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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-01-27 15:21:21 -0800 |
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diff --git a/75227-h/75227-h.htm b/75227-h/75227-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..239ead9 --- /dev/null +++ b/75227-h/75227-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,8614 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> +<head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <title> + Hungarian Literature | Project Gutenberg + </title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> + +a { + text-decoration: none; +} + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +h1,h2 { + text-align: center; + clear: both; +} + +h2.nobreak { + page-break-before: avoid; +} + +hr.chap { + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + clear: both; + width: 65%; + margin-left: 17.5%; + margin-right: 17.5%; +} + +img.w100 { + width: 100%; +} + +div.chapter { + page-break-before: always; +} + +ul { + list-style-type: none; +} + +li.indx { + margin-top: .5em; + padding-left: 2em; + text-indent: -2em; +} + +li.ifrst { + margin-top: 2em; + padding-left: 2em; + text-indent: -2em; +} + +li.isub1 { + padding-left: 4em; + text-indent: -2em; +} + +li.isub2 { + padding-left: 6em; + text-indent: -2em; +} + +p { + margin-top: 0.5em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: 0.5em; + text-indent: 1em; +} + +.blockquote { + margin: auto 10%; +} + +.blockquote p { + padding-left: 2em; + text-indent: -2em; +} + +.caption p { + text-align: center; + margin-bottom: 1em; + font-size: 90%; + text-indent: 0em; +} + +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; +} + +.footnotes { + margin-top: 1em; + border: dashed 1px; +} + +.footnote { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + font-size: 0.9em; +} + +.footnote .label { + position: absolute; + right: 84%; + text-align: right; +} + +.fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: none; +} + +.gothic { + font-family: 'Old English Text MT', 'Old English', serif; +} + +.larger { + font-size: 150%; +} + +.noindent { + text-indent: 0em; +} + +.pagenum { + position: absolute; + right: 4%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; +} + +.poetry-container { + text-align: center; +} + +.poetry { + display: inline-block; + text-align: left; +} + +.poetry .stanza { + margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em; +} + +.poetry .verse { + padding-left: 3em; +} + +.poetry .indent0 { + text-indent: -3em; +} + +.right { + text-align: right; +} + +.smaller { + font-size: 80%; +} + +.smcap { + font-variant: small-caps; + font-style: normal; +} + +.allsmcap { + font-variant: small-caps; + font-style: normal; + text-transform: lowercase; +} + +.titlepage { + text-align: center; + margin-top: 3em; + text-indent: 0em; +} + +.transnote { + background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + text-align: center; + font-size: smaller; + padding: 0.5em; + margin-bottom: 1.5em; +} + +.x-ebookmaker img { + max-width: 100%; + width: auto; + height: auto; +} + +.x-ebookmaker .poetry { + display: block; + margin-left: 1.5em; +} + +.x-ebookmaker .blockquote { + margin: auto 5%; +} + +/* Illustration classes */ +.illowp100 {width: 100%;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75227 ***</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[1]</span></p> + +<h1>HUNGARIAN LITERATURE</h1> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span></p> + +<p class="titlepage larger">HUNGARIAN LITERATURE</p> + +<p class="titlepage"><i>AN HISTORICAL & CRITICAL SURVEY</i></p> + +<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br> +EMIL REICH<br> +<span class="smaller">DOCTOR JURIS<br> +<span class="smcap">Author of “History of Civilization,” “Historical Atlas<br> +Of Modern History,” “Græco-Roman<br> +Institutions,” etc.</span></span></p> + +<p class="titlepage"><i>WITH AN AUTHENTIC MAP OF HUNGARY</i></p> + +<p class="titlepage"><span class="gothic">Boston</span><br> +L. C. PAGE AND COMPANY<br> +[<span class="allsmcap">INCORPORATED</span>]<br> +PUBLISHERS</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]<br><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span></p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>The present book is the first attempt in the English +language at a connected story of Hungarian literature. +The remarkable success achieved by a few Magyar +novelists in English-speaking countries, together with +the growing recognition of the international importance +of Hungary as a state and a nation, seem to justify +the assumption, that the Anglo-Saxon peoples too, are +not unwilling to learn more about the intellectual life +of the Magyars than can be found in the ordinary +books of reference.</p> + +<p>The main object of the author, himself a Hungarian, +has been to impress the reader with a vivid picture of +the chief currents and the leading personalities of +Hungarian literature. Magyar literature is too vast a +topic to be fully treated within the very limited space +of a small essay like the present. By introducing the +comparative method of historical investigation and +analysis, by means of which Hungarian works are +measured, contrasted to, or compared with works of +English, French, German, Italian or the ancient classical +writers, the reader may obtain, it is hoped, a more +life-like idea of a literature hitherto unknown to him.</p> + +<p>No nation outside Hungary has facilities of studying +Magyar literature as great as those offered to the English<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span> +public in the incomparable library of the British +Museum. Nearly every Magyar work of any importance +may be found there, and the catalogues of those works +are, in the strict sense of the word, correct. This latter +circumstance is chiefly owing to the labours of an +English scholar, whose name no Hungarian can pronounce +without a feeling of reverential gratitude. Mr. +E. D. Butler, of the British Museum, the author of the +only authentic and comprehensive, if small, English +work on Hungary (his article “<i>Hungary</i>” in the last +edition of the <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>) is, to our knowledge, +the only English student of Magyar language and +literature who has thoroughly grasped the philology and +spirit of that language and the distinctive qualities of +Magyar writers. He will, we trust, pardon our patriotism +for shocking his excessive modesty by this public acknowledgment +of his merit.</p> + +<p>May this book contribute somewhat to increase the +interest of the great British nation in a nation much less +numerous but in many ways akin.</p> + +<p>The map of Hungary accompanying this book is, +we venture to say, the first map published outside +Hungary based on the most careful comparison of +the original sources. The greatest pains have been +taken to ensure absolute accuracy of names of places +and of county boundaries, according to the most +recent data.</p> + +<p class="right">EMIL REICH.</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p><span class="smcap">17, Tavistock Road, W.</span><br> +<i>June 15th, 1898</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span></p> + +<div class="transnote"> +<b>Transcriber’s Note:</b> Map is clickable for a larger version. +</div> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="map-thumbnail" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> + <a href="images/map.jpg"><img class="w100" src="images/map-thumbnail.jpg" alt=""></a> + <figcaption class="caption"><p>HUNGARY PROPER</p></figcaption> +</figure> +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span></p> + +<h1>HUNGARIAN LITERATURE.</h1> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>Of the nations in the south-east of Europe, the +Hungarians, or Magyars, are probably the most +renowned, and at the same time, the least known. +Although their extensive country has now been +in their possession and under their rule for over +one thousand years, and albeit the historic <i>rôle</i> +of the Hungarians, rather than that of Hungary, +has been and is one of no common magnitude, +in that, without their secular and successful +fight against Osman ascendancy, Europe could +scarcely have maintained its civilization in the +countries east of Munich: yet in spite of all +such claims to attention on the part of western +nations, Hungary and the Hungarians are still +largely unknown in England, France and America.</p> + +<p>In English-speaking countries no serious +attempts have as yet been made either to tell +the stirring story of Hungary’s past, or to analyse<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span> +the rich possibilities of her future. Except single +and singular features of Magyar life or natural +products, such as the famous “Hungarian” bands +of the Tsiganes or gypsies and their “weird” +music; Hungarian flour and Hungarian wine; +and most of all the figure of Hungary’s greatest +political orator, Louis Kossúth; except these +and a few more curiosities relating to Hungary, +the proud nations of the west of Europe do not, +as a rule, take notice of all the rest of the life +of a nation of eighteen million persons.</p> + +<p>The festivities of the Hungarian millennium +celebrated the year before last, came to the +western world as a surprise. Few Englishmen +were prepared to realize the fact that, at a time +when their ancestors were still under small princes +of mixed blood, and, moreover, constantly exposed +to, and finally nearly absorbed by foreign conquerors, +the Hungarians had already reared a +solid fabric of government on the site on which +for now over a thousand years they have withstood +the armies, the diplomacy and the alien +immigration of the Turks, the Germans and the +Slavs. Unconquered by force or disaster, and not +denationalized by either the Germans or Slavs +around them, the Hungarians have maintained +almost intact the language and music they brought +with them from the Steppes of Asia; and when +in the ripeness of time a Magyar literature was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span> +beginning to develop, it proceeded on lines neither +German nor Slav, but thoroughly Hungarian.</p> + +<p>This literature is both in extent and quality, +one of the most remarkable of the lesser literatures +of Europe. The number of writers of Magyar +works is no less than 5,000; and their works +cover all the provinces of poetry and of philosophic, +historic or scientific inquiry into nature or +man. While accepting the standard of criticism +adopted by the recognized arbiters of literary +greatness, we have no hesitation in saying that +Hungarian Literature has a number, if a limited +one, of stars of the first magnitude, and no inconsiderable +number of lesser lights. This fact +acquires still greater importance from the consideration +that the bulk of Hungarian Literature +properly speaking dates back little over a hundred +years; and that many, far too many Hungarians +have, up to recent times, left their native country +and, writing their works in German or French, +added to the literature of nations other than their +own. Comparatively few, exceedingly few, Englishmen +have enlisted among the writers of nations +outside the United Kingdom; very many, exceedingly +many Hungarians have, under stress of +various circumstances, written in Latin, German, +French or English, and thereby reduced the bulk +and often the quality of Hungarian Literature +proper. The number of works in Magyar published<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span> +from 1531 to 1711 is 1,793. During the same +period 2,443 non-Magyar works were published +in Hungary. The preceding two totals were +given in 1879 and 1885 respectively. Up to April, +1897, 404 more works had been discovered, +belonging mostly to the class of non-Magyar +books printed in Hungary down to 1711. When, +however, we inquire into the number of works +written by Hungarians and published outside +Hungary, down to 1711, we learn that no less +than about 5,000 works were written and published +by Hungarian authors, in 130 non-Hungarian +towns, during the period ending 1711.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> At a +time when all the western peoples had long ceased +to use Latin for all literary purposes, the idiom +of Cicero was still the chief vehicle of thought in +Hungary. Nearly all through the eighteenth, and +during the first quarter of the present century, +the number of works written by Hungarians in +Latin far outnumbered the works written by +them in Magyar. It was even so with German; +and many a famous German author was really a +Hungarian; such as Ladislaus Pyrker, Nicolaus +Lenau, Klein (J. L.), the great historian of the +drama, Charles Beck, the poet, Fessler, the +historian, etc.</p> + +<p>In comparing Hungarian Literature with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span> +literature of the Germans, French or English, we +cannot but recognize, for the reasons just mentioned, +that the splendour and comprehensiveness +of the Literature of those nations cannot be found +in that of the Magyars. At the same time we +make bold to point out an advantage which +Hungarian Literature has over the literature of +many another nation, if not in the past, certainly +in the future. This advantage is in the Hungarian +language. The Magyars have a language of their +own. It is not a borrowed language; not one +taken from another nation, in whose use it had +been for centuries.</p> + +<p>The Americans, both in North and South +America, although they are in nearly everything +else the counterparts of their European parent-nations, +have yet preserved the idioms of the +latter. In politics, social constitution, individual +temper, and attitude of mind, the North and South +Americans are—a long stay in that continent has +convinced us of that—utterly different from either +the English or the Spanish. The Americans +proper have indeed built up, or developed into a +nation of their own. For good or for bad, they +have a distinct and novel national personality. +One thing excepted; that one thing, however, +is a vital element in the intellectual activity of +a nation. We mean, of course, Language. The +Americans have moulded and coloured all the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span> +old elements of their nationality into organs with +a tone and hue of their own. Language alone +they have, with slight differences, taken over and +preserved in the very form and woof in which +the English and Spanish had left it in the old +colonies. Hence there is between the Americans, +as a new nation, and their language, as an old +and foreign idiom, a discordance and discrepancy +that no genius can entirely remove. The words +of a language are mostly gentry of olden +descent. Between them there are associations +and tacit understandings ill-fitted for an environment +essentially different from their original cast. +This discrepancy has, there can be little doubt, +exercised a baneful influence on the literature +of the American nations. It has baulked them +of the higher achievements, and neither in the +literature of North America nor in that of South +America can we meet with literary masterworks +of the first rank. Between the poets and writers +of those nations and the languages they are using +there is much of that antagonism which has +always been found to exist between the cleverest +of Neo-Latin poets and the language of Rome. +Latin is a dead language; and all the intellectual +atmosphere and soil that nurtured and developed +it have long since ceased to stimulate. Accordingly, +the Politiani and Sadoleti, the Sannazari and +Buchanani, and all others who in modern times<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span> +have tried to revive Latin literature have entirely +failed. As with individuals so it is with nations. +The Belgians, or the Swiss in Europe are, like the +Americans, in the false position of having each a +distinct nationality of their own with languages +not their own. This fundamental shortcoming +has rendered and will probably, in all times, render +them incapable of reaching the lofty summits +of literature. Language is intimately allied to +literature; language is the mother, and thought +the father of literary works. Any lack of harmony +in the parents must needs show in the offspring.</p> + +<p>Now the Hungarians have not only a language +of their own, but also one the possibilities of +which are far from being exhausted. For the +Hungarians therefore there is no danger of a +false position, of an initial vice in the growth of +their literature; and moreover there are immense +vistas of literary exploits still in store for +future generations. The quarries and mines of +the Latin and Teutonic languages have, it may +be apprehended, been worked so intensely as to +leave scant margins for new shafts. French has +changed little in the last three generations, and +English and German little in the last two; while +Italian and Spanish have long reached the +beautiful but stereotyped plasticity of ripeness. +Hungarian, on the other hand, is a young language. +The number of people using and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span> +moulding it has been considerably increased in +the last generation, and most of its gold-fields +and diamond-layers have not yet been touched +by the prospector’s axe. There is thus an +immense future still open for Hungarian Literature, +and this prospective, but certain fact ought +never to be lost sight of in a fair appreciation +of the literary efforts of the Hungarians.</p> + +<p>Literature being a nation in words, as history +is a nation in deeds, it would be impossible to +grasp the drift, or value the achievements of +Hungarian Literature without some knowledge of +the Magyar nation in the past and in the present. +It may be therefore advisable to premise a few +remarks on Hungary and her history before +entering on a narrative of Hungarian Literature.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>Hungary, in extent larger than the United +Kingdom, is, geographically speaking, one large +basin, watered by one large river and its affluents, +and bounded by one imposing range of mountains. +The river is called the Danube, the mountains are +the Carpathian offshoots of the Alps. This geographical +unity makes Hungary almost predestined +to be the seat of one nation. The natural unity +calls for, it may be presumed, the national. Yet +the very richness of the soil, diversified as it is +by the vegetable and mineral wealth of huge +mountains, and the cereal and animal exuberance +of vast plains has, in all times, attracted +numerous tribes from eastern Europe and western +and central Asia to the country of the “blue” +Danube, and the “blonde” Theiss. Some of these +invaders succeeded for a time in establishing a +kind of dominion over parts of Hungary. Thus +the Huns in the fifth, the Gepidae in the fifth +and sixth, the Avars in the seventh and eighth, +numerous Slav tribes in the eighth and ninth<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span> +centuries were successively lords of the plains and +some mountainous parts of Hungary. Not one +of these peoples, however, could either maintain +themselves as rulers, or quite disappear as dwellers. +Already in the ninth century we find Hungary +inhabited by more than fifteen different nations +or portions of nations, offering then the same +gorgeous medley of Humanity that is still so +characteristic of the country. Where the above +nations failed, the Magyars signally succeeded. +They and they alone of all the numerous, if +not perhaps innumerable nations that had tried +to rear a lasting polity on the columns of the +Carpathians, and behind the moats of the Danube; +the Hungarians alone, we say, succeeded in establishing +themselves as the permanent rulers of the +Slav and Turanian peoples of Hungary, and as +the members of a state endowed with abiding +forces of order within and power without. From +996 to 1301 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, they took their dukes and kings +from the family of the Árpáds, under whom +they had entered (some 100,000 men, women, +and children) the country. Saint Stephen (the +first canonized king) consolidated their constitution. +Without attempting to overrate the value +of constitutions either grown or made, and, while +laying due stress on that <i>geometria situs</i>, or +providential strategy in the location of nations +which has perhaps wrought the major part of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span> +History, it is tolerably certain, that the constitution +of Hungary, as developed under the Árpád +dynasty, and as still surviving in some of its +essential elements, has had a most beneficial +influence on the public life of the Magyars. +Like that of England, it combines the excellency +of the Latin system of centralization, with the +advantages of the Germanic custom of local +autonomy.</p> + +<p>Already in the early middle ages, Hungary +was divided into counties endowed with selfgovernment. +At the same time there was a +centre of government and legislation in the +national assembly or diet, where king and +subjects met to discuss the affairs affecting the +peace or wars of the entire state. In 1222, or +seven years after Magna Charta was signed at +Runnymede, the Hungarians forced their King +John, whose name was Andrew II., to sign the +Golden Bull, which, like the English Charter, was +to be the text of the country’s constitution, all +subsequent laws being in the nature of commentaries +on that text. The elements of the +Hungarian and English constitution being nearly +alike, the domestic histories of the two nations +bear, up to the sixteenth century, striking resemblance +to one another. We learn of wars of the +“barons” against the king, such as those under +Henry III. and Henry IV. in England; we read<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span> +of the constant struggles of the “commons” (in +Hungary consisting of the lower nobility, that +is, of knights as distinguished from burgesses), +for broader recognition of their parliamentary +rights; of rebellions, like that of Wat the Tyler, +of the peasants against their oppressors, the +landed gentry; and of fierce dynastic struggles, +like the Wars of the Roses. But while these +historic parallels may be found in many another +country of mediæval Europe with its remarkable +homogeneity of structure, the distinctive parallelism +between England and Hungary is in the tenacity +with which the ruling people of both countries +have carried over their autonomous institutions +from the times before the Reformation to the +sixteenth and the following centuries, or to the +period of Absolutism sweeping over Europe ever +since Luther had raised his voice for religious +liberty.</p> + +<p>All nations of Europe had constitutions more +or less similar to that of England during the +Middle Ages; for there was after all a very considerable +amount of Liberty extant in mediæval +institutions. But at the threshold of the sixteenth +century, when new worlds were discovered by the +genius and daring of the Portuguese and the +Italians, the better part of the old world, that +is, its Liberty, was completely lost, and sovereigns +became absolute and peoples slaves. Three nations<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span> +alone amongst the larger states remained unaffected +by the plague of absolutism then spreading +over Europe; they alone preserving intact the +great principles of local autonomy, central +parliaments, and limited power of the Crown. +These were the English, the Poles and the +Hungarians. In these three countries alone there +was practically no dead past as against a +presumptuous present. The nation’s past was +still living in the shape of actual realities, and +the growth of the constitution was, in spite of +all sudden ruptures and breaks, continuous and +organic. What the Stuarts were to England, the +Habsburgs were to Hungary during the seventeenth +century. Hence in both countries we +notice continual rebellions and wars, both parliamentary +and other. The Stuarts, however, were +little aided by foreign powers in their attempts +at crushing the autonomous rights of the English +nation. On the contrary, one of the greatest +statesmen of modern times, William of Orange, +came, and with him several great powers of +Europe, to the rescue of the people of England; +and thus the end of the seventeenth century was +also the termination of Absolutism in England. +In Hungary it was the grave of Liberty. The +Hungarian Stuarts, or the then Habsburgs, far +from being deserted by the other Great Powers +of Europe, were most efficiently abetted by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span> +them. This happened of course in a way +apparently quite alien to any desire to destroy +the liberties of Hungary. Vienna, the capital +of the Habsburgs, was, in 1683, besieged by +the hitherto fairly invincible Turks, and Austria +was menaced with utter ruin. The war being, +on the face of it, a crusade, the Christian +powers, and, chiefly, fat and gallant John Sobieski, +King of Poland, came to the succour of +Leopold of Austria. The Turk was beaten, and +not only out of Austria, but also out of Hungary, +where he had been holding two-thirds of +the counties for over one hundred and fifty years. +Hungary was almost entirely liberated from her +Mahometan oppressor, and, such is the illogicality +of History, for the very same reason nearly lost +her autonomous existence. For the evil of foreign +saviours now told on the Magyars. Had they +driven back the Turk by their own efforts, the +result would have been an unprecedented electrization +and stimulation of all the forces of the +nation. The Greeks after Salamis; the Romans +after Zama; the English after Trafalgar had +won not only a victory over an enemy, but an +immeasurably increased vitality fraught with novel +energies. The Hungarians after the capture of +Buda and the Battle of Zenta, both achieved by +Austria’s foreign allies and foreign generals, had +defeated the Turks indeed; but their own ends<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span> +too. Never was Hungary in a lower state of +national stagnation than shortly after the peace +of Carlovitz (1699), which put a formal end to +Turkish rule in most of the Hungarian counties. +Prince Francis Rákóczy II., who started the last +of the Great Rebellions of the Magyars previous +to 1848, and after the above peace, found no +Holland rich in capital, no Brandenburg ready +to hand with well-trained regiments, no Austria +willing to avert side-blows from enemies, to help +him in the manner in which the asthmatic +Prince of Orange was helped against James II. +and his powerful abettor. And when Rákóczy +too had expended his forces in vain, Hungary +fell into a decrepitude but too natural in a nation +whose foreign foe had been conquered by its +domestic oppressor.</p> + +<p>The political bankruptcy of the Hungarians by +the beginning of the eighteenth century is of such +importance for the study of the history of their +literature, that we cannot but attempt to search +for some of the reasons and causes of this +national disaster. The principal cause was, it +would seem, the lack of that very class of citizens +which had in England so potently contributed to +the ultimate victory of popular freedom—the +middle class. Hungary never recognized, nor +tolerated the complicated maze of semi-public +and semi-private institutions collectively called<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span> +Feudalism. Whatever the merits or demerits +of that mediæval fabric may or may not +have been, it is certain that the rise of the +<i>bourgeois</i> class is owing directly, and still +more indirectly to the action and re-action of +Feudalism. The parallelism between England +Poland, and Hungary pointed out above, must +now be supplemented by the statement, that +England alone of these three commonwealths +had, through the invasion and conquests of the +French Normans, received a large infusion of +feudal institutions, and that therefore England +alone was to create that powerful class of burgesses +and yeomen, which was entirely lacking in both +Poland and Hungary. Without such a class of +“mean” citizens no modern nation has been able +to consolidate its polity; and Hungary in the +seventeenth century, being totally devoid of such +a class, was in the long run bound to be wrecked +by such a deficiency. We shall see how heavily +the absence of a middle class told on the growth +of Hungarian Literature.</p> + +<p>During the eighteenth century and up to 1815, +the great and scarcely interrupted wars of the +Habsburgs enlisted all the powers of Hungary. +In 1741 the Magyars, and they alone, saved +Austria from what seemed to be inevitable +dismemberment. From that date onward to the +campaign of 1788 the History of Hungary is but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span> +a chapter in that of Austria. Towards that latter +date the wave of Nationalism started in France +had reached Hungary. Like the Belgians and +the Czechs (Bohemians), the Hungarians too began +to revolt from the anti-nationalist and <i>egalitarian</i> +autocracy of Emperor Joseph II., one of the +characteristic geniuses of the last century, who +was exceedingly enlightened on everything else +but his own business. The old Magyar institutions, +and weightiest amongst them, the Magyar +language was, by the Hungarian diet, alas! not by +the Hungarian people, decreed to be the public +language of the country. Resistance to Joseph’s +“reforms” became so serious, as to prevail upon +the dying monarch to revoke them, 1790; and +under his successor, Leopold II., 1790-1792, who +was of a less aggressive temper, Hungarian +nationality seemed to approach its revival. This +was, however, not to be.</p> + +<p>The French Revolution, although essentially a +nationalist movement, forwarded in Europe outside +France, for nearly two generations after its rise, +none but the cause of the monarchs. The Hungarians, +who gave Austria many of her best +generals, and fought in nearly all the battles of +the Revolutionary Wars from 1792 to 1815, were +in the end shorn of all their hopes and expectations +by the successful fop who directed Austria’s +policy from 1809 to 1848. Prince Metternich had<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span> +not the faintest conception of the rights or wants +of the Hungarians; and having brought to fall, +as he thought he did, the French Revolution and +its personification, Napoleon Buonaparte, he could +not but think that a small nation, as the Hungarians, +would speedily and lastingly yield to high-handed +police regulations, to gagging the public +conscience, and to unmanning the press. The year +1848 witnessed the final victory of the French +Revolution all over Europe. Hungary, foremost +amongst the countries where oppressed nations +were demolishing the bulwarks of tyranny, freed +herself from the yoke of Austrian ministers. +The Austrian armies were driven out of Hungary; +the Habsburgs were declared to have forfeited +the crown of St. Stephen; and but for the +help of Russia, the Austrian monarchs would +have been deprived of more than one half of +their empire. When a now nameless Hungarian +general surrendered to the Russians at Világos +(1849), Hungary was bodily incorporated with the +Austrian Empire, and Czech and Austrian officials +were sent down to germanize and denationalize +Hungary. In 1860 the reaction set in. The +nation, offering a passive resistance of a most +formidable character, brought the Vienna Cabinet +to its senses; and when, at Königsgrätz (July, +1866), the Prussians had routed the armies of +Austria, Hungary’s greatest political sage, Francis<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span> +Deák, aided by the Austrian minister, Count +Beust, restored the ancient Magyar autonomy +and independence. Ever since (1867) Hungary’s +relation to Austria has been that of confederation +for purposes of foreign policy, and absolute +independence for the work of domestic rule. +The Emperor of Austria is at the same time +the King of Hungary; and thus the two halves +of the Empire are united by a personal link. +Law and its administration; Parliament and +municipal government; commerce and trade; in +short, all that goes to form the life of a +separate nation is, in Hungary, of as independent +a character as it is in Austria. A +Hungarian must, like any other foreigner, be +formally naturalized in order that he may be considered +an Austrian citizen, and <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>The preceding short survey of the history of +Hungary may now be followed by a brief sketch +of the character and temper of the Hungarians. +The Magyar proper, and all the numerous +individuals in Hungary who have become completely +assimilated to and by the Magyar element, +bear in character much similarity to the Poles +on the one hand, and to the Spanish on the +other. They are rhapsodic and enthusiastic; +excellent orators and improvisators; and most +sensitive as to their personal dignity and social +respect. As their music so their character is +written in passionate rhythms, moving from broad +and majestic <i>largo</i> to quick and highly accentuated +<i>presto</i>. Yet Hungarians, unlike Poles and +Spaniards, do not let their rhapsodic impetus run +away with them, and they have shown on all great +occasions of their history, much coolness and +firmness of judgment. Nor do they exaggerate +their sense of dignity into bloated <i>grandezza</i>. +They are rather humorous than witty; yet in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span> +a country replete with so many idioms and +peoples, there may be found curious borderlands +of pun, wit, and humour. Passionately fond of +music and dancing, to both of which the Hungarians +have given a peculiar artistic development +of their own, the Magyars have seldom manifested +remarkable talent for architecture. Painting +and sculpture have found many an able devotee +in Hungary.</p> + +<p>But it is in music that most artists of Hungary +have excelled. Hungary is saturated with music. +No student of Magyar literature can afford to +neglect the study of Magyar music. The parallelism +between the growth of Hungarian music +and Hungarian Literature is not so complete, as +that between German music and German literature. +Yet nothing will furnish us an ampler commentary +on Magyar lyrics or epic poetry, than that +magnificent music which has inspired heroes on +the battlefield, lovers in their closets, Bach and +Beethoven in their studies alike. It is intense +music of torrential and meteoric beauties, and a +bewildering bass. Strange to say, Bach’s preludes +<i>à la fantasia</i> come nearest in character to the +original Hungarian music, as played in the +wayside inns of the immense <i>puszta</i>, or Plain of +Hungary. In Hungary, all musical performances +at social gatherings are entrusted to the gypsies, +who undoubtedly added much outward ornament<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span> +and characteristic <i>fioriture</i> to the melodies and +harmonies of the Hungarian people; yet the body +and soul of that music are thoroughly Hungarian. +Music in Hungary is the vocal and instrumental +folk-lore of the people; and no lyrical poet of +the Magyars could help writing without having +in view the musical adaptation of his poem. On +the other hand, it cannot be denied that the +continual indulgence in music has had its serious +drawbacks. In a measure, music is the opium +of Hungary. It fosters but too much that +bent for dreamy idleness, which is the chief +failing in the Hungarian character. Much has +been done in recent times to inspirit the slumbering +energies of the nation not only in the high +walks of public life, but also in the lowly avenues +of industrial, commercial, and other less picturesque +activity. Still more remains to be done.</p> + +<p>The lack of a middle class, or <i>bourgeois</i> proper, +has retarded the growth of literature no less than +that of political independence. Within recent +times there were only two classes of Hungarians in +Hungary, nobles and peasants. The floating and +unassimilated portion of the population between +these two classes remained either quite alien to +Hungarian aspirations, or it attempted to imitate +the nobles, of course chiefly in their less commendable +qualities. The undeniable indolence of the +small nobleman, or country-squire; his aversion<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span> +to town-life; his abhorrence of trades and crafts; +all these and similar shortcomings inherent in +a caste of nobles had a baneful influence on +their numerous imitators. Literature is, as a rule, +an urban growth. The urban element in Hungary, +however—was till the end of the last century +of very subordinate importance. The frequent +social gatherings of the Hungarian country gentlemen +and their numerous imitators were indeed +full of spirited talk and engaging conversation. +In what might be called the <i>Parlature</i> of a +nation, or the aggregate of their private discussions, +dialogues, speeches, etc., the Hungarians +are and always have been very rich. Many a +brilliant essay or novelette has been talked in +Hungarian drawing-rooms and dining-halls, which +in other countries would have made the fortune +of a writer. In fact, there is little exaggeration +in advancing the statement that the literature of +a nation is the complement of its <i>parlature</i>; and +where the latter is inordinately developed, the +former is necessarily of a less exuberant growth. +This “law,” if so it may be called, operated with +much force in a country where it is far easier +to find listeners than readers. It also accounts +for much that is characteristic of Hungarian +prose. Like French literature, Hungarian poetry +or prose applies more to the ear than to the +eye, and accordingly suffers very much from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span> +translation. That rich <i>parlature</i> in Hungary has, +however, another and still more serious drawback. +Up to 1870, in round numbers, there was in +many parts of Hungary, more especially in the +north-west and north, a custom of using, in +common conversation, two or three idioms, almost +at a time. Sentences were commenced in Latin, +continued in Hungarian, and wound up in +German, or Slovak. The constant use of +several idioms, as it has rendered Hungarians +peculiarly apt for the acquisition of foreign +languages, so it has made them more than +apt to read and assimilate foreign literatures. +This again made many a less enterprising mind +hesitate, and likewise many a feeble mind but +too prone to imitate, especially the German +writers, both in style and subject. The originality +of Hungarian authors was thus at times much +impaired. In the course of the present work +we shall meet with several cases. At present we +must hasten to speak of the most potent of the +factors of Hungarian Literature; of the Hungarian +language.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>The Hungarian language is totally different in +vocabulary and grammar from the Teutonic, +Latin, Slav, or Celtic languages. Between Russian +and German, or between Russian and English +there is much affinity, both groups of languages +belonging to the Aryan, or Indo-German class +of idioms. Between Hungarian and German, or +Hungarian and Slav, there is no affinity whatever. +The Hungarians have indeed inserted some Slav +and German mortar into crevices left open by +an occasional decay of the Hungarian material; +but the structure and functions of the Magyar +language are totally alien to either Slav or +German idioms. It is an agglutinative language, +the root of words being almost invariably formed +by their first syllables, unto which all affixes +and pronouns are soldered according to a fairly +regular process of word and case-formation. In +Aryan languages the root is, as it were, subterranean, +and frequently hard to lay bare. In +Hungarian the root is always transparent. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span> +vowels have a distinct musical value, and do not +resemble the musically indeterminable vowels or +diphthongs of English or German. Consonants +are never unduly accumulated, as in Bohemian; +and strong accents on one syllable of a word +are unknown. Generally, the first syllable of +the word has a heavier stress on it. Hungarian +is rich both in its actual vocabulary, especially +for outward things and phenomena, more +especially still for acoustic phenomena; and in +its prospective word-treasury. In few languages +can new words, expressing shades and phases of +meanings, be coined with greater ease. This +facility applies to abstract terms as well as to +material ones. It is probably not too much +to say, that for purposes of Metaphysics or +Psychology few languages offer so ample a +repository and laboratory for terms as does the +Magyar language. Although far from being as +adapted for rhyme as English or German, yet +Hungarian has many and sonorous rhymes. On +the other hand, it crystallizes with readiness into +all the metres of Greek or Latin poetry. A +peculiarity of Hungarian (and Finnish) are the +diminutives of endearment and affection.</p> + +<p>The origin of the Hungarian language has +been, and still is, a matter of great discussion +between the students of philology. It is certain +that Hungarian is not an Aryan, but an Ugor<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span> +(Ugrian) language, belonging to a vast group of +languages spoken in parts of China, in Siberia, +Central Asia, Russia, and Turkey. We here +adjoin the genealogy of the Hungarian language +as given by Professor Simonyi, of Budapest, who +is considered one of the greatest living authorities +on the history and grammar of the Magyar language. +He says that Hungarian, together with +Vogul, Ostiak, Siryenian, Votiak, Lapp, Finnish, +Mordvin, and Cseremiss (spoken in the north and +north-east of Russia) form the Ugrian language-group. +This group is closely akin to four other +groups, viz., the Samojed; the Turkish or Tartar; +the Mongolian; and the Tungusian, or Mandchu +groups. These five large groups are called the +Altaic languages, and are all derived from an +original Altaic idiom. Their mutual relations are +shown in the following diagram taken from +Professor Simonyi’s work:</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="diagram" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> + <img class="w100" src="images/diagram.jpg" alt="Diagram of language groups"> +</figure> + +<p>It will be seen that Hungarian is in near<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span> +relation to Finnish and also to Lapp, as had +been recognized already by the Jesuit John +Sajnovics (1770), and proved by the great +traveller, Anton Reguly. It is, however, also +related to Turkish; and this explains why the +leading neo-philologists of Hungary (Budenz, +Paul Hunfalvy, and Arminius Vámbéry) are, +the two former in favour of a Finnish, the +latter in favour of a Turkish origin and kinship +of both the Hungarians and their language. +Amongst the numerous students of that vexed +question, no one has done more to excite the +admiration of his compatriots and foreigners, +and the applause of scholars, than Alexander +Csoma de Kőrős, who sacrificed his life in the +monasteries of Thibet in the noble attempt +at discovering, by the laborious acquisition +of Central-Asiatic languages, the origin of the +Magyars. We confess that we entertain but +scant sympathy for the belief in races and racial +persistency. Wherever the Hungarians may have +come from, and whether or no every one living +Hungarian can trace his descent to one of the +clans invading Hungary at the close of the +ninth century is, in our opinion, immaterial. As +a matter of fact, very few Magyar noblemen can +trace their family beyond the year of the battle +of Mohács (1526). It is quite different with the +language of the Hungarians. Its origin and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span> +character are, on the whole, pretty clear, and from +the knowledge of its relations to kindred idioms, +many a valuable conclusion may be drawn regarding +the rise and nature of Hungarian Literature +in the past and in the present. The greatest +patriot of Hungary, Count Stephen Széchenyi, +has tersely expressed the immense influence of +language on the nation in the words: “Language +carries the nation away with it.” Our whole +view of Hungarian Literature would be different +if for instance the opinion of erudite Matthew +Bél (Belius) as to the Hebrew origin of the +Hungarian language had proved to be true. It +would likewise essentially alter our conception of +Magyar literary works if the opinion of Podhorszky +as to the close relation between Hungarian +and Chinese would not have been found +untenable. But the physical origin of the Hungarians +themselves is, at best, only an idle +inquiry into insufficient records of the past.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="right smaller">896-1520.</p> + +<p>The history of Hungarian Literature is divided +into four distinct periods. The first comprises the +time from the advent of the Magyars in Hungary +to the Reformation (896-1520); the second, from +the Reformation to the peace of Szathmár, or +the termination and failure of Hungary’s revolt +from Austria (1520-1711); the third, from 1711 +to 1772, or the period of stagnation; and finally +from 1772 to our own days, or the period of the +full development.</p> + +<p>896-1520. The first period is exceedingly poor +in written remains of literature. In fact, the first +and thus the oldest literary relic of the Hungarian +language is a short “Funeral Sermon” +(<i>Halotti Beszéd</i>), dating from the first third of +the thirteenth century; and for 200 years after +that date, we meet, with the exception of a +Hungarian glossary of the year 1400, recently +discovered at Schlaegl, in Upper Austria, with +no example of a Hungarian literary work of +even slight extent. From the middle of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span> +fifteenth century we possess a fragment, called +after the town where it was discovered, by Dr. +Julius Zacher in 1862, the “<i>Königsberg</i> (in +Prussia) <i>Fragment</i>.” Thus, the number of extant, +or hitherto discovered Hungarian works of even +slight literary merit is, down to 1450 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, an +almost negligible quantity. Mr. Szilády in his +“Collection of Ancient Hungarian Poets” (<i>Régi +Magyar Költők Tára</i>) has indeed communicated +six and fifty mediæval Hungarian church-poems +and other fragments; but of that number scarcely +a dozen are original poems, the rest being mere +translations of the then current church-poetry. +The philologist may no doubt find much to +glean from even this scant harvest of Hungarian +Literature in the first period. For literature +proper, it is of no account whatever. Yet it +would be unfair to leave this period without +even a passing mention of its oral literature, or +epic and legendary stories, of which there must +have been no small quantity in those agitated +times.</p> + +<p>The Hungarian naïve epic is lost. A glance at +the habits of the Finns will, however, suffice to +satisfy the inquirer that the Hungarians, like +their cousins in Russia, must have cultivated +the art of recitation and oral handing down of +the glorious deeds of their ancestors, to no +small extent. We now know that the immense<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span> +epic of the Finns, the <i>Kalevala</i>, has been transmitted +from generation to generation by bards +who had treasured up in their memories the +endless <i>runot</i> recording the deeds of Lemminkäinen, +Väinämöinen, and Jlmarinen. The +Hungarians, too, had their bards, called <i>igrigeczek</i>, +or <i>hegedősök</i> (violinists); and at the manors of +the nobles or the courts of the kings, old heroic +songs were recited about Attila, King of the +Huns; his brother, Bleda; the fearful battle on +the Catalaunian fields (Chalons-sur-Marne, 451 +<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>); the building of the castle of Buda; the +siege of Aquileia; and the last fatal wedding of +the terrible Hun. These Hun epics were widely +known and recited in mediæval Hungary, as +witnessed by the chronicles of those times. The +people firmly believed themselves to be the +successors of Attila’s hordes, and this belief, +although absolutely discountenanced by modern +historians, is still lingering in the spinning-halls +of Hungarian villages, and in lecture halls in +England and America.</p> + +<p>The circle of those oral epics comprised also +the Magyar heroes proper. There were stories +about Álmos, father of Árpád, the conqueror of +Hungary; others about the “Seven Magyars” +(<i>Hét Magyar</i>); the conquest of Transylvania by +doughty Tuhutum, one of Árpád’s generals; the +flight of King Zalán, defeated by Árpád; the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span> +exploits of valiant Botond, Lehel (the Hungarian +Roland), Bölscü, and other paladins of +Árpád’s times, etc. In the fragments from Priscus, +the Byzantine rhetorician and historian; in the +chronicles of Ekkehard, the monk of St. Gallen; +and in the “Anonymus,” or one of the chief, but +hitherto, fatherless chronicles of Hungary, the +above and some more heroic stories and epical +records may be found.</p> + +<p>In addition to the heroic epic, the Hungarians, +like all the rest of the Christian nations of the +west, had a considerable tradition of legends and +lives of saints. Fortunately for Hungary, it had +become, by the end of the tenth century of our +era, both the hierarchical and political interest +of one of the most learned and most statesmanlike +of the popes, Sylvester II., to detach +Hungary completely from the Eastern, or Greek +Church; and to adopt it, by sending a royal +crown to Stephen, duke of the Hungarians, into +the world of Roman Catholicism. Had Hungary +joined the Eastern Church, it could never have +withstood the ambition and supremacy of the +German Emperors, aided by the Popes of Rome. +Having, however, adopted the Roman, or +progressive form of Christianity, Hungary was +endowed with occidental or richer seedlings of +civilization. St. Mary was made the patroness +of Hungary; and all through the Middle Ages,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span> +she was adored and glorified in legends and +songs. Some of these Hungarian legends about +the Virgin Mary we still possess; likewise, the life +of St. Margit, the daughter of King Béla IV.; +the famous story of Josaphat and Barlaam, one +of the most popular of mediæval Christian +legends, taken originally from Indian (Buddhistic) +sources; the life of St. Catherine of Alexandria, +etc. The most characteristically Hungarian of +these legends is, as to its subject, the life of St. +Margit. As to its literary merits, it is, alas! a +dry chronicle without any charm of form or +diction at all. Nor did the Hungarians, as far +as we know, succeed in throwing one or another +of their crusading heroes into strong epic relief. +The crusaders, in spite of their marvellous deeds, +lent themselves far more to good chronicling +than to epics. Their inherent poetic vice of +being, or trying to be, saints rather than heroes +rendered them unfit for real epics.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="right smaller">1520-1711.</p> + +<p>1520-1711. The Reformation made rapid +headway in Hungary. From the very beginning, +Protestantism in Hungary had a political element, +in that its rise was coeval with the +accession of the Catholic Austrian dynasty so +unwelcome to many Hungarians. Theological +and political opposition thus gave a more than +ordinary impetus to the study of all the +questions and problems agitated during the +Reformation. The most prominent result of +that movement was a revival of the national +feeling; and coupled with that, a regeneration +of Hungarian Literature. The vast intellectual +revolution of the fifteenth century, commonly +called the Renascence, had, of course, left its +traces in Hungary too. One of the most popular +of Magyar Kings, Matthew Corvinus (1458-1490), +invited a number of Italian scholars and artists +to Hungary, such as Anton Bonfini, of Ascoli +(1427-1503), Marzio Galeotto, of Narni, in Umbria +(1427(?)-1497), Peter Ranzanus, of Palermo;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span> +Thaddeus Ugoletus, of Parma; Bartholinus +Fontius; Felix of Ragusa; etc.</p> + +<p>These scholars and artists, ably assisted by the +Hungarian John Cesinge, or Janus Pannonius +(1432-1472), and chiefly by the generous and +refined king himself, brought some new leaven +into the stagnant intellectual life of Hungary. In +addition to the university founded by King +Lewis the Great, at Pécs (1367), a new university +was founded at Pozsony, where the Danube +enters Hungary; the king’s famous library (the +<i>Corvina</i>) became the delight of scholars; and a +printing press was established at Buda (1473). +The king’s victorious campaigns against the +Hussites (see Jósika’s novel, “<i>The Bohemians +in Hungary</i>”), the Turks and the Austrians, +gave rise to numerous poems and songs +composed by unknown poets; and his age, +called the Age of the Hunyadis, the king +being a Hunyadi, bade fair to be one of great +intellectual brilliancy too. However Matthew’s +premature death and the ensuing political troubles +put an end to such prospects. It was left for +the passions roused by the Reformation to kindle +the fire which the torch of the Renascence had +been unable to light. In all the countries where +the deep influence of the Renascence preceded +that of the Reformation, the intellectual capital +of the country was not impaired, even when its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span> +political was. In Hungary, the Renascence left +too slender traces to guard the nation from +falling into lawless writing about the topics of +the day, regardless of the rules and classical +measure so deeply impressed by the Renascence +on the more fortunate nations of Italy, Spain, +France and England. Hence the immense mental +and emotional stir imparted by the Reformation +was not sufficient to raise up great writers in Hungary. +In fact, Hungary was, on a smaller scale, +in a mental condition exactly similar to that of +Germany. There too the Renascence had scarcely +begun to do its beneficial work, when the Reformation +swept everything before it. The consequence +was the same. Luther himself, although +one of the geniuses of language; Fischart, a very +demon of language; and Hutten, the great +champion of thought and liberty, together with +numerous minor lights, were, in spite of efforts +without number, debarred from creating a great +German national literature. It was only much +later, when the Renascence had done its work in +Germany too, that the Germans, following in the +wake of the Greeks, Romans, French, English, +Spanish and Italians, were able to create a great +national literature of their own. The same remark +holds good for Hungary too.</p> + +<p>Protestantism in Hungary assumed all the aspects +it had taken in Germany and Switzerland.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span> +There were Lutherans proper, and Calvinists; +Anabaptists and Unitarians. The Geneva of +Hungary was the town of the “<i>cives</i>,” Debreczen, +east of the middle Theiss, in a large plain. +Melius, or Peter Juhász (1536-1572) was the +“pope” of the Magyar Calvinists; as Matthew +Biró de Déva, 1500(?)-1545, was that of the +Lutherans. Both preached in Hungarian and +published a number of doctrinal and controversial +writings in Hungarian; and both were +followed by many a writer whose enthusiasm +was the better part of his ability. The Bible, +portions of which had been translated into Hungarian +before the Reformation, was now published +in Magyar in its entirety. This most excellent +translation, executed chiefly by Caspar Károlyi, +was printed at Vizsoly, in the county of +Abauj.</p> + +<p>The number of Hungarian poets writing in Hungarian +during the sixteenth century is more than +one hundred; most of them being Protestants. In +the first years of the Reformation, their works +were mostly of a religious character, such as +psalms and prayers. Amongst these we may +mention the religious poems of Andreas Batizi, +Matthew Biró, and Gál Huszár. The constant +wars with the Turks or infidels added a peculiar +intensity to the religious passions of the time; +and accordingly the first Hungarian drama, “The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span> +Marriage of Priests” (<i>A papok házassága</i>), published +in Cracow (then belonging to Poland) in +1550, and written by Michael Sztárai, was in reality +an exposition of Protestantism in the form of a +drama. “Moralities,” and mordant satires against +priests and the Catholic Church generally, were +frequent. Didactic poetry, so closely allied with +the moralizing spirit of early Protestantism, was +ably represented by Gabriel Pesti, whose translation +of Æsop’s “Fables” appeared in 1536 (in +Vienna); and by Caspar Heltai, who likewise +translated fables from ancient authors, 1566.</p> + +<p>From the second half of the sixteenth century +we possess a great number of rhymed stories, +taken from the Bible, from foreign novels or +from Hungarian history. One of the most famous +of the authors of such stories was Sebastian +Tinódy, whose “<i>Chronicle</i>,” or poetical narrative of +contemporary events appeared in Kolozsvár, in +Transylvania, in 1554. As a poetical work it is +scarcely of any value, with the exception of the +music accompanying it. As a faithful picture +of the Hungary of that time it will continue +to be valuable to the patriot and historian. +The language is heavy; the form is unshapely. +In some respects superior to Tinódy were +Stephen Temesváry and Matthew Nagy de +Bánka; the latter being the bard of the great +John Hunyadi. One, Albert Gergei, of whose<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span> +personal circumstances nothing is known, composed, +chiefly from Italian sources, the story of a young +prince fighting innumerable foes and surmounting +difficulties of all sorts in search of the fairy whom +he, in the end, does not fail to win. This story +(“<i>Argirius Királyfi</i>”) has ever since the sixteenth +century been the most popular chap-book amongst +the lower classes in Hungary. Its <i>naïveté</i> and +good epic tone render it agreeable even to a more +cultured taste. Another poet of the second half +of the sixteenth century, Peter İlosvai, composed, +probably from the floating folk-poetry of his age, +a poetical narrative of the life of Nicolas Toldy, +one of the most popular heroes of the Magyars, +who lived in the fourteenth century, under King +Lewis the Great, and was of Herculean strength. +His feats are sung in İlosvai’s poem (published +at Debreczen in 1574) in an effective, if rough, +manner. A number of Magyar novels may also +be found; but nearly all were translations from +German or Latin novels of the time. The +sixteenth century produced even a few Magyar +works of historic and philologic character. John +Erdősi, or Sylvester, wrote the first grammar of +the Magyar language (1539); Gabriel Pesti gave, +in 1538, a short dictionary of the Magyar language; +John Decsi de Baranya published in 1588 a collection +of about 5,000 Magyar proverbs; Stephen +Székely de Bencéd and Caspar Heltai published<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span> +“World-Chronicles,” in 1559 and 1575 respectively. +Very many memoirs and journals of that time are +still unpublished.</p> + +<p>We must now mention the greatest of all the +Hungarian poets of the sixteenth century, whose +name we have so far left unnoticed because, by +one of the strange freaks of life, the manuscripts +of his lyrical poems, on which rests his great +fame among Magyar poets, were first discovered +only twenty-four years ago (in 1874), and some +of them even after that date, and were therefore +never largely known to the contemporaries of +their author. This poet is Baron Valentin Balassi +(1551-1594). He came from a magnate family, +and so great were the gifts with which nature +had endowed him, that men praised him as a +model of heroism, and women worshipped him +as the embodiment of chivalrous charm. In the +troubles of his time, both political and social, he +took more than one part; and he may be considered +as at once the Knight Errant and the +Parsifal of Hungary in the latter half of the +sixteenth century. Highly cultivated and sensitive +as he was, he could not but respond to the +religious impulses of his time, and so became the +author of many a religious poem. On his wanderings, +which took him not only over the whole +of his own country, but even as far as North +Germany and probably also to England, he saw<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span> +all forms and aspects of life. His lyric sentiments +he embodied in the so-called “Flower Songs” +(“<i>Virág-énekek</i>”), which are full of that <i>verve</i> +and sweetness so characteristic of the best lyric +poets of Hungary. He also introduced a new +form of lyric stanza—the Balassi Stanza—which +consists of nine short lines, the end-rhymes of +which are the same in the third, sixth, and ninth +lines, while the remaining three couples, have +each their own rhymes.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="right smaller">1520-1711.</p> + +<p>During the seventeenth century Hungary was +oppressed by two evils of apparently antagonistic +character; either of which, however, was to have +the same fatal effect on Hungarian Literature. +On the one hand, nearly two-thirds of Hungary +proper, as apart from Transylvania, was under +Turkish rule; on the other, the Habsburgs, then +at their apogee, waged a relentless war against +the liberties and independence of the Hungarians +both in non-Turkish Hungary and in Transylvania. +In the latter country, the Bocskays, +Bethlens, and Rákóczys had in succession contrived +to establish a Hungarian principate which, +although acknowledging Turkish ascendancy, yet +retained many of the rights of sovereignty. +These two sets of circumstances were in themselves +hurtful to the development of anything +relating to Hungarian nationality, and most of +all to Hungarian Literature. The counties under +Turkish rule could not, by the very nature of +the oppression under which they smarted, produce<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span> +any literary movement at all. The counties under +Austrian rule were held in bondage both political +and intellectual, which stifled all attempts at a +national literature. The sages have as yet not +been able to prove, that a republican government +must of necessity be beneficial to the material and +political welfare of a nation. As to the intellectual +progress of a nation, on the other hand, Liberty is +generally taken to be an indispensable condition. +Literature is possible only where there is at least +a republic of minds. The Austrian government +took good precautions to render the rise of such +a republic in Hungary an impossibility. All the +higher and middle schools in Austrian Hungary +were, during the seventeenth century, in the hands +of the Jesuits. The order of Jesus has not, as is +well known, prevented a very great number of +its members and pupils from rising to eminence +in Theology and in Science. It could not, owing +to its cosmopolitan and anti-national constitution, +further movements of national literature. Quite +apart from the debatable nature of its moral +and political teachings, it retarded or stopped +all such movements by employing in its schools +the Latin language as the vehicle of instruction. +At Nagyszombat (in 1635); at Kassa (in 1657); +at Buda (in 1687), the Jesuits founded, or taught +in, universities, where lectures on all branches of +knowledge were delivered in the mongrel language<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span> +of the mediæval Scholastics, which has always had +a baneful influence both on knowledge and its +students. In the Protestant schools, the number +of which exceeded seven hundred and fifty, the +same radically false system was observed. The +consequence was, that the vast majority of +Hungarians had never received a living knowledge +of either the history of Man or of Nature, and +could accordingly turn their dead intellectual +capital to no account. The only Hungarians +whose mental acquirements had sufficient vitality +to serve as stimulants to literary production of +a higher type were such as could read Italian or +French, that is, works, written in one, and thus +fertilizing another living language. Such exceptional +individuals could then be found only +amongst the wealthy classes, or in other words, +amongst the magnates. Thus it happened that +all great literary work in Hungarian produced +during the seventeenth century was done by the +great noblemen, and by them alone. Hungary +may therefore afford a fair test for the curious +problem, whether from an aristocracy of birth can +be recruited that aristocracy of genius the work +of which forms a nation’s great literature. In +Hungary, the aristocracy of birth proved, on the +whole, unequal to such a task. The Hungarian +magnates of the seventeenth century did much +creditable work in <i>belles-lettres</i>, and some also<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span> +in graver departments of literature. Yet, they +were unable to originate more than a temporary +and inferior reform; and, moreover, they did, as +we shall see, serious harm to the literary life of +the nation at large, in that they were not able to +engage its interests in the growth of its literature.</p> + +<p>Of these magnates, the eloquent Cardinal +Primate of Hungary, Peter Pázmány (1570-1637), +Archbishop of Esztergom, claims our attention +first. In his thirteenth year he became a convert +to Catholicism, and later a Jesuit; and so intense +was his zeal for the Church of Rome, that most +of his active life was spent in a propaganda, +by writings even more than by words, for his +church, and with a constant literary warfare with +the non-Catholics of Hungary. He is said to +have converted no less than thirty of the noblest +families of his country to the Catholic persuasion. +At his time, perhaps the greatest number of +Protestants were in Transylvania, whose princes +were warm-hearted protectors of the Reformation; +and since they cultivated the Hungarian language +in preference to any other, Pázmány thought it +wise to use the same idiom in his controversial +writings. Pázmány’s theological armoury is taken +chiefly from the controversial works of his French +colleague and contemporary, the famous Jesuit +Bellarmin. In his style, however, he shows +considerable originality. He prefers the strong,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span> +racy expressions, proverbs and similes of the +common people. His is a direct and vigorous, +rather than an artistic style. The strange contrast +between his popular vocabulary and the +scholastic fence of his thoughts lends a peculiar +flavour to his <i>Hodegus</i> or “<i>Kalauz</i>” (1613), and +his sermons (“<i>Prédikácziók</i>,” 1636). Among his +numerous Protestant opponents were: Peter +Alvinczi, of Kassa; and George Komáromi +Csipkés, of Debreczen; the latter translated the +whole Bible into Hungarian. As a sad contrast +to the splendid career of the convert Pázmány, +we may mention here the life-long sufferings +and wanderings of the loyal Protestant Albert +Molnár de Szencz (1574-1634), who was persecuted +wherever he came, in Germany, Austria, Hungary +or Transylvania; and who, one of the +true epigones of the Conrad Gesners and +Sylburgs, published, in the midst of poverty +and misery, Hungarian dictionaries; a valuable +Hungarian translation of the Psalms (1607, after +French models), which is in use to the present +day; a Hungarian Grammar (1610); and a +Hungarian translation of Calvin’s <i>Institutio</i>. +Finally, the gorgeous picture of the Cardinal +cannot be set off to more advantage, than by +a slight mention of the fanatic and obscure +<i>Sabbatarians</i> (“<i>Szombatosok</i>”), in the background, +whose religious poetry is no uninteresting evidence<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span> +of the Hungarian theological literature of that +time.</p> + +<p>Amongst the numerous <i>protégés</i> and pupils of +the victorious archbishop we find also Count +Michael Zrinyi (1618-1664), a descendant of the +famous Zrinyi, who, in 1566, defied single-handed +the invasion of Sultan Soliman the Splendid, by +offering him, with a handful of men, unconquerable +resistance in the Castle of Szigeth, some +twenty miles west of Pécs. Count Michael was +one of the best educated men of his time, and +equally great as a patriot, poet and general. +The sad state of Hungary could not but affect +deeply a man, whose historic <i>rôle</i> seemed to be +clearly indicated by the glorious heroism of his +ancestor. Having travelled abroad, especially in +Italy, where Tasso’s religious epic <i>Gerusalemme +liberata</i> was read then more than ever after, +he conceived the idea of stirring up a vast +crusade against the Turks, by singing the deeds +of his great-grandfather in an epic at once +political and religious. This epic is commonly +called the “Zrinyiad” (“<i>Zrinyiász</i>”), and consists +of fifteen cantos, written in rugged and rough +style. It reveals much power of description and +religious enthusiasm; but it is lacking in form +and moderation; nor can the portraits of its +heroes be called plastic by any means. It is, +from the artistic standpoint, spoiled by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span> +deficiency above mentioned; the central hero is +too perfect to be lastingly interesting. Old +Zrinyi is capital matter for ballads; for an epic +he is too faultless. On the other hand, the +“Zrinyiad” is one of the most effective of +patriotic epics. Like the epic works of Klopstock +in Germany, or “<i>Ossian</i>” in England, it +had at the time of its appearance a great +national value, apart from its literary merits. +In telling the Hungarian nation in tones of +sacred anger, that the Turkish oppression was +due to the depravity of the Magyars, in exhorting +them in vigorous modes to rally and shake +off the yoke of the infidels, Zrinyi added an +internal lustre to his work which even now, +after more than two centuries, has not lost +much of its splendour. Like the daring and +glorious deed of his ancestor, his poem is more +of a patriotic than an historic event. It were +only gross exaggeration to count the “Zrinyiad” +amongst the world’s great epics. The poet might +well belie history in letting his ancestor personally +kill the great Sultan. It would be dishonest to +add to the glory of the poet by ignoring the truth +of the literary canon.</p> + +<p>As to the other magnates who wrote poetical +works in Hungarian during the seventeenth +century, it will be sufficient to say, that their +poems were meant chiefly for the gratification<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span> +of their authors; and although some of them +were printed in book form, yet the bulk was +left in the well-deserved obscurity of family +archives. The most noteworthy of these poets +were: John Rimay de Rima (1564-1631), an +imitator of Balassi; Peter Beniczky de Benicze +(1606(?)-1664); Count Stephen Kohári (1649-1731); +Baroness Catherine Sidonia Petrőczi; +Count Peter Zichy; Count Valentin Balassi, the +second poet of that name (1626(?)-1684); and +Baron Ladislas Listhy (1630-1660(?)), whose epic, +“The Disaster of Mohács” (“<i>Mohács veszedelme</i>”), +betokens a remarkable talent for versification.</p> + +<p>So exclusive was the influence of the magnates +on the literature of that time, that the one +remarkable poet of the seventeenth century who +was no magnate himself, although a nobleman, +selected as the subject of his epic poem a +romantic event from the life of one of the +leading magnates. Count Francis Wesselényi +besieged, in 1644, the Castle of Murány, defended +by the beautiful widow, Mary Szécsi. In the +end he won both the heart of the heroic beauty +and the castle. This famous event forms the +burden of one of the most popular of Hungarian +poetical narratives, briefly called, “The Venus of +Murány” (“<i>Murányi Vénus</i>”, 1664), written by +Stephen Gyöngyössi. Its language is musical, +and the narrative tone very felicitous. The poet<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span> +has evidently made a close study of Ovid, +and frequently reaches the light touch and charm +of the Roman; he even adds an element of +romance, which has endeared his work to more +than six generations of Hungarian readers. The +metre is Alexandrine.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="right smaller">1520-1711.</p> + +<p>Amidst the din and excitement of the endless +wars in Hungary, both civil and foreign, during +the seventeenth century, the agitated mind of the +common people vented itself in numerous ditties, +skits and lampoons, which, after the name of one +of the national parties, have been called <i>Kurucz-poetry</i>. +It consists almost exclusively of largely +unprinted little poems, mostly political, and depicts +the agonies and torments of the patriots. Some of +them are good and true in tone, and even powerful +in the expression of hatred and satire. The one +ever-memorable folk-poem of that time, however, +was not written in words. The profound passions +aroused by the last great revolution under the +romantic Francis Rákóczy II., towards the end +of the seventeenth and the beginning of the +eighteenth century, were incarnated in inimitable +fashion in the “<i>Rákóczy march</i>,” the most +fanaticising of all war-marches. Whoever actually +composed it (tradition ascribes it to a Hungarian +gipsy-woman by the name of Panna Czinka),<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span> +that march spells a whole period of Hungarian +history, just as Milton’s <i>Paradise Lost</i> spells a +whole period of English life. The Magyar +nation was at the end of the seventeenth century +far too unpractised in literary architecture +to rear its pangs and longings into a dome of +words. It was, however, then as now sufficiently +imbued with the power of musical creation, to +embody its woes in the fiery rhythms of the most +heroic of martial songs.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="right smaller">1520-1711.</p> + +<p>During the period in question very little was +done for historic and scientific studies. John +Cséri de Apáca (1625-1660), an enthusiastic +student and patriot, published a small Hungarian +“<i>Encyclopedia</i>” (1655), in which the elements of +knowledge, both philologic, natural and mathematical +are given in a simple and clear manner. +Francis Páriz-Pápai published a much used +dictionary of the Hungarian and Latin languages +(1708). The nine books of the chronicle of John +Szalárdi, who died 1666 (“<i>Siralmas Krónika</i>”), +form the first attempt at historiography in the +Hungarian language. Some of the leading men +of that age left memoirs; and grammarians were +also not wanting. The great philosophic wave, +sweeping over Europe in the seventeenth century +(Bacon, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Pierre Bayle), +left scarcely any traces in Hungarian Literature, +except in Cséri’s Encyclopedia, where Cartesianism +is not quite absent.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="right smaller">1711-1772.</p> + +<p>1711-1772. The period bounded by the years +1711-1772 is one of decline. During these years, +which comprise the reigns of Emperor Charles +VI., and most of that of Austria’s greatest ruler, +Maria Theresa (1740-1780), there was practically +very little Magyar literature; and the little was +bad. Hungarians of that period wrote, as a rule, +in Latin; and the subjects they selected were +those of laborious erudition; philology; descriptive +natural science; annalistic history; historic +theology. This decline in national literature was +only another phase of the decline of the Magyar +idiom. For, both in Transylvania, which was +now again, as formerly, united with Hungary, +and in Hungary proper, the Hungarian language +ceased to be used in the schools, at the county-sessions, +in the law-courts, and in polite society. +In all these centres of intellectual intercourse, +Latin, German or French were used instead of +the sonorous language of Árpád. In Catholic +and Protestant schools alike instruction was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span> +given in bad Latin. At the county-sessions; in +the national parliament; and in the law-courts, +Latin alone was used; while the higher classes +of society were talking either in German or in +French. For the latter fact, there is a simple +explanation at hand. When, in 1711, Hungary +was at last “pacified,” it had become evident to +the most patriotic of the leading families, that +further armed resistance to the Habsburgs being +impossible, the only chances of promotion for their +children were at the court of Vienna. This +involved the adoption of Viennese manners, and +Viennese mediums of conversation; that is, of +French and German. No sooner was that done +by the aristocratic families of Hungary, than the +abnormal state of the then national literature +revealed all its latent barrenness. As has been +seen in the preceding chapters, all the great +Hungarian writers from 1600 to 1711 were recruited +from the class of the magnates. When, +now, after 1711, the magnates flocked to Vienna, +there to undergo a thorough process of Germanization, +or rather Austrianization, there was no +class of writers left in Hungary to take their +place. Hence the sudden dearth of great writers, +and the astounding decline of Hungarian Literature. +To this must be added the fact, that +German literature which was naturally destined +to have a considerable influence on Hungarian<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span> +writers, both from geographical contiguity, and +on account of the general knowledge of German +in the then Hungary; that German literature, we +say, was not beginning to reach its classical period +before the sixties of that century, and could +therefore stimulate Hungarian Literature but very +little. It is much more difficult to account for +the exclusive use of Latin in the schools and in +parliamentary debates. Had the use of Latin in +the schools been accompanied by the study of +Greek and Greek literature it would probably +have wrought very much less mischief.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately for Hungarian Literature, the +study of Greek was almost entirely neglected +in the last century. <i>Graeca non leguntur.</i> The +immense power of æsthetic education inherent in +Greek classical works could thus not benefit the +Hungarians. Nay, it may be said in strict truth, +that for Hungarians, naturally inclined as they +are to grandiloquence and redundancy, both of +words and thought, the study of Latin literature, +untempered by that of Greek, was in many ways +harmful. Many Latin poets and prose-writers +lack that simplicity and moderation, which mark +off Hellenic authors from all but the very best +writers of all ages. The exclusive study of Latin +was therefore doubly harmful to the Hungarians: +first, in that it made them neglect their own +language; and secondly, in that it supplanted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span> +the study of Greek literature. The exclusive +use of Latin in all the schools and colleges of +Hungary during the last century was, however, +part of that general obscurantism weighing on +all the educational institutions of the Habsburg +empire. Both Charles VI. and Maria Theresa +left the instruction of youths in the hands of +monks and priests. Previous to the abolition of +the order of the Jesuits (1773) that order had no +less than thirty “<i>gymnasia</i>,” or higher colleges +in Hungary. After its abolition, these colleges +were placed in the hands of other orders, such +as the Præmonstratencians, the Benedictines, Paulists +and Franciscans. As in Austria, so in +Hungary, the regular clergy, more still than the +secular, attempted to shut off their pupils from +the new light rising in France, England and +Germany, and for that purpose the habitual use +of scholastic Latin was one of the most efficient +means. At the Protestant schools, of which the +most famous were at Debreczen, at Sárospatak, +and at Pozsony, in Hungary proper; and at +Nagy Enyed, Kolosvár, Marosvásárhely, and at +Udvarhely, in Transylvania, instruction was +likewise given in Latin. Nor can it be seriously +maintained that the Protestant teachers were +more prone to let in the new light than were +the Catholic.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="right smaller">1711-1772.</p> + +<p>In poetry proper, it is for the present period +customary, but scarcely necessary, to mention the +Jesuit Francis Faludi (1704-1779), who has put +some wise saws and moral platitudes into light +verse; and Baron Ladislas Amadé (1703-1764), +whose not unmelodious lyrics were sufficient to +give the successful courtier a mild reputation as +an interesting poet. In dramatic poetry there is +nothing worth mentioning. The Jesuits occasionally +had their pupils play a patriotic or religious +drama made <i>ad hoc</i>, and good <i>pro tunc</i>. Of prose-writers +there is one, and one only, whose “Letters” +written from Turkey, where he was in exile, have +abiding literary value. This was Clement Mikes +(1690-1761), who was brought up by Prince +Rákóczy, to whom he proved constant under all +circumstances, and for this reason Mikes still +belongs to the generation of Hungarian nobles +who cultivated their language with the pride of +true patriots. The “Letters” are not only full of +historic interest, especially with regard to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span> +interior condition of the then still mighty Turkish +empire, but also as specimens of pure, idiomatic +and well-balanced Hungarian prose.</p> + +<p>The remarkable works in History, Theology or +Science of that period were, as noticed, written in +Latin. Of learned works written in Hungarian +the two best were by men who had spent their +youth in the preceding century, and were thus less +afflicted with the gangrene of the decadence of +the period from 1711 to 1772; Michael Cserei +(1668-1756), and Peter Apor (1676-1752), both of +very great nobility. Cserei wrote a “<i>Transylvanian +History</i>” (“<i>Erdélyi Historia</i>”), in which the events +from 1661 to 1711 are told in a lively, naïve and +pleasing style. Apor is the author of a remarkable +work on the history of the manners, customs, and +institutions of ancient Transylvania. It is entitled +“<i>Metamorphosis Transylvaniae</i>,” and its object is +to show, by contrast, how low the country had +sunk from its former glory. His satire is not +infrequently both scathing and well-expressed.</p> + +<p>The bent for erudite laboriousness gave rise to +several works on the history of Hungarian Literature. +The still-life of the small town of Bártfa in +the county of Sáros must have hung heavily on the +hands of David Czwittinger, one of the lawyers of +that town, who published, in 1711, a dry list of +Hungarian writers, in alphabetical order. He was +distanced by the indefatigable and patriotic Peter<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span> +Bod (1712-1769), who had, like so many Protestants, +spent several years at Dutch universities, +where he amassed much polyhistoric knowledge +and a good library. There, no doubt, he also +acquired the taste for literary history, and in his +“Hungarian Athenæum” (“<i>Magyar Athénás</i>”, 1766) +he collected much material bearing on the lives +and works of no less than six hundred Hungarian +authors. In Law or Philosophy there appeared, +during this period, no work in Hungarian claiming +our attention.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="right smaller">1772-1825.</p> + +<p>1772-1825. After a period of decadence, lasting +for over sixty years, Hungarian Literature was again +brought to a state of revival and progress, which +has gone on almost uninterruptedly to the present +day. This revival is part of an immense revolution +which swept over most countries of continental +Europe in the second half of the last +century. The most conspicuous and best known +event of this Modern Renascence is the series of +terrific upheavals and wars commonly called the +French Revolution. It is, however, quite evident +that the French Revolution was only the politic +aspect of a vast movement, which in many +countries outside France assumed the garb of +intellectual revolutions. Thus the mental achievements +that, in their totality, are called the +“classical period” of German literature (1750-1805) +are in the domain of Thought and Sentiment, +a revolution no less colossal and far-reaching +than were the ever-memorable proceedings +of the French <i>assemblées</i>, or the bloody epics of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span> +the Revolutionary campaigns. Both were gigantic +onslaughts against the <i>Ancien Régime</i> in institutions, +manners, thought and sentiment. Accordingly, +the course of both revolutions was—making +due allowance for externals—essentially the same. +As the French Revolution landed in, or rather +was brought to its final consummation in the +titanic and all-embracing personality of Napoleon, +so German literature met its final trysting-place +and culmination in the orchestral mind of Goethe.</p> + +<p>The minor nations of Europe were seized by the +same Revolution, if in a manner considerably less +intense. The very aggressiveness of the French +Revolution, its encroachments on the territories +of Italy, Switzerland, Germany and Austria, prevented +those minor nations from enacting their +Revolution at once in its intellectual and political +aspects. While fighting the French, they were all +engaged in following them on the lines of the +Revolution, first (1790-1830) for intellectual freedom; +and then, after the defeat of the French +armies (1830-1848), for the very political ideals +that the French had been the first to proclaim. +For, this was the immense advantage of the +French over the other nations on the continent: +they had brought their intellectual revolution +through men like Turgot, d’Alembert, Diderot, +Voltaire, Rousseau, etc., to maturity, before they +started for their crusade of politic liberty; whereas<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span> +the other nations were a generation or two behind-hand, +and still in the throes of their intellectual +renascence.</p> + +<p>This is not the place for a laborious inquiry into +the causes of that immense Revolution which has, +towards the end of the last, and in the first five +decades of the present century, completely altered +the face of European civilization. It is nevertheless +necessary to give some account of such causes +as were instrumental in ripening the intellectual +aspect of that Revolution in Hungary. Among +the leading causes was a structural change in the +population of Hungary on the one hand, and the +reaction against the provocative and anti-national +measures of the Habsburgs on the other.</p> + +<p>Up to the sixties of the last century, the +population of Hungary consisted practically of +(1) a rural population, comprising both magnates, +noblemen and peasants; and (2) a small urban +population, comprising largely foreign or Germanized +craftsmen and tradespeople. Under such +circumstances, literature, which is pre-eminently +an urban growth, could not develop. For, not +only was the urban population too small and too +much immersed in material pursuits, but the only +intellectual class, viz., the aristocracy, was living in +the country, that is, in an atmosphere unfavourable +to continuous literary efforts. By the end of the +sixties, however, the structural change, above<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span> +indicated, took place. Owing to a series of +measures issued by Maria Theresa and Joseph II., +the rural population of Hungary was liberated +from its most odious fetters. Bondage, and a sort +of serfdom (<i>jobbágyság</i>), with all its concomitant +evils were almost abolished. Numerous rural +families left their obscure abodes, repaired to the +towns, and urban life, for the first time in Hungarian +history, was raised above the low level on +which it had been vegetating for centuries. With +the increase of urban population came an increase +of wealth and comfort; a greater activity in commerce, +both mercantile and social. Many a gifted +Hungarian, who would have previously spent his +days in the obscurity of his county, now willingly +lived in one of the rising towns. With an accelerated +speed of work came a more rapid appreciation +of talent, and a greater number of authors. +The influx of the rural population to the town +facilitated that mutual action and reaction between +Nature and Man, which, in one form or other, is +the main spring of literature. In England, too, +the great period of Shakespeare was preceded by a +similar structural change in the population. The +dissolution of the monasteries and the numerous +enclosures of commons, depriving as they did, +hundreds of thousands of rural people of their +means of livelihood, drove them into the towns, +which rapidly ozonified that atmosphere of great<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span> +intellectual stir, without which no great writers +are possible. In Germany, too, the period of +Lessing, Schiller, and Goethe was preceded by a +new influx of the rural population into the towns +devastated by the thirty years’ war. Nor can it +be doubted that Italy, in possession of highly-organized +and rich towns long before any other +mediæval nation, took, for this very reason, the +lead in all literary matters.</p> + +<p>This broad fact of Hungarian history (totally +neglected by the historians of Hungary, probably +because of its very broadness), must therefore be +considered as the prime mover in the revival of +Hungarian Literature. It created that mysterious +propelling power which in times of progress everybody +feels and nobody can account for. It was +the latent and constant stimulus to renewed mental +labour, and to keener delight in it. Like great +rivers it was swelled by smaller affluents of causes. +Thus that great structural change in nearly all +parts of Hungary was accompanied by two +structural changes in limited layers of Hungarian +society. Maria Theresa, probably with a view of +carrying Austrianization into the very hearts of the +Hungarian nobles had, in 1760, established the +famous Hungarian Guard in Vienna. Each county +in Hungary was to send up a few young noblemen +to Vienna, where they were clad in sumptuous +style, and treated with all the seductive arts of a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span> +refined court. Thus a considerable number of +Hungarian noblemen were given an opportunity +for that higher education and refinement, which in +former times had been the privilege of the select +few. Vienna was in many ways a centre of +Franco-German civilization, and the young Magyar +noblemen derived, from a lengthy stay in the +Austrian capital, a benefit similar to that for which +English gentlemen flocked to Paris in the thirteenth +and seventeenth century. This then, constituted +one of the minor changes in the intellectual development +of one class of Hungarians. There was also +another change. Joseph II., in dissolving over +a third of the existing monasteries, and a great +number of monastic orders too, set free a number +of educated men, who would have otherwise led a +sterile life in the lonely cells of their monasteries. +They now began to devote their unexpected +leisure to pursuits of a different kind; and some +amongst them became workers in the field of +literature. Thus a new source of literary production +was opened up.</p> + +<p>To these structural changes in the population of +Hungary, that is, to the home and internal cause +of a potential revival, now came the external +agency of those anti-national measures against +Hungarian institutions, which Maria Theresa, with +fine womanly tact, had used in a tentative manner, +but which were applied by Joseph II. in the most<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span> +reckless and irritating fashion. Joseph had one +ideal: the homogeneous Austrian state. Like all +ideals it was unrealisable. It was worse than that: +it was suicidal. The Austrian empire has its very +<i>raison d’être</i> in the heterogeneity of its constituent +parts. To level down the Austrian “lands” to one +and the same pattern, is to deprive them of all +vitality. They live by contrast to one another. +Unable to be quite independent each by itself, +they would, if unconnected by some common tie, +only serve to aggrandize either Prussia, Russia or +Italy, and so upset the balance of Europe in a +fatal manner. United by the dynastic tie, they +form an imposing, if incongruous whole, the component +parts still retaining very much of a strong +individuality. Any attempt at forcing them into +blank uniformity must needs be answered by a still +stronger attempt on their part to rend the dynastic +tie asunder. The various provinces have, since +1648, and with respect to Hungary, since 1711, +made no civil war on one another. Not one of +them had, as had Prussia in Germany since +Frederick II.’s time, or England since Cromwell’s +time, the supremacy over the rest. Their sole +union and bond was in their common dynasty. +To try to reduce them to one and the same level, +as Joseph II. did, was both the worst dynastic +and national policy imaginable. The Austrian +provinces, then or now, if reduced to complete<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span> +uniformity, will first of all abolish the dynasty—as +superfluous. In the <i>egalitarian</i> ordinances of +Joseph II. there was so much that was subversive +of the very pillars and coping-stones of the whole +Austrian edifice, that the Hungarians, as well as +all the other nationalities under his rule (Belgians, +Czechs, Poles, etc.), forthwith rose in a body in +defence of their privileges, charters, rights; in fact, +of their existence severally and collectively. The +Emperor wanted to abolish the Hungarian language, +Hungarian institutions, Hungarian society. +At once the Hungarians, who had then almost +entirely neglected their language, learned to regard +it as the chief palladium of their nationality. +Hungarian periodicals were started; such as +the “<i>Magyar Múzsa</i>” (since 1787); “<i>Magyar +Múzeum</i>” (since 1788, in Kassa); “<i>Mindenes +Gyűjtemény</i>” (since 1789); “<i>Orpheus</i>” (since 1790, +edited by Kazinczy); “<i>Urania</i>” (since 1794, edited +by Kármán), etc. Hungarian actors were encouraged; +Hungarian literary societies were started, +the oldest being that founded by John Kis, at +Sopron, in 1790. These efforts were immeasurably +increased in efficiency by the publication of very +numerous Magyar works in nearly all <i>genres</i> of +literature, and in styles and “schools” of great +divergency. The members of the Guard naturally +proceeded on French lines, taking the great +French writers, and chiefly Voltaire, as their model.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span> +The foremost members of the new urban element, +which also included many an unfrocked monk, +coming as they did from the country where the +Magyar language and folk-poetry had never died +out, and where the national pulse beat strongest, +proceeded on national lines. The older country-gentry, +and numerous released monks, conversant +above all with Latin literature, proclaimed the +classical metres and forms as the only safeguard +and aim of literature; while another section of the +new urban element followed in the wake of the +Germans, whose classical writers were just then at +the height of their fame. This great divergence of +schools was in itself proof of the definite revival of +Hungarian Literature. In the spiritual republic, no +less than in the political, parties are of the very +essence of vigorous life. By the end of the last +century there could have no longer been any doubt +about the strong vitality of Hungarian Literature.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="right smaller">1772-1825.</p> + +<p>The first of these “schools” to publish serious +works with the intention of reforming the literature +of Hungary, were the members of the Hungarian +Guard at Vienna, and chiefly George Bessenyei +(1747-1811).<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> In 1772 he published a tragedy, +entitled “Agis” (“<i>Agis tragédiája</i>”) in which he +attempted to give, within the strict rules of the +Franco-Aristotelean tri-unity of time, place and +action, a model for his contemporaries. In point +of language, <i>Agis</i> is not without some merits; +as a dramatic work it has long been regarded as a +failure. Bessenyei was more successful in his +comedies (“Philosophus,” etc.), in which he even +contrived to create a type, <i>Pontyi</i>, representing the +narrow-minded, ultra-conservative country-squire +of his time. His style is held to be much better +still in his prose works containing philosophical<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[80]</span> +essays after the rationalistic fashion of his epoch. +Amongst the numerous colleagues and literary +followers of Bessenyei were: Abraham Barcsai +(1742-1806), Alexander Báróczi (1735-1809), who +excelled chiefly in translations from the French; +Ladislas Baranyi, Joseph Naláczi, Bessenyei’s own +brother, Alexander, who tried his hand at Milton’s +“<i>Paradise Lost</i>,” etc. To the Bessenyei circle +(“<i>Bessenyei György társasága</i>”) belonged also +Paul Ányos (1756-1784), in whose mournful and +sentimental poems there are many traces of +genuine poetry. Nor must Joseph Péczeli be +forgotten (1750-1792), who through his numerous +translations from French and English works +(Edward Young’s “Night Thoughts”) and his +“Fables” (“<i>Mesék</i>”) deserved highly of Hungarian +Literature.</p> + +<p>The next in time and merit was the school of +the Classicists, or more properly speaking, Latinists. +The first four remarkable members of that school +were all unfrocked priests. Baróti David Szabó +(1739-1819), and Joseph Rajnis (Reinisch) were +ex-Jesuits; Nicolas Révai (1750-1807) was a +Piarist, and Benedictus Virág (1752(?)-1830) an +ex-Paulist. The circumstances of their mental +development above indicated led them naturally +to an imitation of the Latin poets; and Virág in +Hungary, like Ramler in Germany, or Cowley +in England, was held to be one of the numerous<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[81]</span> +“Horaces,” in whom the nascent literatures of +Europe were happily so rich. In ripe mellowness +of formal beauty and musical ring Virág cannot, +we are afraid, be said to have seriously challenged +the laurels of the friend of Augustus. His <i>Works</i> +(<i>Poétai Munkák</i>, 1799) are, on the other hand, +inspired by a noble glow of patriotism, which +might have added some lustre to the poems +even of Flaccus. Virág translated Horace into +Hungarian, as Baróti had done with the <i>Aeneid</i>. +The poetical works of the other two ex-priests +were of an inferior kind.</p> + +<p>To the above two schools now was added the +third; the national or genuinely Magyar school. +The two former laid special stress on purity and +perfection of form, both external and internal. In +fact, the classicists came near sacrificing everything +else to correctness of form. In this they were +partly justified, partly supported by the peculiar +adaptability of the Hungarian language to the +most complicated of classic metres. Hexameters +or alcaics are just as natural to Hungarian, as +they are to Greek and Latin; and infinitely more +so than to any other Indo-German language of +Europe. The classicists, and especially the +greatest of them, Berzsenyi—see below—were able +to handle the most national and intimate subjects +in the most foreign of verse-forms, and with perfect +ease too. This seemed to go far in convincing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[82]</span> +many writers, that classical forms were the only +ones to adopt, and classical models the only ones +to follow. The prosodic wealth of the Hungarian +language is, however, not exhausted by its classic +metres by far. From time immemorial Hungarian +poetry was wedded to Hungarian music, and the +latter, with its pointed rhythms and sudden irruptions +of cadences, was quite unfitted for the stately +calm of antique metres. In German classical +music, classical metres, such as the hexameter or +the alcaic may be, and have been employed. In +Hungarian music they are out of place altogether. +Here, then, was the inner justification of the +“Magyar” school. Its members strongly and +rightly felt, that in the cult of antique prosody +the classicists had overstepped the bounds; that +Hungarian poetry needed forms and moulds other +than those of Virgil or Horace; and that the +short cross-rhymed stanza was to Hungarian +Literature, what the violin and the “<i>czimbalom</i>” +(dulcimer) were to Hungarian music. It is impossible +to play Hungarian music on the organ.</p> + +<p>Of the Magyar school was Ádám Horváth +(1760-1820), who in addition to an epic called +“<i>Hunnias</i>” (1787), in which he tried to sing +the exploits of John Hunyadi after the battle +of Varna (1444), published a number of simple +poems in the style of the folk-poetry of the +Hungarian peasants. By refining the prosody of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[83]</span> +that <i>genre</i> he introduced it into the literary world. +The most successful of the Magyarists was Count +Joseph Gvadányi (1725-1801), whose “A Village +Notary’s Travel to Buda” (“<i>Egy falusi nótárius +budai utazása</i>,” 1790), was a felicitous attempt to +expose, in the form of a novel in verse, the utter +decadence and denationalization of the town-people +and the gentry of the middle of the last century. +The “notary” has survived as a type. Gvadányi’s +other novels are on the same lines, all of them +being animated by a resolute patriotism. He was +followed by Andreas Dugonics (1740-1818), an +ex-Piarist, whose “<i>Etelka</i>” a novel (1788) became +very popular, chiefly owing to its strongly accentuated +patriotism and anti-Austrian feeling, and also +to the racy, popular language he used. He also +compiled a valuable collection of Hungarian +proverbs and apophthegms (“<i>Magyar példabeszédek +és jeles mondások</i>”). The number of writers +belonging to the Magyar school in the two last +decades of the eighteenth century is considerable. +They all excel in patriotic verve, and much of the +anonymous work done at that time for the restoration +of Hungarian Literature is due to them. We +cannot here give more than a list of a few names. +John Kónyi, Stephán Gáti, Francis Nagy, the first +Hungarian translator of the Iliad, and Joachim +Szekér, who did much for the bettering of female +education in Hungary. Separate mention must<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[84]</span> +be made of a number of Magyarist poet-naturalists +whose centre was the city of Debreczen, and +amongst whom were John Földi (1755-1801), who +wrote some remarkable works on Hungarian +prosody in its relation to music; and Michael +Fazekas, whose “<i>Ludas Matyi</i>,” a chap-book +written in the interests of the peasants, has long +been one of the most popular comic stories. Nor +were the usual excrescences of the juvenile epoch +of a new language wanting. A limited class of +now obscure writers (Gregory Édes, John Varjas, +etc.), abused the great flexibility of the Hungarian +language in verse-forms and metres of the most +absurd kind. They were the caricaturists of the +rapidly growing Magyar idiom.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[85]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="right smaller">1772-1825.</p> + +<p>The formation of different schools of literature +was of great benefit to the growth and advance +of Hungarian poetry and prose. Many a minor +talent could and did, by clinging to and being +supported by a “school,” steady his work. After +the lapse of some time, however, the exclusiveness +of “schools” would have done great harm to the +higher development of Hungarian Literature. By +1795 more than schools and literary guilds was +needed. The nation wanted powerful individualities +who were, so to speak, schools themselves. +Fortunately for the cause of the Hungarian +intellect, such men did arise in time. The first +of them was Francis Verseghy (1757-1822). +An ex-Piarist, and involved in the conspiracy +of Martinovics: he had gone through the +experiences of a priest, a politician and a +state-prisoner. His poetical works, which are +very numerous, manifest a tender, yet strong +mind, much ease of form, and a power of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[86]</span> +satire. He translated the <i>Marseillaise</i> into Hungarian. +He is at his best in short poems. +What raises him above most of his predecessors +is his considerable independence as a poet. He +clings slavishly to no school, and succeeds in +combining some of the excellencies of all. In +genius he was far excelled by tempestuous John +Bacsányi (1763-1845), who espoused the cause +of the French Revolution, did some work for +Napoleon, and was in 1814 taken back to +Austria, where he died an exile. He brought +Ossian’s poems to Hungary; and in his fierce +poems all the fire of the revolutionary fever +may be felt. Yet with all that he could reduce +to fine proportions and to efficiency neither his +life nor his work. In the melancholy and sweet +poems of the ex-priest, Gabriel Dayka (1768-1796), +the Hungarian Hölty, which have to the present +day lost nothing of their Wordsworth-like delicacy, +we have the first instalment of those mournful +<i>largos</i>, in which Hungarian Literature is as rich +as is Hungarian music.</p> + +<p>These three writers were as the forerunners +of literary individualities of a much higher +type. The first of them was Joseph Kármán +(1769-1795). He too spent some time in Vienna, +where then centred the political and social life +of a large portion of Europe. Like so many +more Hungarians, he burst into enthusiasm for his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[87]</span> +country by staying and living amongst a foreign +people who, in the nobler traits of character, +were decidedly inferior to the Magyars, and +who yet were considered to be their rulers. The +people of Austria, and especially the Viennese, +are utterly different from the Hungarians. Their +love of the burlesque, of the grotesquely funny, +of the clownish, stood out then, as it still largely +does, in sharp contrast to the dignified gravity +of the Magyars. To be considered as subject +to people so very much less adapted for the +functions of government than themselves, was +at all times galling to the Hungarians; and +perhaps never more so, than in the nineties of +the last century, when a mighty wave of +opposition to the Habsburgs was sweeping over +Hungary. Kármán’s was a most sensitive soul. +He fully realized that to render Hungarian +Literature more perfect and independent was +first of all a great political deed. He keenly +felt, that Hungary, unless emancipated intellectually, +must fall a victim to the then immense +ascendancy of Austria. Every good poem, every +good novel, written by a Hungarian in the +language of his country, was then of more +service to Hungary than all the proceedings at +the national assemblies. Kármán, despite his +extreme youth, at once set to work. He +proclaimed that Pesth ought to be the literary<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[88]</span> +centre of Hungary. He started a quarterly +(“<i>Urania</i>”), and hastened to write his “<i>Memoirs +of Fanny</i>” (“<i>Fanni hagyományai</i>”). The latter +is a novel in the form of letters and leaves +from a diary. Fanny, the heroine, loves with +all the inconsiderate passion of a young girl, +a young man, whom she is not allowed to +marry. She dies of a broken heart in the +arms of her lover. The plot of the novel is +of the simplest. The excessive sentimentality +of the heroine, who is, as it were, drowned in +the floods of her own feelings, is to our present +taste somewhat overdone. With all these shortcomings, +however, Kármán has poured over his +little story so much of the golden light of fine, +unaffected style, and has enriched it with so +many touches of the most effective descriptions +of scenery, that “<i>Fanny</i>” will always rank +among the foremost of the literary products of +the kind, of which Goethe’s “<i>Werther</i>” is the +most famous.</p> + +<p>The second great poet was Michael Vitéz +Csokonai (1773-1805). Born at Debreczen, a town +whose famous fairs brought together annually +an immense concourse of the agricultural and +trading people of Hungary, Csokonai was at an +early age imbued with the riches of the gallery +of types for which his country has always been +so remarkable. Although at all periods of his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[89]</span> +irregular and vagrant life Csokonai kept in close +touch with books, Bürger amongst the Germans, +Pope amongst the English, and Metastasio +amongst the Italians, being his favourites; yet +the real source of his surprising fertility of +invention, and surety of draughtsmanship was +laid in his constant contact with the people +itself. His proud and independent character, +the ruggedness of which was not rendered less +objectionable by an independent fortune, drove +him from post to post. As a roving poet he +visited most of the counties, making friends +everywhere, protectors and helpers nowhere; and +when he finally returned to his old mother’s +house, his health was irretrievably shattered by +poverty, privations and occasional excesses. He +is a great poet. His language is full of savour +and truly Magyar. He has abundant and merciful +humour, without lacking wit. Frequently +he soars to philosophical heights of thought, +where, like the eagle, he broods alone. In his +lyrical poetry there is much of the rhapsodic +frenzy, which was to make Hungary’s greatest +poet, Petőfi, as unique in poetry, as Liszt is in +music. Csokonai’s most famous poem is a comic +epic, somewhat in the style of the <i>Rape of the +Lock</i>, called “<i>Dorottya</i>,” or the <i>Triumph of the +Ladies at the Carnival</i> (“<i>A dámák diadalma a +farsangon</i>”), in four parts. It narrates the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[90]</span> +warfare of the ladies of a small town, under the +leadership of an old maid (Dorottya), with the +men of the same place. The women complain +of the shortness of the carnival, of the rarity of +weddings, etc., and attempt to steal the registers +of births compromising to many of them. In the +end, the women fall out amongst themselves, +Venus steps in, rejuvenating Dorottya, and +making peace by marrying the contending +parties to each other. The tone of that comic +epic is throughout one of genuine mirth, and +the language forms a fit drapery of the fleeting +scenes of this charming carnival. The types +stand out with great plasticity, and in this +respect at least, Csokonai’s <i>Dorottya</i> need fear +no comparison with Pope’s masterpiece. The +critics of his time did not recognize Csokonai’s +greatness; and his townsmen, nearly all of them +rigid Calvinists, did not think much of a poet +in whose stanzas wine flowed abundantly, and +love was rampant in forms at times unrestrained. +When, therefore, some years after the poet’s +death, admirers of his wanted to have his statue +erected at Debreczen, and the words, “I too +lived in Arcadia” engraved upon it, the good +burghers of Debreczen violently opposed the +suggestion. For, as if trying to give the +departed poet exquisite material for another +comic epic, they alleged, that by “Arcadia,” was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[91]</span> +meant, as they had learned, a country with +good pasture, especially for donkeys; and since +they solemnly protested against being considered +donkeys, etc., etc. From this incident followed +the so-called Arcadian lawsuit (“<i>arkádiai pör</i>”).</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[92]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="right smaller">1772-1825.</p> + +<p>In the literature of all civilized nations we meet +with certain writers, whose great effect on their +contemporaries was owing less to the absolute +excellency of single works of theirs, than to the +general tone and power of suggestion inherent in +all their individuality. Such are, in England, Dr. +Johnson and Thomas Carlyle; in France, Diderot +and Renan; in Germany, Hamann and Herder. +Without being creative geniuses, they influence +their time as if they were such. One does so by +the brilliancy of his talk, like Johnson; the other +by pamphlets or essays <i>de omni re scibili</i>, like +Herder; a third by boldly attempting to rear a +new intellectual world in the place of the fabric of +old literature and knowledge, like Diderot. The +merit of such men is immense, yet relative. They +deserve more highly of literary men, than of literature. +They spread interest in or taste for good +literature. They are critical, not constructive; and +so decidedly preparatory and temporary is their +work, that in the whole range of the world’s<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[93]</span> +literature there has so far been one man, and one +alone, whose genius shone equally in this preparatory +or critical work, and in the still more precious +work of positive creativeness too. That man was +Lessing. In him the critical faculty did not +seriously impair the creative; and he rendered +immense services to German literature both by +what he destroyed, by what he suggested and by +what he created.</p> + +<p>Hungarian Literature was fortunate enough to +find one of those initiators and suggestive stimulators +during the period of its great revival, in the +person of Francis Kazinczy (1759-1831). His +work has frequently been compared to that of +Lessing. No greater injustice could be done to +Kazinczy. To compare him to the author of +“<i>Laokoon</i>,” “<i>Emilia Galotti</i>,” and “<i>Anti-Goetze</i>,” +is to render him much smaller than he really was. +Without being a Lessing by far, he had a very +considerable and beneficial influence on Hungarian +writers, many of them greater than he. He was +the son of a well-to-do gentleman of the county of +Bihar, which has a population of both Magyars +and Roumanians, and does not therefore belong to +the counties where the purely Magyar spirit is +permeating all the phases of life. To this circumstance, +no less than to his education, must be +ascribed Kazinczy’s little sympathy with the +strongly Magyar and nationalist aspirations of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[94]</span> +Debreczen school. His youth he spent chiefly in +North Hungary, where the study of German +literature was then rife in the better circles of +society. Having acquired a competent knowledge +of German, French and English, he poured forth, +since 1791, numerous, most carefully composed +translations from Shakespeare (<i>Hamlet</i>), Goethe, +Molière, Klopstock, Herder, Lessing, etc. From +1794 to 1801 he was kept in various state prisons, +for having been, as was alleged, implicated in the +conspiracy of Martinovics. This terrible experience +left no particular traces either on his mind +or on his character. Subsequently, as previously, +nay during his imprisonment, he was busy with +the elaboration of essays, critical, historical, or +novelistic, all of which had two distinct aims: first—to +reform the Hungarian literary language, by the +introduction of new words and especially new +idioms; secondly, to reform Hungarian Literature +by modelling it after the standard of Greek masterpieces. +Both lines of reform were in the right +direction. The Hungarian language was in +Kazinczy’s youth still far from developed. Its +vocabulary was limited mostly to the designation +of things material, and quite fallow for the +production of terms expressing things abstract or +æsthetic. It resembled a country in which there +is abundant currency in the shape of small coin; +it lacked gold coins and bank-notes of great value.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[95]</span> +Yet like Hungary itself, its language was replete +with gold-mines. In the rich and racy vocabulary +of the common people there was both overt +material and abundant hints for material hidden +under the surface. Kazinczy, instead of taking +these hints—instead of coining his new terms and +idioms from the language of the common people, +as he ought to have done, preferred to coin them +according to standards taken from the western +languages of Europe. In this he was grievously +mistaken. There are unfortunately very few, if +any, true dialects of the Hungarian language. +This, the greatest drawback to Magyar writers, +as the reverse of this deficiency is the greatest +advantage to the writers of Germany, France, +Italy or England, was rendered very much more +harmful by Kazinczy, in that he totally neglected +the few dialectic features together with the +common household language of the people. In +his efforts to enrich the language he thus could +not but obtain results of an inferior type. His +syntactic moves have not been followed on the +whole; and of his new words few have gained +general recognition.</p> + +<p>He was much more successful in the second of +his life-long efforts; in the introduction of the +æsthetic ideals of the Greeks into Hungary. We +have seen above, that the neglect of the study of +Greek literature in Hungary had, in the preceding<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[96]</span> +periods stunted the growth of Hungarian Literature. +Literature, like sculpture, is born of Greek parents; +and none but nations trained in the Hellenic +world of ideas, can make a literature proper. In +Germany, Lessing, Wieland, Herder and Goethe +were so profoundly imbued with Hellenic modes +of thought and moulds of expression, that many +of their best works have, as has been felicitously +remarked, enriched ancient Greek literature. So +deep were in Germany, through the works of +these men, the furrows of Greek thought, that even +writers like Schiller, who did not know Greek, +were full of the Greek spirit of beauty and moderation, +and amongst its most ardent propagators. +It was from these German Hellenes that Kazinczy +learned the great and invaluable lesson of Greek +idealism, that spiritual atmosphere in which the +human intellect feels as different from its ordinary +sensations, as does the human body in a river. +Kazinczy was the first of the Hungarian writers +whose soul had undergone the process of Platonization, +to use this clumsy but expressive word +for a process, the chief stages of which are +an increased familiarity with mental tempers, the +greatest exponent of which was Plato. In +Kazinczy’s wide correspondence with nearly all +the literary men of his age; in his greater and +smaller works; in his personal interviews with the +leading men of his time; he invariably, and with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[97]</span> +noble persistency, endeavoured to instil Hellenic +ideals of form, of beauty, of serenity. He had +clearly seen how much German literature had +been benefited by the adoption of those ideals; he +sincerely and fervently wanted to confer the same +boon on the literature of his own country. This +endeavour constitutes his greatness, as its success +does his historic importance. His own poems +are mediocre; yet he has the merit of being the +author of the first sonnets in Hungarian; his forte +lies in his prose works, and there chiefly in his +translations from the classical writers of Rome, +Germany, France and England. It was also his +indefatigable activity which gave rise to a wholesome +literary controversy about the nature and +limits of a radical reform of the Hungarian +language as a vehicle of literature. This controversy +merits special mention.</p> + +<p>Omitting the names of some learned precursors, +whose works have not much advanced the philological +study of the Hungarian language, it may +be stated, that the first to subject that idiom +to a careful and systematic study based on +researches into its historical development, was +Nicolas Révai. In his <i>Elaboratior Grammatica +Hungarica</i> (1806, 2 vols.), he summed up his +previous essays, and placed Hungarian philology +on a tolerably sure basis, after the manner subsequently +adopted by Jacob Grimm for Germanic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[98]</span> +philology. Although he still hankered after the +purely imaginary affinity between Magyar and the +Semitic languages, he yet succeeded in clearing +up many a vital point in Hungarian historic +grammar. With regard to the then wanted reform +of the language, he taught that that reform ought +to proceed on the lines of the laws of language as +discovered by a close study of the ancient remains +of Hungarian Literature. He was vehemently +opposed by Verseghy (<a href="#Page_85">see page 85</a>), who taught +that the reform ought to be guided, not by the +bygone forms of Hungarian, but by those actually +in force. It is now pretty clear, that while the +science of language is sure to be enriched by +methods of study such as that of Révai, the art +of language is more likely to gain by the advice +of Verseghy. Kazinczy, who possessed neither +Révai’s philologic erudition, nor Verseghy’s powers +of philologic analysis, but who adopted principles +of reform from both, Kazinczy became the centre +of the passionate warfare that now arose for the +golden fleece of “Pure Magyar.” The Conservative +party, whose headquarters were at Debreczen, +Somogy, Szeged, and Veszprém, were called +orthologues; the adherents of Kazinczy, neologues. +Satyric writings were published by both; by the +orthologues: “<i>Búsongó Amor</i>,” 1806, and the still +more famous “<i>Mondolat</i>,” 1813; by the neologues: +“<i>Felelet</i>,” 1816, written by Kölcsey and Szemere;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[99]</span> +and chiefly, the prize-essay of Count Joseph +Teleki, in 1817. In the end most of the work +of the neologues has been accepted by the +nation.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[100]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="right smaller">1772-1825.</p> + +<p>The great campaigns fought by Austria against +the French Revolution and Napoleon were in +reality the prelude of the subsequent warfare of +the Conservative and reactionary classes against +the rising Liberalism of modern times. In literature, +that mighty duel of night and light was +reiterated by the struggle between the romantic +and the national schools of poetry. The romantic +writers, whether Byron in England, Chateaubriand +in France, or Eichendorff in Germany, were all +perfect in form, and morbid in subject. They were +to poetry what Prince Metternich was to politics, +a genius of twilight. So natural was this connection +between the French Revolution on the +one hand, and national, or sound literature on +the other, that they who personally fought in the +wars against the Convention and the Directory +(1792-1799), as later on against Napoleon (1799-1815), +invariably inclined to the romantic or the +reactionary school. This will explain the rise of +romantic works in Hungary at a time when their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[101]</span> +classical and national school had scarcely begun to +appear. The first great romantic Hungarian poet is +Alexander Kisfaludy (1772-1844). He had fought +in the Austrian army in Italy and Germany +against the revolutionary armies of France, and +so naturally considered the gentry of his country +as the true representatives of his nation. In 1801 +he published the first part of a series of lyrical +poems called “<i>Himfy Szerelmei</i>,” through which +runs the uniting link of luckless love for one and +the same maiden. Kisfaludy lived for some time +in the country of Petrarch, and the influence of the +great singer of hopeless love is clearly visible in +the Magyar poet’s work. It is written in stanzas +of twelve lines, and is full of that shapeless but +sweet sentimentality which so characterizes the +romantic writers. It is like a landscape in which +the most attractive part is the fleeting clouds: +mountains, rivers, houses, and persons being all +blurred and vague. It is atmospheric poetry, full +of sweet words and sounds, as if coming from +distant music. In 1807 Kisfaludy published +another part of his <i>Himfy</i>, this time singing +the joys of requited love, as the first did its +sorrows. The work was received with great +enthusiasm, more especially, of course, by the unmarried +population of the country; and Kisfaludy +was encouraged to write novels, dramas and +ballads in great number. All these works are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[102]</span> +meant to form an apotheosis of mediæval times +in Hungary; just as the German and French +romantic writers revelled in the charms of +chateaux and knights and crusades. Some of +his ballads are really good, such as <i>Csobáncz</i>. +His dramas are worthless.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[103]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII.</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="right smaller">1772-1825.</p> + +<p>The romanticism started by Kisfaludy did not, +however, retard the other literary movements in +Hungary. The Hungarian language is in many +ways too closely akin to the classic languages, +if not in body, at least in prosody, to have easily +forsaken the classic forms which had long been +used by writers of this period, for the sake of +romanticism. The Hungarian language is in that +respect like Hungarian music. Although apparently +nothing can be more remote from the +strict moderation and stately respectability of +classical music than Hungarian music, yet the +strictest of the forms of classical music, viz., the +fugue, has a curious internal resemblance to +Magyar airs, in that the latter easily yield +magnificent fugue themes, and preludes to fugues. +Likewise the Hungarian language lends itself +with surprising felicitousness to the expression of +the highest form of classic metrical poetry: the +ode.</p> + +<p>Daniel Berzsenyi (1776-1826) was the poet who<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[104]</span> +fully realized the riches of the classical veins in +the mines of the Hungarian language, and who +gave his country a number of perfect odes written +in the metre and in the spirit of the best of +antique odes. His patriotic odes, most famous +of which is the one beginning “Perishing is now +the once strong Magyar” (“<i>Romlásnak indult hajdan +erős Magyar</i>” in alcaic metre); his religious +odes, most perfect of which is “God-seeking” +(“<i>Fohászkodás</i>” in alcaic metre); show the +chief quality of classical poetry: perfect form +wedded to hale and true subjects. He moves +on the Alpine roads and in the ravines of the +antique arduous metres with natural ease; for the +real subjects of his poetry are akin and similar +to Alpine sunsets and sunrises, majestic glaciers, +and despondent abysses. He is sublime and +natural; and amongst modern writers of odes in +antique metres only the German Platen, when +at his best, can compare with him. His poems +were listened to with rapturous attention by the +old warriors and politicians of the National +Assembly, and read with equal enthusiasm and +admiration by the youth of Hungary. From the +height whereon he places himself with his lyre, +there is no difference of size or age in his +listeners. Nor has time abated one tittle of the +glory of his best poems. Some of the best +critics of his epoch (amongst them Kölcsey)<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[105]</span> +did not appreciate him adequately. At present +we cannot sufficiently wonder at their blindness. +We must console ourselves with the thought that +poets, like the sun, are, as a rule, not noticed +for some time after their appearance on the +horizon. In the time of Berzsenyi there died at +Vienna (in 1820) a young Hungarian, probably +by his own hand, in utter distress; his name +was Ladislas Tóth de Ungvárnémet. His mind, +living in the regions of the Greek ideals (he +even wrote Greek poetry), could not endure the +sordid materialism of his surroundings. He left, +in Hungarian, a tragedy after the Hellenic model, +“<i>Narcisz</i>.” Hungary has, by the premature death +of Tóth, probably lost her chance of having her +Shelley.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[106]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="right smaller">1772-1825.</p> + +<p>The enlightened foreigner from France, England +or Germany, reading about the allegedly great +literary works written by Hungarians, Poles, +Czechs or other nationalities who have so far +not succeeded in playing first fiddle in the +European concert, will probably indulge in a +polite doubt as to the exceeding excellence of +those works, not one of which has ever been +spoken of in the columns of the leading papers +or periodicals of London, Paris, Berlin, Rome +or Vienna. In the preceding pages we have +ventured to mention Pope and Shelley, and a +few great German poets in the same breath +with great Magyar writers. This may appear +preposterous to Englishmen or Germans. Far +from reviling them for that, we would rather +hasten to add, that in a certain sense they are +quite right. Pope’s genius is in one most +essential point decidedly superior to that of +Csokonai (<a href="#Page_88">see page 88</a>). Pope’s best poems are +not exclusively English in taste, subject-matter<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[107]</span> +or form. They belong to that class of European +literature, the best products of which may be +relished with equal delight by Spaniards and +Danes alike. They are European in character; +and so much is this the case with the foremost +of those writers, that Shakespeare, for +instance, is far better known, by the youth at +least of Germany, Austria and Hungary, than +by that of England. In the great German +writers there is little of that specifically German +tone, which people other than Germans cannot +very well enjoy. In Lessing there is no trace +of the sentimentality and liquoriciousness of his +native province; in Schiller there is not a trace +of Suabian cunning or lumbersomeness; and +Goethe might just as well have been born at +Syracuse under Gelon, or at Athens under +Pericles. Is there any trace of Puritanism, this +the most specifically English feature of his +time, in Shakespeare? The major part of the +better writers of Hungary or Poland, on the +other hand, have suffered their intense patriotism +to make such inroads on the literary character +of their works, that the latter frequently lose +all their point to readers outside Hungary and +Poland.</p> + +<p>These reflections are suggested by a consideration +of the works of Francis Kölcsey (1790-1838), +a really great orator and a good poet. Born in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[108]</span> +the county of Bihar, where he spent the best +part of his short life, he employed his magnificent +powers of oratory chiefly in inculcating in the +Hungarians of his time the lesson of patriotism. +There can be no doubt that his speeches, his +lofty “<i>Paraenesis</i>,” and some of his critical work +are written in that gorgeously laborious style +which has made the fame of Bossuet in France +and Gibbon in England. His poems breathe a +mild melancholy that gives them a sombre tint +of peculiar beauty. Yet, on the whole, he never +oversteps the narrow limits of Magyar life as +then existent; and what appeals to men of all +countries and all nations found but a feeble +rhetorical echo in his writings. No young Hungarian +can read his works without deep emotion. +In maturer years, however, he finds that Kölcsey’s +works belong to those that one gladly remembers +to have read once, without desiring to read them +again.</p> + +<p>The growth of Hungarian Literature from 1772 +to 1825 was, compared to that of England from +1570 to 1620; of Germany from 1760 to 1805; +or of France from 1630 to 1675, a slow one. +Many of the Hungarian writers of that period +were endowed with gifts of no common calibre; +and some of them, such as Kazinczy, Kisfaludy, +Csokonai, Berzsenyi, Kölcsey, can certainly not +be denied the distinction of genius. Yet with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>[109]</span> +all their efforts, individual or collective, they +did not quicken the step of literary progress +very considerably. This was owing to the fact, +that Hungary had as yet no literary centres, +such as England possessed in London; France +in Paris; and Germany in Berlin, Leipsic +or Weimar. Nearly all the poets and other +writers so far mentioned lived in small towns +scattered over the country, and, from the lack +of good communications, were practically isolated +from one another. Kazinczy lived in the county +of Zemplén; Kölcsey in the county of Bihar; +Kisfaludy, Berzsenyi, Ádám Horváth in the +cis-Danubian counties. There were, it is true, +some literary centres in Pesth; such as the house +of the able folk-poet Vitkovics. But they were +few, and Pesth was, as yet, not a great capital. +Literature needs local concentration of high-strung +people. Country life gives the aptitude +for poetic work; intense urban life alone ripens +that aptitude into creative talent. Virgil at +Mantua, or Cicero at Arpinum would have +remained sterile provincials. The great mental +agitation set in motion by the writers in +Magyar above mentioned was given additional +fuel by a very large number of Hungarians +writing in Latin and French. The ideas of the +French and German Rationalism (“<i>Aufklaerung</i>”) +of that time were eagerly seized upon, elaborated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[110]</span> +and discussed in over five hundred works and +pamphlets treating of Religion, Politics, Law +and Philosophy. Hungary was thus during that +period (1772-1825), instinct with great intellectual +powers; and all that was wanting was to +focus them. As long as the political or <i>the</i> life +of Hungary was crippled by the autocracy of +Metternich, that is, down to 1825-1830, that +national focus could not be forthcoming. With +the revival of the political life in and through +the national Diet assembled at Pesth in 1825, +the only remaining condition of a quicker and +more energetic pulsation of Hungary’s literary +life was fulfilled. Henceforth Hungary employed +the right strategy for the able men of her literary +army, and the result was a short but brilliant +period of literary productions, many of which +attain to the higher and some to the highest +degrees of artistic perfection. And inasmuch as +the creation of the national focus was the most +potent cause of the unprecedented revival of +Hungary’s literature, we must first treat of that +glorious man who was chiefly instrumental in its +realization: Count Stephen Széchenyi.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[111]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX.</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="right smaller">1825-1850.</p> + +<p>1825-1850. Count Stephen Széchenyi, “<i>the +greatest Magyar</i>” as Kossúth called him, was one +of those rare patriots whose enthusiasm is tempered +by the most careful respect for facts and practical +probabilities, while their love of detail and material +work is broadened and elevated by the noble +passion of disinterested patriotism. The maxim +of his life was, “Hungary has not yet been; she +will be” (“<i>Magyarország nem volt hanem lesz</i>”). +A scion of a magnate family he had, like Mirabeau, +derived much light from the study of foreign +countries. As most of his contemporaries, he was +convinced that Hungary, unless aroused from her +political and industrial torpor, could not in her +then state claim a place amongst the civilized +nations of Europe. He was by no means of a +revolutionary disposition against the Habsburgs. +On the contrary, he wanted to realize all the vast +reforms he contemplated in peace with Austria; +for being a sort of enthusiastic Walpole (—the +manes of Sir Robert will pardon us that epithet!—)<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[112]</span> +his activity was directed mainly, at times at least, +to the bettering of the material condition of +Hungary.</p> + +<p>Széchenyi did not, however, neglect the intellectual +needs of his country either. When still a +young cavalry officer he offered one year’s revenue +of his estates (£10,000 in value; nominally, £5,000) +for the establishment of a national Hungarian +Academy of Science, the members of which were +to consider the cultivation and development of +the Hungarian language as their prime duty. +Széchenyi’s magnanimous offer was at once +responded to by similar offers on the part of three +rich magnates (Count George Andrássy, Count +George Károlyi, and Baron Abraham Vay), and +thus a serious commencement was made with the +founding of an intellectual centre in Hungary. +The Academy (“<i>Magyar Tudományos Akadémia</i>”) +was formally established in 1830, its first president +being Count Joseph Teleki. Among the great +number of linguistic, historic, and scientific works, +both original and translations, published by the +Academy, we may mention the “<i>Monumenta</i>,” or +historic sources of Hungary; several smaller dictionaries +for current use, and the great Dictionary +of the Hungarian Language, edited by Gregory +Czuczor and John Fogarasi (1844-1874); the +translation of the best works of foreign authors on +History, Philosophy, Law, and Science, including,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[113]</span> +amongst others, almost all the standard works +of English literature; and a series of original +researches into all branches of Science, descriptive, +mathematical, physical and chemical. Together +with numerous writers of that period, Széchenyi +also attempted, and very felicitously too, an +internal reform of the Magyar language, to the +vocabulary of which he added some needed and +now generally accepted terms.</p> + +<p>Széchenyi’s restless propaganda succeeded in +moving even the ultra-conservative and indolent +country-gentry; and in the thirties many a nobleman +had a residence of his own built in Pesth. +The Country began to move into the Town. In +1837, the national Hungarian theatre was opened at +Pesth. Numerous newspapers and periodicals were +published; the number of press-organs in Magyar, +which was five in 1820, rising to ten in 1830, and +to twenty-six in 1840. In 1891 there were 645 +Magyar newspapers and periodicals in Hungary. +The work meted out to the “Academy” being +rather of a technical nature, the “Kisfaludy-Society” +(“<i>Kisfaludy-Társaság</i>”) was formed in +1836, with the view of promoting the interests of +<i>belles-lettres</i> proper in Hungary. Thanks to the +patriotic and well-directed activity of that Society, +many an unknown but gifted author was enabled +to bring his work under the notice of the country. +Its prizes were, and are eagerly competed for,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>[114]</span> +and it has done very much for the great progress +of good literature in Hungary. Historical and +archæological societies were formed in many parts +of the country; and the nation became conscious +of the greatness of Hungarian music, which in the +wizard hands of Francis Liszt (1811-1887), the +greatest of all executive, and one of the most +striking of creative musicians, was fast becoming +the admiration of Europe. Nor were the schools +neglected. Since 1844 the language of instruction +in schools was mostly Hungarian. The political +reverses of the Hungarians in 1849 caused the +introduction of the German language into the +schools of Hungary; in 1861, however, the national +language was again reinstated in its rights, and +now the language of instruction in all the schools +and colleges of Hungary is Magyar.</p> + +<p>These are some of the most important intellectual +reforms which, from 1825 to 1848 completely +changed the face of the Hungary of olden +times. While previous to 1825, all attempts at +reform were restricted to small circles and straggling +individuals, and could, therefore, bear no +fruit for the nation at large, now the efforts for +the renascence of the material and intellectual +life of the country were concentrated by the +creation of a true capital of social, literary and +scientific centres; by the co-operation of great +numbers of patriotic and able men; and by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>[115]</span> +powerful, nay, in Hungary, all-powerful stimulus +imparted to all the energies of the nation through +the revival of its ancient parliamentary life. In +Hungary, as well as in England, Parliament is +the soul of the body-politic. The stagnation of +parliamentary life in Hungary from 1813 to 1825 +was almost tantamount to the stagnation of all +the other intellectual energies of the nation. +From 1825 onward, the National Assembly met +frequently; the Magyar language was again used +in the debates, and many reforms that had proved +unrealizable in the hands of private reformers, +were carried out by the power of the nation +assembled in Parliament. The constant opposition +offered to all reforms in Hungary, at the hands +of the Vienna government, only acted as a further +stimulus to the Hungarians; and within the five-and-twenty +years of the present period, Hungary +advanced by leaps and bounds, both in its politic +and literary development.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>[116]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>The <i>rôle</i> of Kazinczy as mentor and model for +the younger generation of his time was now +allotted to a very gifted poet, Charles Kisfaludy, +brother of Alexander (<a href="#Page_101">see page 101</a>). He was born +in 1788, and like his brother, became a soldier in +the Austrian army. His proud father, on learning +that he had, in 1811, thrown up his military career, +disowned him; and Charles had to rough it in +wild wanderings over Europe amidst great privations. +Yet his mind, singularly widened by the +view and study of European civilization, was +thereby so strengthened and developed, that on +his return to his country (1817), he contrived to +rise from abject poverty to comparative comfort +by his own literary exertions. His dramas, some +of which he wrote in the course of a few days, +were at once so intensely relished by the public, +that Kisfaludy, who produced with equal ease +poetic works of lyric or epic character, quickly +became the centre of the literary life of Hungary. +The “<i>Aurora</i>,” a literary periodical founded by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>[117]</span> +him in 1822, was enriched by the contributions of +the foremost writers, mostly his followers; and he +himself was the rallying personality for the new +literary movement. Alas! his body, less elastic +than his mind, could never overcome the effects of +his wanderings, and he died of consumption in +1830.</p> + +<p>In Kisfaludy the influence of the literary ideals +of the French and Germans is easily traceable. +Like his models he was steeped in romanticism +and worship of the distant past. Yet he was +saved from the sickliness and namby-pambiness of +many a German or French romantic poet by his +strong sense of humour. In his dramas (“<i>Stibor +Vaida</i>,” “<i>Irén</i>,” etc.) he frequently manifests strong +dramatic vitality. It is in his comedies and gay +stories, that he excels. His humour is broad, +subtle, sympathetic and well worded. In his +tragedies he did not succeed in creating a type, +this, one of the safest criteria of a poet’s genius. +In his comedies (“<i>Csalódások</i>” [“Disappointments”]; +“<i>Kérők</i>” [“The Wooers”]; “<i>Leányőrző</i>” +[“Girl’s Guard”], etc.) on the other hand, he has +given types of undying vitality; such as “<i>Mokány</i>,” +the rough, humorous and honest young country +squire. If we consider the fact here so frequently +alluded to, that social life in Hungary was up +to the thirties of this century exclusively life +among the county-families in the country, or in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>[118]</span> +small towns; if, moreover, we remember that +such life on a small scale, where each person +stands out in bold relief and unencumbered by the +numerous social mediocrities of large towns, is +the proper foster-earth of rich personalities: it +will be easy to see, that social life in Hungary +in Kisfaludy’s youth was bristling with delightfully +original types of men and women. They only +waited for the hand of the poet to spring into +their frames, and form valuable pictures. Country-life +and small towns in Hungary, to the present +day, are full of the most delightful types, both +men and women; and the reputation of a Dickens +might have been acquired by him who would have +told the “adventures” and freaks of, for instance, +the quaint, many-tongued sires of the county of +Sáros. Kisfaludy, with the true poet’s eye <i>saw</i> +those types, and put them bodily on his canvas. +They talk on his pages that very language, full of +savoury adjectives and verbal somersaults, that +they used when meeting at the halls of their +friends, at the “Casino” of the place or at the +table in front of the Swiss <i>Confiserie</i>, in the sleepy +streets of their county capital. In his novels, +“<i>Tollagi János</i>” [a proper name]; “<i>Sulyosdi +Simon</i>” [a proper name], etc., Kisfaludy has +recorded many a precious feature of the life of +these sturdy, amiable, enthusiastic, shrewd and +simple country-gentry, in the midst of whom<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>[119]</span> +moved the pathetic and lofty young girl; the +coquettish and charming young wife (or “little +heaven,” “<i>mennyecske</i>” as the Hungarian word has +it); the quaint old maid, and the still quainter old +bachelor. Here Kisfaludy is at his best; and in +showing his fellow-writers some of the wealth to +be found in their own country, he did Hungarian +Literature and Hungarian nationality an immense +service. In some of his lyrical poems, and especially +in his truly majestic ode to the memory of the +disaster of Mohács (1526), written in dystichs, +Kisfaludy is frequently more than clever; in that +ode he soars to the sublime. His “<i>Eprészleány</i>” +(“Girl Gleaning Strawberries”) is a charming +idyll.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>[120]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>The work of Kisfaludy was great. He charmed +his readers, and thus awakened an interest in +Hungarian Literature in circles that had hitherto +been callous to the intellectual revival of their +country. His vocation, however, was limited. +The Hungarians, by nature grave and given to +ponderous sentiments, needed, for a full awakening +of their literary life, more than the perfume +of flowers. The rhythmic thunder of the war-clarion; +the majesty of the organ was needed. +And the right man came. The man, in whose +sublime poems was heard the turmoil of the +old glorious wars, the symphony of love and +patriotism, in tones of unprecedented beauty. +That man was Michael Vörösmarty (1800-1855). +His life was devoted entirely to the pursuit of +literature, and in his soul there was only one +grand thought: to become Hungary’s troubadour, +to kindle the holy light of patriotism on the altar, +and with the aid of the muses. In this he was +successful beyond all his predecessors. His were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>[121]</span> +some of the rarest qualities, the union of which +goes to make the great poet. In beauty and truly +Magyar rhythm of language he was and largely +still is unsurpassed. His diction is, like his +country, full of the majesty of vast mountains, +and the loveliness of flower-clad meadows sloping +down to melodious rivers. Without being a reckless +innovator of words, his works read at the first +appearance as if written in a new language. As +when the student of Hellenic antiquity, after +years spent with engravings of old Greek art, +comes for the first time to see one of the still +extant remains of that art itself: so felt the +contemporaries of Vörösmarty when the glorious +hexameters of his epic, “<i>Zalán futása</i>” first +struck their ears. There was at last, not only +this or that instrument of the orchestra of Hungarian +language; there was heard, not only the +wails of the ’cello of Kölcsey; the musical +cascades of the clarinet of Charles Kisfaludy; +the wafting chords of the harp of Berzsenyi; +or the gossamer oboe of Csokonai: there was +heard the unison and harmonious struggle of +all the instruments of the great idiom. Like +the composers of the immortal symphonies, +Vörösmarty wielded the resources of the Magyar +language, intensifying the effect of each instrument +by the parallel or counter-quires of the +other instruments. In his love-songs you hear<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>[122]</span> +not only the notes of the melody, but also, as +in the songs of his Austrian contemporary, +Schubert, the undercurrents of the melody in +the accompaniment. The wealth of poetic figures +in Vörösmarty is surprising; yet a chaste moderation +tempers all undue exuberance. He is powerful, +not violent; imposing, not fierce. He writes +mostly Largos; but there are very few <i>longeurs</i> +in them. The quick pulsation of the drama does +not suit him; the epic and ode are his favourite +forms. For, in him is much of the priest, of the +seer of a nation. In the depth of his reticent +heart he feels the whole life of his nation, and +smarts unspeakably from its then degradation. +Too proud to indulge in constant moanings, he +is yet in an agony of rage and indignation at the +oppression of his people. But this holy anger +goes forth from him sculptured in songs, swelling +with abiding life of beauty and power.</p> + +<p>Vörösmarty’s poetic vocation was, if not aroused, +yet, undoubtedly, guided into the right direction +by an epic of one Alexander Székely, a Unitarian +preacher, entitled “The Szekler in Transylvania” +(“<i>A Székelyek Erdélyországban</i>”), in which a not +infelicitous attempt was made to work into one +national song the ancient Magyar legends and +mythology. An epic is the song of a nation +whose critical dangers are not yet over. It may +be said, without exaggeration, that heroic Wolfe<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>[123]</span> +in driving the French out of Canada (1759), +drove out the last chance of the Americans for +anything like a great national epic. In gaining +their independence a few years after Wolfe’s +success, the Americans also obtained perfect +security. There was no serious enemy left to +jeopardize their existence. The Indians could +and did annoy them much; they could not +seriously call their very existence in question. +Hence the Indian tales of Fenimore Cooper +are the only epics of the Americans. In +Hungary matters stood quite differently. There +the very existence of the nation was doubtful. +A catastrophe might occur at any time. And +in the terrible anguish of that “gigantic death” +(“<i>nagyszerü halál</i>”), of which Vörösmarty sings +in his “<i>Szózat</i>” (national hymn), the people of +Hungary needed more than a drama or an ode +can give. It needed a national poem of large +dimensions in which the glories of the past were +held up to the people as an incitement to the +conquest of the trophies of the future; in which +the powers of the Divine were shown to have +a personal interest in the destinies of the nation; +and in which the sacred language of thirty +generations of patriots glows in all the victorious +beauty of perfection. When in 1748 +Klopstock published his great epic, the “<i>Messias</i>,” +he too desired to do his country a patriotic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>[124]</span> +service. His aim was, however, at once larger +and smaller than that of Vörösmarty. He meant +chiefly to weld for the Germans the weapon of +a better language. Beyond this he meant his +epic for any nation whatever, its subject-matter +being of universal acceptance amongst Christian +nations. Not so Vörösmarty. He meant to +write a Messianic epic, in which the Messiah +was the Hungarian nation itself. He wanted to +raise up a particular nation, his nation, to the +consciousness of its force, of its vocation. And +thus, while the intellectual scope of his poem +was much more limited than that of either +Milton or Klopstock, the intensity of its purport +far exceeded both.</p> + +<p>The name of the epic was, “The Flight of +Zalán” (“<i>Zalán futása</i>”). It appeared in 1825, +or in the year when the national Parliament +reassembled after twelve long years’ adjournment, +and when the nation, at any rate, many +of the best men of the nation, were in feverish +expectancy of the rise of New Hungary. Its +subject is taken from the history of Árpád the +Conqueror, and centres in the Battle of Alpár, +in which Árpád defeats his most fearful enemy, +Zalán, one of the Bulgarian rulers of the territory +between the Danube and the Tisza (Theiss) +rivers. There are in the poem three parallel +streams of epic deeds, which, like the three<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>[125]</span> +choruses of string, reed and brass instruments +in an orchestra, join in one powerful symphony. +Árpád, the great duke and father of his people, +fights Zalán, and especially his herculean general +Viddin. Ete, the young and romantic Magyar +knight fights Csorna, the diabolic Bulgarian +hero; and in the heavens “<i>Hadúr</i>” (“God of +the war,” a name introduced by Székely), the +national god of the Magyars, fights and conquers +“<i>Ármány</i>,” the arch-fiend. The element of love +is represented by Ete, who loves Hajna, the +beautiful daughter of an old Hungarian hero. +She is also courted by a divine charmer, +whose temptations, however, she rejects, and +from whom she receives an enchanted horse. +A large portion of the epic is taken up with +the description of single combats between the +heroes. In the end, the Hungarians are (as in +reality they were) victorious, and Zalán flees +from his country.</p> + +<p>There is undoubtedly much Ossianic misty +glamour in Vörösmarty’s great epic; and the +figures of its leading heroes do not stand out +with all the desirable plasticity from among the +multitude of minor heroes and mythologic divinities. +Yet Ete and Hajna are suffused with all +the charms of youth, love and heroism; and in +Hadúr and Ármány two powerful mythological +types are placed before us. Árpád himself<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>[126]</span> +answers very well the chief purpose of the poem, +in that he is rather the incarnation of a nation +strong, noble, God-fearing and conquering, than +the representative of any special personality. +Perhaps the least endowed figure of the poem +is Zalán, in whom the poet might have represented, +in contrast to Árpád, the various enemies +endangering Hungary’s existence, and of whom +he only made a proud and despairing prince. +Yet, after allowing for these shortcomings—very +natural in a work written in eleven months—“<i>Zalán +futása</i>” is a truly great epic. The +splendour of its language, in regard to which +it is fully the equal of “Paradise Lost,” fell +upon its first readers with the spell of the Fata +Morgana of the Hungarian <i>pusztas</i> or prairies, +on the lonely traveller. There was one general +feeling: “such language had not yet risen from +any Hungarian lyre!” (“<i>igy még nem zenge +magyar lant</i>!”). A nation whose past could +inspire such epic music, was a nation of imposing +resourcefulness. Only great nations, after conquering +great dangers, can produce great epics. +A great epic is not alone a literary event; as +such it would redound mostly to the glory of +the author. It is a national event, and redounds +chiefly to the glory of the nation. It is the +symptom and warrant of national greatness; of +that noble enthusiasm—without which, numerous<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>[127]</span> +factories and railways can be built indeed, but +no fabric of a national commonwealth holding +its own amidst roaring seas of danger and +adversity. Vörösmarty’s epic poured into the +Hungarians that Belief and Confidence, that +Eternality of Hope, which alone steels nations +against fate. Széchenyi had connected Buda, +the capital of the past, with Pesth, the capital +of modern Hungary, by means of a gigantic +suspension bridge. Vörösmarty now connected +Hungary’s past with her future by the rainbow +of his immortal epic.</p> + +<p>In addition to “The Flight of Zalán,” Vörösmarty +enriched Hungarian Literature with several other +smaller epics, such as “<i>Széplak</i>,” “<i>Cserhalom</i>,” and +the exquisite “The Two Neighbouring Castles” +(“<i>Két szomszéd vár</i>”). After 1831 he ceased writing +epics. He had a real passion for dramatic +poetry, and although in “<i>Csongor és Tünde</i>” alone +he contrived to write a drama of superior finish, +yet he continually tried his hand at that form +of poetry (“<i>Vérnász</i>”) (“The Sanguinary Wedding”); +“Marótbán” (Banus Marót); “<i>Áldozat</i>” +(The Sacrifice), etc. His lyrical poetry, on the +other hand, contains priceless gems. Adorning, as +he did, even the smallest of his lyrical poems +with the unrivalled splendour of his diction; he +reaches in some of them, and first of all in the +majestic “National Hymn” (“<i>Szózat</i>”, 1837), the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>[128]</span> +highest level of poetic <i>élan</i>. In these select +poems, while still singing nothing but the hopes +and glories of his nation, he becomes so European +in tone and chaste beauty of form, that his work +will lose little of its perfection by fair translations +into other European languages. In them there +is felt the breath of that civilization of Greater +Hellas, or Europe, which was originally that of +Hellas proper. Nor does his lyric muse move +in grave and solemn moods alone. In his +famous “Song of Fót” (“<i>Fóti dal</i>”), he has left +the wine-drinking community of the world a +model song in praise of the noble child of +Bacchus. He likewise succeeded in writing +poetic apotheoses of some of the great Hungarians +of his time, such as Liszt, the great +musician, and in the composition of small +narrative poems, which prove him to have been +endowed with a keen sense of humour (“<i>Mák +Bandi</i>”; “<i>Laboda</i>;” “<i>Petike</i>;” “<i>Gábor deák</i>”). +His great activity as a creative poet did not +prevent him from writing a considerable number +of articles for literary periodicals, such as the +“<i>Tudományos Gyűjtemény</i>,” “<i>Kritikai Lapok</i>” +(edited by Bajza), and for the new “<i>Aurora</i>,” +and the “<i>Athenæum</i>.” He was also one of the +translators of the “Thousand and One Nights,” +and of some of Shakespeare’s plays.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>[129]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>The national and literary current of which +Vörösmarty was the chief exponent brought +several other great epic works to the surface. +Andreas Horvát de Pázmánd (1778-1839) was +working for many years at a national epic in +twelve long cantos, singing the history of Árpád +the conqueror. In 1831, at last, he published the +huge poem which, however, was distanced and +soon silenced by the masterwork of Vörösmarty. +It certainly helped both to set off “The Flight +of Zalán” still more strongly, and also to widen +the circle of old Magyar mythology.</p> + +<p>An epic poet of far superior merit was +Gregory Czuczor (1800-1866). Had he not been +a monk, and so lost much of the vivifying +contact of civil life, he might have soared +very high. It must be, however, added that +his conflict both with poverty and with the +Austrian Government, did make up largely +for the lack of experiences of romantic, conjugal +and family conflicts. His was a vigorous,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>[130]</span> +systematic and finely discerning mind. To the +epic he felt attracted not only by the general +literary tone of his time, but by his personal +bent for popular or rather folk-poetry. The +<i>naïveté</i> of the latter, which forms its distinctive +feature, is also one of the chief elements of the +epic. Among Czuczor’s epics, “<i>Botond</i>,” in four +cantos, is the best. It tells part of the life of +that famous Hungarian hero of the time of the +conquest. Botond had brought home from his +Byzantine campaigns a charming Greek girl, +Polydora. One of the Magyar heroes, Bödölény, +who also loves Polydora, takes her secretly back +to Constantinople. Now Botond again invades the +Greek Empire, and with his huge war-club breaks +a hole in the gate of the capital. In the end +he gets back Polydora. This simple plot is +enlivened with recitals not only of military and +heroic exploits, but also of touching love-episodes. +The contrast between burly, brave Botond +and the refined Greek maid, the episodes in +which Szende, the page occurs, and the beautifully +rolling hexameters lend a peculiar charm +to this epic. Perhaps now, after the realization +of most of the ardent political hopes of Czuczor’s +age, his epic will be considered even as much +better than at the time of its appearance when +it had to compete with the more fiery epic +muse of Vörösmarty. Of Czuczor’s linguistic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>[131]</span> +works we have already made mention (<a href="#Page_112">see page 112</a>).</p> + +<p>A contemporary of Czuczor, John Garay (1812-1853), +although not a poet of great distinction, +must be here mentioned, on account of the +popularity of his innumerable ballads and similar +epic poetry, covering almost every one of the +memorable events of Hungarian history. Rather +a rhetor than a poet, he wrote his ballads, of +which “<i>Kont</i>” (relating to the martyr-death of +thirty Hungarian patriots at the hands of Emperor +Sigismund), is the best known, in an easy-flowing +popular style. He trusted rather to the attractiveness +of the story itself than to his own +poetic genius. When well recited, many of his +ballads are still very effective.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>[132]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>Despite the very great advance made in the +development of their literature up to 1830, the +Hungarians were still wanting in one of the +necessary elements of the growth of truly good +works. Honest, just and well-informed criticism +was wanting. Kazinczy, it is true, had in his +extensive correspondence paid very careful attention +to the critical examination of the prosody +and language of his friends and pupils. Such +external criticism, however, did not suffice. In +a country, such as Hungary, where Greek literature +was then known only to exceedingly few writers, +the canons of criticism were easily neglected. +Moreover, literature being still considered more +as a patriotic than a literary function, poets did +not, as a rule, tolerate even mild criticism. Yet +without such criticism, Hungarian Literature was +likely to deteriorate. Even men of genius are +the better for good criticism. Yet they are the +exception; and to the vast number of writers with +talent rather than genius, criticism was, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>[133]</span> +always has been, the mentor whom they could +not afford to miss. It has been one of the great +advantages of French literature that its creative +writers have nearly always been watched by +great critical writers. From Boileau and Diderot, +to Sainte-Beuve, the French have always had men +of piercing and tasteful criticism, who controlled +the works of the purely spontaneous genius. +Nor can the literature of Germany congratulate +itself on a more auspicious circumstance than +the fact of Lessing’s incomparable activity as a +critic at the very outset of the classical period. +It is with regard to this historic value of sound +literary criticism, that we must appreciate the +work of the Hungarian writer forming the +subject of the present chapter.</p> + +<p>Joseph Bajza (1804-1858) had many of the +qualities of a great critic. He was courageous, +especially in that courage which is perhaps the +rarest, the courage defying current opinions; +he was learned; he possessed a very keen sense +of linguistic niceties and poetic forms; and, +last not least, he was no mean poet himself. +Already in 1830 he gave signal proof not only +of his pure patriotism, but also of his penetrating +knowledge of the true needs of the then Hungarian +Literature, by fiercely attacking a plan, +broached by a Hungarian publisher, to prepare +a Hungarian Encyclopædia (or “Conversations-Lexicon,”<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134"></a>[134]</span> +as, in imitation of the well-known +German publication, it was called) on lines, as +Bajza proved, unpatriotic, because unsuited to the +character and stage of Magyar literature of that +time. This was the “Conversations-Lexicon +Quarrel.” In the same year, Bajza started his +critical paper (“<i>Kritikai Lapok</i>”), which was +later on (1837) followed by his “<i>Athenæum</i>,” and +its appendix “<i>Figyelmező</i>.” In these periodicals +he discoursed with great verve and knowledge +on the theories of various poetic forms; and +carefully criticised the works of his contemporaries. +His chief contributors were Vörösmarty +and Toldy (then still Schedel), the former a great +poet, the latter (<a href="#Page_254">see p. 254</a>) a great scholar. The +authority of Bajza made itself felt very soon; +and the numerous polemics occasioned by his +articles only served to aggrandize his position +as a critic. Already in his essays on the epigram, +the novel, the drama, etc., Bajza had +proved himself a constructive as against a purely +negative critic. In that capacity probably his +chief merit is his elaboration of the “theory” of +the folk-poem. In Hungary, with her numerous +peasantry, there is an inexhaustible wealth of +poems composed by unknown people, exclusively +peasants, shepherds, and similar inglorious poets. +These poems, invariably meant to be adapted +to songs, are wafted over the country like the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135"></a>[135]</span> +mild breezes of spring, and like them, no +one knows their origin. In previous times, +the rococo taste of enlightened pedants had +contemptuously ignored these blossoms of the +wild <i>puszta</i> (prairie). Since Csokonai they were +held in greater esteem; but it was Bajza who, +by framing them in the time-honoured formulæ +of classical æsthetics, raised them to a literary +status. Since Bajza, the “<i>népdal</i>” or folk-song +was not only a matter of national delight or +pride, but also of serious study.</p> + +<p>To Bajza’s circle belonged the poets Alexander +Vachott (1818-1861); Frederick Kerényi (1822-1852), +who died in America; Julius Sárosy +(1816-1861), the author of several stirring revolutionary +poems; Andreas Pap; Emeric Nagy; +Sigismund Beöthy, etc.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136"></a>[136]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>The rapid growth of Hungarian Literature since +1825, shows chiefly in works of poetry proper; +that is, in verse. Hungarian prose had in the +first ten years of this period received no development +similar to that of Hungarian verse. Yet +many a writer had tried his hand at the creation +of Hungarian literary prose. The reason of this +belated advance of Hungarian prose was owing +mainly to the late introduction of the Magyar +language into the schools. Not before a language +has hewn its way through the thickets of philosophy, +the subtleties of distinctions in physics and chemistry, +or the awkward bulkiness of historical facts, +will it be supple and flexible enough to do efficient +service for the innumerable needs of prose. Without +a prose ready for all the turns and twists of +serious thought, great historical or philosophical +works are almost impossible. The difficulty was +overcome in Hungary by applying prose first to +novels, and then to History or Philosophy. Novels +and romances, taking as they do the place of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137"></a>[137]</span> +epics in olden times, have also a national or more +than literary importance. And we find that +nations without great epics are also, as a rule, +without great novels of their own. The astounding +progress made in Hungary in epic literature proper +bade fair to inaugurate the forthcoming of a novelistic +literature. Vörösmarty and Czuczor were +soon to have their followers in prose—the novelists. +The frequency of rich types in Hungarian society +could not but favour that branch of literature. In +fact, the greatest difficulty for Hungarian novelists +then, and to a large extent even now, was not to +discover and work out a good subject, but to hunt +up a sufficient number of readers. In the thirties +and forties of this century, most of the cultivated +individuals in Hungary were so familiar with +German and even with French, that they could +and did easily gratify their novelistic appetites with +the innumerable products from the pens of German +and French novelists. People will seldom relish or +crave for lyric or epic poems of nations other than +their own. They will ordinarily prefer homemade +verse. With novels it is quite different. +There is scarcely any exaggeration in stating +that Lord Lytton’s novels have been read more +extensively in Germany and Austria-Hungary +than in England. The same applies respectively +to George Sand, the French, and Mme. Flygare-Carlén, +the Swedish novelist. Hungarian<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138"></a>[138]</span> +novelists had, therefore, to contend against formidable +competition from abroad. But there was +another and equally grave difficulty to conquer. +The public in all countries has a fatal tendency to +take up one author as the “standard” author in a +given department of literature, and to give all other +authors in the same field the cold shoulder. The +less intense the interest which the public takes in +that department, the more it will be inclined to +believe in the “standard” man. In Hungary, that +evil tendency has wrought great injury to novelists. +At once a few of them became the “standard” +novelists. Nobody wanted to hear of any other. +By this means the rise of other, perhaps greater +novelists, was retarded, if not altogether foreclosed; +and the “standard” man, eagerly seizing on the +great favour bestowed upon him, poured forth +scores of novels, irrespective of the higher demands +of Art. The consequence was that he deteriorated. +For one good novel he gave ten bad ones. Having +a sort of literary monopoly, he did not heed adverse +criticism. The public, on the other hand, did not +care to learn of a new novelist, and, as actually +happened in Hungary, almost entirely neglected a +real genius for no other reason than that mental +laziness, which in countries with less abundant +literature is perhaps one of the most baneful of +obstacles to the success of a writer.</p> + +<p>The preceding remarks appear to be necessary<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139"></a>[139]</span> +for a right appreciation of Hungarian novels. +Foreign readers, and perhaps more especially +the English, are apt to admire in Hungarian +novels such qualities as strike them as new and +“weird,” because German, French, or English +novelists do not excel in them. Thus foreign +readers will easily be impressed, and in many cases +unduly so, by the great picturesqueness of Hungarian +novelists. This quality, commendable though it +no doubt is, will induce many a foreign critic to +overrate the value of this or that Hungarian novel. +In Hungary, picturesque turns of phrases are of the +very commonest. They do not strike a Hungarian +critic as being particularly meritorious. Hence the +reader of the present work must not be astonished +at some of the subsequent severe judgments passed +on Hungarian novelistic celebrities. Far from +trying to deter English or French readers from the +reading of such novels as they will find criticised +adversely, we would rather advise them to enjoy +those novels without further regard to the views +of the writer. We have in so criticising of necessity +placed ourselves on a basis rather Magyar than +European, and we are fully aware of the marked +difference in taste to be found in the various +nations of Europe. If the novelists and poets of +one nation were to be judged by the taste of +another, Thackeray could hardly be regarded as +a great novelist, and Tennyson scarcely as a great<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140"></a>[140]</span> +poet. Yet both are in England recognized as two +of the best writers in English literature.</p> + +<p>Of the great novelists of Hungary, four stand out +as peculiarly excellent. Their names are Nicolas +Jósika; Joseph Eötvös; Sigismund Kemény; and +Maurus Jókai. The first three belong to the class +of Magnates, being Barons; the last is a commoner +by birth. It is rather curious, that the Magnates, +who have in the present century given no poet of +the first order to Hungary, should in the field +of Hungarian novel writing have furnished three +writers of the first rank, of whom one, Baron +Kemény, has done work not unworthy of the +greatest novel-writer of the century.</p> + +<p>The first of the four to attract general attention in +Hungary was Baron Joseph Jósika. He was born +in 1794 at Torda, in Transylvania. Having spent +many years in the military service of Austria, and +in travels abroad, he retired in 1818 and withdrew +to Transylvania, where he pursued historic and +literary studies, relating chiefly to his own province. +Transylvania harbours many of the most glorious +traditions of Hungarian history. For generations, +especially in the seventeenth century, it was +practically the only home of Magyardom. There +is no lack of romantic, picturesque, or startling +facts in the public or social life of that country; +and Jósika, whose heart had, through his first +luckless marriage, learned the depths of sorrow, as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141"></a>[141]</span> +through his second wife he learned the bliss of +true love, Jósika was in a position to do full +justice to the wealth of picturesque characters and +scenery in Transylvania’s past. His first novel, +“<i>Abafi</i>,” was published in 1836, and at once +received general applause on the part of the critics, +and, what was still more important, at the hands of +the public. Its subject is taken from the troubled +times of Sigismund Bátori, when Turks, Austrians +and Magyars, were fighting and intriguing for the +possession of Transylvania, in the last two decades +of the sixteenth century. Bátori’s mighty and +tainted personality, with all his cruelty, heroism, +astuteness and audacity, is, together with that of the +Turkish conquerors, pashas, and court people, the +personal background to the hero of the novel, +Oliver Abafi, who rises from conduct dissipated +and lawless, to the heights of noble self-sacrifice. +The story is told with great power of description +and impersonation. The reader cannot fail to feel +as if quite at home in that agitated corner of +Europe, where some of the historic agencies met +in deadly conflict, and where men and women +breathed much of that grand air of great events, +which colours them in tints unknown to the people +of less eventful times. The novel is intensely +interesting and will convey a more life-like picture +of its period than many a dull historic volume.</p> + +<p>Equal to, and if possible, even more fascinating,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142"></a>[142]</span> +is Jósika’s novel, “The Bohemians in Hungary” +(“<i>A csehek Magyarországban</i>”). This novel goes +back to older times still. It pictures the state of +Hungary in the middle of the fifteenth century, +when the Bohemian (Czech) Hussites were invading +Hungary. Of all the innumerable sects and +heresies from the end of the twelfth century to the +rise of Protestantism, the Hussites were no doubt +the most powerful. From the depths of the forests +ranging round the river Main, to the mountains +encircling Hungary and Transylvania, these heroic +and fanatic warriors spread the terror of their +name. But for some grave political mistakes and +unforeseen reverses of Vitovt, one of the greatest of +the historic Slavs (flourished 1380 to 1430), who +wanted to found a Slav empire, reaching from the +western confines of Bohemia, to the walls of holy +Moscow, the Slavs, on the basis of Hussitism, and +under leaders like Ziska, and the Procops, might +have for ever reduced the historic <i>rôle</i> of Germany +to that of a small power. Theirs would then have +been a great empire, strongly unified in language, +creed and traditions. No Austria would have been +possible; and Hungary would have probably been +submerged in the Slav flood. It is the story of the +lives of some of these wild and terrible Czechs in +the north and north-west of Hungary which forms +the subject of the powerful novel of Jósika. The +castles of the Czech leaders were real fortresses of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143"></a>[143]</span> +Slavdom, and the population of those parts of +Hungary being largely Slav to the present day, the +danger for Hungary was very great. Fortunately +for the independence of the Magyars, their young +king Matthew Corvinus, son of John Hunyadi, was +a match for the Bohemians. One by one he +destroyed their castles, liberating thousands of +prisoners, and ridding the country of the Slav +invasion. His illustrious figure shines in Jósika’s +novel like the youthful emblem of that historic +vitality which has kept Hungary in a +ruling position over Slav and Germanic tribes +these last thousand years. The picturesqueness of +Jósika’s novel is extraordinary. Male and female +characters of intense fascination move in the castles, +battlefields, dungeons and mountain-paths described +by the novelist. Komoróczy, the knight and +robber; the glorious king and his romantic love; +Elemér, the hero, called “the Eagle”; the charming +widow, who defies with a dimpled smile the +most ruthless of amorous men; Jews, at once +grand in suffering and commonplace in their +greed; all these and many more scenes and portraits +reconstruct that memorable time when the +Renascence was rising over the dying gloom of +the Middle Ages.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to tell here, even very briefly, +the plots and characters of the very numerous +novels written by Jósika both in Hungary and at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144"></a>[144]</span> +Dresden, whither he retired after escaping the +Austrians, who had sentenced him to death as one +of the prominent members of the Hungarian +“rebels.” All these novels are historic in subject, +and even quote, sometimes, chapter and verse from +the chronicles on which they are based. The most +famous are “<i>Esther</i>;” “<i>Francis Rákóczy II.</i>,” the +hero of which is the most popular of all Hungarian +princes who ever revolted from the Habsburgs; +“A Hungarian Family during the Revolution” +(“<i>Egy magyar család a forradalom alatt</i>”); “The +Last Báthory” (“<i>As utolsó Báthory</i>”). Jósika is +easily compared to and measured by Walter Scott. +Yet there is in the very tendencies of their works a +marked difference. Scott, in writing his novels, was +prompted more by his literary tastes and proclivities +than by any consideration of politic aims. +Both Scotland and England were during his life-time +(1771-1832) at the height of their triumphal +career. His novels were romantic work pure and +simple. England being at the head of the powers +combating the French Revolution, her literary +geniuses, too, followed lines opposed to modern +Liberalism; in other words, they became romantic. +Hungary, on the other hand, was, during the life-time +of Jósika, an oppressed country, and after a +short period of glory during her war of independence, +she vegetated for over ten years in a torpor +caused by a fiercely reactionary government. Into<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145"></a>[145]</span> +Jósika’s novels, therefore, there necessarily entered +a political element, which coloured his work with a +tint unknown to the great Scotchman’s tales. And +this, together with the circumstance of his becoming +rapidly a “standard” novelist, explains Jósika’s +literary eminence and also his literary failings. +In his attempt to use the story of Hungary’s past +as a means of reviving her present, he naturally lost +sight of some of the purely literary laws of novel-writing. +His characters being already given by +history, he neglected to elaborate their psychology. +Events happen rather unto or by them, than +through them. The inner machinery of motives is +sometimes clumsy or too flimsy. Being much in +demand as a “standard” novelist, he wrote much; +too much. Yet with all these occasional shortcomings, +Jósika is one of the most splendid +novelists of the picturesque class. Few Hungarian +books recording Hungary’s past will give the +foreign reader a more pleasing and, at the same +time, instructive picture of the romantic days +of that great country. The professorial critic, +reposing on the tattered laurels of his victims, if +not on his own, will find much to rebuke in +Jósika. The youth of Hungary and the unprejudiced +foreigner will always read him with +delight.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146"></a>[146]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXV">CHAPTER XXV.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>The second great novelist in that period was +Eötvös. Born in 1813, he received a careful +education, and after extensive travels in western +Europe, embraced the judicial career for a time. +When still a young man, at the age of six-and-twenty, +he published his first great novel, “The +Carthusian” (“<i>A Karthauzi</i>,” 1839-40). This +remarkable work had an immense effect. It was +read with equal delight in the palaces of the +magnates, and in the closets of the middle-class +people. It charmed the young and moved the +old. It seemed to express the very innermost +cravings and mental propensities of the then +Hungarian public. More than that. It expressed +a state of feeling then almost universal on the +continent of Europe. Like Goethe’s “<i>Werther</i>,” +it lent expression to what lay dormant and unexpressed +in the hearts of millions of Europeans. +The sultry atmosphere then weighing on continental +Europe had engendered a morbid melancholy +in many a high-strung man and woman.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147"></a>[147]</span> +Life seemed to be full of unsolved and unsolvable +problems; full of forces disruptive and disintegrating, +causing unease uncertainty and distress. +All the nobler efforts of men in building up their +private or public fortunes appeared to be blighted +and marred by the demoniac perverseness of the +political and social powers of the time. A brooding +meditativeness seized people, and fresh and +vigorous deeds being impossible, pale and +despondent reflections embroiled men in a dumb +struggle against destiny. Such was the mental +temper of a very large class of men and women in +France, Germany, Austria, Hungary and Italy. +Eötvös himself had, from early youth, been given +to that morbid meditativeness and self-destructive +sensitiveness of the age; and the sorrowful +condition of his country only increased his pathetic +melancholy. Hungarian young men and women, +then and now, are naturally very much more +pathetic and grave than the youth of any other +country. They have neither the virile alacrity of +the British youth so agreeably manifested in the +games and muscular amusements of young +England; nor the precocious polish and gaiety of +French youths. Theirs is a heavy mood, similar +to that of the <i>Largos</i> of Hungarian music, but +followed by no <i>Friss</i> or <i>Vivace</i>. To souls tuned +in such minor keys, the “<i>Karthauzi</i>” came as the +very revelation of their deepest secrets. Hitherto<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148"></a>[148]</span> +the epics and novels written in Hungary had +been retrospective work. They narrated the woes +and joys, the troubles and glories of past ages. +In Eötvös’ novel there was, practically for the +first time, a work of introspective <i>actualité</i>; a +work appealing to the reader himself, and not +only to his historic imagination. The queries +tormenting the young men and women of that +age were here subjected to an analysis full of +psychological inquisitiveness, enveloped in the +gloaming of poetic descriptions of Nature. The +plot of the novel is of the simplest. Gustavus, +a French nobleman, in whose agitated soul are +accumulated all the tempest-laden clouds of his +age, seeks in vain to find peace and consolation +in Love, Pleasure and Ambition. Julia, his first +love, deserts him for an unworthy “other one;” +Betti, his second love, he rejects himself. And +so, tossed from one rock of discord to the other, +he finally enters the order of the Carthusians, +and there, amidst steady work and in firm faith, +finds the only solution that can await characters +like his: Death. Goethe, with the terrible +serenity of judgment so peculiar to him, once +remarked, that there are, as he called them, +“problematic characters, who can do justice to no +situation in which they may be placed.” Such a +character is Gustavus. But such was also the +general and typical character of his time; and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149"></a>[149]</span> +hence the immense effect of the novel. Even the +chief and serious deficiency of the novel, being as +it was, the deficiency of numerous Hungarian +minds of that time, only helped to increase its +popularity. Eötvös could never quite overcome +the inner contrast between his Franco-German +education and the Magyar character of his works. +Of all the great Hungarian writers, his language +is the least Magyar in form and savour. The +European and the Magyar were constantly battling +in him and frequently to the detriment of the +latter. His was not that power of blending +European and national culture into a new and +harmonious composition. That power is distinctively +the characteristics of the classical writers +of nations. It belongs only to the highest form +of genius. But the reading public of the +“<i>Karthauzi</i>” was largely recruited from amongst +people in whom that conflict between western +and Magyar culture had likewise not been brought +to a harmonious issue. They thus found in the +great novel that very failing of their own class, +without which, according to Grillparzer’s profound +remark, success is hardly obtainable in any +profession.</p> + +<p>In 1845, Eötvös published another great novel: +“The Village Notary” (“<i>A falu jegyzője</i>”). It +was meant to be a scathing satire on the corruption, +backwardness and general administrative<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150"></a>[150]</span> +misery of public county life in Hungary. Eötvös, +whose conceptions of the state and its organs were +formed largely after the models of German, +Austrian and French organizations, was deeply +convinced of the utter insufficiency of that local +selfgovernment, which in Hungary had nearly +always been one of greater independence than +that even of England. In Hungary all the leading +and influential officials in the counties were +elective, and from among the noble class of the +county only. Being more than underpaid, they +frequently abused their power, and contrived to +secure a relatively large income by means of +exactions and terrorizations of all kinds. The +typical figure of these squires was the <i>szolgabiró</i>, +or under-sheriff, as he may be termed, if with +inaccuracy, who presided over nearly all the public +affairs of one of the districts into which counties +are divided. His administration was frequently +carried on pasha fashion indeed; and the poorer +classes were much at his mercy. Eötvös, who +thought that the strongly centralized and systematized +organization of French or German local +governments was undoubtedly much superior +to the system obtaining in Hungary, published +his novel with the intention of bringing about +a change in public opinion, and so finally a +change in the county-system itself. To the +immense benefits accruing to the Hungarians as a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151"></a>[151]</span> +nation through the very system of local selfgovernment +which Eötvös so cruelly exposed, he +was insensible. That county-life, in spite of all +its crying abuses, was the only and indispensable +preliminary schooling for the functions of government +in council or parliament; that these rough +and uncultured county-gentry in Hungary, as well +as their brethren in England, were far better fitted +for some of the most important tasks of government +and politics than the most methodic and +punctual official in French or German local offices, +to all that Eötvös paid no serious attention. His +warm-hearted love of Equality and Right made +him boil over at the sight of many an injustice—at +the hands of men whose inferiority in point of +knowledge and western culture rendered them easy +objects of contempt to one who gauged all political +greatness by the standard of France or Germany. +Eötvös, the politician, entertained of course the +same ideas about the value of the old Hungarian +county-system, as did Eötvös the novelist. He +was a “centralist”; and the number of his +followers has been very great to the present day. +They still maintain that even the present remnants +of the old county-system in Hungary are very +injurious to the Magyar state; and that nothing +short of a total overhauling, or—to talk plainly—abolition +of that system, and the introduction of +French centralization in its lieu can save the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a>[152]</span> +kingdom of St. Stephen. In more recent times +the historic work of Béla Grünwald on the social +and political condition of Hungary from 1711 to +1825 (“<i>A régi Magyarország</i>”) has elaborated the +ideas of Eötvös with the armoury of learned footnotes +and systematic chapters. The novel of +Eötvös is still the text of all the loud centralists +in Hungary, to whom the county selfgovernment +is an absurd anachronism. As a matter of fact, +on the continent, Hungary is the only country +where local selfgovernment is still extant. Nor +can there be any doubt, that that local selfgovernment +alone enabled the Magyars to hold +their supremacy over the numerically stronger +nations in their country. Taking the British +constitution as the model of all representative +government, we cannot go astray in claiming for +such government three absolutely indispensable +elements. First, a parliament proper, consisting +of two Chambers or Houses; secondly, a cabinet +proper; and thirdly, two or three real and +energetic political parties, the numerous members +of which take an intense interest in every one of +the political issues of the day. Applying this +standard to the United States, for instance, we +find, that the Americans while having a federal, +two-chambered parliament and also two or more +genuine parties, yet have no Cabinet proper; and +hence many of the features of political corruption<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153"></a>[153]</span> +that were rampant in England in the times from +Charles II. to George III., when the Cabinet was +still forming, and not yet formed, may be noticed +in the United States at the present day. In the +same way France has a Cabinet indeed, and also +a two-chambered parliament; but genuine political +parties, with members intensely interested in +politics, are wanting. Hence the instability and +irregularity of the French representative government. +In Hungary, and there alone, the student +of politics will find a perfect replica of the British +constitution, in that the fine superstructure of +Parliament and Cabinet is based on the broad +pedestal of genuine political parties. The members +of these parties take a real, passionate and +untiring interest in political questions of any kind, +and hence there is a real public opinion, a real +nation. This basis of the political life in Hungary, +where has it been quarried from but in the local +selfgovernment of the counties? Interest in the +mostly arid questions of politics can be acquired +only by early and constant contact with men who +make it almost the chief interest of their lives. It +is in the county halls, and in the social reunions +of the county-gentry, that the young Magyars +learn the great lesson of dispensing authority, commanding +respect and discussing public business +with tact and prudence. It is there that men were +formed who could at all times find resources to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154"></a>[154]</span> +withstand the anti-national policy of the Habsburgs +or the occasional rebellions of the Slav or +Roumanian peasantry. Of the country-gentlemen +in Hungary indeed may be said, what Macaulay +wrote of the English esquire of the seventeenth +century: that “his ignorance and uncouthness, his +low tastes and gross phrases, would, in our time, +be considered as indicating a nature and a +breeding thoroughly plebeian. Yet he was essentially +a patrician, and had, in large measure, both +the virtues and vices which flourish among men +set from their birth in high place, and accustomed +to authority, to observance and to self-respect.” +(<i>History of England</i>, Ch. III.) It was amongst +these rough squires that the two great parties of +England were formed. It was likewise amongst +the much derided <i>táblabirók</i> and <i>szolgabirók</i> +(squires and justices) of Hungary, that the men of +1825 and 1848 were formed; and in our time they +have given Hungary one of the indispensable +elements of representative government: real +political parties.</p> + +<p>It appears necessary to dwell at some length +on the great historic and political questions underlying +the famous novel of Eötvös. No doubt, +every Hungarian cannot but wish to see that +novel in the hands of all who take an interest in +Hungary. For, “The Village Notary” contains +capital portraits of many a quaint, wild or pathetic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155"></a>[155]</span> +type of inner Hungary. The down-trodden notary +(Tengelyi); the tyrannical <i>szolgabiró</i> (or squire) +Paul Nyúzó (meaning: flayer); Viola, the honest +peasant, who being shamefully wronged betakes +himself to the forest and <i>pusztas</i> (prairies) to lead +the life of a robber; Mrs. Réty, the wife of the +chief magistrate of the county, who is entangled in +a fearful domestic tragedy, etc., etc. Moreover, the +novel contains excellent pieces of irony and satire; +and being reared on the broad idea of social +reform never sinks to mere pamphleteering. Yet, +with all that, we cannot but protest against the +misstatement of the political importance of county-life +in Hungary as advanced in that novel. Fully +acknowledging, as we do, its literary value, which +is diminished only by the heavy and un-Magyar +diction, we deprecate its judgment on an institution +without which Hungary would have long been +reduced to the level of a mere province of Austria. +Eötvös, like most idealists bred in the school of +German idealism, could not endure rough Reality. +He forgot, that for the making of history, as for +that of bread, unclean matter is, at certain +stages, an indispensable element.</p> + +<p>We have two more novels by Eötvös: “Hungary +in 1514” (“<i>Magyarország 1514 ben</i>,” 1847), which +is a fair picture of the time of the peasant-rebellion +in Hungary, under George Dózsa; and “The +Sisters” (“<i>A nővérek</i>,” 1857), a feeble story with +many ideas on Education.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156"></a>[156]</span></p> + +<p>On Eötvös, as a writer on politics, and the +Philosophy of History, <a href="#Page_251">see page 251</a>. It may +here be mentioned that Eötvös, who was President +of the Academy, was frequently called upon to +deliver commemorative discourses on the lives +and merits of deceased members of the Academy +and the Kisfaludy Society (<a href="#Page_113">see page 113</a>). His +speeches are, as a rule, of great oratorical power, +and illuminated with grand conceptions of Life +and Literature. He was eminently an orator, not +a rhetor; and although he seldom reached the +magnificence of Kölcsey (<a href="#Page_107">see page 107</a>), he is no +unworthy follower of him.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157"></a>[157]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVI">CHAPTER XXVI.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>At the present day most people of culture outside +Hungary know the name of Jókai, the +Hungarian novelist; few, if any, know the name +of Sigismund Kemény. Yet, of the two, Kemény +is probably the greater writer. He is the Balzac +of Hungary, less Balzac’s fame. For, strange +to say, in Hungary itself, the novels of Kemény +are very little known; and although several +Magyar critics of the highest authority have +declared Kemény to be the greatest novelist of +the Hungarians, yet the reading public in Hungary +neither buys nor reads the masterpieces +of the Transylvanian baron. This lack of general +appreciation seems to be somewhat inherent in the +very kind of genius possessed by men like Balzac +and Kemény. The former, it is true, has a well-known +name, and his works have spread over +Europe and America. Yet, even in France, the +full grandeur of his genius has not yet been +recognized. Balzac has, as yet, no statue in +Paris, which city he has described more ingeniously<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158"></a>[158]</span> +than any other writer. Even in his native town +of Tours his statue was erected only in quite +recent times. The <i>Académie</i> has never admitted +him within her circle; and the French are not yet +aware that in Balzac they have their Shakespeare +in prose. Indeed, nobody short of Shakespeare +will stand comparison with the gigantic genius of +Balzac. Both have created a long series of grand +types of humanity endowed with an undying life +and charm of their own. To both the secrets +and puzzles of the human soul were transparent; +and both had the powers of philosophic analysis +and poetic synthesis in equal shares. Shakespeare, +too, had to bide his time; and twenty-eight years +after his death, John Milton does not even mention +his dramas as necessary reading for a young gentleman’s +education. Considering, then, the fate of +Balzac in France, with an eager reading public +immeasurably more numerous than that of Hungary, +we need not wonder that Kemény suffered +with tenfold intensity from the drawbacks peculiar +to his Balzacian genius.</p> + +<p>We said, Kemény is the Balzac of Hungary. +We did not say, he was equal to Balzac. In +Hungary a full-fledged Balzac can as yet not be +expected. No amount of native genius will enable +a man to overcome obstacles such as stand in +the way of him who should undertake to do for +Hungarian society what Balzac did for French.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159"></a>[159]</span> +The France of Louis-Philippe was infinitely better +adapted to the writing of its “<i>Comédie humaine</i>,” +than the Hungary of Kemény’s time.</p> + +<p>Hungary is far from being as homogeneous as +is France. In the latter country, despite much +variety in language and social institutions, there +is one pervading common spirit in all classes +and peoples of the state. Whether Norman or +Gascon, the citizen of France is chiefly a Frenchman, +with distinctly French ideas and sentiments. +France is the country of the French. Hungary +is not the country of the Hungarians; it is a +trysting-place of nations rather than the country +of one nation. There are not only classes and +ranks, but each class or rank differs according to +the nation it belongs to. The Magyar <i>bourgeois</i> +is not like the Slav <i>bourgeois</i>; and both differed, +especially in Kemény’s time, from the German +<i>bourgeois</i>. No one, certainly not Kemény, can +claim an intimate knowledge of all the nations +in Hungary; and thus no one has, as yet, so +profoundly impregnated himself with as immense +an array of social facts as had Balzac before he +wrote his great novels. Balzac knew the entire +anatomy and physiology of the peasant, the +soldier, the clergyman, the provincial, the Parisian, +the maid, the <i>concierge</i>, the <i>bourgeoise</i>, the <i>grande +dame</i>, the actress, the scholar, the lawyer, the +speculator, the <i>viveur</i>, the diplomatist—in short,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160"></a>[160]</span> +of every shade of character that went to form +French society. In Hungary, such a knowledge +could not be acquired. Familiarity with ten to +twelve languages is required to know the full +anatomy and physiology of the peasants in Hungary +alone. To do, therefore, for Hungarian +society what Balzac had done for French; to +write the Hungarian “<i>Comédie humaine</i>” has so +far been practically impossible; nor did Kemény +do it. And yet, within the narrow limits of his +arena, Kemény worked with the spirit and genius +of Balzac. That his capacity was essentially +akin to that of the great French writer there +can be no doubt. It was not of the same comprehensiveness. +Balzac had humour and wit; +Kemény had none. Balzac had an exquisite +sense of proportion, if not always in his style, at +least always in the architecture of his plot; +Kemény had not. Balzac was an encyclopædist +of the human heart, in that he knew women as well +as men; Kemény knew men far better than women. +Balzac’s range of observation being greater, his +mind was subtler even than that of Kemény. +Yet, with all that, Kemény’s genius was essentially +akin to that of Balzac. He, too, had that vast +knowledge of historic events and that interest in +scientific researches that suggested to Balzac +innumerable shades and innuendoes of thought, +and <i>aperçus</i> on every form and phase of life.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161"></a>[161]</span> +Kemény, like Balzac, had studied much in books +and nature and man; he also had that love of +realism—that following up of mental or emotional +waves into their minutest recesses in the face or +voice or gestures of persons. The outward or +material appearance of man: his dress, house, +arms, art-work, or contrivances were a matter of +profound study to Kemény, as they were to Balzac. +Although intensely analytical, he is equally great +at and fond of descriptions. He paints nature, +more especially that of his beloved Transylvania, +as one intimate with mountains, rivers and forests. +He knows their language and physiognomy; +his landscapes are like the choruses in Greek +tragedies. They form part of the scenes; not +only of the scenery. They are like the contrapuntal +bass to the melodies of his novels. But +in what Kemény resembles Balzac most is his +inexorableness. There is no other word for it. +In nearly all his novels, as in most of those of +Balzac, man is crushed down pitilessly, remorselessly. +Without making any deliberate show of +pessimism, Kemény is intensely pessimistic. As +in Balzac the overpowering demon of modern +times is money, after which all crave, all run and +rush, jostling, panting, jading; so in Kemény, the +bane of man appears under the form of those small +mistakes and errors which dig the grave of all +hopes. The great passions, vices and crimes do<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162"></a>[162]</span> +not, in Kemény’s novels, act as the causes of the +final downfall of his heroes or heroines. His +heroes do not die from strokes of lightning, shooting +forth from the black clouds of their terrible +passions or heinous crimes. On the contrary: +such lightnings rather illumine their road to +success. They end, as it were, through a fire +caused by a carelessly dropped match. The ghastly +irony of real life, which no unbiassed observer can +have failed to notice, is shown in his novels in all +its terrible working. The melancholy of Eötvös +is sweet and soothing; the gloom of Kemény is +discomforting, distressing, just because Kemény +never seems to be deliberately pessimistic. While +reading his novels, the reader is so struck with the +beauty of those gems of original and profound +ideas and remarks, which Kemény strews in prodigious +abundance over the objects and persons +of his novels, that the persistent gloom and +despair dominating nearly all his works, do not +become so painful to the reader. It is when we +have finished the book; when we overlook the +whole of the plan; when we have laid our ear +on the throbbing heart of each of the persons +with whom we had been through several volumes; +it is when the novel in its entirety has entered our +mind, that we feel deserted by all hopefulness, +and embittered by the foul destiny reigning over +man’s best efforts. There can be but little doubt<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163"></a>[163]</span> +that the indifference, with which Kemény has been +so far received in Hungary, is largely owing to his +pessimism. The Hungarians, like the English, +have little idiosyncrasy for pessimism. This mood +of viewing things is the outcome of mental +struggles, from which the better minds of both +countries have been saved by their intense political +life. Pessimism is eminently the nursling of +thought. In Hungary there is, as in England, +much more acting than thinking. Whatever there +may be of pessimism in the Hungarians is used +up in some of their superbly-despondent folk-songs. +For Kemény’s pessimism the time has +not yet come. Perhaps he would have impressed +his contemporaries far more deeply had he chosen +not to write historic novels. Nearly all of his +great novels are historic novels. As history, they +are really incomparable. If we possessed a hundred +historic novels, describing a hundred important +periods of general history, in the manner, +with the graphic power and true intimacy with +the past, so peculiar to Kemény, we should know +history infinitely better. Kemény has something +of the erudition of a Gierke or John Selden, with +the plastic descriptiveness of a great painter. +Read his Transylvanian novels, and you have a +clearer, more vivid and more correct knowledge +of Transylvanian history in the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries than you could gather from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164"></a>[164]</span> +the study of the various chroniclers and memoir-writers +of that time, such as Reicherstorffer, Schesaeus, +Sigler, Heltai (<a href="#Page_47">see page 47</a>), Verantius, Tinódy +(<a href="#Page_47">see page 47</a>), Somogyi (Ambrosius), Stephen +Szamosközy, Nicolas Oláh, Zsámboky, Michael +Brutus, Francis Forgách, Nicolas Istvánffy, Francis +Mikó, Gregory Petthő, Kraus, the Bethlens, Haner, +etc. Kemény is thus one of the best historians +of Hungary. Nor can we think much less of him +as a novelist. He engages our interest in the +characters of his tales; they work on our imagination, +they appeal to our hearts. More particularly +to Hungarians, the actors of Kemény’s novels +appear as individuals full of charm and significance. +To use one of Ben Jonson’s happy phrases, they +are “rammed with life”—life national, patriotic, historic. +And yet, with all these commanding excellencies +in his novels, Kemény has, there can be little +doubt, committed a grave blunder in literary +strategy, in investing the output of his vast +intellectual mines in historic novels. Had he +been less of a historian, he might have written +his historic novels at a smaller loss of literary +efficiency. His very greatness as a historian +debarred him from approaching Balzac still more +closely. For his faithfulness as a historian prevented +him from elaborating fully those types of +humanity, the creation of which is Balzac’s glory. +Such types cannot, as a rule, be found in history.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165"></a>[165]</span> +History, or that part of reality in which human +beings are the actors, is full of blurred types +of mongreldom and bastardy. No line in the +features of man, as a real phenomenon, is drawn +out purely and to its legitimate term; good and +bad, sublime and vile, sentiments and deeds, are +lumbering higgledy piggledy across each other. +The poet or artist, who is truest to reality, is untruest +to poetry and art. At all times the attempt +at realism in art has landed where has the attempt +at materialism in philosophy—in impotence. Historic +novels, if very historic, as are these of +Kemény, must thus necessarily benumb the creative +power of the poet. And so they have. Had +Kemény, instead of the past, embraced the present; +had he followed in the wake of Balzac in +fetching from the depth of Hungarian humanity +some of the arch-types of European humanity, as +was done by the author of “<i>Père Goriot</i>” with +regard to French humanity, Kemény would stand +out as one of the greatest writers of European +literature. As it is, he is only one of the great +writers of Hungarian Literature. What is perhaps +more astonishing still in that choice of the historic +novel by Kemény, is the fact that he was for +years engaged in a profession than which very +few can attach us more intently to actual, present +life. Kemény was one of the most influential +and hardest-worked political journalists of his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166"></a>[166]</span> +time. In the columns of the “<i>Pesti Napló</i>” +he poured out, in astounding profusion, leading +articles about all the great events and persons +of his time. In these articles he showed profound +knowledge of the very pulse and heart of +his age; and such was his power of exposition, +analysis and appreciation of the fleeting occurrences +of the day, that his political articles have +been a matter of admiration both to his contemporaries +and subsequent historians. As a rule, +great politicians do not write historic novels. +They are too much imbued with the spirit of their +own age, in the direction of which they have had +no small share, to be inclined, or even able, +to familiarise themselves with the spirit of ages +bygone. Kemény is an exception, and while this +certainly testifies to the comprehensiveness of his +mind, it renders the strategic mistake above +mentioned more marked still.</p> + +<p>We must abstain from giving a detailed +account of his novels. Their plots are, by themselves, +simple, if not purely on the lines of the +historic events which they relate. Their author, +like Balzac, excels chiefly in psychology and +analysis; and although the dialogue is not +neglected, it is not made the centre of the tale. +In “<i>Gyulai Pál</i>” (1846) is shown the struggle +between a noble and high-minded statesman and +his ambition. In the attempt at saving his prince,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167"></a>[167]</span> +Sigismund Báthori, from the latter’s rival, Balthesar +Báthori, Gyulai plunges into a series of crimes, +and mortally wounds the heart of his idol, +Eleonore, who finally brings about his execution. +In “The Widow and Her Daughter” (“<i>Az özvegy +és leánya</i>,” 1857) is told, and with greater regard +to form and architecture than in Kemény’s other +novels, the tragedy of the family of Mikes. A +subject admirably suited to the gloom of Kemény’s +mental atmosphere is treated in his “The Fanatics” +(“<i>A rajongók</i>,” 1859), a story of the curious +sect of the Sabbatarians in Transylvania in the +fourth decade of the seventeenth century (<a href="#Page_55"><i>cf.</i> page +55</a>). The Macchiavellian prime minister, Kassai, on +the one hand, and the rich and mystic Simon Pécsi, +the head of the Sabbatarians, with his beautiful +daughter Deborah, on the other, are amongst the +leading persons of this terrible novel. No less +appalling in its way is “Rough Times” (“<i>Zord +idő</i>,” 1862), in which the capture of the Hungarian +capital, Buda, by the Turks, is told with magnificent +power. In the short novels of Kemény, taking +up subjects of modern time (“Love and Vanity” +[“<i>Szerelem és hiúság</i>”]; “Husband and Wife” +[“<i>Férj és nő</i>”]; “The Abysses of the Heart” +[“<i>A sziv örvényei</i>”]); as well as in his smaller +tales, such as “Virtue and Convention” (“<i>Erény +és illem</i>”); “Two Happy Persons” (“<i>Két boldog</i>”); +“<i>Alhi Kmet</i>” (a proper name), etc.,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168"></a>[168]</span> +Kemény likewise dwells on that <i>fatalisme raisonné</i> +as it might be called, that does not permit +him, or very rarely, to tarry over the sunny +moments of life. Writers like Kemény, in quite +modern times, have found means of gently veiling +their inner despondency by light touches of melancholy, +as is done by Maeterlinck; or by fine +irony, as used by Anatole France. In Kemény +there is no mercy, not even that of irony. His +novels are like the gigantic inundations of the +Theiss river in Hungary: you see the floods +nearing, often noiselessly, but with distressing +rapidity, and in all directions; there is no escaping +them; in their inexorable progress they roll +onward like a host of innumerable serpents, +stifling life and levelling down everything to the +sameness of death. When Kemény died (1875), +on his small paternal estate of Puszta-Kamarás, +in Transylvania, he had himself long been buried +by the floods of mental derangement. Reality +had shown him no pity either.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169"></a>[169]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVII">CHAPTER XXVII.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>The poets and writers of the Magyars, whom we +have been studying in the preceding chapters, were, +in a lesser or higher degree, authors of works +whose excellence was, to a large extent, of a relative, +or national and not of an absolute character.</p> + +<p>We now approach the study of Alexander +Petőfi. His was a genius which, perhaps alone +amongst Hungarian writers, so completely blended +the peculiar national excellencies of Magyar +poetry with the broader features of European +literary greatness, as to entitle him to the admiration +of all who can feel poetic beauty, irrespective +of nationality or even language. Real poetry, +like real music, appeals to all nations, and to +all times. In Petőfi there is real poetry. Other +poets are felicitous in expression, and the +musical cadence of their diction endears them +to their compatriots. Others again create one +or two poetical types the charm of which lends +grace and interest to even insignificant verses. +Many more poets again play on religious, moral,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170"></a>[170]</span> +or patriotic sentiments, and thus appeal to the +hearts or imagination of readers with whom such +sentiments easily wax overwhelming. In Petőfi +there is more than all that. His language is +rich and beautiful; yet it is not in his language +that he excels. He never or very seldom +borrows effect from appeals to morals or +religion. He creates poetical phenomena—that +is all. Where before him nobody ever surmised +any poetic phenomena at all, there he conjures up +a whole fairy-world of poetic conceptions, figures, +events, or scenes. The true poet discovers the new +land by creating it. In Nature herself there is no +more poetry than in a grocer’s shop. Nor is there +a trace of any other thought in Nature. There is +no philosophy in it and no mathematics. Heaven +alone knows how Nature is carrying on her business. +She is the most wasteful of managers, and yet +she is never bankrupt. She is as heedless as the +most thoughtless of business men, and yet traces +of profound thought appear to be discoverable in +her dealings. And so the mathematician, or the +physicist arrives at neatly limbed formulæ expressing +so-called laws of Nature. Yet nothing +can be more certain than that Nature herself is +not acting on the lines of laws. To us, to +human beings, it appears convenient and useful +to bracket some of the happenings of infinite +Nature between logical ideas, thereby giving us<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171"></a>[171]</span> +the satisfaction of “understanding” those happenings. +Nature abhors being understood, yet by +dint of an irrepressible desire of man, thinkers +will always attempt at construing her by dressing +up natural phenomena in the jackets of formulæ +and in the petticoats of concepts.</p> + +<p>It is even so with poetry. There is no poetry +whatever in Nature. All poetry is invented and +created by man, just as all music is. He who +invents the greatest number of events, scenes, +or types that strike men as being poetical, is the +greatest of poets. It is impossible to say how +he invents them; nor can he or anybody else +say where, that is, with relation to what spot, +creature, or phenomenon of Nature he will invent +them. One thing alone is certain, he must <i>invent</i> +them. For centuries before Petőfi was born, +Hungary had had the same mixed population; +the same mountains; the same mighty rivers +and lakes; and the same mysterious <i>puszta</i>, which +to Petőfi suggested an astounding number of +exquisite poems. He alone “understood their +mystic language;” that is, he alone invented the +poetry to the substratum of Nature; he alone +wrote the thrilling drama to the dumb flies +and staging of Nature in Hungary. He sees +an old ram-shackle inn in the midst of the +<i>puszta</i>. To the ordinary mortal the inn is suggestive +of nothing more than the expectation<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172"></a>[172]</span> +of a poor dinner, of a bad bedstead, of uncanny +companions. To an ordinary poet it may suggest +images of decay or regret, more or less poetical. +To Petőfi it suggests intensely poetical scenes of +life exuberant or decadent; the inn (“<i>csárda</i>”) is +transfigured by him into a living being; every +one of its corners commences to breathe poetry, +music, reminiscences and forebodings. So new +and individual a creation is thus made of that +wayside inn, that the painter may find in it +new subjects for his canvas, and the musician +new themes for his lyre. Wherever Petőfi is +touched by nature or society, he responds by +the creation of poetic phenomena. The wind +blowing over the plains of Hungary is, in truth, +inarticulate; in wafting through the body and +soul of the incomparable poet it turns, as if +directed through the pipes of an organ at the +hands of a Bach, to melancholy fugues and +majestic oratorios. And so with everything. +Petőfi sings love in hundreds of poems, yet he +was scarcely ever loved by woman. For nearer +as woman is to Nature, she is also more realistic +and less charged with poetry than man. What +then could she do with one who had unloaded into +the chests of his youthful soul all the treasures +of poetry, but none of gold? This, however, far +from deterring Petőfi or disgusting him, rather +stimulated him. He loved much; that is, he<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173"></a>[173]</span> +loved little. Love was for him, like the <i>puszta</i>, +the Theiss river and the Carpathian mountains, +an immense suggestiveness; an ocean, the crossing +of which led to the discovery of new continents +of poetry. Nearly all the pretty or interesting +women whom he met, whether the lawless gipsy-girl, +the actress, the coy <i>bourgeoise</i>, the lady, +the peasant-girl or the hostelry-maid, he loved +them all or thought he did. And this was +owing not to his extreme youth—he died when +six-and-twenty—but to his passion for poetic +creativeness. Everyone of the types of women +just mentioned served him as an occasion for +creating one of those scenes as replete with life +poetic as are forests or rivers with life natural. +In one sense indeed he was right in saying that +he was “the wild flower of boundless Nature” +(“<i>A korláttalan természet-Vadvirága vagyok én</i>”). +His mode of creation was quite on the lines of +that of Nature. A poem grew out of his mind +as does a violet out of the ground. In him there +is no reflection, no machinery, no hesitation. +Every line rolls on with the assurance and self-contentedness +of a rose-leaf budding forth +from the stem. He has the meditated carelessness +of Nature, and also her freshness, her +immediateness and spontaneity. More particularly, +he is like Nature in Hungary. From the +heights of thought as lofty as the peaks of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174"></a>[174]</span> +Carpathian mountains, and as chilling as those +snow-clad solitudes (see his superb philosophic +flashes in the poems written at Szalk Szt Márton, +in 1846), he descends into the tiny nest of homely +sentiments as does a lark into the furrow. +His indignation, patriotic or otherwise, is as +terrible as are the inundations of the Theiss; +and side by side with poems flaming with uncontrollable +fire and restlessness are poems full of +oriental calm and staid repose. Yet, in the +poet’s own opinion, he resembled most the +<i>puszta</i> or immense plain of Hungary. Petőfi, +who had tramped over nearly every part of +his country, gave, in a magnificent poem, the +palm of beauty to the steppes and pampas of +central and southern Hungary. The <i>puszta</i> in +Hungary is really a series of some three +thousand <i>pusztas</i>, of which the most famous +is that of Hortobágy, near Debreczen, the +praises of which Petőfi has sung in various +exquisite poems. These <i>pusztas</i> differ very +much in physical character; some are covered +with rich wheat-fields, tobacco plantations, or +maize-forests; others again are swamps, or +natron-ponds, or again waste lands, or heaths. +This diversity of abundance and penury, ecstasy of +nature and dreary desert, squares well with the +rhapsodic temper of the Magyars in general, +and that of Petőfi in particular. After miles<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175"></a>[175]</span> +and miles of deadly silence, the traveller enters +one of the bustling “market-towns,” full of the +eccentric and picturesque types of the <i>puszta</i>. +There is the dignified farmer or peasant, with +his smart, coquettish, and light-tongued wife, or +<i>mennyecske</i> (“little heaven”); there are the various +shepherds and keepers of sheep (“<i>bojtár</i>”), oxen +(“<i>gulyás</i>”), swine (“<i>kondás</i>”), or horses (“<i>csikós</i>”), +each in his particular costume and each a different +type of the Hungarian Bedouin. The “<i>bojtár</i>,” +tending the immense herds of sheep and lambs +in the pampas, is mild-tempered, musical and +full of secret medical lore. The animals under +his care are frequently ill, and he watches their +instinctive ways of picking out the herbs that +will cure them. So he acquires a knowledge of +herbs and an insight into nature which makes +him appear a wizard. The “<i>gulyás</i>” tends the +big cattle, oxen and bulls, and is naturally a +rough fellow, fond of fight and of wild rollicking. +He frequently wrestles with enraged bulls that +have fled into the swamps, or with the poachers +and robbers roaming over the <i>puszta</i>. The +“<i>kondás</i>” is the lowest type of those herdsmen. +He is sullen, hard of access, and irascible, and +easily turns into a robber. The most brilliant type +is the “<i>csikós</i>.” He tends the immense herds of +horses browsing in the prairies of Hungary. As +the violin and the <i>furulya</i> (or sort of piccolo) are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176"></a>[176]</span> +the national instruments of the Magyars, so the +horse is their national animal. “The Magyar is +created for being on horseback” (<i>lóra termett a +magyar</i>), the Hungarian proverb holds. Peasant +or nobleman, all are keen horsemen, and so +intense is their love of the horse that, like Arabs, +Hungarian poets treat the horse as a poetical +character. The <i>csikós</i> is dashing, quick at repartee, +an excellent dancer and singer or rather improvisatore, +and grown to his horse. He knows every +patch of his <i>puszta</i>, and every trick and dodge +of horse-dealing and—horse-stealing. The girls +idolize him. In his fluttering, highly-coloured +costume, he is the very martial, bold and provoking +youth whom girls will worship. Amidst these +types of the <i>puszta</i>, none the least fascinating is +the “<i>szegény legény</i>,” or “poor lad.” He is the +robber and brigand of the <i>puszta</i>, and the romantic +interest attaching to him grows out of the belief +that he took to his lawless profession after +having been thwarted in life or baffled in love. +But of all the phenomena of the <i>puszta</i>, the +Fata Morgana, or <i>mirage</i>, in Hungarian “<i>déli +báb</i>,” is the most striking. On a sultry afternoon +in summer, cities appear in mid-heaven, images +of towers and castles, immense lakes and forests. +They shine sometimes with a peculiar, supermundane +lustre, and the traveller thinks he is walking +in fairy-land. Then suddenly they disappear. +Such is the <i>puszta</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177"></a>[177]</span></p> + +<p>The influence of the <i>puszta</i> on the Magyar +poets is undeniable; and Petőfi, more than any +other Hungarian poet, seems to be the high-priest +and devotee of the peculiar charms of the +great plain. The real relation, however, between +the poet and his country is that between the +traveller and the mirage. It is in the eyes of +the former that the latter is forming, and there +alone. Petőfi creates the Fata Morgana, with +which he fills the vast horizon of his beloved +<i>puszta</i>. Although professionally a lyric poet, his +lyrics are of the purely objective kind. Many of +his best poems might be told in prose, and in +any other language, without losing much of their +charm. There is, in his best works, an abiding +<i>fond</i> of poetry, quite independent of the music +or picturesqueness of his words, or the strikingness +of his similes. Heine, in his best moments, +rivals without always equalling him. Petőfi’s +poems are mostly very short; they, as it were, +only state the poetic scene which then works on +the imagination or heart of the reader quite alone. +When Heine speaks of the lonely pine-tree standing +on the snow-covered heights of the north, +dreaming of a palm perched in the far east on +a rock burning with the heat of the sun of the +desert, he strikes a chord that will vibrate +in us long after and beyond the two simple +stanzas in which he tells the story of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178"></a>[178]</span> +two trees. This is objective poetry. It is in +this that Petőfi excels. Already in some of his +earliest poems he writes perfect objective poetry. +In “The Stolen Horse” (“<i>Lopott ló</i>,” 1843) we are +told of one of those fleeting scenes in puszta-life, +in which the poet by seizing the pregnant point +where present, past and future meet, gives us +the story of several lives in words so few as to +seem insufficient for the telling even of a short +anecdote. A <i>csikós</i> dashes on a stolen horse over +the vast plain. The rich owner of the noble +animal, happening to pass by, recognizes his +property, and calls upon the <i>csikós</i> to stop and +surrender the horse. The fellow takes no heed, +and storms onward. Suddenly he stops, and +turning round to the owner, he exclaims, “Don’t +miss your horse too badly; you have so many +of them. One heart was in my breast, and alas! +your daughter has wrecked it;” and disappears +in the desert. The story of the poor boy’s love +for the haughty daughter of the rich man, her +cruelty, the father’s pride, the boy’s vengeance, +his entrance on the wild life of a “poor lad,” +or robber; all that is pictured and suggested +in the few words. In another poem, the first +line of which is “The wife of the inn-keeper +loved the vagabond” (“<i>A csaplárosné a betyárt +szerette</i>,” 1844), the whole tragedy of true love +thwarted by lawless love is told in a few lines.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179"></a>[179]</span> +The vagabond (“<i>betyár</i>,” really “robber”) loves +the maid of the wife of an inn-keeper in the +<i>puszta</i>. The wife loves the robber, and being cut +by him, drives away the poor girl, who dies of +cold in the <i>puszta</i>. The robber thereupon kills the +woman, and dies on the gallows, without regret, +for “his life was no longer worth to him a pipe +of tobacco.” Another poem describes the wild +rollicking of the boys in the village inn at night. +A knock is heard at the window, and a harsh +voice bids the boys to stop lest the quiet of +the squire be disturbed. The boys only hold +forth all the louder. Another knock at the +window is heard. In mild tones a man asks the +fellows to stop yelling, for his poor mother is ill. +At once all the frolic is at an end, and the boys +leave the inn. It is in such scenes, all expressed +in the simplest and yet idiomatic language, that +Petőfi’s genius shines forth. Of him indeed it +may be said that no colour, tint or instrument +with which to touch and stir up the human heart +was alien to him. Considering his extreme +youth and the intense gravity of his pathos, his +exquisite and genuine humour is nothing short +of marvellous. It is the humour of a mature +mind, full of ripe suavity and mellow joyousness. +Of Petőfi’s humour we could not use Hood’s +lines:</p> + +<div class="poetry-container"> +<div class="poetry"> + <div class="stanza"> + <div class="verse indent0">“There’s not a string attuned to mirth</div> + <div class="verse indent0">But has its chord in melancholy.”</div> + </div> +</div> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180"></a>[180]</span></p> + +<p class="noindent">It is playful humour, laughing a broad, sound +laugh. He is not as witty as Heine or Byron, +but neither is he as cutting. In his famous +poem ridiculing the Magyar <i>hidalgo</i> (“<i>A magyar +nemes</i>”) there is nothing but broad thrusts of +a well-handled sword. There is no pricking with +needles, nor any guffaws of a satyr.</p> + +<p>Literary critics in Hungary and elsewhere +have, in their anxiety for classification and cataloguing, +placed Petőfi amongst the so-called +folk-poets, and nothing is more frequent than a +comparison of Petőfi with Burns and Béranger, the +<i>chansonniers</i> of Scotland and France respectively. +However, the comparison is untenable. While +humour, pathos, tenderness and descriptive powers +will readily be accorded, and in great measure, +to the Scotch singer, he can hardly be compared +to Petőfi in that distinctively creative power, +which not only touches sentiment, not only finds +charming words and images for things external +or internal, but also and chiefly discovers new +poetic continents, so to speak, new mines of +poetic gold. The very range of subjects covered +by the poetry of the Hungarian poet is considerably +wider than that of the Scotch bard; and in +the last two years of his life Petőfi was raised, +partly by his own genius and partly by the +events of his time, to the position of a nation’s +prophet. This very position acted on his poetic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181"></a>[181]</span> +gifts with a force that Burns never experienced, +and accordingly, every comparison of the two +poets is radically false. The same remark +applies to Béranger. The entire atmosphere of +his famous <i>chansons</i> is so different from that of +Petőfi’s songs, as to render a comparison of the +two impossible. Béranger sings the glories of +the great Revolution and of Napoleon’s time. He +is sweet, fresh, graceful, full of <i>élan</i> and smartness. +He creates a <i>genre</i>, a mode of poetry, but a +limited one. Petőfi was impressed by both +poets; he knew Burns and Béranger well, and +studied them, together with Shelley, Byron, and +Heine, pretty carefully. But he never imitated +them, and for the simple reason that he could +not do so. He was in the best sense of the +word, original, that is, creative. He could imitate +no one, and no one could imitate him. Petőfi +cannot be classified; he is a class by himself. +He cultivates, it is true, the manner and tone +of the folk-song (“<i>népdal</i>”), and so to superficial +critics he may appear only as the best folk-song +writer of Hungary. He is infinitely more +than that; in 1846, for instance, he did not +write a single “<i>népdal</i>” (folk-song); he is Hungary’s +greatest poet. In him is embodied the +entire poetical genius of a nation, in whose +single members we may frequently find the gift +of improvisation and poetic invention. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182"></a>[182]</span> +rhapsodic vein so conspicuous in the everyday life +of Hungary, and the exaggerations of which have +vitiated many an effort, literary or musical, +comes out in Petőfi in its full vigour and full +beauty. Like all great poets, he is intensely +truthful. There is no sham whatever in him, +no affectation and no false note. His passion +is terribly real, and his mirth, true joy. +Nowhere can this absolute truthfulness be +noticed with greater clearness; nowhere does it +shine forth more imposingly than in one of +Petőfi’s wildest, and apparently most exaggerated +poems, “The Madman” (“<i>Az őrült</i>”). It is a +monologue of a mad Titan, whose fine intellect +has been unhinged by ingratitude of friends, +treachery of women, and undeserved reverses. +We do not hesitate to say that there is in the +whole range of European literature no other +single poem representing the demoniac charm +of a mind at once vigorous and diseased with +equal force and truth. Constantly moving on +the edges of abysses than which the human +mind or heart does not know any more appalling, +the “madman” yet talks with a power and +lucidity so overwhelming as to send through his +hearers the holy shivers of religious prostration. +Distorted in form, terribly true in substance; +such is the character of this unique poem, in +which all the serpents of scorn and pain seem to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183"></a>[183]</span> +wriggle beneath the leaves of the beautiful +word-foliage.</p> + +<p>From Petőfi emanates the very soul of poetry +and of all art: enthusiasm, inspiration. After +having written comic epics, love-poems, and +genre-pictures with a success never before witnessed, +Petőfi, on the approach of the revolutionary +period, wrote those inflammatory patriotic songs, +the power of which was officially recognized by +the Hungarian Government, who had enormous +numbers of Petőfi’s patriotic poetry printed at +their expense and distributed among the soldiers +of the revolutionary armies. His poems were +then a national event, and they may in justice be +compared to a series of different “<i>Marseillaises</i>.”</p> + +<p>We began our characterization of Petőfi by +saying that he, perhaps alone amongst Hungarian +writers, completely blended Hungarian with +European elements. We may now state the +reason of this his peculiar excellence. Petőfi, like +all classical poets, while very great as a master +of form, owes less to the beauty or ornaments of +his language than to the objective beauty of his +imagery, personifications and poetic scenes. For +such as largely identify literature with great +word-feats, Virgil will be greater than Homer (as +was commonly believed in the seventeenth century); +Tennyson greater than Shelley; Platen +greater than Heine; and Arany (<a href="#Page_194">see page 194</a>)<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184"></a>[184]</span> +greater than Petőfi. This is, however, not the +judgment of such as gauge poetic greatness by +the measure of objective beauty contained in a +given work. The importance of form in poetry +can hardly be exaggerated, and the necessity of +paying the closest attention to the rules of form +will be felt by no one more keenly than by the +student of Hungarian Literature. Yet in attempting +to find a measure of comparison between +great poets, who all more or less excel in +form, there can be no doubt, that he who is +richer in objective beauty is also the superior +poet. It is this superiority that raises Petőfi +head and shoulders not only over the rest of +the Hungarian poets, but also above most other +poetic writers of modern Europe. The types of +the <i>puszta</i>, which we have essayed to sketch +above, the women, and events of his time; all +these and many more Magyar subjects were by +Petőfi so <i>objectivated</i>, and given an independent +poetic existence of their own, that they cease to +be familiar to Hungarians only. They grow on +the German, French or English reader with +equal sympathy, and Petőfi thus needs less +commentary for the foreigner than any other +Hungarian poet. His works are like the Hungarian +Rhapsodies of Liszt, which appeal to +Americans with the same irresistible force as to +Magyars, as the present writer has had abundant<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185"></a>[185]</span> +opportunity of experiencing in the United States. +Yet the same Magyar melodies and turbulent +cadences that Liszt, and Liszt alone, succeeded in +<i>objectivating</i>, utterly fail of effect in countries +other than Hungary when played by Hungarian +gypsies in unadulterated Magyar fashion. +This, then, is the deepest and truest secret of +Petőfi’s immense power: while embracing mostly +Magyar subjects, he so <i>objectivates</i> them as to +render them enjoyable and sympathetic to non-Magyar +readers too. National poets inferior to +Petőfi give their nation songs which other nations +too possess, and the only difference between them +is that of language. Petőfi gave Hungary and +the rest of the civilized world what no nation +other than the Hungarian possesses. As the +Hungarian nation itself has an individuality so +marked and so different from the other nations +of Europe, as to entail upon it an historic and +social vocation <i>sui generis</i>, so the poems of +Petőfi, as the most felicitous exponent of Hungarian +nationality, add to the types of poetry +produced by other nations, a type, a species +so individual and so richly personal as to endow +it with a literary vocation altogether its own. +If we are to reduce this peculiarly Magyar +element to the precincts of a word, we should +say it is the rhapsodic element. By this we +mean a peculiar temper of the inspired mind<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186"></a>[186]</span> +pervading its joyous, humorous, meditative or +despondent moods alike. As Liszt is the greatest +exponent of this rhapsodic element in music, so +Petőfi is in poetry. Most other rhapsodic poets +or musicians, Magyar or otherwise, have badly +failed, some by degenerating into rant or redundancy, +others by becoming formless. Petőfi +alone succeeded in raising rhapsodies to the level +of true art.</p> + +<p>It was said above that Petőfi’s works are not +in need of much commentary, even for the +foreigner. We may now add that the only commentary +needed is a knowledge of Petőfi’s life. +Petőfi’s short life as a poet was coeval with the +great awakening of the Magyar nation to the +full consciousness of its position and its rights. +He was born in 1823, in Kis-Körös, and was +the son of a well-to-do butcher, by the name of +Petrovics, husband to a Slav woman, called Mary +Hruz. For historians who believe in the race-theory, +there is ample room for speculation, +sympathetic or malevolent, in the fact that the +beloved mother of Hungary’s greatest Magyar +poet belonged to the “race” of the Slavs, whom +all staunch Magyars are disinclined to reckon +amongst human beings. “<i>Tót nem ember, kása +nem étel</i>” (“The Slav is no human being, and +porridge is no meal”), holds the Hungarian +proverb. Fully convinced as we are that there<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187"></a>[187]</span> +is no truth whatever in the race-theory, we +can only see in the fact of Petőfi being the +child of a Slav mother and a Magyar (or +Magyar-speaking) father a providential fact +creating Hungary’s greatest poet from amongst +a <i>milieu</i> saturated with both of the main +elements of Hungarian society: Magyar and +Slav. Young Petőfi spent his youth in the +large plains between the Theiss and the Danube, +and the impressions of that picturesque portion +of Hungary have left their indelible traces +on his imagination. At the age of fifteen, +Petőfi was deprived of the comfort he had so +far enjoyed, by the financial failure of his father. +From that time onward he led a life replete +with hardships of all kinds. At school he was +a failure, and even in poetics, as he has told us +in one of his humorous poems, he was +“ploughed.” Being somewhat too fond of the +inspiration of the wine-cup, or at least being +credited with such fondness, he soon fell out with +his hosts, his teachers and finally with his +father. From the misery of his position he tried +to save himself by volunteering as a private in +the Austrian army. The very harsh treatment +he had to endure as a soldier told on his health, +and although he had still moral strength left to +scribble his poems on the planks of the sentry-box +in which he mounted guard during the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188"></a>[188]</span> +bitter winter, he at last was dismissed from the +service on account of symptoms of consumption. +In the following two or three years we find him +tramping over all Hungary, writing verse, and +eking out a miserable livelihood by means of +acting on provincial stages. The great poet long +believed in his vocation as an actor, and obstinately +stuck to a determination that met nowhere +with any serious encouragement. Meanwhile, +however, his verses had made him a well-known +poet, and soon the idol of the country. In his +travels to the north of Hungary he was received, +more especially at Kassa and Eperjes, with +honours usually accorded only to royalty. The +nation felt that he was the living personification +of all the political and poetical aspirations of +the Magyars then struggling for manifestation. +In 1846 he made, in the county of Szathmár, the +acquaintance of that strange and ill-balanced +girl, who was to become his wife. Juliet Szendrey +was her name. She was the daughter of a +steward on one of the great estates of a Hungarian +nobleman, and had from early years shown +symptoms of that malady which is now more +widely known under the name of “new womanism,” +or “<i>féminisme</i>.” Accordingly, she was eccentric +and aimless, and when Petőfi made love to her +she was at a loss how to respond to a feeling +so simple and natural. Having given Petőfi<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189"></a>[189]</span> +some cruel samples of the waywardness of her +temper, it occurred to her that she might inflict +even more pain on her father by marrying the +poor poet, and consequently she did so against +the wish of her parent. The young couple lived +in very primitive lodgings in Pest, and Madame +took her fame as the wife of a great man with +very grand airs. She so intensely appreciated +the happiness of being wedded to a young genius +and an affectionate husband, that she married, +not quite a year after Petőfi’s disappearance on +the battlefield of Segesvár, a man in every way +infinitely inferior to Petőfi. Can anything prove +the Fata Morgana character of poetry and of +poets more cruelly than the ever infamous conduct +of that highly cultivated woman, who, after +having been idolized and, in verses, immortalized +by one of the greatest of poets, showed her +worthlessness by marrying a mediocrity before +a single year had elapsed after the glorious +death of her husband, whose infant son still +required all her care? But let us return to +the poet. A few months after his marriage +Petőfi began his political career by announcing +to the people of Pest the abolition of the censorship, +and by reading to the enthusiastic crowd +his famous poem, “Rise o’ Magyar” (“<i>Talpra +magyar!</i>”), on the Ides of March, 1848. Towards +the end of the same year he took service in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190"></a>[190]</span> +revolutionary army, and was attached to the +Polish general, Bem, a hero wounded in untold +battles for liberty, and then serving the cause +of the Magyars in Transylvania. Few letters +are more touching than the letters written by +Petőfi in fair French to the old warrior, his +“father,” as he calls him. Bem, himself a genius +of character, at once felt and recognized the +genius of Petőfi, and with great tact smoothed +over difficulties arising from the poet’s wild +insubordination. Against the advice and in spite +of the entreaties of numerous friends, who wanted +to save the poet for his country, Petőfi took +actual part in various battles. He was last +heard of in the battle of Segesvár, in Transylvania, +on July 31st, 1849, where he died as +he had long wished, fighting for his country. +“To live for love, and die for one’s country”—he +had not only sung it....</p> + +<p>The works of Petőfi are both lyrical and +epical; his novelistic attempts, “The Rope of the +Hangman” (“<i>A hóhér kötele</i>”) are crude, so are +his few essays in the drama. Amongst his +epics, “<i>Childe John</i>” (“<i>János vitéz</i>”) is the best. +It is a comic epic, or rather a fairy-story told +with exquisite humour and exuberance of fancy. +Another excellent comic epic of his is “<i>Bolond +İstók</i>.” His lyrical poems are very numerous +and cover, as has been already indicated, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191"></a>[191]</span> +whole range of human sentiment. Perhaps it is +not superfluous to remark that there is in all the +works of Petőfi not a word likely to jar on the +ear of the most fastidious moralist. Like himself, +his works all breathe the purity and health of +untainted youth.</p> + +<p>The reader will now perhaps expect a +laborious statement of the shortcomings and +failings of Petőfi as a poet. And many a +Hungarian critic has, apart from his professional +duty to fall foul of this or that feature +in the literary physiognomy of poets, pointed +out some grievous drawbacks in Petőfi’s works. +Thus, most critics have, while lauding the +splendid lyrical subjectivity of Petőfi, pointed +out his alleged incapacity to write anything +else than himself. His chief deficiency, it has +been asserted, is his lack of objective imagination, +such as was possessed by the great epic +and dramatic writers of European literature. +To this the answer is, it appears to us, very +simple. Petőfi never wrote a work intended to +be an epic proper; nor were his attempts at +dramatic composition really serious. He cannot, +therefore, be legitimately reproached with having +failed where he did not intend to succeed. He +never deliberately worked for such achievements +of objective imagination as show in the creation +of dramatic personalities. Yet most of his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192"></a>[192]</span> +perfect poems manifest, as we have tried to show +above, that very objective imagination in the +rarest form of strength. Hungarian literary criticism +is still, we regret to say, in a stage of +development considerably lower than Hungarian +literary composition. Hence such judgments on +Petőfi. Can we pronounce otherwise on the +literary critics of Hungary, who have so far +produced no single comprehensive study on the +works of a poet who is at once their greatest +and most famous genius? Genius has this +peculiarity that its works are easy to enjoy but +hard to criticise. In reality, it takes another +genius, a critical one, to appreciate it adequately. +In this respect, foreign literary criticism has +been relatively more just to Petőfi. In all the +countries of Europe and America, Petőfi’s name +has been steadily spreading, and numerous +attempts at translations of his works have been +made in both hemispheres. We do not think +that Petőfi is untranslatable. His very objectiveness +renders him more fit for free and yet +faithful translations than, for instance, Arany +(<a href="#Page_194">see page 194</a>). Another reason is that Petőfi +lays less stress on form and metre than other +poets of an equal rank. He who fully seizes +the beauty of the poetic subject-matter in +Petőfi’s poems can render them more or less +adequately in any language. More, however,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193"></a>[193]</span> +than by translation might be achieved by Hungarian +artists who by picturing the paintable +features of Petőfi’s poems, would contribute most +potently to a general appreciation of his genius. +There are hundreds of perfect pictures to be +taken from his works, provided the painter +takes them from him in the way in which +Petőfi took them from nature.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194"></a>[194]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII">CHAPTER XXVIII.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>Outside Hungary, the name of John Arany is +seldom heard; and western readers will be astonished +to hear that Arany is considered by many +of the best known Magyar critics the greatest +of the Hungarian poets. Petőfi has never quite +pleased the professors of æsthetics and poetry +in the various universities and “<i>academies</i>” of +Hungary; and there being no Magyar Saint +Beuves or August Schlegels, to guide, with tact +sustained by learning, and learning eased by +tact, the tastes and literary opinions of the +professorial minds in Hungary, it is not rare +to hear and read of Arany as the greatest +poetic genius of the Magyars. We hasten to +add, that we readily bow to the greatness and +charm, and still more to the merits of Arany. +He is a great poet indeed. Nearly every one +of his numerous ballads, epics and smaller +poems is replete with the glamour of true +poetry. In point of language he is, no doubt,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195"></a>[195]</span> +the most idiomatic and richest of all Hungarian +writers. Yet, with all these gifts and +excellencies, he is not equal to Petőfi. Reaching, +as he did, an age nearly three times as protracted +as that of Petőfi, he could yet not, through +any stretch of time or effort, attain to powers +which have been bestowed upon very few poets. +Petőfi ranks with the world’s greatest poets; +Arany ranks only with the great poets of +Hungary. To the strictly Magyar Jingo, as well +as to the Magyar professor, Arany may appear +greater even than Petőfi; we hope to show that +his genius is of a nature at once different from +and smaller than that of the incomparable +Alexander.</p> + +<p>The reader will, we trust, permit us to premise +a short remark which, especially for English +readers, seems indispensable for a right appreciation +of Arany. In England there has long +ceased to be a peasantry proper; at any rate, +there has for now over 400 years been no such +peasantry in England, as may still be seen on +the continent generally, and in Hungary in particular. +The type “peasant” is at once the arch-type +of narrow-mindedness, sordidness, <i>naïveté</i>, and +spontaneous poetry. He is conservative in the +extreme and slow, yet frequently the source of +great upheavals and revolutions. His speech is +concrete and “<i>terre-à-terre</i>,” yet at the same<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196"></a>[196]</span> +time full of quaint metaphors and conceits. His +thoughts are all on the line of synthesis; and +analysis is as strange to him as generalization. +He loves Nature; but he is too much at one +with it, part of it, to feel poetically the gulf +between Nature and Man. Honour and respect +for himself and his ancient customs are as the +life-atmosphere of his existence; and thus in +the social architecture of the continental state +to him is allotted the staying force of the +pillars, beams and rafters of the building.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> +This, the general picture of the continental +peasant, has to be touched up here and there +when meant to represent the Hungarian peasant +proper. For, luckily for Hungarian poets, the +Magyar peasant, while fully as conservative +and old-fashioned as his Austrian or German +brother, is considerably less sordid, more +frank, and altogether more “gentlemanly.” Yet +he is a peasant, a part both of Hungary’s civic +and natural complexion. Now it is this Hungarian +peasant, and his social complement, the +rural nobleman, who are the centre of +Arany’s poetry. We say “complement,” for it +is at present well understood by all close<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197"></a>[197]</span> +students of continental nobility, that the latter +is, in essence and sociological drift, if not in +appearance, one and the same phenomenon as +the peasantry. Both classes form the conservative +or static forces of continental states, and +both are necessary conditions for the existence +of a <i>bourgeois</i> proper. Without them, or without +one of them, the medium or <i>bourgeois</i> +element is altogether wanting, or, as in England, +of a complexion totally at variance with the +continental middle class. Now in Hungary, and +more especially still, in the Hungary of Arany’s +youth and first manhood (1840-1870), there was +no numerous <i>bourgeois</i> proper; and Arany, +singing in tones and images flowing from and +meant for the two other classes only, is for +that very reason <i>toto coelo</i> different from most +of the German and French and also from +English poets. Modern western literature, in +Austria and Germany exclusively; in France +almost, and in England largely so, is <i>bourgeois</i> +poetry; poetry written by and for the middle +and central classes of the community; or at +any rate expressive of sentiments and mental +states growing in the atmosphere of <i>bourgeois</i> +life. The poems of Arany, on the other hand, +were growing in the fields and farms of the +peasant, and in the manors of the landed +nobility; even more in the former than in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198"></a>[198]</span> +latter. Theirs is a spirit charming in its rural +breeziness and compact humour; fascinating in +its <i>naïveté</i> and coyness; but somewhat out of +tune with the modern or <i>bourgeois</i> sentiment. +The more the middle or <i>bourgeois</i> class develops +in Hungary, the less the fame of Arany +will continue unimpaired. His works will be +unable to satisfy the poetic needs of a class +which he did not know, and with which he +had but scant sympathy. His very <i>naïveté</i>, his +greatest poetic charm, will be found wanting. +<i>Naïveté</i>, like all other tempers of the heart or +mind, has its geography, its <i>locus</i>. It does +not grow anywhere or everywhere. It requires +a peculiar borderland situated where two social +classes meet. In that borderland it grows willingly. +Such lands are of course to be found +only where classes do meet socially. In England, +for instance, classes carefully avoid meeting +intimately in a social manner; although they do +so frequently in a manner political, commercial +and religious. Hence, <i>naïveté</i> is scarcely to be +found, either in English life or in English +poetry. By a parity of reasoning, American +poetry, based on a life with practically no classes +whatever, can boast still fewer of the blossoms +of naïve types or naïve style. Arany’s world, it +is true, is one where the two classes, the nobleman +and the peasant, do meet intimately, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199"></a>[199]</span> +thus the flowers of <i>naïveté</i> are plentiful. It is +a <i>naïveté</i> shy of display and timid; a <i>naïveté</i> +in deeds more than in words; and finally, a +<i>naïveté</i> of men rather than of women. It has, +when enjoyed in Arany’s own exquisite Magyar, +a flavour so pure and hearty, so thoroughly +true and poetic as to endear everything it +touches. Yet it is the <i>naïveté</i> of the peasant, +not of the <i>bourgeois</i>. It is poor in types, and +restricted in emotions. It does not respond to +the psychical atmosphere of the ever growing +<i>bourgeois</i> class in Hungary, and accordingly the +numerous readers of that class look for their +reading somewhere else. The peasant and the +rural nobleman are both captivating types for +poets; they do not, however, represent more +than a minor aspect of that broad humanity +which has so far found its noblest expression +in tales, dramas and poems grafted on events +or sentiments of individuals outside the clans +and septs of peasants and noblemen. The +Germans, who have the excellent term of +“<i>bürgerliches Drama</i>” (<i>bourgeois</i> drama), have +felt that profound change coming over western +literature very keenly; and the greatness of +their literature is owing to that circumstance +in no small degree. As in Hungary, nearly all +great writers were, first magnates, and then +noblemen (even Petőfi was a nobleman,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200"></a>[200]</span> +although he set no value on that fact), so in +Germany all the great writers have been without +an exception, “<i>Bürger</i>” (<i>bourgeois</i>) proper. +Now it is the peculiar greatness of Petőfi that +many of his poems appeal to the sentiments +and mental attitudes of that specifically modern +public, the <i>bourgeois</i> readers, with a force and +sympathy as strong as is the charm of many +others to the “common people” or peasants of +Hungary. It is said of Pico de Mirandola that +while he excited the awe and admiration of the +most learned and thoughtful men at the end of the +fifteenth century Rome and Florence, the maidens +and young men of the beautiful city on the Arno +were singing with delight his exquisite love-songs. +Such is Petőfi; such is not Arany. He +cannot properly be enjoyed except in his own +Magyar, and by readers intimately acquainted +with the two classes he belongs to. Not even +when he selects, as he sometimes does, foreign +subjects, as in his “<i>The Bards of Wales</i>,” does +he become less “clannish.” Of the strongest of +all feelings of young humanity, of Love, he has +none but epic expression; he never wrote a love-song +proper. The women in his epics are mere +phantasms, angels or fiends; and his men are +peasants or heroes, or both. The point on +which he excels every other Hungarian poet, and +on which will repose his lasting fame, is his<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201"></a>[201]</span> +language. It has the raciness of the peasant’s +talk with the moderation of refined style. In +other countries writers introduced new elements of +poetic speech by means of using words or phrases +taken or imitated from one of the dialects of their +province or county. Even in Shakespeare there +are traces of the then Warwickshire dialect, and +probably still more of Warwickshire folk-lore. +German writers have legitimated innumerable +provincialisms. Hungarian, on the other hand, +has no dialects, or none to speak of. The +writer who wants to find new linguistic affluents +can turn only to the stock used by the peasants +in the vast plain of Hungary. Arany, replete +as he was with all the wealth of the language +used by the peasants, knew how to ennoble and +purify the language of the farmers and shepherds +of the <i>puszta</i>, and to impart to it much of +that Greek simplicity and beauty of which, as +a scholar, he was so competent a student. As +the French language is not rich in words but +in idioms, so Hungarian is not rich in words +but in word-formations. Especially the verb +admits of a variety of forms and terminations +enveloping every shade of thought or movement +with the glibness of water. It is in such +linguistic feats that Arany shows his genius; +and since language in Hungary has an importance +tenfold more significant than in countries<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202"></a>[202]</span> +composed of less polyglot peoples, it is quite +natural that in the literary appreciation of +Arany at the hands of Magyar critics the +political element has played a very considerable +part. This is, as we stated above, his great +merit. Language in all modern countries has +at first been the make of the peasant classes. +In them there is that mysterious and instinctive +power which has produced the splendid series +of Romance and Teutonic languages which, by +literary craft, have come to be formed into the +diction of Dante, Cervantes, Molière, Shakespeare, +and Goethe. Arany, in focussing this +power with the strength of a mind at once +<i>logopoeic</i> and richly stored with knowledge, did +an inestimable service to the cause of Magyar +Literature and Magyar Nationality. In that +respect he occupies in Hungarian Literature a +place undoubtedly higher than that of any +other Magyar writer. In matter, he could not +fully unite the strictly Magyar with the broader +European element; in poetic language, on the +other hand, he did achieve that union; and it +is in that achievement of his that we must +look for his specific genius and merit.</p> + +<p>Unlike as was Arany’s personality to that of +Petőfi: the former modest and retiring, the latter +self-assertive and dashing; their careers too were +equally different from each other. Arany’s life<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203"></a>[203]</span> +(1817-Oct. 22nd, 1882), was one of quiet work +first as a teacher, and later on (1860), as president +of the Kisfaludy Society, and since 1864, as +Secretary of the Academy of Science. The +latter part of his life was distressed by persistent +ill-health. In character Arany belonged +to the select few, who have never stooped to +any baseness whatever and never lost sight of +the ideals of their youth. He was the intimate +friend of Petőfi, who at once recognized his +greatness, and the tolerant patron of the younger +generation of writers. The nation mourned his +death as a national calamity.</p> + +<p>Arany is, almost exclusively, a poet of epic +songs, epics proper and ballads. Of the former +his most finished works are the Toldi Trilogy, +consisting of “<i>Toldi</i>” (the name of the hero, +published in 1847); “<i>Toldi szerelme</i>” (“The love +of Toldi,” published in 1879); and “<i>Toldi estéje</i>” +(“The eve of Toldi,” published previously in +1854). These three epics, written in rhymed +six-feet stanzas of eight lines each, tell the +life-story of an historic Magyar peasant-hero of +the fourteenth century, in the times of King +Lewis, justly called the “Great.” He is of +herculean strength, of violent temper, but good-hearted, +simple, a loving son, and a loyal friend +and subject. His struggle against his wicked +brother; his love for Piroska, whom, in a passage<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204"></a>[204]</span> +at arms, he foolishly wins for another wooer; +his despair at seeing the idol of his heart +the wife of another; finally, his declining years +when he finds himself out of accord with the +changed times, and retires home to be put +into the grave he had dug for himself. Such +is, in the main, the contents of the three epics, +into which the wizard language of Arany has +infused the charms of real poetry. It would +be idle to compare Arany’s art with that of +Goethe’s “<i>Hermann und Dorothea</i>.” Goethe’s +hero too is rather a peasant farmer than a +<i>bourgeois</i>. Yet all the other figures of Goethe’s +masterpiece are endowed with life so intensely +<i>bourgeois</i>, as to secure admiration for the work +in all times to come. Arany’s hero; his dear +old mother; his brother; his love, etc., scarcely +leave the boundaries of peasant-world; and while +his epic will thus for ever charm the youth of +Hungary, it may in future cease to be an object +of lasting admiration on the part of the more +mature classes of the nation.</p> + +<p>The same great qualities of linguistic <i>verve</i> and +intense poetic sentiment are to be found in the +other epical poems of Arany. In the “Death of +Buda” (<i>Buda halála</i>, 1864), he sings the legendary +story of Attila’s murder of his own brother +Buda (Bleda). In this exquisite epic Attila +(or Etele, as Arany calls him), is pictured as a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205"></a>[205]</span> +hero of the magnificent type, and nothing could +be more removed from the poet’s “Etele,” than +the conventional or historic Attila. Tragical +energy and incomparable language render this +poem one of intense charm. It was intended +for one of three great epics narrating the cycle +of Hun legends; of the other two we have only +fragments. The romantic story of Wesselényi +and Mary Szécsi (<a href="#Page_58">see page 58</a>), was made into +a charming epic by Arany, under the title +“The capture of Murány” (“<i>Murány ostroma</i>,” +1849). In “The Gypsies of Nagy Ida” (“<i>A +nagyidai czigányok</i>,” 1852), Arany gave vent, +in form of a satirical burlesque, to his profound +sorrow over his country’s decadence, after the +suppression of the liberal movement in 1848-1849. +His ballads are generally considered to +represent the best specimens of Magyar ballad-writing. +It must certainly be conceded that +few ballad-writers, whether in or outside Hungary, +have so completely hit the true ballad-tone, +or internal ring of thought and word +adapted to subjects so utterly out of keeping +with our modern sentiment. It may be doubted +whether Chopin himself in his ballad in F major +has so felicitously intuned the lay of olden +romance as has Arany in his mostly sombre +ballads, such as “Duel at midnight” (“<i>Éjféli +párbaj</i>”), “Knight Pázmán” (“<i>Pázmán lovag</i>”),<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206"></a>[206]</span> +“Marfeast” (“<i>Ünneprontók</i>”). As in the best +English or German ballads, events are, as a rule, +only indicated, not described, and hurry on to +their fatal termination with terrible speed. All +is action and fierce movement.</p> + +<p>In addition to his activity as a creative poet, +Arany also did much for the introduction of +foreign and classical literature into Hungary by +way of translations. His most successful work +in that line were the translations of several +dramas of Shakespeare (<i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Midsummer +Night’s Dream</i>, <i>King John</i>), and more especially +still his most exquisite (—<i>pace</i> all the German +philologists!—) translation of the comedies of +Aristophanes.</p> + +<p>We ought now to devote a considerable space to +a poet who, in his time, was generally associated +with Petőfi and Arany. We mean Michael Tompa +(1817-1868). While it is now impossible to rank +Tompa with either Petőfi or Arany, he yet occupies +a very conspicuous place in Magyar literature. His +intense love of nature, his profound religious sentiment, +and his fine humour entitle him to be considered +as foremost amongst the lesser lyrical +glories of Hungary. We can only regret that we +cannot give here more than this bare indication +of the peculiar individuality of the author of the +“Flower-fables” (<i>Virágregék</i>).</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207"></a>[207]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIX">CHAPTER XXIX.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>The dramatic literature of the Hungarians, as may +be seen from the preceding chapters, was, at the +beginning of the twenties of this century, in a most +backward condition. For reasons that it is very +difficult to ascertain, some of the most dramatic +nations, such as the Italians, have rarely or never +excelled in drama-writing; while the English, who +do not claim to be either conspicuously emotional +or dramatic, have given the world the incomparable +dramas of Shakespeare. In Italy, the lack of +great dramatists may perhaps be ascribed to the +fact, that female parts were, at least down to the +end of the last century, played by boys. Yet a +glance at the Attic theatre deprives this reason of +much of its value. Be this as it may, the great +influence of theatres and acting on dramatists can +scarcely be denied. In Hungary, at any rate, the +very indifferent condition of the theatre in the first +three decades of the century bulks large amongst +the causes producing a dearth of good Magyar +dramas. This becomes evident when we consider<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208"></a>[208]</span> +that the first really great drama of a Magyar writer, +“Banus Bánk” (“<i>Bánk bán</i>”), by Katona, passed +unnoticed for over fourteen years (1818-1834), until +a great actor, Gabriel Egressy, made it popular. +The Hungarians are naturally good actors, and +very fond of theatre-going. It will perhaps +scarcely be believed in the enlightened west, where +so late as November, 1897, one of the leading daily +papers of England was permitted to speak of +English and French literature as the only two +great literatures of the modern world, that in +Hungary there has been, and for some time too, a +wealth of dramas of an intrinsic value at least as +great as that of any British drama written within +the last hundred and fifty years, and played by +actors and actresses fully the equals of their +colleagues at the <i>Comédie Française</i>. This remarkable +growth of dramatic literature in Hungary did +not, however, begin before the fourth decade of +the present century. The epics and ballads of +Vörösmarty, Garay, Czuczor, etc., seemed to +captivate the public to the exclusion of all other +forms of poetry. The patriotic tune ringing, and +expected to ring through all popular works previous +to the Revolution of 1848, threw their authors into +the worship of the heroic past and thus into +Romanticism. It was, accordingly, quite natural +that dramatists, in order to catch the public ear, +indulged rather in heroic ranting and tirades, than<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209"></a>[209]</span> +in dramatic characterization. The heroes of the +tragedies of Charles Kisfaludy (<a href="#Page_116">see page 116</a>), for +instance, are rhetoric blown into the shape of +persons. Everything Magyar is perfect; the +Magyars are delicately reminded, in pages full of +endless adulation, that they are, to use an +American phrase, “the greatest, the best fed, and +the best clad nation on the face of the globe.” +Their heroes are the greatest; their past the +most glorious. This sort of jingoism may be +tolerated in epics and ballads, where other redeeming +features may save the literary value of the +work. In dramas it is fatal. Yet it is in the +drama where Romanticism may attain to really +perfect works. The writer of romantic ballads +must, in the end, fall into the snares of an +exaggerated patriotism, and thus vitiate his work, +rendering it less acceptable to a sober and unchauvinistic +posterity. The dramatic writer, on the +other hand, need not necessarily run the same risk. +If he has power to chisel out of the given material +of a nation’s past one or the other truly human +character in all its grandeur, and in all its shortcomings, +then the historic staging and bygone +emotional atmosphere of the past will serve only to +set off the dramatic beauties of the work all the +more plastically. Arany’s Edward I. in the “Bards +of Wales” (<a href="#Page_200">see page 200</a>), is a ruthless and senseless +tyrant that must pall on us in the end. Richard<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210"></a>[210]</span> +III., on the other hand, can never pall on us; for +in him we recognize many an unavowed demon +ravaging our own souls. Arany’s Edward I. +is a ballad-figure; Shakespeare’s Richard III. is +a piece of true humanity. To the dramatic poet it +is indifferent from what part of the globe he takes +his material; for humanity is spread all over the +planet. So a nation’s heroic past too may be +quite welcome to him, provided he is a real dramatist. +Katona was such. He is rough and inharmonious +in language, but there is real dramatic +life in his men and women. For the first time in +Hungarian Literature the true tone of tragedy was +heard. The terrible fate of the Banus comes home +to hearers, Hungarian or otherwise; it is yawning +out of the abyss of conflicts to which all of us are +liable. He is a loyal subject of his king, and yet +bursts out in open rebellion; nay worse, he kills +his queen. He is a great patriot; yet finally +makes a rebellious plot with a foreign adventurer. +He is a perfect nobleman; yet ultimately breaks +all the laws of true nobility. He is a loving husband; +yet contemplates assassinating his beautiful +wife. And as he is, so are the other persons of the +drama. In them is pictured the conflicting nature +of the human heart and character as it really is: +rough, unbending, false, yet capable of sublime +self-abnegation. Or as Petőfi says: “Rain from +heaven turning mud on earth.” The plot is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211"></a>[211]</span> +as follows: Bánk, in the absence of King +Andrew II. of Hungary justiciar of the country, +has reason to believe that Gertrude, the haughty +and unpopular queen, countenances the vile designs +of her brother Otto on Bánk’s beautiful wife +Melinda. A rebellion of the malcontent nobles under +Petur is breaking out. Bánk, who ought to quell +it by virtue of his office, is thrown out of his moral +equilibrium by the news that Melinda has been +seduced by Otto. Forgetful of his position, he +obeys only the behests of his outraged soul and +kills Gertrude. The king returns, the rebellion is +put down, and Bánk perishes. In Katona’s drama +there is more power than form. It will easily +be understood that his chief model was Shakespeare. +He himself did not live to see the great +success of his only masterpiece; he died broken-spirited +in 1830 at Kecskemét, in the thirty-eighth +year of his luckless life.</p> + +<p>The first remarkable Hungarian dramatist after +Katona is Edward Szigligeti (his real name was +Joseph Szatmáry), 1814-1878. From an early date +he was in constant contact with the theatre and +with actors, and so acquired great practical knowledge +of stage-lore. He had deeply studied the art +of stage effect, and all his very numerous dramatic +works testify to an extraordinary stage-craft. It +would, however, be unfair to compare him to +writers like Kotzebue in Germany, or Labiche in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212"></a>[212]</span> +France. His routine, no doubt, was pre-eminent +in many of his pieces; yet, beside and beyond the +mere cleverness of the playwright, he had real <i>vis +comica</i> and a profound knowledge of Hungarian +society. During his life-time that society was +slowly but steadily emerging from the semi-civilized +state of the former patriarchalism to the +forms and usages of modern life. In such periods +of transition there is ample material for anyone +gifted with a keen sense of humour. The aping +of western manners (ridiculed in “<i>Marna</i>,” 1857; +“Female Rule” [“<i>Nőuralom</i>” 1862], etc.); the +humour of the altered family-life (“Three Matrimonial +Commands” [“<i>Házassági három parancs</i>,”] +1850; “Stephen Dalos” [<i>Dalos Pista</i>], 1855; +etc.); odd remnants of the former social state, +such as tramping actors, the still-life of small +towns; all this Szigligeti knew how to dramatize +with great effect. Like Charles Kisfaludy he +drew with great felicity on the stores of drastic +humour pervading a conservative society composed +of many a discrepant element and moving +onwards on entirely new lines of development. +He tried his skilful hand at tragedies too, and +“The Shadows of Light” (“<i>A fény árnyai</i>,” 1865,) +and “The Pretender” (“<i>A trónkereső</i>”, 1868,) are +said to be meritorious. His rare stage-craft and +witty dialogue alone, however, could not have +raised his name to the height on which it rests, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213"></a>[213]</span> +where in all probability it will continue to rest. +Szigligeti’s name is justly famous for being the real +founder of what, for lack of a better name in +English, must be called the Hungarian folk-drama. +In England there is no such thing, and no such +word. Already in our remarks on Arany (<a href="#Page_195">see +page 195</a>), we essayed to show that the continental +peasantry is generically different from any class of +small farmers in England. That peasantry is, in +reality, a world of its own. It is as much a world +of its own, as is the well-known world of the +“upper ten.” He who has never been in what +the knowing call “<i>le monde</i>,” will easily confound +the sentiments and thoughts of his own world with +those of the “<i>monde</i>.” Yet the two worlds are two +worlds indeed. Their whole tone and rhythm of life +is different. They are written not only in different +scales but also for different instruments. It is +even so with the world of peasantry in Hungary or +in Austria. How silly of some painfully enlightened +people to ascribe, for instance, the mass of prejudice +and superstition in the Hungarian or German +peasantry to a lack of that “<i>Bildung</i>” or school-knowledge +which is acquired through books and +bookmen! The current belief in witches, fairies, +imps and such-like elf-folk, good and bad, grows +with the peasantry of those countries, out of the +same roots that nourish in the “higher classes” the +craving for and the delight in fairy operas and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214"></a>[214]</span> +fantastic novels. Each social “world” demands +pleasures and distractions of the same kind; each +satisfying that craving in a different manner. The +urban gentleman and lady while away tedious +winter evenings by visits to theatres, where unlikely, +demoniac and over-exciting pieces are an everyday +occurrence. The peasants in Hungary have +no such theatres; yet long winter evenings hang +just as heavily on their hands. They therefore +while away their leisure-hours by stories fantastic +and demoniac, the literal belief in which must +needs grow in direct proportion to the lack of all +theatrical stage environment. As with superstitions, +so it is with all the other great social needs. The +Hungarian peasant, when outraged in his sentiments, +does not, it is true, fight a duel like the +gentleman. Yet he, too, becomes a duellist, retiring +into the woods, and fighting society at large as +a “<i>szegény legény</i>” or brigand. <i>Plus cela change, +plus c’est la même chose.</i></p> + +<p>It will now be perhaps somewhat clearer that the +Hungarian peasantry, <i>qua</i> peasantry, lends itself to +dramatization in the same way as does any other +of the “worlds of men.” The common humanity +of men is to be found in that peasantry too; but it is +modified, coloured, and discoloured, “timbred” and +attuned in a different mood. It admits of tragedies +proper; of comedies; and of burlesques. It is +Szigligeti’s great merit to have discovered this new<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215"></a>[215]</span> +dramatic ore. Without in the least trying to +diminish his glory, we cannot but add, that +through the great revolution coming over Hungary +as over the rest of Europe, in the period from the +third to the seventh decade of this century, a +revolution social no less than political, the peculiar +and distinct character of the world of peasants +became, by contrast to the rising <i>bourgeoisie</i> and +the changing nobility, much more easily discernible +than it had been ever before in Hungary. Yet +Szigligeti was the first to seize on that dramatic +<i>res nullius</i>; and both for this discovery and the +excellent specimens of folk-dramas which he wrote, +he deserves all credit. His most remarkable folk-dramas +are: “The Deserter” (“<i>Szökött Katona</i>,” +1843); “The <i>Csikós</i>” (1846); and “The Foundling” +(“<i>Lelencz</i>,” 1863).</p> + +<p>We can here only mention the dramas of +Sigismund Czakó, who for some time before his +voluntary death in 1847, was very popular; of +Charles Obernyik (1816-1855); and of Ignatius +Nagy; the two latter being very popular before +the Revolution of 1848, owing to their excessively +“patriotic” dialogues. A far higher place in +Hungarian dramatic literature is due to the noble +Count Ladislas Teleky, who also died by his own +hand. His “The Favourite” (“<i>A Kegyencz</i>,” 1841), +the subject of which is taken from the time of the +Roman Emperor Valentinian III., is credited with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216"></a>[216]</span> +great force of irony, dramatic truth and power of +imagination. In Charles Hugo (<i>recte</i> Charles Hugo +Bernstein), 1817-1877, the Hungarian drama might +have gained a dramatic power of rare quality, had +the overweening self-infatuation of the author, +together with his poor knowledge of Magyar, not +rendered him a victim to his first success. He +is one of the numerous Titans of the Hungarian +capital, who cannot do anything half-way creditable +unless they fail to gain reputation. No +sooner do they become “famous,” than they cease +to be either interesting or productive. Hugo’s +“Banker and Baron” (“<i>Bankár és Báró</i>”) had not +only a great, but an extraordinary success. Not +only incense was strewn before the poet, but, to +use Lessing’s phrase, the very censer was hurled at +his head. The enthusiastic crowd carried the +author bodily from the theatre to his favourite +<i>Café</i>. This unhinged poor Hugo’s mental equilibrium. +He considered himself a second Victor +Hugo; and so never wrote any other great drama. +The merit of “Banker and Baron” is very considerable. +It is one of the then few attempts at +writing a real <i>bourgeois</i> drama, in which the +common human heritage of virtues and vices, +affections and passions, is presented with great +force and dramatic vivacity.</p> + +<p>Of a style and tone quite different from the +preceding dramas is the “dramatic poem,” as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217"></a>[217]</span> +the author calls it, entitled “The Tragedy of Man,” +by Emericus Madách (1829-1864). In that great +poem there is revealed all the sombreness of +profound melancholy, wailing over the bootless +struggle of Man since the unlucky moment of his +creation. As the reader may have noticed in the +course of the present work, the Hungarians, as a +nation, are strongly inclined to pathos; just as the +English are to satire and the French to irony. In +the youthful members of the Magyar nation that +bent is at times so strong as to dominate all the +other modes and faculties of the soul. Hence the +astounding wealth of grave Largos in Hungarian +music, and the melancholy and despondent tone in +many a great work of Hungarian poetry. Few +poems can compare in unaffected sadness and thus +twice saddening effect with Arany’s “<i>Epilogus</i>.” +Madách’s “Tragedy of Man” (“<i>Az ember tragédiája</i>”) +is, as it were, the funeral march of humanity. +It would be utterly wrong to compare it to Goethe’s +“Faust.” Although there is a general similarity in +the drift of the two works, yet the poem of the +luckless and suffering county official of an obscure +Hungarian province is essentially different from +the drama of the Jupiter of German literature. +Madách’s poem is, reduced to its skeleton, a +philosophy of History. He takes us from the hour +when Adam and Eve were innocently walking in +the Garden of Eden, to the times of the Egyptian<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218"></a>[218]</span> +Pharaohs; then to the Athens of Miltiades; to +sinking Rome; to the adventurous period of the +Crusaders; into the study of the astronomer +Kepler in the seventeenth century; thence into the +horrors of the French Revolution; into greed-eaten +and commerce-ridden modern London; nay, into +the ultra-socialist state of the future, in which there +will be no family, no nation, and no individuality +amongst the countless individuals; and where the +ideas of the preceding ages, such as Religion, Art, +Literature, will, by means of scientific formulæ, be +shown up in all their absurdity; still further, the +poet shows the future of the earth, when ice will +cover the whole of its surface, and Europeans and +other human beings will be reduced to the state of +a degraded brute dragging on the misery of existence +in some cave. In all these scenes, Adam, +Eve and the arch-fiend (Lucifer) are the chief and +constantly recurring <i>personæ dramatis</i>. In fact, +all these scenes are meant to be prophetic dreams +of Adam, which Lucifer causes him to have in +order to disgust him with humanity in advance, +and so, by driving him to suicide, to discontinue +humanity. In paradise, Adam learns and teaches +the lesson of man’s incapability of enduring +bliss; in Egypt, Adam, as Pharaoh, experiences +the bottomless wretchedness of tyranny, where +“millions live for the sake of one;” in Athens he is +made to shudder at the contemptible fickleness of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219"></a>[219]</span> +man when part of a crowd; in sinking Rome he +stands aghast at the corruptibility of mankind, and +in the Crusades at their fanaticism; in the study +of Kepler he comprehends the sickening vanity of +all attempts at real knowledge, and in Paris he is +shown the godless fury of a people fighting for the +dream called Liberty. So in the end, Adam, +despairing of his race, wants to commit suicide, +when, in the critical moment, Eve tells him that +she is going to be a mother by him; whereby his +intention of discontinuing his race by suicide is +baffled. Adam then prostrates himself before +God, who encourages him to hope and trust, +making him feel that man is part of an infinite +and indestructible power, and will struggle not +quite in vain. Like Goethe’s Faust, the great +poem of Madách was not meant for the stage; yet, +like Faust, it has proved of intense effect on the +stage too. It is, as may be seen, a philosophic +poem excelling rather in the beauty and loftiness +of the thoughts conveyed or suggested than by +power of characterization or dramatic vigour. In +general literature we should like to compare it +most to the “<i>De rerum natura</i>” of Lucretius. The +powerful melancholy of the Roman is of a kind +with the gloom of the Hungarian; and while the +former dwells more on the material and religious +aspect of man, and the latter on social phenomena +in all their width and breadth, yet both sing the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220"></a>[220]</span> +same tempestuous <i>nocturne</i> of Man’s sufferings and +shortcomings, illuminating the night of their +despondency by stars of luminous thought. +Madách died at too early an age to finish more +than this one masterpiece. His other poems are +inferior.</p> + +<p>Dramatic literature in Hungary in the last thirty +years has been growing very rapidly; and both +the drama of the “world” <i>folk</i>, and that of the +“world” <i>monde</i> has met with very gifted, nay, in +some cases, exceedingly gifted writers. During +that period, Hungary has completely regained its +absolute autonomy, and the Hungarian State, from +having had an annual revenue of not quite sixteen +millions in 1867, has now a revenue of over forty +million pounds a year. Budapest has grown to +be a town of over six hundred thousand inhabitants; +and the general progress of Hungary, +material as well as intellectual, social and political, +has been such as, relatively, that of no other country +in Europe in the same period. In the midst +of the dramatic movement of all organs of the Hungarian +commonwealth, the drama proper could not +but make great strides too. It is here impossible +to do justice to each of the very numerous +and talented Hungarian dramatists of our day. +We should only like, in treating of a necessarily +small number of modern Hungarian writers of +dramatic works, to premise a remark in the interest<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221"></a>[221]</span> +of a better understanding of their literary value. +The English or American public are, as a rule, +very much inclined to think little of things of +which they have “never heard.” We are not +blaming them for that. Reading as they do great +newspapers every day, they naturally come to +think that, to alter the old legal phrase, “what is +not to be found in the ‘paper,’ that does not exist.” +Hungarian dramas are seldom or never translated +for the English stage; they are never talked about +in the press; hence, the general public will +tacitly assume that they can be worth but little. +However, it is with Hungarian dramas as with +Hungarian fruit. Although Hungary produces +exquisite fruit of all kinds, and in enormous +quantities too, the English consumer of fruit has +never heard of “Hungarian apples” or “Hungarian +grapes,” while he is quite familiar with +American or Tasmanian apples of an inferior +quality. The reason of that is simple: the Hungarians +are still in the infancy of the great art of +export. It is even so with the Hungarian drama. +It is not being cleverly enough exported; it wants +active agents and middlemen to bruit it about. We +venture to say that the western nations are the +losers by ignoring or overlooking, as they do, the +modern Hungarian drama. In taking the trouble +to make the acquaintance of the dramas of +Eugene Rákosi, Edward Tóth, Gregory Csiky,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222"></a>[222]</span> +Lewis Dóczi, Lewis Dobsa, Joseph Szigeti, John +Vajda, Árpád Berczik, Stephen Toldy, Anton +Várady, Lewis Bartók, etc., etc., they would find +that together with the greatest European mines for +ore proper, Hungary has also many a profound +mine of ore dramatic, no less than fine specimens +of coins minted out of that ore. There is now a +“tradition” of no inconsiderable duration in the +art of acting; and several actors of the very first +quality, such as Rose Laborfalvy (the late Mrs. +Jókai), Louise Blaha, Lendvay, Egressy, etc., have +set examples and models, inspiring both the poet +and the actor. The theatres at Budapest are +magnificently equipped, and being, as they are, +part of the great national treasure, they partake +to a great extent of the nature of a temple, and +are visited, not as places of sheer distraction, but +as localities of national rallying and spiritual +elevation.</p> + +<p>Most of the leading dramatists of the last five-and-twenty +years are still alive, and it is, therefore, +twice difficult to pass a final judgment on their +works. Mr. Eugene Rákosi, both as a journalist +and a drama-writer, occupies a very conspicuous +place, and if better known in the west of Europe, +would certainly be read, and his pieces seen, with +marked interest. Like Mr. Dóczi, who is a high +official in the common department of Austria-Hungary, +he has that subtle and unanalyzable force<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223"></a>[223]</span> +of surrounding his scenes, and also frequently his +persons, with the splendour of poetic suggestiveness. +In his “Endre and Johanna,” “Wars of +Queens” (“<i>Királynék harcza</i>”), “The School of +Love” (“<i>Szerelem iskolája</i>”), he does not make it his +chief point to create, entangle, still more embroil, +and then finally solve a “problem,” although he is +a master of scene and situation-making. Nor do +he and Mr. Dóczi care to be “realists.” They are +satisfied with being poets. Mr. Dóczi has in his +“The Kiss” (“<i>Csók</i>”) ventured on writing in words +what hitherto has only been a success in the tones +of Mendelssohn: a drama moving in mid-air, in +midsummer night, with gossamery persons and +fairy-ideas, away, far away from our time and land. +In that he has been signally successful, and +Mendelssohn’s overture to the “Midsummer Night’s +Dream” is not sweeter and airier than Mr. Dóczi’s +“Kiss.” Like Mr. Rákosi, Mr. Dóczi is a master +of Hungarian and he wields the German idiom too +with the same grace and energy.</p> + +<p>In our opinion Gregory Csiky (born 1842, died +recently) was the strongest dramatic talent amongst +the modern dramatists in Hungary. He is what +people are pleased to call a “realist;” that is, his +shafts are sunk into the dramatic mines of the +society in the midst of which he lives. His +strong satire and broad humour, his finely-chiselled +language and the bold and true way of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224"></a>[224]</span> +his dramatization raise him to the level of the best +of contemporary dramatists in any country. In his +“The Proletarians” (“<i>A Proletárok</i>”) he has seized +on a large class of <i>déclassés</i> in Hungary, who by +the precipitated legislative reforms after 1867 were +deprived of their previous means of living, and so +turned to parasitic methods of eking out an existence. +That class is brought to dramatic life full +of humorous, sad, and striking phenomena. There +is not in this drama, any more than in Csiky’s +other dramas (“Bubbles” [“<i>Buborékok</i>”], “Two +Loves” [“<i>Két szerelem</i>”], “The Timid” [“<i>A +szégyenlős</i>”], “Athalia,” etc.) the slightest trace of +that morbid psychologism which has made +the fortune of Ibsen. It is all sound, fresh, +penetrating and vibrating with true dramatic life. +Last, not least, there is much beauty of form +and construction. Csiky, who has published very +valuable translations of Sophocles and Plautus, +is thoroughly imbued with the classic sense of +form and with the real vocation of the drama +as the art-work showing the emotional and mental +movements of <i>social</i> types, and not of some +pathologic excrescence of society. In other words, +he does not muddle up, as Ibsen does, the novel +with the drama.</p> + +<p>Amongst the writers of “folk-dramas,” Edward +Tóth (1844-1876), occupies a very high place. +His “The Village Scamp” (“<i>A falu rossza</i>”) tells<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225"></a>[225]</span> +the touching story of a young peasant who, disappointed +in love, loses all moral backbone and +is finally saved by the fidelity of a woman. The +drama is full of scenes taken from Hungarian +peasant life, which is far more dramatic than +peasant life in Germany. The Hungarians have, +till quite recently, never had a Berthold Auerbach, +or a novelist taking the subject of his +novels from peasant life. They have dramatists +of peasant life instead; and a short comparison +with the peasant dramas written by Austrians, +such as those of Anzengruber, will show the +decided superiority of the Hungarians. One +strong element in the folk-dramas of Tóth and +of Francis Csepreghy (1842-1880, author of “The +Yellow Colt” [“<i>A sárga csikó</i>”], “The Red +Purse” [“<i>Piros bugyelláris</i>”]), is the folk-poems +and folk-songs, sung and danced. By this +incidental element of tone and verse, which, +as a sort of inarticulate commentary on the +dramatic scenes does duty for the philosophic +reflections of the non-peasant drama, the hearer +is brought into intimate touch with the very +innermost pulsation of the life of the “folk.”</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226"></a>[226]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXX">CHAPTER XXX.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>In now approaching the modern novel in Hungary +we are at once met, touched, almost overwhelmed +by the dazzling light and lustre of one commanding +genius of the Magyar novel, Maurus Jókai. His +name is at present well-known all over the world, +and his novels are eagerly read by Hungarians and +non-Hungarians alike. The number of his works +is very great, and although over fifty years have +elapsed since the appearance of his first novel +(in 1846), he is still enriching Hungarian and +European literature with ever new works. Nearly +everything has changed in Hungary during the +last forty years; but the love and admiration for +the genius of Jókai has never suffered diminution. +In his checkered life there is not a blot, and in his +long career there is not a single dark spot. Pure, +manly, upright as a patriot, faithful and loving as +a husband, loyal as a subject, kind as a patron, +an indefatigable worker, and, highest of all, a true +friend both to men, fatherland, and literature, +he has given his nation not only great literary<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227"></a>[227]</span> +works to gladden and enlighten them, but also a +sterling example of Magyar virtue and Magyar +honour. It is, especially in Hungary, no common +thing to meet with men of Jókai’s immense power +and love of work. His journalistic articles alone +would fill many a folio volume. His political +activity in the Hungarian Parliament, in the +Lower House of which he was up to January, +1897, when the king called him to the House of +Magnates, was likewise very extensive. And in +addition to that, he was constantly writing novels, +turning out volume after volume, until the total exceeded +two hundred and fifty. In fact, as has been +already hinted at, from an historic point of view +he has, by his unparalleled productiveness, done +some harm less to himself than to other Hungarian +novelists. He himself, although not equally at his +best in every one of his novels, has in the course +of fifty-one years of creative authorship scarcely +lost anything of the distinctly individual greatness +of his genius; and even the later and sometimes +hurried productions of his pen are, to say the least, +most excellent, because intensely interesting reading. +On the other hand, his very popularity +rendered it almost impossible for any other Magyar +novelist to publish novels other than small sketches +or essays. The reading public in Hungary is not +numerous enough to demand lengthy novels from +more than one favourite author. Jókai almost<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228"></a>[228]</span> +supplanted Jósika (<a href="#Page_140">see page 140</a>) and all other +writers of lengthy novels.</p> + +<p>His novels and sketches treat of nearly every +aspect of Magyar life, in the past and in the +present. The heroic deeds of the ancient or +mediæval Magyars are subjects of his novels as +well as the doings and thoughts of official and +non-official Hungary of the present century. It +would, however, be quite incorrect to ascribe to +him any intention of writing the “<i>Comédie +humaine</i>” of Hungary. No such vast system +underlies his countless stories. He has no system; +in reality, nothing is more removed from his mind +than any such big structure of ideas and facts. +He has frequently chosen non-Magyar subjects; +and when treating of Magyar events or institutions, +he has no philosophical aim to pursue, and no +patriotic theory to uphold. He writes novels out +of sheer love of telling tales. In the feeblest +of his works the reader cannot but notice that +singular alertness and freshness of an author +hugely enamoured of his profession—and gaily at +work. The narrating is of much the greater +interest to him; the tale itself does not always +claim his full attention. Whether or no, the plot +is consistently thought out to the end; or, whether +or no, the persons always proceed on the lines of +their characters; all that does not too much +ruffle Jókai’s joyous composure of authorship.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229"></a>[229]</span> +For, to put it in one word, he is an improvisatore; +in fact, the greatest of all known improvisatori. +This is the key to all his excellencies, as well as +to his alleged failings. The Teutonic nations, and +amongst the Latin ones the French are, as a rule, +entirely unfamiliar with that most fascinating of +talking virtuosi, the <i>improvisatore</i>. Even in the +wild excitement of the French Revolution there +was only one orator, Danton, who improvised his +speeches; the rest, even Mirabeau, read them. +The vast amount of <i>parlature</i> done in Hungary, to +which we called attention at the very outset of this +work, has given rise both to marvellous artists of +the living word, and to audiences passionately +fond of listening to good talk, and on all possible +occasions too. The good talker in America is +a man who <i>à propos</i> of any occurrence, is reminded +of a story that happened “in Denver, Colorado, +or Columbus, Ohio.” No such individual would be +endured in Hungary. The good talker there is +an improvisatore proper. He is never “reminded” +of an old story; he invents on the spot or extracts +from the actual topic of conversation all the +sparks of wit and humour that fall upon the prose +of life like dew upon dry flowers. The gift and +long habit of improvisation thus makes some of +those mostly unknown artists most charming +companions and astoundingly clever talkers. He +who has not lived amongst them, cannot possibly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230"></a>[230]</span> +imagine their ease of invention, their humour, +their power of description and their imagination. +They are not, as in Italy, professional improvisatori; +and perhaps nobody would be more +astounded than themselves at the application of +that term to them. Yet, a comparison with the +man in France, who is “<i>bon causeur</i>,” and with the +man in London, who has “remarkable conversational +powers,” will show any unprejudiced +observer the truth of the above characterization +of the Magyar talker. Just as Mark Twain’s +humour is only the improved and, by print, fixed +humour noticeable in many an American, even +so Jókai’s narrative genius is the highest form of +that genius for improvisation which in Hungary +may be met with frequently in lesser perfection. +This explains Jókai’s permanent hold on the +Hungarian nation. He has carried one great +gift of his nation to the heights of real greatness. +We repeat it: he is the greatest of all improvisatori +in prose. Nothing can approach his miraculous +facility in building up a fascinating scene; in +irradiating the heaviest and most cumbrous subject +with light and humour; and in wafting over the +whole tale the Fata Morganas of an exuberant +imagination. Young and old; Hungarian, Englishman +or German; man or woman; they must all +stand still and listen to the charmer. That Jókai +is the best exponent of the Hungarian genius for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231"></a>[231]</span> +improvisation in words will be readily believed and +accepted, when we point out his startling similarity, +almost identity, with another famous Hungarian, +who excelled in works of the same quality but +written in tones instead of in words. We mean +Liszt. Jókai is the Liszt of Hungarian Literature; +we might almost say, of European literature. The +marvellous musician, who, both as a pianist and as +a composer, held the civilized world under his +spell for far over seventy years—(Liszt was born +in 1811 and died in 1887)—was the king of +all musical improvisatori. When he played +Beethoven or Chopin, Bach or Schumann, he impressed +the most cool-headed hearers as if he had +just improvised the pieces he played; that one +circumstance being at the same time the secret +of his unrivalled powers as a pianist. When he +composed—and many, very many of his compositions +are works of lasting merit—the result was +almost invariably an improvisation. It has that +indefinable charm of rapturous glow kindled at +the fire of the moment, which endows improvisations +with a character unique and exceptional. +It excels in major keys far more than minor +moods; it has much unity of character and +<i>Stimmung</i> rather than unity of form; it always +borders on the <i>Fantasia</i>, and never crystallizes +into a sonata proper; it cultivates side-issues, +such as flourishes and <i>fioriture</i> with startling skill<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232"></a>[232]</span> +and vast effect, while the bass, or the underlying +element of thought, is not laboured nor significant; +it appeals to happy people rather than to +such as bear heavy burdens; and it works for +brilliancy more than for reticent beauty. Liszt’s +E flat major concerto, for instance, is an absolutely +faithful replica of some of Jókai’s best novels. +Both authors excel in brilliancy, technical routine, +wealth of imagination, sparkling rhythms and +rapturous descriptiveness. There is nothing majestic +in them, nothing grave, nothing truly sad or +melancholy. Jókai disposes of an inexhaustible +humour. This, as will be admitted, cannot be +readily imitated in music. In Liszt, humour +becomes irony and demoniac scorn. His Polonaise +in E major, for example, with its appalling irony +at Polish excessiveness, is the musical counterpart +to Jókai’s humour. But where Liszt comes +nearest to Jókai is in his Rhapsodies. As in +Jókai, so in Liszt, there is a constant change of +panoramic views; an exquisite wealth of tinkling, +sparring and glistening rhythms; a shower of +glittering dewdrops and an iridescence of sheets +of coloured lights. In a measure, all Jókai’s +novels are placed in fairy-land; as all Liszt’s music +is on the heights of exultation. And, likewise, +the final secret of Jókai’s irresistible charm is in +the improvisatory character of his novels. Jókai’s +reader does not feel that he is being lectured or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233"></a>[233]</span> +moralized or instructed. On the contrary, he +feels that he himself, in inspiring, as it were, the +author, is co-operating with him in the work, just +as the listeners to an improvisatore are doing. +The reader is accorded part of the exquisite +delight of literary creation and so feels twice +happy.</p> + +<p>This peculiar and inimitable feature and excellence +of Jókai is but another manifestation of the +rhapsodic character of the Magyars. Petőfi, and +he alone, was in his best poems, both rhapsodic and +classical. He not only expressed Magyar rhapsodism +lyrically, as has Jókai novelistically and +Liszt musically, but he also imparted to it that +inner form of moderation and harmonious beauty +which, if coupled with perfect expression and +metre, renders poetry classical. It will now be +easily seen why Jókai must needs have the failings +of his virtues. The very nature of rhapsodic +improvisations works chiefly for effect: it is subjective +art, not objective. The production of the +artist is not severed from his personality; it is +intimately allied with and dependent on it. In +Liszt, whose art admits of combining both production +and presentation of the work at one and +the same time, the subjective or personal factors +became so strong as to render him without any +doubt the most fascinating artistic individuality +of this century. It is, therefore, in vain to expect<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234"></a>[234]</span> +in Jókai that patient and self-denying care of the +objective artist for the structural beauty of his +work. It is not the great number of his novels +that has prevented him from giving them as much +objective proportion and consistency as they have +lustre and charm. Mozart died at five-and-thirty, +and left more works than Jókai has written; yet +nearly every one of the better ones was objectively +faultless. It is Jókai’s very art that necessitates +that failing in Art. If he had tried to mend it, +he would have stunted some of that peerless profusion +of fancy which has endeared him to untold +millions. He may displease a few hundreds; +he will always transport the millions. Yet one +remark cannot be suppressed. Hungary, we are +convinced, has not yet arrived at the stage of +literary development when critics and the public +look backwards for the best efforts of the nation’s +intellect. There are still immense possibilities for +Hungarian Literature; and all the constellations +of literary greatness have not yet risen above the +horizon. It will thus not be surprising when we +here venture to urge the necessity of viewing even +a genius such as Jókai’s historically. His merits +are as boundless as his charm. The judgment of +all Europe has confirmed that. For Hungarians, +however, it will be wise to remember, that Jókai +in literature, as Liszt in music, are the highest +types indeed, but of one phase only of the many-souled<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235"></a>[235]</span> +national genius of the Hungarian people. +Their work is great and inimitable; we hasten to +add: nor should it be imitated. It is the work, +not of the last, but of one of the early stages in Hungarian +Literature. It has, when over-estimated, +a tendency to do harm to the nation. People, +who in music are taught to expect the maddening +accents of rhapsodies, will rarely calm down to the +enjoyment of less spiced, if more perfect music. +It is even so with novels. Who now reads the +novels of Kemény (<a href="#Page_157">see page 157</a>); and who ought +not to read them? Readers intoxicated with +Jókai, we readily admit, cannot fairly rally to +enjoy Kemény. Yet Hungary is badly in need +of a more modern Kemény, as she is of a Brahms. +Or has it not been noticed yet, that while Hungarians +are proverbially musical, and known to be +so in all countries, they have so far—if we for +the moment disregard Liszt—not produced a +single creative musician of European fame or considerable +magnitude? There can be little doubt +that Liszt himself is one of the chief causes of +the sterilization of musical talent in Hungary. +Vainly endeavouring to imitate him, the composers +failed to proceed on different lines. Desiring +to hear Hungarian music in no other form than +in that of Lisztian rhapsodies, the public failed +to encourage the production of new musical +works. And so the vast treasure of Hungarian<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236"></a>[236]</span> +music has not yet been done full justice. The +Bohemians, also a very musical nation, have had +no Liszt; but they have, at least, their Smetanas +and their Dvořáks. As a reader and patriot, no +less than as a student of poetry and art, we joyfully +recognize the surpassing talent of both Jókai +and Liszt. As historian of the literature of our +nation, we cannot but make the remark that it will +no longer do for Hungarians to leave the historical +position of these two great authors entirely out of +consideration. It is different with countries outside +Hungary. They may and shall read Jókai +unmolested by any such reflections. For them he +is delight pure and unequalled; and we beg their +pardon for not having suppressed the above +remark. But as to the interests of Hungary we +dare to assume that Jókai himself, great in +modesty as he is in so many other ways, will +not disavow our idea, but gladly acknowledge +that, great as he may be, there ought to be +room for novelistic greatness of another kind +in Hungarian Literature, and appreciation of +other modes of novelistic art in the Hungarian +public.</p> + +<p>Jókai was born on the nineteenth of February, +1825, at Komárom (Komorn). At Pápa, when +still a student, he made the acquaintance of +Petőfi, whose intimate friend he became. He took +an active, if moderate part, in the revolution, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237"></a>[237]</span> +came near falling into the hands of the victorious +Austrians, from which fatal predicament, however, +he was saved by his lovely wife Rose Laborfalvy, +one of the greatest of Hungarian actresses. From +that time onward he has devoted his life partly to +parliamentary activity, but chiefly to literature and +the political press. In the latter field he has acted +as editor of, and frequent contributor to, several of +the leading journals of Hungary; and, moreover, +as founder and editor of the “<i>Üstökös</i>,” the Hungarian +“<i>Punch</i>.” In Hungary, where political and +parliamentary life has long been in existence, a +paper <i>à la</i> “<i>Punch</i>” was a natural and much +needed literary product. Nor do we hesitate to +assert that several of such papers—for instance, +Jókai’s “<i>Üstökös</i>” (“The Comet”), and the incomparable +Porzó’s (Dr. Adolf Ágai) “<i>Borszem Jankó</i>” +(a name) not only equal, but, as a rule, decidedly +surpass German or French “<i>Punches</i>,” and not +infrequently the London paper too. Wit in Hungary +is of a peculiar kind, and Jókai is one of its +most gifted devotees. It is wit, not only of situations, +or humorous contrasts, but also of linguistic +contortionism, if we may so express it; so that +none but a master of the language can handle it +with real success. On the other hand, it is fertile +in humorous types, and does not indulge—unwillingly +at least—in caricature.</p> + +<p>Amongst Jókai’s novels, “An Hungarian Nabob”<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238"></a>[238]</span> +(“<i>Egy magyar nábob</i>,” 1856, translated into English) +is one of his earlier masterworks. It tells the story +of one of those immensely wealthy Hungarian +noblemen who, in pre-revolutionary times, lived like +small potentates on their vast estates, surrounded +by wassailing companions, women, gamblers, fools, +gypsies, and an indefinite crowd of hangers-on. +The old Kárpáthy, the nabob, in spite of habitual +excesses of all kinds, is, at bottom, an upright and +proud man. The intrigues made against him by a +profligate nephew, hitherto his only heir, and who +wants to precipitate his death, are baffled by the +nabob’s marriage with a young and innocent girl, +who makes him the father of a boy, Zoltán. +Within this apparently very simple framework +what a wealth of scenes, of types, of humour, and +descriptive gems! We are taken from the half-savage +manor-life of the old nabob to brilliant +Paris, then again to Pozsony and to Pest. The +language is winged, winning, and gorgeously +varied. The continuation of the “Nabob” is +given in “<i>Kárpáthy Zoltán</i>,” a novel which, both in +its pathos and in its humour, is one of the most +engaging pieces of modern narrative literature. +Full of historic interest are Jókai’s “The Golden +Era of Transylvania” (“<i>Erdély arany kora</i>,” +translated into English by Mr. Nisbet Bain); +“The Sins of the Heartless Man” (“<i>A kőszivü +ember fiai</i>”); “Political Fashions” (“<i>Politikai<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239"></a>[239]</span> +divatok</i>”); “The Lady with the Sea-Eyes” (“<i>A +tengerszemü hölgy</i>”); and in “The New Landlord” +(“<i>Az új földesúr</i>”) Jókai has, without so much as +posing as a political moralist, achieved one of the +best effects of patriotic moralizing. “The New +Landlord” is perhaps one of the most finished and +architectonically perfect of the Hungarian master’s +works, although the workmanship of “What we +are growing old for” (“<i>Mire megvénűlünk</i>”) is also +remarkable. Other novels in which Jókai’s splendour +of imagination and narrative genius may be +enjoyed at their best are: “Love’s Fools” +(“<i>Szerelem bolondjai</i>”); “Black Diamonds” (“<i>Fekete +gyémántok</i>,” translated into English); “There +is no Devil” (“<i>Nincsen ördög</i>”); “The Son of +Rákóczy” (“<i>Rákóczy fia</i>”); “Twice Two is Four” +(“<i>Kétszer kettő négy</i>”), etc. Besides works of +fiction, exceeding two hundred and fifty volumes, +Jókai has written an interesting History of Hungary; +his memoirs; the Hungarian part of the +late Crown Prince Rudolf’s great work on Austria-Hungary, +etc. He is still enriching Hungarian +Literature with ever new works of fiction.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240"></a>[240]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXXI">CHAPTER XXXI.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>In the preceding chapters we have essayed to give +some idea of the work of the leading poets and +writers of Magyar literature. The very narrow +limits of this sketch of the literary life of the +Hungarians have prevented us from giving more +than mere outlines; and in now approaching the +activity of modern Hungarian poets and writers of +less prominent position, although not infrequently +of very considerable value, we are forced to restrict +ourselves to still more limited appreciation.</p> + +<p>Amongst the <i>Novel-writers</i> we cannot omit to +mention Louis Kúthy (1813-1864), Ignatius Nagy +(1810-1856), and Gustavus Lauka. The two latter +excelled in light, humorous novels. In the +humoristic sketches and tales of Gereben Vas +(<i>nom de plume</i> for Joseph Radákovics, 1823-1867) +there is a continuous and, as to its language, +admirable display of the fireworks of folk-wit and +racy fun. Amongst his best works are “Great +Times—Great Men” (“<i>Nagy idők nagy emberek</i>”); +“Law-Students’ Bohemian Life” (“<i>Jurátus élet</i>”).<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241"></a>[241]</span> +Albert Pálffy (born in 1823), after a long career +as an influential politician and journalist, has +published, since 1892, a great number of sound, +readable novels. Aloisius Degré (born in 1820), +of French extraction, has always been a popular +writer with readers of society-novels. Charles +Bérczy (1823-1867) is the founder of sport-literature +in Hungary; in his novels he follows +chiefly English models. A peculiar position is +occupied by Ladislas Beöthy who, in the evil +decade of Austrian reaction (1850-1860) amused +and consoled his despondent countrymen by his +eccentric humour and originality. In the historic +novels of Charles Szathmáry (1830-1891) there is +more patriotism than literary power. Both as a +journalist (as editor of the “<i>Fővárosi Lapok</i>”) and +as an author of elegant and thoughtful novels, +Charles Vadna (born 1832) has won a conspicuous +place for himself. Alexander Balázs (1830-1887); +Arnold Vértesi (born 1836); Lewis Tolnai (born +1837); William Győry (1838-1885); Miss Stephania +Wohl (1848-1889); Emil Kazár (born in 1843); +have in numerous novels, many of which would +merit particular attention, painted the sad or gay +aspects of life. Louis Abonyi (born in 1833), +Alexander Baksay (born in 1832), Ödön Jakab, +and Bertalan Szalóczy count among the best +Hungarian novelists whose subjects are taken +from the life of the Magyar peasantry. As we<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242"></a>[242]</span> +have already suggested, the number of Hungarian +writers venturing on a novelistic <i>poetisation</i> of life +on a grand scale, is not very great at present. +Most of the modern novelists just mentioned work +on a smaller scale; and thus the Hungarian Bret +Harte did not fail to make his appearance. His +name is Coloman Mikszáth (born in 1849). His +short and thoroughly poetic tales from the folk-life +of Hungary are in more than one respect +superior to those of the American writer. For, to +the latter’s sweet conciseness of plan and dialogue, +Mikszáth adds the charm of <i>naïveté</i>. Some of +his works have been translated into German, +French and English; and the enthusiasm for his +art will no doubt spread from Hungary to all other +countries where the graces of true simplicity can +still be enjoyed.</p> + +<p>Amongst the numerous writers of <i>genre</i>-sketches +and <i>feuilletons</i>, “Porzó” or Dr. Ágai is <i>facile +princeps</i>; not only in Hungary, but also, we +venture to add, in all Europe. He is quite +unique.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243"></a>[243]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXXII">CHAPTER XXXII.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>The number of <i>lyrical poets</i> is very great in +modern Hungary. It may be stated that, as a +rule, a Magyar poet has more chances of attracting +public attention by a good lyrical poem than by a +good novel. Perhaps the female portion of Hungary +are not as anxious for novel-reading, as are +their sisters in more western countries; and thus +the balance of attention to poetic works is spent on +the drama and on lyrics. This fact is on a line +with the predilection of the Hungarian public for +songs and airs, as against native musical works of +a more extensive description. The great Hungarian +lyrical poets of modern times may properly +be divided into several groups, of which the first +is the school of poets with whom the beauty and +purity of Form is the principal concern of their +art. Considering the innate Magyar tendency to +rhapsodic and shapeless exuberance, the relative +value of the works of that group is very great. +The Hungarian language, just on account of its<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244"></a>[244]</span> +large share of musical elements, has somewhat of +that indistinctness and vague emotionality which, +like that of music, must be strictly kept within +the bounds of Form. Even in the more advanced +poetry of the Teutonic nations, whether German or +English, the significance of poets cultivating pre-eminently +the chaste beauty of Form, is still very +considerable. Fortunately for Hungary, both Paul +Gyulai (born in 1826) and Charles Szász (born in +1829) have, especially the latter, untiringly worked +at providing their countrymen with works of +poetry, original or otherwise, in which the law and +beauty of Form predominate over emotionalism. +Szász has thus deserved very highly of Hungarian +Literature. His delicate sense of metre, rhythm and +architectonics, in his original epics and lyrics, as +well as in his exceedingly numerous translations +from the works of great western poets, is on a par +with the wealth of his linguistic resources; and +while English poetry may perhaps afford to be less +encouraging to the adepts of Form, Magyar +literature is to be congratulated upon having at +once recognized and thereby not missed the +numerous works of her Richard Garnett.</p> + +<p>To this group belongs also Joseph Lévay (born +in 1825), whose popular works move in the sphere +of elevated serenity.</p> + +<p>Another group of lyrical poets is formed by the +nationalists, who vied with one another in sounding<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245"></a>[245]</span> +exclusively the note of Magyar sentiments and +ideas proper. Local colour seemed to be everything, +and in language and subject nothing was +used outside the purely Magyar elements. The +most gifted of that class was Coloman Tóth (1831-1881); +next to him ranks perhaps Andrew Tóth +(1824-1885); nor must Coloman Lisznyay (1823-1863), +Joseph Zalár (born in 1827), and Joseph +Székely (born in 1825) be omitted.</p> + +<p>Quite by himself stands John Vajda (born in +1827). He is to Hungarian poetry proper, what +Kemény (<a href="#Page_153">see pp. 153, etc.</a>) is to Hungarian +novelistic literature. His is the gloom and power +of pessimism; and in his fight with Destiny he +conjures up all the furies of scorn, despair, rage +and hatred: see especially his “<i>Szerelem átka</i>” and +“<i>Gina emléke</i>.”</p> + +<p>The lyrical poets of the sixties and seventies of +this century tried to avoid excessive nationalism, +true to the spirit of the time when Hungary +through the final regulation of her constitution as +an autonomous state, assumed a European attitude +herself. The more prominent names are Béla +Szász; Victor Dalmady; Joseph Komócsy; Lewis +Tolnai; Ladislas Arany, Alexander Endrődi, +Julius Reviczky, etc. In Joseph Kiss there is +much of that power of discovering poetic riches +in subjects hitherto ignored by poets, which goes +to make the really great poet. The emotional<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246"></a>[246]</span> +conflicts between orthodox Jews and Christian +peasants living in the same village, conflicts of +love and hatred alike, have been worked into +powerful ballads by Kiss.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247"></a>[247]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXXIII">CHAPTER XXXIII.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>It would be impossible, to write even the shortest +sketch of Hungarian Literature without dwelling on +one of the less conspicuous, yet chief sources of +suggestion and inspiration of Hungarian poets. +We mean the <i>folk-poetry</i> of the Hungarian people. +Now that we can study that poetry in numerous +and comprehensive collections, published by John +Erdélyi (1848), Paul Gyulai and Ladislas Arany, +John Kriza (1863), Lewis Kálmány, Coloman +Thaly (in English, the collection of L. Kropf and +W. Jones, “Magyar Folk-tales,” 1884), etc., etc., we +cannot but acknowledge the profound effect that +these countless poems, ballads, songs, fables, epics, +and ditties must have had on the minds of +Hungarian poets who spent their youth in the +midst of people singing, reciting or improvising +them. In intensity of colour, in fire and varied +picturesqueness, Hungarian folk-poetry is certainly +not inferior to that of the people of Italy. In +humour and exuberant audacity it is probably its +equal. But while Italian folk-poetry frequently<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248"></a>[248]</span> +stoops to the indecent and obscene, it may be said +without fear of contradiction, that such stains are +unknown to the folk-poetry of the Magyars. In it +lives the whole life of that nation, its sorrows and +humiliations, as well as its moments of triumph +and victory. The complete ethnography, historic +and present, of the Magyars could be gleaned from +that poetry. Nay, so intense is the poetic feeling +of those lowly and obscure peasant-poets, that +every object of the rich nature of Hungary has +been framed and illumined by them. The <i>puszta</i>, +and the two mighty rivers of the country; the +snow-clad Carpathians, and the immense lake of +the Balaton; the abundant flora and fauna of their +land—all is there, instinct with poetic life of its +own, and embracing, sympathizing or mourning +the life of the shepherd, the outlaw (<i>betyár</i>), the +lover, the priest, the trader, the Jew, the constable, +the squire, the maiden, the widow, the child. +There is in that folk-poetry a tinkling, ringing and +pealing of all the bells and organs of life. Like +the music that almost invariably accompanies it, it +is teeming with intense power, and hurries on over +the cascades of acute rhythms, and the rapids of +gusts of passion. As if every object of Nature had +revealed to it the last, brief secret of its being, it +describes scenes and situations in two or three +words. Its wit is harmless or cruel, just as it +chooses; and in its humour the laughing tear is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249"></a>[249]</span> +not wanting. Chief of all, as the great pundits of +Cairo or Bagdad, whenever they are at sea about +some of the enigmas of the idiom of the Koran +and the Makamat, send for advice to the roving +Bedouins of the Arabian deserts: so the Hungarian +poets have gathered their best knowledge of the +recondite lore of the Magyar idiom, in the <i>pusztas</i> +of the <i>Alföld</i>, between the Danube and the Theiss, +where the true Magyar peasant is living.</p> + +<p>Hungarian folk-poetry is not a thing of the past. +Almost day by day, new and ever new “<i>nóták</i>” or +songs are rising from the fields and forests—nobody +knows who composed them—and as if carried by +the winds of east and west, they quickly find their +way into the heart of the whole nation. There is +thus an inexhaustible fountain of poetry and +poetic suggestiveness in the very nation of the +Magyars. Great as some of the Hungarian lyrical +poets have been, it is fair to assume, that with such +an undercurrent of perennial folk-poetry to draw +upon, there are, for this reason alone, still many +more great poets in store for us.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250"></a>[250]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXXIV">CHAPTER XXXIV.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>In conclusion, a few words on the Hungarian +literary productions outside <i>belles-lettres</i> proper. +From the pre-eminently political character of the +Magyars, it may be inferred almost <i>a priori</i> +that questions bearing on legal and constitutional +matters have at all times been a favourite +subject with the writers and statesmen of Hungary. +Previous to 1830, in round numbers, these questions +were treated mostly in Latin works. Since then, +however, a very considerable number of politico-legal +and politico-historical writers in Magyar has +arisen. The most important amongst them, both +for the authority they commanded in practical +politics, and for the weight and power of their +arguments, are Count Stephen Széchenyi; Baron +Nicolas Wesselényi; Count Aurelius Dessewffy; +Baron Joseph Eötvös (<a href="#Page_142">see pp. 142, etc.</a>); the +famous Lewis Kossúth, probably the greatest political +orator of the century; and Francis Deák. +They were all practical statesmen, and not mere<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251"></a>[251]</span> +scholars. Yet most of their works on the constitution +of Hungary, and especially on the constitutional +relation of Hungary to Austria, are also +valuable as sources of solid and scholarly information. +Thus Deák showed the extensiveness of his +legal and politico-historical erudition in his famous +controversy with the Austrian professor Lustkandl, +in no lesser degree than his tact and wisdom in +the conclusion of the final treaty between Austria +and Hungary in 1867. Eötvös enriched Magyar +political literature with an elaborate and thoughtful +work on “The Influence of the Dominant Ideas of +the Nineteenth Century on the State” (“<i>A xix. +század uralkodó eszméinek befolyása az álladalomra</i>,” +1851-1854). In more recent times a very great +number of politico-legal monographs has been +published in Hungary. The student will find lists +of them in the works of Stephen Kiss and E. +Nagy, both entitled “Constitutional Law of Hungary” +(“<i>Magyarország közjoga</i>,” the former in +1888, the latter, third edition, 1896). Of older +works on the constitutional law of Hungary, the +most useful are those of count Cziráky (1851, in +Latin), and of Professor Virozsil (also in Hungarian +and German, 1865). Amongst the numerous +Magyar writers on <i>Jurisprudence</i>, Professor Augustus +Pulszky is well-known in England through his +able work, written in English, on “The Theory of +Law and Civil Society” (1888).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252"></a>[252]</span></p> + +<p>In the department of <i>History</i>, and especially the +history of Hungary, the activity of the Magyars +has been one of astounding intensity. In the +well-known annual bibliography of history, edited +by Jastrow, in Berlin (<i>Jahresberichte</i>, etc.), the +annual report on the historical literature published +in Hungary, occupies a conspicuous space. The +older historians of Hungary, such as G. Pray (1774, +3 vols. fol.), Katona (1779-1817, 42 vols.), who +wrote in Latin; and Engel (1814), Fessler (1825, +10 vols.), count John Majláth (1853, 5 vols.), who +wrote in German, can now be used only for occasional +reference. Of Magyar writers on the history +of Hungary, Bishop Michael Horváth (1809-1878), +and Ladislas Szalay (1813-1864), have had the +greatest influence on the reading public and +Magyar historiography up to the end of the +seventies. The bishop treats history in the style +of fine and dignified ecclesiastical allocutions. +Szalay’s is a talent for the political and legal +aspects of history rather than for the personal and +military element thereof. In both historians there +is a noble patriotism, and their works, even if discarded +as wanting in systematic research, will +always claim a high rank as literary productions. +Hungary is still waiting for the true historian +of the whole of her history; but what other +country is not? Writers of historic monographs +there are many, and they have done excellent<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253"></a>[253]</span> +work. Some of the most prominent are Count +Joseph Teleki (1790-1855); Francis Salomon (born +1825); Anton Csengery (1822-1880); Charles Szabó +(1824-1890); Alexander Szilágyi (born 1830), the +historian of Transylvania; William Fraknói (born +1843, died recently), on Pázmány and King +Matthew; Julius Pauler (born 1841), whose great +work on the history of Hungary under the Árpáds +(till 1301) is characterised by a most careful study +of all the original sources; Coloman Thaly (born +1839), whose “speciality” is the age of Francis +Rákóczy II.; Emericus Krajner (very valuable +works on constitutional history); Lewis Thallóczy +(on relation to Balkan nations); Ignatius Acsády +(on civilization and finance of xvi. and xvii. cent.); +Henry Marczali (on the age of Emperor Joseph +II.); Lewis Kropf, whose domicile is in London, +and who, in a long series of accurate and scholarly +monographs has elucidated many an important +point of Hungarian history; G. Ladányi (constitutional +history); Sigismond Ormós (institutional +history of the Árpádian period); K. Lányi +(ecclesiastical history); Alex. Nagy (institutional +history); F. Kubinyi (institutional history); +S. Kolosváry and K. Óváry (charters); +L. Fejérpataky (charters); Árpád Kerékgyártó +(history of Magyar civilization); F. Balássy +(institutional history); Professor Julius Lánczy +(institutional and Italian history); Baron Béla<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254"></a>[254]</span> +Radvánszky (Magyar civilization); Emericus +Hajnik (constitutional history); Frederick Pesty +(constitutional history); Wertner (most valuable +works on Hungarian genealogy), etc. Great also +is the number of periodicals systematically +embracing all the aspects of Hungarian history; +and local societies effectively aid in the marshalling +of facts, and in the publication of ancient monuments. +When the history of Austria, Poland, +and the Danubian countries has been written +in a manner superior to what we now possess +in that respect, the history of Hungary too, +will, we have no doubt, find its adequate master +among Magyar historians. The progress in +Magyar historiography has, in late years, been +little short of that made in any other country.</p> + +<p>In the department of <i>literary history</i> we notice +the same lack of a satisfactory general history +of Hungarian Literature, and the same abundance +of meritorious monographs on single points. +Francis Toldy (formerly Schedel, 1805-1875), +started a comprehensive history of Hungarian +Literature, which, however, he never completed. +In numerous essays and minor works he worked +hard at various sections of such a history, and +his relative value as an initiator in that branch +cannot be disputed. The laborious works of +K. M. Kertbény are purely bibliographical, and +as such, useful. His attempts were quite thrown<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255"></a>[255]</span> +into the shade by the great works on Hungarian +bibliography of Charles Szabó, G. Petrik, and J. +Szinnyei. The handiest and bibliographically +richest history of Hungarian Literature is that +by Zsolt Beöthy (sixth edition, 1892). Under +Beöthy’s editorship a richly-illustrated history +of Hungarian Literature was published, in two +volumes, in the year and in honour of the +Hungarian Millennium, 1896. Among the better +writers of monographs on literary history are +Julius Zolnai (philology); J. Szinnyei (biography); +Sigism Simonyi (philologist); L. Négyessy +(prosody); Alex. Imre (popular humour and +mediæval style); R. Radnai (history of Magyar +æsthetics); M. Csillagh (on Balassi); Sigism +Bodnár (history of Hungarian Literature); H. +Lenkei (studies in Petőfi); K. Greska (on the +epic of Zrinyi); T. Szana (history of literature), +etc.</p> + +<p>The study of æsthetics has always been one of +the favourite pursuits of Magyar writers during the +present century. The most conspicuous of Hungarian +students of æsthetics are Augustus Greguss +and Paul Gyulai, whose works have advanced not +only Magyar views, but the study of æsthetics in +general.</p> + +<p>The best known students of <i>Hungarian philology</i> +are John Fogarasi; Joseph Lugossy; the late +Sam. Brassai, who in his multifarious studies<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256"></a>[256]</span> +reminds us of the great scholars of the seventeenth +century; Paul Hunfalvy, Joseph Budenz, +Ferdinand Barna (Finnish philology); Gabriel +Szarvas and Sigismund Simonyi; and the well-known +Arminius Vámbéry.</p> + +<p>In the departments of <i>Science proper</i> there has +been very considerable progress in Hungary +during the last thirty years. Reports of the +general results of scientific researches made by +Hungarians are also published, for the greater +convenience of the western nations, in special +periodicals written in German.</p> + +<p class="titlepage">THE END.</p> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="footnotes"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</h2> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> The above statistics are taken from the <i>Régi Magyar +Könyvtár</i>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> We may mention, that Bessenyei was, to a certain +extent, preceded by two amiable and cultivated writers; +Baron Lawrence Orczy (1718-1789), and Count Gedeon +Ráday (1713-1792).</p> + +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> No continental writer has described and analysed the +social status of the continental peasant with so much +charm and truth as has the late Wilhelm Riehl, the +Justus Möser of our century.</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257"></a>[257]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY.</h2> + +</div> + +<p>For general and accurate information about Hungary:</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p>“<i>Pallas</i>” Encyclopædia (in Hungarian) in sixteen +volumes, just (March, 1898) completed.</p> + +</div> + +<p>History of Hungarian Literature:</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p>See the chapter at the end of the present work. In +German there is the able work of Professor J. +H. Schwicker (“<i>Geschichte der ungarischen +Litteratur</i>,” Leipsic, 1889). In Italian we have +the short history of G. A. Zigány, “<i>Letteratura +Ungherese</i>” (Milan, 1892, one of Hoepli’s +“Manuals.”)</p> + +</div> + +<p>Selections from Hungarian poets:</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p>Paul Erdélyi, <i>A magyar költészet kincsesháza</i> (Budapest, +1895).</p> + +</div> + +<p>Complete Catalogues of Hungarian books since the +invention of typography:</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p>Charles Szabó and Árpád Hellebrant “<i>Régi Magyar +Könyvtár</i>” (1879-1896, 3 vols.), comprising the +books printed down to 1711.</p> + +<p>Géza Petrik, <i>Bibliographia Hungariæ 1712-1860, +catalogus librorum in Hungaria, et de rebus +patriam nostram attingentibus extra Hungariam +editorum</i> (Budapest, 1888-1892), with subject +and author’s indexes.</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258"></a>[258]</span></p> + +<p>Periodical Literature; index to Hungarian:</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p>Szinnyei József, “<i>Hazai és külföldi folyóiratok +magyar tudományos repertoriuma</i>,” 3 vols. (1874-1885), +two of which give the list of articles, +both in Hungarian and foreign periodicals, +on Hungarian history, and the third, articles +on mathematical and natural sciences. This +excellent work comprises even most of the +political daily papers.</p> + +</div> + +<p>Periodical devoted to the study of the history of +Hungarian Literature:</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p>“<i>Irodalomtörténeti közlemények</i>,” edited first by +Aladár Ballagi, and now by Aron Szilády (since +1891; full, well edited, with careful indexes).</p> + +</div> + +<p>Literary biography:</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p>Joseph Szinnyei, the younger, “<i>Magyar irók élete +és munkái</i>.” Most exhaustive, with complete +bibliographies to each writer and his works, +comprising even articles written in daily papers. +(Budapest, since 1891, still unfinished).</p> + +</div> + +<p>The Magyar Language:</p> + +<div class="blockquote"> + +<p>The most comprehensive work is by Professor +Sigismund Simonyi, “<i>A magyar nyelv</i>” (2 vols., +Budapest, 1889, 8vo).</p> + +</div> + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259"></a>[259]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> + +</div> + +<ul> + +<li class="ifrst">Abonyi, Louis. (Folk-Novelist), <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Academy of Science, founded by Széchenyi and others, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> +<li class="isub1">its publications, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Acsády, Ignatius. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Alvinczi, Peter. (Controversialist), <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Amadé, Baron Ladislas. (Poet), <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li class="indx">America has no epic; the reason of this, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> + +<li class="indx">American literature hampered by their language, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> +<li class="isub1">has no <i>naïveté</i>, reasons, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Andrássy, Count George, a founder of the Academy, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Andrew II., King of Hungary, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ányos, Paul. (Poet), <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Anzengruber. (Austrian Dramatist), <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Apor, Peter. (Historian), <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Arany, John—his Hungarian reputation, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> +<li class="isub1">compared with Petőfi, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> +<li class="isub1">reason why his work is not bourgeois poetry, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> +<li class="isub1">a Magyar and a class poet, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his charm of language, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his position in Magyar literature, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his life, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his work, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Arany, Ladislas. (Poet), <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his collection of folk-poetry, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Árpád Dynasty of Hungary, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> +<li class="isub1">in the epic, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Athenæum</i>, Hungarian periodical, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Auerbach, Berthold. (German Folk-Novelist), <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Aurora</i>, periodical, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Austrian Empire, its heterogeneity, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Bacsányi, John. (Poet), <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bajza, Joseph. (Critic and Poet), <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Baksay, Alexander. (Folk-Novelist), <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Balássy, F. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Balassi, Baron Valentin. (Poet) (I.), <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li class="isub1">(II.), <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Balassi stanza, the, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260"></a>[260]</span>Balázs, Alexander. (Novelist), <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Balzac. His genius not fully recognized, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Kemény compared to him, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> +<li class="isub1">compared to Shakespeare, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Baranyi, Ladislas. (Poet), <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Barcsai, Abraham. (Translator), <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bards, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Barna, Ferdinand. (Philologist), <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Báróczi, Alexander. (Translator), <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bartók, Lewis. (Dramatist), <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Batizi, Andreas. (Poet), <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Beck, Charles. (Poet), <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bél, Matthew. His view of Magyar, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bellarmin influences Pázmány, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bem, General, and Petőfi, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Beniczky de Benicze, Peter. (Poet), <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Beöthy, Ladislas. (Humorist), <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Beöthy, Sigismund. (Poet), <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Beöthy, Zsolt. His History of Hungarian Literature, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Béranger compared to Petőfi, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Berczik, Árpád. (Dramatist), <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bérczy, Charles. (Novelist), <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bernstein, Charles Hugo, <i>see</i> <a href="#Hugo">Hugo, Charles</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Berzsenyi, Daniel. (Poet), <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bessenyei, Alexander. (Translator), <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bessenyei, George. (Dramatist, &c.), <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bethlens, the, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bible, the, published in Magyar, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bibliography, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Biró de Déva, Matthew. (Lutheran “pope”), <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Blaha, Louise. (Hungarian Actress), <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bod, Peter. (Literary Historian), <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bodnár, Sigismund. (Literary Historian), <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bohemian Music, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bonfini, Anton, at work in Hungary, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Brassai, Samuel. (Philologist), <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Brutus, Michael. (Historian), <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Budenz, Joseph. (Philologist), <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bürger’s influence on Csokonai, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Burns compared to Petőfi, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Butler, E. D., of the British Museum (the foremost amongst British students of Magyar philology and literature), <a href="#PREFACE"><i>Preface</i></a></li> + +<li class="ifrst" id="Cesinge">Cesinge, John. (Hungarian Scholar), <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cowley compared to Virág, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Critical genius, its part in literature, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Crusaders, unfit heroes of epics, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Csengery, Anton. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Csepreghy, Francis. (Dramatist), <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cséri de Apáca, John. (Author of Encyclopædia), <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cserei, Michael. (Historian), <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Csiky, Gregory. (Dramatist), <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Csillagh, M. (Historian), <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Csipkés, George Komáromi. (Translator of the Bible), <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261"></a>[261]</span>Csokonai, Michael Vitéz. (Poet), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Csoma de Kőrős, Alexander. (Philologist), <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Czakó, Sigismund. (Dramatist), <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cziráky, Count. (Authority on Hungarian Constitutional Law), <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Czuczor, Gregory. (Poet and Philologist), <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Czwittinger, David, his list of Hungarian writers, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Dalmady, Victor. (Poet), <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dayka, Gabriel. (Poet), <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Deák, Francis. (Statesman and Author), <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Debreczen, the Geneva of Hungary, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Decsi de Baranya, John. His collection of proverbs, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Degré, Aloisius. (Novelist), <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dessewffy, Count Aurelius. (Political Writer), <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dialects provide new elements of poetic speech, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dobsa, Lewis. (Dramatist), <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dóczi, Lewis. (Dramatist), <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Drama, the, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> +<li class="isub1">opening of the National Theatre, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> +<li class="isub1">in the nineteenth century, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> +<li class="isub1">want of good actors, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Hungarian dramas unknown outside Hungary, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dugonics, Andreas. (Novelist), <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Édes, Gregory. (Versifier), <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Education in Hungary, <i>see under</i> <a href="#Hungary">Hungary</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Egressy, Gabriel. (Actor), <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ekkehard’s Chronicles record Magyar epics, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Endrődi, Alexander. (Poet), <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Engel. (Historian), <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> + +<li class="indx">England and Hungary, their histories parallel, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Eötvös, Joseph. (Novelist), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> +<li class="isub1">character of his work, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his power as an orator, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Epic poetry, its character, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Erdosi">Erdősi, or Sylvester, John. (Grammarian), <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Faludi, Francis. (Poet), <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Faust</i>, its points of resemblance with Madách’s “Tragedy of Man”, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Fazekas, Michael. (Author of a chap-book), <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Fejérpataky, L. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Felix of Ragusa, at work in Hungary, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Fessler. (Historian), <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Fiction">Fiction in the sixteenth century, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li class="isub1">in the eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> +<li class="isub1">in the nineteenth century, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> +<li class="isub1">(<i>see also</i> <a href="#Novels">Novels</a>)</li> + +<li class="indx">Fischart, as virtuoso of language, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Flygare-Carlén, Mme, her popularity in Hungary, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Fogarasi, John. (Philologist), <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Földi, John. (Writer on Prosody), <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Folk-Drama in Hungary, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> +<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262"></a>[262]</span>compared with the folk-drama in Austria, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Folk-Novels and Tales, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Folk-Poems of Hungary, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> +<li class="isub1">the chief inspiration of Hungarian poets, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> +<li class="isub1">published collections, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Fontius, Bartholinus, at work in Hungary, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Forgách, Francis. (Hungarian Author), <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Fraknói, William. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">France, her constitution, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> +<li class="isub1">her national homogeneity, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> + +<li class="indx">France, Anatole, his veiled pessimism, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Fata Morgana of the Pusztas, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> + +<li class="indx">French literature compared with Hungarian, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li class="isub1">its influence on Hungarian, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li class="isub1">has enjoyed advantages of criticism, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Galeotto, Marzio, at work in Hungary, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Garay, John. (Poet), <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Garnett, Richard; the work of Szász resembles his, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gáti, Stephán. (Eighteenth century writer), <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gergei, Albert. (Poet), <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li class="indx">German literature at the Reformation, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li class="isub1">its influence on Hungarian, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li class="isub1">influenced by Greek ideas, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> +<li class="isub1">its <i>bourgeois</i> character, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Goethe’s <i>Hermann und Dorothea</i>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Golden Bull, the—the Hungarian Magna Charta, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Greek not studied in the eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Kazinczy’s labours to introduce Greek models, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Literature, born of Greek parents, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> +<li class="isub1">influence on German literature, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Hungarian Literature, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Greek literature comparatively unknown in Hungary, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Greguss, Augustus. (Writer on Æsthetics), <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Greska, K. (Literary Critic), <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Grünwald, Béla. (Political Historian), <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gvadányi, Count Joseph. (Poet and Novelist), <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gyöngyössi, Stephen. (Poet), <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Győry, William. (Novelist), <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gyulai, Paul. (Poet), <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his collection of folk-poetry, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> +<li class="isub1">as a writer on Æsthetics, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Habsburg Dynasty, their work in Hungary, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, + <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hajnik, Emericus. (Historian), <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Haner. (Hungarian Author), <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Heine compared to Petőfi, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Heltai, Caspar. (Chronicler and Translator), <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hölty, the Hungarian—Dayka, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Horvát de Pázmánd, Andreas. (Poet), <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Horváth, Ádám. (Poet), <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Horváth, Bishop Michael. (Historian), <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Hugo"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263"></a>[263]</span>Hugo, Charles. (Dramatist), <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hunfalvy, Paul. (Philologist), <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Hungarian">Hungarian bards, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> +<li class="isub1">constitution, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li class="isub1">language, its origin, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> +<li class="isub2">its influence on native literature, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> +<li class="isub2">its capabilities, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +<li class="isub2">made the official language, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> +<li class="isub2">agglutinative, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> +<li class="isub2">its characteristics, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> +<li class="isub2">cultivated by Protestants, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li class="isub2">its decadence in the eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> +<li class="isub2">cultivated as national palladium, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> +<li class="isub2">the labours of Kazinczy, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> +<li class="isub2">schools of philology, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> +<li class="isub2">foundation of the Hungarian Academy, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> +<li class="isub2">the Academy Dictionary, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Széchenyi’s work, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> +<li class="isub2">the vehicle of instruction, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> +<li class="isub2">used in Parliament, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> +<li class="isub2">in Vörösmarty’s hands, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> +<li class="isub2">has no dialects, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> +<li class="isub2">the influence of Arany, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Literature of recent growth, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> +<li class="isub2">its extent, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> +<li class="isub2">influenced by want of middle-class, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li class="isub2">its parallel in Hungarian music, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> +<li class="isub2">compared with French, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li class="isub2">its originality impaired, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> +<li class="isub2">its four periods, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li class="isub2">its most ancient products, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +<li class="isub2">its epics and legends, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> +<li class="isub2">receives an impulse at the Reformation, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> +<li class="isub2">influenced by the Renascence, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li class="isub2">impeding causes at the Reformation, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> +<li class="isub2">controversial literature, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Magyar Bible published, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li class="isub2">sixteenth century poets, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li class="isub2">the first drama, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li class="isub2">early fiction, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +<li class="isub2">chronicles, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +<li class="isub2">obstacles to progress in the seventeenth century, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li class="isub2">produced by the nobles only, then, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li class="isub2">controversial, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +<li class="isub2">seventeenth century poets, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kurucz poetry, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> +<li class="isub2">1711-1772, a period of decline, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> +<li class="isub2">reason of this decline, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> +<li class="isub2">poets, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> +<li class="isub2">historians, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> +<li class="isub2">revival of 1772, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li class="isub2">causes of revival, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Magyar periodicals, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> +<li class="isub2">the three “schools”, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li class="isub2"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264"></a>[264]</span>awakening individuality, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> +<li class="isub2">a patriotic bulwark against Austria, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Kazinczy’s work, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> +<li class="isub2">the romantic school, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> +<li class="isub2">loses by patriotism of its exponents, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li class="isub2">of slow growth, 1772-1825, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> +<li class="isub2">effect of want of literary centres, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li class="isub2">hampered by political fetters, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> +<li class="isub2">brilliant revival, 1825-1850, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> +<li class="isub2">foundation of the Academy, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> +<li class="isub2">the “Kisfaludy Society”, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> +<li class="isub2">epics produced, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> +<li class="isub2">ballads, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> +<li class="isub2">want of effective criticism, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Bajza’s work, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> +<li class="isub2">reasons of late development of prose, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Petőfi’s pre-eminent work, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> +<li class="isub2">Hungary’s contribution to typical poetry, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> +<li class="isub2">literary criticism still crude, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> +<li class="isub2">rise of the drama in the nineteenth century, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> +<li class="isub2">recent fiction, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> +<li class="isub2">recent poetry, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> +<li class="isub2">folk-poems, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> +<li class="isub2">political works, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> +<li class="isub2">history, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> +<li class="isub2">historical societies, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> +<li class="isub2">history of, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> +<li class="isub1">music, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, + <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> +<li class="isub2">its influence on the nation, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li class="isub1">pedigrees, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> +<li class="isub1">wit, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> +<li class="isub1">writers in other languages, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, + <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hungarians establish themselves in Hungary, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> +<li class="isub1">their national character, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> +<li class="isub2">influenced by their music, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Hungary">Hungary, its natural situation, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> +<li class="isub1">occupied by divers tribes, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> +<li class="isub1">the Hungarians establish themselves there, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> +<li class="isub1">her history resembles English history, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +<li class="isub1">her constitution, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> +<li class="isub1">preserves her liberties, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> +<li class="isub1">the Turks expelled, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li class="isub1">effect of their dominion, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +<li class="isub1">her want of a middle-class, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +<li class="isub1">her history in the eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> +<li class="isub1">rebellion against Austria, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li class="isub1">incorporated with the Austrian Empire, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li class="isub1">national reaction of 1860, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> +<li class="isub1">her present relations with Austria, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> +<li class="isub1">her <i>Parlature</i> as compared with her literature, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> +<li class="isub1">custom of speaking in several languages, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> +<li class="isub1">detached from the Eastern Church, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +<li class="isub1">the Virgin, her patron saint, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +<li class="isub1">the Reformation there, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> +<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_265"></a>[265]</span>the Renascence, <a href="#Page_43">43-45</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Universities in, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> +<li class="isub1">schools, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> +<li class="isub1">literature left to the nobles, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> +<li class="isub1">influence of the revolution, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li class="isub1">character of its population, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> +<li class="isub1">abolition of serfdom and expansion of civic life, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> +<li class="isub1">dissolution of monasteries, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> +<li class="isub1">policy of Joseph II., <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> +<li class="isub1">its effect in awaking Hungarian patriotism, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li class="isub1">the national stage, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> +<li class="isub1">lacked literary centres, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li class="isub1">the Academy supplies this want, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Pesth becomes a centre, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> +<li class="isub1">local learned societies spring up, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Parliament, the soul of its body-politic, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> +<li class="isub1">diversity of types of character, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> +<li class="isub1">her need of an epic as an incitement, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> +<li class="isub1">character of the youth, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> +<li class="isub1">independence of local government, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> +<li class="isub1">the political training of her people, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> +<li class="isub1">her national heterogeneity, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> +<li class="isub1">the horse, the national animal, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> +<li class="isub1">the rebellion of 1848, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> +<li class="isub1">the Hungarian peasant, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> +<li class="isub1">has no <i>bourgeoisie</i> proper, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> +<li class="isub1">transitional state of society, 1850-1860, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> +<li class="isub1">the national tendency to pathos, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> +<li class="isub1">its political strides since 1870, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></li> +<li class="isub1">the theatres in Budapest, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> +<li class="isub1">popularity of lyrical poems, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Huszár, Gál. (Poet), <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hutten, as an author, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Ibsen’s morbid psychology unknown in Csiky’s plays, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> + +<li class="indx">İlosvai, Peter. (Poet), <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Improvisation unknown to Teutons and French, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> +<li class="isub1">in Hungarian, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> +<li class="isub1">its dangers in literature, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Imre, Alexander. (Literary Historian), <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Istvánffy, Nicolas. (Hungarian Author), <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Jakab, Ödön. (Folk-Novelist), <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Jesuits in Hungary, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> +<li class="isub1">concerned in education, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li class="indx">“Jingoism” in Hungary; its influence on literature, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Jókai, Maurus. (Novelist), <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his reputation, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his character, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his power of work, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> +<li class="isub1">character of his work, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> +<li class="isub1">the Liszt of literature, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his life, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266"></a>[266]</span>Jones, W. His “Magyar Folk-Tales”, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Joseph II. of Austria, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Jósika, Nicolas. (Novelist), <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> +<li class="isub1">character of his work, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Juhász, Peter. (Pope of the Magyar Calvinists), <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Kalevala, the Finnish epic, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kálmány, Lewis. His collection of Folk-Poetry, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kármán, Joseph. (Novelist), <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Károlyi, Caspar. (Translator of the Bible), <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Károlyi, Count George, a founder of the Academy, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Katona. (Dramatist), <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Katona. (Historian), <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kazár, Emil. (Novelist), <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kazinczy, Francis. (Translator and Critic), <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his influence and work, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kemény, Sigismund. (Novelist), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his Balzacian genius, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his pessimism, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his erudition, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> +<li class="isub1">as an historian, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his work as a novelist, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his journalistic work, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kerékgyártó, Árpád. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kerényi, Frederick. (Poet), <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kertbény, K. M. (Literary Bibliographer), <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kis, John, founds Magyar Literary Society, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kisfaludy, Alexander. (Poet), <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kisfaludy, Charles. (Poet), <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his dramas, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kisfaludy Society, the, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kiss, Joseph. (Poet), <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kiss, Stephen. His “Constitutional Law of Hungary”, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Klein, J. L. (The Historian of the Drama), a Hungarian, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Klopstock’s <i>Messias</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kohári, Count Stephen. (Poet), <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kölcsey, Francis. (Orator and Poet), <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kolosváry, S. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Komócsy, Joseph. (Poet), <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Königsberg Fragment, the, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kónyi, John. (Eighteenth Century Writer), <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kossúth, Lewis, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Krajner, Emericus. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kraus. (Hungarian Historian), <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kriza, John. His collection of Folk-Poetry, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kropf, Lewis. His “Magyar Folk-Tales”, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> +<li class="isub1">(Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kubinyi, F. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kurucz Poetry, patriotic ditties, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Kúthy, Louis, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Laborfalvy, Rose. Hungarian actress, wife of M. Jókai, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ladányi, G. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267"></a>[267]</span>Lánczy, Julius. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Language, its influence on literature, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lányi, K. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Latin used in Hungary, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, + <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lauka, Gustavus. (Novelist), <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lenau, Nicolaus. (Hungarian-German Author), <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lendvay. (Actor), <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lenkei, H. (Literary Critic), <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Leopold II. of Austria, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lessing, a genius both critical and creative, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lévay, Joseph. (Poet), <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lewis the Great, of Hungary, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Liberty affected by Reformation, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Listhy, Baron Ladislas. (Poet), <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lisznyay, Coloman. (Poet), <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Liszt, Francis, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Literature of a nation, as compared with its <i>parlature</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +<li class="isub1">influenced by language, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> +<li class="isub1">can only thrive in a republic of minds, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> +<li class="isub1">an urban growth, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +<li class="isub1">the influence of critical genius upon, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> +<li class="isub1">born of Greek parents, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> +<li class="isub1">universality of great writers, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lugossy, Joseph. (Philologist), <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lucretius’ “<i>De rerum natura</i>” compared with Madách’s “Tragedy of Man”, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lustkandl. (Austrian Professor), <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Luther, Martin, as an author, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Lytton’s novels, their popularity in Germany and Austria, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Madách, Emericus. (Poet), <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Maeterlinck, his veiled pessimism, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Magyar, <i>see</i> <a href="#Hungarian">Hungarian</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Majláth, Count John. (Historian), <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Marczali, Henry. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Margit, Saint, daughter of Béla IV., <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +<li class="isub1">her life extant, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Maria Theresa, her government of Hungary, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Matthew Corvinus, King of Hungary, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Metastasio’s influence on Csokonai, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Metres">Metres used in Hungarian Poetry, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, + <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Metternich, Prince, his work in Hungary, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Middle Classes, a product of Feudalism, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mikes, Clement, his “Letters”, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mikó, Francis. (Hungarian Author), <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mikszáth, Coloman. (The Hungarian Bret Harte), <a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mirandola, Pico della, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Molnár de Szencz, Albert. (Grammarian), <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + +<li class="indx">“Moralities,” Hungarian, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Music, <i>see</i> <a href="#Hungarian">Hungarian Music</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Nagy, Alexander. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268"></a>[268]</span>Nagy, E., his “Constitutional Law of Hungary”, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Nagy, Emeric. (Poet), <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Nagy, Francis. (Translator), <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Nagy, Ignatius. (Novelist), <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Nagy de Bánka, Matthew. (Poetical Chronicler), <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Naïveté</i>, its origin and <i>locus</i> in life and literature. None in America, little in England, reasons, <a href="#Page_47"><i>ib.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Naláczi, Joseph, (Poet), <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Nature’s “Laws,” a convenient fiction, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Négyessy, L. (Author on Prosody), <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Neo-Latin poets, the reason of their failure, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Novelists of Hungary, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> +<li class="isub1">popularity of foreign in Hungary, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Novels">Novels, Hungarian, their peculiarities, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> +<li class="isub1">reviews of individual works. (<i>See also</i> <a href="#Fiction">Fiction</a>), <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, + <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Obernyik, Charles. (Dramatist), <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Oláh, Nicholas. (Hungarian Author), <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Orczy, Baron Lawrence. (Eighteenth century writer), <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ormós, Sigismond. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Óváry, K. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Pálffy, Albert. (Journalist and Novelist), <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pannonius, Janus, <i>see</i> <a href="#Cesinge">Cesinge, John</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pap, Andreas. (Poet), <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Páriz-Pápai, Francis. (Lexicographer), <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Parlature</i>, as contrasted with Literature, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Parliament, the soul of political life in Hungary and England, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pathos, the Hungarian tendency to, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pauler, Julius. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pázmány, Peter. (Cardinal and controversialist), <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Peasantry of Hungary, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pécs University, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pessimism, the outcome of thought, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pesth, suspension bridge connecting it with Buda, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pesty, Frederick. (Historian), <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pesti, Gabriel. (Lexicographer and Translator), <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Péczeli, Joseph. (Translator), <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Periodical literature in the eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> +<li class="isub1">the periodical press in the nineteenth century, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Petthő, Gregory. (Hungarian History), <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Petőfi, Alexander, the greatness of his poetry, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> +<li class="isub1">its spontaneity, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> +<li class="isub1">character of his work, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, + <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his objectivity, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his humour, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> +<li class="isub1">ill-judged comparisons with Burns and Béranger, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his patriotic poems distributed by Government, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> +<li class="isub1">appreciated in America, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> +<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269"></a>[269]</span>his poetry, the exponent of Hungarian nationality, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> +<li class="isub1">sketch of his life, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his growing European reputation, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> +<li class="isub1">compared with Arany, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Petrarch’s influence on Kisfaludy, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Petrik, Géza. (Bibliographer), <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Petrőczi, Baroness Catherine S. (Poetess), <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Platen compared to Berzsenyi, as writer of odes, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Podhorszky, his view of Magyar, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Poetry not inherent in Nature, but a human creation, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> +<li class="isub1">its greatness to be gauged by objective beauty, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Poetry and Poets of Hungary, sixteenth century, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +<li class="isub1">seventeenth century, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> +<li class="isub1">eighteenth century, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> +<li class="isub1">nineteenth century, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, + <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Poland, continuity of its liberties, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pope’s influence on Csokonai, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> +<li class="isub1">European character of his work, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Porzó (Dr. Adolph Ágai), prince of feuilletonists, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pozsony University, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pray, G. (Historian), <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Printing in Hungary, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Priscus, the Byzantine, records Magyar epics, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Prosody, <i>see</i> <a href="#Metres">Metres</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pulszky, Augustus. (Hungarian Jurist), <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx">“Punch,” the Hungarian, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pusztas the, of Hungary, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> +<li class="isub1">types of the dwellers there, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> +<li class="isub1">the Fata Morgana, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Pyrker, Ladislaus. (Hungarian-German Author), <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Radákovics, Joseph, <i>see</i> <a href="#Vas">Vas, Gereben</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ráday, Count Gedeon. (Eighteenth century writer), <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Radnai, R. (Art-historian), <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Radvánszky, Béla. (Historian), <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rajnis, Joseph. (Poet), <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Rákóczy March</i>, the, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rákóczy Francis, II., <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rákosi, Eugene. (Dramatist), <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ramler compared to Virág, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ranzanus, Peter, at work in Hungary, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Realism inimical to art, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Reformation, the, in Hungary, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Reguly, Anton, his views on Magyar, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Reicherstorffer. (Hungarian Author), <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Renascence, the, its influence in Hungary, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Révai, Nicolas. (Philologist), <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Reviczky, Julius. (Poet), <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Revivals in dead languages, a failure, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Revolutionary spirit in Europe, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> +<li class="isub1">Hungary, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rhapsody in the music and poetry of Hungary, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> +<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270"></a>[270]</span>its dangers, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Riehl, Wilhelm, his writings on continental peasantry, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rimay de Rima, John. (Poet), <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Romantic School, the, in England, France, and Germany, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">“Sabbatarians,” their religious poetry, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> +<li class="isub1">in Transylvania, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sajnovics, John. (Philologist, 1770), <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sárosy, Julius. (Poet), <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Salomon, Francis. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sand, George, her popularity in Hungary, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Schesaeus. (Hungarian Historian), <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Scott compared to Jósika, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Shakespeare better known in Austria than England, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his influence on Katona, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Shelley studied by Petőfi, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Simonyi, Sigismund. (Philologist), <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sobieski, John, King of Poland, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Somogyi (Ambrosius). (Hungarian Author), <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sonnets first written by Kazinczy, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Stephen, Saint, King of Hungary, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sylvester, John, <i>see</i> <a href="#Erdosi">Erdősi</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szabó, Baróti David. (Poet), <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szabó, Charles. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szalárdi, John. (Chronicler), <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szalay, Ladislas. (Historian), <a href="#Page_252">252</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szalóczy, Bertalan. (Folk-Novelist), <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szamosközy, Stephen. (Hungarian Historian), <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szana, T. (Literary Historian), <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szarvas, Gabriel. (Philologist), <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szász, Béla. (Poet), <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szász, Charles. (Poet). (The Hungarian Richard Garnett), <a href="#Page_245"><i>ib.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szathmáry, Charles. (Novelist), <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szatmáry, Joseph, <i>see his assumed name</i>, <a href="#Szigligeti">Szigligeti, Edward</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Széchenyi, Count Stephen, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his patriotism and political views, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> +<li class="isub1">a founder of the Academy of Science, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> +<li class="isub1">connects Buda and Pesth with a suspension bridge, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Székely, Alexander. (Preacher and Poet), <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Székely, Joseph. (Poet), <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Székely de Bencéd, Stephen. (Chronicler), <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szekér, Joachim. (Educationalist), <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szemere. (Joint Author of <i>Felelet</i>), <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szendrey, Juliet, wife of Petőfi, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szigeti, Joseph. (Dramatist), <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Szigligeti">Szigligeti, Edward. (Dramatist), <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szilády’s Collection of Hungarian Poets, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szilágyi, Alexander. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Szinnyei, József. (Bibliographer), <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sztárai, Michael. (Dramatist), <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Teleki, Count Joseph. (Historian), <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> +<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271"></a>[271]</span>first President of the Academy, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Teleky, Count Ladislas. (Dramatist), <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Temesváry, Stephen. (Poetical Chronicler), <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tennyson, not popular abroad, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Thackeray, not popular abroad, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Thallóczy, Lewis. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Thaly, Coloman. (Historian), <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his collection of Folk-poetry, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tinódy, Sebastian, his “Chronicle”, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Toldy, Francis. (Historian of Literature), <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Toldy, Stephen. (Dramatist), <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tolnai, Lewis. (Novelist and Poet), <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tompa, Michael. (Poet), <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tóth, Andrew. (Poet), <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tóth, Coloman. (Poet), <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tóth, Edward. (Dramatist), <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tóth de Ungvárnémet, Ladislas. (Poet), <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Town life necessary to develop a literature, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Translations from Magyar, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> +<li class="isub1">into Magyar, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, + <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, + <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Transylvania, her efforts for independence, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> +<li class="isub1">the home of patriotism, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> +<li class="isub1">her history in Kemény’s novels, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Turks driven out of Hungary, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> +<li class="isub1">effect of their dominion, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Ugoletus, Thaddeus, at work in Hungary, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ugrian group of languages, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + +<li class="indx">United States, its constitution, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Vachott, Alexander, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vadna, Charles. (Novelist), <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vajda, John. (Dramatist and Poet), <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vámbéry, Arminius. (Philologist), <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Várady, Anton. (Dramatist), <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Varjas, John. (Versifier), <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Vas">Vas, Gereben (Joseph Radákovics). (Humorist), <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vay, Baron Abraham, a founder of the Academy, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Verantius. (Hungarian Historian), <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Verseghy, Francis. (Poet), <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vértesi, Arnold. (Novelist), <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vienna, siege of, 1683, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Viennese, character, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Virág, Benedictus, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Virozsil, Professor. (Authority on Hungarian Constitutional Law), <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vitkovics, (Folk-Poet), <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vörösmarty, Michael, his character as a poet, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his epic poem, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his power of language, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> +<li class="isub1">his dramas, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> +<li class="isub1">contributor to the <i>Athenæum</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Wertner. (Genealogist), <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272"></a>[272]</span>Wesselényi, Baron Nicolas. (Political Writer), <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wit of Hungary, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wohl, Stephania. (Novelist), <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li class="ifrst">Zalár, Joseph. (Poet), <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Zichy, Count Peter. (Poet), <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Zolnai, Julius. (Philologist), <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Zrinyi, Count Michael. (Poet and Patriot), <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + +<li class="indx">“Zrinyiad,” the, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> +<li class="isub1">its national influence, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Zsámboky. (Hungarian Author), <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +</ul> + +<p class="titlepage"><i>Jarrold and Sons, Printers, Norwich, Yarmouth, and London.</i></p> + +<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75227 ***</div> +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/75227-h/images/cover.jpg b/75227-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d2202a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/75227-h/images/cover.jpg diff --git a/75227-h/images/diagram.jpg b/75227-h/images/diagram.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..44f4c9a --- /dev/null +++ b/75227-h/images/diagram.jpg diff --git a/75227-h/images/map-thumbnail.jpg b/75227-h/images/map-thumbnail.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f24485d --- /dev/null +++ b/75227-h/images/map-thumbnail.jpg diff --git a/75227-h/images/map.jpg b/75227-h/images/map.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2bf0197 --- /dev/null +++ b/75227-h/images/map.jpg |
