tossed +about; the eye looks one way; the fingers are +sprawled out in another direction; the foot is +jerked out at a hazard, as it were, so that you +don’t know when it will reach the ground, perhaps +it kicks against the other foot. A sad spectacle +this. The visit to an Idiot Asylum fills one, it is +true, with a sense of the value of an institution +where these poor members of the human family +are kept out of harm’s way, and away from the +gibes of the village boys, and are made clean, and +tidy, and taught so far as they are capable of instruction; +but I know no sadder sight than is presented +by a string of the inmates of such an asylum, +guided from room to room by the foremost of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> +the number, who shews by his walk, somewhat +more steady than that of the others, that he is +gifted with rather more intelligence than they, and +is so fitted to be their guide.</p> + +<p>An equally melancholy, an even more distressing, +spectacle is that of criminals pacing, like animals +in their dens, up and down the court-yard of +their prison; for in them we know, that there is +no deficiency of will. It is strong enough to control +and regulate the movements of their limbs; +but there is a still more important deficiency, viz. +a deficiency of that moral sense which should control +the will.</p> + +<p>Another sad, but physiologically interesting, +sight is the rolling walk of the drunkard. Here, +again, the will is not deficient; but it is, partly, +and by its own agency, dethroned. Enough of the +will is left to set the machine going, not enough +to guide it and control it well. Though the movements +follow one another, for the most part, in +proper sequence, they are uncertain and ill-directed. +The balancing power is partly lost. The +feet are dragged hither and thither, and thrown +about, by the swerving weight of the body; and +they follow one another upon the ground at uncertain +intervals, and in any but a straight line. +You watch a man in this state staggering from +side to side, and wonder how he keeps his legs at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> +all. Soon the foot catches against some slight obstacle +or against the other leg, or fails to come +quickly enough into the required place, and the +man rolls over. The supple manner in which his +unstrung limbs give under the weight, perhaps, +saves him, to some extent, from the shock; but +you must not imagine that drunkards have any +charm against injury. A large proportion of the +accidents admitted into our Hospitals are the result +of drunkenness.</p> + + +<h3><i>Distinctive Features of the Human Foot.</i></h3> + +<p>I have already made a few comparisons between +the human foot and that of certain of the +lower animals. It will be interesting to add some +others.</p> + +<p>There are several animals, as the Monkey, the +Bear, and some Reptiles, in which the foot resembles +the human foot in many particulars. It has, +for instance, the same number of toes as the human +foot, and the same, or nearly the same, number +of bones, and the latter disposed in much +the same manner. Certain peculiarities, however, +distinguish the human foot. These all have reference +to the power which man, and man alone, +possesses of standing firmly upright, and of walking +steadily, upon the two feet.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span></p> + +<p>The following are the most important of these +distinctive features.</p> + +<p><i>First.</i> The several parts are fitted and bound +together in a compact firm manner, so as to combine +strength and elasticity in the highest degree. +In this respect the human foot contrasts very +remarkably with the sprawling foot of the Seal +or Lizard (figs. <a href="#f02">2</a> and 3, p. 11). The result is +obtained, partly, by the great size of the tarsal +bones, in proportion to the other components of +the foot, and, partly, by the formation of the +“Plantar Arch,” which is higher and stronger in +man than in any of the lower animals.</p> + +<p><i>Secondly.</i> The <span class="smcap">Toes</span> are short and small in +relation to the other parts of the foot. In many +animals, the Monkey for instance (fig. <a href="#f44">44</a>, p. 89), +the toes form the greater part of the foot; and, +in some, the bones of the instep are reduced in +number as well as in size: the reason being that, +in such animals, the toes are required to perform +a variety of offices—burrowing in the ground, +scratching, holding on to the branches of trees, +catching and tearing prey, &c.—for which their +services are not needed by man.</p> + +<p>It may here be noticed that one of the great +points of dissimilarity between the foot and the +hand consists in the difference which the length +of the digits bears to the other components in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> +two members. They form nearly <i>half</i> the length +of the hand, but not more than a <i>tenth</i> of that +of the foot. Clearly, therefore, they constitute a +far less important segment of the lower limb than +they do of the upper, and are intended to perform +much less important functions in it. In the +hand the fingers and thumb may be said to constitute +the essential part; whereas the toes do +little more than help the foot to adapt itself to +inequalities of the ground and so to obtain a +firmer holding. In civilized countries, accordingly, +where we walk, chiefly, upon even paths and paved +streets, very little evil results from the loss of the +services of the toes which is incurred by covering +over the foot to protect it against the hardness +of the roads.</p> + +<p>We often hear the toes spoken of as ill-treated +members, which are not allowed fair play because +the art of man keeps them in a state of inertness +and deprives them of their natural functions. +Anatomy, too, gives some countenance to the idea, +inasmuch as it shews that the muscles which +minister to the toes are as numerous as those +which are concerned in moving the fingers; and +we occasionally see persons, who, having been born +without hands, or having lost them, contrive to +write and paint and do other unusual offices with +their toes. Watch the movements in an infant’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span> +foot as yet unshod. They are considerably more +free than in your own; especially you will observe +that there is a power of separating the great +toe from the others and approximating it to them +which you have, probably, altogether lost. The +small size, however, of the toes, and the comparative +fixedness of the inner, or great toe, prove, +that they were never intended for anything like +the same variety of purposes as the fingers, and +shew that, under the most favourable circumstances, +the <i>pes</i> could never be <i>altera manus</i>, as +some would persuade us that it is. Certainly it +was never intended to be an organ of prehension. +Hence, although in practice, boot-makers may +excite our wrath and deserve our condemnation, +I don’t think that, in principle, they are so much +to be complained of.</p> + +<p>The <i>third</i> striking peculiarity of the human +foot is the size of the inner or <span class="smcap">Great Toe</span> and +the firm manner in which its metatarsal bone is +joined to the other bones, so as to render it a +main pillar of support to the foot. These features +of the great toe have reference to the share of the +weight of the body which is borne by the inner +side of the foot, more particularly during the last +stage of the step, when the body is propelled forwards +over the other foot. Hence it is sometimes +called the “hallux,” from a Greek word (ἅλ-λομαι)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span> +signifying to bound or spring. The <i>mobility</i> +of the <i>thumb</i>, enabling it to be opposed so easily +to each of the other fingers, is a characteristic of +the human <i>hand</i>; and the <i>solidity</i> of the <i>great toe</i> +is equally, or even more, characteristic of the human +<i>foot</i>. The great toe should be continued, +from the instep, straight along the inner edge of +the <i>foot</i>, or inclined a little <i>in</i>wards; often, as +before mentioned, its phalanges become inclined +<i>out</i>wards so as to interfere with the other toes<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a>.</p> + +<p>Though, in many animals the number of the +toes is the same as in man, this is not the case +in all; and we may trace a gradual and progressive +diminution of the number, in the following +order.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<div class="table"> +<div class="row"> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f39" style="max-width: 6.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f39.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Figs. <a href="#fignote_39">39</a>.<br>Elephant.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f40" style="max-width: 7.5em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f40.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption><a href="#fignote_40">40</a>.<br>Hippopotamus.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f41" style="max-width: 7.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f41.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption><a href="#fignote_41">41</a>.<br>Rhinoceros.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f42" style="max-width: 6.1875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f42.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption><a href="#fignote_42">42</a>.<br>Ox.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f43" style="max-width: 3.9375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f43.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption><a href="#fignote_43">43</a>.<br>Horse.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>I have said (page <a href="#Page_10">10</a>) that the inner toe is incomplete +in all animals, forasmuch as, in none, +does it possess the same complement of bones as +do the other toes. You will not be surprised to +find, therefore, that it is the first to be missing. +The <span class="smcap">Elephant</span> goes upon <i>five</i> toes; but if you +look closely you will perceive that the inner toe +(fig. 39, <span class="lowercase smcap">I</span>.) has not attained even its usual incomplete +number of bones. It is short of one; and the +inner wedge-bone, which looks like a metacarpal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> +bone, is prolonged, downwards, to supply the place, +and to give sufficient length to the toe. The same +thing may be seen in some other animals, and it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> +is interesting as shewing the first indication of departure +from what may be called the standard +number of the phalanges. In the <span class="smcap">Hippopotamus</span> +(fig. 40) we have an additional stage of imperfection +in this same toe; for here there is only one +small bone to remind us of the existence of the toe +(it is the same in the Rhinoceros, <span class="lowercase smcap">I.</span>); all the rest +have failed to be developed; and the animal, consequently, +goes upon <i>four</i> toes. Next the failure +appears on the <i>out</i>er side of the foot, and affects +the little toe. Thus, the <span class="smcap">Rhinoceros</span> (fig. 41) +goes upon <i>three</i> toes—namely, Nos. <span class="lowercase smcap">II.</span> <span class="lowercase smcap">III.</span> and <span class="lowercase smcap">IV.</span>—and +there is scarcely a trace either of the first +toe or of the fifth. In Ruminating animals, as the +<span class="smcap">Ox</span> (fig. 42), the second toe is wanting, as well as +the first and the fifth; so that the foot rests upon +<i>two</i> toes (Nos. <span class="lowercase smcap">III.</span> and <span class="lowercase smcap">IV.</span>); and in the <span class="smcap">Horse</span> (fig. +43), as we have already seen, only <i>one</i> toe—the +middle one (No. <span class="lowercase smcap">III.</span>)—is developed sufficiently to +reach the ground.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowp26" id="f44" style="max-width: 5.25em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f44.jpg" alt="Leg and foot bones"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_44">44</a>. Gorilla.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Whatever pretensions to Humanity the <span class="smcap">Monkey</span> +may make—and they are sufficiently striking +to render some persons very uncomfortable on the +score of relationship—he is certainly far removed +from us in the construction of the foot (fig. 44); +and the good people to whom I have alluded may +derive consolation from the reflection that, in this +respect at least, there is very little indication of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> +cousinship. Indeed we ought not to speak of his +<i>foot</i> at all; for the part which corresponds with the +human foot does not even deserve that name. It +is so much more like a hand, that the term four-handed, +or <i>quadrumanous</i>, is by naturalists applied +to this class of animals. There is scarcely any +plantar arch; the animal bears, chiefly, upon the +outer edge of the foot; the digits are long and +strong; and the inner one, instead of being parallel +with the others, diverges from them so as to constitute +a true <i>thumb</i> instead of a great toe. All these +points are very suitable for enabling the animal to +cling to branches of trees, and for other prehensile +purposes; but they unfit him for the upright posture, +and render it impossible for him to walk +steadily upon his lower limbs.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span></p> + +<figure class="figleft illowp57" id="f45" style="max-width: 16.875em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f45.jpg" alt="Drawing of stuffed specimen"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_45">45</a>. Gorilla.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the great ape called the <span class="smcap">Gorilla</span>, which is +found in the south-western part of Africa, and of +which many specimens have now been sent to this +Country, the <i>hind-hand</i> is of great size and strength, +as may be seen in the accompanying drawing made +from a stuffed specimen in the British Museum. +The lower part of the leg is also very thick, +owing to the size of the muscles which move the +great toe and the other digits, and which enable +them to give a most powerful grasp. So strong +and savage is the creature that all efforts to capture +one alive, when full-grown, have, hitherto,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span> +failed. He is said to give evidence of his strength +of hand and of his amiable propensities in the following +way. He swings by his fore-hands from +the trees, and, letting himself down quietly by +them, watches an opportunity of seizing by the +neck, with his huge hind-hand, some unwary Negro +who may be passing by, draws him up, and holds +him with vice-like grasp, till his struggles have +ceased, and then drops him a strangled corpse to +the ground.</p> + +<p>Most of the characters above mentioned as distinctive +of the human foot—such as its compactness +and strength, the height of the plantar arch, +the shortness of the toes—are, like the size of the +calf, most marked in the higher members of the +human family, in those, that is to say, who are +gifted with the highest intelligence. Thus the +formation of the foot is found to have a correspondence +with the formation of the head, and may, +like it, be, to a certain extent, taken, as I have +before remarked, to be an index of intellectual, as +well as of physical, capacity. The relation between +the intellectual power and the physical conformation +of man, which is here exemplified, and which +is maintained throughout the frame, is a subject +of extreme interest, and is one which has not attracted +the attention of anatomists and ethnologists +so much as it deserves.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span></p> + +<p>To what secondary causes this harmonious +adaptation of body to mind may be due, we cannot +clearly tell; but we can see in it a provision +for giving physical ascendancy to superior intellect. +And it is most gratifying to be able to derive, +as we may do, from this as well as from the +observation of the past and the present, the assurance +that the cultivation of the mind, provided +its moral tone be preserved and proper sanitary +precautions be taken, is not likely to be attended +with any deterioration of the body. On the contrary, +we have good reason to believe that the +present civilized nations of the earth, with their +higher mental culture, are inferior to none of their +predecessors in the qualities of the body; surely +soldiers never maintained a hand-to-hand struggle +better than the victors at Inkermann; and we know +that the civilized nations are physically superior +to most of the uncivilized. We have good ground, +therefore, to hope that the extension of education +and commerce will be productive, on the whole, of +an improvement of the physical condition of the +species.</p> + +<p>Sir James Emerson Tennent says that the Veddahs, +or aboriginal inhabitants of Ceylon, use the +foot in drawing the bow. They sit down, place +the toe against it, and draw the string with the +hand; and some of the American Indians appear<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span> +to have used both feet in the same way. These +Veddahs furnish a good illustration of the low physical +condition which is usually associated with absence +of mental culture. They are described as in +a singularly degraded state. “They have scarcely +any language, no knowledge of God, nor of a future +state, no temples, no idols, no altars, prayers, or +charms; and, in short, no instinct of worship, except +it be some addiction to ceremonies, analogous +to devil worship, to avert storms, lightning, and +sickness. All presented the same characteristics of +wretchedness and dejection—projecting mouths, +prominent teeth, flattened noses, stunted stature, +and other evidences of the physical depravity which +is the usual consequence of hunger and ignorance. +The children were unsightly objects, entirely naked, +with misshapen joints, huge heads, and protuberant +stomachs. The women were the most repulsive +specimens of humanity I have ever seen +in any country.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span></p> + + +<h3><i>The Proportions of the Limbs.</i></h3> + +<p>A few years ago I took the measurements of +numerous skeletons which I found in the museums +in France, Germany, and England, and made the +following table to shew the proportions of the +several parts.</p> + +<p>The length of the foot and hand is in all somewhat +greater than it should be, in consequence of +the bones composing them being usually less +closely articulated in the artificial skeleton than +they are in nature.</p> + +<p>From this it appears that the limbs of <span class="smcap">Man</span> +differ from those of the <span class="smcap">Ape</span>, chiefly, in the proportionate +length of the thigh and arm, and in +the shortness of the foot and hand. And it will +be seen that, in both these particulars, the <span class="smcap">Negro</span> +differs from the <span class="smcap">European</span> and exhibits some approximation +to the <span class="smcap">Ape</span>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span></p> + + +<p class="tac">MEASUREMENTS OF SKELETONS (IN INCHES).</p> + +<table id="skel" class=""> +<tr> +<td class="tal ball" rowspan="2"></td> +<td class="tac ball" rowspan="2"><div>Height.</div></td> +<td class="tal btb" rowspan="2"> </td> +<td class="tac btb" rowspan="2"><div>Middle point of.</div></td> +<td class="tar btb" rowspan="2"> </td> +<td class="tac ball" rowspan="2"><div>Spine, length of.</div></td> +<td class="tac ball" rowspan="2"><div>Circumference of Skull.</div></td> +<td class="tac ball" rowspan="2"><div>Humerus.</div></td> +<td class="tac ball" rowspan="2"><div>Radius.</div></td> +<td class="tac ball" rowspan="2"><div>Hand.</div></td> +<td class="tac ball" rowspan="2"><div>Femur.</div></td> +<td class="tac ball" rowspan="2"><div>Tibia.</div></td> +<td class="tac ball" rowspan="2"><div>Foot.</div></td> +<td class="tac ball" colspan="2"><div>Pelvis.</div></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tac ball"><div>Trans. diameter.</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>Ant-post. diameter.</div></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tal ball" style="padding-left:0.8em; text-indent:-0.5em">European (average of 25)</td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>65</div></td> +<td class="tar btb vab"><div><img src="images/39x6bl.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></div></td> +<td class="tac btb"><div>Symphysis pubis.</div></td> +<td class="tal btb vab"><img src="images/39x6br.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>22.2</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>20.5</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>12.7</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div> 9.2</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div> 7.3</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>17.88</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>14.4</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>10.6 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>5.2</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>4.3</div></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tal ball" style="padding-left:0.8em; text-indent:-0.5em">Negro (average of 25)</td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>62</div></td> +<td class="tar btb vab"><div><img src="images/39x6bl.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></div></td> +<td class="tac btb"><div>1 inch below Symphysis.</div></td> +<td class="tal btb vab"><img src="images/39x6br.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>19.3</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>19.8</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>12.1</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div> 9.4</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div> 7.7</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>17 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>14.4</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>11.11</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>4.6</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>4.1</div></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tal ball" style="padding-left:0.8em; text-indent:-0.5em">Bosjesman (average of 3)</td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>54</div></td> +<td class="tal btb"></td> +<td class="tac btb"><div>Symphysis.</div></td> +<td class="tar btb"></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>17 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>19.6</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>10.8</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div> 8.3</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div> 6 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>15 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>12.9</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div> 7.5 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>4.4</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>3.5</div></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tal ball" style="padding-left:0.8em; text-indent:-0.5em">Idiot (in Berlin Museum)</td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>57</div></td> +<td class="tal btb"></td> +<td class="tac btb"></td> +<td class="tar btb"></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>19.5</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>13.5</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>12 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div> 8.8</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div> 7 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>16 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>12.5</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div> 8.5 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>5 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>3.8</div></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tal ball" style="padding-left:0.8em; text-indent:-0.5em">Chimpanzee (average of 4)</td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>50</div></td> +<td class="tar btb"><div><img src="images/39x6bl.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></div></td> +<td class="tac btb"><div>3 inches above Symphysis.</div></td> +<td class="tal btb"><img src="images/39x6br.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>17 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>12.2</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>11 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div> 9 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>12.4 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>10 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>10.5 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>4 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>5.5</div></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tal ball" style="padding-left:0.8em; text-indent:-0.5em">Orang (average of 2)</td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>44</div></td> +<td class="tar btb"><div><img src="images/39x6bl.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></div></td> +<td class="tac btb"><div><span class="nowrap">3<span class="fraction"><span class="fnum">1</span><span class="bar">/</span><span class="fden">2</span></span></span> inches above Symphysis.</div></td> +<td class="tal btb"><img src="images/39x6br.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>18 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>14 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>14 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>10 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>10.6 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div> 9.2</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>12 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>3.8</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>4.5</div></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tal ball" style="padding-left:0.8em; text-indent:-0.5em">Gorilla (average of 3)</td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>58</div></td> +<td class="tar btb"><div><img src="images/39x6bl.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></div></td> +<td class="tac btb"><div>4 inches above Symphysis.</div></td> +<td class="tal btb"><img src="images/39x6br.png" width="6" height="39" alt="" ></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>21 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>16.6</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>12.9</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div> 9 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>13.9 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>11.3</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>12 </div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>5.7</div></td> +<td class="tac ball"><div>7.3</div></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span></p> + +<p>I found, also (the tables shewing this are given +in my work on the Human Skeleton), that these +characteristic proportions of the European are +brought out only during growth; for that in the +early periods of infancy the foot and hand are, +relatively, very long, and the thigh is actually +shorter than either the leg or the foot, and the +arm is shorter than either the forearm or the +hand; and it is only, gradually, during the advance +to manhood, that the proper proportions +are attained. So that the transient or immature +condition of the human frame shews certain resemblances +to the permanent Negro type and to +that of the quadrumanous animals; and these +resemblances become obliterated during further +growth.</p> + +<p>The accounts of travellers indicate that some +other nations present great varieties in the proportion +which the length of the foot and hand +bears to the height. Bushmen and Hottentots +are very diminutive, commonly under 5 feet in +height; and their hands and feet are remarkably +small and delicate, in which respect they differ +from Negroes. Mr Bartram observes with regard +to the Cherokees or Muscogulges—a tribe of North +American Indians—that the women are, perhaps, +the smallest race of women yet known, almost all +under 5 ft.; and their hands and feet are not larger +than those of Europeans of 9 or 10 years of age. +He tells us, also, what is very strange, that the +men of this same tribe are of gigantic stature, “a +full size larger than Europeans,” many of them +above, and a few under, 6 ft.; but he says nothing +of the size of their hands and feet. The hands +and feet of the Patagonians are said to be very +small. This may be contrary to what we might<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span> +expect; but it accords with what I found to be +the case in the skeletons of some Giants which I +measured; for in all of them the feet and the +hands were disproportionately short. It would +seem, therefore, that, whether the stature of the +individual be diminutive or gigantic, the foot and +the hand, in either case, are, usually, less than +their proper relative length. A greater number of +accurate data are, however, necessary to enable us +to generalise correctly upon this and other points +of a like nature, or to decide what truth there is +in the common remark, that a long foot in a child +indicates a tall man.</p> + +<p>In former times the parts of the human body +were used as measures; and it was not uncommon +to illustrate the tables of measures by drawings +of the human body, with descriptions of the foot, +palm, &c. One of the tables of the 16th century, +derived in great part from the Romans and the +Greeks, is founded upon the notion, which is not +very far from the truth, that in the well proportioned +man, the breadth of the palm is a 24th +part of the whole stature, and the length of +the foot a 6th part, and the length of the cubit—from +the elbow to the end of the fingers—a 4th. +The measures, however, varied at different times +and in different countries, even though the names +were the same. The latter have, in several instances,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span> +remained, though the definite measure +which they now indicate is different from what it +was, and differs from that of the part of the body +from which the name was taken. Thus, our present +foot measure (twelve inches) is considerably +more than the length of the human foot.</p> + + +<h3><i>The Skin of the Sole.</i></h3> + +<p>The <span class="smcap">Skin</span> of the sole is soft and yet very tough +and strong. It underlies a thick pad of fat, which +separates it from the bones and the plantar ligament. +The fat is interwoven with fibres passing, +through it, from the tissue of the skin to the +bones and ligaments. It is, in this way, rendered +very firm, though it retains much of the soft +quality of fat; and it forms an admirable cushion +for receiving the weight of the body and defending +from injurious pressure both the skin and +the other parts of the foot. The fibres just mentioned +bind the skin to the superjacent bones and +ligaments, and hold it firmly to them, so as to +prevent its being displaced from them in the +movements of the foot upon the ground.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="f46" style="max-width: 24.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f46.jpg" alt="Side view foot bones and sole"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_46">46</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The accompanying woodcut shows that these +connecting fibres are most numerous where there +is the greatest pressure, viz. beneath the heel and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> +the balls of the toes. It shows, too, that they +take the direction at each of those parts which +is most calculated to prevent displacement. Thus, +at the heel their direction is chiefly from the heel-bone, +backwards, to the skin. When we place the +heel upon the ground in walking, the weight of +the body has a tendency to drive the heel-bone +<i>for</i>wards from the skin; and the direction of the +fibres, from the heel-bone, <i>back</i>wards, just resists +this tendency and holds the skin and the bone +firmly together. On the contrary, when we withdraw +the foot from the ground the pressure is +in the opposite direction, and has a tendency to +drive the metatarsal bones <i>back</i>wards from the +skin. The course of the fibres is, consequently, +changed. They, many of them at least, run <i>for</i>wards +from the bones and prevent the displacement +that would be likely to occur. This direction +is also very marked, and for the same reason,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span> +at the end of the great toe. A bundle of fibres +radiates from the projecting process, or tubercle, +which is conspicuous upon the under surface of +the bone near its end; and the greater number +of them run <i>for</i>wards, through the pulp of the toe, +to the skin, and maintain the connection of the +skin with the bone when the latter is pressed <i>back</i>wards +in withdrawing the foot from the ground.</p> + +<p>The skin of the sole has a peculiar sensitiveness, +which enables it to take quick cognisance +of contact with the ground or of any injurious +substances lying upon the ground. The sensitiveness +in the foot is rather increased by its being +so much covered up. We are aroused to a consciousness +of this sensitiveness when the soles are +tickled, or when any one treads on our toes, especially +if there happen to be a corn there. We +know also how sensitive the feet are to cold, and +how liable we are to catch cold from wet feet. +This sensitiveness renders washing the feet a refreshing +luxury, especially in hot climates or when +we are fatigued. It is a luxury much indulged in +by Eastern nations; “Mephibosheth had neither +dressed his feet nor trimmed his beard from the +day the king departed, until he came again in +peace;” and among the Jews in our Saviour’s +time (Luke vii. 38), when guests were made very +welcome, their sandals were unloosed, and their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span> +feet washed and carefully wiped, and, if the person +were of high rank, anointed.</p> + +<p>The integument of the foot varies in different +animals, according to the nature of the ground +upon which they tread and other circumstances. +Thus the Elephant, the Hippopotamus, and the +Rhinoceros, living in jungles and in marshy districts, +have a more or less soft covering of skin. +Oxen and Horses gallop about upon dry ground; +and their feet are soled with thick hoofs of horn. +The Dog has tough pads of skin with thick cuticle +upon his feet; and the feet of the Feline tribe +are muffled with fur so as to enable them to approach +their prey with a noiseless tread. Man’s +foot is, by nature, like the rest of the surface +of his body, comparatively unprotected; but as +the foot, by its efficiency, emancipates the hand +from the drudgery of carrying, so does the latter +make some return for this relief by providing +artificial coverings which enable the foot to tread +upon various surfaces, and protect it against the +inclemencies of the seasons.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span></p> + + +<h3><i>On Shoes.</i></h3> + +<p>A few words on the subject of <span class="smcap">Shoes</span>. No one +will dispute the correctness of the principle that +the shoe should be made to fit the foot; yet it is +not a little remarkable that this principle is so +often departed from in practice, and that the usual +plan is to make the foot adapt itself to the shoe. +That is, the shape of the shoe is determined according +to the fancy of the maker or the dictates +of fashion, and the foot is expected to mould itself +accordingly. This is particularly the case with the +fore part of the shoe, into which the toes, or most +compliant parts of the foot, are squeezed. Thus, +the shape of the sole of a sound foot is about that +represented in fig. 47; the great toe is seen to be +free from the others, and the line of its axis, prolonged +backwards, traverses the centre of the heel. +Compare this with the outline of the sole of a shoe +as usually made; and the violence that is done to +nature is at once perceived. The shoe is made +quite symmetrical, or is curved a little in the part +between the heel and the sole—in the “waist” as +it is called—when the shoes are to be worn on the +left and right foot respectively; and the toes, instead +of being allowed to spread out a little, are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span> +pressed together, and made to converge to a point +in the line of the middle toe, as seen in fig. 48.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<div class="table"> +<div class="row"> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe8_4375" id="f47"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f47.jpg" alt="Normal alignment of toes"> + <figcaption>Figs. <a href="#fignote_47">47</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe6_625" id="f48"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f48.jpg" alt="Unsatisfactory symmetrical shoe style"> + <figcaption><a href="#fignote_48">48</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe7_375" id="f49"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f49.jpg" alt="Misaligned toes from poor-fitting shoes"> + <figcaption><a href="#fignote_49">49</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe5_8125" id="f50"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f50.jpg" alt="Misaligned foot bones"> + <figcaption><a href="#fignote_50">50</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The line of the great toe is thus quite altered, +and the other toes are tightly wedged together +(figs. 49 and 50); or, not being able to find room +side by side, they overlap one another and form +unsightly projections beneath the upper leather of +the shoe. No wonder that “corns” and “bunions” +and “in-growing toe-nails” are the frequent result +of this treatment, and that so many persons are +compelled to walk in a cautious, feeling manner, +and to watch the ground narrowly, lest their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> +cramped and tender toes come into contact with +a stone or other projecting body.</p> + +<p>How greatly to be lamented it is that the foot +should be thus maltreated and distorted, and that +walking should be made so painful, and that the +shoe, which is intended to befriend and protect +the foot, and which, if well fitted, would support +it and preserve its shape, and make some amends +to it for the rough hard roads upon which it is +compelled to tread, should be thus perverted into +a means of galling it and impairing its functions.</p> + +<p>This subject has been treated of in a simple +and concise manner by Dr Meyer, Professor of Anatomy +at Zurich, in a small pamphlet, which has +been translated into English by Mr Craig, and entitled, +“<i>Why the Shoe pinches</i><a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a>.” I hope it may be +read by boot-makers, and may lead to some improvement +in their art. Dr Meyer very properly +remarks that one of the main points to be attended +to is, to allow the great toe to have its normal position; +and this can be done by making the inner +edge of the sole incline <i>in</i>wards, from the balls of +the toes, instead of <i>out</i>wards. The accompanying<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> +drawing (fig. 51) gives the outline of a shoe designed +under his superintendence, and shows the +difference between it and the usual shape, the latter +being indicated by the dotted outline. In fig. 52 +the shoe is pointed, the pointing being effected +from the outer side. I have often laboured, but +laboured in vain, to impress the same point, and +hope the more systematic attempt of Professor +Meyer may lead to better results.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<div class="table"> +<div class="row"> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe8_625" id="f51"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f51.jpg" alt="Faulty and corrected shoe style "> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_51">51</a>. </figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe8_25" id="f52"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f52.jpg" alt="Faulty tapered shoe toe"> + <figcaption> Fig. <a href="#fignote_52">52</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>With regard to the <i>heel-piece</i>, I have already +said that it should not be high because it makes +the step less steady and secure, and at the same +time shortens it, and impairs the action of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> +calf-muscle. A high heel-piece, moreover, renders +the position of the foot upon the ground oblique, +placing the fore part at a lower level than the +heel; thus the weight is thrown too much in +the direction of the toes, and they are driven forwards +and cramped against the upper leather of +the shoe. The high-heel of a boot, therefore, tends +to aggravate the evils which are caused by the insufficient +and ill-adjusted space which is allowed +to the toes.</p> + +<p class="mt2em">This account of the foot has necessarily been +very superficial and imperfect. There are many +points in its anatomy to which I have not even +alluded; but, if I have succeeded in giving you +some idea of the general plan of its construction, +and in stimulating you to further enquiry respecting +the mechanism of the Human Frame, my purpose +will have been served. Still more will it +have been so, if you carry away with you some +sense both of the Pride and of the Humility which +the review of such a structure is calculated to excite—of +pride, not selfish pride, but pride resulting +from a consciousness of the nobility of your +physical nature, a pride which will make you spurn +what is bad and degrading, and will help you to +aspire to what is elevated and good. The impressions +resulting from a comparison of this one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span> +fragment of Nature’s work with our own most +laboured achievements must quell any other pride; +and the very admiration with which we contemplate +the structure of our body impels us to walk +humbly with our God, whose gift that body is.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_HUMAN_HAND">THE HUMAN HAND.</h2> +</div> + + +<p class="dropcap">THE great characteristic of the Hand, as distinguished +from the Foot, is the mobility of the +first digit, or thumb. Accordingly when this digit +stands out apart from the others, and can be +moved independently of them, so as to be more or +less completely opposed to them, in the upper or +Mammalian Class of animals, at least, we call the +member a Hand. When this digit is absent, or is +fixed in the same manner as the others, which is +the case in each of the four limbs of Quadrupeds, +we call the member a Foot. In Monkeys, or in +most of them, the thumb is present and is separate +and moveable in each of the four limbs; and these +animals are, therefore, called “quadrumanous” or +“four-handed.” Man, having the moveable thumb +upon each of the two upper limbs only, is “bimanous” +or “two-handed.” By this peculiarity, perhaps +more definitely than by any other, he is distinguished +in structure from all the rest of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span> +animal series; and naturalists have, accordingly, +given the epithet “Bimanous” to the class in +which he is placed, and in which he stands alone.</p> + +<p>The hand is the executive or essential part of +the upper limb. Without it the limb would be +almost useless. The whole limb is, therefore, so +made as to give play and strength to the hand; +and, in ever so brief a description of the hand, it +is necessary, even more than in the case of the +foot, to give some idea of the manner in which the +other parts of the limb are constructed, and to +dwell a little upon such points as have relation to +its movements.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe25" id="f53"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f53.jpg" alt="Skeleton of arm and hand"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_53">53</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The general plan of construction of the upper +limb will readily be understood by means of the +drawings (figs. 53 and <a href="#f58">58</a>, p. 122). It resembles<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span> +very much that of the lower limb (see fig. <a href="#f04">4</a>, page +15). The one bone of the upper arm—the <i>humerus</i>—resembles +the one bone of the thigh, and is +jointed, above, with the shoulder-blade, which, with +the collar-bone, corresponds with the pelvis. Below, +it is connected with the two bones of the fore-arm—the +<i>radius</i> and <i>ulna</i>; and these correspond +with the two bones of the leg. In the wrist there +are eight bones, called <i>carpal</i> bones, arranged in +two rows. These are connected with five <i>metacarpal</i> +bones; and these, like the metatarsals of the +foot, are jointed with the <i>phalanges</i>. Of the latter +there are three in each finger; but in the thumb, +as in the great toe (page <a href="#Page_10">10</a>), there are only two.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowe10_125" id="f54"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f54.jpg" alt="Diagrammatic drawing of hand bones"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_54">54</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The diagram shows how the bones of the hand +are arranged in three divisions. Thus, the upper +row of carpal bones (3, 4, 5) consists, practically, +of three bones; the fourth (6), which is much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> +smaller than the others, being rather an appendage +to one of them than a distinct constituent of +the wrist. (According to this view, the number of +the wrist-bones corresponds exactly with that of +the tarsal bones of the foot, viz. 7). The <i>outer</i> of +these three carpal bones (3) bears the thumb<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> and +the fore-finger (<span class="lowercase smcap">I.</span> and <span class="lowercase smcap">II.</span>), and constitutes, with +them, the outer division of the hand; the inner +one (5) bears the ring-finger and the little finger +(<span class="lowercase smcap">IV.</span> and <span class="lowercase smcap">V.</span>), and constitutes the <i>inner</i> division of +the hand; and the middle one (4) bears the middle +finger (<span class="lowercase smcap">III.</span>), and is the <i>middle</i> division of the +hand. The diagram shows, too, that the two outer +bones (3 and 4), with the two outer divisions of +the hand, are connected with the radius; whereas +the inner bone (5) only, with the inner division of +the hand, is connected with the ulna. Strictly +speaking, even this bone is not directly connected +with the ulna, but is separated from it, as will be +shown presently, by a thick ligament.</p> + +<p>You frequently hear ignorant persons (and the +greater number of persons are lamentably ignorant +of the structure of their own body) speaking of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span> +<i>small bones</i> of the shoulder, or the <i>small bones</i> of +the elbow. You may think this a matter of no +importance, and that it does not concern you and +people generally to have any knowledge of human +anatomy. But I will tell you what is very often +happening, and will leave you to judge whether +such complete ignorance on this subject is not attended +with some practical disadvantage. A man +meets with an injury, falls and hurts his shoulder. +The immediate effects of the injury subside; but +he does not quickly recover the use of the part; +he still cannot raise his elbow, or put his hand +upon his head, or put it behind him. Soon he begins +to think that something more is wrong than +has been suspected; and the notion creeps over his +mind, and gradually takes possession of it, that +some small bone is displaced. Not content with +the assurances of his medical man, he resorts to a +quack, called a “bone-setter.” The latter, taking +advantage of the popular fallacy, gratifies the patient +with the information that his fears are correct, +affirms that “a small bone is out,” and proceeds +forthwith to employ the requisite forcible +measures for putting the said “small bone” in. I +need not say with what result. Every year, in +this civilized country, many persons are maimed +for life by these attempts to put imaginary small +bones in. I beg you, therefore, particularly to observe<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span> +that <i>there is no small bone</i> either at the +shoulder or at the elbow. The only small bones +are at the wrist; and these are so well fitted to +one another, and so firmly bound together, that +nothing short of a crushing force suffices to displace +them. This remark respecting the small +bones of the wrist is true of nearly all the small +bones in other parts of the body. So that, in fact, +small bones are very rarely dislocated; and when +you hear it asserted that a small bone is out, you +may pretty confidently conclude that the speaker +does not know what he is talking about.</p> + +<p>I have said that the upper limbs resemble the +lower in their general construction. There are, +however, some important differences; and one +of the chief of these is the greater variety and +freedom of the movements in the upper limbs. +<i>Strength</i>, for the purpose of carrying the body, is +the object in the lower limbs. <i>Mobility</i> is the +requisite in the upper limbs. Of this one example +has already been given in the instance of the +thumb as compared with the great toe.</p> + + +<h3><i>Movements at the Shoulder.</i></h3> + +<p>An equally striking example is afforded by the +shoulder. In the first place, the “Shoulder-blade” +itself can be moved in several directions—upwards,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> +downwards, backwards and forwards;—whereas the +“Pelvis,” i. e. the part which bears to the lower +limb the same relation that the shoulder-blade +does to the upper-limb, is immoveably fixed.</p> + +<p>Secondly, the “Shoulder-joint” is so made as +to permit a great variety and extensive range of +movements to take place. We can move the arm +forwards or backwards, as in throwing a ball, or, +in sword exercise; we can raise it so that the limb +points straight upwards; and we can swing it +round in any direction. It is owing to the free +movement in this joint that we are able to apply +the hand to every part of the body, so as to remove +sources of irritation. It is interesting to +observe how other animals get on without hands, +though they are much exposed to what we should +consider great annoyance, as from flies, &c. The +Cow, for instance, lashes its hide with its tail. +The Cat licks itself with its tongue. The Sparrow +dusts itself by the road-side. The Pig and the +Donkey roll in the mud. And many of them, as +the Horse and the Ox, have a thin muscle, called +“panniculus carnosus,” spread out under the skin, +which effects those sudden twitchings of the skin +whereby they are enabled to jerk off anything +that troubles them. In Man the hand answers +better than all these methods combined; and it is +necessary that it should do so, because his skin is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span> +more sensitive and less protected by natural covering +than that of any other animal.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowe10_9375" id="f55" style="width: 200px"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f55.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_55">55</a>.<br>Chest and shoulders of man.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>For this freedom of movement of the arms, +so important to the usefulness of the hand, we +are much indebted to the “Collar-bones.” These +bones, so called because they are placed at the +lower part of the <i>collum</i> or neck, extend, horizontally, +from the upper edge of the breast-bone, +to the processes of the blade-bones which overhang +the shoulder-joint. Thus they hold the +shoulders apart, and give width to the upper part +of the chest. They also steady the shoulder-blades, +and afford a <i>point d’appui</i> to the muscles which +effect the lateral movements of the arms,—for +instance, to the muscles which tend to draw the +arms together, as when we hold anything, between +the hands, in front of us; and to those which +separate the arms from one another, as when we +stretch them out at right angles with the body.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span></p> + +<figure class="figleft illowe10" id="f56"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f56.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption >Fig. <a href="#fignote_56">56</a>.<br>Chest and shoulders of bird.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Many animals—the <span class="smcap">Elephant</span>, the <span class="smcap">Rhinoceros</span>, +the <span class="smcap">Horse</span> and the <span class="smcap">Ox</span>—have no collar-bones; +and they are only able to swing their fore +limbs to and fro. They cannot execute any lateral +movements. They cannot throw the limbs +out sideways, nor press their fore feet together, +so as to hold anything between them. If the +horse wants to seize or hold any substance he +must do it with his mouth. The Elephant has +a special provision for the purpose of prehension +in his trunk, which enables him to provide himself +with food by pulling down the branches of +trees. The <span class="smcap">Lion</span> and the <span class="smcap">Tiger</span> can press their +fore paws together sufficiently to enable them to +hold their prey, and fix it upon the ground, while +they put the head down to it and pull at it and +tear it with their teeth; and they are furnished +with rudimentary, or half, collar-bones suspended +in the flesh of the upper part of the chest; while +the little <span class="smcap">Squirrel</span>, which sits upon its hind legs, +and holds up the nuts between its fore paws to be +nibbled, has complete collar-bones. So has the +flying <span class="smcap">Bat</span>, the climbing <span class="smcap">Sloth</span> and the digging +<span class="smcap">Mole</span>. In <span class="smcap">Birds</span> the collar-bones (fig. 56, <span class="lowercase smcap">AA</span>) +are very large; and, for the purpose of giving +them greater strength, they are united together +in the middle line just above the breast-bone, +forming what is commonly called the “merry-thought;”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> +and, as this is not sufficiently strong +to resist the force of the powerful muscles which +flap the wings and sustain the animal in the air, +there are, in addition, stout “side-bones,” called by +anatomists “coracoid bones.” These (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>) run, from +the breast-bone (<span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>), in the same direction as the +collar-bones, one, on either side, to the shoulder-blades +(<span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>); and they afford even more efficient +support to the shoulders than do the collar-bones. +The coracoid bones are peculiar to oviparous +animals, or nearly so. In some reptiles, as the +<span class="smcap">Crocodile</span>, they quite supersede the collar-bones.</p> + +<p>These few examples are enough to show that +freedom of movement of the arms, especially of +lateral movement, is closely associated with, and, +indeed, is dependent upon the shoulder-blades<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> +being supported and steadied by bones, which extend +from the breast-bone to the shoulder-blades, +and fasten the one to the other.</p> + +<p>But, even the powers and advantages conferred +by nature have often some drawbacks; and +this free play of the arm at the shoulder in man, +of which we are speaking, and the provision for it +afforded by the collar-bone, are no exceptions to +the remark. It is necessary for so great a range +of movement that the socket in the shoulder-blade +should be shallow, and that the ligaments which +connect the arm-bone with the blade-bone should +be loose. Hence the shoulder-joint is weak as +regards its ability to resist injury. The collar-bone +also causes the shoulder to project so much +that it is greatly exposed to injury and often +bears the brunt of a fall. A man is thrown from +a horse or is knocked down upon the ground, and, +if anything prevents the hand being stretched out, +the chances are that he falls upon the shoulder. +True, the head is saved thereby; but the shoulder +suffers. Hence the shoulder-joint is more often +dislocated than any other; and no bone is more +frequently broken than the collar-bone. Even in +little children, in whom, notwithstanding their +many tumbles, the other bones usually contrive to +escape, the collar-bones are often broken; and +in grown-up persons the shoulder is sometimes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span> +dislocated by the mere action of the muscles, as +in swimming, or throwing, or lifting a weight +above the head.</p> + +<p>That you may understand the movements of +the shoulder a little more fully, I will ask you to +contrast the drawing (fig. <a href="#f58">58</a>), which shows the +position of the blade-bone upon the chest in Man, +with the drawing (fig. 57) of the corresponding +parts of the Rhinoceros; and you will at once +recognise several important differences, besides +the presence of the collar-bone in the one and +its absence in the other.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe30" id="f57"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f57.jpg" alt="Rhinoceros skull, neck and shoulder girdle"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_57">57</a>. Rhinoceros.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In the <span class="smcap">Rhinoceros</span> the chest is deep, from +the back-bone to the breast-bone, and is flattened +at the sides; and the depth of this part of the +trunk is increased, slightly, by the breast-bone +projecting, keel-like, underne1ath, and, much more,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span> +by the spines of the back-bone running up into +a high ridge, above. The blade-bone and the +arm-bone are applied against the flat side of the +chest, and lie, lengthways, between the spine and +the breast-bone, nearly parallel with the broad +flat ribs. The blade-bone has no process overhanging +the shoulder-joint, and, as before said, +there is no collar-bone. The short thick arm-bone +descends nearly in a line with the blade-bone, +and has huge processes at its upper end +for the attachment of muscles. The parts are +designed to bear the great weight of the animal, +and to carry its ponderous head and horn; but +the only movement of which they admit is a +sliding of the blade-bone and arm-bone, backwards +and forwards, upon the side of the chest.</p> + +<p>In animals of similar construction to the Rhinoceros, +but of lighter frame, and of greater fleetness, +the blade-bone is placed more obliquely, +which gives freer and easier movement both to it +and to the arm-bone. This, for instance, is the +case with the well-bred horse, and if we want a +quick-going horse, one that can lift his fore feet +well, we should observe whether the shoulder-blade +is oblique, and whether the spines of the back +rise well above it. Such a horse is said to have +“a good shoulder” and to be “well up.” He will +carry a saddle well, and is not likely to trip.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span></p> + +<figure class="figright illowe11_25" id="f58"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f58.jpg" alt="Side view of human shoulder, arm and chest"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_58">58</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">Man</span> the chest has proportionately less +depth and length, and greater breadth, than in +any other animal; the breast-bone is quite flat; +and the spines of the back are sloped downwards, +so that they do not project beyond the level of +the ribs and the blade-bones. Hence he can lie +easily either upon the stomach or the back—a +privilege which is shared with him by very few of +the lower animals. Scarcely any of them can lie +upon the back, or even upon the stomach without +the help of the fore limbs. The donkey enjoys +rolling over and over upon a dusty road, +but he cannot poise himself for a minute upon +his back.</p> + +<p>The sides of Man’s chest, moreover, are not +<i>flat</i>, as in the Rhinoceros and Horse, but <i>rounded</i>, +so that the blade-bones can revolve upon them +to and fro, as well as slide upwards and downwards;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span> +and the long arms—comparatively long, +that is, from the shoulder to the elbow—hang +quite free of the chest and form sharp angles with +the blade-bones.</p> + +<p>The blade-bones are accommodated to the +shape of the chest; for, instead of being elongated +in a direction parallel with the ribs, they +are prolonged downwards, along the sides of the +chest, at right angles with the ribs. This prolongation +of the lower part of the blade-bone is +very important, inasmuch as it enables the muscles +to hold the bone steady upon the wall of the +chest, and so gives greater power to those muscles +which pass from the blade-bone to the arm and +act upon the shoulder-joint. Were it not for this +provision the contraction of the muscles intended +to raise the arm would quite fail to produce the +desired effect, and instead of it would simply cause +the shoulder-blade to revolve upon a transverse +axis. That is to say, when we endeavoured to +raise the arm our effort would merely have the +effect of raising the hinder part of the shoulder-blade.</p> + +<p>In each of these particulars—in the form of +the chest, and in the shape and direction of the +shoulder-blade—the Monkey is intermediate between +Man and the inferior animals. The Monkey’s +chest is broad and round, in proportion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> +to its length, if we compare it with other animals; +but this is less marked than in the human chest. +And you perceive that the Monkey’s back-bones +project, as they do in other animals, beyond the +level of the ribs. The blade-bones are also like +those of Man in being prolonged downwards, and +in being carried, to a certain extent, across the +ribs; but their lower angles do not run so far +in this direction as they do in the human skeleton.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe20" id="f59"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f59.jpg" alt="Side view of monkey shoulder, arm and chest"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_59">59</a>. Monkey.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The movement of raising the arm, as in carrying +the hand <i>outwards</i>, or pointing upwards, or +putting the hand upon the head, is rather a +difficult one, and requires the combined action of +many muscles. It is, therefore, to be avoided by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> +persons to whom muscular straining is likely to +be injurious; and the power of effecting this movement +is easily impaired by accident or disease. +A long time often elapses even after a slight +bruise of the shoulder, before the person recovers +the power of putting the hand upon the head.</p> + +<p>The exercise of raising the arms above the +head is a good one for those in health, and is +much, and wisely, recommended by the directors +of gymnastics. It brings many muscles into play, +not only those of the shoulder, but the muscles +all round about the chest, viz. those which pass +from the spine and ribs, as well as from the breast-bone, +head, and pelvis, to the shoulder-blade and +arm; and, thus, it tends to strengthen the spine +and the chest, as well as the shoulders and arms. +There is, perhaps, no exercise so good as this; and +it is much to be regretted that the dress of young +ladies, with its paraphernalia of stays and shoulder-straps, +interferes so greatly with it. The frequency +among them of “pigeon-breast” and “crooked +spine” must, partly, be attributed to the confinement +of the arms, caused by the mode of dress and the +customs of life. One of the few opportunities afforded +to the arms of availing themselves of this +exercise is in the dressing-room during the process +of brushing the hair. I would by all means, therefore, +recommend young ladies to give sufficient<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> +time and attention to this part of the toilette, and +not to delegate it to the lady’s maid. If, in addition, +I suggest that it be commonly done with +open window, I feel sure that I shall have a deservedly +great authority among them—Miss Nightingale—on +my side.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe7_75" id="f60"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f60.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_60">60</a>.<br>Elbow-joint.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The movement at the <span class="smcap">Elbow</span> is, merely, that +of bending and straightening, in a hinge-like manner; +yet there is a slight obliquity in the direction +in which it takes place, an obliquity resembling +that in the movement at the knee (page <a href="#Page_39">39</a>).</p> + + +<h3><i>Pronation and Supination of the Hand.</i></h3> + +<p>In the <span class="smcap">Forearm</span> and <span class="smcap">Hand</span> there is a movement +with which we have nothing exactly corresponding +in the leg. It is called “Pronation and +Supination.” In <i>pronation</i> we turn the palm +<i>down</i>wards, as in picking up any substance from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span> +a table; in <i>supination</i> we turn the palm <i>up</i>wards, +as a boy does when he holds out his hand for a +caning, or for the more agreeable purpose of having +a shilling put into it.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pronation</span> and <span class="smcap">Supination</span> take place in the +following manner. Each of the two bones of the +forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist (fig. <a href="#f53">53</a>); + but one of them—the “ulna”—is chiefly connected +with the elbow; and the other—the “radius”—is +chiefly connected with the wrist, and, by +means of the wrist, with the hand. The two bones +are separate from one another, except at their +ends. There they touch, and are jointed together +in such a manner that the large lower end of the +radius can play round, or partly round, the small, +button-like, lower end of the ulna; and, in so +doing, it carries the hand with it. In this movement +the upper end of the radius (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, fig. <a href="#f60">60</a>) does +not leave its place, but simply revolves, upon its +own axis, on the surface of the arm-bone; and its +edge turns in a notch cut for it in the upper end +of the ulna (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>), which remains still.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<div class="table"> +<div class="row"> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe100" id="f61" style="max-width: 8.4375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f61.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_61">61</a>.<br>Hand supine.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe100" id="f62" style="max-width: 8.4375em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f62.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_62">62</a>.<br>Hand prone.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>In the drawings (figs. 61 and 62) the relation +of the parts in the supine and in the prone state +is shown by the aid of a plumb-line falling from +the part of the arm-bone upon which the upper +end of the radius revolves. The line traverses the +upper end of the radius, then passes along the interval<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span> +between the two bones, then traverses the +lower end of the ulna, and, finally, takes the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span> +course of the ring finger. And, provided the limb +be held vertically, the line traverses the same +parts whatever be the position of the forearm and +hand. It does so in complete supination, as shown +in fig. 61; it does so in complete pronation, as +shown in fig. 62; and it does so in every intermediate +position. We may call it, therefore, the axis +upon which the radius and the hand turn in pronation +and supination; and, according to this representation, +the ring finger remains stationary during +the movement, while the other fingers and the +thumb perform their partial revolutions around it.</p> + +<p>I have said there is no movement in the lower +limb exactly like the pronation and supination of +the forearm and hand. We have, it is true, a +power of moving the leg upon the thigh in a +somewhat similar manner; but this can only be +done when the knee is bent. For instance, when +sitting in a chair with the foot upon a fender, or +with the toes upon the ground, we can make the +foot revolve so as to turn the heel in or out. A +little careful observation, however, will prove that +this movement takes place, altogether, at the knee, +and that <i>both</i> bones of the leg participate equally in +it, the <i>whole</i> leg revolving with the foot. Whereas, +in the case of the forearm, the movement takes +place, partly, at the wrist, and, partly, at the elbow; +and <i>one</i> bone (the ulna) remains <i>still</i> while<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> +the lower end of the other bone (the radius) revolves +around it. Moreover, the pronation and +supination of the hand and forearm are much more +free than these movements of the foot and leg; +and they take place with equal facility and freedom +in any position of the limb. We can turn the +palm up or down as easily when the elbow is +straight as when it is bent.</p> + +<p>The movement of which I am speaking is so +important to the usefulness of the hand, that I +will call your attention to three of the muscles by +which it is effected.</p> + +<p>And, let me remark, by the way, that all the +movements in the solid parts of the body—probably +all without exception, even the slight wrinklings +of the skin that take place when it is exposed +to cold—are the result of muscular action. +Muscles are bundles of fibres which have usually a +red colour and constitute what is commonly called +the “flesh” or “lean meat” of animals. They are +endued with the power of contracting or shortening +themselves; and it is this property which +gives rise to the various movements of animal +bodies. At their ends muscles often dwindle into +“tendons” or “sinews” which, though occupying +much less space, and having no contractile power, +are very strong, and serve to connect the muscles +with the bones.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span></p> + +<p>One of the three muscles just mentioned (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, +fig. <a href="#f61">61</a>) passes from a projecting process on the inner +side of the arm-bone, at its lower end, to the +outer edge of the middle of the radius. Its contraction +causes the radius to roll over, or in front +of, the ulna. It thus pronates the hand, and is +called a “<i>Pronator</i>” muscle. Another muscle (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, +fig. <a href="#f62">62</a>) passes, from a projecting process on the +outer side of the arm-bone, to the inner edge of +the radius near its upper part. It runs, therefore, +in an opposite direction to the former muscle and +produces an opposite effect, rolling the radius and +the hand back into the position of supination. +Hence it is called a “<i>Supinator</i>” muscle.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe29_75" id="f63"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f63.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_63">63</a>. The Biceps Muscle.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The third is a very powerful muscle. It is +called the “<i>Biceps</i>” muscle (fig. 63), because it has +<i>two</i> points of attachment to the shoulder-blade. +It descends along the front of the arm, and, bulging +there, forms a conspicuous feature, to which +athletic persons are proud to point in evidence of +their muscular development. Its tendon crosses +over the front of the elbow, and is inserted into +the hinder edge of a stout tubercle which is seen +on the inner side of the radius near its upper end. +The chief effect of this muscle is to bend the +elbow; but it also rotates the radius so as to supinate +the hand; and it gives great power to that +movement. When we turn a screw, or drive a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span> +gimlet, or draw a cork, we always employ the <i>supinating</i> +movement of the hand for the purpose; +and all screws, gimlets, and implements of the like +kind, are made to turn in a manner suited to that +movement of the right hand, because mechanicians +have observed that we have more power to supinate +the hand than to pronate it, though they are, +probably, not aware that the preponderating influence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span> +of the <i>biceps</i> muscle is the cause of the difference.</p> + +<p>The movement of which I am speaking is +performed to its full extent only by Man. +Monkeys cannot completely supinate the hand; +and in most of the lower animals the part +corresponding with the hand remains nearly, +or quite, fixed in a state of pronation. Even in +Man, complete supination is rather a constrained +and awkward position. It is not a position which +is habitual or natural to us. When we see any +one sitting or walking with the palms turned forward +it strikes us as strange, and the idea is suggested +to us that the individual must be strange +too, that, possibly, his head may be a little turned +as well as his hands. In a state of ease the hand +is naturally more or less prone; so that when it is +desired to place the forearm or hand at rest, as in +case of disease or injury, the prone position is +usually selected. If the forearm be broken, for instance, +the surgeon sets the fracture and fixes the +limb with the hand prone or semiprone. This is, +also, the position of greatest strength, as well as of +most ease. Hence, in striking a blow, or carrying +a weight, or making any strong muscular effort, +the palm is always kept more or less inturned.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span></p> + + +<h3><i>The Wrist.</i></h3> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe20_625" id="f64"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f64.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_64">64</a>. Wrist-joints.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>This drawing (fig. 64) represents what is seen +when a section has been made, from side to side, +through the wrist and lower part of the forearm. +It gives an idea of the mode in which the several +bones of the wrist are adapted to one another and +held together by ligaments. The upper three +wrist-bones (<span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">E</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>) are joined together, so as to +present a convex surface, which is received into a +wide cup, or socket, formed by the end of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span> +radius (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>) and a ligament passing from the radius +to the ulna (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>); and, in pronation and supination, +the end of the radius, together with this ligament +and the wrist-bones, revolves upon the end of the +ulna.</p> + +<p>All the bones here represented are so well fitted +to one another, and so strongly bound together, +that, as I have before said, displacement very +rarely occurs among them. We sometimes <i>hear</i> of +a dislocation of the wrist, but very seldom <i>see</i> one. +The wrist is often bruised, or its ligaments strained, +by falls upon the hand; or, what very often happens, +especially after the middle period of life, the +bones of the forearm are broken a little above the +wrist.</p> + +<p>You might think that, in such an accident, the +radius only would suffer, inasmuch as it is especially +connected with the wrist-bones, and so receives +the force directly from the hand. But, if +you observe the line of contact of the radius and +ulna (running from <span class="lowercase smcap">F</span>), you will see that it is oblique, +and that its direction is such as to cause the +ulna to support the radius, and to receive some +of the force from it; and this disposition, which +makes the ulna share the duties of the radius, +makes it, also, share the dangers; hence, it is very +frequently involved with the radius in fracture of +the forearm.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span></p> + +<p>By the joints of the wrist we are enabled to +move the hand backwards and forwards, and also +slightly sideways.</p> + + +<h3><i>The Movements of the Hand.</i></h3> + +<p>I come now to speak more particularly of the +movements that take place in the Hand. I have +already said that the mobility of the thumb is the +chief characteristic of the hand as distinguished +from the foot. Another important distinction between +the hand and the foot is the greater length +and mobility of the fingers as compared with the +toes. The toes are short; and our power of moving +them is, under any circumstances, slight. They +constitute a small, and, comparatively, unimportant, +part of the foot. The fingers, on the contrary, +are long; they form a half, and, including +the thumb, the more important half, of the hand. +Without them the rest of the hand, indeed the +rest of the limb, would be comparatively useless. +Their movements are varied and free, and take +place with singular facility and rapidity. We can +bend them quite down upon the palm, and can +extend them beyond the straight line; we can +separate them from one another to a considerable +extent; and we can bring them together with some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span> +force, as a waiter does when he carries a number +of wine-glasses between his fingers; and persons +who have lost the thumb contrive to hold a pen, a +knife or fork, or other things, between the fingers.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowe8_875" id="f65"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f65.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_65">65</a>.<br>Muscles of forearm and hand.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Let me endeavour to give you an idea of some +of the muscles which are concerned in executing +these movements.</p> + +<p>The wrist and hand are bent forwards upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> +the forearm by means of three muscles (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>, +fig. 65). These all pass downwards from the inner +side of the lower end of the armbone. The outer +and inner ones (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span> and <span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>) are connected, by tendons, +with the wrist-bones; and the tendon of the middle +one (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>) runs over the wrist and becomes spread +out in the palm like a fan, so as to support the +skin of the palm and to protect the nerves and +blood-vessels, which lie beneath it, from injurious +pressure, when we grasp any substance firmly in +the hand. The fan-like expansion of this tendon +in the palm is called the “palmar fascia.” It is +very strong, and is connected, below, with the +ends of the metacarpal bones, and with the sheaths +of the fingers. The bundle of muscles near <span class="lowercase smcap">D</span> +forms what is called the “ball of the thumb,” +and serves to move the thumb in various directions.</p> + +<figure class="figleft illowe8_875" id="f66"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f66.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_66">66</a>.<br>Muscles and tendons of hand.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Beneath these three muscles which bend the +wrist and strengthen the palm lies another set of +muscles (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, fig. 66) which bend the thumb and +fingers. They pass from the bones of the forearm, +and end in long tendons or “leaders” +which run over the wrist and palm and along +the fingers and are firmly connected with the +last phalanges of the fingers. They lie close to +the bones in their whole course, and are held +in their places by sinewy cross bands and sheaths<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> +which are seen, both at the wrist and in the +fingers, in fig. 65.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe8_75" id="f67"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f67.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_67">67</a>.<br>Muscles and tendons on back of forearm and hand.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Fig. 67 represents the muscles on the back +of the forearm. The tendons pass from them, +and run, some to the wrist and extend, or bend +backwards, the wrist upon the forearm, some +to the thumb and extend the several joints of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span> +the thumb; and others run to the back of the +fingers. These leaders lie nearer to the skin +than do those on the palmar aspect; and most +of those which go to the thumb and fingers may +be distinguished through the skin. The short +muscles (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>) situated upon and between the +metacarpal bones pass from them to the sides<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span> +of the fingers; some of these serve to spread +the fingers out from one another, while others +have the effect of drawing them together. There +are several such small muscles on both surfaces +of the hand, but I must not detain you by a +description of them; and there are other little +muscles passing from the flexor tendons to the +phalanges, which have been called <i>fidicinales</i>, +from their assisting in performing the short +quick motions of the fingers, and from their +being, accordingly, called into action in playing +upon the violin and other musical instruments.</p> + + +<h3><i>Movements of the Thumb.</i></h3> + +<p>In its adaptation to the purposes of bearing +the weight and ministering to the locomotion +of the body the human foot excels that of any +other animal; and, unquestionably, the human +hand is not less preeminently distinguished by +the nicety, the variety, and the freedom of its +movements. This is shown by the manner in +which it can be twisted about, by the exquisite +play of the fingers; and it is shown, above all, +by the mode in which the thumb can be moved +to and fro, can be opposed to the other fingers, +and to any part of them individually and collectively,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span> +and can be folded beneath them or +clasped upon them as occasion may require.</p> + +<p>The power which the thumb possesses, and +gives to the hand, is signified by its name—“pollex,”—derived +from the Latin word <i>pollere</i>, +which means to have power. Some have supposed +that the word “poltroon” is derived from +<i>pollice truncato</i>, and signifies one so cowardly +that he has submitted to have his thumb cut +off in order that he may be incapacitated for +fighting.</p> + +<p>The faculty which we possess of moving the +thumb in the way I have mentioned, athwart +the other fingers, and of touching any part of +the palmar surface of either of them depends, +partly, upon its being set, not quite in the +same plane with them, but, obliquely, so that +when it is moved towards the palm it faces or +opposes the other fingers; and, partly, upon the +nature of the joint between its metacarpal bone +and the bone of the wrist with which it is connected.</p> + +<p>This joint is so constructed as to admit of +three different movements. <i>First</i>, the thumb can +be moved forwards or backwards, that is, towards, +or, away from, the palm. <i>Secondly</i>, it can be +“adducted” or “abducted,” that is, approximated +to the forefinger or inclined away from it.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span> +<i>Thirdly</i>, it can be “circumducted,” that is, its +extremity can be made to describe a circle, as +in “twiddling the thumbs.” These several movements +are effected with great power and rapidity +by means of the bundle of muscles which forms +the “ball of the thumb” (fig. <a href="#f65">65</a>. <span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>), as well +as by the long muscles and tendons which descend, +from the forearm, to the thumb.</p> + + +<h3><i>Movements of the metacarpal bones of the +Fingers upon the Wrist.</i></h3> + +<p>The movements of the thumb, through the +medium of its metacarpal bone, upon the wrist +are much more free than those of any of the +other fingers. The middle finger, indeed, has its +metacarpal bone set upon the wrist so fixedly +as to admit of scarcely any such movement. The +forefinger can be thus moved a little; the ring +finger more and the little finger still more.</p> + +<p>You may easily prove this by taking the +knuckles or heads of the respective metacarpal +bones of one hand between the fingers and +thumb of the other hand, when you will find +that you can press the knuckle of the little +finger backwards and forwards in a very perceptible +manner. Then try the knuckle of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">144</span> +ring finger; the movement is distinct, though +not so free as in the case of the little finger. +The knuckle of the forefinger you will find to +be almost fixed; and in that of the middle finger +you will be unable to perceive any movement at +all.</p> + +<p>In fact the joints of the metacarpal bones of +the fingers with the wrist resemble those of the +outer four toes with the tarsus; and the drawings +of these joints of the foot (figs. <a href="#f22">22</a> to 25) +will serve sufficiently well to illustrate those of +the hand.</p> + +<p>These movements of the metacarpal, or knuckle, +bones upon the wrist enable us to increase or +diminish the hollow of the palm by bringing +its edges more or less forward. Thus, when we +make a cup of the hand we bring forward the +metacarpal bones of the thumb and the little +finger, wrinkling the skin of the palm; and +when we spread the hand open we carry those +bones backwards, rendering the skin of the palm +tense.</p> + +<p>These movements, moreover, enable us to +bring the little fingers and the thumb more easily +into contact.</p> + +<p>Have you ever wondered what advantage is +gained by the fingers and thumb all differing +from one another in length; or don’t you take<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span> +the trouble to reflect upon little matters of this +sort? If you have, I would ask you now to remark +that there is, in the several fingers, a relation +between their shortness, their position near +the edge of the hand, and the amount of mobility +of their metacarpal bones upon the wrist. Thus +the finger which is in the middle of the hand is +the longest, and its metacarpal is the most fixed. +The fore-finger is not quite so long; and its metacarpal +is rather less immovable. The ring-finger +comes next in shortness and in the mobility of +its metacarpal. Then the little finger; and the +thumb which is much shorter than any other has +also its metacarpal much more moveable.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowe13_75" id="f68"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f68.jpg" alt="Hand position holding a ball"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_68">68</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Observe, further, that, when the fingers and +thumb are separated from one another, and then +bent, the middle knuckle-bone remains stationary, +but the others are advanced a little forwards, each +to an extent proportionate to its mobility upon +the wrist, and to the shortness of the finger. The +fore-finger is, by this means, advanced a little, +the ring and the little fingers more, and the +thumb most of all. And the result is, that the +tips of the fingers and the thumb come all to a +level, and form, with the palm, a great hollow in +which we can grasp any substance, a cricket-ball, +for instance, and hold it very firmly. The length +of the several fingers and the thumb is, therefore,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">146</span> +just so regulated, in relation to their mobility +upon the wrist, as to give us this power.</p> + +<p>You may observe, also, that when the fingers +and the thumb are spread out the space between +the thumb and the fore-finger is considerably +greater than either of the spaces between the other +fingers. Then, by a slight movement, the thumb +takes up a position in front of, or opposite to, +the fingers; and in grasping any substance it +has to antagonise the pressure exerted by all +the fingers. Hence it needs to be much stronger +than they are, and to be wielded by more +numerous and more powerful muscles.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span></p> + +<p>The <span class="smcap">Middle Finger</span> is not only the longest +and the largest finger; it is also, to a certain +extent, the centre about which the others move. +Thus, when the fingers are bent down into the +palm, their tips all converge towards the middle +finger; and when they are spread out, they all +diverge from it. Its greater length and the +greater prominence of its knuckle, expose this +finger to injury more than any of the others; +which may account for the fact that Surgeons +are called upon to amputate the middle finger +more frequently than either of the other fingers +or the thumb.</p> + +<p>The <span class="smcap">Fore-finger</span> has the greatest range of independent +movement. Hence it is used to point +with, and is called the “Index” or “Indicator” +finger.</p> + + +<h3><i>Writing.</i></h3> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">Writing</span> the pen should be held between +the pulps of the fore and middle fingers and the +thumb, in contact with all three, and firmly lodged +between them. The down-stroke is made by bending +the phalanges of the fingers and the thumb +inwards and the metacarpal bone of the thumb +outwards; and the up-stroke is made by straightening +all the joints of the fingers and thumb.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span> +The hand rests lightly, not upon its whole +edge, but, upon the hindermost and foremost +parts of the edge, that is, upon the pisiform +bone of the wrist and upon the little finger near +the end, so that it can be moved easily along the +paper, and can be inclined, or rolled, a little to +either side. The obliquity of the stroke is not +imposed by mere arbitrary rule, but is in accordance +with the direction in which there is the freest +movement of the fingers and thumb when thus +holding the pen. Make the experiment for yourselves +of moving the pen in different directions, +and you will soon be satisfied that the writing-master +has nature on his side in insisting on a +particular movement as well as a particular mode +of holding the pen. Some persons make the +strokes vertical, or slope them the wrong way; +but in either case the writing is stiff and awkward; +it is not natural.</p> + +<p>The custom of writing from left to right may +also be regarded as correct or natural, inasmuch +as we can move the pen more freely upwards and +<i>out</i>wards than upwards and <i>in</i>wards. Hence the +light <i>up</i> or advancing stroke—that which connects +a letter with the one which follows it—is most +easily made <i>out</i>wards or to the right; and the letters +are, consequently, made to follow one another +in that direction. To understand this more clearly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span> +make a down-stroke upon paper in the usual +manner; you will then find that you can make +up-strokes from any part of it more easily to the +right than to the left; and if you make a series of +continuous up-and-down-strokes at a little distance +from one another, the up-stroke is, not +merely habitually, but naturally, made fine and +inclined to the right, whereas the down-stroke +is made heavier or thicker and is sloped to the +left. Moreover, you will perceive that the hand +slides along the paper more easily from left to +right than from right to left.</p> + +<p>It is worthy of remark that the writing of all +that great class of languages called Indo-European, +which includes Sanscrit, Greek, Latin, and many +others, with our own, is from left to right; whereas +nearly all the writing of another great class called +the Semitic, which includes the Hebrew and Arabic, +is in the opposite direction, viz. from right to +left. Some nations write in perpendicular columns, +the letters being placed under one another, of +which the Chinese affords an example. But either +of the two latter methods must be inferior to the +Indo-European style in ease of execution and expedition.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span></p> + + +<h3><i>Reason for the Ring being usually placed upon the +Fourth finger.</i></h3> + +<p>The <span class="smcap">Ring-finger</span> has less independent movement +than either of the others. It cannot be bent +or straightened much without being accompanied +by one or both of those next it. This is, partly, +because its extensor tendon is connected, by means +of a band of fibres, with the tendon on either side +of it. You may discern these connecting bands +working up and down under the skin of the back +of your hand when you move the fingers to and fro +(they are represented in fig. <a href="#f67">67</a>). The ring-finger +is, therefore, always, more or less, protected by the +other fingers; and it owes to this circumstance a +comparative immunity from injury, as well, probably, +as the privilege of being especially selected +to bear the ring in matrimony. The left hand is +chosen for a similar reason; a ring placed upon it +being less likely to be damaged than it would be +upon the right hand.</p> + +<p>Other reasons have been given for this preference. +It has been attributed to a notion among +the ancients that the ring-finger is connected with +the heart by means of some particular nerve or +vessel, which renders it a more favourable medium<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span> +than the other fingers for the reception and transmission +of sympathetic impressions; the left hand +being selected, in preference to the right, because +it lies rather nearer to the heart.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowe9_75" id="f69"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f69.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_69">69</a>.<br>Nerves of hand.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span></p> + +<p>Some slight foundation for such a notion might +be imagined to exist in the fact (supposing the ancients +to have been acquainted with it) that the +distribution of the nerves to the ring-finger is +rather peculiar. The peculiarity will be readily +understood by reference to the accompanying +drawing (fig. 69). Two chief nerves are seen descending, +in their course from the brain, along the +arm and forearm, to supply sensation to the palmar +surface of the hand. One (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>), the larger of the +two, passes in front of the middle of the wrist, and +divides into branches which are distributed to the +skin of the thumb, of the fore and middle fingers, +and of the <i>out</i>er side of the ring-finger. The other +nerve (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>) lies on the <i>in</i>ner side of the forearm and +wrist, and its branches go to the skin of the little +finger, and of the inner side of the ring-finger. +You see, therefore, that there is, in this finger, a +meeting of the branches of the two nerves; the +two sides of the finger being supplied by different +nerves. It would be a mistake, however, to suppose +that it gains any superiority in sensitiveness +or sympathetic relations by this arrangement; and +this distribution of the nerves certainly does not +offer so probable an explanation of the selection of +that finger for the honourable office of ring-bearer +as the one I have suggested.</p> + +<p>I must remark, here, that the nerve (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>), in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> +passing from the arm to the forearm, lies on the +inner side of the back of the elbow, and is popularly +known by the misnomer of the “funny-bone<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a>.” +It lies, pretty much out of harm’s way, in a well-protected +channel between two bones. Nevertheless, +it is now and then hurt; and you know that +when the “funny-bone” is struck, a peculiar pain, +or tingling, is experienced along the little finger +and the adjacent side of the ring-finger.</p> + +<p>The practice of wearing rings upon the hand is +a very ancient one. In some instances they were +badges of slavery. More generally they were marks +of high esteem or authority; as when “Pharaoh +took off his ring from his hand and put it upon +Joseph’s hand,” and when “Ahasuerus took off his +ring, which he had taken from Haman, and gave it +to Mordecai.” The Roman knights also wore rings +of gold. Sometimes rings were worn as charms +against diseases; a practice which has been revived +in our own day. They were placed upon any of +the fingers, and upon the right hand as well as +the left. Thus we read in Jeremiah, “though +Coniah the son of Jehoiakim king of Judah were +the signet upon my right hand.” The preference +of the left hand and of the ring-finger seems to be +comparatively modern, originating, probably, when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span> +the ring was made lighter and more fragile, and +was, at the same time, adorned with precious +stones, and when it became, therefore, desirable +to place it upon the part of the hand where it is +least exposed to injury.</p> + + +<h3><i>The Monkey’s Hand.</i></h3> + +<p>Most of you have spent some time in watching +the inmates of that interesting part of a zoological +collection, the <span class="smcap">Monkeys’</span> cage, and have observed +how nearly the hand of that animal resembles the +human hand, in the presence of a thumb, in the +variety and celerity of its movements, in the facility +with which it can catch and pick up objects +and hold them up to the mouth, and in some other +points. A little closer observation, however, will +show that there are some differences between the +two. The several parts do not bear the same relation +to one another in the Monkey’s hand which +they do in the human hand; neither have they quite +so great variety or range of movement. The hand +is altogether narrower, and straighter. The thumb +is shorter and less strong, scarcely reaching beyond +the knuckle of the fore-finger. The fingers, on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span> +contrary, are longer and of more uniform length; +they do not admit of being separated so widely +from each other in a fan-like manner; and the +metacarpal bones at the edges of the hand, i. e. +the metacarpal bones of the thumb and of the ring +and little fingers, have not the same amount of +play upon the wrist. Hence the thumb and the +fingers of the Monkey cannot be opposed to one +another so easily as in man; neither can they be +so advanced in front of the middle finger as to +form a hollow or cup, in the way I described when +speaking of the hollow of the palm and the different +lengths of the fingers in the Human hand. +When you throw a Monkey a nut he usually picks +it up and holds it between the thumb and the <i>side</i> +of the bent fore-finger, not between the tips of the +thumb and fingers. The length of the fingers +adapts the Monkey’s hand well for clasping firmly +the branches of trees, and assisting the animal to +climb about in its native forests, or to hold on to +the bars of its cage; and so the part answers the +requirements of the creature better than if these +qualities had been sacrificed to a greater regard +for variety and range of movement.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span></p> + + +<h3><i>The Hand the Organ of the Will.</i></h3> + +<p>The human hand is peculiarly an organ devoted +to the will, being more directly and completely +under its influence than is any other part +of the body. The <span class="smcap">Will</span>, remember, is that self-directing +faculty which can be said to exist, definitely +and decidedly, in Man alone, which is +associated in him with the responsibility attaching +to the selection between good and evil, and +which is given to him to fit him to be the reasonable +servant of his Maker, and upon which, therefore, +his dignity, and his capability for occupying +a position between the low animal and the +high spiritual world, so much depend. How appropriate +is it, then, that the will should have +a special organ assigned as its more peculiar +minister. It is to the complete subjection of +the hand to the will, no less than to the combination +of strength with variety and delicacy in +its movements, that Man is indebted for his dominion +over the rest of the animal world, and for +the ability to execute the wonderful works which +his genius designs.</p> + +<p>When we reflect how essential is the hand +to Man’s well-being, power, and progress, and upon +the infinite variety of purposes which it serves<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span> +in obedience to the will, we are not surprised that +the construction of the foot, indeed of every part +of the frame, should have reference to the object +of liberating the hand from the subordinate work +of locomotion to a degree which we find in no +other animal, and of leaving it free to execute +its higher offices in a ready and efficient manner.</p> + +<p>But, after all, notwithstanding the excellence +of its mechanism and its intimate relation to the +will, what would the hand be without the reflecting +and designing <span class="smcap">Mind</span>—the mind that can build +upon the past and prepare for the future, and so +carry on the ever-advancing work of human civilization +and progress. Without it Man would remain +stationary, like the other animals; and, as +age succeeded age, the hand would only suffice +to provide the necessary requirements of the body. +Nay, even this is saying too much; for without +the mind, without, at least, some higher instinctive +or reflective faculty than the other animals +possess, Man would, in reality, be inferior to them. +He would be absolutely unable to maintain his +existence, and would be a miserable victim to +the fineness of his organisation. His hand would +fail to supply him with food, or to defend him +against his numerous enemies, or to provide for +the protection of his delicate and sensitive frame +from the inclemency of the elements.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span></p> + +<p>The real excellence of the human hand—and +the remark applies equally to the whole human +body—consists, not in the admirable construction +of its several parts, nor in their well-adjusted +relation to one another, so much as in the adaptation +of the whole to the mind that presides over +it. This it is that renders Man the lord of the +creation, that enables him to subdue all his foes, +and gives him, in some measure, power over the +elements, so that land and water, fire and air, +are made to serve his purpose. By this harmonious +co-aptation of mind and body Man is rendered +cosmopolitan, being able to thrive in every +clime, from the regions of continual snow to those +burning equatorial plains where even reptiles +perish from the heat and drought, and being able +to convert the barren plain into a fertile field, +and to draw water out of the stony rock.</p> + +<p>At the late meeting of the British Association +at Oxford, a gentleman related that he had a +monkey which was very partial to oysters, and +was very fond of playing with a hammer; but +he never could be taught to use the hammer for +the purpose of breaking the oyster-shells to gratify +his appetite. How wide a gulf does the +absence of intelligence in this simple matter indicate +between ourselves and the animal that +approaches nearest to us!</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span></p> + + +<h3><i>The Hand an Organ of Expression.</i></h3> + +<p>Further, we cannot fail to recognise and admire +the adaptation of the hand to the mind at +all ages, and under various circumstances; in its +weakness and suppleness, and in its purposeless +and playful movements in infancy and childhood; +in its gradually increasing strength and steadiness +as the intellect ripens; in the stiffness and shakiness +of declining years; in the iron grasp of the +artizan; in the light delicate touch of the lady; +in the twirlings, fumblings, and contortions of the +idiot; in the stealthy movements of the thief; in +the tremulousness of the drunkard; in the open-handedness +of the liberal man; and in the close-fistedness +of the niggard.</p> + +<p>Thus the hand becomes an organ of expression +and an index of character. What would the +nervous young gentleman in a morning call give +to be quit of these tale-telling members; or what +would he do without a hat or a stick to employ +and amuse them? How effective an auxiliary to +the orator is the wave of the hand, or, even, the +movement of a finger. Some men, indeed, seem +to owe the efficiency of their declamations as +much to the hand as to the tongue. I have seen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span> +a practised orator (he was a man of the most complete +self-possession) quell an excited audience by +one determined movement of his hand. It happened +to me to hear two of the most celebrated +preachers of the day within a short period. In +each of them the movements of the hand were +remarkable, though very different. In one, the +free, impassioned, but natural, and, therefore, easy +action of the hand showed a deep and genuine +interest in the subject, and helped to waft the +fervid sentiments straight from his own heart to +the hearts of his audience. In the other, who was +a no less accomplished speaker, the constrained +and carefully regulated movements of the hands +were evidently the result of forethought and +study; they were intended to be impressive, but +were too obviously done for effect; and, therefore, +were far less effective as well as less pleasing.</p> + +<p>Our great and venerable orator, as well as high +authority on the art of speaking (Lord Brougham), +tells us that the subject of a speech should be +carefully studied, and the sequences well adjusted. +He says that, in the most effective passages, even +of practised speakers, the exact words are usually +selected beforehand; but he is silent respecting +the actions by which they should be accompanied. +These, at least, should be unpremeditated; and +they will best assist to convey to others the real<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span> +feelings and emotions when they are the simple +result of the natural working of the mind upon +the body.</p> + +<p>The kind of expression that lies in the hand, +being much dependent on the effect of the +muscles upon it, is very hard for the artist to +catch, though very important to the excellence +of the picture. Painters, usually, make the hand +a subject of careful study, but rarely succeed in +throwing the proper amount, either of animation +or of listlessness, into it. In portraits, especially, +the hands are a difficult part to treat satisfactorily; +yet the artist feels that they are too important +not to have a prominent place, and he, +commonly, imposes upon himself the task of representing +them both in full. I have seen them +drawn held up in front, like the paws of a +kangaroo, in an otherwise good picture. The +stereotyped position in portraits is that one hand +lies upon a table, though it, probably, evinces +an uneasiness there, while the other rests, perhaps +equally uneasily, upon the arm of a chair. +Vandyck, in whose paintings the hand usually +forms a prominent feature, is considered to have +peculiarly excelled in imparting to it a sentimental +air imbued with deep pathos.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span></p> + + +<h3><i>Shaking Hands.</i></h3> + +<p>How much do we learn of a man by his +“<span class="lowercase smcap">SHAKE-OF-HAND</span>.” Who would expect to get +a handsome donation, or a donation at all, from +one who puts out two fingers to be shaken and +keeps the others bent as upon an “itching palm”? +How different is the impression conveyed by the +hand which is coldly held out to be shaken and +slips away again as soon as decently may be, +and the hand which comes boldly and warmly +forward and unwillingly relinquishes its hearty +grasp? Sometimes one’s hand finds itself comfortably +enclosed, nursed, as it were, between both +hands of a friend, an elderly friend probably; or +it is shaken from side to side in a peculiar short +brisk manner. In either case we are instinctively +convinced that we have to do with a warm and +kindly heart. In a momentary squeeze of the +hand how much of the heart often oozes through +the fingers; and who that ever experienced it +has forgotten the feeling conveyed by the eloquent +pressure of the hand of a dying friend, +when the tongue has ceased to speak?</p> + +<p>Why do we shake hands? It is a very old-fashioned +way of indicating friendship. Jehu +said to Jehonadab, “Is thine heart right as my<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span> +heart is with thine heart? If it be, give me +thine hand.” It is not merely an old-fashioned +custom; it is a strictly <i>natural</i> one, and, as +usual in such cases, we may find a physiological +reason, if we will only take the pains to search +for it. The Animals cultivate friendship by the +sense of touch, as well as by the senses of smell, +hearing, and sight; and for this purpose they +employ the most sensitive parts of their bodies. +They rub their noses together, or they lick one +another with their tongues. Now, the hand is +a part of the human body in which the sense of +touch is highly developed; and, after the manner +of the animals, we not only like to see and +hear our friend (we do not usually smell him, +though Isaac, when his eyes were dim, resorted +to this sense as a means of recognition), we, +also, touch him, and promote the kindly feelings +by the contact and reciprocal pressure of the +sensitive hands.</p> + +<p>Observe, too, how this principle is illustrated +by another of our modes of greeting. When we +wish to determine whether a substance be perfectly +smooth and are not quite satisfied with +the information conveyed by the fingers, we +apply it to the <span class="lowercase smcap">LIPS</span> and rub it gently upon them. +We do so, because we know by experience that +the sense of touch is more acutely developed in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span> +the lips than in the hands. Accordingly, when +we wish to reciprocate the warmer feelings we +are not content with the contact of the hands, +and we bring the lips into the service. A <span class="lowercase smcap">SHAKE-OF-HANDS</span> +suffices for friendship, in undemonstrative +England at least; but a <span class="lowercase smcap">KISS</span> is the token +of a more tender affection.</p> + +<p>Possibly it occurs to you that the <span class="smcap">Tongue</span> is +more sensitive than either the hands or the lips. +You have observed that it will detect an inequality +of surface that escapes them both, and that minute, +indeed, is the flaw in a tooth which eludes its +searching touch. You are right. The sense of +touch is more exquisite in the tongue than in any +other part of the body; and to carry out my theory, +it may be suggested that the tongue should be +used for the purposes of which we are speaking. +It is so by some of the lower animals. But, in +man, this organ has work enough to do in the cultivation +and expression of friendship in its own +peculiar way; and there are obvious objections to +the employment of it in a more direct manner for +this purpose.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span></p> + + +<h3><i>The Skin of the Hand.</i></h3> + +<p>By the aid of the accompanying drawings you +will be able to form some idea of the structure of +the <span class="lowercase smcap">SKIN</span> of the hand.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowe21_875" id="f70"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f70.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_70">70</a>. Skin.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>One of them (fig. 70) represents a section of +the skin, made perpendicular to the surface, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span> +seen under the microscope. It is from the end of +the thumb, and includes three of those delicate +lines, or ridges that are found there.</p> + +<p>The superficial, or uppermost strata (<i>a</i> and <i>b</i>), +are the “Cuticle” or “false skin.” The outer layer +(<i>a</i>) is hard, horny, and dry. It is composed of +numerous fine scales laid upon one another, like +the tiles upon the roof of a house, but adhering +more closely together, so as to form one continuous +sheet extending all over the body. The outermost +of these scales are continually being shed, peeling +off as scurf, or being rubbed off; and fresh ones are +supplied by the next layer (<i>b</i>), which is a softer +material and lies immediately upon the surface of +the “cutis” or “true skin.”</p> + +<p>This softer layer (<i>b</i>) is often called the “<i>Rete +Mucosum</i>.” It is made up of minute bags or bladders, +named “cells” by anatomists, which grow +and propagate upon the exterior of the true skin, +being nourished by the blood in the skin. Those +which lie nearest the cutis are the youngest and +the softest. Gradually they are pushed outwards +by their successors or offspring; and, as they approach +the surface, they become flatter and drier +and more adherent to one another, and are finally +converted into the thin scales of the cuticle. Thus, +there is no real line of division between the cuticle +and the rete mucosum; but the cells of the latter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span> +are gradually transformed into the scales of the +former.</p> + +<p>The rete mucosum is thicker in the Negro than +in the white man, and contributes somewhat to the +softness of his skin. It contains also the colouring +matter in the form of minute black particles diffused +among its cells (fig. <a href="#f72">72</a>). These particles disappear, +more or less, as the cells become changed +into scales; hence the outer part of the cuticle of +the Negro is not so dark as the rete mucosum, +but, as it is transparent, or nearly so, it allows the +dark colour of the rete to show through it.</p> + +<p>Persons commonly speak of the cuticle as if it +were the whole thickness of the skin. Thus, when +a blister has drawn, they say the <i>skin</i> is raised; +whereas it is only the <i>cuticle</i>. This is forced off +from the skin by the fluid effused into its softer +layer—i. e. into the rete—in consequence of the +irritating influence of the blister.</p> + +<p>The cuticle has no nerves, and, therefore, no +feeling. It may be cut or torn without pain. The +snipping of a blister with the scissors is not felt, +because the cuticle only is touched. It forms a +covering to the whole surface of the body, and +is invaluable as a means of preventing too great +evaporation. Without it we should be dried up, +almost mummified, by the end of a summer’s day. +It also protects the delicate sensitive skin underneath.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span> +How sore is the knuckle when the cuticle +has been rubbed off! The cuticle has, moreover, +the accommodating property of becoming thickest +where it is most wanted, as on the sole of the foot, +and on the palms of the hands of blacksmiths, and +artizans, and persons who handle the oar. And if +any other part of the body be subjected to much +friction, for instance, the knees of housemaids, or +the shoulders of men who carry packs, the cuticle +soon becomes thickened there.</p> + +<p>Beneath the cuticle lies the “Cutis” or “True +Skin” (<i>c</i>, fig. <a href="#f70">70</a>, and <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>, fig. <a href="#f71">71</a>). It is a +tough structure consisting of interlacing fibrous +and fine muscular tissue, and contains the blood-vessels +and nerves. The cuticle may be pared off +without any bleeding; but directly the skin is +wounded the blood flows. The cutis does not present +an even surface next the cuticle, but shoots +out into a number of little finger-like processes, +called “Papillæ,” which project into the contiguous +soft stratum of the cuticle, and are embedded in +it. Thus the superficies of the skin is increased; +and as the blood-vessels and nerves of the cutis +are continued into the papillæ, they contribute +very greatly to the sensitiveness of the skin. They +are most numerous in parts where the sensitiveness +of the skin is greatest; for instance, they are +more numerous on the palmar, than on the dorsal,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span> +surface of the hand. Near the ends of the fingers +and thumb they are arranged in a linear manner,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span> +forming the delicate ridges that encircle the cones +of the pulps. Sections of these ridges are represented +in fig. <a href="#f70">70</a>.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<div class="table"> +<div class="row"> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe5_8125" id="f72"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f72.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_72">72</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe10_8125" id="f71"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f71.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_71">71</a>. Skin.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The superficial or papillary part of the cutis +is of finer and more delicate structure than the +deeper or fibrous layer, and is, therefore, sometimes +described as a separate layer. It is so represented +in the accompanying figure (71, <i>c</i>).</p> + +<p>As we are upon the subject of the cuticle and +the papillæ, I will take the opportunity to say a +word respecting two diseases of these structures, +in which most of you, probably, have a personal +interest. I mean “Warts” and “Corns.”</p> + +<div class="center"> +<div class="table"> +<div class="row"> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe100" id="f73" style="max-width: 20em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f73.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_73">73</a>. Corn.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +</div> +<div class="row"> +<div class="cell"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe100" id="f74" style="max-width: 20em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f74.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_74">74</a>. Wart.</figcaption> +</figure> +</div> +</div> +</div> +</div> + +<p>A <span class="smcap">Wart</span> (fig. 74) depends chiefly on a diseased +state of the papillary stratum of the skin. The +papillæ become coarse and grow up beyond the +level of the surrounding skin, so as to present an +uneven or “warty” surface. They carry a layer of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span> +cuticle before them. This layer is usually thin, so +that the wart bleeds easily when it is rubbed. +Sometimes, however, it is very thick and hard like +a piece of horn. We, now and then, hear of a horn +growing upon some part of the body, perhaps on +the forehead. Such a horn is, usually, nothing +more than a conical mass of cuticle formed upon +the surface of a large wart. Warts are generally +caused by something irritating the skin, as dirt or +soot rubbed into the cuticle. For this reason they +are more frequent upon the hands than upon other +parts of the body.</p> + +<p>In a <span class="smcap">Corn</span> (fig. 73), also, the papillæ are somewhat +enlarged; and this accounts in part for the +great tenderness of corns. But the primary and +essential feature of a corn is a thickened state of +the cuticle. This is caused by too great rapidity +in its formation, and is, usually, dependent upon +pressure, especially if the pressure be combined +with some friction. Hence corns are most commonly +found upon the foot, and upon the parts of +the foot, where the skin is subject to pressure and +rubbing against the shoe. The drawing shows the +appearance presented by a vertical section through +a corn and through a small portion of the skin on +either side. The accumulated layers of cuticle are +seen, and the enlarged papillæ shooting up into +them. I need scarcely add that it is owing to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span> +ignorance, or something worse, when corn-cutters +talk of curing the malady by taking out the +<i>roots</i>; for, corns, evidently, have no roots.</p> + +<p>One word of advice about corn-cutting. Most +persons have some experience in this art, and +some opportunity of practising it on themselves; +and many pride themselves on their skill in it. +The usual plan is to shave off layer after layer +from the whole surface of the corn; and this, by +lessening the projection of the corn, may give +relief for a few days, though it does not always +do that. Soon, however, the distress returns; +and the area of the corn increases after each +operation. Now, I would have you observe that +it is at the <i>middle</i> of the corn that the papillæ +are most enlarged; and it is here that the formation +of cuticle goes on most quickly, giving +rise to the little white cone or cones often seen +in a corn and sometimes wrongly called the roots. +The proper mode is to confine the cutting to this +part, and to remove as much of the thickened +cuticle as you can from this spot, digging, as it +were, a hole in the middle and leaving the circumference +intact. The circumference, which is +not usually tender, thus forms a wall round the excavated +centre and defends it from pressure; and +great relief is experienced. Further benefit will +be found from covering the corn with some soft<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span> +adhesive plaster; and you may sometimes, with +advantage, lightly apply common caustic before +putting on the plaster. If you follow these directions +carefully you may be your own chiropodists, +and almost defy your bootmakers.</p> + +<p>If, in cutting a corn, you go too deeply, you +will wound the tops of the papillæ and cause some +bleeding; this is not however usually followed +by any ill consequences.</p> + + +<h3><i>Nails.</i></h3> + +<p>Almost all vegetable as well as animal surfaces +are covered with some kind of cuticle. It +forms the smooth exterior of a leaf and the +rind of an apple; and the soft down of a moth +or a butterfly, the scales of fish, the feathers +and claws of birds, the quills of the porcupine, +the horns of oxen and the hoofs of the horse +are examples of modifications of cuticle. <span class="lowercase smcap">NAILS</span> +and <span class="lowercase smcap">HAIR</span> are also of this nature. They are both +continuous with the cuticle, and peel off with it +when it is, by any process, separated from the +skin. Both are formed, like the cuticle, of compressed +plates or scales matted together; and +these are continually being shed or rubbed off +on the one side, and supplied from the rete mucosum +on the other.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span></p> + +<p>The rete mucosum, it should be stated, extends +over the whole surface of the body. In +most situations, as already mentioned, it is the +medium from which the ordinary cuticle is produced; +but on the upper part of the ends of the +fingers and toes it is converted into nail, and in +the hair follicles, as I will presently describe, it +is transformed into hair.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowe15_375" id="f75-77"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f75-77.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Figs. 75, 76, 77.<br>Longitudinal sections of Nail.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The drawings will help you to understand the +relation of the nails to the cuticle and the cutis. +In the upper of the three (fig. 75) the nail with +the cuticle has been detached from the cutis, so +that the continuity of the two, at either end, +is shown. In the middle one (fig. 76) it is represented +lying in its bed in the cutis; its thin +hinder edge being received into a furrow made +for it in the cutis. The layer of rete mucosum +(<i>b</i>) extends behind and beneath it, between it (<i>d</i>)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span> +and the cutis (<i>c</i>), and continually adds fresh +material to the nail, just as, in other parts, it +adds to the substance of the cuticle. The cuticle, +or white line (<i>a</i>) is continuous with the nail at +the sides as well as at either end. The lower +figure (77) shows the bed of the cutis in which +the nail reposes, the nail as well as the adjacent +cuticle and the rete having been cleared away.</p> + +<p>Thus the addition from the rete—in other +words the growth of the nail—takes place at +the hinder edge and at the under surface. In +consequence of the addition from <i>behind</i> the nail +is increased in length and is pushed forward; +and as it advances forwards it receives accessions +from <i>beneath</i>, which increase its thickness and +strength. Unless they be cut, or worn down, +the nails grow to an indefinite length; and, +when they extend beyond the tips of the fingers, +their edges are bent in towards each other, and +they become curved like claws. This tendency to +a convex form is shown also if the nails be not +properly supported by the pulps of the fingers. +For instance, when persons become emaciated +the pulps of the fingers usually participate in +the general wasting and the nails become curved. +Hence this shape of the nails has been regarded +as an indication of consumption. You will understand, +however, from what I have said that it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span> +is not really a symptom of any one particular +disease. It simply indicates that, from some +cause or other, the nutrition of the body is not +properly maintained.</p> + +<p>The Dervishes in some parts of Asia allow the +thumb-nail to grow long, and then pare it to a +point, so as to be able to write with it. Dr Wolff, +the Eastern traveller, has told me that he has +repeatedly seen this done, and that he has in his +possession manuscripts written in this way.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowe22_5" id="f78"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f78.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_78">78</a>. <br>Transverse section of Nail Rete and Cutis.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Beneath the nail the cutis is disposed in a +series of parallel ridges (fig. 78) with intervening +furrows. These take the same direction as the +nail, and, indeed, give rise to the fine lines that +you see upon the surface of the nail. The rete +mucosum, or deep soft layer of the nail, extends +into the furrows between the ridges, just as the +soft stratum of the cuticle extends between the +papillæ of the cutis. It thus serves to keep the +nail steady in its place, while it permits a certain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span> +amount of movement, and allows the nail to slide +forwards upon the skin under the pressure caused +by the growth at its hinder edge.</p> + +<p>A little in front of the root of the nail the +ridges of the cutis suddenly become larger and +more vascular. This gives a pink hue to the nail +in the greater part of its extent; while the hinder +portion, separated from the front by a crescentic +line, is white, in consequence of the subjacent +cutis being there, more pale. You will, at once, +recognise the distinction between these parts by +looking at your own nails.</p> + +<p>The ridges and furrows serve, like the papillæ +in other parts of the skin, to increase the surface +of the cutis; and, by affording more space for the +distribution of the vessels and nerves, they contribute +to the sensitiveness of the part, and account +for the severe pain which is caused when +any foreign body is thrust under the nail. The +pulp in the interior of a tooth, and the frog of a +horse’s foot, are also instances in which an exquisitely +sensitive structure is placed beneath a hard +or horny substance. The object, in each case, is +the same, viz. to give the power of taking cognizance +of impressions which are made upon the +surface.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span></p> + + +<h3><i>Hairs.</i></h3> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Hairs</span> may also be regarded as modifications +of the cuticle, because, like the nails, they are continuous +with the cuticle, and are formed from +the rete mucosum. Each hair (figs. 79 and <a href="#f83">83</a>) is +received into a depression of the cutis, which is +called a “follicle,” and which is lined, as far as the +bottom, by cuticle (<i>a</i>), and rete mucosum (<i>b</i>). At +the bottom of the follicle (<i>d</i>) the cuticle is absent, +and the hair rests, directly, upon the rete; and, at +this part, the rete, instead of being converted into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span> +cuticle, as it is at the sides of the follicle, becomes +transformed into hair, in the following way.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table> +<tr> +<td rowspan="2"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe12_3125" id="f79"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f79.jpg" alt="Longitudinal section of finger/toe nail"> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_79">79</a>. Hair.</figcaption> +</figure> +</td> +<td> +<figure class="figcenter illowe8_5" id="f81"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f81.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_81">81</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> +</td> +<td> +<figure class="figcenter illowe8_75" id="f82"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f82.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_81">82</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"> +<figure class="figcenter illowe15_25" id="f80"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f80.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_80">80</a>.</figcaption> +</figure> +</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>The cells of which the rete is composed swell +out as they ascend, and so form the soft “bulb” of +the hair. The outermost cells are gradually flattened, +and assume an imbricated arrangement, +overlapping one another like the tiles upon a +roof (fig. 79, <i>e</i>, and fig. 80); and those in the interior +are elongated, so as to be converted into +more or less distinct fibres. The cells nearest the +middle, or axis, of the hair remain moister and +softer than those nearer the exterior, and form +what is sometimes called the “marrow” of the +hair (figs. 81 and 82).</p> + +<p>The colour of the hair is given by the presence +of minute grains of colouring matter, like those in +the cuticle of the Negro. They are formed in the +cells at the root of the hair, and pass up with them +into its structure. The quantity of colouring matter +is usually slight in infancy and childhood, and +increases during adolescence. Hence the hair becomes +darker as we grow up. It is more or less +deficient in the grey hair of old age; and in the +instance of Marie Antoinette, and others whose +hair is said to have turned grey in a few hours, +the colouring matter is supposed to have been destroyed +by some fluid, formed from the blood, and +passing, through the pulp, into the hair.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span></p> + +<p>The hairs serve to protect the skin; and, as a +general rule, they are most abundant upon the +parts which are most exposed, and which, therefore, +stand most in need of such protection. They +are scattered over the back of the hand. On the +palmar surface they are not required, and they +would have interfered with the sense of touch; and +we do not, accordingly, find them there, nor upon +the sole of the foot, nor upon the edges of the lips. +In certain parts of some animals, however, they +serve as valuable adjuncts to the tactile organs by +extending the range within which the contact of +surrounding substances is felt. Thus the whiskers +of the cat are set upon papillæ so sensitive that +the slightest touch upon any part of the hair is +felt; and the animal is thereby assisted in threading +its way in the dark. This provision, added to +the mode in which their feet are muffled with soft +hair and their claws are retracted, enables the +members of the feline tribe to steal with almost +absolute stillness upon their prey.</p> + + +<h3><i>Oil-glands.</i></h3> + +<figure class="figright illowe11_25" id="f83"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f83.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_83">83</a>.<br>Hair, and Oil-glands.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>There are also in the skin a number of little +<span class="smcap">Glands</span>. One set of these are called “oil-glands;” +for their office is to furnish an oily, or waxy, substance,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span> +which serves to keep the skin soft and pliable, +and defends it against too much moisture, or +too great dryness of the atmosphere. They are +usually, as shown in the accompanying sketch, (fig. +83, <i>g</i>, <i>g</i>) connected with the hairs, lying beside them; +and their ducts—the little tubes that carry off the +oily matter formed in them—open either into the +hair follicles, or penetrate the cuticle at some other +part. They are not found on the palms of the hand +or the soles of the feet, because those parts are, in +great measure, sheltered from atmospheric influences, +and are well moistened with perspiration.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span> +When the dry easterly winds prevail one is disposed +to wish that these glands were more numerous +on the back of the hands; for a more liberal +supply of their secretion would, probably, prevent +the disagreeable chapping to which we are subject +at those times. As a substitute we resort to some +unctuous matter, such as glycerine, which if frequently +applied in small quantities performs, to +some extent, the part of the natural secretion in +keeping the cuticle soft and supple, and so preventing +its cracking.</p> + +<p>The secretion of these glands has an odour, the +purpose of which, in man, is not very obvious. It +is faintest in the highest and most civilized nations. +In none is it very agreeable; and persons +are fain to conceal it by substituting some other +odour, as that of lavender or eau-de-cologne. Unfortunately +the choice is not always so refined; +and one is, sometimes, disposed to think that the +natural odour must be very bad, if the substitute +be preferable. The odour varies at different parts +of the body; it varies also in different persons, +sufficiently to enable the acute nose of the dog to +track one particular man among a thousand.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span></p> + + +<h3><i>Sweat-glands.</i></h3> + +<p>To revert to the figure (<a href="#f70">70</a>) at page 165, the +little masses at <i>g</i>, <i>g</i>, are grains of fat lying in the +meshes of the deeper strata of the skin, or in the +structure just below it. And the little balls of +twisted tube (<i>f</i>, <i>f</i>) are <span class="smcap">Glands</span> that secrete the +<span class="smcap">Perspiration</span>; for, the perspiration does not ooze +up from the whole surface of the skin, but has a +regular system of factories for its formation. A +fine tube (<i>h</i>) is seen passing from each of these +“sweat-glands,” as they are called. It curls in a +spiral manner, like a cork-screw, where it traverses +the cuticle to open at the surface. On the palmar +aspect of the hand most of these tubes or ducts +open along the tops of the fine ridges which are +there seen; and with a magnifying glass of moderate +power you can distinguish their orifices on the +flattened tops of the ridges on your own fingers. +These are the “pores of the skin,” respecting which +we hear so much, and through which the Roman +Bath brings such streams from the subjacent +glands.</p> + +<p>The sweat-glands are scattered all over the +body, but are especially numerous in the palm +and in the sole; and the moisture issuing from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span> +them tends to keep the skin of these parts soft +and moist, and so fitted for the reception of tactile +impressions. The quantity of fluid furnished by +them varies a good deal in different persons, and +under different circumstances. In some persons it +is habitually slight; and the hands feel dry and +harsh. Or, what is equally disagreeable, it is superabundant; +and the hands are habitually damp, +perhaps, cold and clammy, staining the gloves and +soiling everything they touch. In fever the perspiration +is defective; and the dryness and heat of +the palm are often the first symptoms of an accession +of fever that attract the patient’s notice.</p> + +<p>We all know that perspiration is usually increased +by exercise, or by the application of warmth +to the surface, as by the hot air in the sudatorium +of the Roman Bath; and then, by its evaporation, it +cools and relieves the body, and contributes to our +comfort. We know, too, that it is liable to be +increased by any thing that produces a depressing +effect, and that it then induces an uncomfortable +sensation, chilling the surface too much, and making +it cold and clammy. Most of you have experienced +the discomfort of the cold sweat caused by +fright; and some of you may have felt the cold, +clammy hand of one who was suffering under the +shock of a severe accident or the prostration caused +by the sudden onset of a dangerous malady. Why<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span> +perspiration should occur under these very different +conditions, producing, at one time, so much +relief, and, at another, so much additional discomfort, +it is not easy to say.</p> + + +<h3><i>The sense of Feeling and of Touch in the Hand.</i></h3> + +<p>I have mentioned three parts of the body as +remarkable for the acuteness of the sense of touch, +namely, the <span class="smcap">Tongue</span>, the <span class="smcap">Lips</span>, and the <span class="smcap">Hands</span>. +Now in each of these the skin is richly supplied +with nerves and blood-vessels; and it is also thick +and lies upon a soft cushiony substance, so as to +be yielding and to admit of being applied accurately +over any surface with which it is placed in +contact, and of again resuming its shape when the +pressure is removed. For instance, the tongue is +so soft and yielding that, when it is applied to a +tooth, it dips down between the inequalities and +coves accurate information of the condition of the +whole surface. The same is the case with the +edges of the lips, though not in so marked a degree +as in the tongue; and each of these parts is +indebted for its great sensitiveness very much to +the delicate soft supple nature of its structure. +The palmar surface of the hand too, though, like +the skin of the sole, it is strong and tough, so as +to offer considerable resistance to injury and to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span> +prove no dainty morsel even to dogs, as we surmise +from the narrative of the death of Jezebel, is +yet very soft and yielding. It is also underlaid by +a stratum of fat interwoven with strong fibres of +tissue, just in the same manner as the skin of the +sole of the foot (fig. <a href="#f46">46</a>, p. 99).</p> + +<p>An accumulation of this fat and fibrous tissue +under the skin forms the “Pulps” at the ends of +the fingers. The slightly conical form and exquisite +softness of the Pulps adapts them well for the +examination of the surfaces of bodies; and the +sense of touch is more acute in them than in other +parts of the hand.</p> + +<figure class="figright illowe5" id="f84"> + <img class="w100" src="images/f84.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption>Fig. <a href="#fignote_84">84</a>.<br>Bones of Finger.</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>In connection with them it is interesting to +observe that the last bone of each finger and of +the thumb swells out, at the end, into a nodulated +lump, which serves the purpose both of supporting +the pulp and of giving breadth to the nail. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span> +also, like the corresponding part of the toe (page <a href="#Page_99">99</a>), +affords a basis of attachment for the fibres +that run, from the bone, through the pad of fat, to +the skin, and give firmness and consistence to the +part. The bulbous enlargement at the ends of the +phalanges of the fingers and toes is peculiar, or +almost peculiar, to man. In most Animals these +bones taper to a point; in many they are also +curved. Hence the nails are, in them, comparatively +unsupported, and they become bent in at +the sides and curved in their length, that is to say, +they are formed into claws. This is the case, to a +considerable extent, in the Monkey. The terminal +phalanges of the monkey’s digits are more +tapering than in man; the nails are more claw-like; +and the pulps are less well-formed. This +constitutes a not unimportant feature of difference +between the hand of that animal and the +human hand, in addition to those I have already +mentioned.</p> + +<p>You have experienced the sensitiveness to cold +of the pulps of the fingers and toes; and have, +probably, remarked that it is more difficult to +keep them warm than any part of the body. I +may add that, notwithstanding the liberal allowance +of the means of supporting life (that is, blood +and nervous influence) which they enjoy, they are +very liable to mortify from frost-bite and other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span> +causes. I have repeatedly known that to happen +when all the rest of the hand has escaped. This +must be attributed, perhaps entirely, to their exposed +position as terminal parts; and they share +their susceptibility to cold with other parts similarly +circumstanced, such as the nose, the elbows, +the knees and the buttocks.</p> + +<p>It is necessary to make a distinction between +the <span class="smcap">Sense of Touch</span> and common <span class="smcap">Feeling</span> or +sensitiveness to pain; for they are not quite the +same. They are, it is true, very nearly alike, so +nearly that we may consider them to be modifications +of one another; and it is probable that the +same nerves minister to both. Still there is a +difference. The sense of touch is the sense of +contact with <i>ex</i>ternal bodies, and enables us to +take cognisance of their presence and inform ourselves +of their shape, consistence, smoothness or +roughness, &c.; whereas common sensation, or +the sense of feeling, has an <i>in</i>ternal relation. It +imparts to us information respecting the condition +of our own bodies or any part of them. By +the sense of touch in the tongue, for instance, +we judge of the size and hardness of the morsel +in the mouth; and by common sensation we learn +that the organ is being bruised or scratched by +it. Sensation of pain commonly destroys the sense +of touch. Put your finger into a vice, and you<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span> +may feel both sides of it. Screw it up, and you +have nothing but the sensation of pain. If you +were to awake in this state you would not, from +the mere sensation, know that you were <i>touching</i> +anything.</p> + +<p>As a general rule there is a relation between +the degree in which sensation and the sense of +touch are manifested in different parts of the +body. For instance, I have just been remarking +on the acuteness of the sense of touch in the +Tongue; and we know that this part is very +sensitive to pain. The pain caused by a bite of +the tongue is horrible; and so effectually does it +serve the good end of warning the tongue to +keep within its proper bounds, that that organ +very rarely suffers from the pressure of the teeth.</p> + +<p>But, forasmuch as sensitiveness to pain serves +a different purpose from the sense of touch, +namely, as in the instance of the tongue just +mentioned, it renders parts alive to injurious impressions, +and gives them warning to escape or +protect themselves; so it is, as we might expect, +most manifested in those surfaces where a slight +amount of injury would prove most detrimental.</p> + +<p>Thus, the membrane (the conjunctiva) which +lines the eyelids and covers the front of the eyeball +is exquisitely sensitive to pain. We are reminded +of this when anything touches the eye,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span> +or when a fly has lodged itself under the eyelid. +And, when an operator wishes to ascertain whether +his patient is sufficiently under the influence +of chloroform he separates the eyelids and puts +his finger gently upon the eye, knowing that if no +indication be given, by flinching, that the impression +made here is felt, it is probable that the +patient will not be conscious of the more severe +impression to be made by the knife elsewhere. +Yet, this membrane is by no means pre-eminently +endued with the sense of touch. Indeed, the +very acuteness of its sensitiveness to pain quite +unfits it for distinguishing the quality of the impressions +made upon it. We know very quickly +that something is in contact with the eye, but +can form no idea what kind of substance it is, +whether it be hard or soft, rough or smooth.</p> + +<p>In the hand, on the contrary, the sensitiveness +to pain, though considerable, is not proportionate +to the acuteness of the sense of touch. +The sting of the rod on the palm, if my recollection +serves me right, is not so sharply felt as it +is upon that other region which shares with the +hand the privilege of receiving the wrathful attentions +of the master; and, yet, that other +region is by no means distinguished for acuteness +in the sense of touch.</p> + +<p>The mode in which sensitiveness to touch and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span> +to pain are adjusted in the hand and in the eye in +relation to the functions of these two organs is one +of the admirable features of their construction. +Suppose the disposition to have been reversed—suppose +the hand to have been as tender as the +eye—of what use would it have been? The +contact of a particle of dust would have caused +agony; or, had the eye been no more sentient +than the hand, it would soon have been destroyed +by the chafing of foreign bodies upon its delicate +surface.</p> + +<p>How important is the sense of Feeling! more +important than any of the other senses; more so +than all the others taken together. It is almost +universal in the animal kingdom. Indeed, we +can scarcely conceive animal existence without it, +and are slow to admit that to be an animal which +shows no sign of it. Several of the lower animals +seem to be destitute of any of the other +senses. The <span class="smcap">Polyps</span>, for instance, have no sight, +hearing, taste, or smell, and are dependent, therefore, +entirely, upon feeling for their communication +with the external world; and the range of +this sense is extended in them by means of their +“tentacles” or “feelers” which wave about in +the water, and, when they come in contact with +foreign bodies, close upon them and draw them +towards the oral opening. Thus, the tentacle of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span> +the polyp is a sort of rudimentary hand, and, by +the aid of feeling, fulfils one important function +of the hand, viz. that of the supplying the mouth +with food. The sprawling movements of an infant’s +hands and the tendency which they have +to close upon anything—dress, blanket, or whatever +it be—and draw it to the mouth remind +one forcibly of the feelers of a polyp.</p> + +<p>In most of the lower animals, however, the +sense of feeling, though present, serving for protection +and giving notice of injury, is not very +acute. It is not much employed by them for +the purpose of obtaining information respecting +external objects; and they can scarcely be said +to enjoy that modification of it which we call the +sense of touch in any high degree. Indeed, the +skins of animals have, commonly, such a covering +of thick, horny cuticle, scales, feathers, or hair, +as is incompatible with a fine discriminating sense +of touch.</p> + +<p>In many of them, however, some other sense +is highly developed. The <span class="smcap">Vulture</span> is guided by +the smell of carrion for miles and miles; and the +dog will, by the same sense, track game where +man cannot detect the trace of an odour. Some +birds can distinguish objects which are quite out +of the range of our sight. The <span class="smcap">Eagle</span>, for instance, +soars aloft, till it dwindles to a mere speck or is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span> +lost to our view, and, then, from that great height, +will pounce, with unerring certainty, on an unhappy +grouse upon the ground. The sense of hearing +is a great means of protection to animals, and +necessitates extreme stillness and caution on the +part of their pursuers. The <span class="smcap">Deer</span>, when feeding, +directs his eyes upon the ground, and depends for +safety, chiefly, upon his hearing, which is so acute +that the huntsman is obliged to approach with all +possible wariness.</p> + +<p>In each of these instances, it may be observed, +the acuteness of the particular sense is manifested +chiefly in the power it gives to the animal of distinguishing +objects <i>at a distance</i>. Whereas, in the +ability to use the several senses for the nice discernment +of the <i>qualities</i> of substances and to derive +enjoyment from them, man stands quite unrivalled. +He alone appreciates the perfume of a +bouquet, or takes cognisance of the various shades +of colour and of the notes of music; and the sense +of touch, which is of especial service in aiding us +to an accurate knowledge of bodies, is much more +highly developed in man than in other animals.</p> + +<p>Fine as the sense of touch usually is in the +human hand, it becomes far more so when an unusual +demand is made upon it in consequence of +a deficiency, or absence, of other senses. The +rapidity with which blind persons can read with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span> +their fingers is truly astonishing. Some are said +to be able to distinguish colours by the feel. (It +should rather be said that they are capable of recognising +the nice differences in certain substances +by which colours are caused; for one can scarcely +conceive it possible to distinguish by feeling the +colours in a ray of light separated by a prism.) I +am acquainted with a lady who has been, not only +blind, but deaf and dumb from infancy. The +sense of touch is, therefore, almost her only avenue +for impressions from without; and it is surprising +how much information is conveyed through it, and +how quickly. It enables her to hold converse with +her relatives, by the language of the fingers, almost +as freely and as briskly as others do with +the tongue. A few touches are sufficient to transmit +a series of thoughts. After one shake of the +hand her friends told me that she would recognise +me again; and, true enough, although several days +elapsed before I again saw her, she made the sign +for my name as soon as she touched my hand. +At our next meeting I presented my left hand, +but was, again, immediately recognised.</p> + +<p>Persons who have had much experience in the +instruction of the deaf and dumb find that the +hand, by means of writing and “dactylogy”, or the +language of finger-signs, is abundantly sufficient +for all the intercourse to which a deaf-mute is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span> +equal; and they are, therefore, disposed to discourage +the teaching of articulation. Dr Kitto, in +his little book “On the Lost Senses,” which acquires +so much interest from the fact of his being +himself deaf and dumb in consequence of an accident, +relates that, after he had, with great difficulty, +reacquired considerable facility of speech, +he found it stood him in little stead. So efficient +a means of intercourse had the hand become that, +he tells us, he had not occasion for the use of his +tongue ten times in a year.</p> + +<p>Not only may the hand thus serve, to some +extent, as a substitute for some of the other +senses; it is also a most important auxiliary to +them. Particularly is it so to the sense of sight, by +proving, or correcting, the impressions which we +receive through the eye. Without its aid we +should often fail to distinguish between a real +object and a picture or a reflection in a mirror, +and should have difficulty in judging of size, +shape, distance, &c.</p> + + +<h3><i>Relation of the Hand to the Eye and the Mouth.</i></h3> + +<p>You cannot have watched a game of cricket +without being struck by the manner in which +the hand acts in harmony with the eye. With +what almost lightning-like rapidity it is in the exact +place to catch the ball; and with what precision<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span> +the practised cricketer can throw the ball to +a great distance. In this, however, he is surpassed +by the wonderful skill with which the Indian +throws the lasso. Again, it is enough for the +sportsman merely to get sight of the bird; he is +scarcely conscious of the process by which the +hand directs the gun and pulls the trigger at the +exact moment. Still more remarkable is the successful +aim when taken, as it occasionally is, without +bringing the gun to the shoulder.</p> + +<p>In estimating the importance of the hand, you +must not forget that the mouth is quite dependent +upon it for supplies. In most other animals the +jaws are prolonged, forwards, from the cranium, +and the head is placed in such a position that the +mouth becomes an organ of prehension, and is +enabled to provide for itself. But, in man, the +head is carried so high above the ground, and the +jaws are so shortened and compressed beneath the +forehead, that the mouth is of little use in obtaining +food. Its abilities and duties are restricted to +receiving, masticating, and swallowing; and, if it +had to rely upon its own efforts for supplies of +food, it would, indeed, be in a poor case. When +we look at one of the Sphinxes from Egypt, or at +one of the stately Bulls from Nineveh, in which +wisdom and power are represented by joining a +human head to the trunk and limbs of an animal,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span> +the question suggests itself, “How is that mouth +to be fed?” In the Centaur and Mermaid this difficulty +is overcome by adding the hands, as well +as the human head, to the trunk and locomotory +organs of the horse in the one instance, and the +fish in the other; so that monstrosity does not preclude +the means of sustentation. Sufficient incongruities, +however, still remain to justify the exclamation</p> + +<p class="ml2em fs90 ti0">“Spectatum admissi risum teneatis amici?”</p> + +<p>In the <span class="smcap">Elephant</span> the mouth is circumstanced, +somewhat, as in man; and the office of feeder is +performed by the elongated snout or proboscis. +This organ, with its finger-like extremity, is so +sensitive and mobile as to be able to pick up small +bodies—pins or needles—from the ground, and so +strong as to pull down large branches of trees, and +gather the fruit from them. It is interesting, in +connection with the relation of the hand to the +will and the intellectual endowments, to remark +that this proboscidean substitute, which fulfils so +many of the purposes of the hand, is furnished to +the “half reasoning” elephant. The natural sagacity +and teachableness of this creature, of +which such interesting evidence is given in Sir +Emerson Tennent’s book on Ceylon, seem to render +it quite worthy of the privilege of having an +especial organ provided to minister to its will.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span></p> + + +<h3><i>Cheiromancy.</i></h3> + +<p>The <span class="smcap">Beauty</span> of the hand does not come in for +quite so great a share of admiration as that of the +foot. Perhaps, because we are less often gratified +with the view of the latter. Perhaps, because we +are conscious that the foot is even more decidedly +characteristic of the human form than is the hand; +inasmuch as the hand of the monkey approaches +more nearly to the human hand than does the +foot of any animal to the human foot. Still, we +are by no means insensible to the charms of a +pretty hand; and we prefer that the glove which +envelopes it should be of a material as thin and +pliable as kid, so that it may adapt itself accurately +to the part, and not conceal its form. A +small and delicate hand is thought to be one of +the best signs of high-breeding. Thus, Byron, who +was no bad judge of such matters, writes</p> + +<p class="ml2em fs90 ti0"> +“Even to the delicacy of her hand<br> +There was resemblance such as true blood bears,” +</p> + +<p class="ti0">and again,</p> + +<p class="ml2em fs90 ti0"> +“Though on more thorough-bred or fairer fingers<br> +No lips ere left their transitory trace.” +</p> + +<p>The <span class="smcap">Lines</span> upon the palm, or creases formed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span> +in closing the hand, differ a little in different persons. +In former times, when men were addicted +to the arts of divination, and thought more about +the connection between the physical world and +the world of spirits, and strove, by a close observation +of the former, to penetrate the mysteries +of the latter, much attention was paid to these +lines. They were named with the names of the +Planets and the signs of the Zodiac; and a science +grew up akin to Astrology and Physiognomy. +<span class="smcap">Cheiromancy</span> was the name given to it; and numerous +and voluminous treatises were written upon +it. We are told that Homer was the author of a +complete essay upon the lines of the hand. That +something of the kind was practised among the +Romans we learn from a passage in Juvenal, translated, +somewhat freely, by Dryden, as follows:</p> + +<p class="ml2em fs90 ti0"> +“The middle sort, who have not much to spare,<br> +To cheiromancer’s cheaper art repair,<br> +Who claps the pretty palm to make the lines more fair.” +</p> + +<p>You will estimate the value of the science of +<span class="smcap">Cheiromancy</span> when you hear that equal furrows +upon the lower joint of the thumb argue riches +and possessions; but a line surrounding the middle +joint portends hanging. The nails, also, came in +for their share of attention: and we are informed +that, when short, they imply goodness; when long +and narrow, steadiness but dulness; when curved,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span> +rapacity. Black spots upon them are unlucky; +white are fortunate. Even at the present day +Gipsies practise the art when they can find sufficient +credulity to encourage them.</p> + +<p>Whether any fancy of the like kind gave +origin to the notion still prevalent that a wound +or injury between the thumb and the fore-finger +is peculiarly likely to be followed by <span class="smcap">Lock-jaw</span>, +or whether the notion was grounded on some +notable instance in which that fearful malady +did actually supervene upon a wound in the +situation mentioned, I cannot tell. You may, +however, rest assured, that it is quite a fallacy. +Lock-jaw may result from a wound in any part +of the body, or it may occur without a wound; +it is very capricious in its attack; the surgeon +does not know when to look for it; it often +shows itself when he least expects it; but it is +not more likely to follow a wound between the +thumb and the fore-finger than a wound elsewhere. +I think it well to mention this, because +I have often known persons greatly alarmed when +they have accidentally cut themselves in the +dreaded spot.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span></p> + + +<h3><i>Cause of the preferential use of the Right Hand.</i></h3> + +<p>Why is man usually <span class="lowercase smcap">RIGHT-HANDED</span>? Many +attempts have been made to answer this question; +but it has never been done quite satisfactorily; +and I do not think that a clear and distinct +explanation of the fact can be given.</p> + +<p>There is no anatomical reason for it with +which we are acquainted. The only peculiarity +that we can discern is a slight difference in the +disposition, within the chest, between the blood-vessels +which supply the right and the left arms. +This, however, is quite insufficient to account for +the disparity between the two limbs. Moreover, +the same disposition is observed in left-handed +persons, and in some of the lower animals; and +in none of the latter is there that difference between +the two limbs which is so general among +men.</p> + +<p>Is the superiority of the right hand real and +natural, that is, congenital? or is it merely acquired? +I incline much to the latter view; because +all men are not right-handed; some are +left-handed; some are ambidextrous; and in all +persons, I believe, the left hand may be trained<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span> +to as great expertness and strength as the right<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a>. +It is so in those who have been deprived of their +right hand in early life; and most persons can do +certain things with the left hand better than with +the right.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, though I think the superiority +of the right hand is acquired and is a result +of its more frequent use, the tendency to use it, +in preference to the left, is so universal that it +would seem to be natural. I am driven, therefore, +to the rather nice distinction, that, though +the superiority is acquired, the tendency to acquire +the superiority is natural.</p> + +<p>It may be argued that the tendency must be +based upon something physical, and that, therefore, +a tendency to superiority implies an actual +superiority. This may be so; but I do not think +that we are quite in a position to assert that it +is so. We perceive that there is a tendency to +the preferential use of the right hand; but we do +not know upon what that tendency depends, and +have, therefore no right to assert that the cause of +it lies in the construction of the limb or of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span> +parts which supply the limb with blood and nervous +influence, or, indeed, upon any strictly physical +cause whatever.</p> + +<p>It may be a tendency like that of certain +animals to make their holes and nests in particular +places and in particular ways, to watch for +their prey at particular spots, to migrate in certain +directions at particular periods, and to group +themselves in a particular order during their travels. +Such tendencies, or “Instincts” as they are +often called, may possibly be the result of a peculiar +conformation of the several animals; but it +is, at present, by no means certain that they +are so.</p> + +<p>I have said that man is the only animal in +whom a preference in the use of the limb or +limbs of one side is shown. This is a consequence +of the fact that he is the only animal who +has occasion to use the limbs of the two sides +separately, or who is in the habit of doing so. +Even in the rudest state of society this habit is +engendered in him from a very early period, as +in carrying a stick, throwing a spear, and in a +variety of ways. The habit increases as he becomes +more civilized, owing to the greater number +of offices which the hands are called upon to +perform; and the necessity for using the hands +separately would, of itself, lead each individual<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span> +to the employment of one more frequently than +the other; but that that one should so universally +be the right hand, seems to be accounted +for only by reference to some natural tendency. +The imitative propensity in man and the convenience +of uniformity of modes of action are scarcely +sufficient to account for it.</p> + +<p>I will not detain you by dwelling upon the +effect which the superiority of the right hand +has in giving a slight superiority to the right leg +and the right eye, and will content myself with +mentioning a single beneficial result of the preferential +use of one hand, viz. that by it, we +acquire a greater degree of skilfulness and dexterity +than we should do if both hands were +equally employed. The exclusive use, for instance, +of the right hand in writing, cutting, &c. +gives it a greater expertness than either hand +would have had if both of them had been accustomed +to perform these offices. Hence, we usually +find that persons who are left-handed are rather +clumsy-fingered, because, although, in them, the +left hand is used for many purposes which are +commonly assigned to the right, yet the conventionalities +of life interfere a good deal. The pen +and the knife, for instance, are still wielded by +the right hand. Accordingly such persons are +neither truly right-handed nor truly left-handed;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span> +and they do not commonly acquire so great skill +in the use of either hand as do those whose natural +tendency is more in harmony with custom.</p> + +<p class="mt2em">The great martyr of our Church, when at the +stake, is said to have held out his right hand +into the flames and to have been heard exclaiming, +till utterance was stifled, “This unworthy +hand.” This unworthy hand! Of whom or of +what was that hand unworthy? Was it unworthy +of Him who made it? Was it unworthy of him +who bore it? Was it unworthy of the purposes +for which it was made? Was it not, on the +contrary, a too worthy hand? a hand worthy of +a better usage than to be made, first, to sign a +recantation of faith and, then, to be burned for +having done so? a hand worthy of a better man? +No one would have admitted this more readily +than Cranmer. We may be sure that he would +never have thought of proclaiming a hand or any +of his members to be really unworthy of him. +Rather would he have willingly confessed that he +had fallen far short of the standard of excellence +which the body presents; and in that excellence, +we doubt not, he recognised an evidence of Divine +workmanship. His meaning, therefore, has +not been misunderstood. Nevertheless disparaging +remarks respecting the body, and the use of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span> +word “carnal” in the sense in which it is usually +employed, have some tendency to excuse a shrinking +from moral responsibilities on the ground of +the weakness of the flesh. Let us remember that +much of that weakness is of our own engendering, +that a moral obliquity is the source of many +of those physical infirmities which, we flatter ourselves, +may cover our delinquencies, and which +a sympathising humanity is wont, perhaps too +often, to throw as a shield over offenders against +the laws. In man, and in man alone of created +beings, the physical and the moral grow up together +and react upon one another; and the +charge of a body thus capable of influencing and +being influenced demands all our energies to +prove ourselves worthy of it.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="EXPLANATION_OF_WOOD-CUTS">EXPLANATION OF WOOD-CUTS.</h2> +</div> + +<hr class="r15" > + +<h3>THE HUMAN FOOT.</h3> + +<table id="wcfoot"> +<tr> +<td>Fig.</td> <td>page</td> <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> <a href="#f01" id="fignote_01">1</a></td> <td> 9</td> <td>Bones of foot, with the lower ends of the two + leg-bones.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> <a href="#f02" id="fignote_02">2</a></td> <td> 11</td> <td>Bones of the hind foot of a seal, with lower ends + of leg-bones.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> <a href="#f03" id="fignote_03">3</a></td> <td> 11</td> <td>The same of the hind foot of a lizard.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> <a href="#f04" id="fignote_04">4</a></td> <td> 14</td> <td>Side view of the pelvis and lower limb of man. + A, the <i>haunch-bone</i>. B, the <i>ischium</i>, or part upon + which we sit. C, the <i>thigh-bone</i>. D, the <i>knee-pan</i>. + E, the <i>tibia</i>, or larger leg-bone, with the + <i>fibula</i>, or smaller leg-bone, alongside it. F, the + <i>heel-bone</i>. G, the <i>metatarsal</i> bones. H, I, K, the + <i>phalanges</i>, or bones of the toes.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> <a href="#f05" id="fignote_05">5</a></td> <td> 14</td> <td>Similar view of the pelvis and hind limb of a horse. + The letters refer to the same parts as in the preceding + figure.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> <a href="#f06" id="fignote_06">6</a></td> <td> 18</td> <td>Represents a section through the lower end of the + tibia and through the <i>heel-bone</i>, the <i>astragalus</i>, + <i>navicular</i> bone, inner <i>cuneiform</i> bone, and the bones + of the <i>great toe</i>. It shows the arrangement of + these bones in the arch of the foot and the disposition + of the plates of which these bones are composed. + <span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> <a href="#f07" id="fignote_07">7</a></td> <td> 25</td> <td>The same bones as in preceding, with two connecting + ligaments. A, the <i>plantar ligament</i>. B, ligament + passing from the heel-bone F to the scaphoid bone + E. D the <i>Astragalus</i>. C, one of two small bones, + called <i>sesamoid</i> bones, usually found at the ball of + the great toe.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> <a href="#f08" id="fignote_08">8</a></td> <td> 29</td> <td>A foot, in an aggravated condition of “flat-foot.” + The sole is convex, and so is the inner margin + of the foot. It represents also another common + deformity, inasmuch as the great toe runs athwart + the second toe, which is pressed almost out of + sight.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> <a href="#f09" id="fignote_09">9</a></td> <td> 38</td> <td>Front view of the right <i>tibia</i>, or larger leg-bone.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f10" id="fignote_10">10</a></td> <td> 38</td> <td>Right <i>tibia</i> lying on a board. The inner, as well + as the outer edge, of the upper end rests upon the + board; but the inner edge of the lower end is + turned away from the board. In other words, the + bone is so twisted that, though the upper end + lies flat upon the board, the lower end touches + it only by its outer edge.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f11" id="fignote_11">11</a></td> <td> 40</td> <td>Figure sitting upon the heel to draw the bow. It is + one of a beautiful series of statues in the Glyptothek + at Munich. They adorned the pediments + of a temple in Ægina, and are supposed to represent + the noble actions of the Æacidæ.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f12" id="fignote_12">12</a></td> <td> 42</td> <td>Represents some of the muscles and tendons seen + on the inner side of the leg and foot. A, <i>Gastro- + cnemius</i> and <i>Soleus</i> muscles. They are attached, + above, to the thigh-bone and the leg-bones; below, + by means of the <i>Tendo Achillis</i> (<i>a</i>) to the heel-bone; + they together form the calf-muscle. B, + <i>Posterior tibial</i> muscle attached, above, to the + tibia, below, by its tendon (<i>b</i>) to the scaphoid + bone. D, process of the tibia called the <i>internal + malleolus</i> or inner ankle. F, <i>Anterior tibial</i> muscle + attached, above, to the front of the tibia, below,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span> + to the scaphoid bone. <i>k</i>, the <i>flexor tendon</i> of the + great toe.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f13" id="fignote_13">13</a></td> <td> 44</td> <td>Gives a corresponding view of the outer side of the + leg and foot. E, the lower end of the fibula, + called the <i>external malleolus</i>, or outer ankle. C, + the <i>short fibular</i> muscle attached, above, to the + fibula; below, by its tendon (<i>c</i>), to the outer + metatarsal bone. I, the <i>long fibular</i> muscle. Its + tendon (<i>i</i>) runs, behind the outer ankle and under + the instep, to the metatarsal bone of the great + toe; it is not seen in the latter part of its course. + G, the <i>anterior fibular</i> muscle attached by its tendon + <i>g</i> to the outer metatarsal bone. <i>h</i>, the <i>extensor + tendons</i> of the toes.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f14" id="fignote_14">14</a></td> <td> 47</td> <td>Foot of a young woman presenting the variety of + “club-foot” called “<i>Talipes varus</i>.” The sole is + very much bent, and turned inwards and upwards, + so that the part of the instep which should be above + and in front is directed downwards and comes into + contact with the ground.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f15" id="fignote_15">15</a></td> <td> 49</td> <td>Diagram (from Bell’s <i>Anatomy</i>) showing the mode + in which the extensor tendons of the toes follow + the curve of the ankle and are bound to it by + cross straps, instead of taking the direct course + represented by the line <i>a</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f16" id="fignote_16">16</a></td> <td> 52</td> <td>Foot and leg from the cast of the Farnese Hercules + in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f17" id="fignote_17">17</a></td> <td> 52</td> <td>Foot and leg of a Negro.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f18" id="fignote_18">18</a></td> <td> 52</td> <td>Outline of under surface of foot of an Englishman.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f19" id="fignote_19">19</a></td> <td> 52</td> <td> Outline of under surface of foot of a Negro.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f20" id="fignote_20">20</a></td> <td> 55</td> <td> Skeleton of the foot of a Chinese female. From a + drawing by B. Cooper, in <i>Phil. Trans.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><span class="nowrap"><a href="#f21" id="fignote_21">21–25</a></span></td> <td> 57</td> <td>Sections, from above downwards, through the tarso-metatarsal + joints. A, <i>metatarsal</i> bone. B, <i>tarsal</i> + bone. C, C, the <i>ligaments</i> connecting the two. + <span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><span class="nowrap"><a href="#f26" id="fignote_26">26–29</a></span></td> <td> 59</td> <td>Figures standing, bowing, stooping, and squatting.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><span class="nowrap"><a href="#f30" id="fignote_30">30–32</a></span></td> <td> 62</td> <td>Figures walking.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><span class="nowrap"><a href="#f33" id="fignote_33">33–35</a></span></td> <td> 62</td> <td>Position of foot in three stages of a step in walking.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><span class="nowrap"><a href="#f36" id="fignote_36">36–38</a></span></td> <td> 65</td> <td>Figures running.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f39" id="fignote_39">39</a></td> <td> 86</td> <td>Bones of the left hind limb of an Elephant.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f40" id="fignote_40">40</a></td> <td> 86</td> <td>Bones of the left hind limb of a Hippopotamus.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f41" id="fignote_41">41</a></td> <td> 86</td> <td>Bones of the left hind limb of a Rhinoceros.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f42" id="fignote_42">42</a></td> <td> 86</td> <td>Bones of the left hind limb of an Ox.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f43" id="fignote_43">43</a></td> <td> 86</td> <td>Bones of the left hind limb of a Horse.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f44" id="fignote_44">44</a></td> <td> 89</td> <td>Hind limb of a Gorilla, showing the length of the + digits, and the strong inner digit diverging from + the others.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f45" id="fignote_45">45</a></td> <td> 90</td> <td>Drawing of stuffed specimen of a Gorilla in the + British Museum.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f46" id="fignote_46">46</a></td> <td> 98</td> <td>Section of a foot, showing the disposition of the fibres + that run from the bones and plantar ligament to + the skin of the sole. At the heel the greater number + of the fibres are seen to run <i>back</i>wards from + the heel-bone to the skin. At the end of the + great toe and beneath the ball of the toe they run, + for the most part, <i>for</i>wards, from the bones and + plantar ligament, to the skin.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f47" id="fignote_47">47</a></td> <td>103</td> <td>View of the sole of a foot in its natural state.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f48" id="fignote_48">48</a></td> <td>103</td> <td>Outline of the sole of a shoe, as commonly made for + a man’s foot.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f49" id="fignote_49">49</a></td> <td>103</td> <td>Sole of the foot of a girl twenty-two years old, distorted + by the pressure of the shoe, but otherwise + healthy.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f50" id="fignote_50">50</a></td> <td>103</td> <td>View of the skeleton of a foot so deformed, from + above.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f51" id="fignote_51">51</a></td> <td>105</td> <td>The proper sole for a shoe laid, for the sake of + comparison, on the symmetrical sole of the ordinary + shape.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f52" id="fignote_52">52</a></td> <td>105</td> <td>The proper sole pointed at the toes.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span></p> + + +<h3>THE HUMAN HAND.</h3> + +<table id="wchand"> +<tr> +<td>Fig.</td> <td>page</td> <td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f53" id="fignote_53">53</a></td> <td>110</td> <td>The bones of the arm (<i>humerus</i>), of the forearm + (<i>radius</i> and <i>ulna</i>, the former is the upper of the + two, the forearm and hand being semi-prone), and + of the hand. The names of the wrist-bones are, + <i>scaphoid</i>, <i>semilunar</i> (these two are in contact with + the radius), <i>cuneiform</i> (this is in a line with the + ulna, but separated from it by an interval in + which lies the triangular ligament, see fig. <a href="#f64">64</a>, + page 134), <i>pisiform</i> (faintly seen in shadow beneath + the cuneiform), <i>trapezium</i> (supporting the + metacarpal bone of thumb), <i>trapezoid</i> (supporting + the metacarpal bone of fore-finger), <i>magnum</i> (supporting + the metacarpal bone of the middle or + great finger), <i>unciform</i> (supporting the metacarpal + bones of the ring and the little fingers).</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f54" id="fignote_54">54</a></td> <td>112</td> <td>Diagram of the bones of the hand with the ends of + the radius and ulna. 1, end of <i>radius</i>; 2, end of + <i>ulna</i>; 3, <i>scaphoid</i>; 4, <i>semilunar</i>; 5, <i>cuneiform</i>; + 6, <i>pisiform</i>; 7, <i>trapezium</i>; 8, <i>trapezoid</i>; 9, <i>magnum</i>; + 10, <i>unciform</i>; 11, 11, <i>metacarpal</i> bones; + 12, 12, first row of <i>phalanges</i>; 13, 13, second + row of <i>phalanges</i>; 14, 14, third row of <i>phalanges</i>; + <span class="lowercase smcap">I</span>, thumb; <span class="lowercase smcap">II</span>, forefinger; <span class="lowercase smcap">III</span>, + middle finger; <span class="lowercase smcap">IV</span>, + ring finger; <span class="lowercase smcap">V</span>, little finger.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f55" id="fignote_55">55</a></td> <td>116</td> <td>Drawing of the front of the chest and the shoulders, + with the collar-bones running across from the + upper edge of the breast-bone to the projecting + processes of the shoulder-blades.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f56" id="fignote_56">56</a></td> <td>117</td> <td>The chest and shoulder of an Eagle. <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, the united + <i>collar-bones</i>, or “merry-thought;” <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, the <i>coracoid</i>, + or “side-bone;” <span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>, the long, slender <i>shoulder-blade</i>; + <span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>, the <i>sternum</i>; <span class="lowercase smcap">E</span>, the <i>humerus</i>. + <span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f57" id="fignote_57">57</a></td> <td>120</td> <td>The head, fore part of chest, and shoulder of a + Rhinoceros. The chest is deep and flat at the + sides. The shoulder-blade and arm-bone are + nearly vertical, that is, they nearly correspond + with the ribs in their direction.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f58" id="fignote_58">58</a></td> <td>122</td> <td>Side view of chest, shoulder and arm (human). The + shoulder-blade is prolonged in the direction of the + spine, that is, <i>across</i> the ribs.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f59" id="fignote_59">59</a></td> <td>124</td> <td>Side view of fore part of a Monkey’s skeleton.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f60" id="fignote_60">60</a></td> <td>126</td> <td>A section, from side to side, through the Elbow-joint, + showing the shape of the surfaces of the bones. + <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, the <i>radius</i>; <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, the <i>ulna</i>; <span class="lowercase smcap">CC</span>, the side + <i>ligaments</i> holding the radius and ulna to the <i>arm-bone</i>, + <span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f61" id="fignote_61">61</a></td> <td>127</td> <td>The upper limb with the forearm and hand in the + state of supination. <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, the <i>long Pronator</i> muscle.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f62" id="fignote_62">62</a></td> <td>127</td> <td>The same in a state of pronation. <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, the <i>short + Supinator</i> muscle.<br><br> + + In this and the preceding drawing a plumb-line, + descending from the outer condyle of the humerus + traverses the lower end of the ulna and the ring + finger.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f63" id="fignote_63">63</a></td> <td>131</td> <td>Drawing of the <i>biceps</i> muscle. The hand is in a + state of pronation. Driving the gimlet is effected + by the movement to the state of supination.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f64" id="fignote_64">64</a></td> <td>134</td> <td>Section, from side to side, through the Wrist, showing + the shapes of the bones and the mode in which they are adapted + to one another. <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, the + <i>radius</i>; <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, the <i>ulna</i>; + <span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>, <i>scaphoid</i> bone; + <span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>, <i>cuneiform</i> bone; + <span class="lowercase smcap">E</span>, <i>semi-lunar</i> bone; + <span class="lowercase smcap">F</span>, line of contact of radius + and ulna; <span class="lowercase smcap">G</span>, <span class="lowercase + smcap">G</span>, side <i>ligaments</i> connecting the wrist-bones + with the bones of the forearm. <span class="lowercase smcap">H</span>, + <span class="lowercase smcap">I</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">K</span>, + <span class="lowercase smcap">L</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">M</span>, + <i>metacarpal</i> bones of thumb and fingers.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f65" id="fignote_65">65</a></td> <td>138</td> <td>View of the superficial muscles on the palmar + aspect of the forearm and hand. <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, the <i>radial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span> + flexor</i> of the wrist. <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, the <i>long palmar</i> muscle. + <span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>, the <i>ulnar flexor</i> of the wrist. <span class="lowercase smcap">D</span>, the muscles + of the “ball of the thumb.” <span class="lowercase smcap">E</span>, the <i>long supinator</i> + muscle. <span class="lowercase smcap">F</span>, the <i>long pronator</i>. <span class="lowercase smcap">G</span>, the + lower part of the <i>biceps</i> muscle. <span class="lowercase smcap">H</span>, Cross <i>ligaments</i> + binding the tendons in their places. (This + and the two following figures are from Quain’s + <i>Anatomy</i>.)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f66" id="fignote_66">66</a></td> <td>138</td> <td>View of the deep muscles and tendons on the + palmar aspects of the forearm and hand. <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, the + <i>long flexor</i> of the thumb. <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, some of the <i>flexors</i> + of the fingers. <span class="lowercase smcap">C</span>, the <i>Adductor</i> muscle of the + thumb.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f67" id="fignote_67">67</a></td> <td>139</td> <td>The <i>extensor</i> muscles and tendons of the wrist, + thumb, and fingers seen on the back of the + forearm and hand. <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>, the <i>abductors</i> and + <i>adductors</i> of the fingers. <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, <span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>, the cross <i>ligament</i> + which binds the tendons in their places.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f68" id="fignote_68">68</a></td> <td>146</td> <td>Hand holding a cricket-ball, showing that the tips + of the fingers and the thumb all reach the same + level.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f69" id="fignote_69">69</a></td> <td>152</td> <td>Diagram showing the distribution of the <i>median</i> (<span class="lowercase smcap">A</span>) + and <i>ulnar</i> (<span class="lowercase smcap">B</span>) <i>nerves</i> in the hand.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f70" id="fignote_70">70</a></td> <td>165</td> <td>Drawing of a magnified section through the skin of + the palmar surface of the thumb, including three + of the ridges seen on that surface. <i>a</i>, the outer + or horny layer of the <i>cuticle</i>; <i>b</i>, the deeper layer + of the same called “<i>rete mucosum</i>;” <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, the + <i>cutis</i>, with <i>papillæ</i> rising from its surface beneath + the ridges and projecting into the rete mucosum; + <i>g</i>, <i>g</i>, grains of <i>fat</i> lying in the deeper part of the + cutis and in the tissue beneath it. Between <i>f</i> + and <i>f</i> are three <i>sweat-glands</i>, each composed of a + tube rolled up into a ball or knot. The tubes (<i>h</i>, <i>h</i>) + are seen ascending from them through the cutis<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span> + and cuticle, and opening at the tops of the ridges. + (From Kölliker’s <i>Mikroskopishe Anatomie</i>.)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f71" id="fignote_71">71</a></td> <td>170</td> <td>Section of skin still more magnified. <i>a</i>, Outer or + horny stratum of cuticle; <i>b</i>, inner stratum of cuticle, + or “rete mucosum;” <i>c</i>, papillary stratum of + cutis; <i>d</i>, deeper or fibrous stratum of cutis. The + curling tube rolled into a ball at the lower part + is the sweat-gland. Its duct is seen ascending + through the fibrous structure of the cutis, and + presents the coiled appearance of a rope as it + traverses the cuticle.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f72" id="fignote_72">72</a></td> <td>170</td> <td>A few layers of the cuticle and rete mucosum of + a Negro, showing the spots of dark pigment in + the rete which give the black colour to the + Negro’s skin. (This and the preceding from + Todd and Bowman’s <i>Phys. Anatomy</i>.)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f73" id="fignote_73">73</a></td> <td>170</td> <td>Section of a Corn and adjacent skin. <i>a</i>, the <i>cuticle</i>; + <i>c</i>, the <i>cutis</i> with its <i>papillæ</i>. The cuticle is seen + to be very thick, and the papillæ are somewhat + enlarged in the corn.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f74" id="fignote_74">74</a></td> <td>170</td> <td>Section of a Wart and adjacent skin. <i>a</i>, <i>cuticle</i>; + <i>c</i>, the <i>cutis</i> with its <i>papillæ</i>. The latter are seen + to be enlarged, or “hypertrophied,” in the wart.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f75-77" id="fignote_75-77">75</a></td> <td>174</td> <td>Vertical section, made lengthways, of a Nail raised + from its bed, showing its connexion with the + cuticle. <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>cuticle</i>; <i>d</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>nail</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f75-77">76</a></td> <td>174</td> <td>Similar section of a Nail lying in its bed of cutis. + <i>a</i>, <i>cuticle</i>; <i>b</i>, <i>rete mucosum</i>; <i>c</i>, <i>cutis</i>; <i>d</i>, <i>nail</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f75-77">77</a></td> <td>174</td> <td>Section of the Cutis from which the nail, the cuticle, + and the rete have been removed.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f78" id="fignote_78">78</a></td> <td>176</td> <td>Transverse section of the Nail and Skin, made vertically. + <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>cuticle</i>; <i>b</i>, <i>rete</i>; <i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>cutis</i>; <i>d</i>, <i>d</i>, + lines running through the cutis to the <i>papillæ</i>; + <i>e</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>e</i>, lines running through the nail to the rete. + (This and the three preceding from Kölliker.) + <span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f79" id="fignote_79">79</a></td> <td>179</td> <td>Section of a Hair and Hair-follicle. <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, the + <i>cuticle</i> and <i>rete</i> lining the follicle. <i>e</i>, the outer + layer, or rind, of the hair formed by closely-plaited + scales of cuticle continued upon it from + the bottom of the follicle <i>d</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f80" id="fignote_80">80</a></td> <td>179</td> <td>Piece of the exterior of a Hair more highly magnified + to show the imbricated arrangement of the + plates or scales forming its outer surface.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f81" id="fignote_81">81,82</a></td> <td>179</td> <td>Transverse sections of Hairs. (These and two preceding + from Todd and Bowman.)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f83" id="fignote_83">83</a></td> <td>181</td> <td>Section of a Hair-follicle containing a Hair, and + with two Oil-glands, <i>g</i>, <i>g</i>, lying near it, and with + their ducts opening into it. <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, cuticle and + rete; <i>d</i>, bottom of follicle. (From Kölliker.)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#f84" id="fignote_84">84</a></td> <td>187</td> <td>The terminal Bone of a finger, with a portion of the + bone next it, showing the nodulated bulbous end + of the former.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<p class="ti0 tac fs70 mt-2em">CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.</p> + +<p class="tac ti0 fs110 mtb3em"><i>By the same Author.</i></p> + + + +<p class="ti0 tac fs120">I.</p> + +<p class="ti0 tac fs120">A TREATISE ON THE HUMAN SKELETON,</p> + +<p class="ti0 tac">(<span class="lowercase smcap">INCLUDING THE JOINTS</span>),</p> + +<p class="ti0 tac"><i>With Two Hundred and Sixty Illustrations drawn from Nature.</i></p> + +<p class="ti0 tac">Medium 8vo. cloth, price £1. 8<i>s.</i></p> + + +<p class="ti0 tac fs120 mt2em">II.</p> + +<p class="ti0 tac fs120">AN ESSAY ON THE LIMBS OF VERTEBRATE<br> +ANIMALS.</p> + +<p class="ti0 tac">4to. sewed, 5<i>s.</i></p> + + +<p class="ti0 tac fs120 mt2em">III.</p> + +<p class="ti0 tac fs120">ON THE COAGULATION OF THE BLOOD IN<br> +THE VENOUS SYSTEM DURING LIFE.</p> + +<p class="ti0 tac">8vo. sewed, 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p> + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">1</a> +<i>Treatise on the Human Skeleton</i>, p. 395.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">2</a> +It does not appear that the legend is based upon any +peculiar ideas of susceptibility attached to the heel among Eastern +nations; nor can the passages in Scripture, that the Serpent +shall bruise man’s heel (Genesis iii. 15); “For the greatness of +thine iniquity are thy heels made bare” (Jeremiah xiii. 22), be +adduced as indicating the existence of such an idea. There +are some other myths resembling this one of Achilles; but in +them a different part of the body missed the protecting influence. +Thus, Ajax was wrapped by Hercules in the skin of the Nemæan +lion, and was, thereby, rendered invulnerable, except at the pit +of the stomach where the edges of the skin did not quite meet; +and he killed himself by running his sword in there. In the +<i>Niebelungenlied</i>, the hero, Siegfried, is represented to have rendered +himself invulnerable by smearing himself with the blood +of a dragon which he had killed. A leaf, however, adhering +to his back, prevented the contact of the fluid with one spot. +The secret was unwarily communicated by his wife Krimhild +to his enemy Hagan, who took advantage of the information +to plunge his sword into the fatal spot while Siegfried was stooping +down to drink at a rivulet.</p> + +<p>The lesson inculcated by these myths seems to be that all +men, even heroes, have their weak points.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">3</a> +It is a remarkable statement by a correspondent in <i>The +Times</i>, Jan. 14th, 1861, that in the pillage of the Summer Palace +of the Emperor of Pekin “all the ladies of the Court must have +had natural-sized feet, all the slippers found in their rooms being +large; not a single cramped-footed shoe was seen.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">4</a> +In <span class="smcap">Walking</span> the hind leg moves first, then the fore leg of +the same side; and both reach the ground before the hind leg of +the opposite side is raised. So that at one time there are three +feet on the ground, at another two, but never less than two.</p> + +<p>In <span class="smcap">Trotting</span>, especially quick trotting, one foot is raised at +the same instant that the opposite one is put down. This renders +it difficult to make out the sequence of the movements.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">5</a> +In ancient times warriors were wont to cut off the <i>great +toes</i> as well as the <i>thumbs</i> of their captives to disable them for +further service (Judges i. 6, 7).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">6</a> +<i>Why the Shoe pinches</i>, a contribution to Applied Anatomy by +Hermann Meyer, M.D. Professor of Anatomy in the University +of Zurich, translated from the German by John Stirling Craig, +L.R.C.P.E., L.R.C.S.E., price sixpence.</p> + +<p>The preceding four figures and the two following are taken +from this pamphlet with Mr Craig’s permission.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">7</a> +In deference to custom we call the palm the <i>front</i> of the +hand; and, therefore, we speak of the thumb as the <i>out</i>er and the +little finger as the <i>in</i>ner digit: though it would better accord +with the ordinary position of the part, with its correspondence +with the foot and with comparative anatomy, to reverse these +terms.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">8</a> +It has been suggested, probably by <i>Punch</i>, that it is called +the “<i>funny-bone</i>” because it lies near the “<i>humerus</i>.”</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">9</a> +In the tribe of Benjamin “there were seven hundred chosen +men left-handed; every one could sling stones at an hair breadth, +and not miss.” Judges xx. 16. When David was at Ziklag +there came to him a company of men who “were armed with +bows and could use both the right hand and the left in hurling +stones and shooting arrows out of a bow.” 1 Chronicles xii. 2.</p> + +</div> +</div> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75360 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/75360-h/images/39x6bl.png b/75360-h/images/39x6bl.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f644d00 --- /dev/null +++ b/75360-h/images/39x6bl.png diff --git a/75360-h/images/39x6br.png b/75360-h/images/39x6br.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2bbeb30 --- /dev/null +++ b/75360-h/images/39x6br.png diff --git a/75360-h/images/cover.jpg b/75360-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d8abd6e --- /dev/null +++ b/75360-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/75360-h/images/f01.jpg b/75360-h/images/f01.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..137ebab --- 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