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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75326 ***
+
+TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
+
+  Some minor misspellings in the text are silently corrected.
+
+  Enclosed small caps in ≈double tilde≈,
+  enclosed italics font in _underscores_,
+  bold text in =equal sign=.
+
+  The numbering of the drawings does not correspond to their marked
+  number. However, they have been left as they are, as the author has
+  entered them by hand in the drawings.
+
+  In the table on the color of the oxide layer of tempered steel in the
+  tempering section, the first column has been set without trailing
+  commas, as the author has handled this inconsistently.
+
+  The new original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the
+  public domain.
+
+
+
+
+A FEW SECRETS OF THE
+METALLURGIST
+SIMPLY TOLD
+
+
+ATLAS CRUCIBLE STEEL CO.
+PUBLISHERS
+DUNKIRK, N. Y.
+
+
+
+
+A FEW SECRETS OF THE
+METALLURGIST
+SIMPLY TOLD
+
+BY
+
+GERALD W. HINKLEY, M. E.
+
+CORNELL UNIVERSITY
+ORDNANCE ENGINEER
+AND ASSISTANT TO PRESIDENT
+ATLAS CRUCIBLE STEEL CO.
+DUNKIRK, N. Y.
+
+FIRST EDITION
+
+
+COPYRIGHTED 1918
+BY
+PRESS OF DUNKIRK PRINTING COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This is not and is not intended to be a thoroughly complete explanation
+or discussion of the allotropic theory of iron and steel, but rather a
+brief outline of a few of the great principles of metallurgy written
+primarily for the layman. If without leading him astray from the real
+scientific understanding of the subject we have succeeded in briefly
+but satisfactorily answering the old familiar question, “Why do steels
+harden?”, we will in a large measure, have accomplished our purpose.
+
+Besides the personal observations which the writer has made from time
+to time in the metallurgical laboratory, he has availed himself freely
+of the works of many and eminent authors dealing with this subject and
+where disputable conditions have arisen in regard to certain theories,
+uses, etc., has attempted to adopt the most logical consensus of
+opinion.
+
+G. W. H.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+A FEW SECRETS OF THE
+METALLURGIST
+SIMPLY TOLD.
+
+                                  Page
+  
+   INTRODUCTION                            17
+
+   CHAPTER I.
+
+   ≈A Slight Test of the Imagination≈      19
+
+   CHAPTER II.
+
+   ≈Comparison Between Conditions
+   Which Exist in the Iron and
+   Steel Family to Those Which
+   Exist with More Familiar Elements≈      22
+
+   CHAPTER III.
+
+   ≈An Experiment Performed with
+   a Piece of Pearlitic Steel≈             29
+
+   CHAPTER IV.
+
+   ≈High Speed Steel≈                      51
+
+   CHAPTER V.
+
+   ≈The General Effect of the More
+   Important Elements in Tool
+   Steels≈                                 61
+
+   ≈Carbon Steels≈                         61
+
+   ≈Alloy Steels≈                          63
+
+   ≈High Speed Steels≈                     64
+
+   ≈Elements Which Occur in all
+   Steels≈                                 66
+
+   ≈Iron≈                                  66
+
+   ≈Carbon≈                                67
+
+   ≈Manganese≈                             67
+
+   ≈Silicon≈                               68
+
+   ≈Phosphorus≈                            69
+
+   ≈Sulphur≈                               70
+
+   ≈Elements Which Have Become
+   Especially Associated with
+   Special Alloy Steels≈                   70
+
+   ≈Chromium≈                              70
+
+   ≈Tungsten≈                              72
+
+   ≈Molybdenum≈                            73
+
+   ≈Vanadium≈                              73
+
+   ≈Cobalt≈                                74
+
+   ≈Uranium, Titanium and Aluminum≈        75
+
+   ≈Impurities≈                            75
+
+   ≈Heat Treatment≈                        76
+
+   ≈Hardening≈                             77
+
+   ≈Annealing≈                             79
+
+   ≈Tempering≈                             81
+
+   ≈Conclusion≈                            84
+
+   CHAPTER VI.
+
+   ≈What Tool Steel Is Doing Towards
+   Winning the War≈                        85
+
+   APPENDIX.
+
+   ≈Analysis, Uses and Heat Treatment
+   of Various Grades of
+   Tool Steels≈                            92
+
+   ≈High Speed Steels≈                     93
+
+   ≈Die Steel for Hot Work≈                94
+
+   ≈Special Alloy Steel≈                   95
+
+   ≈Semi-High Speed Steel≈                 96
+
+   ≈Simple Carbon Tool Steel≈              97
+
+   ≈Non-Shrinking Oil Hardening
+   Steel≈                                  98
+
+   ≈Special Hot Work Alloy Steel≈          99
+
+
+
+
+A FEW SECRETS OF THE
+METALLURGIST
+SIMPLY TOLD
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+When as a student at a Technical College of one of our great
+Universities, I came to the study of Differential and Integral
+Calculus, I remember that I was seized with a kind of mental paralysis
+at the thought of the great unknown that lay before me. Fortunately,
+however, a little book was brought to my attention, under the
+encouraging title “Calculus Made Easy”. As a matter of fact the little
+volume did not attempt to take its readers through all the intricacies
+of the entire subject, but it did succeed in giving a certain start on
+the long journey which has to be undergone by a student of the
+Calculus. Its opening sentence was encouraging, which I have always
+remembered, and which read something as follows:
+
+“What one fool can accomplish, another fool can do, therefore take
+courage”. This same thought applies to the subject which is now before
+us.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+A SLIGHT TEST OF THE IMAGINATION.
+
+
+We live in a world in which certain conditions of the atmosphere and
+the so-called elements surrounding our daily existence, are entirely
+familiar to us. From force of habit we are likely to forget that had
+Nature, for instance, been planned under a different range of livable
+temperatures, all the familiar objects of our daily existence would
+have existed under entirely different form.
+
+For instance, if the normal temperature had been about 2700 degrees
+Fahrenheit instead of about 60 degrees Fahrenheit, and we had been
+constructed so that we could comfortably endure that degree of
+temperature, we could have gone sailing on a sea of molten iron, in
+boats built of plumbago crucibles, and oars made of silica brick. Under
+these delightful conditions we could place frozen lumps of our sea of
+iron in our ice boxes for refrigeration. Flat irons and stove lids
+would therefore have been the product of the ice man. The water with
+which we are now familiar, of course, could not exist in its liquid
+form, or even as steam, but instead as a highly gaseous state, which we
+would probably have been called upon to breathe. Certain other
+substances with which we are perfectly familiar in our daily life, such
+as the common stick sulphur, for instance, would exist in an entirely
+different =physical= state, although their =chemical= properties would
+be entirely unchanged, and we would be given to understand that an
+“allotropic” transformation had taken place.
+
+If we can now imagine ourselves as existing under the relative
+conditions described above, which are undoubtedly the “natural”
+conditions of some other world, it will then be easy for us to
+understand quite clearly some of the other “allotropic” forms of iron
+and steel than those with which we are at present familiar.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+COMPARISON BETWEEN CONDITIONS WHICH EXIST IN THE IRON AND STEEL FAMILY
+TO THOSE WHICH EXIST WITH MORE FAMILIAR ELEMENTS.
+
+
+One of the first physical changes which we would discover would be that
+when we desired to “freeze” a “crucible” pailful of our iron water, we
+could do so much more easily if the same were in its absolutely pure
+state than we could if it were mixed with some other element, such as
+carbon. Of course, we have long known that this is the case with water
+and salt, and just as it becomes harder and harder to freeze water with
+greater and greater percentages of salt mixed with it, so the freezing
+of iron with greater and greater percentages of carbon mixed with it,
+would also occur at lower and lower temperatures.
+
+If we started to add salt to a pail of water we, of course, would have
+different degrees of brine. Just so with the addition of carbon to a
+crucible of pure iron, we would likewise have different degrees of the
+resulting mixture. In adding the salt to the pailful of water, we would
+arrive at a point where the water had absorbed all of the salt which it
+was capable of holding at room temperature. If we had added a little
+less salt we would have had free water in excess of salt, and if we had
+added a little more salt it would have been impossible for the water to
+have dissolved it, and we would, therefore, have had salt in excess of
+water.
+
+For convenience we will call the mixture above mentioned, at which the
+water had become thoroughly saturated with the salt, “cementite”,
+because this is the name which our friends, the metallurgists, have
+given to a similar mixture of iron and carbon. They call the water,
+“ferrite”; the salt, “carbide” and the resulting mixture of brine,
+“cementite”. This mixture of iron and carbon always exists in exactly
+the same ratio, namely, 93.4% iron and 6.6% carbon, and is expressed
+chemically by the symbol Fe3C, which means, in other words, that three
+“atoms” of iron have united with one “_atom_” of carbon to form the
+“chemical compound”, “iron carbide”, which the metallurgists, as above
+mentioned, desire to term “Cementite”.
+
+Now let us go back to the brine solution with which we are already
+familiar, and suppose that we added a little more salt than the water
+could absorb, and which therefore would exist in a “solid solution”,
+and then bring this “mechanical mixture” to such a low temperature that
+it would actually “freeze”. For convenience, and in order to agree with
+the metallurgists again, let us call the resulting structure
+“pearlite”. That is the name which they have given to a corresponding
+“mechanical mixture” of cementite and ferrite.
+
+This new constituent “pearlite” contains approximately O.9% carbon and
+consists of inter-stratified layers or bands of ferrite and cementite.
+
+It is regarded as a separate and distinct constituent of steel, and
+takes its name from the fact that it has a mother of pearl-like
+appearance under the microscope. It always occurs at a definite range
+of temperature and always contains the above mentioned definite
+percentage of carbon.
+
+From the above it may be suspected that a steel containing O.9% carbon,
+consisting entirely of pearlite, forms rather a special and particular
+class of steels, which the metallurgists have decided to dignify with
+the title “Eutectoid Steels”. Having done this much to properly impress
+the unsuspecting probers of their secrets, they decided to call steels
+containing less than this Eutectoid ratio of carbon (0.9% C)
+“Hypo-eutectoid Steels”. These steels, of course, contain certain
+definite amounts of pearlite with other amounts of free or excess
+ferrite. Likewise, if the carbon content is greater than O.9% there
+will be an excess of cementite over the ferrite and we will then have a
+structure of pearlite plus free cementite. And these steels are spoken
+of as “hyper-eutectoid” steels.
+
+[Illustration: Hypo-eutectoid Steel. Carbon .11%. Structure:
+Light—Ferrite; Dark—Pearlite. Mag. 500x]
+
+[Illustration: Hypo-eutectoid Steel. Carbon .37%. Structure:
+Light—Ferrite; Dark—Pearlite. Mag. 500x]
+
+[Illustration: Eutectoid Steel. Carbon .90%. Structure: Fine uniform
+Pearlitic condition. Mag. 500x]
+
+[Illustration: Hyper-eutectoid Steel. Carbon 1.20%. Structure:
+Dark—Pearlitic; White boundaries—Cementite. Mag. 500x]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+AN EXPERIMENT PERFORMED WITH A PIECE OF PEARLITIC STEEL.
+
+
+However, let us not trouble ourselves with too many definitions at one
+time, but instead amuse ourselves for a while by running through a
+little experiment with a piece of carbon tool steel similar to that
+which we have just been discussing. For our investigation we will also
+need a special kind of thermometer for measuring high temperatures.
+Such an instrument is known as a “pyrometer”. Now we will drill a
+little hole in the test piece of carbon steel and after inserting the
+“couple” of the pyrometer into it, place the same in the electric
+furnace.
+
+As the current is turned on, the test piece begins to grow warm and
+then hotter and hotter, gradually up through a range of temperatures
+which are continually recorded by the needle of the pyrometer. 800,
+900, 1000, 1200 degrees Fahrenheit are uniformly reached, and the
+temperature of our test piece continues to rise, as the absorption of
+heat progresses. Suddenly, however, the test piece assumes a bright
+glow and the needle of the pyrometer ceases to advance, and we note
+that it is pausing at about 1350 degrees Fahrenheit. Then after its
+pause, the advance is again resumed until the piece has become almost
+ready to melt. By plotting the uniform periods of time at which we read
+the different temperatures recorded by the needle of the pyrometer,
+against the temperatures as read, we would have a picture of our
+phenomenon something as follows:
+
+[Illustration: Graph showing the course of the temperature curve as a
+function of the heating time of the metal sample.]
+
+Now let us begin to let our test piece cool off gradually. The
+temperature of the furnace is lowered and the uniform range of cooling
+temperatures is recorded by the ever sensitive needle of the pyrometer.
+Suddenly as before, the test piece assumes the brilliant glow noted
+previously, and again the needle comes to rest, but this time we note
+that the recorded temperature is about 1250 degrees Fahrenheit instead
+of 1350 degrees Fahrenheit as before. Evidently there has been a
+certain tardiness or “lag” which has caused the phenomenon to take
+place a little too high going up and a little too low coming down, and
+in fact the metallurgists tell us that such is exactly the case, and
+that the real point in which we are interested lies just half way
+between the two points indicated, as we shall presently see. If we
+again represent the results of our latest experiment graphically, we
+would have a picture something as Fig. 2.
+
+[Illustration: Graph of the cooling curve of the metal sample
+over time]
+
+Now placing the second curve so obtained on the first, we are able to
+study the following interesting relationship. Fig. 3.
+
+[Illustration: Graph combining the heating- and cooling-curves from
+before and demonstrating the critical range]
+
+It is natural to suspect that both of the parallel sections of our
+curves have something to do with the same thing, and for convenience
+since we noticed that mysterious glow of the test piece just as the
+needle came to rest, we might call the particular point which lies just
+half way between the temperatures under discussion, the point of glow,
+or as the metallurgists call it, the “point of recalescence” and the
+range between these two temperatures the “critical range”.
+
+I suppose it would be difficult to explain this phenomenon of the test
+piece unless we imagine that as the critical range is reached some
+internal reaction of the steel causes it to spontaneously take on heat
+at the same temperature in the first place and give off the stored heat
+at the same temperature as the piece was being cooled down, and this
+heat caused it to glow as was noticed. Now if we were to experiment
+further with our piece while at the critical range, we would find
+certain other remarkable changes, one of the most noticeable of which
+is the loss of magnetism at and above the critical range.
+
+Irons and steels are usually the most magnetic materials, but the
+attraction of the magnet is completely lost at or above the critical
+range.
+
+We can easily satisfy ourselves in this respect by noting the
+attraction of a simple horse shoe magnet when our piece of test steel
+is brought into its magnetic field. As the pyrometer needle passes on
+up through the range of temperatures noted above, the magnetic
+attraction is perfectly evident when suddenly the recalescence point is
+reached, the spell is broken and the magnet and the test piece fall
+apart. But let us just consider this phenomenon a moment. We are told
+by the physicists that magnetism is induced in a piece of iron or steel
+by a “rearrangement of the internal molecular structure, in which the
+positive ions face one direction and the negative ions in the opposite
+direction”. Therefore, if magnetism suddenly ceases to exist it would
+seem as if something had happened to the “internal molecular structure”
+of the test piece. Thus when the recalescence point is reached we may
+conclude that something more than a mere absorption of heat units has
+taken place. In fact we may really believe that an actual internal
+molecular revolution has occurred and that some of the natural laws
+which formerly had governed all of these little molecules which go to
+make up the whole piece of steel, have been overthrown and that the
+molecules are more or less free to set up a new form of government for
+themselves, and that, therefore, when a piece of steel is brought to
+the recalescence point it is really in a very sensitive condition. In
+fact, if we should care to investigate further we should find that
+certain other great changes take place at this critical point, such,
+for instance, as partial failure of the test piece to conduct an
+electric current, which formerly, of course, it did with great ease.
+Also when the critical range is reached, a peculiar contraction of size
+interrupts the gradual expansion which had been developing as the test
+piece absorbed heat units, and therefore these several observations
+give us reason to believe that our conclusions as noted above must be
+more or less correct.
+
+Now if all steels acted exactly like the little test piece which we
+have been observing above as they were placed in the hardening furnace,
+it would not take us very much longer to finish our preliminary
+investigations. You remember the piece of steel which we have been
+investigating was a piece of simple carbon tool steel, containing about
+0.90% carbon. But all steels do not contain just this same percentage
+of carbon, and may also contain various elements other than carbon, all
+of which produce many and varied results during the process of heating,
+treating and hardening.
+
+In order to better visualize the investigation which we are making, let
+us picture graphically each step which we take. If therefore, we let
+the vertical lines represent the different carbon contents which steel
+might have, and the horizontal lines the different degrees of
+temperatures through which we might desire to heat the steel under
+discussion and then plotted the phenomenon described above we would
+have a picture something as follows:
+
+[Illustration: Graph showing the point of recalescence]
+
+Now all that picture means is that as we heated up a piece of simple
+carbon tool steel containing O.9% C, we discovered a certain very
+noticeable reaction which occurred just about half way between 1250
+degrees and 1350 degrees Fahrenheit, which we decided to call the point
+of recalescence, and then on further heating of the piece no other such
+phenomenon was noticed.
+
+Now let us go through the same experiment with a piece of steel
+containing .45% C. Yes, just as before, as the temperature 1250 degrees
+Fahrenheit is reached we note all the strange symptoms which are
+characteristic of the point of recalescence and then, just as we are
+about to decide that it is hardly necessary to go further we notice
+that the pyrometer needle has again come to rest, but that this time it
+is registering 1390 degrees Fahrenheit. Therefore, it would seem as if
+this piece had two critical ranges instead of one and we are now quite
+ready to again proceed with our heating to see if anything else occurs.
+However, as nothing does happen we turn to our picture and plot the two
+points just observed, together with the one point found on our first
+investigation, and the drawing then looks something as follows:
+
+[Illustration: Graph additional shows the recalescence of a 
+second sample containing a different rate of carbon]
+
+Now let us take a piece of carbon steel as before, but this time
+containing .15% carbon, and again proceed with our observations. Again
+the needle of the pyrometer records the point of recalescence and also
+the point designating the second range of critical temperature, but
+this time strange to say, as the test piece continues to absorb heat, a
+third critical range is registered, all of which when added to our
+former picture gives a result something as follows:
+
+[Illustration: Graph showing different behavior of
+samples containing different rates of carbon]
+
+By repeating the operations as outlined above, with pieces of steel
+containing various percentages of carbon from zero to 1.25% and by
+plotting the different critical temperatures so obtained, we finally
+obtain a chart which graphically expresses the critical ranges of iron
+and steels due to the variation of the carbon content. With very low
+carbon steel it is interesting to note that the first critical point
+would not occur until 1395 degrees Fahrenheit was reached.
+
+Metallurgists have long designated the lines so obtained by letters,
+“r”, standing for, “refroidissement”, which is the French word meaning
+“cooling”, the suffixes 1-2-3 simply standing for the lines in the
+order drawn.
+
+From the completed chart it is further evident that our first piece
+containing 0.9% carbon in one way is the most interesting of all since
+it is the only case where only one point of critical temperature
+occurs.
+
+It will be noticed from the chart that steels containing less than .10%
+carbon have no point Ar1 and it is therefore undoubtedly due to the
+carbon content that this, the point of recalescence, occurs. From tests
+which we made with the magnet we would also find that the temperatures
+at which loss of magnetism occurs are those designated by the line Ar2,
+whereas the loss of ability to conduct an electric current occurs at
+the point designated Ar3. In steels containing .45% carbon to .75%
+carbon loss of magnetism and loss of ability to conduct an electric
+current occur at the same points designated on our chart by the line
+Ar3-2; whereas in the steel containing .90% carbon—all these changes
+take place at the same time.
+
+Now, as we concluded before, it is evident that some internal change
+must have taken place in the steel itself, and as we know that the
+chemical content does not vary, it is further evident that the change
+must be of a physical nature, or as in the language of the
+Metallurgist, an “allotropic change”. Therefore, another conclusion
+which we can draw at this point is that a very much more thorough
+investigation is required for the proper handling of steel at high
+temperatures than a mere knowledge of the chemical analysis of the
+same.
+
+There is one very fortunate circumstance connected with the passing
+from one of these allotropic changes to another, and that is that the
+effecting of one of these changes takes =time=. It does not take a very
+long time, however, for in some instances the change is affected in a
+very small fraction of a second, while rarely more than one or two
+seconds are required. The higher the temperature the quicker the
+change.
+
+Would it not be interesting if we had been so constructed as outlined
+in the beginning of this little volume; that we could have withstood
+the high temperatures in which some of these very interesting changes
+occur, because we could then handle the steel, examine it and
+experiment with it at our leisure. However, such not being the case, we
+will have to derive some other means for “catching” the steel while it
+is in one of these interesting conditions, and then bringing it in its
+entrapped condition down to room temperature. How shall we do it? Well,
+we remember that we said it took =time= to effect the changes under
+discussion and furthermore we remember that the changes can only take
+place when the steel is within the proper critical range. Therefore, if
+we could do something to lower the temperature of a piece of steel
+while in one of the critical ranges before the steel had time to effect
+the usual allotropic change of form, we might be able to catch a piece
+of steel while in one of these unusual conditions, before it had really
+had time to get back to normal.
+
+Therefore, let us place a piece of .9% carbon tool steel in the heating
+furnace and bring it up to and beyond the point of recalescence. Now,
+grasping the piece firmly in a pair of tongs with all possible speed we
+plunge it into a nearby pail of ice water, keeping the steel
+constantly in motion. Almost instantly the steel becomes black and
+within a few seconds is actually brought down to room temperature.
+
+Now let us take the steel out and examine it. The act of tapping it on
+the anvil in order to knock off the surplus water gives us a hint that
+our test piece has undergone some sort of a change. For now it rings
+with a bell-like clearness and gives the hammer with which we strike it
+a quick snapping rebound which in itself indicates great hardness.
+Next, we test the piece with a hardened steel file with which we could
+easily have made a deep ridge before we attempted the heating operation
+and to our surprise the file has as little effect as if it had been
+made of wood. And to our surprise on closer examination, we actually
+find that our test piece has scratched the file—surely it must be very
+hard. We are convinced that some marked change must have taken place.
+What can it be? Why it must be that due to the rapid cooling in the
+pail of ice water we brought the temperature of the test piece down
+below the critical range =before= the abnormal condition at which it
+existed while at and above the critical range had found =time= to
+change back to its former condition. And we remember that if one of
+these allotropic changes is going to take place at all, nature says it
+=must= do so while the steel is within the critical range and therefore
+having forced the steel through that critical range which separates one
+allotropic condition from another, before it had found =time= to effect
+its desired change, we managed to entrap the abnormal condition so that
+we could see it and feel it and get familiar with it at room
+temperature.
+
+If we so desire we can now make other hardness tests on our piece of
+steel at our leisure. For these scientists have invented several
+machines. One of the most common is called the scleroscope in which a
+hardened steel ball is allowed to drop from a given height on to the
+piece of steel to be tested. Then the rebound of the ball is carefully
+noted. The higher the rebound, the harder the piece. That is natural
+isn’t it? We know that if the ball were allowed to drop on butter, it
+wouldn’t rebound at all, because the butter is so soft. A piece of wood
+would possibly record a very tiny rebound, while a piece of hardened
+tool steel would effect a very material action of the scleroscope ball,
+thus indicating extreme hardness.
+
+Now let us take our test piece to the grind stone and grind it down to
+the shape of a cutting tool. It is necessary to resort to the grind
+stone, in order to get the desired shape, because of course, our test
+piece is far too hard to cut with any other metal. After having
+produced a tool of the desired shape and size, let us fasten the same
+securely into the carriage of a lathe, and then upon applying the
+cutting edge to a revolving piece of cast iron, or soft steel, or even
+to a piece of the very same grade of steel out of which the tool was
+made, only while it is still in the softened or annealed condition, we
+find that it is capable of easily and quickly cutting out a good sized
+ribbon of chips from the metal which is to be machined.
+
+However, we are soon confronted with a new difficulty, for as the cut
+progresses, our tool runs into a rough spot which causes it to tremble
+and chatter and then suddenly our tool cracks in two in the middle and
+is at once completely ruined.
+
+It is evident that as we are able to increase the desirable element of
+hardness in a piece of tool steel, we also automatically increase the
+undesirable element of brittleness, and therefore some new method must
+be devised which will allow a sufficient degree of hardness to allow
+the tool to cut other metals and at the same time not cause so much
+brittleness that it will crack in two at the first rough spot which it
+encounters.
+
+One method of assisting the toughening of a piece of hardened tool
+steel is accomplished by the process of “drawing”. This simply means
+heating the piece of hardened tool steel up to some fairly warm
+temperature, which of course must be kept well below the critical range
+(at which the steel would jump at the chance to quickly change back
+into one of its softer allotropic forms) and then keeping the steel at
+this drawing temperature for a while until the unusual strains and
+stress caused by the rapid cooling have had an opportunity to have
+become somewhat relieved. Therefore, the process of “drawing” is quite
+as important as is the first act of hardening itself, and great care
+must be exercised in undertaking the same.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+HIGH SPEED STEELS.
+
+
+After the processes of hardening and drawing our sample of simple
+carbon tool steel have become thoroughly mastered, it might seem that
+all which was desired had been accomplished and that we could go on
+indefinitely making and using our simple carbon steel tools. However,
+when the extraordinary demands of modern industry required faster and
+faster cutting speeds, and deeper and deeper cuts, we commenced to
+realize that our familiar carbon tool steels would not fill the bill.
+This was due to the fact that as the tools became pressed with the
+faster speeds and deeper cuts, they could not do their work without
+becoming over-heated by the friction caused by the work of upsetting
+the chip and therefore the critical temperature was rapidly approached.
+Of course we know that if this temperature should be reached the steel
+would quickly lose its hardness and its cutting edge would therefore be
+completely ruined.
+
+Therefore, it was necessary to develop a new kind of steel to meet a
+new and severe condition and accordingly the mother of experiment and
+invention gave birth to the now famous “High Speed” Steel.
+
+The general principles applying to the hardening and drawing of High
+Speed Steel are in many ways the same as described above for the simple
+carbon steel, except that as we begin to add various elements other
+than carbon to the melt, the resulting alloy becomes more and more
+complex in its form and reactions and therefore its heat treatment
+causes greater and greater study and skill in its successful
+undertaking.
+
+It is generally known among tool hardeners that it is necessary to heat
+the tool to a higher degree of temperature in order to secure proper
+hardness when using High Speed Steel than it is when a simple Carbon
+Tool Steel is employed. We are told that the introduction of certain
+elements into the melt of a simple Carbon Tool Steel has the tendency
+to change the critical range. Of course, the formulas used in the
+manufacture of any high grade High Speed Steel contain very appreciable
+amounts of various elements other than Carbon which materially effect
+the property which the steel will have when hard. The effect which
+these elements appear to produce in the period of critical range can be
+seen from figure 7.
+
+[Illustration: ≈HEATING AND COOLING OF HIGH SPEED STEEL SHOWN IN FIG.
+12.≈]
+
+In this case an experiment was made with a piece of High Tungsten High
+Speed Steel similar to the experiment which was described in detail
+above with the test piece of simple Carbon Tool Steel. The readings of
+the pyrometer were carefully recorded and when plotted on the graph
+sheet produced the picture under discussion.
+
+Here it will be noticed that the vivid reaction, which we might have
+expected would occur as the temperature indicating the first critical
+range was reached, was materially reduced. This might lead us to
+suspect that the desired allotropic change had not completely taken
+place at this point. In fact we noticed that the pyrometer needle did
+not record a vivid critical point until a very much higher temperature
+was reached. All of these observations serve as a possible explanation
+or indication of why it is necessary to employ very much higher
+temperatures in the hardening of High Speed Steel than it is in the
+hardening of a piece of simple Carbon Tool Steel.
+
+In a later chapter of this little volume we define Carbon Steels as
+those which do =not= contain enough of any element other than carbon to
+materially affect the physical properties which the steel will have
+when hard. High Speed Steels which are one of a very important group of
+special alloy steels, are those steels to which some element =other=
+than carbon has been added in sufficient amount to materially effect
+the physical properties which the steel will have when hard.
+
+The element which stands out alone as the most vital and important one
+as affecting the wonderful and highly desirable features looked for in
+High Speed Steels is Tungsten. We will discuss the various effects
+which the different elements give to the different alloy steels in a
+later chapter, but for the present we will confine ourselves to a brief
+discussion of the heat treatment of the now famous modern High Speed
+Steel.
+
+[Illustration: High Speed Steel. Carbon .58%. Structure: Very fine
+pearlitic condition, with particles of free carbide. Mag. 500x]
+
+As previously suggested the pressing demand of modern industry for
+quicker work, greater efficiency and enormously increased out-put of
+product, gave rise to the necessity of producing far more remarkable
+tools than was possible with the old fashioned carbon tool steel.
+Therefore it became necessary to produce a steel which could be
+rendered sufficiently hard to cut deep furrows in the various metals
+which have to be machined and, which could be made sufficiently tough
+to stand the enormous cutting strains and chatter and vibration of the
+machine, and at the same time maintain all these characteristics when
+the work done by upsetting the chip of the machined member actually
+rendered the cutting edge of the tool red hot.
+
+After the seemingly impossible task of producing a steel to meet these
+terrific conditions had been successfully accomplished, the next
+question which arose was to produce a machine which was sufficiently
+powerful to stand the work done by the tool, and so fast has been the
+progress made by the tool steel producer, that many of our modern
+manufacturing industries of today are constantly having to introduce
+new and heavier machinery into their various machine shop and tool
+rooms in order to keep pace with the possibilities of the tool made
+from the modern High Speed Steel.
+
+Now, if we were to run an experiment with a test piece made from High
+Speed Steel similar to the one which we ran on the simple Carbon Tool
+Steel, we would find that many of the same phenomena previously noticed
+would again be recorded.
+
+Probably the most important difference would be the fact that instead
+of having to quench the same in water it would be desirable to use a
+bath of oil. In fact, water would cause the High Speed Steel to cool
+off far too quickly so that it would be likely to crack and be rendered
+useless.
+
+A peculiar action of the various elements in High Speed Steel is very
+likely to materially retard the change of one allotropic form into
+another. In fact, the change is so slow that after a piece of High
+Speed Steel has been heated above the critical temperature, it will
+actually retain its hardened or austenitic condition even if allowed to
+cool in the air, and it would only be possible to get it back into its
+softened condition by the lengthy process of annealing.
+
+Annealing is the process of undoing exactly what the act of hardening
+accomplished. Long tubes are filled with the tool steel bars and sealed
+from the air and then placed into the annealing furnaces, wherein the
+annealing temperature is maintained for a sufficient number of hours,
+until the steel has had an opportunity to become thoroughly softened.
+
+
+As before stated “drawing” or “tempering” means the careful re-heating
+of the steel to 400 degrees Fahr. to 600 degrees Fahr., thus allowing a
+slight “slipping” of enough of the higher allotropic solution to a
+lower form, which it is always eager to accomplish at temperatures near
+the point of recalescence. This, of course, relieves the excess
+brittleness of the hardened steel.
+
+
+Annealing is the complete release of the higher allotropic form of the
+solution and the “trapped” carbon which allows of their return to the
+normal condition of pearlite and alpha iron. Therefore, it is necessary
+to heat the steel above the point of recalescence and cool more or less
+slowly. Different speeds of cooling give different grain, size,
+structure and physical property.
+
+This explanation of hardening, which is known as the “allotropic
+theory” is not universally accepted, although it is difficult to find a
+better or more complete explanation of the remarkable phenomena
+involved. However, the fact remains that the great accomplishments
+which have been made by the men of science and understanding have
+caused remarkable results to have taken place in the manufacturing
+world of today and the fine and obscure lines which these patient and
+careful laborers are continually drawing upon the map of knowledge are
+doing much to make the world a better and safer and more wonderful
+place in which to live.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE GENERAL EFFECT OF THE MORE IMPORTANT ELEMENTS IN TOOL STEELS.
+
+
+We know that all metals of engineering nature are crystalline in
+character, that is, the crystals form when the metal solidifies. If
+these crystals were free it would be easy to determine definitely just
+what properties the metal would have. However, the crystals are not
+free, but exist in the steel in combination with many other types of
+crystals. This results in many complicated and complex possibilities in
+the finished product, and will bring us presently to the subject of
+“Alloy Steels”.
+
+
+CARBON STEELS.
+
+Carbon Steels are those which do =not= contain enough of any element
+=other= than carbon to materially affect the physical properties which
+the steel will have when hard. Carbon is one element used above all
+others by manufacturers in getting required physical properties. An
+increase of one hundredth of one per cent (.01%) gives a tensile
+strength of about one thousand pounds per square inch, but even this
+amount of carbon also regularly decreases the ductility of the finished
+product. When steel is heated red hot and plunged into water, the
+carbon in the metal unites with the iron in some peculiar way so that
+it produces a compound of extreme hardness. If the steel contains
+nine-tenths of one per cent (.90%) of carbon, a sharp point so quenched
+will almost scratch glass. With one per cent (1.00%) of carbon it
+reaches nearly its limit of hardness. Now carbon steels with this
+percentage carbon can be used for some of the harder tools, which do
+not require much ductility or toughness, but with higher carbon
+contents than this percentage, the brittleness increases so fast that
+the usefulness of the metal is decidedly limited.
+
+Therefore, when the steel must meet requirements other than just that
+of hardness, such as, strength, ductility, toughness, resistance to
+repeated shock, “red hardness”, etc., then it is necessary to resort to
+other means and combinations for obtaining the required needs. It is to
+be remembered that such methods and combinations will materially
+increase the cost of the final product.
+
+
+ALLOY STEELS.
+
+What is an alloy steel? The general definition of an alloy steel is, “a
+solidified solution of two or more metallic substances”. The
+International Committee upon the nomenclature of iron and steel defines
+alloy steels as “those steels which owe their properties chiefly to the
+presence of an element (or elements) =other= than carbon”.
+
+This latter definition more nearly applies to our case, but it must be
+born in mind that the distinction between an element added merely to
+produce a slight benefit to ordinary carbon steel, and the very same
+element added to produce an alloy steel itself, is sometimes a very
+delicate one. For example: Manganese is added in amounts usually less
+than 1.50% to all Bessemer and Open-Hearth Steels, for the purpose of
+getting rid of oxygen, and neutralizing the effect of the sulphur. But
+this does not produce an Alloy Steel. When we make “manganese steel”
+containing 10 to 20% manganese, the material then has properties quite
+different from the same steel without the manganese, and we then have a
+Manganese Alloy Steel.
+
+Thus, for our purpose, we may consider an alloy steel as being one to
+which some element =other= than carbon has been added in sufficient
+amount to materially affect the physical properties which the steel
+will have when hard.
+
+
+HIGH SPEED STEELS.
+
+High Speed Steels are perhaps the most important of alloy steels, and
+derive their name from the fact that they can be used as cutting tools
+when the cut on the machined member is being made at a high speed.
+This, of course, subjects the tool to severe operating conditions,
+which simple carbon steels could not stand. These steels have other
+notable characteristics, among which is that of “self-hardening” or
+“air-hardening”, as it is sometimes called. This means, when the steel
+cools naturally in the air, from a red heat or above, it is not soft
+like ordinary steel, but is hard and capable of cutting other metals.
+
+Another striking characteristic of high speed steels is their ability
+to maintain a sharp cutting edge while heated to a temperature far
+above that which would at once destroy the cutting ability of a simple
+tool steel. Because of this property, a tool made of high speed steel
+can be made to cut continuously at speeds three to five times as great
+as that practicable with other tools. The result of the friction of the
+chip on the tool may cause the tool to become red hot at the point on
+top where the chip rubs hardest, and the chip may, itself, by its
+friction on the tool, and the internal work done on it, by upsetting
+it, be heated to a blue heat, or even hotter.
+
+
+ELEMENTS WHICH OCCUR IN ALL STEELS.
+
+There are certain elements which are practically always found in =any=
+kind of steel. These elements are capable of producing many varied
+effects on the finished product. They are Iron, Carbon, Manganese,
+Silicon, Phosphorous and Sulphur.
+
+
+IRON.
+
+The base of all steels is Iron. It goes without saying that this
+element should be obtained in the best and purest state possible.
+Probably the best “base” iron comes largely from Sweden, which country
+seems to have produced the highest quality of iron on the market today.
+
+
+CARBON.
+
+Carbon has already been discussed under Carbon Steels, although, of
+course, its importance in Alloy Steels must not be under-estimated. The
+proportion of carbon aimed at in high speed tool steels is about 0.65%,
+which in simple steel would not be enough to give the maximum hardness,
+even if the steel were heated above the critical point and quenched in
+water, and still less so when the steel is cooled as slowly as these
+steels are in their treatment. This shows that the carbon element acts
+in a different way from what it does in simple carbon steels as
+previously discussed.
+
+
+MANGANESE.
+
+Manganese Steel is a typical self-hardening steel and so, obviously, is
+any steel which is in the austenitic condition at atmospheric
+temperatures, that is to say, whose critical temperature is below
+atmospheric temperature. Thus, self-hardening steels are non-magnetic.
+Because of its low-yield point, manganese steel does not give
+satisfaction in many lines, for which otherwise it might be eminently
+fitted.
+
+Manganese used in =small= quantities (.30% to 1.50%) will produce
+certain desired effects. Under these conditions it acts as a purifier.
+And when added in the form of Ferro Manganese to a heat of steel it
+unites with the oxygen and transforms it to slag as oxide of manganese.
+There is also good reason for believing that manganese prevents the
+coarse crystallization, which impurities such as Phosphorus and Sulphur
+would otherwise produce. Five per cent to 14% manganese renders the
+steel non-magnetic as well as a poor conductor of electricity.
+
+
+SILICON.
+
+The dividing line between silicon-treated steels and silicon-alloy
+steels is not clearly defined, but the latter are used for several
+important purposes.
+
+Such steel has been used in springs of the leaf type for automobiles
+and other vehicles, the silicon being considered to add slightly to the
+toughness of the springs. However, the most important use of steels of
+this type is probably in the manufacture of electrical machinery. It is
+possible to produce a silicon-alloy steel which has not only a greater
+magnetic permeability than the purest iron, but also, a high electrical
+resistance. Its hysteresis is, of course, low, this property always
+accompanying a high permeability. It therefore is a very valuable
+material for use in electro-magnets, and in electric generating
+machinery, is the most efficient material known.
+
+In silicon-treated steels, the silicon is used somewhat as a scavenger,
+although it also produces results somewhat similar to manganese.
+
+
+PHOSPHORUS.
+
+Phosphorus has little effect upon the hot properties, but in the cold
+state makes the steel brittle and is of course highly undesirable
+although some writers have claimed that it adds to the tensile strength
+in about the same degree as carbon.
+
+
+SULPHUR.
+
+Sulphur has just the opposite effect of Phosphorus, and makes the steel
+crack while it is being hot worked, although after the metal is cold it
+seems to have no particular effect upon the physical properties.
+
+
+ELEMENTS WHICH HAVE BECOME
+ESPECIALLY ASSOCIATED
+WITH SPECIAL
+ALLOY STEELS.
+
+Such elements are:—Chromium, Tungsten, Molybdenum, Vanadium, Cobalt,
+Uranium, Titanium, Aluminum, etc.
+
+
+CHROMIUM.
+
+Chromium is an indispensable constituent in modern high speed steel,
+and does not make a poor high speed steel, even when used alone. The
+chief effect which chromium produces in high speed steels is
+undoubtedly that of “hardening”. However, chromium, like carbon, will
+produce brittleness, if added in too large quantities, although if kept
+down to between 2 to 5% it seems to allow the lowering of the carbon
+element, while at the same time maintaining the desired hardening
+effect, without causing undue brittleness. The great hardness in the
+face of an armor plate, and the great toughness in the back of the
+plate, also the superb properties in the projectile which attempts to
+pierce the plate, can all be induced in chromium steels to a degree
+unattainable by the use of any other single element.
+
+As a simple chromium steel the product may be used in five-ply plates
+for the manufacture of safes. These plates are made of five alternate
+layers, two of chrome steel and three of soft steel, and after having
+been hardened, offer resistance to the drilling tools employed by
+burglars. Hardened chromium rolls are manufactured for use in
+cold-rolling metals. Files, ball and roller-bearings are other noted
+products of this type of steel. It is the essential constituent of
+those steels which neither rust nor tarnish.
+
+
+TUNGSTEN.
+
+It was soon found that the composition of “self-hardening” steels was
+not the best one for high speed steels. Tungsten was discovered as an
+element which gave the steel properties of hardness and toughness at a
+red heat. After the peculiar heat treatment had been learned, and the
+presence of manganese or chromium in addition to the tungsten was shown
+to be unnecessary in appreciable amounts, it was found that more
+durable qualities could be obtained by increasing the percentage of
+tungsten, while at the same time the carbon element was greatly
+reduced.
+
+The best grade of High Speed Steel ought to have a tungsten content of
+about 18.00% and a carbon content of about 0.65%. Thus whenever a steel
+is needed which must operate under especially severe conditions, this
+would be the steel to use. Such conditions are usually met in the case
+of rapid turning, boring, planing, slotting and shaping tools, also
+with twist drills and all forms of milling cutters, gear cutters, taps,
+reamers, special dies, etc.
+
+
+MOLYBDENUM.
+
+Molybdenum was once thought of as being somewhat in a class with
+tungsten, but its use in high speed tool steels is being generally
+discontinued. The reason for this is that it was found that in rapid
+steels this element caused irregular performance, such as large
+variations in the cutting speeds which they would stand. This element
+is also likely to make the steels seamy and contain physical
+imperfections. Molybdenum steels were also found to crack on quenching,
+and possess decided variations in internal structure.
+
+
+VANADIUM.
+
+Vanadium steels are still in their infancy. Therefore, the true value
+of this element in rapid steels must probably be held as not yet fully
+determined. With the single exception of carbon, no element has such a
+powerful effect upon steel as vanadium, for it is only necessary to use
+from 0.10 to 0.15% in order to obtain very noticeable results. In
+addition to acting as a very great strengthener of steel, especially
+against dynamic strains, vanadium also serves as a scavenger in getting
+rid of oxygen and possibly nitrogen. It is also said to decrease
+segregation, which we may readily believe, as most of the elements
+which quiet the steel have this effect.
+
+“Vanadium Steels” demand a somewhat higher price than do those steels
+which do not contain this element in appreciable amounts. It is, of
+course, especially useful for all purposes where strength and lightness
+are desired, such as springs, axles, frames and other parts of railroad
+rolling stock, and automobiles.
+
+
+COBALT.
+
+The valuable effect of cobalt is claimed to be that it increases the
+red hardness of high speed tool steel, enabling the steel to cut at a
+higher speed. However, this element much resembles nickel, which has
+been largely condemned as not being a desirable ingredient for high
+speed tool steels, because it has the effect of making the edge of the
+finished tool soft or “leady”.
+
+
+URANIUM, TITANIUM AND ALUMINUM.
+
+These elements are generally classed as scavengers, although recently
+important claims have been advanced for their effect upon the physical
+properties of steel. This is especially true for the first two. In
+present practice, however, they are used almost entirely as deoxidizers
+or cleansers, and are added to the metal for this purpose only.
+
+
+IMPURITIES.
+
+Phosphorus, Sulphur and Copper are the most noted impurities which
+occur in steel. The first two are practically always present in greater
+or smaller amounts as the case may be. The best processes of tool steel
+manufacture are capable of producing steels with no copper. While
+Aluminum is not generally classed as an impurity, it nevertheless
+sometimes shows up in the finished product when its presence is not
+desired, and therefore, might be considered an impurity.
+
+Combinations of iron with some or all of the above elements in the form
+of slags and oxides are other well known impurities.
+
+From the forgoing pages it must be evident that producing a steel with
+exactly the correct chemical content is only =one= step towards
+securing a satisfactory product. However, it might be well if we were
+to briefly sum up a few of the more important features of our
+discussion on this interesting subject.
+
+
+HEAT TREATMENT.
+
+The heat treatment of tool steels is of the utmost importance. Tool
+makers of the old school proved their ability to accomplish certain
+desired results in the art of heat treatment without really fully
+understanding exactly how or why they were able to do so. Today,
+however, progressive manufacturers are using the results of research
+and such thorough scientific investigation that the process has become
+far more complicated and complex, and the results obtained are
+correspondingly more remarkable.
+
+Chemically perfect steel may be easily and completely ruined during the
+process of melting, cogging, rolling, hammering, annealing, heat
+treating and tempering. It is the business of the steel manufacturer to
+carefully guard his product up through the process of annealing, but it
+usually falls to the tool maker to undertake the delicate operations of
+heat treatment and tempering.
+
+
+HARDENING.
+
+The application of heat alone to steel can very materially affect the
+condition of the structure of the metal, either with or without
+simultaneous mechanical treatment. Depending upon the degree of heat,
+the rate of heating and cooling and the duration of such treatment,
+this application may be decidedly beneficial or harmful as the case may
+be.
+
+We now know that when steel is heated above the critical point, and is
+then allowed to rapidly cool, a very marked hardness in the metal is
+produced. The degree of hardness so attained will, in general, vary
+directly with (1) the percentage of carbon, (2) the rate of cooling,
+(3) and the temperature above the critical point from which the cooling
+takes place. When the steel comes from the rolling mill and from the
+finishing hammers it is in this hardened condition. Therefore, in order
+to render it soft and ductile enough to cut and work up into certain
+desired shapes, sizes and tools, it is necessary to subject the steel
+to the process of annealing. This operation is usually undertaken by
+the steel producer, under which circumstances he is able to control his
+product through this delicate procedure, and deliver the same to his
+customers in the best possible condition for their use.
+
+
+ANNEALING.
+
+Annealing has for its object: (1) Completely undoing the effect of
+hardening, leaving the steel soft and ductile (2) refining the grain,
+in which case the crystals are allowed to re-arrange and re-adjust
+themselves, usually growing to a rather large size (3) and removing
+strains and stresses caused by too rapid cooling. Such cooling strains
+are particularly likely to exist where the rate of cooling is different
+in different parts of the bar, but the process of annealing ought to
+remedy any such condition, leaving the steel soft, ductile and of
+refined and uniform crystalline structure throughout.
+
+The process of annealing is easier to explain than it is to actually
+put into practice. The steel is first packed in lime, charcoal, fine
+dry ashes or sand, and then sealed in long air-tight tubes or boxes.
+
+The whole receptacle is next slowly brought up to a dull red heat, of
+about 1500 degrees Fahrenheit.
+
+It is very important to heat the material uniformly all the way
+through, and then hold it in this condition from three to eight hours.
+Thus, allowing the slipping of one allotropic condition into another.
+
+The receptacle must be cooled equally slowly, either allowing the
+packed steel to cool slowly down with the furnace, or by placing the
+same in a soaking or cooling pit, which also accomplishes the desired
+result.
+
+After the receptacle has become entirely cooled it is opened and the
+steel unpacked and removed. The steel is then ready for its final
+inspection before shipping to the tool maker.
+
+
+TEMPERING.
+
+The process of tempering usually has to be undertaken by the tool maker
+or user after the annealed steel, which he received from the steel
+mill, has been cut up and shaped into the desired form and size.
+
+The main object of tempering steel is to re-harden the material to such
+an extent that it will cut other metals, retaining its desired shape
+size and cutting edge, while at the same time it must not possess too
+much brittleness. The treatment varies materially with different brands
+of steels.
+
+For the average grade of the best High Speed Steel containing from 16%
+to 18% tungsten, the tool should be brought very slowly up to a dull
+cherry red. It is usually considered good practice to first place the
+tool near or on top of the pre-heating furnace before actually placing
+it in the pre-heater, in order that the heating might be effected just
+as slowly as possible. The pre-heating operation should bring the tool
+up to about 1600 to 1800 degrees Fahrenheit, after which the tool
+should be placed in the high heating furnace and brought up to 2300 to
+2400 degrees Fahrenheit, or a white sweating heat. Care should be taken
+not to allow the tool to remain in this condition for more than an
+instant, as it is then in a very critical condition and could be easily
+burned or ruined.
+
+Therefore, the tool should be immediately pulled from the furnace and
+plunged into a good clean oil bath, keeping it constantly in motion.
+
+As High Speed Steels are air-hardening steels, it is also the practice
+to harden these steels by simply placing the cutting edge in an air
+blast, which produces maximum hardness in the desired point and allows
+the body of the tool to cool at a little slower rate, thus slightly
+relieving the cooling strains and producing a little less brittleness
+therein. Such cooling strains can be relieved throughout the whole tool
+by drawing the same back to about 400 to 500 degrees Fahrenheit, and
+sometimes as high as 1050 degrees Fahrenheit, depending upon the
+particular tool and its use.
+
+The treatment of Carbon Steels varies with each particular brand. Great
+care must always be taken to heat the steel uniformly, as a material
+which is heated unevenly will expand and contract unevenly and, in
+consequence, will crack when quenched.
+
+The steel should always be hardened on the rising heat, in general
+bringing the same slowly up to a dull cherry red, or to about 1450
+degrees Fahrenheit, and then quenching in clear cold water, keeping the
+same in motion until the steel is cold. The temper should then be drawn
+according to the purpose of the tool, which could only be discussed for
+each particular case. The following range of temperatures are
+interesting, as being approximately indicated by the thin film of oxide
+tints which occur on the tool undergoing a tempering operation:
+
+  Pale Yellow       428 Degrees Fahrenheit
+  Golden Yellow     469 Degrees Fahrenheit
+  Purple            531 Degrees Fahrenheit
+  Bright Blue       550 Degrees Fahrenheit
+  Dark Blue         601 Degrees Fahrenheit
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+The effects of annealing, rolling, hammering, treating and tempering
+are best understood by those manufacturers who make a specialty of
+supplying a high grade tool steel, and in general it would be well if
+customers would consult freely with the producers of these steels,
+before attempting the delicate undertaking of Heat Treatment.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+WHAT TOOL STEEL IS DOING TOWARDS
+WINNING THE WAR.
+
+
+It hardly seems fitting that we should close these pages without giving
+our readers some little idea of just what the tool steel industry is
+doing for the successful conclusion of the great cause nearest our
+hearts.
+
+One of the first statements which we could make would be that every
+metal worker in the world absolutely requires some form of tool steel
+or special alloy steel in the manufacture of his product. Of course, a
+very great many manufacturers other than the actual metal workers also
+need this same supply of tool steel in order that their production
+might not immediately cease. Volumes could be written on the vital
+importance of tools to industry in general, from the drills which drill
+out the hole in a hypodermic needle, to a twelve-ton drop-forge steam
+hammer. But for the present we may confine ourselves to simply the
+briefest mention of the vast number of iron and steel products actually
+and vitally engaged in the prosecution of the war.
+
+We are told that we need ships, yet the ship industry could not proceed
+a day if its supply of necessary tools was cut off. The overwhelming
+increase in the manufacturing operations of the world which has taken
+place since the opening of the European War can better be imagined than
+explained, it being only necessary for us to point out here that the
+one absolute necessity which is common to all and required by all
+branches of such vast manufacture is the proper supply of necessary
+tools.
+
+It has been the personal duty of the writer to make various visits to
+different Government shops and Arsenals as well as to the plants and
+shops of torpedo, shell and munition manufacturers and the vital part
+which the tools of production are playing in the great undertaking has
+been forcefully impressed upon his attention.
+
+The metals which are destined to play an active part in actual warfare
+are naturally required to meet the most severe conditions imaginable.
+Thus we find the high manganese armor plate and the high
+chrome-manganese armor piercing projectile. We find the new
+specifications for steel forging, for hulls and engines now have rigid
+chrome-vanadium and special nickle requirements, all of which means
+that the tools that do the machining, planing, shaping, cutting,
+drilling, boring, reaming, stamping and many other operations must be
+made of a tougher and harder material than ever before.
+
+We know that for every man who may fight on the battle field, at least
+two men must labor in our shops and factories over mechanical
+operations.
+
+Those of us who have been in immediate touch with some of the vital
+requirements of the War and Navy Departments in these strenuous days
+realize the shocking absence of the complete preparedness, which we
+must rapidly accomplish if we are to come anywhere near supplying our
+own soldiers on the fighting front with the fighting machinery and
+supplies of which they are in such urgent need. We realize that after
+all these months of increased industrial preparedness, we are,
+therefore, still unprepared in the full meaning of the word. The very
+foundation of our structure shows a startling amount of unpreparedness.
+We like to gaze upon the exterior towers and battlements of a castle of
+preparedness, and these are wonderful and encouraging to look upon but
+down below all these are certain neglected and unfinished pillars in
+the unseen cellar of that foundation, which threaten the stability of
+the entire mass. It is, therefore, some of these fundamental details
+which have been neglected as we have beheld the vision of the
+super-structure above. Pershing needs, 1,500,000 boys in khaki and over
+the shoulder of each is his protection against the Hun. Everyone of
+these rifles is a splendid monument of the accomplishment of tool steel
+and special alloy steel.
+
+Every day of our present existence it happens that over a million
+shells scream over the miles of battle line in France. This curtain of
+high explosive and shrapnel is another direct expression of the wonders
+which the modern high speed and special alloy steel have accomplished.
+We are told that a 3“ shrapnel shell contains seventy drilled holes or
+a drilling of 19-1/4” in depth. That means that 1,600,000 feet or over
+three hundred miles of drilled holes are shot away every twenty-four
+hours on the battle fronts of Europe.
+
+In a publication “Fighting Industry” published by one of our largest
+twist drill companies in this country, we note that the drilled holes
+in various implements of our militant harness are as follows:
+
+  8“ shrapnel shell      70
+  Springfield rifle      94
+  Torpedo              3466
+  Machine gun           350
+  Aeroplane            4089
+  3-ton auto truck     5946
+  Light ambulance      1500
+  3” field gun         1280
+  Gun caisson           594
+  Anti-air craft gun   1200
+  Self-binder           500
+  Thresher              420
+  Motorcycle           1160
+
+Four million men must work with tools in order that two million men may
+fight in France. These men can not, “just be given a tool and told to
+use it.” It is necessary that they have years of careful training and
+actual experience in order that they might effectively make use of the
+intricate tools and machinery which the mother of modern industry is
+striving to place in their hands. At present every tool steel mill in
+America is straining its furnaces, hammers and rolling mills to their
+maximum capacity. They are working days, nights and Sundays and still
+the demand is far in excess of the supply. Conservative estimations
+show that with all the added machinery and equipment which is in the
+process of construction at this time, it will still take at least two
+years and a half before the tool steel industry of America will come
+any where near meeting the demand for its product.
+
+As we gaze with belated pride upon the huge structure of our present
+Preparedness, does it not seem strange to think that the most vital
+pillar of its whole foundation should have been forgotten and neglected
+so long and which is therefore now caused to endure such an abnormal
+and terrific strain? We are at last forced to realize that tool steel
+is the very essence of our whole existence.
+
+Of course, the great importance of tool steel in this national
+emergency does not stop with the actual weapons of warfare. Besides the
+railroads, automobiles, tramways, elevators, bridges, buildings,
+shoes, clothing and in fact, every branch of the intricate mass of
+manufactured products so vital to our daily existence, nations are
+crying for bread. Victory hangs on our food supply. Our threshing
+machines, our reapers and our harvesting machinery are all working over
+time. But before the threshing machines can thresh wheat and before the
+reapers can reap and before the tractors and other farm machinery can
+contribute their great service to humanity, it is necessary that the
+American production of tool steel must pass its rigid inspection and
+yield forth in full measure the great service which it is called upon
+to give.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+ANALYSIS, USES AND HEAT TREATMENT OF
+VARIOUS GRADES OF TOOL STEELS.
+
+
+Providing the many complications and difficulties which accompany the
+melting, hammering, rolling, annealing, inspecting and finishing
+operations, have been successfully accomplished, the chemical analysis
+of the best grades of tool steel should come within the following
+limits:
+
+
+TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF HIGH
+SPEED STEEL.
+
+  Carbon                   .66 %
+  Tungsten               18.01 %
+  Chromium                4.50 %
+  Vanadium                 .98 %
+  Phosphorus               .023%
+  Sulphur                  .021%
+  Manganese                .285%
+  Silicon                  .228%
+  Iron (by deduction)    75.293%
+
+
+USES.
+
+Turning, Boring, Planing, Slotting, Shaping Tools. Also Twist Drills,
+Milling Cutters, Gear Cutters, Taps, Reamers, Special Dies, etc.
+
+
+HEAT TREATMENT.
+
+Heat slowly in pre-heater to 1700 degrees Fahrenheit. Then rapidly in
+superheater to 2300 degrees Fahrenheit, taking care not to burn or
+fuse delicate projections on special tools. Harden either in air blast,
+or in good clean oil; keeping tool in motion. In all cases merely the
+_end_ of the tool to white heat. Draw in oil from 400 degrees
+Fahrenheit to 600 degrees Fahrenheit.
+
+
+TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF DIE
+STEEL FOR HOT WORK.
+
+  Carbon                   .39 %
+  Tungsten                8.41 %
+  Chromium                2.10 %
+  Phosphorus               .019%
+  Sulphur                  .017%
+  Manganese                .315%
+  Silicon                  .234%
+  Iron (by deduction)    88.515%
+
+
+USES.
+
+Hot shear blades, hot punches, header and gripper dies; used in bolt
+and rivet making. Also excellent for compression sets and in general
+for all hot work.
+
+
+HEAT TREATMENT.
+
+Will stand high hardening heats, similar to high speed steel, 1700
+degrees Fahrenheit and then 2300 degrees Fahrenheit. Harden either in
+air or oil. Keep away from water. Draw to 500 degrees Fahrenheit.
+
+
+TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF SPECIAL
+ALLOY STEEL.
+
+  Carbon                   .78 %
+  Vanadium                 .29 %
+  Phosphorus               .014%
+  Sulphur                  .016%
+  Manganese                .324%
+  Silicon                  .296%
+  Iron (by deduction)    98.28 %
+
+
+USES.
+
+Specially useful in tools subject to shock, such as hand and pneumatic
+chisels, boilermakers caulking tools and rivet sets. Also for cold
+upsetting dies, cold punches, shear blades and stamping dies. A special
+grade of this steel makes excellent taps.
+
+
+HEAT TREATMENT.
+
+Heat slowly to a low red, about 1400 degrees Fahrenheit, or if low
+carbon content to 1500 degrees Fahrenheit; being very careful not to
+over-heat. Quench in good clean tempered water; keeping tool constantly
+in motion. Draw from 250 degrees Fahrenheit to 400 degrees Fahrenheit.
+
+
+TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF FAST FINISHING
+SEMI-HIGH SPEED.
+
+  Carbon                  1.28 %
+  Tungsten                3.56 %
+  Phosphorus               .021%
+  Sulphur                  .019%
+  Manganese                .316%
+  Silicon                  .271%
+  Iron (by deduction)    94.533%
+
+
+USES.
+
+Do not confuse the High Speed, although excellent for turning chilled
+cast iron, clean finishing cuts. Especially adapted for taps and
+reamers, as well as for tools for brass, bronze, aluminum, copper and
+chilled roll turning.
+
+
+HEAT TREATMENT.
+
+Heat slowly to full bright red, 1425 degrees Fahrenheit to 1500 degrees
+Fahrenheit. Quench in luke warm water. Keep tool constantly in motion.
+Draw to not over 300 degrees Fahrenheit.
+
+
+TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE
+CARBON TOOL STEEL.
+
+  Carbon                  1.12 %
+  Phosphorus               .009%
+  Sulphur                  .011%
+  Manganese                .254%
+  Silicon                  .213%
+  Iron (by deduction)    98.393%
+
+
+USES.
+
+General tool room usage _with moderate cutting speeds_. Excellent
+lathe, planer, and shaper tools, drills, shear blades (for cold work
+only) punches, chisels, files and mining tools.
+
+
+HEAT TREATMENT.
+
+Heat slowly to Low Red heat, approximately 1375 degrees Fahrenheit (the
+higher the carbon the lower the heat). Care not to over-heat. Quench in
+good clean luke warm water. Draw to not over 350 degrees Fahrenheit.
+
+
+TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF NON-SHRINKING
+OIL HARDENING
+STEEL.
+
+  Carbon                   .91 %
+  Phosphorus               .016%
+  Sulphur                  .019%
+  Manganese               1.62 %
+  Silicon                  .31 %
+  Iron (by deduction)    97.125%
+
+
+USES.
+
+Threading dies, chasers, taps, reamers, and all master tools. For
+gauges, plugs, etc. Especially adapted for stamping, punching, trimming
+dies and many other uses where it is necessary to overcome shrinking,
+warping or change of shape.
+
+
+HEAT TREATMENT.
+
+Heat very slowly to pre-heating temperature of 1200 degrees Fahrenheit,
+then to hardening temperature from 1360 degrees Fahrenheit to 1425
+degrees Fahrenheit, depending upon size of piece being treated.
+
+Harden in lard, linseed or cottonseed oil; preferably fish oil. Do not
+quench in water.
+
+Draw cutting tools, taps and reamers at 250 degrees to 300 degrees
+Fahrenheit. Large tools such as blanking and stamping dies at 400
+degrees to 450 degrees Fahrenheit.
+
+
+TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF SPECIAL
+HOT WORK ALLOY STEEL.
+
+  Carbon                   .86 %
+  Chromium                3.71 %
+  Phosphorus               .023%
+  Sulphur                  .019%
+  Manganese                .381%
+  Silicon                  .267%
+  Iron (by deduction)    94.740%
+
+
+USES.
+
+An excellent composition for hot work in service for grippers, headers,
+hot punches, hot shear blades and similar tools. Especially valuable in
+structural steel and boiler shop work. Rivet sets and bull dies made
+from a steel of this composition ought to resist breaking and
+battering.
+
+
+HEAT TREATMENT.
+
+Very flexible hardening in air, oil or water. If air is used heat to
+1675 degrees to 1750 degrees Fahrenheit and place under dry air blast,
+or stand in cool place. To harden in oil, heat to 1500 degrees to 1550
+degrees Fahrenheit and quench in thin oil. To harden in water, heat to
+1475 degrees Fahrenheit to 1525 degrees Fahrenheit and quench in cool
+water. Draw from 250 degrees to 300 degrees Fahrenheit.
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75326 ***
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+    <title>Few Secrets of the Metallurgist Simply Told | Project Gutenberg</title>
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+    
+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75326 ***</div>
+
+    
+    <div class = "trnote">
+        <p class = "fett zentriert">TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
+        </p>
+        
+        <div class = "unten0-5">Some minor misspellings in the text are 
+            silently corrected.
+        </div>
+        
+        <div class = "unten0-5">
+            The numbering of the drawings does not correspond to their marked
+            number. However, they have been left as they are, as the author
+            has entered them by hand in the drawings.
+        </div>
+        
+        <div class = "unten0-5">
+            In the table on the color of the oxide layer of tempered steel
+            in the tempering section, the first column has been set without
+            trailing commas, as the author has handled this inconsistently.
+        </div>
+        
+        <div>
+            The new original cover art included with this
+            eBook is granted to the public domain. 
+        </div>
+    </div>
+    
+    
+    <div class = "abst10 unten10 capter">
+        <div class = "pre1">A FEW SECRETS OF THE
+        </div>
+        <div class = "pre2 abst0-8">METALLURGIST
+        </div>
+        <div class = "pre1 abst0-8">SIMPLY TOLD
+        </div>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class = "abst10 unten10 capter">
+        <div class = "pre3">ATLAS CRUCIBLE STEEL CO.
+        </div>
+        <div class = "pre4 abst0-4">PUBLISHERS
+        </div>
+        <div class = "pre3 abst0-4">DUNKIRK, N. Y.
+        </div>
+    </div>
+    
+    <section class = "zentriert eocapter">
+        <div class = "unten10">
+        <h1 class = "durch">
+            <span style = "font-size: 0.9em; font-family: Arial, Helvetica;
+                           font-weight: lighter; letter-spacing: 0.3em">
+                A FEW SECRETS OF THE
+            </span><br>
+            <span style = "font-size: 1.1em;font-family: Arial, Helvetica;
+                           font-weight: lighter; letter-spacing: 0.1em">
+                METALLURGIST
+            </span><br>
+            <span style = "font-size: 0.9em; font-family: Arial, Helvetica;
+                           font-weight: lighter; letter-spacing: 0.3em">
+                SIMPLY TOLD
+            </span>
+        </h1>
+        </div>
+        
+        <div class = "unten1-1">BY
+        </div>
+        <div class = "pre3 unten0-5">GERALD W. HINKLEY, M. E.
+        </div>
+        <div class = "unten1-8 durch">CORNELL UNIVERSITY<br>
+                                ORDNANCE ENGINEER<br>
+                                AND ASSISTANT TO PRESIDENT<br>
+                                ATLAS CRUCIBLE STEEL CO.<br>
+                                DUNKIRK, N. Y.
+        </div>
+        
+        <div class = "unten1-1 abst8">FIRST EDITION
+        </div>
+        
+        
+    </section>
+
+
+    <div class = "zentriert abst8 unten8 durch eocapter">
+        <span style = "letter-spacing: 0.2em"> COPYRIGHTED 1918
+        </span><br>
+        <span style = "font-size: 0.8em">BY
+        </span><br>
+        <span style = "font-size: 0.55em; letter-spacing: 0.1em">
+        PRESS OF DUNKIRK PRINTING COMPANY
+        </span>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class = "zentriert hoeh1-3 abst1-8">
+    PREFACE.
+    </div>
+    
+    <p class = "ein">
+    This is not and is not intended to be a
+    thoroughly complete explanation or discussion
+    of the allotropic theory of iron
+    and steel, but rather a brief outline of a
+    few of the great principles of metallurgy
+    written primarily for the layman. If
+    without leading him astray from the real
+    scientific understanding of the subject we
+    have succeeded in briefly but satisfactorily
+    answering the old familiar question,
+    "Why do steels harden?", we will in a
+    large measure, have accomplished our purpose.
+    </p>
+    
+    <p class = "ein">
+    Besides the personal observations which
+    the writer has made from time to time in
+    the metallurgical laboratory, he has availed
+    himself freely of the works of many
+    and eminent authors dealing with this
+    subject and where disputable conditions
+    have arisen in regard to certain theories,
+    uses, etc., has attempted to adopt the
+    most logical consensus of opinion.
+    </p>
+
+    <div style = "margin-left: 80%; margin-top: -1.1em">
+    G. W. H.
+    </div>
+    
+    
+        <div class = "capter">
+            <div class = "zentriert hoeh1-3 abst1-8">CONTENTS.
+            </div>
+        
+            <hr class = "unten1-8 abst1-8">
+
+            <div class = "pre3a">A FEW SECRETS OF THE<br>
+            METALLURGIST<br>
+            SIMPLY TOLD.
+            </div>
+        
+            <hr>
+          
+        
+            <table class = "center">
+
+                <tr class = "rechts">
+                    <td colspan = "2">Page</td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td>INTRODUCTION</td>     
+                <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-17">17</a></td>
+                </tr>
+                
+                <tr>
+                    <td colspan = "2">CHAPTER I.</td>
+                </tr>
+
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                        <div class = "gerueckt1">A Slight Test of the Imagination
+                        </div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href ="#anker-19">19</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td colspan = "2">CHAPTER II.</td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Comparison Between Conditions
+                    Which Exist in the Iron and
+                    Steel Family to Those Which
+                    Exist with More Familiar Elements</div>
+                </td>
+                <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-22">22</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td colspan = "2">CHAPTER III.</td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">An Experiment Performed with
+                    a Piece of Pearlitic Steel</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-29">29</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td colspan = "2">CHAPTER IV.</td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">High Speed Steel</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-51">51</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td colspan = "2">CHAPTER V.</td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">The General Effect of the More
+                    Important Elements in Tool
+                    Steels</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-611">61</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Carbon Steels</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-612">61</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Alloy Steels</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-63">63</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">High Speed Steels</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-64">64</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Elements Which Occur in all
+                    Steels</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-661">66</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Iron</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-662">66</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Carbon</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-671">67</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Manganese</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-672">67</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Silicon</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-68">68</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Phosphorus</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-69">69</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Sulphur</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-701">70</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Elements Which Have Become
+                    Especially Associated with
+                    Special Alloy Steels</div>
+                    </td>
+                <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-702">70</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Chromium</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-703">70</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Tungsten</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-72">72</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Molybdenum</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-731">73</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Vanadium</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-732">73</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Cobalt</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-74">74</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Uranium, Titanium and Aluminum</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-751">75</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Impurities</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-752">75</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Heat Treatment</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-76">76</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Hardening</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-77">77</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Annealing</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-79">79</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Tempering</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-81">81</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Conclusion</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-84">84</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td colspan = "2">CHAPTER VI.</td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">What Tool Steel Is Doing Towards
+                    Winning the War</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-85">85</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td colspan = "2">APPENDIX.</td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Analysis, Uses and Heat Treatment
+                    of Various Grades of Tool Steels</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-92">92</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">High Speed Steels</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-93">93</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Die Steel for Hot Work</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-94">94</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Special Alloy Steel</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-95">95</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Semi-High Speed Steel</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-96">96</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Simple Carbon Tool Steel</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-97">97</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Non-Shrinking Oil Hardening
+                    Steel</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-98">98</a></td>
+                </tr>
+        
+                <tr>
+                    <td class = "serve1">
+                    <div class = "gerueckt1">Special Hot Work Alloy Steel</div>
+                    </td>
+                    <td class = "rechts1"><a href = "#anker-99">99</a></td>
+                </tr>
+            </table>
+        </div>
+        
+    <div class = "abst2 capter zentriert">
+    
+        <div class = "pre3a fett">A FEW SECRETS OF THE<br>
+            METALLURGIST<br>
+            SIMPLY TOLD
+        </div>
+    
+        <div class = "abst1-8 nobreak">
+            <h3 id = "anker-17">INTRODUCTION.</h3>
+        </div>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        When as a student at a Technical College
+        of one of our great Universities, I
+        came to the study of Differential and
+        Integral Calculus, I remember that I
+        was seized with a kind of mental paralysis
+        at the thought of the great unknown
+        that lay before me. Fortunately, however,
+        a little book was brought to my
+        attention, under the encouraging title
+        "Calculus Made Easy". As a matter
+        of fact the little volume did not attempt
+        to take its readers through all the intricacies
+        of the entire subject, but it did
+        succeed in giving a certain start on the
+        long journey which has to be undergone
+        by a student of the Calculus. Its
+        opening sentence was encouraging,
+        which I have always remembered, and
+        which read something as follows:        
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        "What one fool can accomplish,
+        another fool can do, therefore take
+        courage". This same thought applies
+        to the subject which is now before us.
+        </p>
+    </div>
+    
+    
+    <div>
+        <div>
+        <h2 id = "anker-19" >CHAPTER I.</h2>
+        </div>
+        
+        <div>
+        <h3 class = "nobreak">A SLIGHT TEST OF THE IMAGINATION.</h3>
+        </div>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        We live in a world in which certain
+        conditions of the atmosphere and the
+        so-called elements surrounding our
+        daily existence, are entirely familiar to
+        us. From force of habit we are likely
+        to forget that had Nature, for instance,
+        been planned under a different range
+        of livable temperatures, all the familiar
+        objects of our daily existence would
+        have existed under entirely different
+        form.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        For instance, if the normal temperature
+        had been about 2700 degrees
+        Fahrenheit instead of about 60 degrees
+        Fahrenheit, and we had been constructed
+        so that we could comfortably endure
+        that degree of temperature, we
+        could have gone sailing on a sea of
+        molten iron, in boats built of plumbago
+        crucibles, and oars made of silica brick.
+        Under these delightful conditions we
+        could place frozen lumps of our sea
+        of iron in our ice boxes for refrigeration.
+        Flat irons and stove lids would
+        therefore have been the product of the
+        ice man. The water with which we are
+        now familiar, of course, could not exist
+        in its liquid form, or even as steam, but
+        instead as a highly gaseous state, which
+        we would probably have been called
+        upon to breathe. Certain other substances
+        with which we are perfectly
+        familiar in our daily life, such as the
+        common stick sulphur, for instance,
+        would exist in an entirely different
+        <b>physical</b> state, although their <b>chemical</b>
+        properties would be entirely unchanged,
+        and we would be given to understand
+        that an "allotropic" transformation had
+        taken place.
+        </p>
+            
+        <p class = "ein">
+        If we can now imagine ourselves as
+        existing under the relative conditions
+        described above, which are undoubtedly
+        the "natural" conditions of some other
+        world, it will then be easy for us to
+        understand quite clearly some of the
+        other "allotropic" forms of iron and
+        steel than those with which we are at
+        present familiar.
+        </p>
+    </div>
+    
+    
+    <div>
+        <div>
+        <h2 id = "anker-22">CHAPTER II.</h2>
+        </div>
+        
+        <div class = "nobreak">
+        <h3>COMPARISON BETWEEN CONDITIONS WHICH<br>
+        EXIST IN THE IRON AND STEEL FAMILY<br>
+        TO THOSE WHICH EXIST WITH<br>
+        MORE FAMILIAR ELEMENTS.</h3>
+        </div>
+    
+        <p class = "ein">
+        One of the first physical changes
+        which we would discover would be that
+        when we desired to "freeze" a "crucible"
+        pailful of our iron water, we
+        could do so much more easily if the
+        same were in its absolutely pure state
+        than we could if it were mixed with
+        some other element, such as carbon.
+        Of course, we have long known that
+        this is the case with water and salt, and
+        just as it becomes harder and harder to
+        freeze water with greater and greater
+        percentages of salt mixed with it, so
+        the freezing of iron with greater and
+        greater percentages of carbon mixed
+        with it, would also occur at lower and
+        lower temperatures.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        If we started to add salt to a pail
+        of water we, of course, would have different
+        degrees of brine. Just so with
+        the addition of carbon to a crucible of
+        pure iron, we would likewise have different
+        degrees of the resulting mixture.
+        In adding the salt to the pailful
+        of water, we would arrive at a point
+        where the water had absorbed all of
+        the salt which it was capable of holding
+        at room temperature. If we had added
+        a little less salt we would have had free
+        water in excess of salt, and if we had
+        added a little more salt it would have
+        been impossible for the water to have
+        dissolved it, and we would, therefore,
+        have had salt in excess of water.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        For convenience we will call the mixture
+        above mentioned, at which the
+        water had become thoroughly saturated
+        with the salt, "cementite", because
+        this is the name which our friends, the
+        metallurgists, have given to a similar
+        mixture of iron and carbon. They call
+        the water, "ferrite"; the salt, "carbide"
+        and the resulting mixture of brine,
+        "cementite". This mixture of iron and
+        carbon always exists in exactly the
+        same ratio, namely, 93.4% iron and
+        6.6% carbon, and is expressed chemically
+        by the symbol Fe3C, which means,
+        in other words, that three "atoms" of
+        iron have united with one "<i>atom</i>" of
+        carbon to form the "chemical compound",
+        "iron carbide", which the metallurgists,
+        as above mentioned, desire
+        to term "Cementite".
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Now let us go back to the brine
+        solution with which we are already
+        familiar, and suppose that we added a
+        little more salt than the water could
+        absorb, and which therefore would exist
+        in a "solid solution", and then bring this
+        "mechanical mixture" to such a low
+        temperature that it would actually
+        "freeze". For convenience, and in
+        order to agree with the metallurgists
+        again, let us call the resulting structure
+        "pearlite". That is the name which
+        they have given to a corresponding
+        "mechanical mixture" of cementite and
+        ferrite.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        This new constituent "pearlite" contains
+        approximately O.9% carbon and
+        consists of inter-stratified layers or
+        bands of ferrite and cementite.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        It is regarded as a separate and distinct
+        constituent of steel, and takes its
+        name from the fact that it has a mother of
+        pearl-like appearance under the microscope.
+        It always occurs at a definite range
+        of temperature and always contains the
+        above mentioned definite percentage
+        of carbon.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        From the above it may be suspected
+        that a steel containing O.9% carbon,
+        consisting entirely of pearlite, forms
+        rather a special and particular class of
+        steels, which the metallurgists have decided
+        to dignify with the title "Eutectoid
+        Steels". Having done this much
+        to properly impress the unsuspecting
+        probers of their secrets, they decided
+        to call steels containing less than this
+        Eutectoid ratio of carbon (0.9% C)
+        "Hypo-eutectoid Steels". These steels,
+        of course, contain certain definite
+        amounts of pearlite with other amounts
+        of free or excess ferrite. Likewise, if
+        the carbon content is greater than O.9%
+        there will be an excess of cementite
+        over the ferrite and we will then have
+        a structure of pearlite plus free cementite.
+        And these steels are spoken of
+        as "hyper-eutectoid" steels.
+        </p>
+    
+        
+        <div class = "capter eocapter">
+            <div style = "width: 90%">
+            <img class = "centerpic" src = "images/i_25-1.jpg"
+                alt = "The magnified cross-section of a hypo-eutectoid
+                steel bar shows dark pearlite inclusions in a
+                light-colored ferrite structure.">
+            </div>
+            <div class = "descript abst0-4 unten1-8">
+            Hypo-eutectoid Steel. Carbon .11%. Structure:
+            Light—Ferrite; Dark—Pearlite. Mag. 500x
+            </div>
+        
+            <div style = "width: 90%">
+            <img class = "centerpic" src = "images/i_25-2.png"
+                alt = "The magnified cross-section of a hypo-eutectoid
+                steel bar with a high carbon content shows a
+                conglomerate of dark pearlite particles.
+                The interstices are filled with a light-colored
+                ferrite structure.">
+            </div>
+            <div class = "descript abst1-8 unten1-8">
+            Hypo-eutectoid Steel. Carbon .37%. Structure:
+            Light—Ferrite; Dark—Pearlite. Mag. 500x
+            </div>
+        </div>
+
+        <div class = "capter eocapter">
+            <div style = "width: 90%">
+            <img class = "centerpic" src = "images/i_26-1.jpg"
+                alt = "The magnified sectional view of a eutectoid
+                steel rod is characterized by finely distributed structures.">
+            </div>
+            <div class = "descript abst0-4 unten1-8">
+            Eutectoid Steel. Carbon .90%. Structure: Fine
+            uniform Pearlitic condition. Mag. 500x
+            </div>
+        
+            <div style = "width: 90%">
+            <img class = "centerpic" src = "images/i_26-2.jpg"
+                 alt = "In the enlarged section of a hyper-eutectoid steel
+                 rod, the pearlites are sharply delineated by cementites.">
+            </div>
+            <div class = "descript abst0-4 unten1-8">
+            Hyper-eutectoid Steel. Carbon 1.20%. Structure:
+            Dark—Pearlitic; White boundaries—Cementite.
+            Mag. 500x
+            </div>
+        </div>
+    </div>
+        
+    <div>
+        <div>
+        <h2 id = "anker-29">CHAPTER III.</h2>
+        </div>
+        
+        <div class = "nobreak">
+        <h3>AN EXPERIMENT PERFORMED WITH A<br>
+        PIECE OF PEARLITIC STEEL.</h3>
+        </div>
+            
+        <p class = "ein">However, let us not trouble ourselves
+        with too many definitions at one time,
+        but instead amuse ourselves for a while
+        by running through a little experiment
+        with a piece of carbon tool steel similar
+        to that which we have just been discussing.
+        For our investigation we will
+        also need a special kind of thermometer
+        for measuring high temperatures.
+        Such an instrument is known as a
+        "pyrometer". Now we will drill a little
+        hole in the test piece of carbon steel
+        and after inserting the "couple" of the
+        pyrometer into it, place the same in
+        the electric furnace.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        As the current is turned on, the test
+        piece begins to grow warm and then
+        hotter and hotter, gradually up through
+        a range of temperatures which are continually
+        recorded by the needle of the
+        pyrometer. 800, 900, 1000, 1200 degrees
+        Fahrenheit are uniformly reached,
+        and the temperature of our test
+        piece continues to rise, as the absorption
+        of heat progresses. Suddenly,
+        however, the test piece assumes a
+        bright glow and the needle of the pyrometer
+        ceases to advance, and we note
+        that it is pausing at about 1350 degrees
+        Fahrenheit. Then after its pause, the
+        advance is again resumed until the
+        piece has become almost ready to melt.
+        By plotting the uniform periods of time
+        at which we read the different temperatures
+        recorded by the needle of the
+        pyrometer, against the temperatures
+        as read, we would have a picture of our
+        phenomenon something as follows:
+        </p>
+        
+        <div style = "width: 80%; margin-left: 2.1em;">
+        <img class = "center2 abst2 unten1-5" 
+        src = "images/i_29.jpg"
+        alt = "Graph showing the course of the temperature curve as a
+        function of the heating time of the metal sample.">
+        </div>   
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Now let us begin to let our test piece
+        cool off gradually. The temperature
+        of the furnace is lowered and the uniform
+        range of cooling temperatures is
+        recorded by the ever sensitive needle
+        of the pyrometer. Suddenly as before,
+        the test piece assumes the brilliant
+        glow noted previously, and again the
+        needle comes to rest, but this time we
+        note that the recorded temperature is
+        about 1250 degrees Fahrenheit instead
+        of 1350 degrees Fahrenheit as before.
+        Evidently there has been a certain
+        tardiness or "lag" which has caused the
+        phenomenon to take place a little too
+        high going up and a little too low coming
+        down, and in fact the metallurgists
+        tell us that such is exactly the case, and
+        that the real point in which we are interested
+        lies just half way between the
+        two points indicated, as we shall presently
+        see. If we again represent the
+        results of our latest experiment graphically,
+        we would have a picture something
+        as Fig. 2.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div style = "width: 80%; margin-left: 2.2em">
+        <img class = "center2" src = "images/i_30.jpg"
+         alt = "Graph of the cooling curve of the metal sample over time">    
+        </div>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Now placing the second curve so obtained
+        on the first, we are able to
+        study the following interesting relationship.
+        Fig. 3.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div style = "width: 80%; margin-left: 2.1em;">
+        <img class = "center2 abst2 unten1-8" src = "images/i_31.jpg"
+         alt = "Graph combining the heating- and cooling-curves from
+                before and demonstrating the critical range">    
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">It is natural to suspect that both of
+        the parallel sections of our curves have
+        something to do with the same thing,
+        and for convenience since we noticed
+        that mysterious glow of the test piece
+        just as the needle came to rest, we
+        might call the particular point which
+        lies just half way between the temperatures
+        under discussion, the point of
+        glow, or as the metallurgists call it,
+        the "point of recalescence" and the
+        range between these two temperatures
+        the "critical range".
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        I suppose it would be difficult to
+        explain this phenomenon of the test
+        piece unless we imagine that as the
+        critical range is reached some internal
+        reaction of the steel causes it to spontaneously
+        take on heat at the same
+        temperature in the first place and give
+        off the stored heat at the same temperature
+        as the piece was being cooled down,
+        and this heat caused it to glow as was
+        noticed. Now if we were to experiment
+        further with our piece while at
+        the critical range, we would find certain
+        other remarkable changes, one of
+        the most noticeable of which is the
+        loss of magnetism at and above the
+        critical range.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Irons and steels are usually the most
+        magnetic materials, but the attraction
+        of the magnet is completely lost at or
+        above the critical range.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        We can easily satisfy ourselves in
+        this respect by noting the attraction
+        of a simple horse shoe magnet when
+        our piece of test steel is brought into
+        its magnetic field. As the pyrometer
+        needle passes on up through the range
+        of temperatures noted above, the magnetic
+        attraction is perfectly evident
+        when suddenly the recalescence point
+        is reached, the spell is broken and the
+        magnet and the test piece fall apart.
+        But let us just consider this phenomenon
+        a moment. We are told by the
+        physicists that magnetism is induced
+        in a piece of iron or steel by a "rearrangement
+        of the internal molecular
+        structure, in which the positive ions
+        face one direction and the negative ions
+        in the opposite direction". Therefore,
+        if magnetism suddenly ceases to exist
+        it would seem as if something had happened
+        to the "internal molecular structure"
+        of the test piece. Thus when the
+        recalescence point is reached we may
+        conclude that something more than a
+        mere absorption of heat units has taken
+        place. In fact we may really believe
+        that an actual internal molecular revolution
+        has occurred and that some
+        of the natural laws which formerly had
+        governed all of these little molecules
+        which go to make up the whole piece
+        of steel, have been overthrown and that
+        the molecules are more or less free to
+        set up a new form of government for
+        themselves, and that, therefore, when
+        a piece of steel is brought to the recalescence
+        point it is really in a very
+        sensitive condition. In fact, if we
+        should care to investigate further we
+        should find that certain other great
+        changes take place at this critical point,
+        such, for instance, as partial failure of
+        the test piece to conduct an electric
+        current, which formerly, of course, it
+        did with great ease. Also when the
+        critical range is reached, a peculiar contraction
+        of size interrupts the gradual
+        expansion which had been developing
+        as the test piece absorbed heat units,
+        and therefore these several observations
+        give us reason to believe that our
+        conclusions as noted above must be
+        more or less correct.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Now if all steels acted exactly like
+        the little test piece which we have been
+        observing above as they were placed
+        in the hardening furnace, it would not
+        take us very much longer to finish our
+        preliminary investigations. You remember
+        the piece of steel which we
+        have been investigating was a piece
+        of simple carbon tool steel, containing
+        about 0.90% carbon. But all steels do
+        not contain just this same percentage of
+        carbon, and may also contain various
+        elements other than carbon, all of which
+        produce many and varied results during
+        the process of heating, treating and
+        hardening.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        In order to better visualize the investigation
+        which we are making, let
+        us picture graphically each step which
+        we take. If therefore, we let the vertical
+        lines represent the different carbon
+        contents which steel might have,
+        and the horizontal lines the different
+        degrees of temperatures through which
+        we might desire to heat the steel under
+        discussion and then plotted the phenomenon
+        described above we would have
+        a picture something as follows:
+        </p>
+
+        <div style = "width: 80%">
+        <img class = "center2 abst2 unten1-8" src = "images/i_36.png"
+         alt = "Graph showing the point of recalescence">    
+        </div>    
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Now all that picture means is that
+        as we heated up a piece of simple carbon
+        tool steel containing O.9% C, we discovered
+        a certain very noticeable reaction
+        which occurred just about half
+        way between 1250 degrees and 1350
+        degrees Fahrenheit, which we decided
+        to call the point of recalescence, and
+        then on further heating of the piece
+        no other such phenomenon was noticed.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Now let us go through the same
+        experiment with a piece of steel containing
+        .45% C. Yes, just as before,
+        as the temperature 1250 degrees Fahrenheit
+        is reached we note all the
+        strange symptoms which are characteristic
+        of the point of recalescence and
+        then, just as we are about to decide that
+        it is hardly necessary to go further we
+        notice that the pyrometer needle has
+        again come to rest, but that this time
+        it is registering 1390 degrees Fahrenheit.
+        Therefore, it would seem as if
+        this piece had two critical ranges instead
+        of one and we are now quite
+        ready to again proceed with our heating
+        to see if anything else occurs.
+        However, as nothing does happen we
+        turn to our picture and plot the two
+        points just observed, together with the
+        one point found on our first investigation,
+        and the drawing then looks something
+        as follows:
+        </p>
+
+        <div style = "width: 80%">
+        <img class = "center2 abst2 unten1-8"
+        src = "images/i_38.png"
+        alt = "Graph additional shows the recalescence of a 
+               second sample containing a different rate of carbon">    
+        </div>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Now let us take a piece of carbon
+        steel as before, but this time containing
+        .15% carbon, and again proceed
+        with our observations. Again the
+        needle of the pyrometer records the
+        point of recalescence and also the point
+        designating the second range of critical
+        temperature, but this time strange to
+        say, as the test piece continues to absorb
+        heat, a third critical range is registered,
+        all of which when added to our
+        former picture gives a result something
+        as follows:
+        </p>
+    
+        <div style = "width: 80%">
+        <img class = "center2 abst2 unten1-8"
+        src = "images/i_39.png"
+        alt = "Graph showing different behavior of
+               samples containing different rates of carbon">    
+        </div>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        By repeating the operations as outlined
+        above, with pieces of steel containing
+        various percentages of carbon
+        from zero to 1.25% and by plotting the
+        different critical temperatures so obtained,
+        we finally obtain a chart which
+        graphically expresses the critical ranges
+        of iron and steels due to the variation
+        of the carbon content. With very low
+        carbon steel it is interesting to note
+        that the first critical point would not
+        occur until 1395 degrees Fahrenheit
+        was reached.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Metallurgists have long designated
+        the lines so obtained by letters, "r",
+        standing for, "refroidissement", which
+        is the French word meaning "cooling",
+        the suffixes 1-2-3 simply standing for
+        the lines in the order drawn.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        From the completed chart it is
+        further evident that our first piece containing
+        0.9% carbon in one way is the
+        most interesting of all since it is the
+        only case where only one point of critical
+        temperature occurs.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        It will be noticed from the chart that
+        steels containing less than .10% carbon
+        have no point Ar1 and it is therefore
+        undoubtedly due to the carbon content
+        that this, the point of recalescence, occurs.
+        From tests which we made with
+        the magnet we would also find that
+        the temperatures at which loss of magnetism
+        occurs are those designated by
+        the line Ar2, whereas the loss of
+        ability to conduct an electric current
+        occurs at the point designated Ar3.
+        In steels containing .45% carbon to
+        .75% carbon loss of magnetism and loss
+        of ability to conduct an electric current
+        occur at the same points designated on
+        our chart by the line Ar3-2; whereas
+        in the steel containing .90% carbon—all
+        these changes take place at the same
+        time.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Now, as we concluded before, it is
+        evident that some internal change must
+        have taken place in the steel itself, and
+        as we know that the chemical content
+        does not vary, it is further evident that
+        the change must be of a physical nature,
+        or as in the language of the
+        Metallurgist, an "allotropic change".
+        Therefore, another conclusion which
+        we can draw at this point is that a very
+        much more thorough investigation is
+        required for the proper handling of
+        steel at high temperatures than a mere
+        knowledge of the chemical analysis of
+        the same.
+        </p>
+    
+        <p class = "ein">
+        There is one very fortunate circumstance
+        connected with the passing from
+        one of these allotropic changes to
+        another, and that is that the effecting
+        of one of these changes takes <b>time</b>. It
+        does not take a very long time, however,
+        for in some instances the change
+        is affected in a very small fraction of
+        a second, while rarely more than one
+        or two seconds are required. The
+        higher the temperature the quicker the
+        change.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Would it not be interesting if we
+        had been so constructed as outlined in
+        the beginning of this little volume;
+        that we could have withstood the high
+        temperatures in which some of these
+        very interesting changes occur, because
+        we could then handle the steel, examine
+        it and experiment with it at our leisure.
+        However, such not being the case, we
+        will have to derive some other means
+        for "catching" the steel while it is in
+        one of these interesting conditions, and
+        then bringing it in its entrapped condition
+        down to room temperature. How
+        shall we do it? Well, we remember
+        that we said it took <b>time</b> to effect the
+        changes under discussion and furthermore
+        we remember that the changes
+        can only take place when the steel is
+        within the proper critical range.
+        Therefore, if we could do something
+        to lower the temperature of a piece of
+        steel while in one of the critical ranges
+        before the steel had time to effect the
+        usual allotropic change of form, we
+        might be able to catch a piece of steel
+        while in one of these unusual conditions,
+        before it had really had time to
+        get back to normal.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Therefore, let us place a piece of .9%
+        carbon tool steel in the heating furnace
+        and bring it up to and beyond the point
+        of recalescence. Now, grasping the
+        piece firmly in a pair of tongs with all
+        possible speed we plunge it into a nearby
+        pail of ice water, keeping the steel
+        constantly in motion. Almost instantly
+        the steel becomes black and within a
+        few seconds is actually brought down
+        to room temperature.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Now let us take the steel out and
+        examine it. The act of tapping it on
+        the anvil in order to knock off the surplus
+        water gives us a hint that our test
+        piece has undergone some sort of a
+        change. For now it rings with a bell-like
+        clearness and gives the hammer
+        with which we strike it a quick snapping
+        rebound which in itself indicates
+        great hardness. Next, we test the
+        piece with a hardened steel file with
+        which we could easily have made a
+        deep ridge before we attempted the
+        heating operation and to our surprise
+        the file has as little effect as if it had
+        been made of wood. And to our surprise
+        on closer examination, we actually
+        find that our test piece has scratched
+        the file—surely it must be very hard.
+        We are convinced that some marked
+        change must have taken place. What
+        can it be? Why it must be that due
+        to the rapid cooling in the pail of ice
+        water we brought the temperature
+        of the test piece down below the critical
+        range <b>before</b> the abnormal condition
+        at which it existed while at and above
+        the critical range had found <b>time</b> to
+        change back to its former condition.
+        And we remember that if one of these
+        allotropic changes is going to take place
+        at all, nature says it <b>must</b> do so while
+        the steel is within the critical range
+        and therefore having forced the steel
+        through that critical range which
+        separates one allotropic condition from
+        another, before it had found <b>time</b> to
+        effect its desired change, we managed
+        to entrap the abnormal condition so
+        that we could see it and feel it and
+        get familiar with it at room temperature.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        If we so desire we can now make
+        other hardness tests on our piece of
+        steel at our leisure. For these scientists
+        have invented several machines.
+        One of the most common is called the
+        scleroscope in which a hardened steel
+        ball is allowed to drop from a given
+        height on to the piece of steel to be
+        tested. Then the rebound of the ball
+        is carefully noted. The higher the rebound,
+        the harder the piece. That is
+        natural isn’t it? We know that if the
+        ball were allowed to drop on butter,
+        it wouldn’t rebound at all, because the
+        butter is so soft. A piece of wood
+        would possibly record a very tiny rebound,
+        while a piece of hardened tool
+        steel would effect a very material action
+        of the scleroscope ball, thus indicating
+        extreme hardness.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Now let us take our test piece to
+        the grind stone and grind it down to
+        the shape of a cutting tool. It is necessary
+        to resort to the grind stone, in
+        order to get the desired shape, because
+        of course, our test piece is far too hard
+        to cut with any other metal. After
+        having produced a tool of the desired
+        shape and size, let us fasten the same
+        securely into the carriage of a lathe,
+        and then upon applying the cutting
+        edge to a revolving piece of cast iron,
+        or soft steel, or even to a piece of the
+        very same grade of steel out of which
+        the tool was made, only while it is
+        still in the softened or annealed condition,
+        we find that it is capable of easily
+        and quickly cutting out a good sized
+        ribbon of chips from the metal which
+        is to be machined.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        However, we are soon confronted
+        with a new difficulty, for as the cut
+        progresses, our tool runs into a rough
+        spot which causes it to tremble and
+        chatter and then suddenly our tool
+        cracks in two in the middle and is at
+        once completely ruined.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        It is evident that as we are able to
+        increase the desirable element of hardness
+        in a piece of tool steel, we also
+        automatically increase the undesirable
+        element of brittleness, and therefore
+        some new method must be devised
+        which will allow a sufficient degree of
+        hardness to allow the tool to cut other
+        metals and at the same time not cause
+        so much brittleness that it will crack
+        in two at the first rough spot which it
+        encounters.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        One method of assisting the toughening
+        of a piece of hardened tool steel
+        is accomplished by the process of
+        "drawing". This simply means heating
+        the piece of hardened tool steel
+        up to some fairly warm temperature,
+        which of course must be kept well below
+        the critical range (at which the
+        steel would jump at the chance to
+        quickly change back into one of its
+        softer allotropic forms) and then keeping
+        the steel at this drawing temperature
+        for a while until the unusual
+        strains and stress caused by the rapid
+        cooling have had an opportunity to
+        have become somewhat relieved.
+        Therefore, the process of "drawing" is
+        quite as important as is the first act
+        of hardening itself, and great care must
+        be exercised in undertaking the same.
+        </p> 
+    </div>
+
+    
+    <div>
+        <div>
+        <h2 id = "anker-51">CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+        </div>
+        
+        <div class = "nobreak">
+        <h3>HIGH SPEED STEELS.</h3>
+        </div>   
+    
+        <p class = "ein">
+        After the processes of hardening and
+        drawing our sample of simple carbon
+        tool steel have become thoroughly
+        mastered, it might seem that all which
+        was desired had been accomplished and
+        that we could go on indefinitely making
+        and using our simple carbon steel tools.
+        However, when the extraordinary demands
+        of modern industry required
+        faster and faster cutting speeds, and
+        deeper and deeper cuts, we commenced
+        to realize that our familiar carbon tool
+        steels would not fill the bill. This was
+        due to the fact that as the tools became
+        pressed with the faster speeds
+        and deeper cuts, they could not do their
+        work without becoming over-heated by
+        the friction caused by the work of upsetting
+        the chip and therefore the critical
+        temperature was rapidly approached.
+        Of course we know that if this
+        temperature should be reached the
+        steel would quickly lose its hardness
+        and its cutting edge would therefore
+        be completely ruined.
+        </p>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Therefore, it was necessary to develop
+        a new kind of steel to meet a
+        new and severe condition and accordingly
+        the mother of experiment and
+        invention gave birth to the now famous
+        "High Speed" Steel.
+        </p>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        The general principles applying to
+        the hardening and drawing of High
+        Speed Steel are in many ways the same
+        as described above for the simple carbon
+        steel, except that as we begin to
+        add various elements other than carbon
+        to the melt, the resulting alloy becomes
+        more and more complex in its form and
+        reactions and therefore its heat treatment
+        causes greater and greater study
+        and skill in its successful undertaking.
+        </p>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        It is generally known among tool
+        hardeners that it is necessary to heat
+        the tool to a higher degree of temperature
+        in order to secure proper hardness
+        when using High Speed Steel than it
+        is when a simple Carbon Tool Steel is
+        employed. We are told that the introduction
+        of certain elements into the
+        melt of a simple Carbon Tool Steel
+        has the tendency to change the critical
+        range. Of course, the formulas used
+        in the manufacture of any high grade
+        High Speed Steel contain very appreciable
+        amounts of various elements
+        other than Carbon which materially
+        effect the property which the steel will
+        have when hard. The effect which
+        these elements appear to produce in the
+        period of critical range can be seen
+        from figure 7.
+        </p>
+
+        <div style = "width: 80%">
+        <img class = "center2 unten1-8"
+        src = "images/i_51.png"
+        alt = "Graph showing the complex behavior of
+               high speed steel during heating and
+               cooling over time and temperature">    
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        In this case an experiment was made
+        with a piece of High Tungsten High
+        Speed Steel similar to the experiment
+        which was described in detail above with
+        the test piece of simple Carbon Tool Steel.
+        The readings of the pyrometer were carefully
+        recorded and when plotted on the
+        graph sheet produced the picture under
+        discussion.
+        </p>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Here it will be noticed that the vivid
+        reaction, which we might have expected
+        would occur as the temperature indicating
+        the first critical range was reached,
+        was materially reduced. This
+        might lead us to suspect that the desired
+        allotropic change had not completely
+        taken place at this point. In
+        fact we noticed that the pyrometer
+        needle did not record a vivid critical
+        point until a very much higher temperature
+        was reached. All of these
+        observations serve as a possible explanation
+        or indication of why it is necessary
+        to employ very much higher
+        temperatures in the hardening of High
+        Speed Steel than it is in the hardening
+        of a piece of simple Carbon Tool Steel.
+        </p>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        In a later chapter of this little volume
+        we define Carbon Steels as those which
+        do <b>not</b> contain enough of any element
+        other than carbon to materially affect
+        the physical properties which the steel
+        will have when hard. High Speed
+        Steels which are one of a very important
+        group of special alloy steels, are
+        those steels to which some element
+        <b>other</b> than carbon has been added in
+        sufficient amount to materially effect
+        the physical properties which the steel
+        will have when hard.
+        </p>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        The element which stands out alone
+        as the most vital and important one as
+        affecting the wonderful and highly desirable
+        features looked for in High
+        Speed Steels is Tungsten. We will discuss
+        the various effects which the different
+        elements give to the different
+        alloy steels in a later chapter, but for
+        the present we will confine ourselves
+        to a brief discussion of the heat treatment
+        of the now famous modern High
+        Speed Steel.
+        </p>
+
+                
+            <div class = "abst0-4; style = width: 90%">
+                <img class = "centerpic" src = "images/i_54.jpg"
+                    alt = "High speed steel shows a granular fine
+                    structure in the magnified section of a
+                    hyper-eutectoid rod.">
+            </div>
+            <div class = "descript abst0-4 unten1-8">
+                High Speed Steel. Carbon .58%. Structure:
+                Very fine pearlitic condition, with particles
+                of free carbide. Mag. 500x
+            </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        As previously suggested the pressing
+        demand of modern industry for quicker
+        work, greater efficiency and enormously
+        increased out-put of product, gave
+        rise to the necessity of producing far
+        more remarkable tools than was possible
+        with the old fashioned carbon tool
+        steel. Therefore it became necessary
+        to produce a steel which could be rendered
+        sufficiently hard to cut deep furrows
+        in the various metals which have
+        to be machined and, which could be
+        made sufficiently tough to stand the
+        enormous cutting strains and chatter
+        and vibration of the machine, and at
+        the same time maintain all these characteristics
+        when the work done by upsetting
+        the chip of the machined member
+        actually rendered the cutting edge
+        of the tool red hot.
+        </p>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        After the seemingly impossible task
+        of producing a steel to meet these terrific
+        conditions had been successfully accomplished,
+        the next question which
+        arose was to produce a machine which
+        was sufficiently powerful to stand the
+        work done by the tool, and so fast has
+        been the progress made by the tool
+        steel producer, that many of our modern
+        manufacturing industries of today
+        are constantly having to introduce new
+        and heavier machinery into their various
+        machine shop and tool rooms in
+        order to keep pace with the possibilities
+        of the tool made from the modern
+        High Speed Steel.
+        </p>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Now, if we were to run an experiment
+        with a test piece made from High
+        Speed Steel similar to the one which
+        we ran on the simple Carbon Tool
+        Steel, we would find that many of the
+        same phenomena previously noticed
+        would again be recorded.
+        </p>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Probably the most important difference
+        would be the fact that instead of
+        having to quench the same in water
+        it would be desirable to use a bath of
+        oil. In fact, water would cause the
+        High Speed Steel to cool off far too
+        quickly so that it would be likely to
+        crack and be rendered useless.
+        </p>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        A peculiar action of the various elements
+        in High Speed Steel is very
+        likely to materially retard the change
+        of one allotropic form into another. In
+        fact, the change is so slow that after
+        a piece of High Speed Steel has been
+        heated above the critical temperature,
+        it will actually retain its hardened or
+        austenitic condition even if allowed to
+        cool in the air, and it would only be
+        possible to get it back into its softened
+        condition by the lengthy process of
+        annealing.
+        </p>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Annealing is the process of undoing
+        exactly what the act of hardening accomplished.
+        Long tubes are filled with
+        the tool steel bars and sealed from the
+        air and then placed into the annealing
+        furnaces, wherein the annealing temperature
+        is maintained for a sufficient
+        number of hours, until the steel has
+        had an opportunity to become
+        thoroughly softened.
+        </p>
+
+        <p class = "ein abst1-8">
+        As before stated "drawing" or "tempering"
+        means the careful re-heating
+        of the steel to 400 degrees Fahr. to
+        600 degrees Fahr., thus allowing a
+        slight "slipping" of enough of the higher
+        allotropic solution to a lower form,
+        which it is always eager to accomplish
+        at temperatures near the point of recalescence.
+        This, of course, relieves
+        the excess brittleness of the hardened
+        steel.
+        </p>
+
+        <p class = "ein abst1-8">
+        Annealing is the complete release of
+        the higher allotropic form of the solution
+        and the "trapped" carbon which
+        allows of their return to the normal
+        condition of pearlite and alpha iron.
+        Therefore, it is necessary to heat the
+        steel above the point of recalescence
+        and cool more or less slowly. Different
+        speeds of cooling give different
+        grain, size, structure and physical property.
+        </p>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        This explanation of hardening, which
+        is known as the "allotropic theory" is
+        not universally accepted, although it
+        is difficult to find a better or more complete
+        explanation of the remarkable
+        phenomena involved. However, the fact
+        remains that the great accomplishments
+        which have been made by the men of
+        science and understanding have caused remarkable
+        results to have taken place in
+        the manufacturing world of today and
+        the fine and obscure lines which these
+        patient and careful laborers are continually
+        drawing upon the map of knowledge
+        are doing much to make the
+        world a better and safer and more
+        wonderful place in which to live.
+        </p>
+    </div>
+
+
+    <div>
+        <div>
+        <h2 id = "anker-611">CHAPTER V.</h2>
+        </div>
+        
+        <div class = "nobreak">
+        <h3 style = "line-height: 1.9em">
+            THE GENERAL EFFECT OF THE MORE<br>
+            IMPORTANT ELEMENTS IN TOOL STEELS.</h3>
+        </div>  
+    
+        <p class = "ein">
+        We know that all metals of engineering
+        nature are crystalline in character,
+        that is, the crystals form when the metal
+        solidifies. If these crystals were
+        free it would be easy to determine definitely
+        just what properties the metal
+        would have. However, the crystals are
+        not free, but exist in the steel in combination
+        with many other types of
+        crystals. This results in many complicated
+        and complex possibilities in the
+        finished product, and will bring us presently
+        to the subject of "Alloy Steels".
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-612">
+                CARBON STEELS.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Carbon Steels are those which do
+        <b>not</b> contain enough of any element
+        <b>other</b> than carbon to materially affect
+        the physical properties which the steel
+        will have when hard. Carbon is one
+        element used above all others by manufacturers
+        in getting required physical
+        properties. An increase of one hundredth
+        of one per cent (.01%) gives a
+        tensile strength of about one thousand
+        pounds per square inch, but even this
+        amount of carbon also regularly decreases
+        the ductility of the finished
+        product. When steel is heated red hot
+        and plunged into water, the carbon in
+        the metal unites with the iron in some
+        peculiar way so that it produces a compound
+        of extreme hardness. If the
+        steel contains nine-tenths of one per
+        cent (.90%) of carbon, a sharp point
+        so quenched will almost scratch glass.
+        With one per cent (1.00%) of carbon
+        it reaches nearly its limit of hardness.
+        Now carbon steels with this percentage
+        carbon can be used for some of
+        the harder tools, which do not require
+        much ductility or toughness, but with
+        higher carbon contents than this percentage,
+        the brittleness increases so
+        fast that the usefulness of the metal
+        is decidedly limited.
+        </p>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Therefore, when the steel must
+        meet requirements other than just that
+        of hardness, such as, strength, ductility,
+        toughness, resistance to repeated
+        shock, "red hardness", etc., then it is
+        necessary to resort to other means and
+        combinations for obtaining the required
+        needs. It is to be remembered that
+        such methods and combinations will
+        materially increase the cost of the final
+        product.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-63"
+                >ALLOY STEELS.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        What is an alloy steel? The
+        general definition of an alloy steel is,
+        "a solidified solution of two or more
+        metallic substances". The International
+        Committee upon the nomenclature
+        of iron and steel defines alloy
+        steels as "those steels which owe their
+        properties chiefly to the presence of an
+        element (or elements) <b>other</b> than carbon".
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        This latter definition more nearly
+        applies to our case, but it must be born
+        in mind that the distinction between an
+        element added merely to produce a
+        slight benefit to ordinary carbon steel,
+        and the very same element added to
+        produce an alloy steel itself, is sometimes
+        a very delicate one. For example:
+        Manganese is added in
+        amounts usually less than 1.50% to all
+        Bessemer and Open-Hearth Steels, for
+        the purpose of getting rid of oxygen,
+        and neutralizing the effect of the sulphur.
+        But this does not produce an
+        Alloy Steel. When we make "manganese
+        steel" containing 10 to 20%
+        manganese, the material then has properties
+        quite different from the same
+        steel without the manganese, and we
+        then have a Manganese Alloy Steel.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Thus, for our purpose, we may
+        consider an alloy steel as being one to
+        which some element <b>other</b> than carbon
+        has been added in sufficient amount to
+        materially affect the physical properties
+        which the steel will have when
+        hard.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-64">
+                HIGH SPEED STEELS.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        High Speed Steels are perhaps the
+        most important of alloy steels, and derive
+        their name from the fact that they
+        can be used as cutting tools when the
+        cut on the machined member is being
+        made at a high speed. This, of course,
+        subjects the tool to severe operating
+        conditions, which simple carbon steels
+        could not stand. These steels have
+        other notable characteristics, among
+        which is that of "self-hardening" or
+        "air-hardening", as it is sometimes
+        called. This means, when the steel
+        cools naturally in the air, from a red
+        heat or above, it is not soft like ordinary
+        steel, but is hard and capable of
+        cutting other metals.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Another striking characteristic of
+        high speed steels is their ability to
+        maintain a sharp cutting edge while
+        heated to a temperature far above that
+        which would at once destroy the cutting
+        ability of a simple tool steel. Because
+        of this property, a tool made of
+        high speed steel can be made to cut
+        continuously at speeds three to five
+        times as great as that practicable with
+        other tools. The result of the friction
+        of the chip on the tool may cause the
+        tool to become red hot at the point on
+        top where the chip rubs hardest, and
+        the chip may, itself, by its friction on
+        the tool, and the internal work done on
+        it, by upsetting it, be heated to a blue
+        heat, or even hotter.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-661">
+                ELEMENTS WHICH OCCUR IN
+                ALL STEELS.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        There are certain elements which
+        are practically always found in <b>any</b> kind
+        of steel. These elements are capable
+        of producing many varied effects on
+        the finished product. They are Iron,
+        Carbon, Manganese, Silicon, Phosphorous
+        and Sulphur.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-662">
+                IRON.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        The base of all steels is Iron. It
+        goes without saying that this element
+        should be obtained in the best and
+        purest state possible. Probably the
+        best "base" iron comes largely from
+        Sweden, which country seems to have
+        produced the highest quality of iron
+        on the market today.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-671">
+                CARBON.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Carbon has already been discussed
+        under Carbon Steels, although, of
+        course, its importance in Alloy Steels
+        must not be under-estimated. The
+        proportion of carbon aimed at in high
+        speed tool steels is about 0.65%, which
+        in simple steel would not be enough to
+        give the maximum hardness, even if
+        the steel were heated above the critical
+        point and quenched in water, and still
+        less so when the steel is cooled as slowly
+        as these steels are in their treatment.
+        This shows that the carbon element
+        acts in a different way from what it
+        does in simple carbon steels as previously
+        discussed.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-672">
+                MANGANESE.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Manganese Steel is a typical self-hardening
+        steel and so, obviously, is
+        any steel which is in the austenitic condition
+        at atmospheric temperatures,
+        that is to say, whose critical temperature
+        is below atmospheric temperature.
+        Thus, self-hardening steels are non-magnetic.
+        Because of its low-yield
+        point, manganese steel does not give
+        satisfaction in many lines, for which
+        otherwise it might be eminently fitted.
+        </p>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Manganese used in <b>small</b> quantities
+        (.30% to 1.50%) will produce certain
+        desired effects. Under these conditions
+        it acts as a purifier. And when
+        added in the form of Ferro Manganese
+        to a heat of steel it unites with the
+        oxygen and transforms it to slag as
+        oxide of manganese. There is also
+        good reason for believing that manganese
+        prevents the coarse crystallization,
+        which impurities such as Phosphorus
+        and Sulphur would otherwise
+        produce. Five per cent to 14% manganese
+        renders the steel non-magnetic as well
+        as a poor conductor of electricity.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-68">
+                SILICON.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        The dividing line between silicon-treated
+        steels and silicon-alloy steels is
+        not clearly defined, but the latter are
+        used for several important purposes.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Such steel has been used in springs
+        of the leaf type for automobiles and
+        other vehicles, the silicon being considered
+        to add slightly to the toughness
+        of the springs. However, the most
+        important use of steels of this type is
+        probably in the manufacture of electrical
+        machinery. It is possible to produce
+        a silicon-alloy steel which has not
+        only a greater magnetic permeability
+        than the purest iron, but also, a high
+        electrical resistance. Its hysteresis is,
+        of course, low, this property always accompanying
+        a high permeability. It
+        therefore is a very valuable material
+        for use in electro-magnets, and in electric
+        generating machinery, is the most
+        efficient material known.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        In silicon-treated steels, the silicon
+        is used somewhat as a scavenger, although
+        it also produces results somewhat
+        similar to manganese.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-69">
+                PHOSPHORUS.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Phosphorus has little effect upon
+        the hot properties, but in the cold state
+        makes the steel brittle and is of course
+        highly undesirable although some
+        writers have claimed that it adds to
+        the tensile strength in about the same
+        degree as carbon.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-701">
+                SULPHUR.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Sulphur has just the opposite effect
+        of Phosphorus, and makes the
+        steel crack while it is being hot worked,
+        although after the metal is cold it
+        seems to have no particular effect upon
+        the physical properties.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-702">
+                ELEMENTS WHICH HAVE BECOME
+                ESPECIALLY ASSOCIATED WITH SPECIAL ALLOY STEELS.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">Such elements are:—Chromium,
+            Tungsten, Molybdenum, Vanadium,
+            Cobalt, Uranium, Titanium, Aluminum,
+            etc.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-703">
+                CHROMIUM.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Chromium is an indispensable constituent
+        in modern high speed steel,
+        and does not make a poor high speed
+        steel, even when used alone. The chief
+        effect which chromium produces in high
+        speed steels is undoubtedly that of
+        "hardening". However, chromium,
+        like carbon, will produce brittleness, if
+        added in too large quantities, although
+        if kept down to between 2 to 5% it
+        seems to allow the lowering of the carbon
+        element, while at the same time
+        maintaining the desired hardening effect,
+        without causing undue brittleness.
+        The great hardness in the face of an
+        armor plate, and the great toughness
+        in the back of the plate, also the superb
+        properties in the projectile which attempts
+        to pierce the plate, can all be
+        induced in chromium steels to a degree
+        unattainable by the use of any other
+        single element.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        As a simple chromium steel the
+        product may be used in five-ply plates
+        for the manufacture of safes. These
+        plates are made of five alternate layers,
+        two of chrome steel and three of soft
+        steel, and after having been hardened,
+        offer resistance to the drilling tools employed
+        by burglars. Hardened chromium
+        rolls are manufactured for use
+        in cold-rolling metals. Files, ball and
+        roller-bearings are other noted products
+        of this type of steel. It is the
+        essential constituent of those steels
+        which neither rust nor tarnish.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-72">
+                TUNGSTEN.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        It was soon found that the composition
+        of "self-hardening" steels was
+        not the best one for high speed steels.
+        Tungsten was discovered as an element
+        which gave the steel properties
+        of hardness and toughness at a red
+        heat. After the peculiar heat treatment
+        had been learned, and the presence
+        of manganese or chromium in
+        addition to the tungsten was shown to
+        be unnecessary in appreciable amounts,
+        it was found that more durable qualities
+        could be obtained by increasing
+        the percentage of tungsten, while at
+        the same time the carbon element was
+        greatly reduced.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        The best grade of High Speed Steel
+        ought to have a tungsten content of
+        about 18.00% and a carbon content of
+        about 0.65%. Thus whenever a steel is
+        needed which must operate under especially
+        severe conditions, this would
+        be the steel to use. Such conditions
+        are usually met in the case of rapid
+        turning, boring, planing, slotting and
+        shaping tools, also with twist drills and
+        all forms of milling cutters, gear cutters,
+        taps, reamers, special dies, etc.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-731">
+                MOLYBDENUM.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Molybdenum was once thought of
+        as being somewhat in a class with
+        tungsten, but its use in high speed tool
+        steels is being generally discontinued.
+        The reason for this is that it was found
+        that in rapid steels this element caused
+        irregular performance, such as large
+        variations in the cutting speeds which
+        they would stand. This element is
+        also likely to make the steels seamy
+        and contain physical imperfections.
+        Molybdenum steels were also found to
+        crack on quenching, and possess decided
+        variations in internal structure.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-732">
+                VANADIUM.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Vanadium steels are still in their
+        infancy. Therefore, the true value of
+        this element in rapid steels must probably
+        be held as not yet fully determined.
+        With the single exception of
+        carbon, no element has such a powerful
+        effect upon steel as vanadium, for it is
+        only necessary to use from 0.10 to
+        0.15% in order to obtain very noticeable
+        results. In addition to acting as
+        a very great strengthener of steel, especially
+        against dynamic strains, vanadium
+        also serves as a scavenger in getting
+        rid of oxygen and possibly nitrogen.
+        It is also said to decrease segregation,
+        which we may readily believe,
+        as most of the elements which quiet the
+        steel have this effect.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        "Vanadium Steels" demand a
+        somewhat higher price than do those
+        steels which do not contain this element
+        in appreciable amounts. It is, of
+        course, especially useful for all purposes
+        where strength and lightness are
+        desired, such as springs, axles, frames
+        and other parts of railroad rolling
+        stock, and automobiles.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-74">
+                COBALT.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        The valuable effect of cobalt is
+        claimed to be that it increases the red
+        hardness of high speed tool steel, enabling
+        the steel to cut at a higher
+        speed. However, this element much
+        resembles nickel, which has been largely
+        condemned as not being a desirable
+        ingredient for high speed tool steels,
+        because it has the effect of making the
+        edge of the finished tool soft or
+        "leady".
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-751">
+                URANIUM, TITANIUM AND
+                ALUMINUM.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        These elements are generally classed
+        as scavengers, although recently important
+        claims have been advanced for
+        their effect upon the physical properties
+        of steel. This is especially true for the
+        first two. In present practice, however,
+        they are used almost entirely as
+        deoxidizers or cleansers, and are added
+        to the metal for this purpose only.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-752">
+                IMPURITIES.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Phosphorus, Sulphur and Copper
+        are the most noted impurities which
+        occur in steel. The first two are practically
+        always present in greater or
+        smaller amounts as the case may be.
+        The best processes of tool steel manufacture
+        are capable of producing steels
+        with no copper. While Aluminum is
+        not generally classed as an impurity,
+        it nevertheless sometimes shows up in
+        the finished product when its presence
+        is not desired, and therefore, might be
+        considered an impurity.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Combinations of iron with some or
+        all of the above elements in the form
+        of slags and oxides are other well
+        known impurities.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        From the forgoing pages it must be
+        evident that producing a steel with
+        exactly the correct chemical content is
+        only <b>one</b> step towards securing a satisfactory
+        product. However, it might be
+        well if we were to briefly sum up a
+        few of the more important features of
+        our discussion on this interesting subject.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-76">
+                HEAT TREATMENT.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        The heat treatment of tool steels is of
+        the utmost importance. Tool makers
+        of the old school proved their ability
+        to accomplish certain desired results in
+        the art of heat treatment without really
+        fully understanding exactly how or
+        why they were able to do so. Today,
+        however, progressive manufacturers
+        are using the results of research and
+        such thorough scientific investigation
+        that the process has become far more
+        complicated and complex, and the results
+        obtained are correspondingly
+        more remarkable.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Chemically perfect steel may be
+        easily and completely ruined during
+        the process of melting, cogging, rolling,
+        hammering, annealing, heat treating
+        and tempering. It is the business
+        of the steel manufacturer to carefully
+        guard his product up through the process
+        of annealing, but it usually falls to
+        the tool maker to undertake the delicate
+        operations of heat treatment and
+        tempering.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-77">
+                HARDENING.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        The application of heat alone to
+        steel can very materially affect the
+        condition of the structure of the metal,
+        either with or without simultaneous
+        mechanical treatment. Depending upon
+        the degree of heat, the rate of heating
+        and cooling and the duration of
+        such treatment, this application may be
+        decidedly beneficial or harmful as the
+        case may be.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        We now know that when steel is
+        heated above the critical point, and is
+        then allowed to rapidly cool, a very
+        marked hardness in the metal is produced.
+        The degree of hardness so attained
+        will, in general, vary directly
+        with (1) the percentage of carbon, (2)
+        the rate of cooling, (3) and the temperature
+        above the critical point from
+        which the cooling takes place. When
+        the steel comes from the rolling mill
+        and from the finishing hammers it is
+        in this hardened condition. Therefore,
+        in order to render it soft and ductile
+        enough to cut and work up into certain
+        desired shapes, sizes and tools, it is
+        necessary to subject the steel to the
+        process of annealing. This operation
+        is usually undertaken by the steel producer,
+        under which circumstances he
+        is able to control his product through
+        this delicate procedure, and deliver the
+        same to his customers in the best possible
+        condition for their use.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-79">
+                ANNEALING.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Annealing has for its object: (1)
+        Completely undoing the effect of hardening,
+        leaving the steel soft and ductile
+        (2) refining the grain, in which case
+        the crystals are allowed to re-arrange
+        and re-adjust themselves, usually growing
+        to a rather large size (3) and removing
+        strains and stresses caused by
+        too rapid cooling. Such cooling
+        strains are particularly likely to exist
+        where the rate of cooling is different in
+        different parts of the bar, but the process
+        of annealing ought to remedy any
+        such condition, leaving the steel soft,
+        ductile and of refined and uniform
+        crystalline structure throughout.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        The process of annealing is easier
+        to explain than it is to actually put
+        into practice. The steel is first packed
+        in lime, charcoal, fine dry ashes or
+        sand, and then sealed in long air-tight
+        tubes or boxes.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        The whole receptacle is next slowly
+        brought up to a dull red heat, of
+        about 1500 degrees Fahrenheit.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        It is very important to heat the
+        material uniformly all the way through,
+        and then hold it in this condition from
+        three to eight hours. Thus, allowing
+        the slipping of one allotropic condition
+        into another.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        The receptacle must be cooled
+        equally slowly, either allowing the
+        packed steel to cool slowly down with
+        the furnace, or by placing the same in
+        a soaking or cooling pit, which also
+        accomplishes the desired result.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        After the receptacle has become
+        entirely cooled it is opened and the
+        steel unpacked and removed. The
+        steel is then ready for its final inspection
+        before shipping to the tool maker.
+        </p>
+        
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-81">
+                TEMPERING.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        The process of tempering usually
+        has to be undertaken by the tool maker
+        or user after the annealed steel, which
+        he received from the steel mill, has
+        been cut up and shaped into the desired
+        form and size.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        The main object of tempering
+        steel is to re-harden the material to
+        such an extent that it will cut other
+        metals, retaining its desired shape
+        size and cutting edge, while at the
+        same time it must not possess too
+        much brittleness. The treatment
+        varies materially with different brands
+        of steels.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        For the average grade of the best
+        High Speed Steel containing from 16%
+        to 18% tungsten, the tool should be
+        brought very slowly up to a dull cherry
+        red. It is usually considered good
+        practice to first place the tool near
+        or on top of the pre-heating furnace
+        before actually placing it in the pre-heater,
+        in order that the heating might
+        be effected just as slowly as possible.
+        The pre-heating operation should
+        bring the tool up to about 1600 to 1800
+        degrees Fahrenheit, after which the
+        tool should be placed in the high heating
+        furnace and brought up to 2300
+        to 2400 degrees Fahrenheit, or a white
+        sweating heat. Care should be taken
+        not to allow the tool to remain in this
+        condition for more than an instant, as
+        it is then in a very critical condition
+        and could be easily burned or ruined.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Therefore, the tool should be immediately
+        pulled from the furnace and
+        plunged into a good clean oil bath,
+        keeping it constantly in motion.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        As High Speed Steels are air-hardening
+        steels, it is also the practice to
+        harden these steels by simply placing
+        the cutting edge in an air blast, which
+        produces maximum hardness in the desired
+        point and allows the body of the
+        tool to cool at a little slower rate, thus
+        slightly relieving the cooling strains
+        and producing a little less brittleness
+        therein. Such cooling strains can be
+        relieved throughout the whole tool by
+        drawing the same back to about 400
+        to 500 degrees Fahrenheit, and sometimes
+        as high as 1050 degrees Fahrenheit,
+        depending upon the particular tool
+        and its use.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        The treatment of Carbon Steels
+        varies with each particular brand.
+        Great care must always be taken to
+        heat the steel uniformly, as a material
+        which is heated unevenly will expand
+        and contract unevenly and, in consequence,
+        will crack when quenched.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        The steel should always be hardened
+        on the rising heat, in general
+        bringing the same slowly up to a dull
+        cherry red, or to about 1450 degrees
+        Fahrenheit, and then quenching in
+        clear cold water, keeping the same in
+        motion until the steel is cold. The
+        temper should then be drawn according
+        to the purpose of the tool, which
+        could only be discussed for each particular
+        case. The following range of
+        temperatures are interesting, as being
+        approximately indicated by the thin
+        film of oxide tints which occur on the
+        tool undergoing a tempering operation:
+        </p>
+
+        <table class = "gerueckt10">
+            <tr>
+                <td>Pale Yellow</td>
+                <td>428 Degrees Fahrenheit</td>
+            </tr>
+            
+            <tr>
+                <td>Golden Yellow</td>
+                <td>469 Degrees Fahrenheit</td>
+            </tr>
+            
+            <tr>
+                <td>Purple</td>
+                <td>531 Degrees Fahrenheit</td>
+            </tr>
+            
+            <tr>
+                <td>Bright Blue</td>
+                <td>550 Degrees Fahrenheit</td>
+            </tr>
+            
+            <tr>
+                <td>Dark Blue</td>
+                <td>601 Degrees Fahrenheit</td>
+            </tr>
+        </table>
+
+        <div>
+            <h3 id = "anker-84">
+                CONCLUSION.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        The effects of annealing, rolling,
+        hammering, treating and tempering are
+        best understood by those manufacturers
+        who make a specialty of supplying
+        a high grade tool steel, and in general
+        it would be well if customers would
+        consult freely with the producers of
+        these steels, before attempting the delicate
+        undertaking of Heat Treatment.
+        </p>
+
+    </div>     
+        
+
+    <div>
+        <div>
+        <h2 id = "anker-85">CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+        </div>
+        
+        <div class = "nobreak">
+        <h3 style = "line-height: 1.9em">
+            WHAT TOOL STEEL IS DOING TOWARDS WINNING THE WAR.</h3>
+        </div>
+                
+        <p class = "ein">
+        It hardly seems fitting that we should
+        close these pages without giving our
+        readers some little idea of just what the
+        tool steel industry is doing for the successful
+        conclusion of the great cause nearest
+        our hearts.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        One of the first statements which we
+        could make would be that every metal
+        worker in the world absolutely requires
+        some form of tool steel or special alloy
+        steel in the manufacture of his product.
+        Of course, a very great many manufacturers
+        other than the actual metal workers
+        also need this same supply of tool steel
+        in order that their production might not
+        immediately cease. Volumes could be
+        written on the vital importance of tools to
+        industry in general, from the drills which
+        drill out the hole in a hypodermic needle,
+        to a twelve-ton drop-forge steam hammer.
+        But for the present we may confine ourselves
+        to simply the briefest mention of
+        the vast number of iron and steel products
+        actually and vitally engaged in the prosecution
+        of the war.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        We are told that we need ships, yet the
+        ship industry could not proceed a day if
+        its supply of necessary tools was cut off.
+        The overwhelming increase in the manufacturing
+        operations of the world which
+        has taken place since the opening of the
+        European War can better be imagined
+        than explained, it being only necessary
+        for us to point out here that the one absolute
+        necessity which is common to all
+        and required by all branches of such vast
+        manufacture is the proper supply of necessary
+        tools.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        It has been the personal duty of the
+        writer to make various visits to different
+        Government shops and Arsenals as well
+        as to the plants and shops of torpedo,
+        shell and munition manufacturers and the
+        vital part which the tools of production
+        are playing in the great undertaking has
+        been forcefully impressed upon his attention.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        The metals which are destined to play
+        an active part in actual warfare are naturally
+        required to meet the most severe
+        conditions imaginable. Thus we find the
+        high manganese armor plate and the high
+        chrome-manganese armor piercing projectile.
+        We find the new specifications
+        for steel forging, for hulls and engines
+        now have rigid chrome-vanadium and
+        special nickle requirements, all of which
+        means that the tools that do the machining,
+        planing, shaping, cutting, drilling,
+        boring, reaming, stamping and many other
+        operations must be made of a tougher
+        and harder material than ever before.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        We know that for every man who may
+        fight on the battle field, at least two men
+        must labor in our shops and factories over
+        mechanical operations.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Those of us who have been in immediate
+        touch with some of the vital requirements
+        of the War and Navy Departments
+        in these strenuous days realize
+        the shocking absence of the complete preparedness,
+        which we must rapidly accomplish
+        if we are to come anywhere near
+        supplying our own soldiers on the fighting
+        front with the fighting machinery and
+        supplies of which they are in such urgent
+        need. We realize that after all these
+        months of increased industrial preparedness,
+        we are, therefore, still unprepared
+        in the full meaning of the word. The
+        very foundation of our structure shows
+        a startling amount of unpreparedness.
+        We like to gaze upon the exterior towers
+        and battlements of a castle of preparedness,
+        and these are wonderful and encouraging
+        to look upon but down
+        below all these are certain neglected
+        and unfinished pillars in the unseen cellar
+        of that foundation, which threaten the
+        stability of the entire mass. It is, therefore,
+        some of these fundamental details
+        which have been neglected as we have
+        beheld the vision of the super-structure
+        above. Pershing needs, 1,500,000 boys
+        in khaki and over the shoulder of each is
+        his protection against the Hun. Everyone
+        of these rifles is a splendid monument
+        of the accomplishment of tool steel and
+        special alloy steel.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Every day of our present existence it
+        happens that over a million shells scream
+        over the miles of battle line in France.
+        This curtain of high explosive and shrapnel
+        is another direct expression of the
+        wonders which the modern high speed
+        and special alloy steel have accomplished.
+        We are told that a 3" shrapnel shell contains
+        seventy drilled holes or a drilling
+        of 19&#xBC;" in depth. That means that
+        1,600,000 feet or over three hundred miles
+        of drilled holes are shot away every
+        twenty-four hours on the battle fronts of
+        Europe.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        In a publication "Fighting Industry"
+        published by one of our largest twist drill
+        companies in this country, we note that
+        the drilled holes in various implements of
+        our militant harness are as follows:
+        </p>
+        
+        <table class = "gerueckt10 unten1-5">
+            <tr>
+                <td style = "width: 10em">8" shrapnel shell</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">70</td>
+            </tr>
+            
+            <tr>
+                <td>Springfield rifle</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">94</td>
+            </tr>
+            
+            <tr>
+                <td>Torpedo</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">3466</td>
+            </tr>
+     
+            <tr>
+                <td>Machine gun</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">350</td>
+            </tr>
+
+            <tr>
+                <td>Aeroplane</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">4089</td>
+            </tr>
+            
+            <tr>
+                <td>3-ton auto truck</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">5946</td>
+            </tr>
+     
+            <tr>
+                <td>Light ambulance</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">1500</td>
+            </tr>
+      
+            <tr>
+                <td>3" field gun</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">1280</td>
+            </tr>
+         
+            <tr>
+                <td>Gun caisson</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">594</td>
+            </tr>
+           
+            <tr>
+                <td>Anti-air craft gun</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">1200</td>
+            </tr>
+   
+            <tr>
+                <td>Self-binder</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">500</td>
+            </tr>
+           
+            <tr>
+                <td>Thresher</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">420</td>
+            </tr>
+              
+            <tr>
+                <td>Motorcycle</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">1160</td>
+            </tr>     
+        </table>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Four million men must work with tools
+        in order that two million men may fight
+        in France. These men can not, "just be
+        given a tool and told to use it." It is
+        necessary that they have years of careful
+        training and actual experience in order
+        that they might effectively make use of
+        the intricate tools and machinery which
+        the mother of modern industry is striving
+        to place in their hands. At present every
+        tool steel mill in America is straining its
+        furnaces, hammers and rolling mills to
+        their maximum capacity. They are working
+        days, nights and Sundays and still the
+        demand is far in excess of the supply.
+        Conservative estimations show that with
+        all the added machinery and equipment
+        which is in the process of construction at
+        this time, it will still take at least two
+        years and a half before the tool steel industry
+        of America will come any where
+        near meeting the demand for its product.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        As we gaze with belated pride upon the
+        huge structure of our present Preparedness,
+        does it not seem strange to think
+        that the most vital pillar of its whole
+        foundation should have been forgotten
+        and neglected so long and which is therefore
+        now caused to endure such an abnormal
+        and terrific strain? We are at last
+        forced to realize that tool steel is the very
+        essence of our whole existence.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Of course, the great importance of tool
+        steel in this national emergency does not
+        stop with the actual weapons of warfare.
+        Besides the railroads, automobiles, tramways,
+        elevators, bridges, buildings, shoes,
+        clothing and in fact, every branch of the
+        intricate mass of manufactured products
+        so vital to our daily existence, nations
+        are crying for bread. Victory hangs on
+        our food supply. Our threshing machines,
+        our reapers and our harvesting
+        machinery are all working over time.
+        But before the threshing machines can
+        thresh wheat and before the reapers can
+        reap and before the tractors and other
+        farm machinery can contribute their great
+        service to humanity, it is necessary that
+        the American production of tool steel
+        must pass its rigid inspection and yield
+        forth in full measure the great service
+        which it is called upon to give.
+        </p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div>
+        <div>
+        <h2 id = "anker-92">
+            APPENDIX.</h2>
+        </div>
+        
+        <div class = "nobreak">
+        <h3 style = "line-height: 1.9em">
+            ANALYSIS, USES AND HEAT TREATMENT OF
+            VARIOUS GRADES OF TOOL STEELS.</h3>
+        </div>    
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Providing the many complications and
+        difficulties which accompany the melting,
+        hammering, rolling, annealing, inspecting
+        and finishing operations, have been successfully
+        accomplished, the chemical
+        analysis of the best grades of tool steel
+        should come within the following limits:
+        </p>
+
+        <div class = "capter">
+        <h3 id = "anker-93" style = "line-height: 1.9em">
+            TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF HIGH SPEED STEEL.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <table class = "gerueckt10 unten1-5">
+            <tr>
+                <td style = "width: 10em">Carbon</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td>66</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+            
+            <tr>
+                <td>Tungsten</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">18.</td>
+                <td>01</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+            
+            <tr>
+                <td>Chromium</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">4.</td>
+                <td>50</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+     
+            <tr>
+                <td>Vanadium</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td>98</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+
+            <tr>
+                <td>Phosphorus</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td>023</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+            
+            <tr>
+                <td>Sulphur</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td>021</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+     
+            <tr>
+                <td>Manganese</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td>285</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+      
+            <tr>
+                <td>Silicon</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td>228</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+         
+            <tr>
+                <td>Iron (by deduction)</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">75.</td>
+                <td>293</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>    
+        </table>
+
+        <div class = "pre5">
+        USES.
+        </div>          
+               
+        <p class = "ein">Turning, Boring, Planing, Slotting,
+            Shaping Tools. Also Twist Drills, Milling
+            Cutters, Gear Cutters, Taps, Reamers,
+            Special Dies, etc.
+        </p>
+
+        <div class = "pre5">
+        HEAT TREATMENT.
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Heat slowly in pre-heater to 1700 degrees
+        Fahrenheit. Then rapidly in superheater
+        to 2300 degrees Fahrenheit, taking
+        care not to burn or fuse delicate projections
+        on special tools. Harden either in
+        air blast, or in good clean oil; keeping
+        tool in motion. In all cases merely the
+        <i>end</i> of the tool to white heat. Draw in
+        oil from 400 degrees Fahrenheit to 600
+        degrees Fahrenheit.
+        </p>
+
+        <div class = "capter">
+            <h3 id = "anker-94" style = "line-height: 1.9em">
+            TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF DIE
+            STEEL FOR HOT WORK.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <table class = "gerueckt10 unten1-5">
+            <tr>
+                <td style = "width: 10em">Carbon</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">39</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+            
+            <tr>
+                <td>Tungsten</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">8.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">41</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+            
+            <tr>
+                <td>Chromium</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">2.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">10</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+     
+            <tr>
+                <td>Phosphorus</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">019</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+            
+            <tr>
+                <td>Sulphur</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">017</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+     
+            <tr>
+                <td>Manganese</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">315</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+      
+            <tr>
+                <td>Silicon</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">234</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+         
+            <tr>
+                <td>Iron (by deduction)</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">88.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">515</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>    
+        </table>
+
+        <div class = "pre5">
+        USES.
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Hot shear blades, hot punches, header
+        and gripper dies; used in bolt and rivet
+        making. Also excellent for compression
+        sets and in general for all hot work.
+        </p>
+
+        <div class = "pre5">
+        HEAT TREATMENT.
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Will stand high hardening heats, similar
+        to high speed steel, 1700 degrees
+        Fahrenheit and then 2300 degrees Fahrenheit.
+        Harden either in air or oil. Keep
+        away from water. Draw to 500 degrees
+        Fahrenheit.
+        </p>
+
+        <div class = "capter">
+            <h3 id = "anker-95" style = "line-height: 1.9em">
+            TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF SPECIAL ALLOY STEEL.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <table class = "gerueckt10 unten1-5">
+            <tr>
+                <td style = "width: 10em">Carbon</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">78</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+                 
+            <tr>
+                <td>Vanadium</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">29</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+
+            <tr>
+                <td>Phosphorus</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">014</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+            
+            <tr>
+                <td>Sulphur</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">016</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+     
+            <tr>
+                <td>Manganese</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">324</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+      
+            <tr>
+                <td>Silicon</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">296</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+         
+            <tr>
+                <td>Iron (by deduction)</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">98.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">28</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>    
+        </table>
+
+        <div class = "pre5">
+        USES.
+        </div>          
+               
+        <p class = "ein">Specially useful in tools subject to
+        shock, such as hand and pneumatic chisels,
+        boilermakers caulking tools and rivet sets.
+        Also for cold upsetting dies, cold punches,
+        shear blades and stamping dies. A
+        special grade of this steel makes excellent
+        taps.
+        </p>
+
+        <div class = "pre5">
+        HEAT TREATMENT.
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Heat slowly to a low red, about 1400
+        degrees Fahrenheit, or if low carbon content
+        to 1500 degrees Fahrenheit; being
+        very careful not to over-heat. Quench
+        in good clean tempered water; keeping
+        tool constantly in motion. Draw from
+        250 degrees Fahrenheit to 400 degrees
+        Fahrenheit.
+        </p>
+
+        <div class = "capter">
+            <h3 id = "anker-96" style = "line-height: 1.9em">
+            TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF FAST FINISHING
+            SEMI-HIGH SPEED.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <table class = "gerueckt10 unten1-5">
+            <tr>
+                <td style = "width: 10em">Carbon</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">1.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">28</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+                 
+            <tr>
+                <td>Tungsten</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">3.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">56</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+
+            <tr>
+                <td>Phosphorus</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">021</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+            
+            <tr>
+                <td>Sulphur</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">019</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+     
+            <tr>
+                <td>Manganese</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">316</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+      
+            <tr>
+                <td>Silicon</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">271</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+         
+            <tr>
+                <td>Iron (by deduction)</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">94.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">533</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>    
+        </table>
+
+        <div class = "pre5">
+        USES.
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">Do not confuse the High Speed, although
+        excellent for turning chilled cast
+        iron, clean finishing cuts. Especially adapted
+        for taps and reamers, as well as for
+        tools for brass, bronze, aluminum, copper
+        and chilled roll turning.
+        </p>
+
+
+        <div class = "pre5">
+        HEAT TREATMENT.
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Heat slowly to full bright red, 1425 degrees
+        Fahrenheit to 1500 degrees Fahrenheit.
+        Quench in luke warm water. Keep
+        tool constantly in motion. Draw to not
+        over 300 degrees Fahrenheit.
+        </p>
+
+        <div class = "capter">
+            <h3 id = "anker-97" style = "line-height: 1.9em">
+            TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE CARBON TOOL STEEL.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <table class = "gerueckt10 unten1-5">
+            <tr>
+                <td style = "width: 10em">Carbon</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">1.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">12</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+
+            <tr>
+                <td>Phosphorus</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">009</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+            
+            <tr>
+                <td>Sulphur</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">011</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+     
+            <tr>
+                <td>Manganese</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">254</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+      
+            <tr>
+                <td>Silicon</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">213</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+         
+            <tr>
+                <td>Iron (by deduction)</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">98.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">393</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>    
+        </table>
+
+        <div class = "pre5">
+        USES.
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        General tool room usage <i>with moderate
+        cutting speeds</i>. Excellent lathe, planer,
+        and shaper tools, drills, shear blades (for
+        cold work only) punches, chisels, files and
+        mining tools.
+        </p>
+
+        <div class = "pre5">
+        HEAT TREATMENT.
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">Heat slowly to Low Red heat, approximately
+        1375 degrees Fahrenheit (the
+        higher the carbon the lower the heat).
+        Care not to over-heat. Quench in good
+        clean luke warm water. Draw to not
+        over 350 degrees Fahrenheit.
+        </p>
+
+        <div class = "capter">
+            <h3 id = "anker-98" style = "line-height: 1.9em">
+            TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF NON-SHRINKING
+            OIL HARDENING STEEL.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <table class = "gerueckt10 unten1-5">
+            <tr>
+                <td style = "width: 10em">Carbon</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">91</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+
+            <tr>
+                <td>Phosphorus</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">016</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+            
+            <tr>
+                <td>Sulphur</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">019</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+     
+            <tr>
+                <td>Manganese</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">1.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">62</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+      
+            <tr>
+                <td>Silicon</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">31</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+         
+            <tr>
+                <td>Iron (by deduction)</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">97.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">125</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>    
+        </table>
+
+        <div class = "pre5">
+        USES.
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">Threading dies, chasers, taps, reamers,
+        and all master tools. For gauges, plugs,
+        etc. Especially adapted for stamping,
+        punching, trimming dies and many other
+        uses where it is necessary to overcome
+        shrinking, warping or change of shape.
+        </p>
+
+        <div class = "pre5">
+        HEAT TREATMENT.
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">Heat very slowly to pre-heating temperature
+        of 1200 degrees Fahrenheit, then
+        to hardening temperature from 1360 degrees
+        Fahrenheit to 1425 degrees Fahrenheit,
+        depending upon size of piece being
+        treated.
+        </p>
+
+        <p class = "ein">Harden in lard, linseed or cottonseed
+        oil; preferably fish oil. Do not quench
+        in water.
+        </p>
+        
+        <p class = "ein">       
+        Draw cutting tools, taps and reamers
+        at 250 degrees to 300 degrees Fahrenheit.
+        Large tools such as blanking and stamping
+        dies at 400 degrees to 450 degrees Fahrenheit.
+        </p>
+
+        <div class = "capter">
+            <h3 id = "anker-99" style = "line-height: 1.9em">
+            TYPICAL ANALYSIS OF SPECIAL
+            HOT WORK ALLOY STEEL.</h3>
+        </div>
+
+        <table class = "gerueckt10 unten1-5">
+            <tr>
+                <td style = "width: 10em">Carbon</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left; width: 1em;">86</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+                 
+            <tr>
+                <td>Chromium</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">3.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left">71</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+
+            <tr>
+                <td>Phosphorus</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left">023</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+            
+            <tr>
+                <td>Sulphur</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left">019</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+     
+            <tr>
+                <td>Manganese</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left">381</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+      
+            <tr>
+                <td>Silicon</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left">267</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>
+         
+            <tr>
+                <td>Iron (by deduction)</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: right">94.</td>
+                <td style = "text-align: left;">740</td>
+                <td>%</td>
+            </tr>    
+        </table>
+
+        <div class = "pre5">
+        USES.
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">An excellent composition for hot work
+        in service for grippers, headers, hot punches,
+        hot shear blades and similar tools. Especially
+        valuable in structural steel and
+        boiler shop work. Rivet sets and bull dies
+        made from a steel of this composition
+        ought to resist breaking and battering.
+        </p>
+
+        <div class = "pre5">
+        HEAT TREATMENT.
+        </div>
+
+        <p class = "ein">
+        Very flexible hardening in air, oil or
+        water. If air is used heat to 1675 degrees
+        to 1750 degrees Fahrenheit and place
+        under dry air blast, or stand in cool place.
+        To harden in oil, heat to 1500 degrees
+        to 1550 degrees Fahrenheit and quench
+        in thin oil. To harden in water, heat to
+        1475 degrees Fahrenheit to 1525 degrees
+        Fahrenheit and quench in cool water.
+        Draw from 250 degrees to 300 degrees
+        Fahrenheit.
+        </p>
+        
+
+    </div>
+        
+    
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75326 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #75326 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/75326)