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diff --git a/75326-h/75326-h.htm b/75326-h/75326-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7746757 --- /dev/null +++ b/75326-h/75326-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3616 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> +<head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <title>Few Secrets of the Metallurgist Simply Told | Project Gutenberg</title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.png" type="image/x-cover"> + + <style> + + body { margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + .x-ebookmaker body {margin: 5%;} + + a {text-decoration: none} + + .pre1 {font-size: 1.5em; + font-family: Arial, Helvetica; + text-align: center; + font-weight: lighter; + letter-spacing: 0.1em + } + + .pre2 {font-size: 1.7em; + font-family: Arial, Helvetica; + text-align: center; + font-weight: lighter; + letter-spacing: 0.3em + } + + .pre3 {font-size: 1.2em; + font-family: Arial, Helvetica; + text-align: center; + font-weight: lighter; + letter-spacing: 0.2em + } + + .pre3a {font-size: 1.2em; + text-align: center; + font-weight: lighter; + letter-spacing: 0.2em + } + + .pre4 {font-size: 1.3em; + font-family: Arial, Helvetica; + text-align: center; + font-weight: lighter; + letter-spacing: 0.4em + } + + .pre5 {text-align: center; + font-weight: lighter; + font-size: smaller; + } + + hr { + width: 10%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: 45%; + margin-right: 45%; + clear: both; + } + + .zentriert { text-align: center; + display: block; + } + + h1 {text-align: center; + font-weight: bold; + } + + h2 {font-size: 1.2em; + text-align: center; + margin-top: 1.8em; + letter-spacing: 0.2em + } + + h3 {font-weight: 100; + font-size: smaller; + letter-spacing: 0.2em; + text-align: center; + } + + .ein {text-indent: 1em; + text-align: justify; + display: block; + line-height: 1.35em; + } + + .gerueckt10 { margin-left: 10%; + } + + .gerueckt1 { margin-left: 1em; + text-indent: -1.2em} + + .abst0-4 {margin-top: 0.4em;} + .abst1-8 {margin-top: 1.8em;} + .abst2 {margin-top: 2em;} + .abst8 {margin-top: 8em;} + .abst10 {margin-top: 10em;} + .xebookmaker .abst10 {margin-top: 2em;} + + + .unten0-5 {margin-bottom: 0.5em;} + .unten1-1 {margin-bottom: 1.1em;} + .unten1-5 {margin-bottom: 1.5em;} + .unten1-8 {margin-bottom: 1.8em;} + .unten8 {margin-bottom: 8em;} + .unten10 {margin-bottom: 10em;} + .xebookmaker .unten10 {margin-bottom: 2em} + + .hoeh1-3 {font-size: 1.3em;} + + .fett {font-weight: bold;} + .durch {line-height: 1.9em;} + + .center2 { + display: block; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + max-width: 90%; + height: auto; + } + + .centerpic {max-width: 90%; + height: auto; + display: block; + margin: auto; + } + + .descript {text-indent: -2em; + margin-left: 2em;} + + table.center { margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + width: 85%; + max-width: 20em; + } + + tr.rechts {text-align: right; + font-variant: small-caps; + } + + th { text-align: right; + font-weight: normal; + } + + td.rechts {text-align: right; + padding-right: 2em; + padding-left: 0.3em; + vertical-align: top; + } + td.rechts1 {text-align: right; + padding-left: 0.3em; + vertical-align: top; + } + + td.serve1 {font-variant: small-caps; + padding-left: 1.1em; + font-family: Arial, Helvetica;} + + .capter { page-break-before: always; } + x-ebookmaker .capter + { page-break-before: always } + + .eocapter { page-break-after: always; } + + .nobreak {page-break-before: avoid; + page-break-after: avoid;} + + .trnote { + font-family: sans-serif; + font-size: small; + background-color: #ccc; + color: #000; + border: black 1px dotted; + margin: 2em; + padding: 0.3em 1em 2.25em 1.5em; + text-align: justify; + + } + </style> +</head> + +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75326 ***</div> + + + <div class = "trnote"> + <p class = "fett zentriert">TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE + </p> + + <div class = "unten0-5">Some minor misspellings in the text are + silently corrected. + </div> + + <div class = "unten0-5"> + The numbering of the drawings does not correspond to their marked + number. However, they have been left as they are, as the author + has entered them by hand in the drawings. + </div> + + <div class = "unten0-5"> + In the table on the color of the oxide layer of tempered steel + in the tempering section, the first column has been set without + trailing commas, as the author has handled this inconsistently. + </div> + + <div> + The new original cover art included with this + eBook is granted to the public domain. + </div> + </div> + + + <div class = "abst10 unten10 capter"> + <div class = "pre1">A FEW SECRETS OF THE + </div> + <div class = "pre2 abst0-8">METALLURGIST + </div> + <div class = "pre1 abst0-8">SIMPLY TOLD + </div> + </div> + + <div class = "abst10 unten10 capter"> + <div class = "pre3">ATLAS CRUCIBLE STEEL CO. + </div> + <div class = "pre4 abst0-4">PUBLISHERS + </div> + <div class = "pre3 abst0-4">DUNKIRK, N. Y. + </div> + </div> + + <section class = "zentriert eocapter"> + <div class = "unten10"> + <h1 class = "durch"> + <span style = "font-size: 0.9em; font-family: Arial, Helvetica; + font-weight: lighter; letter-spacing: 0.3em"> + A FEW SECRETS OF THE + </span><br> + <span style = "font-size: 1.1em;font-family: Arial, Helvetica; + font-weight: lighter; letter-spacing: 0.1em"> + METALLURGIST + </span><br> + <span style = "font-size: 0.9em; font-family: Arial, Helvetica; + font-weight: lighter; letter-spacing: 0.3em"> + SIMPLY TOLD + </span> + </h1> + </div> + + <div class = "unten1-1">BY + </div> + <div class = "pre3 unten0-5">GERALD W. HINKLEY, M. E. + </div> + <div class = "unten1-8 durch">CORNELL UNIVERSITY<br> + ORDNANCE ENGINEER<br> + AND ASSISTANT TO PRESIDENT<br> + ATLAS CRUCIBLE STEEL CO.<br> + DUNKIRK, N. Y. + </div> + + <div class = "unten1-1 abst8">FIRST EDITION + </div> + + + </section> + + + <div class = "zentriert abst8 unten8 durch eocapter"> + <span style = "letter-spacing: 0.2em"> COPYRIGHTED 1918 + </span><br> + <span style = "font-size: 0.8em">BY + </span><br> + <span style = "font-size: 0.55em; letter-spacing: 0.1em"> + PRESS OF DUNKIRK PRINTING COMPANY + </span> + </div> + + <div class = "zentriert hoeh1-3 abst1-8"> + PREFACE. + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + This is not and is not intended to be a + thoroughly complete explanation or discussion + of the allotropic theory of iron + and steel, but rather a brief outline of a + few of the great principles of metallurgy + written primarily for the layman. If + without leading him astray from the real + scientific understanding of the subject we + have succeeded in briefly but satisfactorily + answering the old familiar question, + "Why do steels harden?", we will in a + large measure, have accomplished our purpose. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Besides the personal observations which + the writer has made from time to time in + the metallurgical laboratory, he has availed + himself freely of the works of many + and eminent authors dealing with this + subject and where disputable conditions + have arisen in regard to certain theories, + uses, etc., has attempted to adopt the + most logical consensus of opinion. + </p> + + <div style = "margin-left: 80%; margin-top: -1.1em"> + G. W. H. + </div> + + + <div class = "capter"> + <div class = "zentriert hoeh1-3 abst1-8">CONTENTS. + </div> + + <hr class = "unten1-8 abst1-8"> + + <div class = "pre3a">A FEW SECRETS OF THE<br> + METALLURGIST<br> + SIMPLY TOLD. + </div> + + <hr> + + + <table class = "center"> + + <tr class = "rechts"> + <td colspan = "2">Page</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>INTRODUCTION</td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-17">17</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan = "2">CHAPTER I.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">A Slight Test of the Imagination + </div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href ="#anker-19">19</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan = "2">CHAPTER II.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Comparison Between Conditions + Which Exist in the Iron and + Steel Family to Those Which + Exist with More Familiar Elements</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-22">22</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan = "2">CHAPTER III.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">An Experiment Performed with + a Piece of Pearlitic Steel</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-29">29</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan = "2">CHAPTER IV.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">High Speed Steel</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-51">51</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan = "2">CHAPTER V.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">The General Effect of the More + Important Elements in Tool + Steels</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-611">61</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Carbon Steels</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-612">61</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Alloy Steels</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-63">63</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">High Speed Steels</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-64">64</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Elements Which Occur in all + Steels</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-661">66</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Iron</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-662">66</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Carbon</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-671">67</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Manganese</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-672">67</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Silicon</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-68">68</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Phosphorus</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-69">69</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Sulphur</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-701">70</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Elements Which Have Become + Especially Associated with + Special Alloy Steels</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-702">70</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Chromium</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-703">70</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Tungsten</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-72">72</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Molybdenum</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-731">73</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Vanadium</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-732">73</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Cobalt</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-74">74</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Uranium, Titanium and Aluminum</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-751">75</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Impurities</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-752">75</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Heat Treatment</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-76">76</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Hardening</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-77">77</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Annealing</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-79">79</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Tempering</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-81">81</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Conclusion</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-84">84</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan = "2">CHAPTER VI.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">What Tool Steel Is Doing Towards + Winning the War</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-85">85</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td colspan = "2">APPENDIX.</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Analysis, Uses and Heat Treatment + of Various Grades of Tool Steels</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-92">92</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">High Speed Steels</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-93">93</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Die Steel for Hot Work</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-94">94</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Special Alloy Steel</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-95">95</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Semi-High Speed Steel</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-96">96</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Simple Carbon Tool Steel</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-97">97</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Non-Shrinking Oil Hardening + Steel</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-98">98</a></td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class = "serve1"> + <div class = "gerueckt1">Special Hot Work Alloy Steel</div> + </td> + <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-99">99</a></td> + </tr> + </table> + </div> + + <div class = "abst2 capter zentriert"> + + <div class = "pre3a fett">A FEW SECRETS OF THE<br> + METALLURGIST<br> + SIMPLY TOLD + </div> + + <div class = "abst1-8 nobreak"> + <h3 id = "anker-17">INTRODUCTION.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + When as a student at a Technical College + of one of our great Universities, I + came to the study of Differential and + Integral Calculus, I remember that I + was seized with a kind of mental paralysis + at the thought of the great unknown + that lay before me. Fortunately, however, + a little book was brought to my + attention, under the encouraging title + "Calculus Made Easy". As a matter + of fact the little volume did not attempt + to take its readers through all the intricacies + of the entire subject, but it did + succeed in giving a certain start on the + long journey which has to be undergone + by a student of the Calculus. Its + opening sentence was encouraging, + which I have always remembered, and + which read something as follows: + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + "What one fool can accomplish, + another fool can do, therefore take + courage". This same thought applies + to the subject which is now before us. + </p> + </div> + + + <div> + <div> + <h2 id = "anker-19" >CHAPTER I.</h2> + </div> + + <div> + <h3 class = "nobreak">A SLIGHT TEST OF THE IMAGINATION.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + We live in a world in which certain + conditions of the atmosphere and the + so-called elements surrounding our + daily existence, are entirely familiar to + us. From force of habit we are likely + to forget that had Nature, for instance, + been planned under a different range + of livable temperatures, all the familiar + objects of our daily existence would + have existed under entirely different + form. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + For instance, if the normal temperature + had been about 2700 degrees + Fahrenheit instead of about 60 degrees + Fahrenheit, and we had been constructed + so that we could comfortably endure + that degree of temperature, we + could have gone sailing on a sea of + molten iron, in boats built of plumbago + crucibles, and oars made of silica brick. + Under these delightful conditions we + could place frozen lumps of our sea + of iron in our ice boxes for refrigeration. + Flat irons and stove lids would + therefore have been the product of the + ice man. The water with which we are + now familiar, of course, could not exist + in its liquid form, or even as steam, but + instead as a highly gaseous state, which + we would probably have been called + upon to breathe. Certain other substances + with which we are perfectly + familiar in our daily life, such as the + common stick sulphur, for instance, + would exist in an entirely different + <b>physical</b> state, although their <b>chemical</b> + properties would be entirely unchanged, + and we would be given to understand + that an "allotropic" transformation had + taken place. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + If we can now imagine ourselves as + existing under the relative conditions + described above, which are undoubtedly + the "natural" conditions of some other + world, it will then be easy for us to + understand quite clearly some of the + other "allotropic" forms of iron and + steel than those with which we are at + present familiar. + </p> + </div> + + + <div> + <div> + <h2 id = "anker-22">CHAPTER II.</h2> + </div> + + <div class = "nobreak"> + <h3>COMPARISON BETWEEN CONDITIONS WHICH<br> + EXIST IN THE IRON AND STEEL FAMILY<br> + TO THOSE WHICH EXIST WITH<br> + MORE FAMILIAR ELEMENTS.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + One of the first physical changes + which we would discover would be that + when we desired to "freeze" a "crucible" + pailful of our iron water, we + could do so much more easily if the + same were in its absolutely pure state + than we could if it were mixed with + some other element, such as carbon. + Of course, we have long known that + this is the case with water and salt, and + just as it becomes harder and harder to + freeze water with greater and greater + percentages of salt mixed with it, so + the freezing of iron with greater and + greater percentages of carbon mixed + with it, would also occur at lower and + lower temperatures. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + If we started to add salt to a pail + of water we, of course, would have different + degrees of brine. Just so with + the addition of carbon to a crucible of + pure iron, we would likewise have different + degrees of the resulting mixture. + In adding the salt to the pailful + of water, we would arrive at a point + where the water had absorbed all of + the salt which it was capable of holding + at room temperature. If we had added + a little less salt we would have had free + water in excess of salt, and if we had + added a little more salt it would have + been impossible for the water to have + dissolved it, and we would, therefore, + have had salt in excess of water. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + For convenience we will call the mixture + above mentioned, at which the + water had become thoroughly saturated + with the salt, "cementite", because + this is the name which our friends, the + metallurgists, have given to a similar + mixture of iron and carbon. They call + the water, "ferrite"; the salt, "carbide" + and the resulting mixture of brine, + "cementite". This mixture of iron and + carbon always exists in exactly the + same ratio, namely, 93.4% iron and + 6.6% carbon, and is expressed chemically + by the symbol Fe3C, which means, + in other words, that three "atoms" of + iron have united with one "<i>atom</i>" of + carbon to form the "chemical compound", + "iron carbide", which the metallurgists, + as above mentioned, desire + to term "Cementite". + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Now let us go back to the brine + solution with which we are already + familiar, and suppose that we added a + little more salt than the water could + absorb, and which therefore would exist + in a "solid solution", and then bring this + "mechanical mixture" to such a low + temperature that it would actually + "freeze". For convenience, and in + order to agree with the metallurgists + again, let us call the resulting structure + "pearlite". That is the name which + they have given to a corresponding + "mechanical mixture" of cementite and + ferrite. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + This new constituent "pearlite" contains + approximately O.9% carbon and + consists of inter-stratified layers or + bands of ferrite and cementite. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + It is regarded as a separate and distinct + constituent of steel, and takes its + name from the fact that it has a mother of + pearl-like appearance under the microscope. + It always occurs at a definite range + of temperature and always contains the + above mentioned definite percentage + of carbon. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + From the above it may be suspected + that a steel containing O.9% carbon, + consisting entirely of pearlite, forms + rather a special and particular class of + steels, which the metallurgists have decided + to dignify with the title "Eutectoid + Steels". Having done this much + to properly impress the unsuspecting + probers of their secrets, they decided + to call steels containing less than this + Eutectoid ratio of carbon (0.9% C) + "Hypo-eutectoid Steels". These steels, + of course, contain certain definite + amounts of pearlite with other amounts + of free or excess ferrite. Likewise, if + the carbon content is greater than O.9% + there will be an excess of cementite + over the ferrite and we will then have + a structure of pearlite plus free cementite. + And these steels are spoken of + as "hyper-eutectoid" steels. + </p> + + + <div class = "capter eocapter"> + <div style = "width: 90%"> + <img class = "centerpic" src = "images/i_25-1.jpg" + alt = "The magnified cross-section of a hypo-eutectoid + steel bar shows dark pearlite inclusions in a + light-colored ferrite structure."> + </div> + <div class = "descript abst0-4 unten1-8"> + Hypo-eutectoid Steel. Carbon .11%. Structure: + Light—Ferrite; Dark—Pearlite. Mag. 500x + </div> + + <div style = "width: 90%"> + <img class = "centerpic" src = "images/i_25-2.png" + alt = "The magnified cross-section of a hypo-eutectoid + steel bar with a high carbon content shows a + conglomerate of dark pearlite particles. + The interstices are filled with a light-colored + ferrite structure."> + </div> + <div class = "descript abst1-8 unten1-8"> + Hypo-eutectoid Steel. Carbon .37%. Structure: + Light—Ferrite; Dark—Pearlite. Mag. 500x + </div> + </div> + + <div class = "capter eocapter"> + <div style = "width: 90%"> + <img class = "centerpic" src = "images/i_26-1.jpg" + alt = "The magnified sectional view of a eutectoid + steel rod is characterized by finely distributed structures."> + </div> + <div class = "descript abst0-4 unten1-8"> + Eutectoid Steel. Carbon .90%. Structure: Fine + uniform Pearlitic condition. Mag. 500x + </div> + + <div style = "width: 90%"> + <img class = "centerpic" src = "images/i_26-2.jpg" + alt = "In the enlarged section of a hyper-eutectoid steel + rod, the pearlites are sharply delineated by cementites."> + </div> + <div class = "descript abst0-4 unten1-8"> + Hyper-eutectoid Steel. Carbon 1.20%. Structure: + Dark—Pearlitic; White boundaries—Cementite. + Mag. 500x + </div> + </div> + </div> + + <div> + <div> + <h2 id = "anker-29">CHAPTER III.</h2> + </div> + + <div class = "nobreak"> + <h3>AN EXPERIMENT PERFORMED WITH A<br> + PIECE OF PEARLITIC STEEL.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein">However, let us not trouble ourselves + with too many definitions at one time, + but instead amuse ourselves for a while + by running through a little experiment + with a piece of carbon tool steel similar + to that which we have just been discussing. + For our investigation we will + also need a special kind of thermometer + for measuring high temperatures. + Such an instrument is known as a + "pyrometer". Now we will drill a little + hole in the test piece of carbon steel + and after inserting the "couple" of the + pyrometer into it, place the same in + the electric furnace. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + As the current is turned on, the test + piece begins to grow warm and then + hotter and hotter, gradually up through + a range of temperatures which are continually + recorded by the needle of the + pyrometer. 800, 900, 1000, 1200 degrees + Fahrenheit are uniformly reached, + and the temperature of our test + piece continues to rise, as the absorption + of heat progresses. Suddenly, + however, the test piece assumes a + bright glow and the needle of the pyrometer + ceases to advance, and we note + that it is pausing at about 1350 degrees + Fahrenheit. Then after its pause, the + advance is again resumed until the + piece has become almost ready to melt. + By plotting the uniform periods of time + at which we read the different temperatures + recorded by the needle of the + pyrometer, against the temperatures + as read, we would have a picture of our + phenomenon something as follows: + </p> + + <div style = "width: 80%; margin-left: 2.1em;"> + <img class = "center2 abst2 unten1-5" + src = "images/i_29.jpg" + alt = "Graph showing the course of the temperature curve as a + function of the heating time of the metal sample."> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Now let us begin to let our test piece + cool off gradually. The temperature + of the furnace is lowered and the uniform + range of cooling temperatures is + recorded by the ever sensitive needle + of the pyrometer. Suddenly as before, + the test piece assumes the brilliant + glow noted previously, and again the + needle comes to rest, but this time we + note that the recorded temperature is + about 1250 degrees Fahrenheit instead + of 1350 degrees Fahrenheit as before. + Evidently there has been a certain + tardiness or "lag" which has caused the + phenomenon to take place a little too + high going up and a little too low coming + down, and in fact the metallurgists + tell us that such is exactly the case, and + that the real point in which we are interested + lies just half way between the + two points indicated, as we shall presently + see. If we again represent the + results of our latest experiment graphically, + we would have a picture something + as Fig. 2. + </p> + + <div style = "width: 80%; margin-left: 2.2em"> + <img class = "center2" src = "images/i_30.jpg" + alt = "Graph of the cooling curve of the metal sample over time"> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Now placing the second curve so obtained + on the first, we are able to + study the following interesting relationship. + Fig. 3. + </p> + + <div style = "width: 80%; margin-left: 2.1em;"> + <img class = "center2 abst2 unten1-8" src = "images/i_31.jpg" + alt = "Graph combining the heating- and cooling-curves from + before and demonstrating the critical range"> + </div> + + <p class = "ein">It is natural to suspect that both of + the parallel sections of our curves have + something to do with the same thing, + and for convenience since we noticed + that mysterious glow of the test piece + just as the needle came to rest, we + might call the particular point which + lies just half way between the temperatures + under discussion, the point of + glow, or as the metallurgists call it, + the "point of recalescence" and the + range between these two temperatures + the "critical range". + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + I suppose it would be difficult to + explain this phenomenon of the test + piece unless we imagine that as the + critical range is reached some internal + reaction of the steel causes it to spontaneously + take on heat at the same + temperature in the first place and give + off the stored heat at the same temperature + as the piece was being cooled down, + and this heat caused it to glow as was + noticed. Now if we were to experiment + further with our piece while at + the critical range, we would find certain + other remarkable changes, one of + the most noticeable of which is the + loss of magnetism at and above the + critical range. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Irons and steels are usually the most + magnetic materials, but the attraction + of the magnet is completely lost at or + above the critical range. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + We can easily satisfy ourselves in + this respect by noting the attraction + of a simple horse shoe magnet when + our piece of test steel is brought into + its magnetic field. As the pyrometer + needle passes on up through the range + of temperatures noted above, the magnetic + attraction is perfectly evident + when suddenly the recalescence point + is reached, the spell is broken and the + magnet and the test piece fall apart. + But let us just consider this phenomenon + a moment. We are told by the + physicists that magnetism is induced + in a piece of iron or steel by a "rearrangement + of the internal molecular + structure, in which the positive ions + face one direction and the negative ions + in the opposite direction". Therefore, + if magnetism suddenly ceases to exist + it would seem as if something had happened + to the "internal molecular structure" + of the test piece. Thus when the + recalescence point is reached we may + conclude that something more than a + mere absorption of heat units has taken + place. In fact we may really believe + that an actual internal molecular revolution + has occurred and that some + of the natural laws which formerly had + governed all of these little molecules + which go to make up the whole piece + of steel, have been overthrown and that + the molecules are more or less free to + set up a new form of government for + themselves, and that, therefore, when + a piece of steel is brought to the recalescence + point it is really in a very + sensitive condition. In fact, if we + should care to investigate further we + should find that certain other great + changes take place at this critical point, + such, for instance, as partial failure of + the test piece to conduct an electric + current, which formerly, of course, it + did with great ease. Also when the + critical range is reached, a peculiar contraction + of size interrupts the gradual + expansion which had been developing + as the test piece absorbed heat units, + and therefore these several observations + give us reason to believe that our + conclusions as noted above must be + more or less correct. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Now if all steels acted exactly like + the little test piece which we have been + observing above as they were placed + in the hardening furnace, it would not + take us very much longer to finish our + preliminary investigations. You remember + the piece of steel which we + have been investigating was a piece + of simple carbon tool steel, containing + about 0.90% carbon. But all steels do + not contain just this same percentage of + carbon, and may also contain various + elements other than carbon, all of which + produce many and varied results during + the process of heating, treating and + hardening. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + In order to better visualize the investigation + which we are making, let + us picture graphically each step which + we take. If therefore, we let the vertical + lines represent the different carbon + contents which steel might have, + and the horizontal lines the different + degrees of temperatures through which + we might desire to heat the steel under + discussion and then plotted the phenomenon + described above we would have + a picture something as follows: + </p> + + <div style = "width: 80%"> + <img class = "center2 abst2 unten1-8" src = "images/i_36.png" + alt = "Graph showing the point of recalescence"> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Now all that picture means is that + as we heated up a piece of simple carbon + tool steel containing O.9% C, we discovered + a certain very noticeable reaction + which occurred just about half + way between 1250 degrees and 1350 + degrees Fahrenheit, which we decided + to call the point of recalescence, and + then on further heating of the piece + no other such phenomenon was noticed. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Now let us go through the same + experiment with a piece of steel containing + .45% C. Yes, just as before, + as the temperature 1250 degrees Fahrenheit + is reached we note all the + strange symptoms which are characteristic + of the point of recalescence and + then, just as we are about to decide that + it is hardly necessary to go further we + notice that the pyrometer needle has + again come to rest, but that this time + it is registering 1390 degrees Fahrenheit. + Therefore, it would seem as if + this piece had two critical ranges instead + of one and we are now quite + ready to again proceed with our heating + to see if anything else occurs. + However, as nothing does happen we + turn to our picture and plot the two + points just observed, together with the + one point found on our first investigation, + and the drawing then looks something + as follows: + </p> + + <div style = "width: 80%"> + <img class = "center2 abst2 unten1-8" + src = "images/i_38.png" + alt = "Graph additional shows the recalescence of a + second sample containing a different rate of carbon"> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Now let us take a piece of carbon + steel as before, but this time containing + .15% carbon, and again proceed + with our observations. Again the + needle of the pyrometer records the + point of recalescence and also the point + designating the second range of critical + temperature, but this time strange to + say, as the test piece continues to absorb + heat, a third critical range is registered, + all of which when added to our + former picture gives a result something + as follows: + </p> + + <div style = "width: 80%"> + <img class = "center2 abst2 unten1-8" + src = "images/i_39.png" + alt = "Graph showing different behavior of + samples containing different rates of carbon"> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + By repeating the operations as outlined + above, with pieces of steel containing + various percentages of carbon + from zero to 1.25% and by plotting the + different critical temperatures so obtained, + we finally obtain a chart which + graphically expresses the critical ranges + of iron and steels due to the variation + of the carbon content. With very low + carbon steel it is interesting to note + that the first critical point would not + occur until 1395 degrees Fahrenheit + was reached. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Metallurgists have long designated + the lines so obtained by letters, "r", + standing for, "refroidissement", which + is the French word meaning "cooling", + the suffixes 1-2-3 simply standing for + the lines in the order drawn. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + From the completed chart it is + further evident that our first piece containing + 0.9% carbon in one way is the + most interesting of all since it is the + only case where only one point of critical + temperature occurs. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + It will be noticed from the chart that + steels containing less than .10% carbon + have no point Ar1 and it is therefore + undoubtedly due to the carbon content + that this, the point of recalescence, occurs. + From tests which we made with + the magnet we would also find that + the temperatures at which loss of magnetism + occurs are those designated by + the line Ar2, whereas the loss of + ability to conduct an electric current + occurs at the point designated Ar3. + In steels containing .45% carbon to + .75% carbon loss of magnetism and loss + of ability to conduct an electric current + occur at the same points designated on + our chart by the line Ar3-2; whereas + in the steel containing .90% carbon—all + these changes take place at the same + time. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Now, as we concluded before, it is + evident that some internal change must + have taken place in the steel itself, and + as we know that the chemical content + does not vary, it is further evident that + the change must be of a physical nature, + or as in the language of the + Metallurgist, an "allotropic change". + Therefore, another conclusion which + we can draw at this point is that a very + much more thorough investigation is + required for the proper handling of + steel at high temperatures than a mere + knowledge of the chemical analysis of + the same. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + There is one very fortunate circumstance + connected with the passing from + one of these allotropic changes to + another, and that is that the effecting + of one of these changes takes <b>time</b>. It + does not take a very long time, however, + for in some instances the change + is affected in a very small fraction of + a second, while rarely more than one + or two seconds are required. The + higher the temperature the quicker the + change. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Would it not be interesting if we + had been so constructed as outlined in + the beginning of this little volume; + that we could have withstood the high + temperatures in which some of these + very interesting changes occur, because + we could then handle the steel, examine + it and experiment with it at our leisure. + However, such not being the case, we + will have to derive some other means + for "catching" the steel while it is in + one of these interesting conditions, and + then bringing it in its entrapped condition + down to room temperature. How + shall we do it? Well, we remember + that we said it took <b>time</b> to effect the + changes under discussion and furthermore + we remember that the changes + can only take place when the steel is + within the proper critical range. + Therefore, if we could do something + to lower the temperature of a piece of + steel while in one of the critical ranges + before the steel had time to effect the + usual allotropic change of form, we + might be able to catch a piece of steel + while in one of these unusual conditions, + before it had really had time to + get back to normal. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Therefore, let us place a piece of .9% + carbon tool steel in the heating furnace + and bring it up to and beyond the point + of recalescence. Now, grasping the + piece firmly in a pair of tongs with all + possible speed we plunge it into a nearby + pail of ice water, keeping the steel + constantly in motion. Almost instantly + the steel becomes black and within a + few seconds is actually brought down + to room temperature. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Now let us take the steel out and + examine it. The act of tapping it on + the anvil in order to knock off the surplus + water gives us a hint that our test + piece has undergone some sort of a + change. For now it rings with a bell-like + clearness and gives the hammer + with which we strike it a quick snapping + rebound which in itself indicates + great hardness. Next, we test the + piece with a hardened steel file with + which we could easily have made a + deep ridge before we attempted the + heating operation and to our surprise + the file has as little effect as if it had + been made of wood. And to our surprise + on closer examination, we actually + find that our test piece has scratched + the file—surely it must be very hard. + We are convinced that some marked + change must have taken place. What + can it be? Why it must be that due + to the rapid cooling in the pail of ice + water we brought the temperature + of the test piece down below the critical + range <b>before</b> the abnormal condition + at which it existed while at and above + the critical range had found <b>time</b> to + change back to its former condition. + And we remember that if one of these + allotropic changes is going to take place + at all, nature says it <b>must</b> do so while + the steel is within the critical range + and therefore having forced the steel + through that critical range which + separates one allotropic condition from + another, before it had found <b>time</b> to + effect its desired change, we managed + to entrap the abnormal condition so + that we could see it and feel it and + get familiar with it at room temperature. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + If we so desire we can now make + other hardness tests on our piece of + steel at our leisure. For these scientists + have invented several machines. + One of the most common is called the + scleroscope in which a hardened steel + ball is allowed to drop from a given + height on to the piece of steel to be + tested. Then the rebound of the ball + is carefully noted. The higher the rebound, + the harder the piece. That is + natural isn’t it? We know that if the + ball were allowed to drop on butter, + it wouldn’t rebound at all, because the + butter is so soft. A piece of wood + would possibly record a very tiny rebound, + while a piece of hardened tool + steel would effect a very material action + of the scleroscope ball, thus indicating + extreme hardness. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Now let us take our test piece to + the grind stone and grind it down to + the shape of a cutting tool. It is necessary + to resort to the grind stone, in + order to get the desired shape, because + of course, our test piece is far too hard + to cut with any other metal. After + having produced a tool of the desired + shape and size, let us fasten the same + securely into the carriage of a lathe, + and then upon applying the cutting + edge to a revolving piece of cast iron, + or soft steel, or even to a piece of the + very same grade of steel out of which + the tool was made, only while it is + still in the softened or annealed condition, + we find that it is capable of easily + and quickly cutting out a good sized + ribbon of chips from the metal which + is to be machined. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + However, we are soon confronted + with a new difficulty, for as the cut + progresses, our tool runs into a rough + spot which causes it to tremble and + chatter and then suddenly our tool + cracks in two in the middle and is at + once completely ruined. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + It is evident that as we are able to + increase the desirable element of hardness + in a piece of tool steel, we also + automatically increase the undesirable + element of brittleness, and therefore + some new method must be devised + which will allow a sufficient degree of + hardness to allow the tool to cut other + metals and at the same time not cause + so much brittleness that it will crack + in two at the first rough spot which it + encounters. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + One method of assisting the toughening + of a piece of hardened tool steel + is accomplished by the process of + "drawing". This simply means heating + the piece of hardened tool steel + up to some fairly warm temperature, + which of course must be kept well below + the critical range (at which the + steel would jump at the chance to + quickly change back into one of its + softer allotropic forms) and then keeping + the steel at this drawing temperature + for a while until the unusual + strains and stress caused by the rapid + cooling have had an opportunity to + have become somewhat relieved. + Therefore, the process of "drawing" is + quite as important as is the first act + of hardening itself, and great care must + be exercised in undertaking the same. + </p> + </div> + + + <div> + <div> + <h2 id = "anker-51">CHAPTER IV.</h2> + </div> + + <div class = "nobreak"> + <h3>HIGH SPEED STEELS.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + After the processes of hardening and + drawing our sample of simple carbon + tool steel have become thoroughly + mastered, it might seem that all which + was desired had been accomplished and + that we could go on indefinitely making + and using our simple carbon steel tools. + However, when the extraordinary demands + of modern industry required + faster and faster cutting speeds, and + deeper and deeper cuts, we commenced + to realize that our familiar carbon tool + steels would not fill the bill. This was + due to the fact that as the tools became + pressed with the faster speeds + and deeper cuts, they could not do their + work without becoming over-heated by + the friction caused by the work of upsetting + the chip and therefore the critical + temperature was rapidly approached. + Of course we know that if this + temperature should be reached the + steel would quickly lose its hardness + and its cutting edge would therefore + be completely ruined. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Therefore, it was necessary to develop + a new kind of steel to meet a + new and severe condition and accordingly + the mother of experiment and + invention gave birth to the now famous + "High Speed" Steel. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + The general principles applying to + the hardening and drawing of High + Speed Steel are in many ways the same + as described above for the simple carbon + steel, except that as we begin to + add various elements other than carbon + to the melt, the resulting alloy becomes + more and more complex in its form and + reactions and therefore its heat treatment + causes greater and greater study + and skill in its successful undertaking. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + It is generally known among tool + hardeners that it is necessary to heat + the tool to a higher degree of temperature + in order to secure proper hardness + when using High Speed Steel than it + is when a simple Carbon Tool Steel is + employed. We are told that the introduction + of certain elements into the + melt of a simple Carbon Tool Steel + has the tendency to change the critical + range. Of course, the formulas used + in the manufacture of any high grade + High Speed Steel contain very appreciable + amounts of various elements + other than Carbon which materially + effect the property which the steel will + have when hard. The effect which + these elements appear to produce in the + period of critical range can be seen + from figure 7. + </p> + + <div style = "width: 80%"> + <img class = "center2 unten1-8" + src = "images/i_51.png" + alt = "Graph showing the complex behavior of + high speed steel during heating and + cooling over time and temperature"> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + In this case an experiment was made + with a piece of High Tungsten High + Speed Steel similar to the experiment + which was described in detail above with + the test piece of simple Carbon Tool Steel. + The readings of the pyrometer were carefully + recorded and when plotted on the + graph sheet produced the picture under + discussion. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Here it will be noticed that the vivid + reaction, which we might have expected + would occur as the temperature indicating + the first critical range was reached, + was materially reduced. This + might lead us to suspect that the desired + allotropic change had not completely + taken place at this point. In + fact we noticed that the pyrometer + needle did not record a vivid critical + point until a very much higher temperature + was reached. All of these + observations serve as a possible explanation + or indication of why it is necessary + to employ very much higher + temperatures in the hardening of High + Speed Steel than it is in the hardening + of a piece of simple Carbon Tool Steel. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + In a later chapter of this little volume + we define Carbon Steels as those which + do <b>not</b> contain enough of any element + other than carbon to materially affect + the physical properties which the steel + will have when hard. High Speed + Steels which are one of a very important + group of special alloy steels, are + those steels to which some element + <b>other</b> than carbon has been added in + sufficient amount to materially effect + the physical properties which the steel + will have when hard. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + The element which stands out alone + as the most vital and important one as + affecting the wonderful and highly desirable + features looked for in High + Speed Steels is Tungsten. We will discuss + the various effects which the different + elements give to the different + alloy steels in a later chapter, but for + the present we will confine ourselves + to a brief discussion of the heat treatment + of the now famous modern High + Speed Steel. + </p> + + + <div class = "abst0-4; style = width: 90%"> + <img class = "centerpic" src = "images/i_54.jpg" + alt = "High speed steel shows a granular fine + structure in the magnified section of a + hyper-eutectoid rod."> + </div> + <div class = "descript abst0-4 unten1-8"> + High Speed Steel. Carbon .58%. Structure: + Very fine pearlitic condition, with particles + of free carbide. Mag. 500x + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + As previously suggested the pressing + demand of modern industry for quicker + work, greater efficiency and enormously + increased out-put of product, gave + rise to the necessity of producing far + more remarkable tools than was possible + with the old fashioned carbon tool + steel. Therefore it became necessary + to produce a steel which could be rendered + sufficiently hard to cut deep furrows + in the various metals which have + to be machined and, which could be + made sufficiently tough to stand the + enormous cutting strains and chatter + and vibration of the machine, and at + the same time maintain all these characteristics + when the work done by upsetting + the chip of the machined member + actually rendered the cutting edge + of the tool red hot. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + After the seemingly impossible task + of producing a steel to meet these terrific + conditions had been successfully accomplished, + the next question which + arose was to produce a machine which + was sufficiently powerful to stand the + work done by the tool, and so fast has + been the progress made by the tool + steel producer, that many of our modern + manufacturing industries of today + are constantly having to introduce new + and heavier machinery into their various + machine shop and tool rooms in + order to keep pace with the possibilities + of the tool made from the modern + High Speed Steel. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Now, if we were to run an experiment + with a test piece made from High + Speed Steel similar to the one which + we ran on the simple Carbon Tool + Steel, we would find that many of the + same phenomena previously noticed + would again be recorded. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Probably the most important difference + would be the fact that instead of + having to quench the same in water + it would be desirable to use a bath of + oil. In fact, water would cause the + High Speed Steel to cool off far too + quickly so that it would be likely to + crack and be rendered useless. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + A peculiar action of the various elements + in High Speed Steel is very + likely to materially retard the change + of one allotropic form into another. In + fact, the change is so slow that after + a piece of High Speed Steel has been + heated above the critical temperature, + it will actually retain its hardened or + austenitic condition even if allowed to + cool in the air, and it would only be + possible to get it back into its softened + condition by the lengthy process of + annealing. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Annealing is the process of undoing + exactly what the act of hardening accomplished. + Long tubes are filled with + the tool steel bars and sealed from the + air and then placed into the annealing + furnaces, wherein the annealing temperature + is maintained for a sufficient + number of hours, until the steel has + had an opportunity to become + thoroughly softened. + </p> + + <p class = "ein abst1-8"> + As before stated "drawing" or "tempering" + means the careful re-heating + of the steel to 400 degrees Fahr. to + 600 degrees Fahr., thus allowing a + slight "slipping" of enough of the higher + allotropic solution to a lower form, + which it is always eager to accomplish + at temperatures near the point of recalescence. + This, of course, relieves + the excess brittleness of the hardened + steel. + </p> + + <p class = "ein abst1-8"> + Annealing is the complete release of + the higher allotropic form of the solution + and the "trapped" carbon which + allows of their return to the normal + condition of pearlite and alpha iron. + Therefore, it is necessary to heat the + steel above the point of recalescence + and cool more or less slowly. Different + speeds of cooling give different + grain, size, structure and physical property. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + This explanation of hardening, which + is known as the "allotropic theory" is + not universally accepted, although it + is difficult to find a better or more complete + explanation of the remarkable + phenomena involved. However, the fact + remains that the great accomplishments + which have been made by the men of + science and understanding have caused remarkable + results to have taken place in + the manufacturing world of today and + the fine and obscure lines which these + patient and careful laborers are continually + drawing upon the map of knowledge + are doing much to make the + world a better and safer and more + wonderful place in which to live. + </p> + </div> + + + <div> + <div> + <h2 id = "anker-611">CHAPTER V.</h2> + </div> + + <div class = "nobreak"> + <h3 style = "line-height: 1.9em"> + THE GENERAL EFFECT OF THE MORE<br> + IMPORTANT ELEMENTS IN TOOL STEELS.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + We know that all metals of engineering + nature are crystalline in character, + that is, the crystals form when the metal + solidifies. If these crystals were + free it would be easy to determine definitely + just what properties the metal + would have. However, the crystals are + not free, but exist in the steel in combination + with many other types of + crystals. This results in many complicated + and complex possibilities in the + finished product, and will bring us presently + to the subject of "Alloy Steels". + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-612"> + CARBON STEELS.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Carbon Steels are those which do + <b>not</b> contain enough of any element + <b>other</b> than carbon to materially affect + the physical properties which the steel + will have when hard. Carbon is one + element used above all others by manufacturers + in getting required physical + properties. An increase of one hundredth + of one per cent (.01%) gives a + tensile strength of about one thousand + pounds per square inch, but even this + amount of carbon also regularly decreases + the ductility of the finished + product. When steel is heated red hot + and plunged into water, the carbon in + the metal unites with the iron in some + peculiar way so that it produces a compound + of extreme hardness. If the + steel contains nine-tenths of one per + cent (.90%) of carbon, a sharp point + so quenched will almost scratch glass. + With one per cent (1.00%) of carbon + it reaches nearly its limit of hardness. + Now carbon steels with this percentage + carbon can be used for some of + the harder tools, which do not require + much ductility or toughness, but with + higher carbon contents than this percentage, + the brittleness increases so + fast that the usefulness of the metal + is decidedly limited. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Therefore, when the steel must + meet requirements other than just that + of hardness, such as, strength, ductility, + toughness, resistance to repeated + shock, "red hardness", etc., then it is + necessary to resort to other means and + combinations for obtaining the required + needs. It is to be remembered that + such methods and combinations will + materially increase the cost of the final + product. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-63" + >ALLOY STEELS.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + What is an alloy steel? The + general definition of an alloy steel is, + "a solidified solution of two or more + metallic substances". The International + Committee upon the nomenclature + of iron and steel defines alloy + steels as "those steels which owe their + properties chiefly to the presence of an + element (or elements) <b>other</b> than carbon". + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + This latter definition more nearly + applies to our case, but it must be born + in mind that the distinction between an + element added merely to produce a + slight benefit to ordinary carbon steel, + and the very same element added to + produce an alloy steel itself, is sometimes + a very delicate one. For example: + Manganese is added in + amounts usually less than 1.50% to all + Bessemer and Open-Hearth Steels, for + the purpose of getting rid of oxygen, + and neutralizing the effect of the sulphur. + But this does not produce an + Alloy Steel. When we make "manganese + steel" containing 10 to 20% + manganese, the material then has properties + quite different from the same + steel without the manganese, and we + then have a Manganese Alloy Steel. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Thus, for our purpose, we may + consider an alloy steel as being one to + which some element <b>other</b> than carbon + has been added in sufficient amount to + materially affect the physical properties + which the steel will have when + hard. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-64"> + HIGH SPEED STEELS.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + High Speed Steels are perhaps the + most important of alloy steels, and derive + their name from the fact that they + can be used as cutting tools when the + cut on the machined member is being + made at a high speed. This, of course, + subjects the tool to severe operating + conditions, which simple carbon steels + could not stand. These steels have + other notable characteristics, among + which is that of "self-hardening" or + "air-hardening", as it is sometimes + called. This means, when the steel + cools naturally in the air, from a red + heat or above, it is not soft like ordinary + steel, but is hard and capable of + cutting other metals. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Another striking characteristic of + high speed steels is their ability to + maintain a sharp cutting edge while + heated to a temperature far above that + which would at once destroy the cutting + ability of a simple tool steel. Because + of this property, a tool made of + high speed steel can be made to cut + continuously at speeds three to five + times as great as that practicable with + other tools. The result of the friction + of the chip on the tool may cause the + tool to become red hot at the point on + top where the chip rubs hardest, and + the chip may, itself, by its friction on + the tool, and the internal work done on + it, by upsetting it, be heated to a blue + heat, or even hotter. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-661"> + ELEMENTS WHICH OCCUR IN + ALL STEELS.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + There are certain elements which + are practically always found in <b>any</b> kind + of steel. These elements are capable + of producing many varied effects on + the finished product. They are Iron, + Carbon, Manganese, Silicon, Phosphorous + and Sulphur. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-662"> + IRON.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + The base of all steels is Iron. It + goes without saying that this element + should be obtained in the best and + purest state possible. Probably the + best "base" iron comes largely from + Sweden, which country seems to have + produced the highest quality of iron + on the market today. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-671"> + CARBON.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Carbon has already been discussed + under Carbon Steels, although, of + course, its importance in Alloy Steels + must not be under-estimated. The + proportion of carbon aimed at in high + speed tool steels is about 0.65%, which + in simple steel would not be enough to + give the maximum hardness, even if + the steel were heated above the critical + point and quenched in water, and still + less so when the steel is cooled as slowly + as these steels are in their treatment. + This shows that the carbon element + acts in a different way from what it + does in simple carbon steels as previously + discussed. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-672"> + MANGANESE.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Manganese Steel is a typical self-hardening + steel and so, obviously, is + any steel which is in the austenitic condition + at atmospheric temperatures, + that is to say, whose critical temperature + is below atmospheric temperature. + Thus, self-hardening steels are non-magnetic. + Because of its low-yield + point, manganese steel does not give + satisfaction in many lines, for which + otherwise it might be eminently fitted. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Manganese used in <b>small</b> quantities + (.30% to 1.50%) will produce certain + desired effects. Under these conditions + it acts as a purifier. And when + added in the form of Ferro Manganese + to a heat of steel it unites with the + oxygen and transforms it to slag as + oxide of manganese. There is also + good reason for believing that manganese + prevents the coarse crystallization, + which impurities such as Phosphorus + and Sulphur would otherwise + produce. Five per cent to 14% manganese + renders the steel non-magnetic as well + as a poor conductor of electricity. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-68"> + SILICON.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + The dividing line between silicon-treated + steels and silicon-alloy steels is + not clearly defined, but the latter are + used for several important purposes. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Such steel has been used in springs + of the leaf type for automobiles and + other vehicles, the silicon being considered + to add slightly to the toughness + of the springs. However, the most + important use of steels of this type is + probably in the manufacture of electrical + machinery. It is possible to produce + a silicon-alloy steel which has not + only a greater magnetic permeability + than the purest iron, but also, a high + electrical resistance. Its hysteresis is, + of course, low, this property always accompanying + a high permeability. It + therefore is a very valuable material + for use in electro-magnets, and in electric + generating machinery, is the most + efficient material known. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + In silicon-treated steels, the silicon + is used somewhat as a scavenger, although + it also produces results somewhat + similar to manganese. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-69"> + PHOSPHORUS.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Phosphorus has little effect upon + the hot properties, but in the cold state + makes the steel brittle and is of course + highly undesirable although some + writers have claimed that it adds to + the tensile strength in about the same + degree as carbon. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-701"> + SULPHUR.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Sulphur has just the opposite effect + of Phosphorus, and makes the + steel crack while it is being hot worked, + although after the metal is cold it + seems to have no particular effect upon + the physical properties. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-702"> + ELEMENTS WHICH HAVE BECOME + ESPECIALLY ASSOCIATED WITH SPECIAL ALLOY STEELS.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein">Such elements are:—Chromium, + Tungsten, Molybdenum, Vanadium, + Cobalt, Uranium, Titanium, Aluminum, + etc. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-703"> + CHROMIUM.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Chromium is an indispensable constituent + in modern high speed steel, + and does not make a poor high speed + steel, even when used alone. The chief + effect which chromium produces in high + speed steels is undoubtedly that of + "hardening". However, chromium, + like carbon, will produce brittleness, if + added in too large quantities, although + if kept down to between 2 to 5% it + seems to allow the lowering of the carbon + element, while at the same time + maintaining the desired hardening effect, + without causing undue brittleness. + The great hardness in the face of an + armor plate, and the great toughness + in the back of the plate, also the superb + properties in the projectile which attempts + to pierce the plate, can all be + induced in chromium steels to a degree + unattainable by the use of any other + single element. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + As a simple chromium steel the + product may be used in five-ply plates + for the manufacture of safes. These + plates are made of five alternate layers, + two of chrome steel and three of soft + steel, and after having been hardened, + offer resistance to the drilling tools employed + by burglars. Hardened chromium + rolls are manufactured for use + in cold-rolling metals. Files, ball and + roller-bearings are other noted products + of this type of steel. It is the + essential constituent of those steels + which neither rust nor tarnish. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-72"> + TUNGSTEN.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + It was soon found that the composition + of "self-hardening" steels was + not the best one for high speed steels. + Tungsten was discovered as an element + which gave the steel properties + of hardness and toughness at a red + heat. After the peculiar heat treatment + had been learned, and the presence + of manganese or chromium in + addition to the tungsten was shown to + be unnecessary in appreciable amounts, + it was found that more durable qualities + could be obtained by increasing + the percentage of tungsten, while at + the same time the carbon element was + greatly reduced. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + The best grade of High Speed Steel + ought to have a tungsten content of + about 18.00% and a carbon content of + about 0.65%. Thus whenever a steel is + needed which must operate under especially + severe conditions, this would + be the steel to use. Such conditions + are usually met in the case of rapid + turning, boring, planing, slotting and + shaping tools, also with twist drills and + all forms of milling cutters, gear cutters, + taps, reamers, special dies, etc. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-731"> + MOLYBDENUM.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Molybdenum was once thought of + as being somewhat in a class with + tungsten, but its use in high speed tool + steels is being generally discontinued. + The reason for this is that it was found + that in rapid steels this element caused + irregular performance, such as large + variations in the cutting speeds which + they would stand. This element is + also likely to make the steels seamy + and contain physical imperfections. + Molybdenum steels were also found to + crack on quenching, and possess decided + variations in internal structure. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-732"> + VANADIUM.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Vanadium steels are still in their + infancy. Therefore, the true value of + this element in rapid steels must probably + be held as not yet fully determined. + With the single exception of + carbon, no element has such a powerful + effect upon steel as vanadium, for it is + only necessary to use from 0.10 to + 0.15% in order to obtain very noticeable + results. In addition to acting as + a very great strengthener of steel, especially + against dynamic strains, vanadium + also serves as a scavenger in getting + rid of oxygen and possibly nitrogen. + It is also said to decrease segregation, + which we may readily believe, + as most of the elements which quiet the + steel have this effect. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + "Vanadium Steels" demand a + somewhat higher price than do those + steels which do not contain this element + in appreciable amounts. It is, of + course, especially useful for all purposes + where strength and lightness are + desired, such as springs, axles, frames + and other parts of railroad rolling + stock, and automobiles. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-74"> + COBALT.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + The valuable effect of cobalt is + claimed to be that it increases the red + hardness of high speed tool steel, enabling + the steel to cut at a higher + speed. However, this element much + resembles nickel, which has been largely + condemned as not being a desirable + ingredient for high speed tool steels, + because it has the effect of making the + edge of the finished tool soft or + "leady". + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-751"> + URANIUM, TITANIUM AND + ALUMINUM.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + These elements are generally classed + as scavengers, although recently important + claims have been advanced for + their effect upon the physical properties + of steel. This is especially true for the + first two. In present practice, however, + they are used almost entirely as + deoxidizers or cleansers, and are added + to the metal for this purpose only. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-752"> + IMPURITIES.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Phosphorus, Sulphur and Copper + are the most noted impurities which + occur in steel. The first two are practically + always present in greater or + smaller amounts as the case may be. + The best processes of tool steel manufacture + are capable of producing steels + with no copper. While Aluminum is + not generally classed as an impurity, + it nevertheless sometimes shows up in + the finished product when its presence + is not desired, and therefore, might be + considered an impurity. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Combinations of iron with some or + all of the above elements in the form + of slags and oxides are other well + known impurities. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + From the forgoing pages it must be + evident that producing a steel with + exactly the correct chemical content is + only <b>one</b> step towards securing a satisfactory + product. However, it might be + well if we were to briefly sum up a + few of the more important features of + our discussion on this interesting subject. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-76"> + HEAT TREATMENT.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + The heat treatment of tool steels is of + the utmost importance. Tool makers + of the old school proved their ability + to accomplish certain desired results in + the art of heat treatment without really + fully understanding exactly how or + why they were able to do so. Today, + however, progressive manufacturers + are using the results of research and + such thorough scientific investigation + that the process has become far more + complicated and complex, and the results + obtained are correspondingly + more remarkable. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Chemically perfect steel may be + easily and completely ruined during + the process of melting, cogging, rolling, + hammering, annealing, heat treating + and tempering. It is the business + of the steel manufacturer to carefully + guard his product up through the process + of annealing, but it usually falls to + the tool maker to undertake the delicate + operations of heat treatment and + tempering. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-77"> + HARDENING.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + The application of heat alone to + steel can very materially affect the + condition of the structure of the metal, + either with or without simultaneous + mechanical treatment. Depending upon + the degree of heat, the rate of heating + and cooling and the duration of + such treatment, this application may be + decidedly beneficial or harmful as the + case may be. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + We now know that when steel is + heated above the critical point, and is + then allowed to rapidly cool, a very + marked hardness in the metal is produced. + The degree of hardness so attained + will, in general, vary directly + with (1) the percentage of carbon, (2) + the rate of cooling, (3) and the temperature + above the critical point from + which the cooling takes place. When + the steel comes from the rolling mill + and from the finishing hammers it is + in this hardened condition. Therefore, + in order to render it soft and ductile + enough to cut and work up into certain + desired shapes, sizes and tools, it is + necessary to subject the steel to the + process of annealing. This operation + is usually undertaken by the steel producer, + under which circumstances he + is able to control his product through + this delicate procedure, and deliver the + same to his customers in the best possible + condition for their use. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-79"> + ANNEALING.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Annealing has for its object: (1) + Completely undoing the effect of hardening, + leaving the steel soft and ductile + (2) refining the grain, in which case + the crystals are allowed to re-arrange + and re-adjust themselves, usually growing + to a rather large size (3) and removing + strains and stresses caused by + too rapid cooling. Such cooling + strains are particularly likely to exist + where the rate of cooling is different in + different parts of the bar, but the process + of annealing ought to remedy any + such condition, leaving the steel soft, + ductile and of refined and uniform + crystalline structure throughout. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + The process of annealing is easier + to explain than it is to actually put + into practice. The steel is first packed + in lime, charcoal, fine dry ashes or + sand, and then sealed in long air-tight + tubes or boxes. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + The whole receptacle is next slowly + brought up to a dull red heat, of + about 1500 degrees Fahrenheit. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + It is very important to heat the + material uniformly all the way through, + and then hold it in this condition from + three to eight hours. Thus, allowing + the slipping of one allotropic condition + into another. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + The receptacle must be cooled + equally slowly, either allowing the + packed steel to cool slowly down with + the furnace, or by placing the same in + a soaking or cooling pit, which also + accomplishes the desired result. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + After the receptacle has become + entirely cooled it is opened and the + steel unpacked and removed. The + steel is then ready for its final inspection + before shipping to the tool maker. + </p> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-81"> + TEMPERING.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + The process of tempering usually + has to be undertaken by the tool maker + or user after the annealed steel, which + he received from the steel mill, has + been cut up and shaped into the desired + form and size. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + The main object of tempering + steel is to re-harden the material to + such an extent that it will cut other + metals, retaining its desired shape + size and cutting edge, while at the + same time it must not possess too + much brittleness. The treatment + varies materially with different brands + of steels. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + For the average grade of the best + High Speed Steel containing from 16% + to 18% tungsten, the tool should be + brought very slowly up to a dull cherry + red. It is usually considered good + practice to first place the tool near + or on top of the pre-heating furnace + before actually placing it in the pre-heater, + in order that the heating might + be effected just as slowly as possible. + The pre-heating operation should + bring the tool up to about 1600 to 1800 + degrees Fahrenheit, after which the + tool should be placed in the high heating + furnace and brought up to 2300 + to 2400 degrees Fahrenheit, or a white + sweating heat. Care should be taken + not to allow the tool to remain in this + condition for more than an instant, as + it is then in a very critical condition + and could be easily burned or ruined. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Therefore, the tool should be immediately + pulled from the furnace and + plunged into a good clean oil bath, + keeping it constantly in motion. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + As High Speed Steels are air-hardening + steels, it is also the practice to + harden these steels by simply placing + the cutting edge in an air blast, which + produces maximum hardness in the desired + point and allows the body of the + tool to cool at a little slower rate, thus + slightly relieving the cooling strains + and producing a little less brittleness + therein. Such cooling strains can be + relieved throughout the whole tool by + drawing the same back to about 400 + to 500 degrees Fahrenheit, and sometimes + as high as 1050 degrees Fahrenheit, + depending upon the particular tool + and its use. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + The treatment of Carbon Steels + varies with each particular brand. + Great care must always be taken to + heat the steel uniformly, as a material + which is heated unevenly will expand + and contract unevenly and, in consequence, + will crack when quenched. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + The steel should always be hardened + on the rising heat, in general + bringing the same slowly up to a dull + cherry red, or to about 1450 degrees + Fahrenheit, and then quenching in + clear cold water, keeping the same in + motion until the steel is cold. The + temper should then be drawn according + to the purpose of the tool, which + could only be discussed for each particular + case. The following range of + temperatures are interesting, as being + approximately indicated by the thin + film of oxide tints which occur on the + tool undergoing a tempering operation: + </p> + + <table class = "gerueckt10"> + <tr> + <td>Pale Yellow</td> + <td>428 Degrees Fahrenheit</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Golden Yellow</td> + <td>469 Degrees Fahrenheit</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Purple</td> + <td>531 Degrees Fahrenheit</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Bright Blue</td> + <td>550 Degrees Fahrenheit</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Dark Blue</td> + <td>601 Degrees Fahrenheit</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <div> + <h3 id = "anker-84"> + CONCLUSION.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + The effects of annealing, rolling, + hammering, treating and tempering are + best understood by those manufacturers + who make a specialty of supplying + a high grade tool steel, and in general + it would be well if customers would + consult freely with the producers of + these steels, before attempting the delicate + undertaking of Heat Treatment. + </p> + + </div> + + + <div> + <div> + <h2 id = "anker-85">CHAPTER VI.</h2> + </div> + + <div class = "nobreak"> + <h3 style = "line-height: 1.9em"> + WHAT TOOL STEEL IS DOING TOWARDS WINNING THE WAR.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + It hardly seems fitting that we should + close these pages without giving our + readers some little idea of just what the + tool steel industry is doing for the successful + conclusion of the great cause nearest + our hearts. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + One of the first statements which we + could make would be that every metal + worker in the world absolutely requires + some form of tool steel or special alloy + steel in the manufacture of his product. + Of course, a very great many manufacturers + other than the actual metal workers + also need this same supply of tool steel + in order that their production might not + immediately cease. Volumes could be + written on the vital importance of tools to + industry in general, from the drills which + drill out the hole in a hypodermic needle, + to a twelve-ton drop-forge steam hammer. + But for the present we may confine ourselves + to simply the briefest mention of + the vast number of iron and steel products + actually and vitally engaged in the prosecution + of the war. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + We are told that we need ships, yet the + ship industry could not proceed a day if + its supply of necessary tools was cut off. + The overwhelming increase in the manufacturing + operations of the world which + has taken place since the opening of the + European War can better be imagined + than explained, it being only necessary + for us to point out here that the one absolute + necessity which is common to all + and required by all branches of such vast + manufacture is the proper supply of necessary + tools. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + It has been the personal duty of the + writer to make various visits to different + Government shops and Arsenals as well + as to the plants and shops of torpedo, + shell and munition manufacturers and the + vital part which the tools of production + are playing in the great undertaking has + been forcefully impressed upon his attention. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + The metals which are destined to play + an active part in actual warfare are naturally + required to meet the most severe + conditions imaginable. Thus we find the + high manganese armor plate and the high + chrome-manganese armor piercing projectile. + We find the new specifications + for steel forging, for hulls and engines + now have rigid chrome-vanadium and + special nickle requirements, all of which + means that the tools that do the machining, + planing, shaping, cutting, drilling, + boring, reaming, stamping and many other + operations must be made of a tougher + and harder material than ever before. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + We know that for every man who may + fight on the battle field, at least two men + must labor in our shops and factories over + mechanical operations. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Those of us who have been in immediate + touch with some of the vital requirements + of the War and Navy Departments + in these strenuous days realize + the shocking absence of the complete preparedness, + which we must rapidly accomplish + if we are to come anywhere near + supplying our own soldiers on the fighting + front with the fighting machinery and + supplies of which they are in such urgent + need. We realize that after all these + months of increased industrial preparedness, + we are, therefore, still unprepared + in the full meaning of the word. The + very foundation of our structure shows + a startling amount of unpreparedness. + We like to gaze upon the exterior towers + and battlements of a castle of preparedness, + and these are wonderful and encouraging + to look upon but down + below all these are certain neglected + and unfinished pillars in the unseen cellar + of that foundation, which threaten the + stability of the entire mass. It is, therefore, + some of these fundamental details + which have been neglected as we have + beheld the vision of the super-structure + above. Pershing needs, 1,500,000 boys + in khaki and over the shoulder of each is + his protection against the Hun. Everyone + of these rifles is a splendid monument + of the accomplishment of tool steel and + special alloy steel. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Every day of our present existence it + happens that over a million shells scream + over the miles of battle line in France. + This curtain of high explosive and shrapnel + is another direct expression of the + wonders which the modern high speed + and special alloy steel have accomplished. + We are told that a 3" shrapnel shell contains + seventy drilled holes or a drilling + of 19¼" in depth. That means that + 1,600,000 feet or over three hundred miles + of drilled holes are shot away every + twenty-four hours on the battle fronts of + Europe. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + In a publication "Fighting Industry" + published by one of our largest twist drill + companies in this country, we note that + the drilled holes in various implements of + our militant harness are as follows: + </p> + + <table class = "gerueckt10 unten1-5"> + <tr> + <td style = "width: 10em">8" shrapnel shell</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">70</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Springfield rifle</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">94</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Torpedo</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">3466</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Machine gun</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">350</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Aeroplane</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">4089</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>3-ton auto truck</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">5946</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Light ambulance</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">1500</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>3" field gun</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">1280</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Gun caisson</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">594</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Anti-air craft gun</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">1200</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Self-binder</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">500</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Thresher</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">420</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Motorcycle</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">1160</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <p class = "ein"> + Four million men must work with tools + in order that two million men may fight + in France. These men can not, "just be + given a tool and told to use it." It is + necessary that they have years of careful + training and actual experience in order + that they might effectively make use of + the intricate tools and machinery which + the mother of modern industry is striving + to place in their hands. At present every + tool steel mill in America is straining its + furnaces, hammers and rolling mills to + their maximum capacity. They are working + days, nights and Sundays and still the + demand is far in excess of the supply. + Conservative estimations show that with + all the added machinery and equipment + which is in the process of construction at + this time, it will still take at least two + years and a half before the tool steel industry + of America will come any where + near meeting the demand for its product. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + As we gaze with belated pride upon the + huge structure of our present Preparedness, + does it not seem strange to think + that the most vital pillar of its whole + foundation should have been forgotten + and neglected so long and which is therefore + now caused to endure such an abnormal + and terrific strain? We are at last + forced to realize that tool steel is the very + essence of our whole existence. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Of course, the great importance of tool + steel in this national emergency does not + stop with the actual weapons of warfare. + Besides the railroads, automobiles, tramways, + elevators, bridges, buildings, shoes, + clothing and in fact, every branch of the + intricate mass of manufactured products + so vital to our daily existence, nations + are crying for bread. Victory hangs on + our food supply. Our threshing machines, + our reapers and our harvesting + machinery are all working over time. + But before the threshing machines can + thresh wheat and before the reapers can + reap and before the tractors and other + farm machinery can contribute their great + service to humanity, it is necessary that + the American production of tool steel + must pass its rigid inspection and yield + forth in full measure the great service + which it is called upon to give. + </p> + </div> + + <div> + <div> + <h2 id = "anker-92"> + APPENDIX.</h2> + </div> + + <div class = "nobreak"> + <h3 style = "line-height: 1.9em"> + ANALYSIS, USES AND HEAT TREATMENT OF + VARIOUS GRADES OF TOOL STEELS.</h3> + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Providing the many complications and + difficulties which accompany the melting, + hammering, rolling, annealing, inspecting + and finishing operations, have been successfully + accomplished, the chemical + analysis of the best grades of tool steel + should come within the following limits: + </p> + + <div class = "capter"> + <h3 id = "anker-93" style = "line-height: 1.9em"> + TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF HIGH SPEED STEEL.</h3> + </div> + + <table class = "gerueckt10 unten1-5"> + <tr> + <td style = "width: 10em">Carbon</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td>66</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Tungsten</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">18.</td> + <td>01</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Chromium</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">4.</td> + <td>50</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Vanadium</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td>98</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Phosphorus</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td>023</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Sulphur</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td>021</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Manganese</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td>285</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Silicon</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td>228</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Iron (by deduction)</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">75.</td> + <td>293</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <div class = "pre5"> + USES. + </div> + + <p class = "ein">Turning, Boring, Planing, Slotting, + Shaping Tools. Also Twist Drills, Milling + Cutters, Gear Cutters, Taps, Reamers, + Special Dies, etc. + </p> + + <div class = "pre5"> + HEAT TREATMENT. + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Heat slowly in pre-heater to 1700 degrees + Fahrenheit. Then rapidly in superheater + to 2300 degrees Fahrenheit, taking + care not to burn or fuse delicate projections + on special tools. Harden either in + air blast, or in good clean oil; keeping + tool in motion. In all cases merely the + <i>end</i> of the tool to white heat. Draw in + oil from 400 degrees Fahrenheit to 600 + degrees Fahrenheit. + </p> + + <div class = "capter"> + <h3 id = "anker-94" style = "line-height: 1.9em"> + TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF DIE + STEEL FOR HOT WORK.</h3> + </div> + + <table class = "gerueckt10 unten1-5"> + <tr> + <td style = "width: 10em">Carbon</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">39</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Tungsten</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">8.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">41</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Chromium</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">2.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">10</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Phosphorus</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">019</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Sulphur</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">017</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Manganese</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">315</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Silicon</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">234</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Iron (by deduction)</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">88.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">515</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <div class = "pre5"> + USES. + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Hot shear blades, hot punches, header + and gripper dies; used in bolt and rivet + making. Also excellent for compression + sets and in general for all hot work. + </p> + + <div class = "pre5"> + HEAT TREATMENT. + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Will stand high hardening heats, similar + to high speed steel, 1700 degrees + Fahrenheit and then 2300 degrees Fahrenheit. + Harden either in air or oil. Keep + away from water. Draw to 500 degrees + Fahrenheit. + </p> + + <div class = "capter"> + <h3 id = "anker-95" style = "line-height: 1.9em"> + TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF SPECIAL ALLOY STEEL.</h3> + </div> + + <table class = "gerueckt10 unten1-5"> + <tr> + <td style = "width: 10em">Carbon</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">78</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Vanadium</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">29</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Phosphorus</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">014</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Sulphur</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">016</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Manganese</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">324</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Silicon</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">296</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Iron (by deduction)</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">98.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">28</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <div class = "pre5"> + USES. + </div> + + <p class = "ein">Specially useful in tools subject to + shock, such as hand and pneumatic chisels, + boilermakers caulking tools and rivet sets. + Also for cold upsetting dies, cold punches, + shear blades and stamping dies. A + special grade of this steel makes excellent + taps. + </p> + + <div class = "pre5"> + HEAT TREATMENT. + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Heat slowly to a low red, about 1400 + degrees Fahrenheit, or if low carbon content + to 1500 degrees Fahrenheit; being + very careful not to over-heat. Quench + in good clean tempered water; keeping + tool constantly in motion. Draw from + 250 degrees Fahrenheit to 400 degrees + Fahrenheit. + </p> + + <div class = "capter"> + <h3 id = "anker-96" style = "line-height: 1.9em"> + TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF FAST FINISHING + SEMI-HIGH SPEED.</h3> + </div> + + <table class = "gerueckt10 unten1-5"> + <tr> + <td style = "width: 10em">Carbon</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">1.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">28</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Tungsten</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">3.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">56</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Phosphorus</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">021</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Sulphur</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">019</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Manganese</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">316</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Silicon</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">271</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Iron (by deduction)</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">94.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">533</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <div class = "pre5"> + USES. + </div> + + <p class = "ein">Do not confuse the High Speed, although + excellent for turning chilled cast + iron, clean finishing cuts. Especially adapted + for taps and reamers, as well as for + tools for brass, bronze, aluminum, copper + and chilled roll turning. + </p> + + + <div class = "pre5"> + HEAT TREATMENT. + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Heat slowly to full bright red, 1425 degrees + Fahrenheit to 1500 degrees Fahrenheit. + Quench in luke warm water. Keep + tool constantly in motion. Draw to not + over 300 degrees Fahrenheit. + </p> + + <div class = "capter"> + <h3 id = "anker-97" style = "line-height: 1.9em"> + TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE CARBON TOOL STEEL.</h3> + </div> + + <table class = "gerueckt10 unten1-5"> + <tr> + <td style = "width: 10em">Carbon</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">1.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">12</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Phosphorus</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">009</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Sulphur</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">011</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Manganese</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">254</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Silicon</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">213</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Iron (by deduction)</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">98.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">393</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <div class = "pre5"> + USES. + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + General tool room usage <i>with moderate + cutting speeds</i>. Excellent lathe, planer, + and shaper tools, drills, shear blades (for + cold work only) punches, chisels, files and + mining tools. + </p> + + <div class = "pre5"> + HEAT TREATMENT. + </div> + + <p class = "ein">Heat slowly to Low Red heat, approximately + 1375 degrees Fahrenheit (the + higher the carbon the lower the heat). + Care not to over-heat. Quench in good + clean luke warm water. Draw to not + over 350 degrees Fahrenheit. + </p> + + <div class = "capter"> + <h3 id = "anker-98" style = "line-height: 1.9em"> + TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF NON-SHRINKING + OIL HARDENING STEEL.</h3> + </div> + + <table class = "gerueckt10 unten1-5"> + <tr> + <td style = "width: 10em">Carbon</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">91</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Phosphorus</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">016</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Sulphur</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">019</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Manganese</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">1.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">62</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Silicon</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">31</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Iron (by deduction)</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">97.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">125</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <div class = "pre5"> + USES. + </div> + + <p class = "ein">Threading dies, chasers, taps, reamers, + and all master tools. For gauges, plugs, + etc. Especially adapted for stamping, + punching, trimming dies and many other + uses where it is necessary to overcome + shrinking, warping or change of shape. + </p> + + <div class = "pre5"> + HEAT TREATMENT. + </div> + + <p class = "ein">Heat very slowly to pre-heating temperature + of 1200 degrees Fahrenheit, then + to hardening temperature from 1360 degrees + Fahrenheit to 1425 degrees Fahrenheit, + depending upon size of piece being + treated. + </p> + + <p class = "ein">Harden in lard, linseed or cottonseed + oil; preferably fish oil. Do not quench + in water. + </p> + + <p class = "ein"> + Draw cutting tools, taps and reamers + at 250 degrees to 300 degrees Fahrenheit. + Large tools such as blanking and stamping + dies at 400 degrees to 450 degrees Fahrenheit. + </p> + + <div class = "capter"> + <h3 id = "anker-99" style = "line-height: 1.9em"> + TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF SPECIAL + HOT WORK ALLOY STEEL.</h3> + </div> + + <table class = "gerueckt10 unten1-5"> + <tr> + <td style = "width: 10em">Carbon</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left; width: 1em;">86</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Chromium</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">3.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left">71</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Phosphorus</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left">023</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Sulphur</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left">019</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Manganese</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left">381</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Silicon</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left">267</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td>Iron (by deduction)</td> + <td style = "text-align: right">94.</td> + <td style = "text-align: left;">740</td> + <td>%</td> + </tr> + </table> + + <div class = "pre5"> + USES. + </div> + + <p class = "ein">An excellent composition for hot work + in service for grippers, headers, hot punches, + hot shear blades and similar tools. Especially + valuable in structural steel and + boiler shop work. Rivet sets and bull dies + made from a steel of this composition + ought to resist breaking and battering. + </p> + + <div class = "pre5"> + HEAT TREATMENT. + </div> + + <p class = "ein"> + Very flexible hardening in air, oil or + water. If air is used heat to 1675 degrees + to 1750 degrees Fahrenheit and place + under dry air blast, or stand in cool place. + To harden in oil, heat to 1500 degrees + to 1550 degrees Fahrenheit and quench + in thin oil. To harden in water, heat to + 1475 degrees Fahrenheit to 1525 degrees + Fahrenheit and quench in cool water. + Draw from 250 degrees to 300 degrees + Fahrenheit. + </p> + + + </div> + + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75326 ***</div> +</body> +</html> |